The CARIBBEAN: CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION The CARIBBEAN: CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION The CARIBBEAN: CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION SERIES ONE VOLUME X SERIES ONE VOLUME X SERIES ONE VOLUME X A publikc'io of the SCHOOL OF INTER-AMERICAN STUDIES which cotan the paer deliverd a the tenh cofrneo the Caribea hed a the University of Florid, Decebe 3, 4, a 5, 1919. A publication of the SCHOOL OF INTER-AMERICAN STUDIES which cotan the papr deiverd at the tenth cofrneo h A publicaio ofth SCHOOL OF INTER-AMERICAN STUDIES which cotan the paer dlierd a the tentth cofrneo the Carbbean held at the Unvrst of Flord, December 3, 4, and 5, 1959. I~ R S ~ t UP HASSIT ANCE I S S U E D W I T H A S S I S T A N C E FROM T H E R A N D A L L C H A S E PUBLIC A T I ON F U N D I S S U E D W I T H A S S I S T A N C E FROM T H E R A N D A L L C H A S E P U B L I C A T I O N F U N D UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA LIBRARIES UNIVERSITY OF RORIDA LIBRA~~iES UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA LIBRARIES UIEST FFOIAURRE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA LIBRARIES  MA MA ~~~CA IBB ANCABA GUFJ F PAI IFIAB PA IFIC E 0 EANw0EA C) __ ____ _____ ____ ____CALE_  The CARIBBEAN: CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION edited by A. Curtis Wilgus The CARIBBEAN: CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION edited by A. Curtis Wilgus The CARIBBEAN: CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION edited by A. Curtis Wilgus UI 1960 UNIVERSITT OF FLORIDA PRESS Gainesville 1960 UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA PRESS Gainesville 1960 UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA PRESS Gainesville  A University of Florida Press Book L. C. Catalogue Cord Nusmber: 51-1 2532 A University of Ploridas Press Book L. C. Catalogne Card Nmee 51-12532 A University of Florida Press Book L. C. Caitlgne Cord Nuesber: 51 -12532 Copsright, 190 BOARss Or COMSoSONERS OF Printed by Tss REsses PsESS, INe. ST. AUsUSTINs, FLORIsA Ceoright, 190 OARDs Or COMMISSIONRS O STATE ITITUIOeNS Or FLssIsA Copyrigt, 190 BOARDs Or COMSSOERSOF STers INSTIsUrIOS Or FLORIsDA Pristed by THs BEOse PRESS, Ioo. ST. AsGUSTIss, FLORIsA Pristed by TE ROr PRSS, INs. ST. AUSTsoE. FLORIDA  Contributors Contributors Contributors JAMES D. BAKER, Director, Ruston Academy, Havana ROBERT D. BARTON, Director, Inter-American Department, Institute of International Education, New York AMALIA CASTILLO LEDON, Under Secretary of Cultural Affairs, Sec- retariat of Public Education, Mexico FRANCISCO S. CtSPEDEs, Assistant Chief, Division of Education, Pan American Union, Washington, D. C. RAUL d'EgA, Assistant Career Planning Officer, U. S. Information Agency, Washington, D. C. JAIME DE LA GUARmIA, Rector, University of Panama, Panama LUTHER H. EVANS, Senior Consultant, The Brookings Institution, Washington, D. C. ARTHUR S. FLEMMING, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D. C. ESTELLITA HART, Program Specialist, International Division of Edu- cation, Pan American Union, Washington, D. C. CHARLEs C. HAUCH, Specialist, Comparative Education Western Hemisphere, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. RONALD HILON, Director, Hispanic American Studies, Stanford University J. K. JAMIESON, President and Director, International Petroleum Company, Ltd., Coral Gables, Florida FR. MATH1As C. KIEMEN, Managing Editor, The Americas, Acad- emy of American Franciscan History, Washington, D. C. SOLOMON LiPP, Department of Romance Languages, Boston Univer- sity JAMEs D. BAKER, Director, Ruston Academy, Havana ROBERT D. BARTON, Director, Inter-American Department, Institute of International Education, New York AMALIA CASTILLO LEDON, Under Secretary of Cultural Affairs, Sec- retariat of Public Education, Mexico FRANCISCO S. CiSPEDEs, Assistant Chief, Division of Education, Pan American Union, Washington, D. C. RAUL d'EgA, Assistant Career Planning Officer, U. S. Information Agency, Washington, D. C. JAIME DE LA GUARDIA, Rector, University of Panama, Panama LUTHER H. EvANs, Senior Consultant, The Brookings Institution, Washington, D. C. ARTHUR S. FLEMMING, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D. C. ESTELLITA HART, Program Specialist, International Division of Edu- cation, Pan American Union, Washington, D. C. CHARLES C. HAucH, Specialist, Comparative Education Western Hemisphere, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. RONALD HILTON, Director, Hispanic American Studies, Stanford University J. K. JAMIESON, President and Director, International Petroleum Company, Ltd., Coral Gables, Florida FR. MATHIAS C. KIEMEN, Managing Editor, The Americas, Acad- emy of American Franciscan History, Washington, D. C. SOLOMON LIPP, Department of Romance Languages, Boston Univer- sity JAMEs D. BAKER, Director, Ruston Academy, Havana RBoERT D. BARTON, Director, Inter-American Department, Institute of International Education, New York AMALIA CASTILLO LEDn, Under Secretary of Cultural Affairs, Sec- retariat of Public Education, Mexico FRANCISCO S. CFsPEDEs, Assistant Chief, Division of Education, Pan American Union, Washington, D. C. RAUL d'EgA, Assistant Career Planning Officer, U. S. Information Agency, Washington, D. C. JAIME DE LA GUARDIA, Rector, University of Panama, Panama LUTHER H. EVANS, Senior Consultant, The Brookings Institution, Washington, D. C. ARTHUR S. FLEMMING, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D. C. EsTELLTA HART, Program Specialist, International Division of Edu- cation, Pan American Union, Washington, D. C. CHARLES C. HAUCH, Specialist, Comparative Education Western Hemisphere, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. RONALD HILTON, Director, Hispanic American Studies, Stanford University J. K. JAMIESON, President and Director, International Petroleum Company, Ltd., Coral Gables, Florida FR. MATHIAS C. KIEMEN, Managing Editor, The Americas, Acad- emy of American Franciscan History, Washington, D. C. SOLOMON Lipp, Department of Romance Languages, Boston Univer- sity v  vi The Caribbean RICHARD M. MORSE, Director, Institute of Caribbean Studies, Uni- versity of Puerto Rico PAUL V. MURnAY, President, Mexico City College, Mexico, D. F. ANDREw C. PRESTON, Commissioner of Education, The Virgin Is- lands of the United States, Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas J. WAYNE RErrz, President, University of Florida ISMAEL RODRGuEz BoU, Permanent Secretary, Superior Council on Education, University of Puerto Rico JAIME SAMPER ORTEGA, President, University of the Andes, Bogota, Colombia PAUL E. SMITH, Secretary, Committee on International Relations, National Education Association of the United States, Washing- ton, D. C. HECrOR G. VALENCIA V., Principal, Colegio Americano de Bogota, Colombia A. CURnS WI.GUs, Director, School of Inter-American Studies, Uni- versity of Florida vi The Caribbean RICHARD M. MORSE, Director, Institute of Caribbean Studies, Uni- versity of Puerto Rico PAUL V. MuRRAY, President, Mexico City College, Mexico, D. F. ANDREw C. PRESTON, Commissioner of Education, The Virgin Is- lands of the United States, Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas J. WAYNE RErrz, President, University of Florida IsMAEL RODRfCUEz BoU, Permanent Secretary, Superior Council on Education, University of Puerto Rico JAIME SAMPER ORTEGA, President, University of the Andes, Bogoti, Colombia PAUL E. SMITH, Secretary, Committee on International Relations, National Education Association of the United States, Washing- ton, D. C. HECrOR G. VALENCIA V., Principal, Colegio Americano de Bogoti, Colombia A. CURTns Wstcus, Director, School of Inter-American Studies, Uni- versity of Florida vi The Caribbean RICHeARD M. MORSE, Director, Institute of Caribbean Studies, Uni- versity of Puerto Rico PAUL V. MuRRAY, President, Mexico City College, Mexico, D. F. ANDREw C. PRESTeN, Commissioner of Education, The Virgin Is- lands of the United States, Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas J. WAYNE RErrz, President, University of Florida ISMAEL RODidCUEz BoU, Permanent Secretary, Superior Council on Education, University of Puerto Rico JAIME SAMPER ORTEGA, President, University of the Andes, Bogoti, Colombia PAUL E. SMrTH, Secretary, Committee on International Relations, National Education Association of the United States, Washing- ton, D. C. HECTOR G. VALENCIA V., Principal, Colegio American de Bogota, Colombia A. CuRTIs WILGus, Director, School of Inter-American Studies, Uni- versity of Florida  Foreword Foreword Foreword IN A WORLD which is demanding constantly increasing levels of achievement, the educational process is of universal interest. At our Tenth Annual Conference on the Caribbean in December, 1959, some twenty specialists from this country and the Caribbean assembled to discuss various aspects of education in the region immediately south of the United States. Some of the papers pre- sented and here published are narrative and historical in character; others employ an analytical approach. Taken together, however, they constitute a volume which is comprehensive, well-balanced, and penetrating. As in the past, we have defined the "Caribbean area" as including Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, the island repub- lies, and the semisovereign and colonial areas. The region is one in which the University of Florida is particularly interested because, in a geographical sense, our state is virtually a part of it. This association is reflected in the fact that the University for more than two generations has attracted students from these countries and has developed a strong inter-American program. The 1959 Conference, like previous ones, has enjoyed the cospon- sorship of a business organization with particular interests in the Caribbean. This year the International Petroleum Company, Lim- ited, contributed immeasurably to the success of the Conference by bringing a number of educators from Colombia and Venezuela to participate in the meetings. In the publication of this volume by the University of Florida Press we have had the generous aid of Mr. Randall Chase of Sanford. We are pleased to acknowl- edge our appreciation for this dual assistance. As we look back over a decade of Conferences and their published proceedings, we are pleased that the School of Inter- American Studies of the University of Florida has had the opportu- nity to extend our knowledge of a most important portion of this hemisphere. J. WAYNE RErrz, President University of Florida vii IN A WORLD which is demanding constantly increasing levels of achievement, the educational process is of universal interest. At our Tenth Annual Conference on the Caribbean in December, 1959, some twenty specialists from this country and the Caribbean assembled to discuss various aspects of education in the region immediately south of the United States. Some of the papers pre- sented and here published are narrative and historical in character; others employ an analytical approach. Taken together, however, they constitute a volume which is comprehensive, well-balanced, and penetrating. As in the past, we have defined the "Caribbean area" as including Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, the island repub- lics, and the semisovereign and colonial areas. The region is one in which the University of Florida is particularly interested because, in a geographical sense, our state is virtually a part of it. This association is reflected in the fact that the University for more than two generations has attracted students from these countries and has developed a strong inter-American program. The 1959 Conference, like previous ones, has enjoyed the cospon- sorship of a business organization with particular interests in the Caribbean. This year the International Petroleum Company, Lim- ited, contributed immeasurably to the success of the Conference by bringing a number of educators from Colombia and Venezuela to participate in the meetings. In the publication of this volume by the University of Florida Press we have had the generous aid of Mr. Randall Chase of Sanford. We are pleased to acknowl- edge our appreciation for this dual assistance. As we look back over a decade of Conferences and their published proceedings, we are pleased that the School of Inter- American Studies of the University of Florida has had the opportu- nity to extend our knowledge of a most important portion of this hemisphere. J. WAYNE RErrz, President University of Florida IN A WORLD which is demanding constantly increasing levels of achievement, the educational process is of universal interest. At our Tenth Annual Conference on the Caribbean in December, 1959, some twenty specialists from this country and the Caribbean assembled to discuss various aspects of education in the region immediately south of the United States. Some of the papers pre- sented and here published are narrative and historical in character; others employ an analytical approach. Taken together, however, they constitute a volume which is comprehensive, well-balanced, and penetrating. As in the past, we have defined the "Caribbean area" as including Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, the island repub- lies, and the semisovereign and colonial areas. The region is one in which the University of Florida is particularly interested because, in a geographical sense, our state is virtually a part of it. This association is reflected in the fact that the University for more than two generations has attracted students from these countries and has developed a strong inter-American program. The 1959 Conference, like previous ones, has enjoyed the cospon- sorship of a business organization with particular interests in the Caribbean. This year the International Petroleum Company, Lim- ited, contributed immeasurably to the success of the Conference by bringing a number of educators from Colombia and Venezuela to participate in the meetings. In the publication of this volume by the University of Florida Press we have had the generous aid of Mr. Randall Chase of Sanford. We are pleased to acknowl- edge our appreciation for this dual assistance. As we look back over a decade of Conferences and their published proceedings, we are pleased that the School of Inter- American Studies of the University of Florida has had the opportu- nity to extend our knowledge of a most important portion of this hemisphere. J. WAYNE RErrz, President University of Florida  THE CARIBBEAN CONFERENCE SERIES THE CARIBBEAN CONFERENCE SERIES THE CARIBBEAN CONFERENCE SERIES Volume I (1951): The Caribbean at Mid-Century Volume II (1952): The Caribbean: Peoples, Problems, and Prospects Volume III (1953): The Caribbean: Contemporary Trends Volume IV (1954): The Caribbean: Its Economy Volume V (1955): The Caribbean: Its Culture Volume VI (1956): The Caribbean: Its Political Problems Volume VII (1957):The Caribbean: Contemporary International Relations Volume VIII (1958): The Caribbean: British, Dutch, French, United States Volume IX (1959): The Caribbean: Natural Resources Volume X (1960): The Caribbean: Contemporary Education Volume I (1951): The Caribbean at Mid-Century Volume II (1952): The Caribbean: Peoples, Problems, and Prospects Volume III (1953): The Caribbean: Contemporary Trends Volume IV (1954): The Caribbean: Its Economy Volume V (1955): The Caribbean: Its Culture Volume VI (1956): The Caribbean: Its Political Problems Volume VII (1957):The Caribbean: Contemporary International Relations Volume VIII (1958): The Caribbean: British, Dutch, French, United States Volume IX (1959): The Caribbean: Natural Resources Volume X (1960): The Caribbean: Contemporary Education Volume I (1951): The Caribbean at Mid-Century Volume II (1952): The Caribbean: Peoples, Problems, and Prospects Volume III (1953): The Caribbean: Contemporary Trends Volume IV (1954): The Caribbean: Its Economy Volume V (1955): The Caribbean: Its Culture Volume VI (1956): The Caribbean: Its Political Problems Volume VII (1957):The Caribbean: Contemporary International Relations Volume VIII (1958): The Caribbean: British, Dutch, French, United States Volume IX (1959): The Caribbean: Natural Resources Volume X (1960): The Caribbean: Contemporary Education viii viii  Contents Contents Contents Map of Caribbean Area.. .. .. ..Frontispiece List of Contributorso ..... . . . ... v Foreword-i. WAYNE REITZ .. ... .. ..vi Introduction: EDUCATION AND UIBRARIES: SOME OBSERVATIONS A. CURTIS WILGUS ...... .. .X Port I-EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 1. Isael Rodrignez Boo: ILLITERACY, FDEEDOM, AND JUSTICE IN THE CARIBBEAN ..... .. . . . 2. Paol V. Murray: SOME POBLEMS Or FINANCING EDUCATION ESPECIALLY IN MEXICO. . . 20 3. Rooald Hitn DCTO NTE AIBA:GVRMN POLICIES ....... . . .. ...128 Parr Il-PUBLIC EDUCATION 4. Francioco S. Clapedea: PUDLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION SN THlE CARIBBEAN . . . .. .51 5. Charleo C. tHaucb: COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY PUBLIC EDUCA- TION IN THE CAIBEAN. . . . .5 6. Solomon Lipp: EDUCATIONAL FERMENTATION IN COSTA DICA: A.T.S ..C.SE.89 Parr Ill-PRIVATE EDUCATION 7. Fr. Matbias C. Kierman: CATHIOLIC SCHOOLS IN TE CADIo- SEAN .... .... .. ....109 8. Hector C. Valencia V.: THE CONTIBUTION OP PROTESTANT SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN .. .. ..126 ix Map of Caribbean Area.. . . . . ..Frontispiece List of Cootributors .. . ... .. ...v Foreword - J. WAYNE REZ ... ... . . ..i tntrodution: DUCATION AND LIDDARIES: SOME OBSERVATIONS A. CURTIS WLGs Xoi.. . Parc I-EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 1. tomael tRodriguez Bon: ILLITERACY, FREEDOM, AND JUSTICE IN THE CARIBBEAN ..... . .. .. 3 2. Pant V. Morray: SOME POBLEMS OF FINANCING EDUCATION ESPECIALLY INSMEXICO... .. .. 120 3. Ronald Hilton: DUCATION IN TE CARIBBEAN: GOVERNMENT .OIIS . . .IS . . . . . 2 Parr Il-PUBLIC EDUCATION 4. Franriso S. Clspedeo: PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN . ... .. . . . t5 5. Charles C. Haucb: COLLEGE AND UNIVEDSITY PUBLIC EDUCA- TION IN THE CARIBBEAN.. .. .. .65 B. Solomon Lipp: EDUCATIONAL FERMENTATION IN COSTA RICA: A TEST CASE....... . . ....589 Port HII-PRIVATE EDUCATION 7. Fr. Matbias C. Kierman: CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN THE CADIB- DEAN .... .... .. ....109 S. Hlctor C. Valeocia V.: TE CONTRIBUTION OP PoOTESTANT SCHOOLS IN THE CARIDBEAN. . . 126 ix Map of Caribbean Area.. . . . . P ronispiere List of Contributors ........ . . . ... v Foreword-i. WAYNE RrEZ. . . . . . tntrodutio:EDCATION AND LIBRARIES: SOME OBSEDYATIONS A. CURTIS WILGU . .... . . . 5 Part I-EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 1. tomael Rodriguea Bou: ILLITERAUY, FEEDOM, AND JUSTIE IN THlE CADIDDEAN ..... .. . . S 2. Pant V. Morray: SOME POBLEMS OP FINANCING EDUCATION ESPECIALLY IN MEXICO.. .. .. . 20 3. Ronald Hdlton: EDUCATION IN THE CARIDBEAN: GOVEDNMENT POLICIES .... . .. . . . . IS2 Part Il-PUBLIC EDUCATION 4. Francisro S. Clapedes: P'UBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN . ... ... .. .51 5. Charles C. Hancb: COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY PUBLIC DUCA- TION IN THE CADIBDEAN. . . . .65 6. Solomon Lipp: EDUCATIONAL FERMENTATION IN COSTA RICA: A ITESTCASE. . . . .89 Port Ill-PRIVATE EDUCATION 7. Fe. Matbias C. Kiemnao: CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN THE UARIB- DEAN. . . . . 109 8. Hector C. Valencia V.: THE CONTRIBUTION OP PROTESYANT SCHOOLS IN THlE CARIBBEAN. . . 126 ix  x The Caribbean 9. James D. Baker: THE WORK OF NONDENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN , . . . . . . 139 Part IV-SPECIAL EDUCATION 10. Andrew C. Preston: TEACHER TRAINING IN THE CARIBBEAN 155 11. Richard M. Morse: TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . 162 12. Jaime de Ia Guardia: PROBLEMS OF THE MEDICAL CURRIC- ULUM IN THE CARIBBEAN. . . . 176 Part V-EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 13. Paul E. Smith: THE TEACHER EXCHANGE PROGRAM IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 14. Robert D. Barton: STUDENT EXCHANGE IN THE CARIBBEAN: PROBLEMS AND POTENTIALS . . . . . . . 193 15. Raul d'Ega: CULTURAL EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND LATIN AMERICA . . . . . . . 210 Part VI-SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 16. Arthur S. Flemming: SOME FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATIONAL ISSUES IN THE CARIBBEAN AND IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 17. J. K. Jamieson: THE PARTNERSHIP OF INDUSTRY AND EDUCA- TION IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . 226 18. Luther H. EvanS: SOME ACrIVITIES OF UNESCO IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 19. Amalia Castillo Led6n: THE STRUGGLE FOR LITERACY AND RURAL EDUCATION IN MEXICO . . . . . . . 242 20. Jaime Samper Ortega: THE PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN COLOMBIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Part VII-BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 21. Estellita Hart: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES ON EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 x The Caribbean 9. James D. Baker: THE WORK OF NONDENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . 139 Part IV-SPECIAL EDUCATION 10. Andrew C. Preston: TEACHER TRAINING IN THE CARIBBEAN 155 11. Richard M. Morse: TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . 162 12. Jaime de la Guardia: PROBLEMS OF THE MEDICAL CURRIC- ULUM IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . 176 Part V-EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 18. Paul E. Smith: THE TEACHER EXCHANGE PROGRAM IN THE CARIBBEAN. . . . . . . . . . . . 185 14. Robert D. Barton: STUDENT EXCHANGE IN THE CARIBBEAN: PROBLEMS AND POTENTIALS . . . . . . . 193 15. Raul d'Ega: CULTURAL EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND LATIN AMERICA . . . . . , . 210 Part VI-SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 16. Arthur S. Flemming: SOME FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATIONAL ISSUES IN THE CARIBBEAN AND IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 17. J. K. JamieSon: THE PARTNERSHIP OF INDUSTRY AND EDUCA- TION IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . , . . . . . 226 18. Luther H. Evans: SOME ACTIVITIES OF UNESCO IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 19. Amalia CaStillo Led6n: THE STRUGGLE FOR LITERACY AND RURAL EDUCATION IN MEXICO . . . . . . . 242 20. Jaime Samper Ortega: THE PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN COLOMBIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Part VII-BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 21. Estellita Hart: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES ON EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 x The Caribbean 9. James D. Baker: THE WORK OF NONDENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . 139 Part IV-SPECIAL EDUCATION 10. Andrew C. Preston: TEACHER TRAINING IN THE CARIBBEAN 155 11. Richard M. Morse: TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . 162 12. Jaime de la Guardia: PROBLEMS OF THE MEDICAL CURRIC- ULUM IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . 176 Part V-EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 13. Paul E. Smith: THE TEACHER EXCHANGE PROGRAM IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 14. Robert D. Barton: STUDENT EXCHANGE IN THE CARIBBEAN: PROBLEMS AND POTENTIALS . . . . . . . 193 15. Raul d'Eea: CULTURAL EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND LATIN AMERICA . . . . . . . 210 Part VI-SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 16. Arthur S. Flemming: SOME FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATIONAL ISSUES IN THE CARIBBEAN AND IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 17. J. K. Jamieson: THE PARTNERSHIP OF INDUSTRY AND EDUCA- TION IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . 226 18. Luther H. Evans: SOME ACrIVITIES OF UNESCO IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 19. Amalia Castillo Led6n: THE STRUGGLE FOR LITERACY AND RURAL EDUCATION IN MEXICO . . . . . . . 242 20. Jaime Samper Ortega: THE PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN COLOMBIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Part VII-BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 21. Estellita Hart: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES ON EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285  Introduction Introduction Introduction EDUCATION AND LIBRARIES: SOME OBSERVATIONS IT IS TIMELY and important that the Tenth Annual Conference on the Caribbean should consider for its general theme the sub- ject of education. This is not the first time that this subject has been dealt with by Caribbean Conferences at the University of Florida. But heretofore the subject of education has been frequently inci- dental to the general theme under discussion. In this Tenth Conference the subject of education has been divided into five general topics: Educational Problems, chiefly embracing illiteracy, finances, and government relations; Public Education, including elementary, secondary, and college and university; Private Educa- tion, involving Catholic schools, Protestant schools, and nondenomi- national schools; Special Education, in which teacher training, technical and industrial education, and professional education are considered; and a fifth and very important subject, Educational Exchange, which includes teacher exchange, student exchange, and cultural exchange. A number of other related special topics are also considered in papers presented by speakers at luncheons and dinners. At the breakfast meeting, the subject of bibliographical sources for educational information in the Caribbean was examined. One important area of discussion was omitted, however. Although some peripheral phases were discussed by conference participants, the general relationship of education to libraries in the Caribbean and the problems of librarians were not included. The dificulty of obtaining books for libraries likewise was not considered. And in EDUCATION AND LIBRARIES: SOME OBSERVATIONS IT IS TIMELY and important that the Tenth Annual Conference on the Caribbean should consider for its general theme the sub- ject of education. This is not the first time that this subject has been dealt with by Caribbean Conferences at the University of Florida. But heretofore the subject of education has been frequently inci- dental to the general theme under discussion. In this Tenth Conference the subject of education has been divided into five general topics: Educational Problems, chiefly embracing illiteracy, finances, and government relations; Public Education, including elementary, secondary, and college and university; Private Educa- tion, involving Catholic schools, Protestant schools, and nondenomi- national schools; Special Education, in which teacher training, technical and industrial education, and professional education are considered; and a fifth and very important subject, Educational Exchange, which includes teacher exchange, student exchange, and cultural exchange. A number of other related special topics are also considered in papers presented by speakers at luncheons and dinners. At the breakfast meeting, the subject of bibliographical sources for educational information in the Caribbean was examined. One important area of discussion was omitted, however. Although some peripheral phases were discussed by conference participants, the general relationship of education to libraries in the Caribbean and the problems of librarians were not included. The difficulty of obtaining books for libraries likewise was not considered. And in EDUCATION AND LIBRARIES: SOME OBSERVATIONS IT IS TIMELY and important that the Tenth Annual Conference on the Caribbean should consider for its general theme the sub- ject of education. This is not the first time that this subject has been dealt with by Caribbean Conferences at the University of Florida. But heretofore the subject of education has been frequently inci- dental to the general theme under discussion. In this Tenth Conference the subject of education has been divided into five general topics: Educational Problems, chiefly embracing illiteracy, finances, and government relations; Public Education, including elementary, secondary, and college and university; Private Educa- tion, involving Catholic schools, Protestant schools, and nondenomi- national schools; Special Education, in which teacher training, technical and industrial education, and professional education are considered; and a fifth and very important subject, Educational Exchange, which includes teacher exchange, student exchange, and cultural exchange. A number of other related special topics are also considered in papers presented by speakers at luncheons and dinners. At the breakfast meeting, the subject of bibliographical sources for educational information in the Caribbean was examined. One important area of discussion was omitted, however. Although some peripheral phases were discussed by conference participants, the general relationship of education to libraries in the Caribbean and the problems of librarians were not included. The difficulty of obtaining books for libraries likewise was not considered. And in  xii The Caribbean the general discussions of the education picture of the Caribbean, library problems in the West Indies Federation and in the Dutch and French dependencies were omitted. While these subjects can- not be discussed in detail here, it seems important to examine them briely in order to give a better balance to the over-all picture of Caribbean education. Fortunately in June, 1959, a study (unpublished) entitled "Librar- ies of the Caribbean Area" was completed by Miss Enid M. Baa. Chief of the Bureau of Libraries and Museums, Department of Education, Virgin Islands of the United States. Miss Baa has played a leading role among librarians in the Caribbean area in trying to improve library conditions, and she has cooperated closely with such organizations as the Caribbean Commission, the Pan American Union, the Inter-American Bibliographical and Library Association, the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, the Univer- sity College of the West Indies, and other educational institutions and organizations with a cultural interest in the area. Miss Baa also has been the moving spirit in attempting to organize a meeting of Caribbean librarians to discuss the innumerable ramifications of the problems facing their libraries. In her careful compilation made over a period of several years, Miss Baa has given a brief summary of the government, the popu- lation, the economy, and the society of a number of independent or semi-independent political units in the Caribbean area. Many sta- tistics have been presented in this report, but for our purposes it is sufficient here to emphasize only the number and relative signifi- cance of some of the libraries which Miss Baa has surveyed. Inci- dentally, Miss Baa has also depicted the financial and psychological problems facing almost all of the libraries and librarians in the islands of the Caribbean. Generally speaking, the libraries in the islands, especially in the British, Dutch, and French islands, have relatively small numbers of books in proportion to the reading population. The libraries without exception are understaffed and lack the financial resources necessary to give them maximum effectiveness. Some of the libraries listed in Miss Baa's report are government supported, while many are privately supported. But none is fully effective in the area in xii The Caribbean the general discussions of the education picture of the Caribbean, library problems in the West Indies Federation and in the Dutch and French dependencies were omitted. While these subjects can- not be discussed in detail here, it seems important to examine them briefly in order to give a better balance to the over-all picture of Caribbean education. Fortunately in June, 1959, a study (unpublished) entitled "Librar- ies of the Caribbean Area" was completed by Miss Enid M. Baa, Chief of the Bureau of Libraries and Museums, Department of Education, Virgin Islands of the United States. Miss Baa has played a leading role among librarians in the Caribbean area in trying to improve library conditions, and she has cooperated closely with such organizations as the Caribbean Commission, the Pan American Union, the Inter-American Bibliographical and Library Association, the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, the Univer- sity College of the West Indies, and other educational institutions and organizations with a cultural interest in the area. Miss Baa also has been the moving spirit in attempting to organize a meeting of Caribbean librarians to discuss the innumerable ramifications of the problems facing their libraries. In her careful compilation made over a period of several years, Miss Baa has given a brief summary of the government, the popu- lation, the economy, and the society of a number of independent or semi-independent political units in the Caribbean area. Many sta- tistics have been presented in this report, but for our purposes it is sufficient here to emphasize only the number and relative signifi- cance of some of the libraries which Miss Baa has surveyed. Inci- dentally, Miss Baa has also depicted the financial and psychological problems facing almost all of the libraries and librarians in the islands of the Caribbean. Generally speaking, the libraries in the islands, especially in the British, Dutch, and French islands, have relatively small numbers of books in proportion to the reading population. The libraries without exception are understaffed and lack the financial resources necessary to give them maximum effectiveness. Some of the libraries listed in Miss Baa's report are government supported, while many are privately supported. But none is fully effective in the area in xii The Caribbean the general discussions of the education picture of the Caribbean, library problems in the West Indies Federation and in the Dutch and French dependencies were omitted. While these subjects can- not be discussed in detail here, it seems important to examine them briefly in order to give a better balance to the over-all picture of Caribbean education. Fortunately in June, 1959, a study (unpublished) entitled "Librar- ies of the Caribbean Area" was completed by Miss Enid M. Baa. Chief of the Bureau of Libraries and Museums, Department of Education, Virgin Islands of the United States. Miss Baa has played a leading role among librarians in the Caribbean area in trying to improve library conditions, and she has cooperated closely with such organizations as the Caribbean Commission, the Pan American Union, the Inter-American Bibliographical and Library Association, the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, the Univer- sity College of the West Indies, and other educational institutions and organizations with a cultural interest in the area. Miss Baa also has been the moving spirit in attempting to organize a meeting of Caribbean librarians to discuss the innumerable ramifications of the problems facing their libraries. In her careful compilation made over a period of several years, Miss Baa has given a brief summary of the government, the popu- lation, the economy, and the society of a number of independent or semi-independent political units in the Caribbean area. Many sta- tistics have been presented in this report, but for our purposes it is sufficient here to emphasize only the number and relative signifi- cance of some of the libraries which Miss Baa has surveyed. Inci- dentally, Miss Baa has also depicted the financial and psychological problems facing almost all of the libraries and librarians in the islands of the Caribbean. Generally speaking, the libraries in the islands, especially in the British, Dutch, and French islands, have relatively small numbers of books in proportion to the reading population. The libraries without exception are understaffed and lack the financial resources necessary to give them maximum effectiveness. Some of the libraries listed in Miss Baa's report are government supported, while many are privately supported. But none is fully effective in the area in  EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION Xiii which it serves. The following selected statistics classified by islands and arranged alphabetically by Miss Baa will give an indication of some of the problems faced in these countries in educating children and in providing reading for the general public. In the British Islands the following statistics have been compiled by Miss Baa. For Anguilla with a population of approximately 5,000 people there are two libraries, but no data exist on the num- ber of books they contain. In Antigua with a population of approx- imately 54,000 there is one library containing 20,000 volumes. In the Bahamas, a group of twenty or more islands, with an estimated population of about 116,000 people and a school population of some 38,000 students, there are three libraries, one with 4,000 volumes, another with some 21,000 volumes, and the third with an unre- corded number. In the Barbados with a population of some 230,000 people, and with a school population of some 42,000 students, there is only one public library, the number of volumes not given. In Dominica with a population of about 65,000 people there is one library with about 8,000 volumes. In Grenada with some 90,000 people and at least 20,000 elementary school children there is one library with an uncertain number of books, and it has four branches where books are stored in closets. Jamaica, with several tributary islands and a population of a million and a half, is better supplied than most of the other islands in the British Caribbean. The Cen- tral Library contains approximately 185,000 volumes; the Jamaica Library Service has 102 service points and bookmobile service for schools. There are three other extensive libraries in Jamaica: the Department of Agriculture library, the library of the University College of the West Indies, and the library of the Institute of Jamaica. These libraries are repositories and research centers and are relatively satisfactorily staffed and supported. Montsarrat with a population of about 15,000 people has one library of some 6,000 volumes. St. Christopher (St. Kitts) and Nevis have a total popula- tion of perhaps 50,000 with two libraries, both in St. Kitts, one with 18,500 volumes and the other with an unknown number. St. Lucia with a population of about 90,000 people and some 18,000 students has one central library containing approximately 15,000 volumes. St. Vincent with about 79,000 people and some 19,000 students has one public library with some 10,250 volumes. Trinidad and Tobago have a combined population of probably 750,000 people. There are some 167,000 students enrolled in the schools. All libraries are EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION Xiii which it serves. The following selected statistics classified by islands and arranged alphabetically by Miss Baa will give an indication of some of the problems faced in these countries in educating children and in providing reading for the general public. In the British Islands the following statistics have been compiled by Miss Baa. For Anguilla with a population of approximately 5,000 people there are two libraries, but no data exist on the num- ber of books they contain. In Antigua with a population of approx- imately 54,000 there is one library containing 20,000 volumes. In the Bahamas, a group of twenty or more islands, with an estimated population of about 116,000 people and a school population of some 38,000 students, there are three libraries, one with 4,000 volumes, another with some 21,000 volumes, and the third with an unre- corded number. In the Barbados with a population of some 230,000 people, and with a school population of some 42,000 students, there is only one public library, the number of volumes not given. In Dominica with a population of about 65,000 people there is one library with about 8,000 volumes. In Grenada with some 90,000 people and at least 20,000 elementary school children there is one library with an uncertain number of books, and it has four branches where books are stored in closets. Jamaica, with several tributary islands and a population of a million and a half, is better supplied than most of the other islands in the British Caribbean. The Cen- tral Library contains approximately 185,000 volumes; the Jamaica Library Service has 102 service points and bookmobile service for schools. There are three other extensive libraries in Jamaica: the Department of Agriculture library, the library of the University College of the West Indies, and the library of the Institute of Jamaica. These libraries are repositories and research centers and are relatively satisfactorily staffed and supported. Montsarrat with a population of about 15,000 people has one library of some 6,000 volumes. St. Christopher (St. Kitts) and Nevis have a total popula- tion of perhaps 50,000 with two libraries, both in St. Kitts, one with 18,500 volumes and the other with an unknown number. St. Lucia with a population of about 90,000 people and some 18,000 students has one central library containing approximately 15,000 volumes. St. Vincent with about 79,000 people and some 19,000 students has one public library with some 10,250 volumes. Trinidad and Tobago have a combined population of probably 750,000 people. There are some 167,000 students enrolled in the schools. All libraries are EDITORS INTRODUCTION Xiii which it serves. The following selected statistics classified by islands and arranged alphabetically by Miss Baa will give an indication of some of the problems faced in these countries in educating children and in providing reading for the general public. In the British Islands the following statistics have been compiled by Miss Baa. For Anguilla with a population of approximately 5,000 people there are two libraries, but no data exist on the num- ber of books they contain. In Antigua with a population of approx- imately 54,000 there is one library containing 20,000 volumes. In the Bahamas, a group of twenty or more islands, with an estimated population of about 116,000 people and a school population of some 38,000 students, there are three libraries, one with 4,000 volumes, another with some 21,000 volumes, and the third with an unre- corded number. In the Barbados with a population of some 230,000 people, and with a school population of some 42,000 students, there is only one public library, the number of volumes not given. In Dominica with a population of about 65,000 people there is one library with about 8,000 volumes. In Grenada with some 90,000 people and at least 20,000 elementary school children there is one library with an uncertain number of books, and it has four branches where books are stored in closets. Jamaica, with several tributary islands and a population of a million and a half, is better supplied than most of the other islands in the British Caribbean. The Cen- tral Library contains approximately 185,000 volumes; the Jamaica Library Service has 102 service points and bookmobile service for schools. There are three other extensive libraries in Jamaica: the Department of Agriculture library, the library of the University College of the West Indies, and the library of the Institute of Jamaica. These libraries are repositories and research centers and are relatively satisfactorily staffed and supported. Montsarrat with a population of about 15,000 people has one library of some 6,000 volumes. St. Christopher (St. Kitts) and Nevis have a total popula- tion of perhaps 50,000 with two libraries, both in St. Kitts, one with 18,500 volumes and the other with an unknown number. St. Lucia with a population of about 90,000 people and some 18,000 students has one central library containing approximately 15,000 volumes. St. Vincent with about 79,000 people and some 19,000 students has one public library with some 10,250 volumes. Trinidad and Tobago have a combined population of probably 750,000 people. There are some 167,000 students enrolled in the schools. All libraries are  xiv The Caribbean government supported. There are ten important libraries in Trin- idad with specialized collections, especially in agriculture and law. The Central Library Service with some 180,000 volumes has sev- eral branch libraries and a bookmobile service. The Imperial Col- lege of Tropical Agriculture has its own specialized library, as does the Caribbean Commission, which however has now, under the name Caribbean Organization, moved to Puerto Rico. There is a large and important United States Information Service library in Port-of-Spain. In the British Virgin Islands with perhaps a total population of 8,000 people, of which Tortola with some 6,500 is the largest, there is one small public library. In the French Caribbean islands, Guadeloupe and its depend- encies have a total population of about 247,000, of which some 50,000 are pupils. This is an overseas dependency of France. There are five libraries with a total of possibly fewer than 10,000 volumes. In Martinique with a total population of perhaps 240,000 there is a "schoolteacher library" containing some 24,000 volumes. This is a public reference library available to students, teachers, and the public. The school population is about 63,000 students. The Netherlands Antilles, consisting of six major islands, has a total population of about 187,000 people. There are approximately 175 schools with 44,000 students and 14,000 teachers. The island of Aruba with some 56,000 people has a public library with about 22,000 volumes. In Curagao with a population of about 121,000 there are two libraries, one containing about 20,000 volumes and the other some 46,000 volumes. The remaining Netherlands islands are sup- plied chiefly by interlibrary service. Most of the libraries in the British, French, and Dutch areas are public libraries, although some are government libraries. A num- ber are supported by churches, and in a few instances there are Carnegie libraries. In some centers private individuals have private libraries, so far as the number of books is concerned, larger than those available to the public. Some of these private libraries are open to researchers if properly qualified and identified. II Educationally it is unfortunate that libraries in schools, whether public or private, elementary or secondary, are woefully lacking in books and periodicals for student-teacher use. These conditions xiv The Caribbean government supported. There are ten important libraries in Trin- idad with specialized collections, especially in agriculture and law. The Central Library Service with some 180,000 volumes has sev- eral branch libraries and a bookmobile service. The Imperial Col- lege of Tropical Agriculture has its own specialized library, as does the Caribbean Commission, which however has now, under the name Caribbean Organization, moved to Puerto Rico. There is a large and important United States Information Service library in Port-of-Spain. In the British Virgin Islands with perhaps a total population of 8,000 people, of which Tortola with some 6,500 is the largest, there is one small public library. In the French Caribbean islands, Guadeloupe and its depend- encies have a total population of about 247,000, of which some 50,000 are pupils. This is an overseas dependency of France. There are five libraries with a total of possibly fewer than 10,000 volumes. In Martinique with a total population of perhaps 240,000 there is a "schoolteacher library" containing some 24,000 volumes. This is a public reference library available to students, teachers, and the public. The school population is about 68,000 students. The Netherlands Antilles, consisting of six major islands, has a total population of about 187,000 people. There are approximately 175 schools with 44,000 students and 14,000 teachers. The island of Aruba with some 56,000 people has a public library with about 22,000 volumes. In Curagao with a population of about 121,000 there are two libraries, one containing about 20,000 volumes and the other some 46,000 volumes. The remaining Netherlands islands are sup- plied chiefly by interlibrary service. Most of the libraries in the British, French, and Dutch areas are public libraries, although some are government libraries. A num- ber are supported by churches, and in a few instances there are Carnegie libraries. In some centers private individuals have private libraries, so far as the number of books is concerned, larger than those available to the public. Some of these private libraries are open to researchers if properly qualified and identified. II Educationally it is unfortunate that libraries in schools, whether public or private, elementary or secondary, are woefully lacking in books and periodicals for student-teacher use. These conditions xiv The Caribbean government supported. There are ten important libraries in Trin- idad with specialized collections, especially in agriculture and law. The Central Library Service with some 180,000 volumes has sev- eral branch libraries and a bookmobile service. The Imperial Col- lege of Tropical Agriculture has its own specialized library, as does the Caribbean Commission, which however has now, under the name Caribbean Organization, moved to Puerto Rico. There is a large and important United States Information Service library in Port-of-Spain. In the British Virgin Islands with perhaps a total population of 8,000 people, of which Tortola with some 6,500 is the largest, there is one small public library. In the French Caribbean islands, Guadeloupe and its depend- encies have a total population of about 247,000, of which some 50,000 are pupils. This is an overseas dependency of France. There are five libraries with a total of possibly fewer than 10,000 volumes. In Martinique with a total population of perhaps 240,000 there is a "schoolteacher library" containing some 24,000 volumes. This is a public reference library available to students, teachers, and the public. The school population is about 63,000 students. The Netherlands Antilles, consisting of six major islands, has a total population of about 187,000 people. There are approximately 175 schools with 44,000 students and 14,000 teachers. The island of Aruba with some 56,000 people has a public library with about 22,000 volumes. In Curagao with a population of about 121,000 there are two libraries, one containing about 20,000 volumes and the other some 46,000 volumes. The remaining Netherlands islands are sup- plied chiefly by interlibrary service. Most of the libraries in the British, French, and Dutch areas are public libraries, although some are government libraries. A num- ber are supported by churches, and in a few instances there are Carnegie libraries. In some centers private individuals have private libraries, so far as the number of books is concerned, larger than those available to the public. Some of these private libraries are open to researchers if properly qualified and identified. II Educationally it is unfortunate that libraries in schools, whether public or private, elementary or secondary, are woefully lacking in books and periodicals for student-teacher use. These conditions  EDITORS INTRODUCTION XV were called to the attention of the writer and his wife in the sum- mer of 1956 when they made a survey for the Alcoa Steamship Company, Inc., of technical and vocational education in certain Caribbean areas. Although we visited a number of other regions, we spent several weeks in Trinidad and Jamaica studying schools, libraries, and research resources. Everywhere we conferred with scores of individuals connected with the school systems and visited a large number of schools at all educational levels. We talked with government officials and businessmen, and we found general dis- couragement and pessimism sometimes with the educational sys- tems but more often with the lack of materials for teaching and especially library references. In the course of our investigations it occurred to us that the Alcoa company might make a real gesture of friendship and at the same time help to improve teaching in many of the schools, especially in the British Caribbean, if they would send to some centrally located education or government ofcials volumes which might be used in the educational system by being put in the li- braries of individual schools. As a result of this suggestion the Alcoa Steamship Company, Inc., sent in the next eighteen months approximately 75,000 volumes to the British Caribbean for free distribution to schools and libraries where they were most needed. These books came from a variety of sources in the United States, including some publishers' remainders, and consisted of textbooks and miscellaneous literature of all types. Since these volumes were printed in English they could be readily used in the British schools. In both Jamaica and Trinidad we found that the educational facilities are presently incapable of meeting social, economic, and especially the technical and vocational needs of the communities. All the primary and secondary schools in these islands are over- crowded with students and understaffed with teachers. Besides, they are inadequately equipped with teaching aids, and insufB- ciently supported fnancially. The morale among some of the over- worked school administrators is discouragingly low, and they and it barely possible, and sometimes impossible, to meet satisfactory educational standards. Although there are plans for the building of new schools in all areas, the finances are lacking. Many schools which we visited are still housed in temporary quarters where stu- dents attend in shifts. EDITORS INTRODUCTION XV were called to the attention of the writer and his wife in the sum- mer of 1956 when they made a survey for the Alcoa Steamship Company, Inc., of technical and vocational education in certain Caribbean areas. Although we visited a number of other regions, we spent several weeks in Trinidad and Jamaica studying schools, libraries, and research resources. Everywhere we conferred with scores of individuals connected with the school systems and visited a large number of schools at all educational levels. We talked with government officials and businessmen, and we found general dis- couragement and pessimism sometimes with the educational sys- tems but more often with the lack of materials for teaching and especially library references. In the course of our investigations it occurred to us that the Alcoa company might make a real gesture of friendship and at the same time help to improve teaching in many of the schools, especially in the British Caribbean, if they would send to some centrally located education or government officials volumes which might be used in the educational system by being put in the li- braries of individual schools. As a result of this suggestion the Alcoa Steamship Company, Inc., sent in the next eighteen months approximately 75,000 volumes to the British Caribbean for free distribution to schools and libraries where they were most needed. These books came from a variety of sources in the United States, including some publishers' remainders, and consisted of textbooks and miscellaneous literature of all types. Since these volumes were printed in English they could be readily used in the British schools. In both Jamaica and Trinidad we found that the educational facilities are presently incapable of meeting social, economic, and especially the technical and vocational needs of the communities. All the primary and secondary schools in these islands are over- crowded with students and understaffed with teachers. Besides, they are inadequately equipped with teaching aids, and insuf- ciently supported fnancially. The morale among some of the over- worked school administrators is discouragingly low, and they Bnd it barely possible, and sometimes impossible, to meet satisfactory educational standards. Although there are plans for the building of new schools in all areas, the fnances are lacking. Many schools which we visited are still housed in temporary quarters where stu- dents attend in shifts. EDITORS INTRODUCTION XV were called to the attention of the writer and his wife in the sum- mer of 1956 when they made a survey for the Alcoa Steamship Company, Inc., of technical and vocational education in certain Caribbean areas. Although we visited a number of other regions, we spent several weeks in Trinidad and Jamaica studying schools, libraries, and research resources. Everywhere we conferred with scores of individuals connected with the school systems and visited a large number of schools at all educational levels. We talked with government officials and businessmen, and we found general dis- couragement and pessimism sometimes with the educational sys- tems but more often with the lack of materials for teaching and especially library references. In the course of our investigations it occurred to us that the Alcoa company might make a real gesture of friendship and at the same time help to improve teaching in many of the schools, especially in the British Caribbean, if they would send to some centrally located education or government officials volumes which might be used in the educational system by being put in the li- braries of individual schools. As a result of this suggestion the Alcoa Steamship Company, Inc., sent in the next eighteen months approximately 75,000 volumes to the British Caribbean for free distribution to schools and libraries where they were most needed. These books came from a variety of sources in the United States, including some publishers' remainders, and consisted of textbooks and miscellaneous literature of all types. Since these volumes were printed in English they could be readily used in the British schools. In both Jamaica and Trinidad we found that the educational facilities are presently incapable of meeting social, economic, and especially the technical and vocational needs of the communities. All the primary and secondary schools in these islands are over- crowded with students and understaffed with teachers. Besides, they are inadequately equipped with teaching aids, and insuf- ciently supported fnancially. The morale among some of the over- worked school administrators is discouragingly low, and they Bnd it barely possible, and sometimes impossible, to meet satisfactory educational standards. Although there are plans for the building of new schools in all areas, the finances are lacking. Many schools which we visited are still housed in temporary quarters where stu- dents attend in shifts.  xvi The Caribbean Jamaica in most respects is educationally better off than Trinidad. The direction of the educational system has been under competent Jamaicans in the education department. Moreover, the University College of the West Indies, functioning under the University of London aegis, has set high standards for college entrance. This fact has affected the standards of some schools below college rank. At the secondary level there is the Kingston Technical School, which has a well-organized curriculum but is inadequately fi- nanced. Up-to-date teaching methods are used but the plant lacks teaching facilities and an adequate staff of teachers. Trinidad schools do not begin to meet the educational and social demands of the community. There is a great need for training skilled laborers, office help, and junior administrators. In both Ja- maica and Trinidad there are still some individuals both in and out of the educational system who value a classical education chiefly for its social prestige. In many schools the curricula are British in characteristic, and the mind rather than the hand is educated. Generally the training of teachers and school admin- istrators in both islands is inadequate. However, some of the old and well-established private and religious schools do emphasize this objective. The lack of adequate library facilities is one of the greatest handicaps in technical and vocational education, as well as in gen- eral education in all primary and secondary schools in the British Caribbean. Most secondary school classes are assigned one library period each week, but in many of these schools there is no library worthy of the name. We found in visiting grade schools in both urban and rural communities, that almost without exception li- braries were small and in some cases nonexistent. In several libraries we found volumes that were fifty, sixty, or seventy years old, chiefly in the literary field. Encyclopedias and yearbooks were embarrassingly out of date. In many instances we found geogra- phies and semitechnical volumes published chiefly in the nineteenth century. There was practically no attempt to make use of the cheaper United States and British paperbound books available in the islands. In some instances the children were using so-called comic books, and pupils in the high schools were using elementary books chiefly because of their illustrations. In many cases the library room was open only a few hours each day and the students were not allowed to take books out of the library. In most instances xvi The Caribbean Jamaica in most respects is educationally better off than Trinidad. The direction of the educational system has been under competent Jamaicans in the education department. Moreover, the University College of the West Indies, functioning under the University of London aegis, has set high standards for college entrance. This fact has affected the standards of some schools below college rank. At the secondary level there is the Kingston Technical School, which has a well-organized curriculum but is inadequately fi- nanced. Up-to-date teaching methods are used but the plant lacks teaching facilities and an adequate staff of teachers. Trinidad schools do not begin to meet the educational and social demands of the community. There is a great need for training skilled laborers, office help, and junior administrators. In both Ja- maica and Trinidad there are still some individuals both in and out of the educational system who value a classical education chiefly for its social prestige. In many schools the curricula are British in characteristic, and the mind rather than the hand is educated. Generally the training of teachers and school admin- istrators in both islands is inadequate. However, some of the old and well-established private and religious schools do emphasize this objective. The lack of adequate library facilities is one of the greatest handicaps in technical and vocational education, as well as in gen- eral education in all primary and secondary schools in the British Caribbean. Most secondary school classes are assigned one library period each week, but in many of these schools there is no library worthy of the name. We found in visiting grade schools in both urban and rural communities, that almost without exception li- braries were small and in some cases nonexistent. In several libraries we found volumes that were fifty, sixty, or seventy years old, chiefly in the literary field. Encyclopedias and yearbooks were embarrassingly out of date. In many instances we found geogra- phies and semitechnical volumes published chiefly in the nineteenth century. There was practically no attempt to make use of the cheaper United States and British paperbound books available in the islands. In some instances the children were using so-called comic books, and pupils in the high schools were using elementary books chiefly because of their illustrations. In many cases the library room was open only a few hours each day and the students were not allowed to take books out of the library. In most instances xvi The Caribbean Jamaica in most respects is educationally better off than Trinidad. The direction of the educational system has been under competent Jamaicans in the education department. Moreover, the University College of the West Indies, functioning under the University of London aegis, has set high standards for college entrance. This fact has affected the standards of some schools below college rank. At the secondary level there is the Kingston Technical School, which has a well-organized curriculum but is inadequately fi- nanced. Up-to-date teaching methods are used but the plant lacks teaching facilities and an adequate staff of teachers. Trinidad schools do not begin to meet the educational and social demands of the community. There is a great need for training skilled laborers, office help, and junior administrators. In both Ja- maica and Trinidad there are still some individuals both in and out of the educational system who value a classical education chiefly for its social prestige. In many schools the curricula are British in characteristic, and the mind rather than the hand is educated. Generally the training of teachers and school admin- istrators in both islands is inadequate. However, some of the old and well-established private and religious schools do emphasize this objective. The lack of adequate library facilities is one of the greatest handicaps in technical and vocational education, as well as in gen- eral education in all primary and secondary schools in the British Caribbean. Most secondary school classes are assigned one library period each week, but in many of these schools there is no library worthy of the name. We found in visiting grade schools in both urban and rural communities, that almost without exception li- braries were small and in some cases nonexistent. In several libraries we found volumes that were fifty, sixty, or seventy years old, chiefly in the literary field. Encyclopedias and yearbooks were embarrassingly out of date. In many instances we found geogra- phies and semitechnical volumes published chiefly in the nineteenth century. There was practically no attempt to make use of the cheaper United States and British paperbound books available in the islands. In some instances the children were using so-called comic books, and pupils in the high schools were using elementary books chiefly because of their illustrations. In many cases the library room was open only a few hours each day and the students were not allowed to take books out of the library. In most instances  EDITORS INTRODUCTION Xvii the books were not catalogued, probably because it did not seem necessary due to their small number. Quite often private schools contained the best libraries; especially was this true in some of the Catholic schools. In most places there were no public libraries and even where these existed the students did not appear to be using them. It was our observation that there were more persons of student age, especially of secondary school age, using the United States Information Agency libraries than any of the other local libraries. In cities where there are large schools with more extensive libraries, these did not seem to be used by the public. Some of the library materials in the University College of the West Indies, in the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, and in the Insti- tute of Jamaica constitute special collections, chiefly for research, and here it is possible to find scholars from various parts of the world who have a research interest in the particular area. But so often, even the scant library facilities of smaller libraries are not fully used. III On the cultural horizons there are a number of encouraging projects which may have considerable influence on schools, libraries, and librarians in the Caribbean. On December 1, 1959, a luncheon was held in the Whittall Pavilion of the Library of Congress in Washington to discuss the role of the newly created Bureau of International Educational Relations established in the State De- partment in June, 1959. This is headed by Robert H. Thayer with the title of Special Assistant to the Secretary of State for the Co- ordination of International Educational and Cultural Relations. By creating this bureau the State Department recognized the increas- ing importance of cultural and educational activities in the conduct of foreign affairs. The Bureau will coordinate the various interna- tional activities of the government agencies, especially with regard to the educational and cultural exchange program, and it will have responsibility for liaison and cooperation with nongovernment or- ganizations engaged in such activities. Incorporated in the Bureau are the UNESCO Relations Staff, the International Educational Exchange Service, the Cultural Planning and Coordination Staff, the East-West Contact Staff, the Cultural Representations Staff, EDITORS INTRODUCTION Xvii the books were not catalogued, probably because it did not seem necessary due to their small number. Quite often private schools contained the best libraries; especially was this true in some of the Catholic schools. In most places there were no public libraries and even where these existed the students did not appear to be using them. It was our observation that there were more persons of student age, especially of secondary school age, using the United States Information Agency libraries than any of the other local libraries. In cities where there are large schools with more extensive libraries, these did not seem to be used by the public. Some of the library materials in the University College of the West Indies, in the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, and in the Insti- tute of Jamaica constitute special collections, chiefly for research, and here it is possible to find scholars from various parts of the world who have a research interest in the particular area. But so often, even the scant library facilities of smaller libraries are not fully used. III On the cultural horizons there are a number of encouraging projects which may have considerable influence on schools, libraries, and librarians in the Caribbean. On December 1, 1959, a luncheon was held in the Whittall Pavilion of the Library of Congress in Washington to discuss the role of the newly created Bureau of International Educational Relations established in the State De- partment in June, 1959. This is headed by Robert H. Thayer with the title of Special Assistant to the Secretary of State for the Co- ordination of International Educational and Cultural Relations. By creating this bureau the State Department recognized the increas- ing importance of cultural and educational activities in the conduct of foreign affairs. The Bureau will coordinate the various interna- tional activities of the government agencies, especially with regard to the educational and cultural exchange program, and it will have responsibility for liaison and cooperation with nongovernment or- ganizations engaged in such activities. Incorporated in the Bureau are the UNESCO Relations Staff, the International Educational Exchange Service, the Cultural Planning and Coordination Staff, the East-West Contact Staff, the Cultural Representations Staff, EDITORS INTRODUCTION Xvii the books were not catalogued, probably because it did not seem necessary due to their small number. Quite often private schools contained the best libraries; especially was this true in some of the Catholic schools. In most places there were no public libraries and even where these existed the students did not appear to be using them. It was our observation that there were more persons of student age, especially of secondary school age, using the United States Information Agency libraries than any of the other local libraries. In cities where there are large schools with more extensive libraries, these did not seem to be used by the public. Some of the library materials in the University College of the West Indies, in the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, and in the Insti- tute of Jamaica constitute special collections, chiefly for research, and here it is possible to find scholars from various parts of the world who have a research interest in the particular area. But so often, even the scant library facilities of smaller libraries are not fully used. III On the cultural horizons there are a number of encouraging projects which may have considerable influence on schools, libraries, and librarians in the Caribbean. On December 1, 1959, a luncheon was held in the Whittall Pavilion of the Library of Congress in Washington to discuss the role of the newly created Bureau of International Educational Relations established in the State De- partment in June, 1959. This is headed by Robert H. Thayer with the title of Special Assistant to the Secretary of State for the Co- ordination of International Educational and Cultural Relations. By creating this bureau the State Department recognized the increas- ing importance of cultural and educational activities in the conduct of foreign affairs. The Bureau will coordinate the various interna- tional activities of the government agencies, especially with regard to the educational and cultural exchange program, and it will have responsibility for liaison and cooperation with nongovernment or- ganizations engaged in such activities. Incorporated in the Bureau are the UNESCO Relations Staff, the International Educational Exchange Service, the Cultural Planning and Coordination Staff, the East-West Contact Staff, the Cultural Representations Staff,  xviii The Caribbean the Secretariat to the United States Advisory Committee on Educa- tional Exchange, the Advisory Committee on the Arts, and the Arts and Monument Advisor.* Eventually libraries and schools in the Caribbean should feel the impact of this signifleant step. Recently the American Book Publishers Council, on behalf of the Pan American Union and with the assistance of the Council on Library Resources, Inc., undertook the recommending of meas- ures to be taken at an inter-American level to eliminate barriers to the flow of publications of books within the hemisphere. A study of the present status of the book trade in the Americas is being made by Peter Jennison, a graduate of the Institute of Book Pub- lishing in New York University, and Mr. William H. Kurth, recently of the Library of Congress. According to the Library of Congress Information Bulletin of December 7, 1959, these scholars "will as- semble information on the present state of the booktrade in the American republics, identify the obstacles which exist in the form of import, customs, postal and transportation regulations and con- ditions; currency control; the copyright, linguistic and bibliographic situation; and other statutory, administrative, philosophical, politi- cal and educational factors." This report, it was announced would be available in February, 1960, through the Pan American Union. Needless to say, such a project will be of inestimable value to librarians and teachers, especially in the Caribbean area. From November 22 to December 2, 1959, at San Juan, Puerto Rico, the Third Meeting of the Inter-American Cultural Council, one of the specialized organs of the Council of the Organization of American States, considered among a number of items on the agenda the library development of the Pan American Union, the exchange of publications in the Americas, and a number of other activities of special interest to libraries and librarians in the Carib- bean. Besides matters relating to libraries, the conference con- sidered copyright, the free circulation of books, bibliographies, and related materials. It was recommended that member states which do not have national centers for international book exchange should organize such centers, while those which have these centers should take the necessary steps to improve their functioning, with special attention being paid to the problems of current bibliographies and *Library of Congress, Information Bulletin, XVIII, 49 (December 7, 1959), 723. xviii The Caribbean the Secretariat to the United States Advisory Committee on Educa- tional Exchange, the Advisory Committee on the Arts, and the Arts and Monument Advisor.* Eventually libraries and schools in the Caribbean should feel the impact of this significant step. Recently the American Book Publishers Council, on behalf of the Pan American Union and with the assistance of the Council on Library Resources, Inc., undertook the recommending of meas- ures to be taken at an inter-American level to eliminate barriers to the flow of publications of books within the hemisphere. A study of the present status of the book trade in the Americas is being made by Peter Jennison, a graduate of the Institute of Book Pub- lishing in New York University, and Mr. William H. Kurth, recently of the Library of Congress. According to the Library of Congress Information Bulletin of December 7, 1959, these scholars "will as- semble information on the present state of the booktrade in the American republics, identify the obstacles which exist in the form of import, customs, postal and transportation regulations and con- ditions; currency control; the copyright, linguistic and bibliographic situation; and other statutory, administrative, philosophical, politi- cal and educational factors." This report, it was announced would be available in February, 1960, through the Pan American Union. Needless to say, such a project will be of inestimable value to librarians and teachers, especially in the Caribbean area. From November 22 to December 2, 1959, at San Juan, Puerto Rico, the Third Meeting of the Inter-American Cultural Council, one of the specialized organs of the Council of the Organization of American States, considered among a number of items on the agenda the library development of the Pan American Union, the exchange of publications in the Americas, and a number of other activities of special interest to libraries and librarians in the Carib- bean. Besides matters relating to libraries, the conference con- sidered copyright, the free circulation of books, bibliographies, and related materials. It was recommended that member states which do not have national centers for international book exchange should organize such centers, while those which have these centers should take the necessary steps to improve their functioning, with special attention being paid to the problems of current bibliographies and "Library of Congress, Information Bulletin, XVIII, 49 (December 7, 1959), 723. xviii The Caribbean the Secretariat to the United States Advisory Committee on Educa- tional Exchange, the Advisory Committee on the Arts, and the Arts and Monument Advisor.* Eventually libraries and schools in the Caribbean should feel the impact of this significant step. Recently the American Book Publishers Council, on behalf of the Pan American Union and with the assistance of the Council on Library Resources, Inc., undertook the recommending of meas- ures to be taken at an inter-American level to eliminate barriers to the flow of publications of books within the hemisphere. A study of the present status of the book trade in the Americas is being made by Peter Jennison, a graduate of the Institute of Book Pub- lishing in New York University, and Mr. William H. Kurth, recently of the Library of Congress. According to the Library of Congress Inforation Bulletin of December 7, 1959, these scholars "will as- semble information on the present state of the booktrade in the American republics, identify the obstacles which exist in the form of import, customs, postal and transportation regulations and con- ditions; currency control; the copyright, linguistic and bibliographic situation; and other statutory, administrative, philosophical, politi- cal and educational factors." This report, it was announced would be available in February, 1960, through the Pan American Union. Needless to say, such a project will be of inestimable value to librarians and teachers, especially in the Caribbean area. From November 22 to December 2, 1959, at San Juan, Puerto Rico, the Third Meeting of the Inter-American Cultural Council, one of the specialized organs of the Council of the Organization of American States, considered among a number of items on the agenda the library development of the Pan American Union, the exchange of publications in the Americas, and a number of other activities of special interest to libraries and librarians in the Carib- bean. Besides matters relating to libraries, the conference con- sidered copyright, the free circulation of books, bibliographies, and related materials. It was recommended that member states which do not have national centers for international book exchange should organize such centers, while those which have these centers should take the necessary steps to improve their functioning, with special attention being paid to the problems of current bibliographies and *Library of Congress, Information Bulletin, XVIII, 49 (December 7, 1959), 723.  EDITORS INTRODUCTION X1X materials available for exchange. The Council also continued its encouragement of library development in the Americas, the prep- aration of bibliographies, teaching manuals, and other aids, and the fostering of the teaching of library science, all of which have been continuing activities of the Columbus Memorial Library of the Pan American Union. In its recommendations, the Council kept in mind the need for encouraging librarians to assist in pro- moting the objectives of the Council stated above, most of which are of importance in the Caribbean. IV In concluding these brief observations, it should be pointed out that for the first time it begins to appear that education may be entering upon a period of rapid development, especially in the British Caribbean, and that this development will be accompanied and hastened considerably by the improvement in the organiza- tion and management of libraries in important localities in coopera- tion with school systems and school officials. Outside aid of an educational nature is coming to the Caribbean islands, especially to the West Indies Federation, from British sources, from the United States, and of course from internal sources. International agencies such as UNESCO and the Pan American Union, by working closely with local authorities, are helping to improve library and teaching materials. As noted above, the Caribbean Organization, formerly called the Caribbean Commission, has now moved from Kent House, in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, to San Juan, Puerto Rico. This undoubtedly will give it a new lease on life, and it should come increasingly under the influence, especially along educational lines, of the University of Puerto Rico and other cultural groups in that island. The University of Florida's special interest in the Caribbean is shown by its annual Caribbean Conferences, and by its administra- tion of the Farmington Plan so far as it deals with the purchase of publications from certain sections of the Caribbean area. The University is also cooperating with the Pan American Union, the University of Texas, the University of California, and the Inter- American Bibliographical and Library Association, in holding each year, beginning first at Chinsegut Hill, Florida, in June, 1956, a "Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials." EDITORS INTRODUCTION XIX materials available for exchange. The Council also continued its encouragement of library development in the Americas, the prep- aration of bibliographies, teaching manuals, and other aids, and the fostering of the teaching of library science, all of which have been continuing activities of the Columbus Memorial Library of the Pan American Union. In its recommendations, the Council kept in mind the need for encouraging librarians to assist in pro- moting the objectives of the Council stated above, most of which are of importance in the Caribbean. IV In concluding these brief observations, it should be pointed out that for the first time it begins to appear that education may be entering upon a period of rapid development, especially in the British Caribbean, and that this development will be accompanied and hastened considerably by the improvement in the organiza- tion and management of libraries in important localities in coopera- tion with school systems and school officials. Outside aid of an educational nature is coming to the Caribbean islands, especially to the West Indies Federation, from British sources, from the United States, and of course from internal sources. International agencies such as UNESCO and the Pan American Union, by working closely with local authorities, are helping to improve library and teaching materials. As noted above, the Caribbean Organization, formerly called the Caribbean Commission, has now moved from Kent House, in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, to San Juan, Puerto Rico. This undoubtedly will give it a new lease on life, and it should come increasingly under the influence, especially along educational lines, of the University of Puerto Rico and other cultural groups in that island. The University of Florida's special interest in the Caribbean is shown by its annual Caribbean Conferences, and by its administra- tion of the Farmington Plan so far as it deals with the purchase of publications from certain sections of the Caribbean area. The University is also cooperating with the Pan American Union, the University of Texas, the University of California, and the Inter- American Bibliographical and Library Association, in holding each year, beginning first at Chinsegut Hill, Florida, in June, 1956, a "Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials." EDITORS INTRODUCTION XIX materials available for exchange. The Council also continued its encouragement of library development in the Americas, the prep- aration of bibliographies, teaching manuals, and other aids, and the fostering of the teaching of library science, all of which have been continuing activities of the Columbus Memorial Library of the Pan American Union. In its recommendations, the Council kept in mind the need for encouraging librarians to assist in pro- moting the objectives of the Council stated above, most of which are of importance in the Caribbean. IV In concluding these brief observations, it should be pointed out that for the first time it begins to appear that education may be entering upon a period of rapid development, especially in the British Caribbean, and that this development will he accompanied and hastened considerably by the improvement in the organiza- tion and management of libraries in important localities in coopera- tion with school systems and school officials. Outside aid of an educational nature is coming to the Caribbean islands, especially to the West Indies Federation, from British sources, from the United States, and of course from internal sources. International agencies such as UNESCO and the Pan American Union, by working closely with local authorities, are helping to improve library and teaching materials. As noted above, the Caribbean Organization, formerly called the Caribbean Commission, has now moved from Kent House, in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, to San Juan, Puerto Rico. This undoubtedly will give it a new lease on life, and it should come increasingly under the influence, especially along educational lines, of the University of Puerto Rico and other cultural groups in that island. The University of Florida's special interest in the Caribbean is shown by its annual Caribbean Conferences, and by its administra- tion of the Farmington Plan so far as it deals with the purchase of publications from certain sections of the Caribbean area. The University is also cooperating with the Pan American Union, the University of Texas, the University of California, and the Inter- American Bibliographical and Library Association, in holding each year, beginning first at Chinsegut Hill, Florida, in June, 1956, a "Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials."  xx The Caribbean The 1959 meeting of this group (the Fourth Seminar) held in Washington was especially concerned with Caribbean library prob- lems. It is hoped in this connection that the project suggested by Miss Baa for the meeting of a number of key librarians occupying important library positions in the Caribbean area may bear fruit sometime in the near future. Certainly such a meeting should con- sider all the ramifications and problems that confront librarians in this area, especially the acquisition and adequate use of the books in their libraries. While many of the objectives mentioned in the previous section concern more directly the member states of the Organization of American States, certainly the British, Dutch, and French islands lying in the heartland of the Western Hemisphere cannot be ex- cluded. There are many signs pointing to the growing importance and significance of these European-associated islands of the Carib- bean. The problems relating to education and libraries are becom- ing rapidly more acute. No one can examine this volume carefully without being made fully aware that the ability to read and write and the facility to obtain reading materials are closely connected not only with the political life of these areas but also with their religious, economic, and social affairs. In all of the countries of the Western Hemisphere, whether com- pletely independent or not, the people through their governing organizations are attempting educational operations-bootstrap which, if all goes as planned, should result, in another generation at least, in making educational opportunities available to a much larger majority of people than now enjoy them. Certainly the papers in this volume are thought-provoking and stimulating, and taken together they make a valuable contribution to the broad and important subject of education in the Americas. A. CURTs WILGUS, Director School of Inter-American Studies xx The Caribbean The 1959 meeting of this group (the Fourth Seminar) held in Washington was especially concerned with Caribbean library prob- lems. It is hoped in this connection that the project suggested by Miss Baa for the meeting of a number of key librarians occupying important library positions in the Caribbean area may bear fruit sometime in the near future. Certainly such a meeting should con- sider all the ramifications and problems that confront librarians in this area, especially the acquisition and adequate use of the books in their libraries. While many of the objectives mentioned in the previous section concern more directly the member states of the Organization of American States, certainly the British, Dutch, and French islands lying in the heartland of the Western Hemisphere cannot be ex- cluded. There are many signs pointing to the growing importance and significance of these European-associated islands of the Carib- bean. The problems relating to education and libraries are becom- ing rapidly more acute. No one can examine this volume carefully without being made fully aware that the ability to read and write and the facility to obtain reading materials are closely connected not only with the political life of these areas but also with their religious, economic, and social affairs. In all of the countries of the Western Hemisphere, whether com- pletely independent or not, the people through their governing organizations are attempting educational operations-bootstrap which, if all goes as planned, should result, in another generation at least, in making educational opportunities available to a much larger majority of people than now enjoy them. Certainly the papers in this volume are thought-provoking and stimulating, and taken together they make a valuable contribution to the broad and important subject of education in the Americas. A. CURTIs WILGUS, Director School of Inter-American Studies xx The Caribbean The 1959 meeting of this group (the Fourth Seminar) held in Washington was especially concerned with Caribbean library prob- lems. It is hoped in this connection that the project suggested by Miss Baa for the meeting of a number of key librarians occupying important library positions in the Caribbean area may bear fruit sometime in the near future. Certainly such a meeting should con- sider all the ramifications and problems that confront librarians in this area, especially the acquisition and adequate use of the books in their libraries. While many of the objectives mentioned in the previous section concern more directly the member states of the Organization of American States, certainly the British, Dutch, and French islands lying in the heartland of the Western Hemisphere cannot be ex- cluded. There are many signs pointing to the growing importance and significance of these European-associated islands of the Carib- bean. The problems relating to education and libraries are becom- ing rapidly more acute. No one can examine this volume carefully without being made fully aware that the ability to read and write and the facility to obtain reading materials are closely connected not only with the political life of these areas but also with their religious, economic, and social affairs. In all of the countries of the Western Hemisphere, whether com- pletely independent or not, the people through their governing organizations are attempting educational operations-bootstrap which, if all goes as planned, should result, in another generation at least, in making educational opportunities available to a much larger majority of people than now enjoy them. Certainly the papers in this volume are thought-provoking and stimulating, and taken together they make a valuable contribution to the broad and important subject of education in the Americas. A. CURTs WILGUS, DiroCur School of Inter-American Studies  Part I Part I Part I EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS   1 1 1 -4 Ismael Rodriguez Bou: ILLITERACY, FREEDOM, AND JUSTICE IN THE CARIBBEAN THE TITLE of the paper may seem to be a catchall for ver- balism. It is not intended to be so. It intends to depict the relationship which exists between the levels of literacy and the possibilities of life in freedom and the establishment of regimes of justice (economic, social, political) in our countries. Ignorance and poverty may be breeding places of dictatorships of varying types. It is no wonder of our times that in some poverty- ridden and illiterate countries of Latin America, and in a more limited sense in the Caribbean area, instability and coups d'4tat by strong men are too frequently the passwords. Although Commu- nism has not taken hold, some dictatorships have established them- selves in the most inhuman and brutal forms that can be conceived of. Dictatorships in our part of the world are notorious for the meagerness of their budgets for education and the lavishness of their expenditures for instruments of war and oppression. A die- tator once said this to me when I questioned the decrease in the budget for education and the increase for the funds for arms: "I have to take from education to buy arms to defend myself." It was as simple as that- and as detrimental to human justice and freedom as arms against books can be. On another occasion I asked the commanding general of a military establishment why almost all the soldiers were illiterate. His answer was prompt: "When we want soldiers we go to the rural areas and recruit them. 3 Ismael Rodriguez Bou: ILLITERACY, FREEDOM, AND JUSTICE IN THE CARIBBEAN THE TITLE of the paper may seem to be a catchall for ver- balism. It is not intended to be so. It intends to depict the relationship which exists between the levels of literacy and the possibilities of life in freedom and the establishment of regimes of justice (economic, social, political) in our countries. Ignorance and poverty may be breeding places of dictatorships of varying types. It is no wonder of our times that in some poverty- ridden and illiterate countries of Latin America, and in a more limited sense in the Caribbean area, instability and coups d'6tat by strong men are too frequently the passwords. Although Commu- nism has not taken hold, some dictatorships have established them- selves in the most inhuman and brutal forms that can be conceived of. Dictatorships in our part of the world are notorious for the meagerness of their budgets for education and the lavishness of their expenditures for instruments of war and oppression. A dic- tator once said this to me when I questioned the decrease in the budget for education and the increase for the funds for arms: "I have to take from education to buy arms to defend myself." It was as simple as that - and as detrimental to human justice and freedom as arms against books can be. On another occasion I asked the commanding general of a military establishment why ahnost all the soldiers were illiterate. His answer was prompt: "When we want soldiers we go to the rural areas and recruit them. Ismael Rodriguez Bou: ILLITERACY, FREEDOM, AND JUSTICE IN THE CARIBBEAN THE TITLE of the paper may seem to be a catchall for ver- balism. It is not intended to be so. It intends to depict the relationship which exists between the levels of literacy and the possibilities of life in freedom and the establishment of regimes of justice (economic, social, political) in our countries. Ignorance and poverty may be breeding places of dictatorships of varying types. It is no wonder of our times that in some poverty- ridden and illiterate countries of Latin America, and in a more limited sense in the Caribbean area, instability and coups d'4tat by strong men are too frequently the passwords. Although Commu- nism has not taken hold, some dictatorships have established them- selves in the most inhuman and brutal forms that can be conceived of. Dictatorships in our part of the world are notorious for the meagerness of their budgets for education and the lavishness of their expenditures for instruments of war and oppression. A dic- tator once said this to me when I questioned the decrease in the budget for education and the increase for the funds for arms: "I have to take from education to buy arms to defend myself." It was as simple as that - and as detrimental to human justice and freedom as arms against books can be. On another occasion I asked the commanding general of a military establishment why almost all the soldiers were illiterate. His answer was prompt: "When we want soldiers we go to the rural areas and recruit them.  4 The Caribbean The more illiterate and unpolished the better. When we order them to shoot they fire without questioning." Fortunately this dictator- ship is over by now. Others as brutal are still on the saddle, keeping illiteracy high and justice either in their pockets or on the tip of their sabres. Literacy without meaningful purpose of human betterment, void of the determination to strengthen and respect the personality of the individual, deaf to the cravings of the component members of the community to improve their lot and acquire a decent stand- ard of living and culture, with a dearth of principles of simple jus- tice to guarantee the minimum of civil rights to the people, may as well be counted as another mechanical instrument which gives those in power new means for further oppression and greater ex- ploitation of human beings. We may examine some telling figures on illiteracy and the rela- tionship between certain forms of government and economic and social developments in some countries. If you know anything about the countries concerned you can draw your own conclusions. And mind you, these are official figures.'* 4 The Caribbean The more illiterate and unpolished the better. When we order them to shoot they fire without questioning." Fortunately this dictator- ship is over by now. Others as brutal are still on the saddle, keeping illiteracy high and justice either in their pockets or on the tip of their sabres. Literacy without meaningful purpose of human betterment, void of the determination to strengthen and respect the personality of the individual, deaf to the cravings of the component members of the community to improve their lot and acquire a decent stand- ard of living and culture, with a dearth of principles of simple jus- tice to guarantee the minimum of civil rights to the people, may as well be counted as another mechanical instrument which gives those in power new means for further oppression and greater ex- ploitation of human beings. We may examine some telling figures on illiteracy and the rela- tionship between certain forms of government and economic and social developments in some countries. If you know anything about the countries concerned you can draw your own conclusions. And mind you, these are official figures.* Country Per Cent Haiti 90 Dominican Republic 74 Guatemala 72 Honduras 65 Nicaragua 63 El Salvador 61 Venezuela 58 Mexico 54 Colombia 44 Panama 30 Cuba 24 Costa Rica 22 Puerto Rico 13.4 Whenever dictatorship or political instability has characterized a certain country, now or in years past, illiteracy is markedly high, economic development is low, education and culture are in the hands of a selected few, and government is controlled by a socio- economic elite or, in most cases, by a military clique. Some of the characteristic effects of these forms of government, whether they passed away several years ago or recently, or of those still in power, are the poor way in which educational opportunities are distributed *Notes to this chapter are on page 19. 4 The Caribbean The more illiterate and unpolished the better. When we order them to shoot they fire without questioning." Fortunately this dictator- ship is over by now. Others as brutal are still on the saddle, keeping illiteracy high and justice either in their pockets or on the tip of their sabres. Literacy without meaningful purpose of human betterment, void of the determination to strengthen and respect the personality of the individual, deaf to the cravings of the component members of the community to improve their lot and acquire a decent stand- ard of living and culture, with a dearth of principles of simple jus- tice to guarantee the minimum of civil rights to the people, may as well be counted as another mechanical instrument which gives those in power new means for further oppression and greater ex- ploitation of human beings. We may examine some telling figures on illiteracy and the rela- tionship between certain forms of government and economic and social developments in some countries. If you know anything about the countries concerned you can draw your own conclusions. And mind you, these are official figures." Country Per Cent Haiti 90 Dominican Republic 74 Guatemala 72 Honduras 65 Nicaragua 63 El Salvador 61 Venezuela 58 Mexico 54 Colombia 44 Panama 30 Cuba 24 Costa Rica 22 Puerto Rico 13.4 Whenever dictatorship or political instability has characterized a certain country, now or in years past, illiteracy is markedly high, economic development is low, education and culture are in the hands of a selected few, and government is controlled by a socio- economic elite or, in most cases, by a military clique. Some of the characteristic effects of these forms of government, whether they passed away several years ago or recently, or of those still in power, are the poor way in which educational opportunities are distributed *Notes to this chapter are on page 19. Country Haiti Dominican Republic Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua El Salvador Venezuela Mexico Colombia Panama Cuba Costa Rica Puerto Rico Per Cent 90 74 72 65 63 61 58 54 44 30. 24 22 13.4 Whenever dictatorship or political instability has characterized a certain country, now or in years past, illiteracy is markedly high, economic development is low, education and culture are in the hands of a selected few, and government is controlled by a socio- economic elite or, in most cases, by a military clique. Some of the characteristic effects of these forms of government, whether they passed away several years ago or recently, or of those still in power, are the poor way in which educational opportunities are distributed *Notes to this chapter are on page 19.  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 5 and the scant way in which people get a chance to uplift them- selves. These countries profess to be overwhelmingly Christian, but Christian philosophy and principles are not the common prac- tice of some of their governments. Institutionalized religion should have a more stern look and a more active role in helping establish Christian justice and ethics in the practice of government wherever any kind of dictatorship shows up. Few things have hurt the relationship between the United States and Latin America more than the diplomatic warm hand to dicta- tors and the cold hand to liberals and democratic leaders. Chris- tians and democrats have here some rethinking to do. These statements are in some ways an oversimplification of a constella- tion of operative factors that is extremely complicated and varied. But the consequences in the wastage of both human and natural resources, the lack of opportunity for people, the injustice of the constant violation of civil rights that go with the dictatorial and oppressive forms of government are such that the apparent over- simplification is justifiable. Let me come back to what seems unbelievable in this era of sputniks and luniks. Eli Ginzberg, in his well-read book on Human Resources: The Wealth of a Nation, tells us: World War II threw a searchlight on the deficiencies in the edu- cational preparation of the young. More than 700,000 young men were rejected for military service because of illiteracy; another 500,000 illiterates were taken into the armed services. Most of these were sent to special training units where they were taught how to read and write before they were permitted to start their basic military training. The record also shows that another 700,000 who served had had only the barest education. In short, almost two million men out of the eighteen million who were screened - one out of every nine-were total or borderline illiterates.... Large-scale illiteracy remains a major national deficiency even when considered solely within the context of our defense prepara- tions. Although the present manpower needs of the armed services can be met without dipping into the pool of the poorly educated, this country would be in a serious plight if war should come. Its mobilization time will be in terms of hours, possibly minutes, not years or months as in earlier wars. We would not again be able to devote time and resources to training illiterates if war came again. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 5 and the scant way in which people get a chance to uplift them- selves. These countries profess to be overwhelmingly Christian, but Christian philosophy and principles are not the common prac- tice of some of their governments. Institutionalized religion should have a more stern look and a more active role in helping establish Christian justice and ethics in the practice of government wherever any kind of dictatorship shows up. Few things have hurt the relationship between the United States and Latin America more than the diplomatic warm hand to dicta- tors and the cold hand to liberals and democratic leaders. Chris- tians and democrats have here some rethinking to do. These statements are in some ways an oversimplification of a constella- tion of operative factors that is extremely complicated and varied. But the consequences in the wastage of both human and natural resources, the lack of opportunity for people, the injustice of the constant violation of civil rights that go with the dictatorial and oppressive forms of government are such that the apparent over- simplification is justifiable. Let me come back to what seems unbelievable in this era of sputniks and luniks. Eli Ginzberg, in his well-read book on Human Resources: The Wealth of a Nation, tells us: World War II threw a searchlight on the deficiencies in the edu- rational preparation of the young. More than 700,000 young men were rejected for military service because of illiteracy; another 500,000 illiterates were taken into the armed services. Most of these were sent to special training units where they were taught how to read and write before they were permitted to start their basic military training. The record also shows that another 700,000 who served had had only the barest education. In short, almost two million men out of the eighteen million who were screened - one out of every nine - were total or borderline illiterates.... Large-scale illiteracy remains a major national deficiency even when considered solely within the context of our defense prepara- tions. Although the present manpower needs of the armed services can be met without dipping into the pool of the poorly educated, this country would be in a serious plight if war should come. Its mobilization time will be in terms of hours, possibly minutes, not years or months as in earlier wars. We wos.ld not again be able to devote time and resources to training illiterates if war came again. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 5 and the scant way in which people get a chance to uplift them- selves. These countries profess to be overwhelmingly Christian, but Christian philosophy and principles are not the common prac- tice of some of their governments. Institutionalized religion should have a more stern look and a more active role in helping establish Christian justice and ethics in the practice of government wherever any kind of dictatorship shows up. Few things have hurt the relationship between the United States and Latin America more than the diplomatic warm hand to dicta- tors and the cold hand to liberals and democratic leaders. Chris- tians and democrats have here some rethinking to do. These statements are in some ways an oversimplification of a constella- tion of operative factors that is extremely complicated and varied. But the consequences in the wastage of both human and natural resources, the lack of opportunity for people, the injustice of the constant violation of civil rights that go with the dictatorial and oppressive forms of government are such that the apparent over- simplification is justifiable. Let me come back to what seems unbelievable in this era of sputniks and luniks. Eli Ginzberg, in his well-read book on Human Resources: The Wealth of a Nation, tells us: World War II threw a searchlight on the deficiencies in the edu- cational preparation of the young. More than 700,000 young men were rejected for military service because of illiteracy; another 500,000 illiterates were taken into the armed services. Most of these were sent to special training units where they were taught how to read and write before they were permitted to start their basic military training. The record also shows that another 700,000 who served had had only the barest education. In short, almost two million men out of the eighteen million who were screened - one out of every nine - were total or borderline illiterates.... Large-scale illiteracy remains a major national deficiency even when considered solely within the context of our defense prepara- tions. Although the present manpower needs of the armed services can be met without dipping into the pool of the poorly educated, this country would be in a serious plight if war should come. Its mobilization time will be in terms of hours, possibly minutes, not years or months as in earlier wars. We would not again be able to devote time and resources to training illiterates if war came again.  6 The Caribbean But there is more to illiteracy than the threat which it represents to our national security and economic progress. What does it imply for the quality of life of the individual citizen? How can a man who is unable to read and write take proper care of his family and himself, safeguard his health and theirs, keep in contact with relatives and friends, guide his children in the choices which they face, and take advantage of the privileges and responsibilities of citizenship? Small wonder that the Russians have begun to exploit this social blight on American democracy by pointing out, among other things, that we "spend more on migratory birds than on migratory people" among whom illiteracy is rampant. With illiteracy a major barrier to progress in both Asia and Africa, the Russians are profiting greatly from a propaganda effort which stresses their own phenom- enal progress in its eradication. At the same time they are calling attention to the shocking number of illiterates still to be found in the United States. The less prosperous nations cannot conceive how the wealthy United States, with its long tradition of public education, has not eliminated the scourge of illiteracy? It has been found here in the States that illiteracy affects farm production and migratory patterns and also slows down technologi- cal progress. Slums will grow faster than they can be cleared; pro- duction will suffer. Puerto Rico and Latin America have sensed these truths. The more mechanized agriculture becomes the greater the need for better and more specialized training of workers to be able to do the job and increase production. To the illiterates goes what is left of employment opportunities. They get the low wages, the menial tasks. Yet this is the group that has the highest number of children per family. Family income influences both the number of children born into these families and their chances of survival. Children born to mothers in low income families are more likely to die prematurely than those born to mothers in the higher income brackets.0 The proportion of children who are born dead is likewise highest among mothers of the lowest educational attainment. Of children born to mothers who have had no schooling, 26.2 per cent are born dead. The percentage of deaths decreases with each advance in education level down to 18 per cent for mothers who have gone through the sixth grade or beyond.4 Facts like these lead us to speak of the injustice of governments keeping people illiterate because they feel it is more important 6 The Caribbean But there is more to illiteracy than the threat which it represents to our national security and economic progress. What does it imply for the quality of life of the individual citizen? How can a man who is unable to read and write take proper care of his family and himself, safeguard his health and theirs, keep in contact with relatives and friends, guide his children in the choices which they face, and take advantage of the privileges and responsibilities of citizenship? Small wonder that the Russians have begun to exploit this social blight on American democracy by pointing out, among other things, that we "spend more on migratory birds than on migratory people" among whom illiteracy is rampant. With illiteracy a major barrier to progress in both Asia and Africa, the Russians are profiting greatly from a propaganda effort which stresses their own phenom- enal progress in its eradication. At the same time they are calling attention to the shocking number of illiterates still to be found in the United States. The less prosperous nations cannot conceive how the wealthy United States, with its long tradition of public education, has not eliminated the scourge of illiteracy.0 It has been found here in the States that illiteracy affects farm production and migratory patterns and also slows down technologi- cal progress. Slums will grow faster than they can be cleared; pro- duction will suffer. Puerto Rico and Latin America have sensed these truths. The more mechanized agriculture becomes the greater the need for better and more specialized training of workers to be able to do the job and increase production. To the illiterates goes what is left of employment opportunities. They get the low wages, the menial tasks. Yet this is the group that has the highest number of children per family. Family income influences both the number of children born into these families and their chances of survival. Children born to mothers in low income families are more likely to die prematurely than those born to mothers in the higher income brackets.0 The proportion of children who are born dead is likewise highest among mothers of the lowest educational attainment. Of children born to mothers who have had no schooling, 26.2 per cent are born dead. The percentage of deaths decreases with each advance in education level down to 18 per cent for mothers who have gone through the sixth grade or beyond. Facts like these lead us to speak of the injustice of governments keeping people illiterate because they feel it is more important 6 The Caribbean But there is more to illiteracy than the threat which it represents to our national security and economic progress. What does it imply for the quality of life of the individual citizen? How can a man who is unable to read and write take proper care of his family and himself, safeguard his health and theirs, keep in contact with relatives and friends, guide his children in the choices which they face, and take advantage of the privileges and responsibilities of citizenship? Small wonder that the Russians have begun to exploit this social blight on American democracy by pointing out, among other things, that we "spend more on migratory birds than on migratory people" among whom illiteracy is rampant. With illiteracy a major barrier to progress in both Asia and Africa, the Russians are profiting greatly from a propaganda effort which stresses their own phenom- enal progress in its eradication. At the same time they are calling attention to the shocking number of illiterates still to be found in the United States. The less prosperous nations cannot conceive how the wealthy United States, with its long tradition of public education, has not eliminated the scourge of illiteracy.' It has been found here in the States that illiteracy affects farm production and migratory patterns and also slows down technologi- cal progress. Slums will grow faster than they can be cleared; pro- duction will suffer. Puerto Rico and Latin America have sensed these truths. The more mechanized agriculture becomes the greater the need for better and more specialized training of workers to be able to do the job and increase production. To the illiterates goes what is left of employment opportunities. They get the low wages, the menial tasks. Yet this is the group that has the highest number of children per family. Family income influences both the number of children born into these families and their chances of survival. Children born to mothers in low income families are more likely to die prematurely than those born to mothers in the higher income brackets.0 The proportion of children who are born dead is likewise highest among mothers of the lowest educational attainment. Of children born to mothers who have had no schooling, 26.2 per cent are born dead. The percentage of deaths decreases with each advance in education level down to 18 per cent for mothers who have gone through the sixth grade or beyonda Facts like these lead us to speak of the injustice of governments keeping people illiterate because they feel it is more important  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 7 to spend money on arms and luxuries for a military group than to spend it on education. The close relationship between illiteracy and living standards has been known for years. Dr. L. R. Wilson, with abundant data, ... showed that States which had a high rate of illiteracy among their adult population also tended to have an unfavorable showing with respect to the following indices of cultural and living stand- ards; per capita income, per cent of population filing income tax returns, mean annual manufacturing wage, savings deposits per capita, life insurance per capita, mean value per farm or farm prod- ucts, farms operated by tenants, and retail sales per capita. This same relationship was found with respect to cost of government per capita, postal receipts per capita, per capita receipts of places of amusements, per capita tax paying ability of the States, and physicians, dentists and nurses per 10,000 population; thus estab- lishing a clear relationship between educational level and living standards.' On the other hand we have found that when adults' level of literacy rises, children's absences from school are lowered; when literacy increases, income increases, and with it school attendance for a longer period of time also increases. With an increase in literacy and income, fewer children would be born but more of them would survive. On the basis of a study made by the Department of Labor of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in the year 1953 it was found that 54 per cent of the heads of family with incomes below $500 a year had never been to school and 42 per cent had had six or less than six years of schooling. In the groups of heads of family with annual incomes ranging from $500 to $749, 3 per cent had never been to school and 59 per cent had had six or less than six years of schooling. On the other hand income increased as the years of schooling of the head of family increased. In the group where families had an income ranging from $2,000 to $4,999, only 13 per cent of the heads of family had had no schooling. In those between $5,000 and $7,499, only 2 per cent had had no schooling. In cases of income of $10,000 and over, all the heads of family had had at least six or more years of schooling and a high percentage, 57 per cent, had had 12 or more years of schoohng.6 In summary, statistics reveal that with each year of schooling EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS i to spend money on arms and luxuries for a military group than to spend it on education. The close relationship between illiteracy and living standards has been known for years. Dr. L. R. Wilson, with abundant data, . showed that States which had a high rate of illiteracy among their adult population also tended to have an unfavorable showing with respect to the following indices of cultural and living stand- ards; per capita income, per cent of population filing income tax returns, mean annual manufacturing wage, savings deposits per capita, life insurance per capita, mean value per farm or farm prod- ucts, farms operated by tenants, and retail sales per capita. This same relationship was found with respect to cost of government per capita, postal receipts per capita, per capita receipts of places of amusements, per capita tax paying ability of the States, and physicians, dentists and nurses per 10,000 population; thus estab- lishing a clear relationship between educational level and living standards. On the other hand we have found that when adults' level of literacy rises, children's absences from school are lowered; when literacy increases, income increases, and with it school attendance for a longer period of time also increases. With an increase in literacy and income, fewer children would be born but more of them would survive. On the basis of a study made by the Department of Labor of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in the year 1953 it was found that 54 per cent of the heads of family with incomes below $500 a year had never been to school and 42 per cent had had six or less than six years of schooling. In the groups of heads of family with annual incomes ranging from $500 to $749, 33 per cent had never been to school and 59 per cent had had six or less than six years of schooling. On the other hand income increased as the years of schooling of the head of family increased. In the group where families had an income ranging from $2,000 to $4,999, only 13 per cent of the heads of family had had no schooling. In those between $5,000 and $7,499, only 2 per cent had had no schooling. In cases of income of $10,000 and over, all the heads of family had had at least six or more years of schooling and a high percentage, 57 per cent, had had 12 or more years of schooling. In summary, statistics reveal that with each year of schooling EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 7 to spend money on arms and luxuries for a military group than to spend it on education. The close relationship between illiteracy and living standards has been known for years. Dr. L. R. Wilson, with abundant data, ... showed that States which had a high rate of illiteracy among their adult population also tended to have an unfavorable showing with respect to the following indices of cultural and living stand- ards; per capita income, per cent of population filing income tax returns, mean annual manufacturing wage, savings deposits per capita, life insurance per capita, mean value per farm or farm prod- ucts, farms operated by tenants, and retail sales per capita. This same relationship was found with respect to cost of government per capita, postal receipts per capita, per capita receipts of places of amusements, per capita tax paying ability of the States, and physicians, dentists and nurses per 10,000 population; thus estab- lishing a clear relationship between educational level and living standards.' On the other hand we have found that when adults' level of literacy rises, children's absences from school are lowered; when literacy increases, income increases, and with it school attendance for a longer period of time also increases. With an increase in literacy and income, fewer children would be born but more of them would survive. On the basis of a study made by the Department of Labor of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in the year 1953 it was found that 54 per cent of the heads of family with incomes below $500 a year had never been to school and 42 per cent had had six or less than six years of schooling. In the groups of heads of family with annual incomes ranging from $500 to $749, 33 per cent had never been to school and 59 per cent had had six or less than six years of schooling. On the other hand income increased as the years of schooling of the head of family increased. In the group where families had an income ranging from $2,000 to $4,999, only 13 per cent of the heads of family had had no schooling. In those between $5,000 and $7,499, only 2 per cent had had no schooling. In cases of income of $10,000 and over, all the heads of family had had at least six or more years of schooling and a high percentage, 57 per cent, had had 12 or more years of schooling. In summary, statistics reveal that with each year of schooling  8 The Caribbean an individual seems to secure a higher income, to enjoy better health, and to become a better citizen, with more opportunities to enjoy a life enriched with cultural and spiritual satisfactions. Another truism worth mentioning is that under the above-de- scribed condition other educational and cultural opportunities are denied the illiterates; they have fewer books, they cannot profit from newspapers and magazines; they are deprived of radio and televi- sion (although, in some cases, this may well be an advantage); civic participation in clubs and societies is inaccessible to them; travel and vicarious experiences are not within their reach. Think of these facts in the light of the startling figures hurled at us by international organizations stating that two-thirds of hu- manity does not know how to read and write and that in Central and South America alone there are more than 40 million illiterate adults. It is also estimated that there are close to 700 million illiterate adults in the world.' The countries that need most help don't have the trained teachers, the physical facilities, the equip- ment, the materials, and the finances to deal with the problem. Here is a challenge to leaders the world over. In our Caribbean area there is much to be done, and education must be our most powerful weapon to be used in wiping out the scourge of illiteracy, unstable governments, and disgraceful dictatorships. II Now let us turn to developments in Puerto Rico - and believe me there is no boastfulness in what I am about to say. This is an honest effort to present a picture of a people who have tried to lift themselves by the bootstraps aided by education and by a leader- ship that believes in human progress and in spending close to 30 per cent of its functional budget on education. It is one of the most effective arguments one can use to neutralize some propaganda against the United States. It is also undeniable proof of the cooperation and understanding we have had from the government of the United States and its people, our fellow citizens. As such, it should be in record. When the United States govern- ment supplanted the Spanish government in Puerto Rico in 1898 we had close to 80 per cent illiteracy. By 1940 we had reduced illiteracy to 31.5 per cent. The effort represented a reduction of 11 per cent every decade. By 1950 we were short in our stride. 8 The Caribbean an individual seems to secure a higher income, to enjoy better health, and to become a better citizen, with more opportunities to enjoy a life enriched with cultural and spiritual satisfactions. Another truism worth mentioning is that under the above-de- scribed condition other educational and cultural opportunities are denied the illiterates; they have fewer books, they cannot profit from newspapers and magazines; they are deprived of radio and televi- sion (although, in some cases, this may well be an advantage); civic participation in clubs and societies is inaccessible to them; travel and vicarious experiences are not within their reach. Think of these facts in the light of the startling figures hurled at us by international organizations stating that two-thirds of hu- manity does not know how to read and write and that in Central and South America alone there are more than 40 million illiterate adults. It is also estimated that there are close to 700 million illiterate adults in the world.5 The countries that need most help don't have the trained teachers, the physical facilities, the equip- ment, the materials, and the finances to deal with the problem. Here is a challenge to leaders the world over. In our Caribbean area there is much to be done, and education must be our most powerful weapon to be used in wiping out the scourge of illiteracy, unstable governments, and disgraceful dictatorships. II Now let us turn to developments in Puerto Rico - and believe me there is no boastfulness in what I am about to say. This is an honest effort to present a picture of a people who have tried to lift themselves by the bootstraps aided by education and by a leader- ship that believes in human progress and in spending close to 30 per cent of its functional budget on education. It is one of the most effective arguments one can use to neutralize some propaganda against the United States. It is also undeniable proof of the cooperation and understanding we have had from the government of the United States and its people, our fellow citizens. As such, it should be in record. When the United States govern- ment supplanted the Spanish government in Puerto Rico in 1898 we had close to 80 per cent illiteracy. By 1940 we had reduced illiteracy to 31.5 per cent. The effort represented a reduction of 11 per cent every decade. By 1950 we were short in our stride. 8 The Caribbean an individual seems to secure a higher income, to enjoy better health, and to become a better citizen, with more opportunities to enjoy a life enriched with cultural and spiritual satisfactions. Another truism worth mentioning is that under the above-de- scribed condition other educational and cultural opportunities are denied the illiterates; they have fewer books, they cannot profit from newspapers and magazines; they are deprived of radio and televi- sion (although, in some cases, this may well be an advantage); civic participation in clubs and societies is inaccessible to them; travel and vicarious experiences are not within their reach. Think of these facts in the light of the startling figures hurled at us by international organizations stating that two-thirds of hu- manity does not know how to read and write and that in Central and South America alone there are more than 40 million illiterate adults. It is also estimated that there are close to 700 million illiterate adults in the world. The countries that need most help don't have the trained teachers, the physical facilities, the equip- ment, the materials, and the finances to deal with the problem. Here is a challenge to leaders the world over. In our Caribbean area there is much to be done, and education must be our most powerful weapon to be used in wiping out the scourge of illiteracy, unstable governments, and disgraceful dictatorships. II Now let us turn to developments in Puerto Rico - and believe me there is no boastfulness in what I am about to say. This is an honest effort to present a picture of a people who have tried to lift themselves by the bootstraps aided by education and by a leader- ship that believes in human progress and in spending close to 30 per cent of its functional budget on education. It is one of the most effective arguments one can use to neutralize some propaganda against the United States. It is also undeniable proof of the cooperation and understanding we have had from the government of the United States and its people, our fellow citizens. As such, it should be in record. When the United States govern- ment supplanted the Spanish government in Puerto Rico in 1898 we had close to 80 per cent illiteracy. By 1940 we had reduced illiteracy to 31.5 per cent. The effort represented a reduction of 11 per cent every decade. By 1950 we were short in our stride.  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 9 In that decade we reduced illiteracy only by 6.8 per cent. It is harder to reduce illiteracy when you have already moved far into literacy. This happened when we needed more and better trained people for our industrial development, for the beginning of mechan- ized agriculture, for expanding commercial activities, and for equip- ping our potential migrants to the States more effectively. A new literacy program was started in 1953. It was a crash pro- gram -no trimmings or embellishments. We had to teach reading and writing, health, arithmetic, and other such valuable things to at least 25,000 persons every year. We aimed at reducing illiteracy to 10 per cent by 1960. This goal was later revised due to lack of trained teachers, student mortality, working conditions, and other ills that so commonly affect adult programs. But by the end of the past school year, after analyzing the figures reported by the super- intendents of schools our illiteracy rate had been reduced to 13.4 per cent. In the meantime, in the school year 1957-58 we had in our schools 95.7 per cent of the children of elementary school age (6-12), 84.5 per cent of the children of intermediate school age (13-15), and 45.9 per cent of children of high school age (16-18). Some experiences we have had with the literacy program in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico are worth recording. 1. We proved, in our case, through years of experimentation, that with an average teacher adequately trained in the methodology and psychology of adult learning, and a modest supply of teaching materials, a normal adult may learn the rudiments of reading and writing in 60 two-hour classes. If an adult is left with only this much knowledge the effort is practically wasted. The adult will go back to illiteracy in a short time due to lack of use and practice of their learning. In 180 two-hour classes we have been able to give adults the equivalent of a third-grade education, thus turning adults into independent readers. 2. In order to expose adults to 60 two-hour classes plans have to be made for at least 75 to 80 classes. Absences, family problems, shifts in hours of work, climatic factors, among others prevent adults from attending classes regularly. You may have in a given group people who, out of 60 two-hour classes have attended only 30, 35, 40, 50, but no more. The second-level teacher should know these shortcomings and start adults where they are in their mastery of the mechanics and abilities in reading and writing. 3. The more progress you make in a literacy program the more costly it turns out to be. In the first stages you are likely to have EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 9 In that decade we reduced illiteracy only by 6.8 per cent. It is harder to reduce illiteracy when you have already moved far into literacy. This happened when we needed more and better trained people for our industrial development, for the beginning of mechan- ized agriculture, for expanding commercial activities, and for equip- ping our potential migrants to the States more effectively. A new literacy program was started in 1953. It was a crash pro- gram - no trimmings or embellishments. We had to teach reading and writing, health, arithmetic, and other such valuable things to at least 25,000 persons every year. We aimed at reducing illiteracy to 10 per cent by 1960. This goal was later revised due to lack of trained teachers, student mortality, working conditions, and other ills that so commonly affect adult programs. But by the end of the past school year, after analyzing the figures reported by the super- intendents of schools our illiteracy rate had been reduced to 13.4 per cent. In the meantime, in the school year 1957-58 we had in our schools 95.7 per cent of the children of elementary school age (6-12), 84.5 per cent of the children of intermediate school age (13-15), and 45.9 per cent of children of high school age (16-18). Some experiences we have had with the literacy program in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico are worth recording. 1. We proved, in our case, through years of experimentation, that with an average teacher adequately trained in the methodology and psychology of adult learning, and a modest supply of teaching materials, a normal adult may learn the rudiments of reading and writing in 60 two-hour classes. If an adult is left with only this much knowledge the effort is practically wasted. The adult will go back to illiteracy in a short time due to lack of use and practice of their learning. In 180 two-hour classes we have been able to give adults the equivalent of a third-grade education, thus turning adults into independent readers. 2. In order to expose adults to 60 two-hour classes plans have to be made for at least 75 to 80 classes. Absences, family problems, shifts in hours of work, climatic factors, among others prevent adults from attending classes regularly. You may have in a given group people who, out of 60 two-hour classes have attended only 30, 35, 40, 50, but no more. The second-level teacher should know these shortcomings and start adults where they are in their mastery of the mechanics and abilities in reading and writing. 3. The more progress you make in a literacy program the more costly it turns out to be. In the first stages you are likely to have EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 9 In that decade we reduced illiteracy only by 6.8 per cent. It is harder to reduce illiteracy when you have already moved far into literacy. This happened when we needed more and better trained people for our industrial development, for the beginning of mechan- ized agriculture, for expanding commercial activities, and for equip- ping our potential migrants to the States more effectively. A new literacy program was started in 1953. It was a crash pro- gram - no trimmings or embellishments. We had to teach reading and writing, health, arithmetic, and other such valuable things to at least 25,000 persons every year. We aimed at reducing illiteracy to 10 per cent by 1960. This goal was later revised due to lack of trained teachers, student mortality, working conditions, and other ills that so commonly affect adult programs. But by the end of the past school year, after analyzing the figures reported by the super- intendents of schools our illiteracy rate had been reduced to 13.4 per cent. In the meantime, in the school year 1957-58 we had in our schools 95.7 per cent of the children of elementary school age (6-12), 84.5 per cent of the children of intermediate school age (13-15), and 45.9 per cent of children of high school age (16-18). Some experiences we have had with the literacy program in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico are worth recording. 1. We proved, in our case, through years of experimentation, that with an average teacher adequately trained in the methodology and psychology of adult learning, and a modest supply of teaching materials, a normal adult may learn the rudiments of reading and writing in 60 two-hour classes. If an adult is left with only this much knowledge the effort is practically wasted. The adult will go back to illiteracy in a short time due to lack of use and practice of their learning. In 180 two-hour classes we have been able to give adults the equivalent of a third-grade education, thus turning adults into independent readers. 2. In order to expose adults to 60 two-hour classes plans have to be made for at least 75 to 80 classes. Absences, family problems, shifts in hours of work, climatic factors, among others prevent adults from attending classes regularly. You may have in a given group people who, out of 60 two-hour classes have attended only 30, 35, 40, 50, but no more. The second-level teacher should know these shortcomings and start adults where they are in their mastery of the mechanics and abilities in reading and writing. 3. The more progress you make in a literacy program the more costly it turns out to be. In the first stages you are likely to have  10 The Caribbean higher enrollments. In later stages illiterates are in pockets, fewer per class, resulting in an increase of cost per student. 4. Adults who attend literacy classes during late afternoon or evening hours bring with them a good number of their children that cannot be left at home alone. At times, in a room for 20 or 25 adults, you may find eight, ten, or twelve children. If the chil- dren know how to read and write they may be turned into an asset by doing certain tutorial work; otherwise, they constitute a discipline problem. We tried several ways of dealing with the problem. We provided reading materials for these children or asked them to bring home- work to be done while in school with their parents. We recom- mended that whenever there was a nucleus of four or more teachers in the same building, assistant teachers be appointed to take care of the children that accompanied their parents. In this manner, the problem was to be turned into a profitable learning situation for the children. Stories, games, poems, movies, and other forms of entertainment were to be used with these children who were to gather in an adjoining room. When we succeeded in ob- taining the services of assistant teachers, the problem of the chil- dren had taken care of itself and these teachers were used as recreational leaders for the adult program. 5. For every group of adults we provided at least one recreational period (two hours) every month. Although teachers were paid for this time, the adults planned their own recreational activities. More than one such recreational periods, on their own time, could be planned if it were so decided by the group. The illiterates usually are the people that cannot pay for recreation and are most in need of this type of activities. 6. To decrease the cost of educating scattered adults, a plan of itinerant teachers was established. A teacher met with small groups in different areas where only four, five, or six adults were found. The group met in any home or in any adequate place selected by the adults. This has been specially helpful in giving women who cannot leave the home during the evening an opportunity to learn at any convenient free hour during the day. 7. One important feature of our literacy program was that adults selected the hour and days of the week best suited for their meet- ings. The teachers adjusted their programs to the interests and needs of the adults. 8. No adult education program can be assured of success unless it has adequate supervision, in-service training of teachers, and abundant material to work with. Day teachers who work an eve- ning shift with illiterate adults have practically no time to prepare 10 The Caribbean 10 The Caribbean higher enrollments. In later stages illiterates are in pockets, fewer per class, resulting in an increase of cost per student. 4. Adults who attend literacy classes during late afternoon or evening hours bring with them a good number of their children that cannot be left at home alone. At times, in a room for 20 or 25 adults, you may find eight, ten, or twelve children. If the chil- dren know how to read and write they may be turned into an asset by doing certain tutorial work; otherwise, they constitute a discipline problem. We tried several ways of dealing with the problem. We provided reading materials for these children or asked them to bring home- work to be done while in school with their parents. We recom- mended that whenever there was a nucleus of four or more teachers in the same building, assistant teachers be appointed to take care of the children that accompanied their parents. In this manner, the problem was to be turned into a profitable learning situation for the children. Stories, games, poems, movies, and other forms of entertainment were to be used with these children who were to gather in an adjoining room. When we succeeded in ob- taining the services of assistant teachers, the problem of the chil- dren had taken care of itself and these teachers were used as recreational leaders for the adult program. 5. For every group of adults we provided at least one recreational period (two hours) every month. Although teachers were paid for this time, the adults planned their own recreational activities. More than one such recreational periods, on their own time, could be planned if it were so decided by the group. The illiterates usually are the people that cannot pay for recreation and are most in need of this type of activities. 6. To decrease the cost of educating scattered adults, a plan of itinerant teachers was established. A teacher met with small groups in different areas where only four, five, or six adults were found. The group met in any home or in any adequate place selected by the adults. This has been specially helpful in giving women who cannot leave the home during the evening an opportunity to learn at any convenient free hour during the day. 7. One important feature of our literacy program was that adults selected the hour and days of the week best suited for their meet- ings. The teachers adjusted their programs to the interests and needs of the adults. 8. No adult education program can be assured of success unless it has adequate supervision, in-service training of teachers, and abundant material to work with. Day teachers who work an eve- ning shift with illiterate adults have practically no time to prepare higher enrollments. In later stages illiterates are in pockets, fewer per class, resulting in an increase of cost per student. 4. Adults who attend literacy classes during late afternoon or evening hours bring with them a good number of their children that cannot be left at home alone. At times, in a room for 20 or 25 adults, you may find eight, ten, or twelve children. If the chil- dren know how to read and write they may be turned into an asset by doing certain tutorial work; otherwise, they constitute a discipline problem. We tried several ways of dealing with the problem. We provided reading materials for these children or asked them to bring home- work to be done while in school with their parents. We recom- mended that whenever there was a nucleus of four or more teachers in the same building, assistant teachers be appointed to take care of the children that accompanied their parents. In this manner, the problem was to be turned into a profitable learning situation for the children. Stories, games, poems, movies, and other forms of entertainment were to be used with these children who were to gather in an adjoining room. When we succeeded in ob- taining the services of assistant teachers, the problem of the chil- dren had taken care of itself and these teachers were used as recreational leaders for the adult program. 5. For every group of adults we provided at least one recreational period (two hours) every month. Although teachers were paid for this time, the adults planned their own recreational activities. More than one such recreational periods, on their own time, could be planned if it were so decided by the group. The illiterates usually are the people that cannot pay for recreation and are most in need of this type of activities. 6. To decrease the cost of educating scattered adults, a plan of itinerant teachers was established. A teacher met with small groups in different areas where only four, five, or six adults were found. The group met in any home or in any adequate place selected by the adults. This has been specially helpful in giving women who cannot leave the home during the evening an opportunity to learn at any convenient free hour during the day. 7. One important feature of our literacy program was that adults selected the hour and days of the week best suited for their meet- ings. The teachers adjusted their programs to the interests and needs of the adults. 8. No adult education program can be assured of success unless it has adequate supervision, in-service training of teachers, and abundant material to work with. Day teachers who work an eve- ning shift with illiterate adults have practically no time to prepare  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 11 materials. They need to be supplied with materials that can be used wisely, easily, and economically. 9. Any literacy program needs constant evaluation and reorienta- tion as the composition of each group varies, and as the needs of the adult change - socially, economically, politically - in a rapidly expanding community. 10. A literacy program needs promotion. Illiterate adults are reluctant to enroll. They are discouraged easily. In its initial stages we were confronted with school children shouting and making fun of adults who came to school. In rural areas, particularly, a lighted school constituted immediately a meeting place for young people and provided a center for entertainment. This practice led to constant interruption of classes and subsequently to discourage- ment of students. We had to resort to organizations such as Boy Scouts, Police Athletic Leagues, and 4-H Clubs to help keep order in the surroundings of schoolrooms where illiterate adults met. In most places the same youth, through Club action, helped solve the problem of discipline. 11. We found that up to 1952-53 most adult programs and espe- cially those for illiterates were developed in the urban zone. Teach- ers did not accept work in rural areas during the evening. The compensation was the same for urban and rural teachers. Rural teachers spent anywhere from one-fourth to three-fourths of their extra pay traveling to the rural centers. At night, transportation was scarce and costly. We devised three different salary scales. The three salary scales took care of urban, semirural and rural teachers. The salaries of those teachers who had to travel farther were adjusted to take care of more expensive transportation costs. The teachers of the semirral zone received a little less, but suf- ficent extra compensation to cover their expenses in transportation; and the urban zone teachers received no compensation in addition to their basic extra salaries. In this way, after paying extra costs, the three groups of teachers came out with more or less the same basic compensation for their services. As a result of this simple measure, the program has expanded in the rural areas, where it is most needed, from a few scattered schools to a ratio of two-thirds rural schools to one-third urban. 12. Limited experimentation was allowed in the organization of different modalities which could be used in other areas. 13. Steps were taken to coordinate cooperation from different agencies which deal with adult education, among others, Agricul- tural Extension Service, Cooperative Movement, Social Program of the Department of Agriculture, Community Education, Educational Program of the Departments of Labor and Health. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 11 materials. They need to be supplied with materials that can be used wisely, easily, and economically. 9. Any literacy program needs constant evaluation and reorienta- tion as the composition of each group varies, and as the needs of the adult change - socially, economically, politically - in a rapidly expanding community. 10. A literacy program needs promotion. Illiterate adults are reluctant to enroll. They are discouraged easily. In its initial stages we were confronted with school children shouting and making fun of adults who came to school. In rural areas, particularly, a lighted school constituted immediately a meeting place for young people and provided a center for entertainment. This practice led to constant interruption of classes and subsequently to discourage- ment of students. We had to resort to organizations such as Boy Scouts, Police Athletic Leagues, and 4-H Clubs to help keep order in the surroundings of schoolrooms where illiterate adults met. In most places the same youth, through Club action, helped solve the problem of discipline. 11. We found that up to 1952-53 most adult programs and espe- cially those for illiterates were developed in the urban zone. Teach- ers did not accept work in rural areas during the evening. The compensation was the same for urban and rural teachers. Rural teachers spent anywhere from one-fourth to three-fourths of their extra pay traveling to the rural centers. At night, transportation was scarce and costly. We devised three different salary scales. The three salary scales took care of urban, semirural and rural teachers. The salaries of those teachers who had to travel farther were adjusted to take care of more expensive transportation costs. The teachers of the semirural zone received a little less, but suf- ficent extra compensation to cover their expenses in transportation; and the urban zone teachers received no compensation in addition to their basic extra salaries. In this way, after paying extra costs, the three groups of teachers came out with more or less the same basic compensation for their services. As a result of this simple measure, the program has expanded in the rural areas, where it is most needed, from a few scattered schools to a ratio of two-thirds rural schools to one-third urban. 12. Limited experimentation was allowed in the organization of different modalities which could be used in other areas. 13. Steps were taken to coordinate cooperation from different agencies which deal with adult education, among others, Agricul- tural Extension Service, Cooperative Movement, Social Program of the Department of Agriculture, Community Education, Educational Program of the Departments of Labor and Health. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 11 materials. They need to be supplied with materials that can be used wisely, easily, and economically. 9. Any literacy program needs constant evaluation and reorienta- tion as the composition of each group varies, and as the needs of the adult change - socially, economically, politically - in a rapidly expanding community. 10. A literacy program needs promotion. Illiterate adults are reluctant to enroll. They are discouraged easily. In its initial stages we were confronted with school children shouting and making fun of adults who came to school. In rural areas, particularly, a lighted school constituted immediately a meeting place for young people and provided a center for entertainment. This practice led to constant interruption of classes and subsequently to discourage- ment of students. We had to resort to organizations such as Boy Scouts, Police Athletic Leagues, and 4-H Clubs to help keep order in the surroundings of schoolrooms where illiterate adults met. In most places the same youth, through Club action, helped solve the problem of discipline. 11. We found that up to 1952-53 most adult programs and espe- cially those for illiterates were developed in the urban zone. Teach- ers did not accept work in rural areas during the evening. The compensation was the same for urban and rural teachers. Rural teachers spent anywhere from one-fourth to three-fourths of their extra pay traveling to the rural centers. At night, transportation was scarce and costly. We devised three different salary scales. The three salary scales took care of urban, semirural and rural teachers. The salaries of those teachers who had to travel farther were adjusted to take care of more expensive transportation costs. The teachers of the semirural zone received a little less, but suf- ficent extra compensation to cover their expenses in transportation; and the urban zone teachers received no compensation in addition to their basic extra salaries. In this way, after paying extra costs, the three groups of teachers came out with more or less the same basic compensation for their services. As a result of this simple measure, the program has expanded in the rural areas, where it is most needed, from a few scattered schools to a ratio of two-thirds rural schools to one-third urban. 12. Limited experimentation was allowed in the organization of different modalities which could be used in other areas. 13. Steps were taken to coordinate cooperation from different agencies which deal with adult education, among others, Agricul- tural Extension Service, Cooperative Movement, Social Program of the Department of Agriculture, Community Education, Educational Program of the Departments of Labor and Health.  12 The Caribbean 14. Provisions have to be made to offer opportunities for formal education beyond the fourth grade for those who so desire. Extra school programs of book distribution, newspaper distribu- tion, establishment of public libraries, bookmobiles, seminars, fo- rums, and other programs need to be organized for those adults who do not want any more formal schooling. 15. Free studies, or extramural or extension courses, should be established with credits for those interested in further instruction. These have been some of the valuable experiences we have lived through in our Program of Illiteracy. The constant, objective test of progress, the re-evaluation of methods, techniques, and pro- cedures, the evaluation of the constructive educational experience on adults are what constitutes the difference between a Campaign - for propaganda purposes - and a Program to help people grow. The spirit with which we deal with our educational programs, so that children are not deprived of opportunities that may find them later in life as adult illiterates, is shown in this message of Governor Munoz Marin to the Legislature of Puerto Rico: We have earnestly endeavored to see that talented and ambitious youth desirous to serve their families and their people be given the opportunity to develop their abilities to the utmost. We have gone so far in our efforts that at present very few of them are deprived of opportunities for advancement due to economic im- pediments. I wish to recommend that pertinent provisions be made so that the appropriations for scholarships in the different education levels be enough to meet the needs of all cases. It is a matter of justice to the individual and of benefit for our country. I contemplate the enactment of laws which would empower the Treasurer of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico to draw the amount of money needed for such purposes from the funds not allotted for other purposes or, if necessary, from emergency funds, in case the annual appropriations for scholarships are all used up and there are still cases of qualified students pending.8 There can be no greater emergency than that of providing education for those whom nature has endowed with power of mind and spirit? This is what a poor country has been able to do through educa- tion and enlightened leadership. We have less natural resources than most of the countries of the Caribbean area; but we do not have to spend money on arms, we spend it on education. 12 The Caribbean 14. Provisions have to be made to offer opportunities for formal education beyond the fourth grade for those who so desire. Extra school programs of book distribution, newspaper distribu- tion, establishment of public libraries, bookmobiles, seminars, fo- rums, and other programs need to be organized for those adults who do not want any more formal schooling. 15. Free studies, or extramural or extension courses, should be established with credits for those interested in further instruction. These have been some of the valuable experiences we have lived through in our Program of Illiteracy. The constant, objective test of progress, the re-evaluation of methods, techniques, and pro- cedures, the evaluation of the constructive educational experience on adults are what constitutes the difference between a Campaign - for propaganda purposes - and a Program to help people grow. The spirit with which we deal with our educational programs, so that children are not deprived of opportunities that may find them later in life as adult illiterates, is shown in this message of Governor Munoz Marin to the Legislature of Puerto Rico: We have earnestly endeavored to see that talented and ambitious youth desirous to serve their families and their people be given the opportunity to develop their abilities to the utmost. We have gone so far in our efforts that at present very few of them are deprived of opportunities for advancement due to economic im- pediments. I wish to recommend that pertinent provisions be made so that the appropriations for scholarships in the different education levels be enough to meet the needs of all cases. It is a matter of justice to the individual and of benefit for our country. I contemplate the enactment of laws which would empower the Treasurer of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico to draw the amount of money needed for such purposes from the funds not allotted for other purposes or, if necessary, from emergency funds, in case the annual appropriations for scholarships are all used up and there are still cases of qualified students pending." There can be no greater emergency than that of providing education for those whom nature has endowed with power of mind and spiritY This is what a poor country has been able to do through educa- tion and enlightened leadership. We have less natural resources than most of the countries of the Caribbean area; but we do not have to spend money on arms, we spend it on education. 12 The Caribbean 14. Provisions have to be made to offer opportunities for formal education beyond the fourth grade for those who so desire. Extra school programs of book distribution, newspaper distribu- tion, establishment of public libraries, bookmobiles, seminars, fo- rums, and other programs need to be organized for those adults who do not want any more formal schooling. 15. Free studies, or extramural or extension courses, should be established with credits for those interested in further instruction. These have been some of the valuable experiences we have lived through in our Program of Illiteracy. The constant, objective test of progress, the re-evaluation of methods, techniques, and pro- cedures, the evaluation of the constructive educational experience on adults are what constitutes the difference between a Campaign - for propaganda purposes - and a Program to help people grow. The spirit with which we deal with our educational programs, so that children are not deprived of opportunities that may find them later in life as adult illiterates, is shown in this message of Governor Munoz Marie to the Legislature of Puerto Rico: We have earnestly endeavored to see that talented and ambitious youth desirous to serve their families and their people be given the opportunity to develop their abilities to the utmost. We have gone so far in our efforts that at present very few of them are deprived of opportunities for advancement due to economic im- pediments. I wish to recommend that pertinent provisions be made so that the appropriations for scholarships in the different education levels be enough to meet the needs of all cases. It is a matter of justice to the individual and of benefit for our country. I contemplate the enactment of laws which would empower the Treasurer of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico to draw the amount of money needed for such purposes from the funds not allotted for other purposes or, if necessary, from emergency funds, in case the annual appropriations for scholarships are all used up and there are still cases of qualified students pending.8 There can be no greater emergency than that of providing education for those whom nature has endowed with power of mind and spirit. This is what a poor country has been able to do through educa- tion and enlightened leadership. We have less natural resources than most of the countries of the Caribbean area; but we do not have to spend money on arms, we spend it on education.  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS III 13 EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS III 13 EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS III 13 For the relevance that it has for activities like this conference, may I summarize some of the salient points of experiences acquired by me through direct work with literacy campaigns in various countries of this part of the world and in my direct contact with educators of some Asiatic countries. These I have stated before in other places. I think that as more and more Point IV students are being brought to the States and to Puerto Rico, these things need repetition among those who in some measure may help shape policies of educational agencies of the United States abroad. 1. Literacy campaigns, originally launched to gratify the vanity of, and serve as good propaganda for those in power, should be re-evaluated. Well-trained people, responsible public servants, should see to it that advertising costs do not claim the lion's share of funds available for stimulating and carrying through educational programmes. The important contribution is not the declaration of people as literate as soon as they can read - say 40 words - but that these people, through their own efforts and with the help of educators, are brought to a higher standard of living - spiritually, socially, economically, and culturally. 2. International organizations backing literacy campaigns and programmes should devote more time, money, and effort and less publicity, to the development of true pilot projects, with more emphasis on the development of techniques, methods, materials, and inexpensive equipment. Let us not abuse fundamental educa- tion and make it a cover-all term under which inefficiency and "professional experimentation" can be cloaked. 3. In pilot projects, care should be taken not to overdo the use of such expressions as "environmental variations," "special circum- stances," "differences in customs and traditions," "peculiarities of the region," "nativism," "individual differences," and "regional idiosyn- crasies," to cover up the lack of long-range planning and lack of administrative and technical ability. Those of us who have trav- eled around have seen much day-by-day improvising. Education of any sort is, and must be, a slow, painstaking enterprise. It requires plans that are well thought-out, aims that are well established, procedures that have been well tested. Trial and error or improvi- sation should not be confused with careful experimentation. The trial and error method is defensible when no other way of learning is in sight. But it is expensive, discouraging, and useless when other sounder and tested principles of learning are well known and available. For the relevance that it has for activities like this conference, may I summarize some of the salient points of experiences acquired by me through direct work with literacy campaigns in various countries of this part of the world and in my direct contact with educators of some Asiatic countries. These I have stated before in other places. I think that as more and more Point IV students are being brought to the States and to Puerto Rico, these things need repetition among those who in some measure may help shape policies of educational agencies of the United States abroad. 1. Literacy campaigns, originally launched to gratify the vanity of, and serve as good propaganda for those in power, should be re-evaluated. Well-trained people, responsible public servants, should see to it that advertising costs do not claim the lion's share of funds available for stimulating and carrying through educational programmes. The important contribution is not the declaration of people as literate as soon as they can read - say 40 words - but that these people, through their own efforts and with the help of educators, are brought to a higher standard of living - spiritually, socially, economically, and culturally. 2. International organizations backing literacy campaigns and programmes should devote more time, money, and effort and less publicity, to the development of true pilot projects, with more emphasis on the development of techniques, methods, materials, and inexpensive equipment. Let us not abuse fundamental educa- tion and make it a cover-all term under which inefficiency and "professional experimentation" can be cloaked. 8. In pilot projects, care should be taken not to overdo the use of such expressions as "environmental variations," "special circum- stances," "differences in customs and traditions," "peculiarities of the region," "nativism," "individual differences," and "regional idiosyn- crasies," to cover up the lack of long-range planning and lack of administrative and technical ability. Those of us who have trav- eled around have seen much day-by-day improvising. Education of any sort is, and must be, a slow, painstaking enterprise. It requires plans that are well thought-out, aims that are well established, procedures that have been well tested. Trial and error or improvi- sation should not be confused with careful experimentation. The trial and error method is defensible when no other way of learning is in sight. But it is expensive, discouraging, and useless when other sounder and tested principles of learning are well known and available. For the relevance that it has for activities like this conference, may I summarize some of the salient points of experiences acquired by me through direct work with literacy campaigns in various countries of this part of the world and in my direct contact with educators of some Asiatic countries. These I have stated before in other places. I think that as more and more Point IV students are being brought to the States and to Puerto Rico, these things need repetition among those who in some measure may help shape policies of educational agencies of the United States abroad. 1. Literacy campaigns, originally launched to gratify the vanity of, and serve as good propaganda for those in power, should be re-evaluated. Well-trained people, responsible public servants, should see to it that advertising costs do not claim the lion's share of funds available for stimulating and carrying through educational programmes. The important contribution is not the declaration of people as literate as soon as they can read - say 40 words - but that these people, through their own efforts and with the help of educators, are brought to a higher standard of living - spiritually, socially, economically, and culturally. 2. International organizations backing literacy campaigns and programmes should devote more time, money, and effort and less publicity, to the development of true pilot projects, with more emphasis on the development of techniques, methods, materials, and inexpensive equipment. Let us not abuse fundamental educa- tion and make it a cover-all term under which inefficiency and "professional experimentation" can be cloaked. 3. In pilot projects, care should be taken not to overdo the use of such expressions as "environmental variations," "special circum- stances," "differences in customs and traditions," "peculiarities of the region," "nativism," "individual differences," and "regional idiosyn- crasies," to cover up the lack of long-range planning and lack of administrative and technical ability. Those of us who have trav- eled around have seen much day-by-day improvising. Education of any sort is, and must be, a slow, painstaking enterprise. It requires plans that are well thought-out, aims that are well established, procedures that have been well tested. Trial and error or improvi- sation should not be confused with careful experimentation. The trial and error method is defensible when no other way of learning is in sight. But it is expensive, discouraging, and useless when other sounder and tested principles of learning are well known and available.  14 The Caribbean 4. Ways should be found to ensure that those who make use of international scholarships and fellowships, and are given opportuni- ties to attend seminars and congresses organized by international organizations are able to fulfill the moral obligations which such opportunities imply. Professors and students trained under any of these plans should be guaranteed participation in the development of projects at home. I have known cases of professionals trained abroad in special projects and in university courses who have later returned home only to find themselves working in fields outside their line of preparation - and, in too many cases, without any kind of work at all. Such a situation not only causes disillusionment, but brings about a waste of badly needed talent and human resources. 5. The candidates for scholarships should be selected strictly on their merits and not on the extent of their social or political influ- ence. They should follow those courses of study which enable them to derive the greatest benefit from their stay in the countries to which they are sent. There are many who seek scholarships who assume a tourist's attitude and enroll in as few courses as they pos- sibly can to insure themselves plenty of leisure time. The habitual scholarship and fellowship seekers should be discouraged. 6. International projects should not be permitted to turn into experiments for enthroning one school of thought in methods and techniques. Local positions should be dispensed on the basis of competence. Politics and patronage should be stamped out. Under- developed areas, particularly, need more honest professional work and less political patronage. 7. Local educators in underdeveloped areas should not be made to feel inferior because of being 'native.' Leaders in these areas should be given every opportunity to prove their worth and to develop initiative in different fields, including education. The natives who are to continue to wrestle with their own prob- lems should be trained and encouraged to acquire the necessary practical knowledge. Outside experts, technicians, and advisers should be used to help train and develop local talent to the maxi- mum. But outside experts, sooner or later, leave, and the problems are left to the people of the country. The sooner local leadership (open-minded and critical of all sorts of influences - but not chau- vinistic) comes into play, the better the chances of success in the struggle against ignorance, poverty, and disease. 8. On the other hand, care must be exercised to prevent local leaders of fundamental education from developing a defensive attitude towards the suggestions and ideas of foreign experts and educators simply because they come from foreigners. This attitude 14 The Caribbean 4. Ways should be found to ensure that those who make use of international scholarships and fellowships, and are given opportuni- ties to attend seminars and congresses organized by international organizations are able to fulfill the moral obligations which such opportunities imply. Professors and students trained under any of these plans should be guaranteed participation in the development of projects at home. I have known cases of professionals trained abroad in special projects and in university courses who have later returned home only to find themselves working in fields outside their line of preparation - and, in too many cases, without any kind of work at all. Such a situation not only causes disillusionment, but brings about a waste of badly needed talent and human resources. 5. The candidates for scholarships should be selected strictly on their merits and not on the extent of their social or political influ- ence. They should follow those courses of study which enable them to derive the greatest benefit from their stay in the countries to which they are sent. There are many who seek scholarships who assume a tourist's attitude and enroll in as few courses as they pos- sibly can to insure themselves plenty of leisure time. The habitual scholarship and fellowship seekers should be discouraged. 6. International projects should not be permitted to turn into experiments for enthroning one school of thought in methods and techniques. Local positions should be dispensed on the basis of competence. Politics and patronage should be stamped out. Under- developed areas, particularly, need more honest professional work and less political patronage. 7. Local educators in underdeveloped areas should not be made to feel inferior because of being 'native.' Leaders in these areas should be given every opportunity to prove their worth and to develop initiative in different fields, including education. The natives who are to continue to wrestle with their own prob- lems should be trained and encouraged to acquire the necessary practical knowledge. Outside experts, technicians, and advisers should be used to help train and develop local talent to the maxi- mum. But outside experts, sooner or later, leave, and the problems are left to the people of the country. The sooner local leadership (open-minded and critical of all sorts of influences - but not chau- vinistic) comes into play, the better the chances of success in the struggle against ignorance, poverty, and disease. 8. On the other hand, care must be exercised to prevent local leaders of fundamental education from developing a defensive attitude towards the suggestions and ideas of foreign experts and educators simply because they come from foreigners. This attitude 14 The Caribbean 4. Ways should be found to ensure that those who make use of international scholarships and fellowships, and are given opportuni- ties to attend seminars and congresses organized by international organizations are able to fulfill the moral obligations which such opportunities imply. Professors and students trained under any of these plans should be guaranteed participation in the development of projects at home. I have known cases of professionals trained abroad in special projects and in university courses who have later returned home only to find themselves working in fields outside their line of preparation - and, in too many cases, without any kind of work at all. Such a situation not only causes disillusionment, but brings about a waste of badly needed talent and human resources. 5. The candidates for scholarships should be selected strictly on their merits and not on the extent of their social or political influ- ence. They should follow those courses of study which enable them to derive the greatest benefit from their stay in the countries to which they are sent. There are many who seek scholarships who assume a tourist's attitude and enroll in as few courses as they pos- sibly can to insure themselves plenty of leisure time. The habitual scholarship and fellowship seekers should be discouraged. 6. International projects should not be permitted to turn into experiments for enthroning one school of thought in methods and techniques. Local positions should be dispensed on the basis of competence. Politics and patronage should be stamped out. Under- developed areas, particularly, need more honest professional work and less political patronage. 7. Local educators in underdeveloped areas should not be made to feel inferior because of being 'native.' Leaders in these areas should be given every opportunity to prove their worth and to develop initiative in different fields, including education. The natives who are to continue to wrestle with their own prob- lems should be trained and encouraged to acquire the necessary practical knowledge. Outside experts, technicians, and advisers should be used to help train and develop local talent to the maxi- mum. But outside experts, sooner or later, leave, and the problems are left to the people of the country. The sooner local leadership (open-minded and critical of all sorts of influences - but not chau- vinistic) comes into play, the better the chances of success in the struggle against ignorance, poverty, and disease. 8. On the other hand, care must be exercised to prevent local leaders of fundamental education from developing a defensive attitude towards the suggestions and ideas of foreign experts and educators simply because they come from foreigners. This attitude  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 15 makes for in-breeding, which is as dangerous in education as in genetics. 9. There is a dangerous malady abroad among many leaders in fundamental education - a certain aversion for, and contempt of techniques and experimentation. There is the notion that funda- mental education fares better under empiricism, old devices, and horse-and-buggy procedures. I have even heard directors of pilot projects claim that, as underdeveloped countries are today more or less where the advanced ones were in the sixteenth century, their problems cannot be faced with twentieth-century knowledge, tech- niques, and procedures. Thus, according to them, we should be using sixteenth-century methods today. That is to say, to cure appendicitis, give the patient a concoction of herbs. This is the same line of thought of those who say that Indian children should not be given toys because they don't know how to play with them. How can we expect an illiterate to know how to read a book if he never before has had a chance to taste reading? This is an attitude with which we all have to contend. 10. Too many projects for fighting illiteracy and for putting fundamental education on wheels are too much concerned with the spectacular, with show-window psychology. Even when proj- ects are still in a stage at which they have nothing to show, packs of visitors throng in on the organizers. The planning suffers, and time needed for valuable activities has to be given over to taking care of the visitors. When failure comes, a lot of explaining has to be done. No matter what explanations are given, faith is gradually lost in the sponsoring organizations. The spectacular has its place in this world, I suppose, but I have never seen much room for it in education. In education what is desirable is that fewer things be attempted, in a gradual, thorough way, if positive changes in people's attitudes are sought. True education should account for changes in attitudes and the development of desires to improve life and life's ways. These objectives are not accomplished by govern- ment decrees giving something to people - be this something a building, a road, or a movie projector. They are not accomplished, either, by making a few films for propaganda about activities that are yet incipient. In short, the final test is the change accomplished in the lives of the peoples. 11. The initial enthusiasm in literacy work, in fundamental education projects and activities, should not misguide people. As a director of a literacy campaign once put it, 'people may learn a great deal in 40 days that they readily forget in 40 more days: People who have had poor habits of health, diet, living, and enter- tainment cannot be expected to change their life-long ways of doing EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 15 makes for in-breeding, which is as dangerous in education as in genetics. 9. There is a dangerous malady abroad among many leaders in fundamental education - a certain aversion for, and contempt of techniques and experimentation. There is the notion that funda- mental education fares better under empiricism, old devices, and horse-and-buggy procedures. I have even heard directors of pilot projects claim that, as underdeveloped countries are today more or less where the advanced ones were in the sixteenth century, their problems cannot be faced with twentieth-century knowledge, tech- niques, and procedures. Thus, according to them, we should be using sixteenth-century methods today. That is to say, to cure appendicitis, give the patient a concoction of herbs. This is the same line of thought of those who say that Indian children should not be given toys because they don't know how to play with them. How can we expect an illiterate to know how to read a book if he never before has had a chance to taste reading? This is an attitude with which we all have to contend. 10. Too many projects for fighting illiteracy and for putting fundamental education on wheels are too much concerned with the spectacular, with show-window psychology. Even when proj- ects are still in a stage at which they have nothing to show, packs of visitors throng in on the organizers. The planning suffers, and time needed for valuable activities has to be given over to taking care of the visitors. When failure comes, a lot of explaining has to be done. No matter what explanations are given, faith is gradually lost in the sponsoring organizations. The spectacular has its place in this world, I suppose, but I have never seen much room for it in education. In education what is desirable is that fewer things be attempted, in a gradual, thorough way, if positive changes in people's attitudes are sought. True education should account for changes in attitudes and the development of desires to improve life and life's ways. These objectives are not accomplished by govern- ment decrees giving something to people - be this something a building, a road, or a movie projector. They are not accomplished, either, by making a few films for propaganda about activities that are yet incipient. In short, the final test is the change accomplished in the lives of the peoples. 11. The initial enthusiasm in literacy work, in fundamental education projects and activities, should not misguide people. As a director of a literacy campaign once put it, 'people may learn a great deal in 40 days that they readily forget in 40 more days.' People who have had poor habits of health, diet, living, and enter- tainment cannot be expected to change their life-long ways of doing EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 15 makes for in-breeding, which is as dangerous in education as in genetics. 9. There is a dangerous malady abroad among many leaders in fundamental education - a certain aversion for, and contempt of techniques and experimentation. There is the notion that funda- mental education fares better under empiricism, old devices, and horse-and-buggy procedures. I have even heard directors of pilot projects claim that, as underdeveloped countries are today more or less where the advanced ones were in the sixteenth century, their problems cannot be faced with twentieth-century knowledge, tech- niques, and procedures. Thus, according to them, we should be using sixteenth-century methods today. That is to say, to cure appendicitis, give the patient a concoction of herbs. This is the same line of thought of those who say that Indian children should not be given toys because they don't know how to play with them. How can we expect an illiterate to know how to read a book if he never before has had a chance to taste reading? This is an attitude with which we all have to contend. 10. Too many projects for fighting illiteracy and for putting fundamental education on wheels are too much concerned with the spectacular, with show-window psychology. Even when proj- ects are still in a stage at which they have nothing to show, packs of visitors throng in on the organizers. The planning suffers, and time needed for valuable activities has to be given over to taking care of the visitors. When failure comes, a lot of explaining has to be done. No matter what explanations are given, faith is gradually lost in the sponsoring organizations. The spectacular has its place in this world, I suppose, but I have never seen much room for it in education. In education what is desirable is that fewer things be attempted, in a gradual, thorough way, if positive changes in people's attitudes are sought. True education should account for changes in attitudes and the development of desires to improve life and life's ways. These objectives are not accomplished by govern- ment decrees giving something to people - be this something a building, a road, or a movie projector. They are not accomplished, either, by making a few films for propaganda about activities that are yet incipient. In short, the final test is the change accomplished in the lives of the peoples. 11. The initial enthusiasm in literacy work, in fundamental education projects and activities, should not misguide people. As a director of a literacy campaign once put it, 'people may learn a great deal in 40 days that they readily forget in 40 more days: People who have had poor habits of health, diet, living, and enter- tainment cannot be expected to change their life-long ways of doing  16 The Caribbean things overnight, on the basis of the enthusiasm of well-wishers. Allowances should be made, of course, for the fallibility of all human endeavor. Flaws of the kind that I have spoken about are, logically, to be expected in projects of fundamental education, and in literacy campaigns, in which the human element is paramount. This is especially true in those areas called 'underdeveloped,' where many of the activities are conducted by personnel which is com- posed quite frequently of persons who are not technical experts. Moreover, when these activities are backed by international organi- zations, the idea seems to gain force that the financial backing is unlimited. And, consequently, more money is spent than correct practices can justify. But we should look at these shortcomings in their true proportions, and remember that experience is being accumulated from which we can derive model techniques and methods.o IV More cooperation among the countries of the Caribbean area, more efficient knowledge of the neighbors' experiences, a wider distribution of materials, techniques, and know-how which has proved successful in other places, a deliberate plan - as these annual Conferences have shown - of bringing people together to discuss mutual problems, exchange information, and getting face- to-face acquaintance with each other, will certainly bring results in understanding and human well-being which cannot be assessed in terms of economic costs but rather in the educational, cultural, and spiritual uplift of the peoples concerned. Constitutional documents with high-sounding words about free- dom and democracy and the promise of justice for all are void of meaning if people are not given a fair chance to shed the blinds of illiteracy. Illiterates are so devoid of opportunities that they lack at times understanding of the limitations imposed on them. Free- dom is easily denied them and economic and social justice may go begging. We have not learned the lesson that in the human convoy no ship can move faster than the slowest one. Freedom cannot acquire meaning unless enjoyed by human beings, and justice may be only a concept in the statute books unless people come to live by its precepts. If the Caribbean area keeps on being a sea of illiteracy, inevitably it will be wanting freedom and justice. Nations as well as people who have the means and the power to influence 16 The Caribbean 16 The Caribbean things overnight, on the basis of the enthusiasm of well-wishers. Allowances should be made, of course, for the fallibility of all human endeavor. Flaws of the kind that I have spoken about are, logically, to be expected in projects of fundamental education, and in literacy campaigns, in which the human element is paramount. This is especially true in those areas called 'underdeveloped,' where many of the activities are conducted by personnel which is com- posed quite frequently of persons who are not technical experts. Moreover, when these activities are backed by international organi- zations, the idea seems to gain force that the financial backing is unlimited. And, consequently, more money is spent than correct practices can justify. But we should look at these shortcomings in their true proportions, and remember that experience is being accumulated from which we can derive model techniques and methods.10 NV More cooperation among the countries of the Caribbean area, more efficient knowledge of the neighbors' experiences, a wider distribution of materials, techniques, and know-how which has proved successful in other places, a deliberate plan - as these annual Conferences have shown - of bringing people together to discuss mutual problems, exchange information, and getting face- to-face acquaintance with each other, will certainly bring results in understanding and human well-being which cannot be assessed in terms of economic costs but rather in the educational, cultural, and spiritual uplift of the peoples concerned. Constitutional documents with high-sounding words about free- dom and democracy and the promise of justice for all are void of meaning if people are not given a fair chance to shed the blinds of illiteracy. Illiterates are so devoid of opportunities that they lack at times understanding of the limitations imposed on them. Free- dom is easily denied them and economic and social justice may go begging. We have not learned the lesson that in the human convoy no ship can move faster than the slowest one. Freedom cannot acquire meaning unless enjoyed by human beings, and justice may be only a concept in the statute books unless people come to live by its precepts. If the Caribbean area keeps on being a sea of illiteracy, inevitably it will be wanting freedom and justice. Nations as well as people who have the means and the power to influence things overnight, on the basis of the enthusiasm of well-wishers. Allowances should be made, of course, for the fallibility of all human endeavor. Flaws of the kind that I have spoken about are, logically, to be expected in projects of fundamental education, and in literacy campaigns, in which the human element is paramount. This is especially true in those areas called 'underdeveloped,' where many of the activities are conducted by personnel which is com- posed quite frequently of persons who are not technical experts. Moreover, when these activities are backed by international organi- zations, the idea seems to gain force that the financial backing is unlimited. And, consequently, more money is spent than correct practices can justify. But we should look at these shortcomings in their true proportions, and remember that experience is being accumulated from which we can derive model techniques and methods.10 IV More cooperation among the countries of the Caribbean area, more efficient knowledge of the neighbors' experiences, a wider distribution of materials, techniques, and know-how which has proved successful in other places, a deliberate plan - as these annual Conferences have shown - of bringing people together to discuss mutual problems, exchange information, and getting face- to-face acquaintance with each other, will certainly bring results in understanding and human well-being which cannot be assessed in terms of economic costs but rather in the educational, cultural, and spiritual uplift of the peoples concerned. Constitutional documents with high-sounding words about free- dom and democracy and the promise of justice for all are void of meaning if people are not given a fair chance to shed the blinds of illiteracy. Illiterates are so devoid of opportunities that they lack at times understanding of the limitations imposed on them. Free- dom is easily denied them and economic and social justice may go begging. We have not learned the lesson that in the human convoy no ship can move faster than the slowest one. Freedom cannot acquire meaning unless enjoyed by human beings, and justice may be only a concept in the statute books unless people come to live by its precepts. If the Caribbean area keeps on being a sea of illiteracy, inevitably it will be wanting freedom and justice. Nations as well as people who have the means and the power to influence  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 17 the course of events will do well to help wipe this blight Seem one countries, so thet the peomise of Americe as o lend of freedom and justice moy come neaee to reaelisetion. The eounteies most effected by the negotive conseqoences of illiteracy shoold help themselves so thet othees may offer e helping bend. TABLE 1 PERCENTACE OF POPULATION ILLITERACY (Intent dote since 1930) Contry or Yearofcess(v) Criterion Percentae territory or ertmote (E) oftliteraeo Age lceel ofilliteracy Bermuda 1950(e) RW 14oandover 3 British Renderer 1946(c) RW 15 and ever 19 Bobamas 1943(v) RW 5 ood oer 24 Borbados 1946(c) RW 15 end over 9 Jaomaico 1943(e) RW 1 nd over 28 Leeward Islaeds 1946(.) OW 15 mnd over 17 Trisidad end Tobago 1946(e) RW 10 nd over 24 Windwaord Isleods 1946(e) R1W 15 end over 34 CostaoRiea 1950(c) R 15land over 22 Cube 1943(c) R5 15 and over 24 omrinican OReeublie 1935(c) RW0 7 and over 74 El Sotvador 1950(c) - 15 end ever 61 Cuetemalo 1950(c) oW 7Tand over 72 Haiti 1950(E) OW 10 end over 0 Htonducr 1950(.) - 10 and oner 65 Mesico 1940(c) OW 15 end over 54 Nicorogoa 1940(e) - 7oandnover 03 Pannomo 1950(c) RW 15 end over 30 Pereo ico 1950(c) - 10 end over 24 United Storer 1947(E) RW0 14 ond ever 3 Virgie Islans 1940(e) RW 15 end oncer 15 Argentina 1947(e) OW 14 and over 14 Bnovia 1943(E) - - S0 Brszil 1950(e) RW 15andever 51 British Cuiano 1946(e) RW 15 oand ever 24 Chile 1940(e) R 15 and ever 27 Colombia 1938(e) R 15 and ever 44 Ecuador 1950(e) - 10and over 44 Oaraguay 1950(.) oW 7 nover 30 Oveu 1940(e) R 1 anover 50 tUruguoy 1938(E) - - 15 Venezuela 1941(e) RW 15and over 58 Soueee: UNESCO, World Suerey of Educeo, 1)(1955), 14-15. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 17 the course of events will do well to help wipe tirs blight from our countries, so that the promise of Armerica es a lend of freedom end justice may come eacee to reelization. The countres most effected by the negetive consequences of illiteracy should help themselves so tbet others may offer a helping heed. TABLE 1 PEOCENTACE OP POPULATION ILLITERACY (Intent doer rice 1930) Contry mr Yeaof ceus ()( Criterion Pereentage territory oereomte (E) oftlltracsy Age level offiliteraco Bermuda 1950(e) OW 14 end ever 3 Britosh Hondeuras 1946(e) RW 15 end ever 19 Bahamans 1943(e) 050 5 end over 24 Barbados 1946(e) RW 15 end over 9 Jamica 1943(e) OW 15 end ever 28 Leeweard Idlandr 1946(e) RW 15 end ever 17 Trinidad end Tobego 1946(e) OW 10 end ever 54 Windrward Intends 1946(.) OW 15 and ever 34 CoaRica 1950(e) R 15 and over 22 Cohn 1943(e) R 15 end ever 24 ominican Repubbec 1935(e) OW 7 and ever 74 El Salvaor 1950(e) - 15 and ever 61 Guatemala 1950(e) RW 7 nd over 72 Hii 1950(E) OW 10 and over 90 Hlonduras 1950(e) - 0osndeover 65 Mexio 1940(.) RW 15 end over 54 Niearagua 1940(e) - 7sand ovee 03 Oamens 1950(e) OW 15 and over 30 PuetoRico 1950(e) - 10 nover 24 United Stoles 1947(E) OW 14 aed oncer 3 Virgin Ideands 1040(e) OW 05 end ovee 15 Argentiea 1947(e) OW 14 sod ever 14 EBoii 1943(E) - - 0 Beezil 1950(e) OW 15 end oncer 51 British Ceisea 1946(e) OW 15 sod oncer 24 Chile 1940(e) R 15 and ever 27 Colomrbia 1938(e) R1 15 end ovee 44 Ecuador 150() - 10 and over 44 Paraguay 1950(e) RW 7nandnover 30 Pyre 1940(e) R 15andeover 10 Uruguay 1938(E) - - 15 Veeneula 1941(e) OW 15and over 50 Seseee: UNESCO, Woeld Srey of Educatio, 1)(1955), 14-15. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 17 tbe course of events will do well to help wipe this blight from our countries, so that the premise of Ameriea or a lend of freedom nd justiee may come nearer to realizatio. The countries most effected by the negative ceonsequences of illiterecy should help themselves so thet others moy offer e helping bend. TABLE 1 PERCENTACE OF POPULATION ILLITERSACY (ltest doeasrise 1920) Counry or Year ef cenrol () Criterien Pecentage territoro oreestimatre (0) of literacy Aelevel of illitersey Bermuda 1950(e) RW 14andeover 3 Britirh Renderer 1946(e) OW 15 and over 19 Babamas 1943(o) OW 5 end ever 24 Barbados 1946(e) OW 15 sod over 9 Jamanica 1943(o) OW 15and over 28 Leeward Idmdrd 1946(e) OW 15 end over 17 Teridad end Togo 1946(e) OW IS end over 24 Windwresd Idlaeds 1946(e) OW 15 end over 34 Cents Bios 1950(e) 0 15 end over 22 Cobs 1943(e) 0 15 and oncer 24 Domoinican R~epublic 1935(e) 0R0 7 nd over 74 El Salvador 1950(e) - 15 and over 01 Guatemala 1950(e) OW 7oandnver 72 Haiti 1950(E) R5W 10 end over 90 Honduras 1950(e) - 10 and over 05 Mexieo 1940(e) OW 15and over 54 Nicaragua 1940(.) - 7oand over 03 Pnama 1950(e) OW 15 noer 30 Puertnoico 1950(e) - 10 andenver 24 United States 1947(E) OW 14 and ever 3 Virgin Intends 1940(e) OW 15 end ever 15 Argentina 1947(e) OW 14 end ever 14 olivia 1943(E) - - 0 Bcril 1950(e) OW 15 nover 1 British uinar 1946(e) OW 15 end ever 24 Chile 1940(e) 0 15 end over 27 Colnomhia 1938(.) 0 15 and over 44 Ecuador 1950(.) - 10 end oncer 44 Paraguay 1950(e) OW 7 end over 30 Ovenu 1940(.) R 15andever 58 Uruguay 1938(E) - - 15 Venezuela 1941(o) OW 15 end oncer 58 Sonre: UNESCO, World Srvey ef Educatonu, I (l9SS), 14-15.  18 The Caribbean TABLE 2 PERCENTAGE OP THE LITERATE POPULATION Cost Rica 74.9 Cuba 75-80 Doiia epublic 42.9 El Salvador 39.4 Guatmala29.4 Haiti 10.5 Honduras35.2 Mexico56.8 Nicaagua38.4 Panama89.9 Puer Rico 73.3 Arg~en 86.4 Bolivia32.1 Chile 80.1 Colombia 50-55 Ecuador55.7 Paraguay85.8 Peru 45-50 Uruguay80-85 Veneuela52.2 America Latin. Proyeet Prdncpal de la Unsc, C c de la Unso IV (Jnay 5958), 3. TABLE 3 SCHOOL STATISTICS -GUATEMALA 1. Pecntg of illitracy 72.7 2. Number of s huden tsated school at the different lvs (1958) 307,00 3. Populionss of compulsory school age enoledi primar' schools (1939) 259,98 3a. Total5 populaton sof compulsory school9 ags stmatesd asst Junes 30, 1958 88,738 3b. Population of comspulsory schoosl age notl enrolled in school 426849 Soe Informatons furnishbsd by lbe Sction sof School Stisics, Minstrsy sof Pusblic Educaions, Guastemala, Centrasl Amersica (October, 19555). 18 The Caribbean TABLE 2 PERCENTAGE OP THE LITERATE POPULATION (that bas primarss educations) 18 The Caribbean TABLE 2 PERCENTAGE OP THE LITERATE POPULATION (lhss has primary educatdion) Csta Rics Domiicas epublic E1Salsvaor Guatemalas Haitisso NHors Mexico Nicaraguas anama~ Chile Colsombia Ecuador Paraguasy Peru Ussguay Venezuela 74.9 75-SO 42.9 39.4 28.4 18.5 35.2 58.8 38.4 89.9 73.3 88.4 32.1 49.4 88.5 50-55 55.7 45-50 80-85 52.2 GCs Rica 74.9 Cuba 75-80 omsinican Republic 42.9 E1lvasdsor 39.4 uatemalai 29.4 Haiti 28.5 Hondurss 35.2 Mexico 58.8 Nicaragua 38.4 Panamass 85.9 Puerto Rico 73.3 Argentina 88.4 Bolivia 32.1 Brazi 49.4 Chile 80.1 Colombia 50-55 Esuador 55.7 Paraguay 85.9 Peru 45-50 Uruguay 80-85 Venezuela 52.2 Source: Moisds Poblete Troncoso, "Exsis des laS Enenanza Primaiens Amssica Lat8na. Proyet Principal de Is Unesco,' Crlsiss de Is Unscoe, IV (Jsnuary, 1858), 3. TABLE 3 SCHOOL STATISTICS - GUATEMALA Sources Moses Poblete Troncoso, "Esxesiss de Is Eseanz Primaieni Amsrica Latina. Proyee Principsi de la Unscoss," Csdsic de la Goesce, IV (Janeary, 1958), 3. TABLE 3 SCHOOL STATISTICS - GUATEMALA S. Percetagofs illteay 71.7 2. Numer so studets that atlend school so lhs diffeent leves (1958) 397,8500 3. Popuslaton of copsorsy schoosl ag eolledinb prbssry scolb (1959) 299,990 3a. Toal popuslatisn of comspusory school age lsts4te as t June 38, 1958 688,739 3b. Population sof compusor scbool age not enrolled inschool 428,849 Sourse: Information furnsished by tbs Secto of Scbhool StstScs, Ministry sof Public Educaion, Guat eal, Cetral America (October, 1959). 1. Psersstage ofI illesay 2. Numer of students tbhst attend schbol sat tbs differsent Ievesb (1958) 3. Populatsion of compusory schbol age enrolled ins prisaey schbolb (1919) 3a. Totls populaton of compsorsy scbool age else s Is June 30, 1958 3b. Popslation so compulso school age not eoled inschool 71.7 387,898 259,990 88,738 428,849 Sossscss Insforionfi fursisbsd by sbe Sestisn sof Scbssl Statistics, Misnistsy sof Pubics Educssison, Guatelsa, Csentral Asseriss (Octobs, 1959).  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS TABLE 4 PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERACY IN MEXICO FOR TRE YEARS 1940, 1950, AND 1959 19 EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS TABLE 4 PERCENTAGE OP ILLITERACY IN MEXICO FOB THE YEARS 1940, 1950, AND 1959 19 EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS TABLE 4 PERCENTAGE OP ILLITERACY IN MEXICO FOE THE YEARS 1940, 1950, AND 1959 19 1940 52 1950 48 1959 40 Source: Pamphlet publshed by the Direcci~ General de Alfbet&Sac6n y NOTES 1. For adqut refneen otes statitcsse Table 1. Figure o 2.05l Ginsberg, Hua Reorcs The Wealth of a Nation (New York: Simonp apd Schuster, 1958), pp. 54-56. 3. Lydia Jane Roberts and4 Rosa LuiStef14pi, Pattern of Living in Puerto Rican. Familisp (Rip Piedras, P. R.: The University of Puerto Ripp, 1949), P. 17. 4. Ibid., p. 27. 5. B. Carroll Reece, "The High Cosi of lleray," School Life., XXXIV (May, 1952), 110. 6. Copmmonweaplth of Pero Ricp, Departments of Labor, SBupeau of Spatistcs, Study of ths Incomey and Expenses of FPuerio Ricpan Families in 1953 (Unpub- lished). 7. "El apalfabetismo 4n el p~ muno mdiados de4 siglo XX," Creiic de In Unsce, III (December, 1957), 35. S. This recommedation wapp turned intlaw Inumpber 64, appprovsd on Jun 20, 1956. 9. Luis Munoz Mario, "Addsess No tbe Legislatures," Mac 7, 1950. 10. Ismaesl Rpodrpgue Bpop, "Spome Observations onFudamental Edupcaion Capapigs," Fupnamental and Addlt Educatlio, V (April, 1953), 88-90. Sey plso the following worspk by tpesam authbor: En, analfasbeism en Puerylo Rico, (NSao Jun . R.: Impssen Venezuelap, 1945); Edpuyp44,, de Adulos (Balt- mr:Waverly Press, 1955); Educapion de adultos: Epperispyby' p Perspyp- ivas (Addrss is she Committee for Aduls Education, February 27, 1958). Percentasge Year of Illsteray 1940 52 1950 48 1959 40 Sosrce: Pampphlet pupblished by lbs Dhyspidsp General de Allpbposspi6 y Educapion Extscolarpon lbe Fifteenthb Annsivesary of pbe National Campapigns Agabnst Illsseray (Mexdco, 1959), p. 11. NOTES 1. For adequate refinementp of these statistcs s Table S. Figurson Tables 1,, 3,ad 4 my look contadictory bese ty ardriveyd from diffresourcesss and dfeentyears. 2. Rhi Ginsberg, Humanp BResurces The Weadtb of pa Nation (News York: Simon, and Scbhuster, 1958), pp. 54-96. 3. Lydia Janpe Roberts papd Rosa Luis Stefan, Patterns of Living in~ Puerto Rican Families (Rio Piedras, P. R.: Thy University of Puerso Rico, 1949), p. 27. 4. Ibid., p. 27. 5. B. Cparroll Reece, "Te High Co~st of Illiteracy," School Lif, XXXIV )May, 1952), 110. S. Commonwealthkbof Puertop Rico, Departmentp of Labor, Breausy of Staistscs, Study of te Income' papd Expeses of Puerto Rican Famsilies inp 1953 (Unlpub- lished). 7. "El asplfabeysmo' 4l muo amediadop 44l siglo XX," Csdsiyp de la Unscs, III (December, 1957), 35. 8. This recommedatpon was urd ito law number 64, apsoved onpJun 20, 1950. 9. Lusis Muios Maria, "Addsess to lbs Legisltur," March 7, 1950. 10. Ismaels Rodriguez Bop, "Somes Obeatos on Fundamental Educaption Capapigs," Fundpamental and Adult Education, V (Apil, 1953), 88-90. See als h following works by tfp sam pauhor: En analfabetismoy Pn,sp B/ppo ic (Sop Juan, P. B.: Imprenta Venezueldp, 1945); Educapion de Adultps (Bali-. mr:Waverly Press, 5952); Edpppddss de pdslbpp; Experiispdop y Perssp- tivao (Address Po lbs Comopittee Ior Adul1t Educatlio, February 27, 1958). Percentasge Year of Illiteracy 1940 52 1955 48 1959 40 Source:; Pamphlet publshed by lbs Direccidn General de Alfpbssippisp y Edpcaion ExIraescolar on, lbs Fifteenth Anniversary of lbs Natonal Campapign Agaistl Illiteray (Mexio, 1959), p. 11. NOTES 1. For adequate refneen of teseostatisis seTable 1. Figurss on Tables 1,2, 3, a4 my lokcotpdictry becasehy aredrivd from differnsoresdd ifferen yeas. 2. Eli Gisberg, Humanps esource~ys: Tbe Wealtb of p Nation (Newp Yorh: Simon~ anpd Schuste, 1958), pp. 54-56. 3. Lydia Jans Roberts pand Rosa Luisa 9Sfa, Patters, of Living in Puerpo Bicans Fampilies (Rio Piedras, P. R.; The University of Puertop Skyo, 1949), p. 17. 4. Ibid., p. 27. 5. B. Carroll eece, "Thy High Cst of Illiteracy," School LOfe XXXIV (May, 1951), 116. 6. Commonwealth of Puerto Ric, Department of Labo, Breaup of Stisics, Stusdy of tbs Income andp Expeses of Ppuerpp Rican Fam~ilis in 5953 (Unspuh- lisbed). 7. 'El asalfabesismo e el mundo amediados 44l sigNo XX," Cdnicp de Na Unscoy, III (Decembers, 1957), 35. 8. This recp omendat ion ws turned intla numbery 64, appsoved pon June 20, 1956. 9. Lsis Munoz Mpsip, "Addrss Pp tbs Legislatur," Msssb 7, 1956. 19. Issaed Rodriguez Rou, "Sompe Obssssat0sns pp Fundamentapl Educaton Campapigns," Fupdamentl and Adult Educatio, V (Aprdl, 1953), 88-90. Sss plso lbs following pprkp by lbs spyms ppthos: En anafabesmo en Puerts B/pp (Sas Jupan, P. B.; Iopsentp VenszpplN, 1945); Educypyidn de Adultpp (Saltd' mr:Waverly Prss, 1951); Eduypyidy do adults: Expsienclbs p Pespcs- tivsp (Addrsys tp lbs Commsittee fos Addst Educatio, Fsbruassy 27, 1958).  2 2 2 Paul V. Murray: SOME PROBLEMS OF FINANCING EDUCATION ESPECIALLY IN MEXICO I AM SURE that you do not expect me to present facts and figures covering the financing of education in all the Caribbean lands that have become the focus of attention in these admirable annual Conferences. Facts and figures assembled for statistical purposes have never been my forte. The broader problems of financing education, especially as they relate to Mexico, have been part of my work and training for almost a quarter of a century; and most especially since 1940 when I became the cofounder, with Dr. H. L. Cain, of Mexico City College. Rather than facts and suggestions based on the statistical approach I shall present a view of some problems which make the flnancing of education at all levels a particularly difficult burden for all the governments of the Caribbean area. Since I have trav- elled hardly at all outside of Mexico and since my personal experi- ence in that country has been so intense and so varied I beg your indulgence to allow me to concentrate my offering in the direction of Mexican educational development, particularly since the Revolu- tion of 1910. At the very outset - and before launching into the subject - I should like to make two general observations: One is that I have never visited any school of any kind anywhere nor talked to any official of such a school, private or government, who did not tell me that he needed far more money than he then had at his disposal. The second is that I belong to an unfortunate group of men, once considered cultural and educational leaders, who are now known as haunters of the anterooms of the rich and the powerful, to whom Paul V. Murray: SOME PROBLEMS OF FINANCING EDUCATION ESPECIALLY IN MEXICO I AM SURE that you do not expect me to present facts and figures covering the fonancing of education in all the Caribbean lands that have become the focus of attention in these admirable annual Conferences. Facts and figures assembled for statistical purposes have never been my forte. The broader problems of financing education, especially as they relate to Mexico, have been part of my work and training for almost a quarter of a century; and most especially since 1940 when I became the cofounder, with Dr. H. L. Cain, of Mexico City College. Rather than facts and suggestions based on the statistical approach I shall present a view of some problems which make the financing of education at all levels a particularly difficult burden for all the governments of the Caribbean area. Since I have trav- elled hardly at all outside of Mexico and since my personal experi- ence in that country has been so intense and so varied I beg your indulgence to allow me to concentrate my offering in the direction of Mexican educational development, particularly since the Revolu- tion of 1910. At the very outset - and before launching into the subject - I should like to make two general observations: One is that I have never visited any school of any kind anywhere nor talked to any official of such a school, private or government, who did not tell me that he needed far more money than he then had at his disposal. The second is that I belong to an unfortunate group of men, once considered cultural and educational leaders, who are now known as haunters of the anterooms of the rich and the powerful, to whom 20 Paul V. Murray: SOME PROBLEMS OF FINANCING EDUCATION ESPECIALLY IN MEXICO I AM SURE that you do not expect me to present facts and figures covering the fnancing of education in all the Caribbean lands that have become the focus of attention in these admirable annual Conferences. Facts and figures assembled for statistical purposes have never been my forte. The broader problems of financing education, especially as they relate to Mexico, have been part of my work and training for almost a quarter of a century; and most especially since 1940 when I became the cofounder, with Dr. H. L. Cain, of Mexico City College. Rather than facts and suggestions based on the statistical approach I shall present a view of some problems which make the flnancing of education at all levels a particularly difficult burden for all the governments of the Caribbean area. Since I have trav- elled hardly at all outside of Mexico and since my personal experi- ence in that country has been so intense and so varied I beg your indulgence to allow me to concentrate my offering in the direction of Mexican educational development, particularly since the Revolu- tion of 1910. At the very outset - and before launching into the subject - I should like to make two general observations: One is that I have never visited any school of any kind anywhere nor talked to any official of such a school, private or government, who did not tell me that he needed far more money than he then bad at his disposal. The second is that I belong to an unfortunate group of men, once considered cultural and educational leaders, who are now known as haunters of the anterooms of the rich and the powerful, to whom 20  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 21 we must go if modern education, both public and private, must go on, and its institutions are not to disappear. We are the butt of jokes at many educational meetings, the target of friendly scorn at which faculty members, alumni, and students often launch their sharpest barbs. I have reference to that long-suffering tribe of Mohicans known as College Presidents! In preparation for this paper I reviewed several volumes of the Conference proceedings. I made special note of the fact that educa- tion, cultural contacts, and religion have been considered at pre- vious Conferences. Therefore, in sketching in the background of Mexican educational history I shall take it for granted that the gen- eral facts of Caribbean history, especially in regard to the points noted above, are known. Before turning to Mexico I should like to observe that it seems that the main burden of educational costs is being met by the central governments of all the Caribbean entities. The trend toward centralization set in after independence and became sharply accent- uated as Church and State came to the parting of the ways, especially where education was concerned. Today, most of the countries in the area have federal systems, aided to varying degrees by municipal and state or department schools, private denomina- tional and nondenominational institutions, and still other schools supported by industrial or commercial firms. It would seem that, with possibly one or two exceptions, no one country in the foreseeable future can expect to educate its citizens, both children and adults, through the simple expenditure of federal government funds alone. There is just not enough money to go around. As a corollary to this statement - and I shall hope to develop it later in special reference to Mexico - I believe that increased cooperation and collaboration between all elements in Caribbean society interested in educational progress is by far the best way to attack the tremendous problems which lie ahead - from that of simple illiteracy (so important in the area) to that of advanced technical education (in which it is still in its infancy). Mexico, as all of us are aware, had great and varied pre-Hispanic cultures among which were to be found some formal educational procedures, although it could be said that the priestly class was EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 21 we must go if modern education, both public and private, must go on, and its institutions are not to disappear. We are the butt of jokes at many educational meetings, the target of friendly scorn at which faculty members, alumni, and students often launch their sharpest barbs. I have reference to that long-suffering tribe of Mohicans known as College Presidents! In preparation for this paper I reviewed several volumes of the Conference proceedings. I made special note of the fact that educa- tion, cultural contacts, and religion have been considered at pre- vious Conferences. Therefore, in sketching in the background of Mexican educational history I shall take it for granted that the gen- eral facts of Caribbean history, especially in regard to the points noted above, are known. Before turning to Mexico I should like to observe that it seems that the main burden of educational costs is being met by the central governments of all the Caribbean entities. The trend toward centralization set in after independence and became sharply accent- uated as Church and State came to the parting of the ways, especially where education was concerned. Today, most of the countries in the area have federal systems, aided to varying degrees by municipal and state or department schools, private denomina- tional and nondenominational institutions, and still other schools supported by industrial or commercial firms. It would seem that, with possibly one or two exceptions, no one country in the foreseeable future can expect to educate its citizens, both children and adults, through the simple expenditure of federal government funds alone. There is just not enough money to go around. As a corollary to this statement - and I shall hope to develop it later in special reference to Mexico - I believe that increased cooperation and collaboration between all elements in Caribbean society interested in educational progress is by far the best way to attack the tremendous problems which lie ahead - from that of simple illiteracy (so important in the area) to that of advanced technical education (in which it is still in its infancy). Mexico, as all of us are aware, had great and varied pre-Hispanic cultures among which were to be found some formal educational procedures, although it could be said that the priestly class was EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 21 we must go if modern education, both public and private, must go on, and its institutions are not to disappear. We are the butt of jokes at many educational meetings, the target of friendly scorn at which faculty members, alumni, and students often launch their sharpest barbs. I have reference to that long-suffering tribe of Mohicans known as College Presidents! In preparation for this paper I reviewed several volumes of the Conference proceedings. I made special note of the fact that educa- tion, cultural contacts, and religion have been considered at pre- vious Conferences. Therefore, in sketching in the background of Mexican educational history I shall take it for granted that the gen- eral facts of Caribbean history, especially in regard to the points noted above, are known. Before turning to Mexico I should like to observe that it seems that the main burden of educational costs is being met by the central governments of all the Caribbean entities. The trend toward centralization set in after independence and became sharply accent- uated as Church and State came to the parting of the ways, especially where education was concerned. Today, most of the countries in the area have federal systems, aided to varying degrees by municipal and state or department schools, private denomina- tional and nondenominational institutions, and still other schools supported by industrial or commercial firms. It would seem that, with possibly one or two exceptions, no one country in the foreseeable future can expect to educate its citizens, both children and adults, through the simple expenditure of federal government funds alone. There is just not enough money to go around. As a corollary to this statement - and I shall hope to develop it later in special reference to Mexico-I believe that increased cooperation and collaboration between all elements in Caribbean society interested in educational progress is by far the best way to attack the tremendous problems which lie ahead - from that of simple illiteracy (so important in the area) to that of advanced technical education (in which it is still in its infancy). Mexico, as all of us are aware, had great and varied pre-Hispanic cultures among which were to be found some formal educational procedures, although it could be said that the priestly class was  22 The Caribbean usually the most highly trained. The transmission of European ideas into these cultures helped to give New Spain a name and fame as the greatest of all Spanish colonies and, perhaps, the greatest European colony the world has ever seen. We are just barely beginning to study Mexico's educational and cultural past. To my knowledge no satisfactory account of this aspect of Mexican history has yet appeared in any language. Losses suffered by educational and cultural fundamentals during the struggle for independence broke up the system worked out by the Church and State after the coming of the first friars in 1523. Sharp and disastrous differences between these two social bodies removed the Church from the scene as the vital force it was and had been down to 1857. Never again did it regain anything like its pre-eminent position; nor, for that matter, has private aid to educa- tion ever been as important in any manner, shape, or form. After 1867 the Mexican federal government became the domi- nant factor in education. There developed the tendency to look toward the capital for guidance and financing; and although some state and municipal goverments made valiant (and often success- ful) attempts to struggle with local problems, it can be said that from 1867 to 1911 the central government became more and more the leader. Catholic church schools and other private institutions of both a denominational and nondenominational character, were relatively unimportant in the period as contrasted with the work of federal, state, and municipal agencies. The Revolution of 1910 changed many things in Mexico but education was not given the attention that was its due until approx- imately 1921. From that time till the present all aspects of educa- tion have been studied, debated, legislated, and acted upon until Mexico has become a center of experimentation that has attracted world-wide attention. Perhaps the best work was done in the development of rural schools and cultural centers. Still, experi- menting on a vast scale was done with kindergarten, elementary, secondary, and preparatory school education; while universities, normal schools, and technical and vocational centers of all kinds have been subjected to rigorous analysis and broad criticism. Apart from all these efforts educators of all lands watched with eager interest the mass attack on illiteracy undertaken during the presi- dency of Manuel Avila Camacho (1940-46). Today, I can testify to the great educational unrest that still grips the country. Old 22 The Caribbean usually the most highly trained. The transmission of European ideas into these cultures helped to give New Spain a name and fame as the greatest of all Spanish colonies and, perhaps, the greatest European colony the world has ever seen. We are just barely beginning to study Mexico's educational and cultural past. To my knowledge no satisfactory account of this aspect of Mexican history has yet appeared in any language. Losses suffered by educational and cultural fundamentals during the struggle for independence broke up the system worked out by the Church and State after the coming of the first friars in 1528. Sharp and disastrous differences between these two social bodies removed the Church from the scene as the vital force it was and had been down to 1857. Never again did it regain anything like its pre-eminent position; nor, for that matter, has private aid to educa- tion ever been as important in any manner, shape, or form. After 1867 the Mexican federal government became the domi- nant factor in education. There developed the tendency to look toward the capital for guidance and financing; and although some state and municipal goverments made valiant (and often success- ful) attempts to struggle with local problems, it can be said that from 1867 to 1911 the central government became more and more the leader. Catholic church schools and other private institutions of both a denominational and nondenominational character, were relatively unimportant in the period as contrasted with the work of federal, state, and municipal agencies. The Revolution of 1910 changed many things in Mexico but education was not given the attention that was its due until approx- imately 1921. From that time till the present all aspects of educa- tion have been studied, debated, legislated, and acted upon until Mexico has become a center of experimentation that has attracted world-wide attention. Perhaps the best work was done in the development of rural schools and cultural centers. Still, experi- menting on a vast scale was done with kindergarten, elementary, secondary, and preparatory school education; while universities, normal schools, and technical and vocational centers of all kinds have been subjected to rigorous analysis and broad criticism. Apart from all these efforts educators of all lands watched with eager interest the mass attack on illiteracy undertaken during the presi- dency of Manuel Avila Camacho (1940-46). Today, I can testify to the great educational unrest that still grips the country. Old 22 The Caribbean usually the most highly trained. The transmission of European ideas into these cultures helped to give New Spain a name and fame as the greatest of all Spanish colonies and, perhaps, the greatest European colony the world has ever seen. We are just barely beginning to study Mexico's educational and cultural past. To my knowledge no satisfactory account of this aspect of Mexican history has yet appeared in any language. Losses suffered by educational and cultural fundamentals during the struggle for independence broke up the system worked out by the Church and State after the coming of the first friars in 1523. Sharp and disastrous differences between these two social bodies removed the Church from the scene as the vital force it was and had been down to 1857. Never again did it regain anything like its pre-eminent position; nor, for that matter, has private aid to educa- tion ever been as important in any manner, shape, or form. After 1867 the Mexican federal government became the domi- nant factor in education. There developed the tendency to look toward the capital for guidance and financing; and although some state and municipal goverments made valiant (and often success- ful) attempts to struggle with local problems, it can be said that from 1867 to 1911 the central government became more and more the leader. Catholic church schools and other private institutions of both a denominational and nondenominational character, were relatively unimportant in the period as contrasted with the work of federal, state, and municipal agencies. The Revolution of 1910 changed many things in Mexico but education was not given the attention that was its due until approx- imately 1921. From that time till the present all aspects of educa- tion have been studied, debated, legislated, and acted upon until Mexico has become a center of experimentation that has attracted world-wide attention. Perhaps the best work was done in the development of rural schools and cultural centers. Still, experi- menting on a vast scale was done with kindergarten, elementary, secondary, and preparatory school education; while universities, normal schools, and technical and vocational centers of all kinds have been subjected to rigorous analysis and broad criticism. Apart from all these efforts educators of all lands watched with eager interest the mass attack on illiteracy undertaken during the presi- dency of Manuel Avila Camacho (1940-46). Today, I can testify to the great educational unrest that still grips the country. Old  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 23 ideas and new are still locked in combat and we can most surely expect further change and experiment during the administration of President Adolfo L6pez Mateos. II How is Mexican education financed today? The vast majority of students at all levels have their classes paid for by the federal government. Where state systems and municipal schools exist they invariably receive some aid from the Secretaria de Educaci6n Publica. Such support is mirrored in federal budgets. Here are a few figures to show the increasing dependence on federal spend- ing. In 1950, the federal budget allowed 312 million pesos for education; in 1958, 1,483 millions; in 1959, 1,553 millions. During this period there was one devaluation (in April, 1954) that should be taken into consideration in judging the increases between 1950 and the two latter years cited above. Denominational schools, Catholic and non-Catholic alike, finance themselves largely through tuition. Some help may be forthcoming from religious orders or missionary groups outside of Mexico and there is a trickle of funds that comes in from private individuals and business corporations. A number of industries support what are known as "Article 123 schools," but these play a relatively small part in solving educa- tional problems. There is a strong movement afoot at the moment to bring pressure to bear on companies that would seem to be included under the provisions of Article 123, as many Mexicans, particularly government officials, evidently feel that more slack could be taken up by such schools than has been the case in the past. Nondenominational private schools may be classified as nonprofit and those run for profit. Among the first are found the "national" schools that often receive aid from foreign governments, although it is most probable that the great majority are compelled to live from the tuition they collect. Schools run for profit must learn to live on what students pay in tuition and fees or they go out of business in a hurry! Figures for the entire country are not easy to secure because the population growth and industrial expansion are proceeding so rapidly that schools change almost from day to day; and the same EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 23 ideas and new are still locked in combat and we can most surely expect further change and experiment during the administration of President Adolfo L6pez Mateos. II How is Mexican education financed today? The vast majority of students at all levels have their classes paid for by the federal government. Where state systems and municipal schools exist they invariably receive some aid from the Secectaria de Educaci6n Pdblica. Such support is mirrored in federal budgets. Here are a few figures to show the increasing dependence on federal spend- ing. In 1950, the federal budget allowed 312 million pesos for education; in 1958, 1,483 millions; in 1959, 1,553 millions. During this period there was one devaluation (in April, 1954) that should be taken into consideration in judging the increases between 1950 and the two latter years cited above. Denominational schools, Catholic and non-Catholic alike, finance themselves largely through tuition. Some help may be forthcoming from religious orders or missionary groups outside of Mexico and there is a trickle of funds that comes in from private individuals and business corporations. A number of industries support what are known as "Article 123 schools," but these play a relatively small part in solving educa- tional problems. There is a strong movement afoot at the moment to bring pressure to bear on companies that would seem to be included under the provisions of Article 123, as many Mexicans, particularly government officials, evidently feel that more slack could be taken up by such schools than has been the case in the past. Nondenominational private schools may be classified as nonprofit and those run for profit. Among the first are found the "national" schools that often receive aid from foreign governments, although it is most probable that the great majority are compelled to live from the tuition they collect. Schools run for profit must learn to live on what students pay in tuition and fees or they go out of business in a hurry! Figures for the entire country are not easy to secure because the population growth and industrial expansion are proceeding so rapidly that schools change almost from day to day; and the same EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 23 ideas and new are still locked in combat and we can most surely expect further change and experiment during the administration of President Adolfo L6pez Mateos. II How is Mexican education financed today? The vast majority of students at all levels have their classes paid for by the federal government. Where state systems and municipal schools exist they invariably receive some aid from the Secretaria de Educaci6n Pdblica. Such support is mirrored in federal budgets. Here are a few figures to show the increasing dependence on federal spend- ing. In 1950, the federal budget allowed 312 million pesos for education; in 1958, 1,483 millions; in 1959, 1,553 millions. During this period there was one devaluation (in April, 1954) that should be taken into consideration in judging the increases between 1950 and the two latter years cited above. Denominational schools, Catholic and non-Catholic alike, finance themselves largely through tuition. Some help may be forthcoming from religious orders or missionary groups outside of Mexico and there is a trickle of funds that comes in from private individuals and business corporations. A number of industries support what are known as "Article 123 schools," but these play a relatively small part in solving educa- tional problems. There is a strong movement afoot at the moment to bring pressure to bear on companies that would seem to be included under the provisions of Article 123, as many Mexicans, particularly government officials, evidently feel that more slack could be taken up by such schools than has been the case in the past. Nondenominational private schools may be classified as nonprofit and those run for profit. Among the first are found the "national" schools that often receive aid from foreign governments, although it is most probable that the great majority are compelled to live from the tuition they collect. Schools run for profit must learn to live on what students pay in tuition and fees or they go out of business in a hurry! Figures for the entire country are not easy to secure because the population growth and industrial expansion are proceeding so rapidly that schools change almost from day to day; and the same  24 The Caribbean is generally true of private school enrollments. I believe that the Federal District, monstrous as it has become, is a good indicator of such facts. It is probable that there are at present in elementary schools alone some 750,000 children of whom 100,000 to 125,000 are to be found in nongovernment schools of all kinds. Figures for secondary education are more difficult to secure, but it is doubtful that more than 30,000 students are attending at this level; and it is generally conceded that private schools will account for as much as 60 per cent of the enrollment in such schools. I can give no figure for the numbers in preparatory schools outside of those directly under the National University, but the combined total would not nearly approach the some 12,000 attributed to that institution which, with its 80,000 regular university students, must be counted among the largest schools of higher learning in the world. The National Polytechnic Institute is another colossus of Mexican edu- cation, registering some 26,000 students this year. Although I started by saying that I would not overwhelm you with facts and figures, I have found it necessary to furnish some, because they do serve to point up the enormity and complexity of the problems which face Mexican educators of all types and most especially the authorities in charge of federal systems. The eminent Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet, world-famous for his work with UNESCO, and presently serving his second term as Secretary of Public Education, just recently presented a long-range plan looking toward the realistic handling of enrollment at the elementary level. Here are some of the staggering figures that he announced to the nation on October 19, 1959, in offering a project to President Adolfo L6pez Mateos. In order to make a realistic and concerted attack on the problem of bringing elementary education to children between the ages of 6 and 15, the Secretariat plans, over the period of the next 11 years (to 1970) to prepare 68,000 teachers, build 39,265 classrooms, and spend in all about 4,804 millions of pesos. Printed in the news- papers, the plan covers approximately four pages and has been done in an effort to use all that is known about actual conditions in the country. The statistical approach seems sound, although the Secretary points out that the new census of 1960 may cause some changes in present conclusions. Too, his budgetary figures are based on costs in 1959, and an allowance must be made for an increase of about 15 per cent each year during the existence of the plan. 24 The Caribbean is generally true of private school enrollments. I believe that the Federal District, monstrous as it has become, is a good indicator of such facts. It is probable that there are at present in elementary schools alone some 750,000 children of whom 100,000 to 125,000 are to be found in nongovernment schools of all kinds. Figures for secondary education are more difficult to secure, but it is doubtful that more than 30,000 students are attending at this level; and it is generally conceded that private schools will account for as much as 60 per cent of the enrollment in such schools. I can give no figure for the numbers in preparatory schools outside of those directly under the National University, but the combined total would not nearly approach the some 12,000 attributed to that institution which, with its 30,000 regular university students, must be counted among the largest schools of higher learning in the world. The National Polytechnic Institute is another colossus of Mexican edu- cation, registering some 26,000 students this year. Although I started by saying that I would not overwhelm you with facts and figures, I have found it necessary to furnish some, because they do serve to point up the enormity and complexity of the problems which face Mexican educators of all types and most especially the authorities in charge of federal systems. The eminent Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet, world-famous for his work with UNESCO, and presently serving his second term as Secretary of Public Education, just recently presented a long-range plan looking toward the realistic handling of enrollment at the elementary level. Here are some of the staggering figures that he announced to the nation on October 19, 1959, in offering a project to President Adolfo Ldpez Mateos. In order to make a realistic and concerted attack on the problem of bringing elementary education to children between the ages of 6 and 15, the Secretariat plans, over the period of the next 11 years (to 1970) to prepare 68,000 teachers, build 39,265 classrooms, and spend in all about 4,804 millions of pesos. Printed in the news- papers, the plan covers approximately four pages and has been done in an effort to use all that is known about actual conditions in the country. The statistical approach seems sound, although the Secretary points out that the new census of 1960 may cause some changes in present conclusions. Too, his budgetary figures are based on costs in 1959, and an allowance must be made for an increase of about 15 per cent each year during the existence of the plan. 24 The Caribbean is generally true of private school enrollments. I believe that the Federal District, monstrous as it has become, is a good indicator of such facts. It is probable that there are at present in elementary schools alone some 750,000 children of whom 100,000 to 125,000 are to be found in nongovernment schools of all kinds. Figures for secondary education are more difficult to secure, but it is doubtful that more than 30,000 students are attending at this level; and it is generally conceded that private schools will account for as much as 60 per cent of the enrollment in such schools. I can give no figure for the numbers in preparatory schools outside of those directly under the National University, but the combined total would not nearly approach the some 12,000 attributed to that institution which, with its 30,000 regular university students, must be counted among the largest schools of higher learning in the world. The National Polytechnic Institute is another colossus of Mexican edu- cation, registering some 26,000 students this year. Although I started by saying that I would not overwhelm you with facts and figures, I have found it necessary to furnish some, because they do serve to point up the enormity and complexity of the problems which face Mexican educators of all types and most especially the authorities in charge of federal systems. The eminent Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet, world-famous for his work with UNESCO, and presently serving his second term as Secretary of Public Education, just recently presented a long-range plan looking toward the realistic handling of enrollment at the elementary level. Here are some of the staggering figures that he announced to the nation on October 19, 1959, in offering a project to President Adolfo Lopez Mateos. In order to make a realistic and concerted attack on the problem of bringing elementary education to children between the ages of 6 and 15, the Secretariat plans, over the period of the next 11 years (to 1970) to prepare 68,000 teachers, build 39,265 classrooms, and spend in all about 4,804 millions of pesos. Printed in the news- papers, the plan covers approximately four pages and has been done in an effort to use all that is known about actual conditions in the country. The statistical approach seems sound, although the Secretary points out that the new census of 1960 may cause some changes in present conclusions. Too, his budgetary figures are based on costs in 1959, and an allowance must be made for an increase of about 15 per cent each year during the existence of the plan.  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 25 It is proposed that additional funds for the expansion be sought through special taxes or by increasing some already being collected. Private groups, businesses, and other nongovernmental agencies and individuals will be asked to come forward and help the gov- ernment solve the educational problem at the elementary level. Bank credit will be extended to people who are interested in opening additional private schools, as the Secretary points out that an increasingly large segment of Mexican society is able to pay for educational benefits and that new private schools would help to relieve the strain on government establishments. Dr. Torres Bodet indicated that national elementary enrollment and teachers available were distributed as follows: federal schools, 58,582 teachers, 2,473,559 students (58.83 per cent); state and municipal schools, 30,513 teachers, 1,595,559 students (30.64 per cent); private schools, 10,487 teachers, 367,029 students (10.53 per cent). The federal government extends some aid to state and municipal schools and this aid would be continued under the new plan. Included in the Secretary's analysis are funds for repairs of present building, furniture, and supply needs and a new departure in 1960 - to supply elementary school children gratis their most needed books and supplies. I have often said that Mexico is a country that has not yet arrived at the plateau of secondary education. On November 3 of this year Professor Victor Gallo, director of the Instituto Federal de Capacitacion del Magisterio, gave a few figures about secondary enrollment in the country. They are by no means so complete as those furnished by Dr. Torres Bodet, but they help to indicate the magnitude of the problem that must be attacked well before the 11-year plan summarized above comes to a close. Professor Gallo reported that between 1952 and 1957, the average annual national enrollment at the secondary level was but 94,000 students out of a potential that might be estimated at 2.2 millions. Of those enrolled only 33,591 (or 39.14 per cent) finished the three-year course. (He did not give specific annual figures and it cannot be said whether the 33,591 represents figures for one year or an average.) If we carry our thinking two steps further we can begin to understand what financial problems Mexico will face in the next decade or two when elementary school graduates are properly enrolled and trained and then pass on to secondary and preparatory levels, eventually to find their way into universities and technological EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 25 It is proposed that additional funds for the expansion be sought through special taxes or by increasing some already being collected. Private groups, businesses, and other nongovernmental agencies and individuals will be asked to come forward and help the gov- ernment solve the educational problem at the elementary level. Bank credit will be extended to people who are interested in opening additional private schools, as the Secretary points out that an increasingly large segment of Mexican society is able to pay for educational benefits and that new private schools would help to relieve the strain on government establishments. Dr. Torres Bodet indicated that national elementary enrollment and teachers available were distributed as follows: federal schools, 58,582 teachers, 2,473,559 students (58.83 per cent); state and municipal schools, 30,513 teachers, 1,595,559 students (30.64 per cent); private schools, 10,487 teachers, 367,029 students (10.53 per cent). The federal government extends some aid to state and municipal schools and this aid would be continued under the new plan. Included in the Secretary's analysis are funds for repairs of present building, furniture, and supply needs and a new departure in 1960 - to supply elementary school children gratis their most needed books and supplies. I have often said that Mexico is a country that has not yet arrived at the plateau of secondary education. On November 3 of this year Professor Victor Gallo, director of the Instituto Federal de Capacitacion del Magisterio, gave a few figures about secondary enrollment in the country. They are by no means so complete as those furnished by Dr. Torres Bodet, but they help to indicate the magnitude of the problem that must be attacked well before the 11-year plan summarized above comes to a close. Professor Gallo reported that between 1952 and 1957, the average annual national enrollment at the secondary level was but 94,000 students out of a potential that might be estimated at 2.2 millions. Of those enrolled only 33,591 (or 39.14 per cent) finished the three-year course. (He did not give specific annual figures and it cannot be said whether the 3,591 represents figures for one year or an average.) If we carry our thinking two steps further we can begin to understand what financial problems Mexico will face in the next decade or two when elementary school graduates are properly enrolled and trained and then pass on to secondary and preparatory levels, eventually to find their way into universities and technological EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 25 It is proposed that additional funds for the expansion be sought through special taxes or by increasing some already being collected. Private groups, businesses, and other nongovernmental agencies and individuals will be asked to come forward and help the gov- ernment solve the educational problem at the elementary level. Bank credit will be extended to people who are interested in opening additional private schools, as the Secretary points out that an increasingly large segment of Mexican society is able to pay for educational benefits and that new private schools would help to relieve the strain on government establishments. Dr. Torres Bodet indicated that national elementary enrollment and teachers available were distributed as follows: federal schools, 58,582 teachers, 2,473,559 students (58.83 per cent); state and municipal schools, 30,513 teachers, 1,595,559 students (30.64 per cent); private schools, 10,487 teachers, 367,029 students (10.53 per cent). The federal government extends some aid to state and municipal schools and this aid would be continued under the new plan. Included in the Secretary's analysis are funds for repairs of present building, furniture, and supply needs and a new departure in 1960 - to supply elementary school children gratis their most needed books and supplies. I have often said that Mexico is a country that has not yet arrived at the plateau of secondary education. On November 3 of this year Professor Victor Gallo, director of the Instituto Federal de Capacitacidn del Magisterio, gave a few figures about secondary enrollment in the country. They are by no means so complete as those furnished by Dr. Torres Bodet, but they help to indicate the magnitude of the problem that must be attacked well before the 11-year plan summarized above comes to a close. Professor Gallo reported that between 1952 and 1957, the average annual national enrollment at the secondary level was but 94,000 students out of a potential that might be estimated at 2.2 millions. Of those enrolled only 33,591 (or 39.14 per cent) finished the three-year course. (He did not give specific annual figures and it cannot be said whether the 33,591 represents figures for one year or an average.) If we carry our thinking two steps further we can begin to understand what financial problems Mexico will face in the next decade or two when elementary school graduates are properly enrolled and trained and then pass on to secondary and preparatory levels, eventually to find their way into universities and technological  26 The Caribbean institutes. All this would be apart from the sums needed to do better work in rural communities and to develop better the com- mercial and trade schools that are so badly needed in a country that finds itself working under the full impact of the industrial revolution. In the face of such problems there are only two views to take: an optimistic or a pessimistic one. Personally, I cannot help but feel overpowered at times by the weight of the statistical evidence. On the other hand, I have confidence that great strides can be made before the end of the third quarter of the century if certain additional realistic steps can be taken by the Mexican government (I consider the Torres Bodet plan one of the best technical studies I have seen presented in my time in the country). I believe that the following suggestions are practical and that they would meet with response from the great mass of the citizens, especially if the popular President L6pez Mates would espouse them in one form or another. (1) Restudy and recast Article III of the Constitution in order to win stronger support from parents and others who are responsible for the education of the children; (2) Find a way to cooperate closer with Church schools so that they can take on more of the burden than they are now carrying; (3) Develop a sound and intelligent campaign to attract the support of private capital and to gain the backing of what is called in Mexico the banks, the industries, and commerce; (4) Find ways of removing unnecessary restrictions from private nondenominational schools of all kinds; (5) Make it simpler for qualified foreigners who meet Mexican educational standards to teach in the country, thus making it pos- sible for national teachers to give better and closer attention to government schools of all kinds; (6) Continue the studies that are now being made of curricula at all levels, since it is my conviction that time, money, effort, and man-power could be saved if a new system, better attuned to the Mexican genius and with fewer ties to the European systems, could be developed while the Secretary and his collaborators are making their gigantic attack on the prob- lems involved in trying to put elementary education on a democratic basis at last. 26 The Caribbean institutes. All this would be apart from the sums needed to do better work in rural communities and to develop better the com- mercial and trade schools that are so badly needed in a country that finds itself working under the full impact of the industrial revolution. In the face of such problems there are only two views to take: an optimistic or a pessimistic one. Personally, I cannot help but feel overpowered at times by the weight of the statistical evidence. On the other hand, I have confidence that great strides can be made before the end of the third quarter of the century if certain additional realistic steps can be taken by the Mexican government (I consider the Torres Bodet plan one of the best technical studies I have seen presented in my time in the country). I believe that the following suggestions are practical and that they would meet with response from the great mass of the citizens, especially if the popular President L6pez Mateos would espouse them in one form or another. (1) Restudy and recast Article III of the Constitution in order to win stronger support from parents and others who are responsible for the education of the children; (2) Find a way to cooperate closer with Church schools so that they can take on more of the burden than they are now carrying; (3) Develop a sound and intelligent campaign to attract the support of private capital and to gain the backing of what is called in Mexico the banks, the industries, and commerce; (4) Find ways of removing unnecessary restrictions from private nondenominational schools of all kinds; (5) Make it simpler for qualified foreigners who meet Mexican educational standards to teach in the country, thus making it pos- sible for national teachers to give better and closer attention to government schools of all kinds; (6) Continue the studies that are now being made of curricula at all levels, since it is my conviction that time, money, effort, and man-power could be saved if a new system, better attuned to the Mexican genius and with fewer ties to the European systems, could be developed while the Secretary and his collaborators are making their gigantic attack on the prob- lems involved in trying to put elementary education on a democratic basis at last. 26 The Caribbean institutes. All this would be apart from the sums needed to do better work in rural communities and to develop better the com- mercial and trade schools that are so badly needed in a country that finds itself working under the full impact of the industrial revolution. In the face of such problems there are only two views to take: an optimistic or a pessimistic one. Personally, I cannot help but feel overpowered at times by the weight of the statistical evidence. On the other hand, I have confidence that great strides can be made before the end of the third quarter of the century if certain additional realistic steps can be taken by the Mexican government (I consider the Torres Bodet plan one of the best technical studies I have seen presented in my time in the country). I believe that the following suggestions are practical and that they would meet with response from the great mass of the citizens, especially if the popular President L6pez Mateos would espouse them in one form or another. (1) Restudy and recast Article III of the Constitution in order to win stronger support from parents and others who are responsible for the education of the children; (2) Find a way to cooperate closer with Church schools so that they can take on more of the burden than they are now carrying; (3) Develop a sound and intelligent campaign to attract the support of private capital and to gain the backing of what is called in Mexico the banks, the industries, and commerce; (4) Find ways of removing unnecessary restrictions from private nondenominational schools of all kinds; (5) Make it simpler for qualified foreigners who meet Mexican educational standards to teach in the country, thus making it pos- sible for national teachers to give better and closer attention to government schools of all kinds; (6) Continue the studies that are now being made of curricula at all levels, since it is my conviction that time, money, effort, and man-power could be saved if a new system, better attuned to the Mexican genius and with fewer ties to the European systems, could be developed while the Secretary and his collaborators are making their gigantic attack on the prob- lems involved in trying to put elementary education on a democratic basis at last.  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS III 27 EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS III 27 EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS III 27 At the beginning of this paper I said that I would not burden you with too many facts and figures and I have tried to keep my promise. What you have here and what you have been given repre- sent what I believe is needed for us to grasp, even in part, what must be done if one country is to achieve what it wants to do - bring education at all levels to as many of its citizens as are capable of profiting from it. For my part I hope to be able to continue to lend a hand whenever I can to spread the word of the needs of the peoples of not only the Caribbean area but those of all of Latin America, of all the world. Bibliographical Note. I found very helpful the Caribbean Conference papers edited by A. Curtis Wilgus, especially those for the meetings of 1951, 1953, 1954, and 1956, published by the University of Florida Press. General sum- maries of Mexican educational history and problems are found in George I. Sanchez, Mexico: A Revolution by Education (New York, 1936); George F. Kneller, The Education of the Mexican Nation (New York, 1951); Marjorie C. Johnston, Education in Mexico (Washington, 1956); Francisco Larroyo, Historia comparada de la educacion en Mexico (5a. edici6n, Mexico, 1959). Statistics on the Torres Bodet plan are from Excelsior, October 28, 1959; those given by Professor Gallo were printed in Excelsior, November 3, 1959. At the beginning of this paper I said that I would not burden you with too many facts and figures and I have tried to keep my promise. What you have here and what you have been given repre- sent what I believe is needed for us to grasp, even in part, what must be done if one country is to achieve what it wants to do - bring education at all levels to as many of its citizens as are capable of profiting from it. For my part I hope to be able to continue to lend a hand whenever I can to spread the word of the needs of the peoples of not only the Caribbean area but those of all of Latin America, of all the world. Bibliographical Note. I found very helpful the Caribbean Conference papers edited by A. Curtis Wilgus, especially those for the meetings of 1951, 1953, 1954, and 1956, published by the University of Florida Press. General sum- maries of Mexican educational history and problems are found in George I. Sanchez, Mexico: A Revolution by Education (New York, 1936); George F. Kneller, The Education of the Mexican Nation (New York, 1951); Marjorie C. Johnston, Education in Mexico (Washington, 1956); Francisco Larroyo, Historia comparada de la educacion en Mixico (5a. edicidn, M6xico, 1959). Statistics on the Tones Bodet plan are from Excelsior, October 28, 1959; those given by Professor Gallo were printed in Excelsior, November 3, 1959. At the beginning of this paper I said that I would not burden you with too many facts and figures and I have tried to keep my promise. What you have here and what you have been given repre- sent what I believe is needed for us to grasp, even in part, what must be done if one country is to achieve what it wants to do - bring education at all levels to as many of its citizens as are capable of profiting from it. For my part I hope to be able to continue to lend a hand whenever I can to spread the word of the needs of the peoples of not only the Caribbean area but those of all of Latin America, of all the world. Bibliographical Note. I found very helpful the Caribbean Conference papers edited by A. Curtis Wilgus, especially those for the meetings of 1951, 1953, 1954, and 1956, published by the University of Florida Press. General sum- maries of Mexican educational history and problems are found in George I. Sanchez, Mexico: A Revolution by Education (New York, 1936); George F. Kneller, The Education of the Mexican Nation (New York, 1951); Marjorie C. Johnston, Education in Mexico (Washington, 1956); Francisco Larroyo, Historia comparada de la educacion en Mdxico (5a. ediedn, M6xico, 1959). Statistics on the Torres Bodet plan are from Excelsior, October 28, 1959; those given by Professor Gallo were printed in Excelsior, November 3, 1959.  3 -4 3 3 Ronald Hilton: EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN: GOVERNMENT POLICIES POLITICS AND EDUCATION are intertwined in Latin America in a fashion which the ordinary American scarcely under- stands. This is conspicuously true in the Caribbean today, and the researchers of the Hispanic American Report group have constantly noted the continual interplay between politics and education. It is impossible to understand one without the other. Naturally, there is a long historical development behind the current relationships between the two social systems, the political and the educational. While little research has been devoted to this important subject, we should call attention to two chapters (4 and 5) in the recent book Latin American Politics (New York: Crowell, 1959) by Professor William S. Stokes of Claremont Men's College. A basic Latin American phenomenon is that there is a "minority of literati" and an "enormous mass of illiterates," to use the expres- sions of the Brazilian Fernando de Azevedo, and the mass feels a deep sense of respect for the elite. Despite eloquent praise of the merits of education, Latin American governments have made and are making quite inadequate provision for educating masses swelled by the highest rate of population growth in the world, and the number of illiterates (but not usually the percentage) is probably increasing. The basic problem is an unwillingness to spend the necessary amounts on education and to rely instead on private schools run as profit-making business enterprises and on the inex- pensive and ineffective Laubach system of "Each one teach one." The wealthy elite sees in mass education a threat to its privileges. As a result, while Costa Rica boasts of a literacy rate of 82 per Ronald Hilton: EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN: GOVERNMENT POLICIES POLITICS AND EDUCATION are intertwined in Latin America in a fashion which the ordinary American scarcely under- stands. This is conspicuously true in the Caribbean today, and the researchers of the Hispanic American Report group have constantly noted the continual interplay between politics and education. It is impossible to understand one without the other. Naturally, there is a long historical development behind the current relationships between the two social systems, the political and the educational. While little research has been devoted to this important subject, we should call attention to two chapters (4 and 5) in the recent book Latin American Politics (New York: Crowell, 1959) by Professor William S. Stokes of Claremont Men's College. A basic Latin American phenomenon is that there is a "minority of literati" and an "enormous mass of illiterates," to use the expres- sions of the Brazilian Fernando de Azevedo, and the mass feels a deep sense of respect for the elite. Despite eloquent praise of the merits of education, Latin American governments have made and are making quite inadequate provision for educating masses swelled by the highest rate of population growth in the world, and the number of illiterates (but not usually the percentage) is probably increasing. The basic problem is an unwillingness to spend the necessary amounts on education and to rely instead on private schools run as profit-making business enterprises and on the inex- pensive and ineffective Laubach system of "Each one teach one." The wealthy elite sees in mass education a threat to its privileges. As a result, while Costa Rica boasts of a literacy rate of 82 per 28 Ronald Hilton: EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN: GOVERNMENT POLICIES POLITICS AND EDUCATION are intertwined in Latin America in a fashion which the ordinary American scarcely under- stands. This is conspicuously true in the Caribbean today, and the researchers of the Hispanic American Report group have constantly noted the continual interplay between politics and education. It is impossible to understand one without the other. Naturally, there is a long historical development behind the current relationships between the two social systems, the political and the educational. While little research has been devoted to this important subject, we should call attention to two chapters (4 and 5) in the recent book Latin American Politics (New York: Crowell, 1959) by Professor William S. Stokes of Claremont Men's College. A basic Latin American phenomenon is that there is a "minority of literati" and an "enormous mass of illiterates," to use the expres- sions of the Brazilian Fernando de Azevedo, and the mass feels a deep sense of respect for the elite. Despite eloquent praise of the merits of education, Latin American governments have made and are making quite inadequate provision for educating masses swelled by the highest rate of population growth in the world, and the number of illiterates (but not usually the percentage) is probably increasing. The basic problem is an unwillingness to spend the necessary amounts on education and to rely instead on private schools run as profit-making business enterprises and on the inex- pensive and ineffective Laubach system of "Each one teach one." The wealthy elite sees in mass education a threat to its privileges. As a result, while Costa Rica boasts of a literacy rate of 82 per 28  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 29 cent, 41 per cent of the Mexican population is illiterate, and the rate is considerably higher in most Middle American countries. There is an evident correlation between dictatorship and illiteracy. The countries which in the 1940's devoted the lowest percentage of their total budget to education were Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic, with 6.5 per cent and 5.5 per cent, respectively. Because of pressure from the Catholic Church, coeducation is discouraged, and even in nominally anticlerical Mexico, Minister of Education Jos4 Angel Ceniceros refused to consider a petition asking for coeducation in the capital. The Church has been fighting a legacy of anticlerical laws and is bent on gaining as much control as possible over education so as to be able to mold the minds of the young. The anticlericalism of the nineteenth century has left its legacy in many countries in constitutional provisions against the Church's entering the field of education. There is a concerted cler- ical attempt to have these provisos nullified or disregarded. Gov- ernments sometimes make a deal with the Church in order to gain the valuable support of that institution. Thus in Guatemala, President Ydigoras Fuentes has permitted the Church to give reli- gious instruction in schools even though it is forbidden by the constitution. The traditional schools have cultivated rote memori- zation, and the followers of Dewey, Claparede, Decroly, Herbart, Kerschensteiner, and Ferriere have been attacked as dangerous leftists. Teachers College, Columbia University, has an amazing influence in Middle America, but it is fought by clerical and conservative influences. Only a small percentage of elementary school students go on to high school, secondary education being largely in the hands of private entrepreneurs. On the advanced level, some Middle Ameri- can universities are of ancient foundation, such as Mexico (1551), BogotA (1580), Caracas (1725), and Havana (1749). However, these were essentially theological schools in which clerics taught religion. As Stokes says, "Both professors and students were required under oath to accept the theory of the divine right of the Spanish King and such doctrines of the Catholic Church as the Immaculate Conception" (p. 68). In theory, students were required to present proofs of limpieza de sangre. Today, the universities still draw their students primarily from the middle and upper classes, and it is a curious phenomenon that leftist student leaders seldom come from the lower classes. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 29 cent, 41 per cent of the Mexican population is illiterate, and the rate is considerably higher in most Middle American countries. There is an evident correlation between dictatorship and illiteracy. The countries which in the 1940's devoted the lowest percentage of their total budget to education were Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic, with 6.5 per cent and 5.5 per cent, respectively. Because of pressure from the Catholic Church, coeducation is discouraged, and even in nominally anticlerical Mexico, Minister of Education Jose Angel Ceniceros refused to consider a petition asking for coeducation in the capital. The Church has been fighting a legacy of anticlerical laws and is bent on gaining as much control as possible over education so as to be able to mold the minds of the young. The anticlericalism of the nineteenth century has left its legacy in many countries in constitutional provisions against the Church's entering the field of education. There is a concerted cler- ical attempt to have these provisos nullified or disregarded. Gov- ernments sometimes make a deal with the Church in order to gain the valuable support of that institution. Thus in Guatemala, President Ydigoras Fuentes has permitted the Church to give reli- gious instruction in schools even though it is forbidden by the constitution. The traditional schools have cultivated rote memori- zation, and the followers of Dewey, Claparede, Decroly, Herbart, Kerschensteiner, and Ferriere have been attacked as dangerous leftists. Teachers College, Columbia University, has an amazing influence in Middle America, but it is fought by clerical and conservative influences. Only a small percentage of elementary school students go on to high school, secondary education being largely in the hands of private entrepreneurs. On the advanced level, some Middle Ameri- can universities are of ancient foundation, such as Mexico (1551), Bogota (1580), Caracas (1725), and Havana (1749). However, these were essentially theological schools in which clerics taught religion. As Stokes says, "Both professors and students were required under oath to accept the theory of the divine right of the Spanish King and such doctrines of the Catholic Church as the Immaculate Conception" (p. 68). In theory, students were required to present proofs of limpieza de sangre. Today, the universities still draw their students primarily from the middle and upper classes, and it is a curious phenomenon that leftist student leaders seldom come from the lower classes. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 29 cent, 41 per cent of the Mexican population is illiterate, and the rate is considerably higher in most Middle American countries. There is an evident correlation between dictatorship and illiteracy. The countries which in the 1940's devoted the lowest percentage of their total budget to education were Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic, with 6.5 per cent and 5.5 per cent, respectively. Because of pressure from the Catholic Church, coeducation is discouraged, and even in nominally anticlerical Mexico, Minister of Education Jos4 Angel Ceniceros refused to consider a petition asking for coeducation in the capital. The Church has been fighting a legacy of anticlerical laws and is bent on gaining as much control as possible over education so as to be able to mold the minds of the young. The anticlericalism of the nineteenth century has left its legacy in many countries in constitutional provisions against the Church's entering the field of education. There is a concerted cler- ical attempt to have these provisos nullified or disregarded. Gov- ernments sometimes make a deal with the Church in order to gain the valuable support of that institution. Thus in Guatemala, President Ydigoras Fuentes has permitted the Church to give reli- gious instruction in schools even though it is forbidden by the constitution. The traditional schools have cultivated rote memori- zation, and the followers of Dewey, Claparade, Decroly, Herbart, Kerschensteiner, and Ferriere have been attacked as dangerous leftists. Teachers College, Columbia University, has an amazing influence in Middle America, but it is fought by clerical and conservative influences. Only a small percentage of elementary school students go on to high school, secondary education being largely in the hands of private entrepreneurs. On the advanced level, some Middle Ameri- can universities are of ancient foundation, such as Mexico (1551), BogotA (1580), Caracas (1725), and Havana (1749). However, these were essentially theological schools in which clerics taught religion. As Stokes says, "Both professors and students were required under oath to accept the theory of the divine right of the Spanish King and such doctrines of the Catholic Church as the Immaculate Conception" (p. 68). In theory, students were required to present proofs of limpieza de sangre. Today, the universities still draw their students primarily from the middle and upper classes, and it is a curious phenomenon that leftist student leaders seldom come from the lower classes.  30 The Caribbean As a result of the concept of the university as a training place for the elite, there has been a heavy stress on the professions of medicine and law. However, only recently has there been some attempt to restrict admission to these faculties to a reasonable number of qualified and serious students. The result has been the existence of a large number of law students who have devoted themselves to politics rather than to study and who in later life have been professional politicians rather than professional lawyers; Cuba provides an excellent example of this. The participation of students in active political life has been facilitated by the fact that faculties have traditionally been located in busy downtown areas. The development of "university cities" has been in part an attempt to isolate the students from the center of town and to insulate them from the electrical nature of Latin American politics. Disturbances in the Instituto Politecnico and the Universidad Nacional Autonoma of Mexico City as well as in the University of Habana would suggest that this policy has been only partially successful. Traditionally in Latin countries, the university, unlike the high school, has not been a private institution. Only recently have seri- ous attempts been made to create private universities in the image of American universities; but, with the exception of a few institu- tions such as the Universidad de los Andes of Bogota, they are clerically-controlled, and therefore do not constitute independent institutions in the true sense of the word. The creation of such universities, notably in Argentina, has revived the clerical issue in a virulent form. The United States government and United States business have been actively pushing the development of such insti- tutions in the belief that the state universities were hotbeds of Communism; but there is a real danger that, in their eagerness to fight the Red menace, United States government and business will get caught in the bitter issue of clericalism versus laicism. Despite this recent development, the major universities of the Caribbean and the rest of Latin America are all state institutions. They do not have boards of trustees in the United States sense of the expression, and there has been a constant tension between the governments, which have tried to exercise direct control over the uni- versities they support, and the universities themselves. The move- ment in favor of so-called "university autonomy" spread all over Spanish America following a now historic movement by the stu- 30 The Caribbean 30 The Caribbean As a result of the concept of the university as a training place for the elite, there has been a heavy stress on the professions of medicine and law. However, only recently has there been some attempt to restrict admission to these faculties to a reasonable number of qualified and serious students. The result has been the existence of a large number of law students who have devoted themselves to politics rather than to study and who in later life have been professional politicians rather than professional lawyers; Cuba provides an excellent example of this. The participation of students in active political life has been facilitated by the fact that faculties have traditionally been located in busy downtown areas. The development of "university cities" has been in part an attempt to isolate the students from the center of town and to insulate them from the electrical nature of Latin American politics. Disturbances in the Instituto Politecnico and the Universidad Nacional Aut6noma of Mexico City as well as in the University of Habana would suggest that this policy has been only partially successful. Traditionally in Latin countries, the university, unlike the high school, has not been a private institution. Only recently have seri- ous attempts been made to create private universities in the image of American universities; but, with the exception of a few institu- tions such as the Universidad de los Andes of Bogota, they are clerically-controlled, and therefore do not constitute independent institutions in the true sense of the word. The creation of such universities, notably in Argentina, has revived the clerical issue in a virulent form. The United States government and United States business have been actively pushing the development of such insti- tutions in the belief that the state universities were hotbeds of Communism; but there is a real danger that, in their eagerness to fight the Red menace, United States government and business will get caught in the bitter issue of clericalism versus laicism. Despite this recent development, the major universities of the Caribbean and the rest of Latin America are all state institutions. They do not have boards of trustees in the United States sense of the expression, and there has been a constant tension between the governments, which have tried to exercise direct control over the uni- versities they support, and the universities themselves. The move- ment in favor of so-called "university autonomy" spread all over Spanish America following a now historic movement by the stu- As a result of the concept of the university as a training place for the elite, there has been a heavy stress on the professions of medicine and law. However, only recently has there been some attempt to restrict admission to these faculties to a reasonable number of qualified and serious students. The result has been the existence of a large number of law students who have devoted themselves to politics rather than to study and who in later life have been professional politicians rather than professional lawyers; Cuba provides an excellent example of this. The participation of students in active political life has been facilitated by the fact that faculties have traditionally been located in busy downtown areas. The development of "university cities" has been in part an attempt to isolate the students from the center of town and to insulate them from the electrical nature of Latin American politics. Disturbances in the Instituto Politsenico and the Universidad Nacional Autnoma of Mexico City as well as in the University of Habana would suggest that this policy has been only partially successful. Traditionally in Latin countries, the university, unlike the high school, has not been a private institution. Only recently have seri- ous attempts been made to create private universities in the image of American universities; but, with the exception of a few institu- tions such as the Universidad de los Andes of Bogota, they are clerically-controlled, and therefore do not constitute independent institutions in the true sense of the word. The creation of such universities, notably in Argentina, has revived the clerical issue in a virulent form. The United States government and United States business have been actively pushing the development of such insti- tutions in the belief that the state universities were hotbeds of Communism; but there is a real danger that, in their eagerness to fight the Red menace, United States government and business will get caught in the bitter issue of clericalism versus laicism. Despite this recent development, the major universities of the Caribbean and the rest of Latin America are all state institutions. They do not have boards of trustees in the United States sense of the expression, and there has been a constant tension between the governments, which have tried to exercise direct control over the uni- versities they support, and the universities themselves. The move- ment in favor of so-called "university autonomy" spread all over Spanish America following a now historic movement by the stu-  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 31 dents at the Argentine University of Cordoba in 1917. The univer- sities have tried to protect their "autonomy" by developing as the basic governing body a university council consisting of representa- tives of the faculty, the students, and the alumni. The rector or president is elected for a limited term by this council, sometimes on the advice of the faculty. The exact formula differs from country to country and from university to university. In ideal circumstances, the result is a form of self-government vaguely reminiscent of that of Oxford and Cambridge; but authoritarian governments - and Middle America has had more than its share of them - seldom hesitate to use force to bring the universities under their thumb. We in the United States are prone, quite rightly, to criticize our educational system; it would be unhealthy if we did not. We may console ourselves with the fact that serious Latin Americans are equally critical of theirs. We may call attention to the essays by Fernando Diez de Medina, Galo Plaza, Justo Pastor Benitez, Ricardo J. Alfaro, Jorge Basadre, and Bernardo A. Houssay in the volume Responsible Freedom in the Americas (Garden City: Dou- bleday, 1955). This symposium brings together the papers presented at a conference on Latin America held at Columbia University as part of the bicentennial program in 1954. The first two hundred pages of this book are devoted to problems of education in Latin America. L Mexico The educational picture in Mexico can be understood only in terms of the continuing, albeit muted struggle between leftists and rightists, between defenders of laicism and clericals. That a few years ago the latter should have tarred the statue of Benito Juirez on the Alameda in Mexico City, thus inciting the government to de- clare the anniversary of his death a national holiday (his birthday already enjoyed this status) showed that the War of La Reforma was still going on. Article 3 of the 1917 Constitution, which declared that education must be socialistic, i.e., anticlerical, became a shibboleth, especially after the late Narciso Bassols became Min- ister of Education. He was an angular, uncompromising, honest leftist, reminiscent of Juirez, and both his personality and his policy were such as to arouse the wrath of the clericals. They accused EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 31 dents at the Argentine University of C6rdoba in 1917. The univer- sities have tried to protect their "autonomy" by developing as the basic governing body a university council consisting of representa- tives of the faculty, the students, and the alumni. The rector or president is elected for a limited term by this council, sometimes on the advice of the faculty. The exact formula differs from country to country and from university to university. In ideal circumstances, the result is a form of self-government vaguely reminiscent of that of Oxford and Cambridge; but authoritarian governments - and Middle America has had more than its share of them - seldom hesitate to use force to bring the universities under their thumb. We in the United States are prone, quite rightly, to criticize our educational system; it would be unhealthy if we did not. We may console ourselves with the fact that serious Latin Americans are equally critical of theirs. We may call attention to the essays by Fernando Diez de Medina, Galo Plaza, Justo Pastor Benitez, Ricardo J. Alfaro, Jorge Basadre, and Bernardo A. Houssay in the volume Responsible Freedom in the Americas (Garden City: Dou- bleday, 1955). This symposium brings together the papers presented at a conference on Latin America held at Columbia University as part of the bicentennial program in 1954. The first two hundred pages of this book are devoted to problems of education in Latin America. I. Mexico The educational picture in Mexico can be understood only in terms of the continuing, albeit muted struggle between leftists and rightists, between defenders of laicism and clericals. That a few years ago the latter should have tarred the statue of Benito Juirez on the Alameda in Mexico City, thus inciting the government to de- clare the anniversary of his death a national holiday (his birthday already enjoyed this status) showed that the War of La Reforma was still going on. Article 3 of the 1917 Constitution, which declared that education must be socialistic, i.e., anticlerical, became a shibboleth, especially after the late Narciso Bassols became Min- ister of Education. He was an angular, uncompromising, honest leftist, reminiscent of Juirez, and both his personality and his policy were such as to arouse the wrath of the clericals. They accused EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 31 dents at the Argentine University of C6rdoba in 1917. The univer- sities have tried to protect their "autonomy" by developing as the basic governing body a university council consisting of representa- tives of the faculty, the students, and the alumni. The rector or president is elected for a limited term by this council, sometimes on the advice of the faculty. The exact formula differs from country to country and from university to university. In ideal circumstances, the result is a form of self-government vaguely reminiscent of that of Oxford and Cambridge; but authoritarian governments - and Middle America has had more than its share of them - seldom hesitate to use force to bring the universities under their thumb. We in the United States are prone, quite rightly, to criticize our educational system; it would be unhealthy if we did not. We may console ourselves with the fact that serious Latin Americans are equally critical of theirs. We may call attention to the essays by Fernando Diez de Medina, Galo Plaza, Justo Pastor Benitez, Ricardo J. Alfaro, Jorge Basadre, and Bernardo A. Houssay in the volume Responsible Freedom in the Americas (Garden City: Dou- bleday, 1955). This symposium brings together the papers presented at a conference on Latin America held at Columbia University as part of the bicentennial program in 1954. The first two hundred pages of this book are devoted to problems of education in Latin America. 1. Mexico The educational picture in Mexico can be understood only in terms of the continuing, albeit muted struggle between leftists and rightists, between defenders of laicism and clericals. That a few years ago the latter should have tarred the statue of Benito Juirez on the Alameda in Mexico City, thus inciting the government to de- clare the anniversary of his death a national holiday (his birthday already enjoyed this status) showed that the War of La Reforma was still going on. Article 3 of the 1917 Constitution, which declared that education must be socialistic, i.e., anticlerical, became a shibboleth, especially after the late Narciso Bassols became Min- ister of Education. He was an angular, uncompromising, honest leftist, reminiscent of Juarez, and both his personality and his policy were such as to arouse the wrath of the clericals. They accused  32 The Caribbean him of being a Communist and of promoting free love in schools. After Bassols faded from the public scene, Article 3 was revised, the key word "socialistic" was omitted, and the clericals celebrated a victory.'" The constitution even now forbids the Church from engaging in teaching, but the law is blatantly disregarded. In this and other ways, the constitution is to some extent a dead letter; there would be quite an upheaval if a new CArdenas appeared and insisted on the complete observance of the law. There has long been an explosive agglomeration of students in Mexico City. University admissions policies are extremely lax, and thousands of "students" scarcely deserve to be so described. At long last there is in Latin America a willingness to restrict university enrollment, but the authorities in Mexico City have scarcely dared to do so. Instead, the government has built a grandiose University City on the edge of the capital at the Pedregal in order to siphon off the students from the center of town. Moreover, the develop- ment of provincial universities is being encouraged in order to keep students from flocking to Mexico City and becoming what Maurice Barres called diracines. The struggle between leftists and rightists in Mexico has given rise to a curious duality of university institutions. The Universidad Nacional Aut6noma in Mexico City has traditionally been a rightist institution, the leftist counterpart being the Instituto Politenico. In the second city of Mexico, Guadalajara, the dichotomy is even sharper. The private Universidad Aut6noma de Guadalajara, which is affiliated with the Universidad Nacional Autslnoma of Mexico City, is the rightist organization, while the Universidad de Guada- lajara, the state institution, is commonly known as the "socialist university.-2 The upper classes in Guadalajara are ultraconservative, and feelings have run high between the two universities, which have been located across the street from each other. The state of Jalisco is building a university city for the state institution on the outskirts of Guadalajara, so that the contenders will at least be physically separated. A professor of the University of Guadalajara confessed to me that he was frightened to enter the rival's building, and street fights between the two student bodies have been frequent. The latest episode in the struggle between the two systems has been a campaign accusing the rector (president) of the Universidad Nacional Aut6noma of Mexico City, Nabor Carrillo, and his admin- *Notes to this chapter begin on page 46. 32 The Caribbean 82 The Caribbean him of being a Communist and of promoting free love in schools. After Bassols faded from the public scene, Article 3 was revised, the key word "socialistic" was omitted, and the clericals celebrated a victory.'* The constitution even now forbids the Church from engaging in teaching, but the law is blatantly disregarded. In this and other ways, the constitution is to some extent a dead letter; there would be quite an upheaval if a new CArdenas appeared and insisted on the complete observance of the law. There has long been an explosive agglomeration of students in Mexico City. University admissions policies are extremely lax, and thousands of "students" scarcely deserve to be so described. At long last there is in Latin America a willingness to restrict university enrollment, but the authorities in Mexico City have scarcely dared to do so. Instead, the government has built a grandiose University City on the edge of the capital at the Pedregal in order to siphon off the students from the center of town. Moreover, the develop- ment of provincial universities is being encouraged in order to keep students from flocking to Mexico City and becoming what Maurice Barris called deracins. The struggle between leftists and rightists in Mexico has given rise to a curious duality of university institutions. The Universidad Nacional Aut6noma in Mexico City has traditionally been a rightist institution, the leftist counterpart being the Instituto Politcnico. In the second city of Mexico, Guadalajara, the dichotomy is even sharper. The private Universidad Autonoma de Guadalajara, which is affiliated with the Universidad Nacional Autonoma of Mexico City, is the rightist organization, while the Universidad de Guada- lajara, the state institution, is commonly known as the "socialist university."2 The upper classes in Guadalajara are ultraconservative, and feelings have run high between the two universities, which have been located across the street from each other. The state of Jalisco is building a university city for the state institution on the outskirts of Guadalajara, so that the contenders will at least be physically separated. A professor of the University of Guadalajara confessed to me that he was frightened to enter the rival's building, and street fights between the two student bodies have been frequent. The latest episode in the struggle between the two systems has been a campaign accusing the rector (president) of the Universidad Nacional Aut6noma of Mexico City, Nabor Carrillo, and his admin- *Notes to this chapter begin on page 46. him of being a Communist and of promoting free love in schools. After Bassols faded from the public scene, Article 3 was revised, the key word "socialistic" was omitted, and the clericals celebrated a victory.?* The constitution even now forbids the Church from engaging in teaching, but the law is blatantly disregarded. In this and other ways, the constitution is to some extent a dead letter; there would be quite an upheaval if a new CArdenas appeared and insisted on the complete observance of the law. There has long been an explosive agglomeration of students in Mexico City. University admissions policies are extremely lax, and thousands of "students" scarcely deserve to be so described. At long last there is in Latin America a willingness to restrict university enrollment, but the authorities in Mexico City have scarcely dared to do so. Instead, the government has built a grandiose University City on the edge of the capital at the Pedregal in order to siphon off the students from the center of town. Moreover, the develop- ment of provincial universities is being encouraged in order to keep students from flocking to Mexico City and becoming what Maurice Barris called diracinds. The struggle between leftists and rightists in Mexico has given rise to a curious duality of university institutions. The Universidad Nacional Autonoma in Mexico City has traditionally been a rightist institution, the leftist counterpart being the Instituto Politecnico. In the second city of Mexico, Guadalajara, the dichotomy is even sharper. The private Universidad Aut6noma de Guadalajara, which is affiliated with the Universidad Nacional Aut6noma of Mexico City, is the rightist organization, while the Universidad de Guada- lajara, the state institution, is commonly known as the "socialist university."2 The upper classes in Guadalajara are ultraconservative, and feelings have run high between the two universities, which have been located across the street from each other. The state of Jalisco is building a university city for the state institution on the outskirts of Guadalajara, so that the contenders will at least be physically separated. A professor of the University of Guadalajara confessed to me that he was frightened to enter the rival's building, and street fights between the two student bodies have been frequent. The latest episode in the struggle between the two systems has been a campaign accusing the rector (president) of the Universidad Nacional Aut6noma of Mexico City, Nabor Carrillo, and his admin- "Notes to this chapter begin on page 46.  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 33 istration of misuse of funds. There is widespread suspicion that these attacks are politically inspired. I. Central Americas Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala: Since 1944 the Univer- sity has been completely autonomous. The president is elected by the deans of the various faculties. No representative of the govern- ment is a member of the Consejo Superior Universitario. Funds for the University are fixed by law at 2 per cent of the national budget. This amount has seldom, however, accrued to the Univer- sity. However, recently the president, deans, and student delegates have attended the budget sessions of the national congress, with the result that the University receives approximately its legitimate share of the national budget.4 Universidad de El Salvador: The University is autonomous in that it is completely self-governing. It elects its own president and selects its own faculty members without governmental interference. It is supported, however, by funds approved by the national legis- lature. Each expenditure made by the University is subject to scrutiny by an accounting unit of the national government. This unit may reject or may ask for a review of the expenditure. Obvi- ously, this does not permit complete autonomy for the University." Universidad Nacional Autsnoma de Honduras: Since 1957, the University has been autonomous. The Claustro Pleno (full faculty council) elects the president, vice-president, general secretary, and treasurer. The council is made up of these officers, the deans of the faculties, and faculty and student representatives. No representative of the national government is on the Claustro Pleno. By law, as in Guatemala, the University should receive 2 per cent of the national budget. In practice it almost never receives this sum." Universidad Nacional de Nicaragua: There were traditionally two universities in Nicaragua, one in the liberal city of Leon, the other in the conservative stronghold of Granada. In the 1940's a university operated in the capital, Managua, but it became a center of opposition to the Somoza dictatorship. General Somoza, who belonged to the Liberal party, thereupon closed down both the universities of Managua and Granada, leaving only that of Le6n. It was a piece of historic irony that he should have been killed in his favorite university city of Le6n. The dictator's son attempted to EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 33 istration of misuse of funds. There is widespread suspicion that these attacks are politically inspired. II. Central Americas Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala: Since 1944 the Univer- sity has been completely autonomous. The president is elected by the deans of the various faculties. No representative of the govern- ment is a member of the Consejo Superior Universitario. Funds for the University are fixed by law at 2 per cent of the national budget. This amount has seldom, however, accrued to the Univer- sity. However, recently the president, deans, and student delegates have attended the budget sessions of the national congress, with the result that the University receives approximately its legitimate share of the national budget.4 Universidad de El Salvador: The University is autonomous in that it is completely self-governing. It elects its own president and selects its own faculty members without governmental interference. It is supported, however, by funds approved by the national legis- lature. Each expenditure made by the University is subject to scrutiny by an accounting unit of the national government. This unit may reject or may ask for a review of the expenditure. Obvi- ously, this does not permit complete autonomy for the University." Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Honduras: Since 1957, the University has been autonomous. The Claustro Pleno (full faculty council) elects the president, vice-president, general secretary, and treasurer. The council is made up of these officers, the deans of the faculties, and faculty and student representatives. No representative of the national government is on the Claustro Pleno. By law, as in Guatemala, the University should receive 2 per cent of the national budget. In practice it almost never receives this sum." Universidad Nacional de Nicaragua: There were traditionally two universities in Nicaragua, one in the liberal city of Ledon, the other in the conservative stronghold of Granada. In the 1940's a university operated in the capital, Managua, but it became a center of opposition to the Somoza dictatorship. General Somoza, who belonged to the Liberal party, thereupon closed down both the universities of Managua and Granada, leaving only that of Le6n. It was a piece of historic irony that he should have been killed in his favorite university city of Ledn. The dictator's son attempted to EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 33 istration of misuse of funds. There is widespread suspicion that these attacks are politically inspired. II. Central Americas Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala: Since 1944 the Univer- sity has been completely autonomous. The president is elected by the deans of the various faculties. No representative of the govern- ment is a member of the Consejo Superior Universitario. Funds for the University are fixed by law at 2 per cent of the national budget. This amount has seldom, however, accrued to the Univer- sity. However, recently the president, deans, and student delegates have attended the budget sessions of the national congress, with the result that the University receives approximately its legitimate share of the national budget.4 Universidad de El Salvador: The University is autonomous in that it is completely self-governing. It elects its own president and selects its own faculty members without governmental interference. It is supported, however, by funds approved by the national legis- lature. Each expenditure made by the University is subject to scrutiny by an accounting unit of the national government. This unit may reject or may ask for a review of the expenditure. Obvi- ously, this does not permit complete autonomy for the University." Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Honduras: Since 1957, the University has been autonomous. The Claustro Pleno (full faculty council) elects the president, vice-president, general secretary, and treasurer. The council is made up of these ofteers, the deans of the faculties, and faculty and student representatives. No representative of the national government is on the Claustro Pleno. By law, as in Guatemala, the University should receive 2 per cent of the national budget. In practice it ahmost never receives this sum.0 Universidad Nacional de Nicaragua: There were traditionally two universities in Nicaragua, one in the liberal city of Le6n, the other in the conservative stronghold of Granada. In the 1940's a university operated in the capital, Managua, but it became a center of opposition to the Somoza dictatorship. General Somoza, who belonged to the Liberal party, thereupon closed down both the universities of Managua and Granada, leaving only that of Leon. It was a piece of historic irony that he should have been killed in his favorite university city of Loen. The dictator's son attempted to  34 The Caribbean prove that he was democratic, and on April 27, 1958, he decreed that the University should be autonomous and entirely self-governing. Nevertheless, one of the ten members of the governing body, the Junta Universitaria, is a representative of the Ministry of Public Education. Furthermore, the University is dependent upon the National Congress for its funds, although there is, at present, no evidence of dissatisfaction with the sums provided.' However, the students are generally hostile to the Somoza regime, and after serious clashes with the police in mid-1959 barricaded themselves in the University. Nicaragua is thus left without a university func- tioning normally. Universidad de Costa Rica: Although the University is autono- mous, elects its own officers, and selects its faculty, one of the sixteen members of the Consejo Universitario is the Minister of Public Education. The Asamblea Universitaria, however, is the final authority, and it consists of the members of the Consejo and of the faculty and of student delegates. Revenues for the University are established at 10 per cent of the budget allotted to the Ministry of Public Education. This portion is specified in the National Constitution.' Universidad de PanamA: In 1948, following the quite ineffective First Meeting of American Ministers of Education in Panama, the Panamanian Government renamed the University of Panama the Inter-American University; but when it became clear that no other country was interested, the name University of Panama was restored. Thanks to the energy of the late president, Octavio Mendez Pereira, an attractive university city was built outside the downtown area. The University is autonomous, although the Minister of Public Education is one of the fourteen members of the Consejo Ejecutivo. The other members include the president, the deans of the six fac- ulties, and one student delegate from each of the faculties. The Asamblea Universitaria, made up of the Consejo Ejecutivo, all the faculty members, and two student representatives from each fac- ulty, elects the president and has the ultimate power in university affairs. Funds for the University are allocated by the national legislature and, by law, must be 15 per cent in excess of the Uni- versity's budget for the previous year. This provision will clearly have to be altered in the future, but it places the University in an excellent bargaining position when legislative changes are made.' 34 The Caribbean prove that he was democratic, and on April 27, 1958, he decreed that the University should be autonomous and entirely self-governing. Nevertheless, one of the ten members of the governing body, the Junta Universitaria, is a representative of the Ministry of Public Education. Furthermore, the University is dependent upon the National Congress for its funds, although there is, at present, no evidence of dissatisfaction with the sums provided. However, the students are generally hostile to the Somoza regime, and after serious clashes with the police in mid-1959 barricaded themselves in the University. Nicaragua is thus left without a university func- tioning normally. Universidad de Costa Rica: Although the University is autono- mous, elects its own officers, and selects its faculty, one of the sixteen members of the Consejo Universitario is the Minister of Public Education. The Asamblea Universitaria, however, is the final authority, and it consists of the members of the Consejo and of the faculty and of student delegates. Revenues for the University are established at 10 per cent of the budget allotted to the Ministry of Public Education. This portion is specified in the National Constitution.' Universidad de Panama: In 1943, following the quite ineffective First Meeting of American Ministers of Education in Panama, the Panamanian Government renamed the University of Panama the Inter-American University; but when it became clear that no other country was interested, the name University of Panama was restored. Thanks to the energy of the late president, Octavio Mendez Pereira, an attractive university city was built outside the downtown area. The University is autonomous, although the Minister of Public Education is one of the fourteen members of the Consejo Ejecutivo. The other members include the president, the deans of the six fac- ulties, and one student delegate from each of the faculties. The Asamblea Universitaria, made up of the Consejo Ejecutivo, all the faculty members, and two student representatives from each fac- ulty, elects the president and has the ultimate power in university affairs. Funds for the University are allocated by the national legislature and, by law, must be 15 per cent in excess of the Uni- versity's budget for the previous year. This provision will clearly have to be altered in the future, but it places the University in an excellent bargaining position when legislative changes are made.0 34 The Caribbean prove that he was democratic, and on April 27, 1958, he decreed that the University should be autonomous and entirely self-governing. Nevertheless, one of the ten members of the governing body, the Junta Universitaria, is a representative of the Ministry of Public Education. Furthermore, the University is dependent upon the National Congress for its funds, although there is, at present, no evidence of dissatisfaction with the sums provided. However, the students are generally hostile to the Somoza regime, and after serious clashes with the police in mid-1959 barricaded themselves in the University. Nicaragua is thus left without a university func- tioning normally. Universidad de Costa Rica: Although the University is autono- mous, elects its own officers, and selects its faculty, one of the sixteen members of the Consejo Universitario is the Minister of Public Education. The Asamblea Universitaria, however, is the final authority, and it consists of the members of the Consejo and of the faculty and of student delegates. Revenues for the University are established at 10 per cent of the budget allotted to the Ministry of Public Education. This portion is specified in the National Constitution.' Universidad de PanamA: In 1943, following the quite ineffective First Meeting of American Ministers of Education in Panama, the Panamanian Government renamed the University of Panama the Inter-American University; but when it became clear that no other country was interested, the name University of Panama was restored. Thanks to the energy of the late president, Octavio Mendez Pereira, an attractive university city was built outside the downtown area. The University is autonomous, although the Minister of Public Education is one of the fourteen members of the Consejo Ejecutivo. The other members include the president, the deans of the six fac- ulties, and one student delegate from each of the faculties. The Asamblea Universitaria, made up of the Consejo Ejecutivo, all the faculty members, and two student representatives from each fac- ulty, elects the president and has the ultimate power in university affairs. Funds for the University are allocated by the national legislature and, by law, must be 15 per cent in excess of the Uni- versity's budget for the previous year. This provision will clearly have to be altered in the future, but it places the University in an excellent bargaining position when legislative changes are made.5  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 35 I had asked Mr. Herrick to investigate the legal possibility of establishing private universities in Central American countries. His interviews elicited the information that there are apparently no legal restrictions on the founding and operating of such institutions. However, he was never able to gain a really satisfactory answer to my queries concerning the fate of the Universidad Libre begun in Managua in 1946 after the closing of the Universidad Central there. As nearly as he could determine, it was harassed by problems of finance and of accreditation. In Costa Rica, a barrier to the effective functioning of a private university could be the glacial speed with which the Consejo Superior would act in accrediting such an insti- tution. Plans are under way now for the founding of a Catholic university in Guatemala, but they are only beginning. In El Salva- dor, land has already been given for a university in Santa Ana with the provision that it be situated there. The University will be Catholic and may be Jesuit. There is a likelihood that it will call itself a Central American university, but there is a question as to how "Central American" it will actually be. III. The Caribbean Islands Ever since the days of Marti, Cuban students have been engaged in a bitter fight against recurrent dictatorships. It was the ABC student cells which hastened the fall of the dictatorship of Gerardo Machado, and readers are referred to the Hispanic American Report for details of the long struggle between Batista and the students, who finally overthrew the well-armed dictator. In the course of this crusade, the University of Havana (the others scarcely count) achieved prestige, autonomy, and some degree of affluence. The constitution allocates 21 per cent of the national budget to the University, and Cuba is one of the few Latin American countries where professors are paid a substantial rather than a token salary (admittedly, "full-time professors" are becoming more common in other countries, but they are still very much of a minority). Gov- ernment police are forbidden by law to enter the campus of the University of Havana, and the students have sometimes taken advantage of this to turn the buildings into an armed citadel. The government of Fidel Castro represents in large measure the student groups which fought with fanatical bravery against the armed might of Batista. Today there seems to be a close understanding EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 35 I had asked Mr. Herrick to investigate the legal possibility of establishing private universities in Central American countries. His interviews elicited the information that there are apparently no legal restrictions on the founding and operating of such institutions. However, he was never able to gain a really satisfactory answer to my queries concerning the fate of the Universidad Libre begun in Managua in 1946 after the closing of the Universidad Central there. As nearly as he could determine, it was harassed by problems of finance and of accreditation. In Costa Rica, a barrier to the effective functioning of a private university could be the glacial speed with which the Consejo Superior would act in accrediting such an insti- tution. Plans are under way now for the founding of a Catholic university in Guatemala, but they are only beginning. In El Salva- dor, land has already been given for a university in Santa Ana with the provision that it be situated there. The University will be Catholic and may be Jesuit. There is a likelihood that it will call itself a Central American university, but there is a question as to how "Central American" it will actually be. III. The Caribbean Islands Ever since the days of Marti, Cuban students have been engaged in a bitter fight against recurrent dictatorships. It was the ABC student cells which hastened the fall of the dictatorship of Gerardo Machado, and readers are referred to the Hispanic American Report for details of the long struggle between Batista and the students, who finally overthrew the well-armed dictator. In the course of this crusade, the University of Havana (the others scarcely count) achieved prestige, autonomy, and some degree of affluence. The constitution allocates 2% per cent of the national budget to the University, and Cuba is one of the few Latin American countries where professors are paid a substantial rather than a token salary (admittedly, "full-time professors" are becoming more common in other countries, but they are still very much of a minority). Gov- ernment police are forbidden by law to enter the campus of the University of Havana, and the students have sometimes taken advantage of this to turn the buildings into an armed citadel. The government of Fidel Castro represents in large measure the student groups which fought with fanatical bravery against the armed might of Batista. Today there seems to be a close understanding EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 35 I had asked Mr. Herrick to investigate the legal possibility of establishing private universities in Central American countries. His interviews elicited the information that there are apparently no legal restrictions on the founding and operating of such institutions. However, he was never able to gain a really satisfactory answer to my queries concerning the fate of the Universidad Libre begun in Managua in 1946 after the closing of the Universidad Central there. As nearly as he could determine, it was harassed by problems of finance and of accreditation. In Costa Rica, a barrier to the effective functioning of a private university could be the glacial speed with which the Consejo Superior would act in accrediting such an insti- tution. Plans are under way now for the founding of a Catholic university in Guatemala, but they are only beginning. In El Salva- dor, land has already been given for a university in Santa Ana with the provision that it be situated there. The University will be Catholic and may be Jesuit. There is a likelihood that it will call itself a Central American university, but there is a question as to how "Central American" it will actually be. III. The Caribbean Islands Ever since the days of Marti, Cuban students have been engaged in a bitter fight against recurrent dictatorships. It was the ABC student cells which hastened the fall of the dictatorship of Gerardo Machado, and readers are referred to the Hispanic American Report for details of the long struggle between Batista and the students, who finally overthrew the well-armed dictator. In the course of this crusade, the University of Havana (the others scarcely count) achieved prestige, autonomy, and some degree of affluence. The constitution allocates 2 per cent of the national budget to the University, and Cuba is one of the few Latin American countries where professors are paid a substantial rather than a token salary (admittedly, "full-time professors" are becoming more common in other countries, but they are still very much of a minority). Gov- ernment police are forbidden by law to enter the campus of the University of Havana, and the students have sometimes taken advantage of this to turn the buildings into an armed citadel. The government of Fidel Castro represents in large measure the student groups which fought with fanatical bravery against the armed might of Batista. Today there seems to be a close understanding  86 The Caribbean between the government and the University, and the students form an armed militia pledged to defend the Castro regime. Presumably a similar situation exists in the much smaller Central University in Santa Clara and the Oriente University in Santiago. The Catholic University of Santo Tomis Villanueva, which had shown less revolutionary zeal, is somewhat out of favor. There was at one time a tacit understanding between Castro and the Church that the Church would support his movement and that he would after his victory restore religious education to schools, but anticlerical elements in Castro's government prevented him from carrying out this agreement. There seems to be a consensus among observers that the curse of Cuba and of Cuban education has been corrupt politicians. In a now-historical address given at the Stanford Conference on Latin America, held on October 9-11, 1959, Herbert L. Matthews defended the present regime of Fidel Castro (whose shortcomings he freely recognized) by saying that it had given Cuba its first honest government. The university group had hoped for reform from the administrations of Gran San Martin (once a professor) and Prio Socarrais, but both tolerated something approaching gangsterism in the educational life of the country. It boded ill for the prestige of education in Cuba that the worst offender should be precisely the Minister of Education in the last months of Grau's term, Jose Manuel Aleman, who died leaving millions in real estate in Cuba and in Miami. When asked how he acquired his wealth, Alemin reportedly said quite cynically that he had carried it out in suitcases from the Treasury. Senator Pelayo Cuervo accused the Gran San Martin administration of having misappropriated $174 million (His- panic American Report, IV, No. 4, p. 24). It is easy to dismiss Fidel Castro as a madman, just as from the peace and quiet of the American scene it was natural to regard Senator Eduardo Chibis, leader of the Ortodoxo party, as insane when he committed suicide during a radio speech as a protest against Cuban corruption. For the Cuban masses, ChibAs is a martyr, and his memory has had a profound influence on the university group and on many who are now guiding the destinies of Cuba. This is recognized by an impar- tial observer, S. Walter Washington, who spent two months in Cuba this summer and who reported on his observations in a paper entitled "The Political Activities of Latin American Students."10 The Cuban educational system has long suffered from political 36 The Caribbean 36 The Caribbean between the government and the University, and the students form an armed militia pledged to defend the Castro regime. Presumably a similar situation exists in the much smaller Central University in Santa Clara and the Oriente University in Santiago. The Catholic University of Santo Tomis Villanueva, which had shown less revolutionary zeal, is somewhat out of favor. There was at one time a tacit understanding between Castro and the Church that the Church would support his movement and that he would after his victory restore religious education to schools, but anticlerical elements in Castro's government prevented him from carrying out this agreement. There seems to be a consensus among observers that the curse of Cuba and of Cuban education has been corrupt politicians. In a now-historical address given at the Stanford Conference on Latin America, held on October 9-11, 1959, Herbert L. Matthews defended the present regime of Fidel Castro (whose shortcomings he freely recognized) by saying that it had given Cuba its first honest government. The university group had hoped for reform from the administrations of Grau San Martin (once a professor) and Prio Socarris, but both tolerated something approaching gangsterism in the educational life of the country. It boded ill for the prestige of education in Cuba that the worst offender should be precisely the Minister of Education in the last months of Grau's term, Jose Manuel Aleman, who died leaving millions in real estate in Cuba and in Miami. When asked how he acquired his wealth, Aleman reportedly said quite cynically that he had carried it out in suitcases from the Treasury. Senator Pelayo Cuervo accused the Grau San Martin administration of having misappropriated $174 million (His- panic Arerican Report, IV, No. 4, p. 24). It is easy to dismiss Fidel Castro as a madman, just as from the peace and quiet of the American scene it was natural to regard Senator Eduardo Chibas, leader of the Ortodoxo party, as insane when he committed suicide during a radio speech as a protest against Cuban corruption. For the Cuban masses, Chibias is a martyr, and his memory has had a profound influence on the university group and on many who are now guiding the destinies of Cuba. This is recognized by an impar- tial observer, S. Walter Washington, who spent two months in Cuba this summer and who reported on his observations in a paper entitled "The Political Activities of Latin American Students.""0 The Cuban educational system has long suffered from political between the government and the University, and the students form an armed militia pledged to defend the Castro regime. Presumably a similar situation exists in the much smaller Central University in Santa Clara and the Oriente University in Santiago. The Catholic University of Santo Tomis Villanueva, which had shown less revolutionary zeal, is somewhat out of favor. There was at one time a tacit understanding between Castro and the Church that the Church would support his movement and that he would after his victory restore religious education to schools, but anticlerical elements in Castro's government prevented him from carrying out this agreement. There seems to be a consensus among observers that the curse of Cuba and of Cuban education has been corrupt politicians. In a now-historical address given at the Stanford Conference on Latin America, held on October 9-11, 1959, Herbert L. Matthews defended the present regime of Fidel Castro (whose shortcomings he freely recognized) by saying that it had given Cuba its first honest government. The university group had hoped for reform from the administrations of Gran San Martin (once a professor) and Prio Socarras, but both tolerated something approaching gangsterism in the educational life of the country. It boded ill for the prestige of education in Cuba that the worst offender should be precisely the Minister of Education in the last months of Grau's term, Jose Manuel AlemAn, who died leaving millions in real estate in Cuba and in Miami. When asked how he acquired his wealth, Alemin reportedly said quite cynically that he had carried it out in suitcases from the Treasury. Senator Pelayo Cuervo accused the Gran San Martin administration of having misappropriated $174 million (His- panic American Report, IV, No. 4, p. 24). It is easy to dismiss Fidel Castro as a madman, just as from the peace and quiet of the American scene it was natural to regard Senator Eduardo Chibas, leader of the Ortodoxo party, as insane when he committed suicide during a radio speech as a protest against Cuban corruption. For the Cuban masses, Chibis is a martyr, and his memory has had a profound influence on the university group and on many who are now guiding the destinies of Cuba. This is recognized by an impar- tial observer, S. Walter Washington, who spent two months in Cuba this summer and who reported on his observations in a paper entitled "The Political Activities of Latin American Students.""5 The Cuban educational system has long suffered from political  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 37 corruption from top to bottom. The Statesmas Year-Book for 1959 says quite candidly: "Teachers are political appointees with life- tenure on full salary whether teaching or not; the rectification of this is regarded as Cuba's major educational problem." As a result, Cuba has not received a proper return on its investment in educa- tion. Education is theoretically compulsory between the ages of 7 and 14 and free, but, as so frequently is the case in Latin America, this requirement has meant practically nothing. This is proved by the fact that not only the absolute number but even the percentage of illiterates has increased. The 1958 census showed that 23.6 per cent of all those over 10 years of age were illiterate, while the pro- portion of those between 10 and 14 years was 28.8 per cent. It is saying a great deal, but Cuba has probably the worst record of corruption in the Americas. The reason for this is difficult to ascertain. Certainly the nefarious influence of Miami and Las Vegas gambling syndicates and the presence of hordes of American tour- ists for whom the summum bonum is gambling have been catalytic agents. Incidentally, both of these phenomena have done the United States immense harm in Middle America, where Russia is now widely regarded as a more serious, more intelligent, and more moral country than the United States. This is patent in the cartoons of Abel Quezada, who has just sketched his way through Russia; his graphic commentary may be seen in the conservative Mexican newspaper Excelsior. In an essay which appeared in the last issue of Cuadernos (39, November-December, 1959) and which bore the significant title "La 'agonia' antillana," the Peruvian writer Luis Alberto Sanchez suggests that Caribbean corruption has deep historical roots: the absence of an Indian tradition which would give the country some kind of telluric stability, and the long history of rapacious exploita- tion of the area and its imported Negroes by white adventurers. While SAnchez is less than fair to the United States, the United Fruit Company, and Great Britain, his description of the Caribbean as an amoral, money-crazy region is not without a considerable measure of truth; and he points out the deleterious effect this has had on education. The author of this paper travelled the whole length of Cuba in December, 1959, and was struck by the energy with which the new government is pursuing the development of education. Armando Hart DAvalos, the young Minister of Education, is a EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 37 corruption from top to bottom. The Statesman's Year-Book for 1959 says quite candidly: "Teachers are political appointees with life- tenure on full salary whether teaching or not; the rectification of this is regarded as Cuba's major educational problem." As a result, Cuba has not received a proper return on its investment in educa- tion. Education is theoretically compulsory between the ages of 7 and 14 and free, but, as so frequently is the case in Latin America, this requirement has meant practically nothing. This is proved by the fact that not only the absolute number but even the percentage of illiterates has increased. The 1953 census showed that 23.6 per cent of all those over 10 years of age were illiterate, while the pro- portion of those between 10 and 14 years was 28.8 per cent. It is saying a great deal, but Cuba has probably the worst record of corruption in the Americas. The reason for this is difficult to ascertain. Certainly the nefarious influence of Miami and Las Vegas gambling syndicates and the presence of hordes of American tour- ists for whom the summum bonum is gambling have been catalytic agents. Incidentally, both of these phenomena have done the United States immense harm in Middle America, where Russia is now widely regarded as a more serious, more intelligent, and more moral country than the United States. This is patent in the cartoons of Abel Quezada, who has just sketched his way through Russia; his graphic commentary may be seen in the conservative Mexican newspaper Excelsior. In an essay which appeared in the last issue of Cuadernos (39, November-December, 1959) and which bore the significant title "La 'agonia' antillana," the Peruvian writer Luis Alberto SAnchez suggests that Caribbean corruption has deep historical roots: the absence of an Indian tradition which would give the country some kind of telluric stability, and the long history of rapacious exploita- tion of the area and its imported Negroes by white adventurers. While SAnchez is less than fair to the United States, the United Fruit Company, and Great Britain, his description of the Caribbean as an amoral, money-crazy region is not without a considerable measure of truth; and he points out the deleterious effect this has had on education. The author of this paper travelled the whole length of Cuba in December, 1959, and was struck by the energy with which the new government is pursuing the development of education. Armando Hart Divalos, the young Minister of Education, is a EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 37 corruption from top to bottom. The Statesma s Year-Book for 1959 says quite candidly: "Teachers are political appointees with life- tenure on full salary whether teaching or not; the rectification of this is regarded as Cuba's major educational problem." As a result, Cuba has not received a proper return on its investment in educa- tion. Education is theoretically compulsory between the ages of 7 and 14 and free, but, as so frequently is the case in Latin America, this requirement has meant practically nothing. This is proved by the fact that not only the absolute number but even the percentage of illiterates has increased. The 1958 census showed that 28.6 per cent of all those over 10 years of age were illiterate, while the pro- portion of those between 10 and 14 years was 28.8 per cent. It is saying a great deal, but Cuba has probably the worst record of corruption in the Americas. The reason for this is difficult to ascertain. Certainly the nefarious infuence of Miami and Las Vegas gambling syndicates and the presence of hordes of American tour- ists for whom the summum bonum is gambling have been catalytic agents. Incidentally, both of these phenomena have done the United States immense harm in Middle America, where Russia is now widely regarded as a more serious, more intelligent, and more moral country than the United States. This is patent in the cartoons of Abel Quezada, who has just sketched his way through Russia; his graphic commentary may be seen in the conservative Mexican newspaper Excelsior. In an essay which appeared in the last issue of Cuadernos (89, November-December, 1959) and which bore the significant title 'ta 'agonia' antillana," the Peruvian writer Luis Alberto SAnchez suggests that Caribbean corruption has deep historical roots: the absence of an Indian tradition which would give the country some kind of telluric stability, and the long history of rapacious exploita- tion of the area and its imported Negroes by white adventurers. While Sanchez is less than fair to the United States, the United Fruit Company, and Great Britain, his description of the Caribbean as an amoral, money-crazy region is not without a considerable measure of truth; and he points out the deleterious effect this has had on education. The author of this paper travelled the whole length of Cuba in December, 1959, and was struck by the energy with which the new government is pursuing the development of education. Armando Hart Divalos, the young Minister of Education, is a  38 The Caribbean member of Fidel Castro's inner council, and he is making a de- termined effort to eradicate illiteracy. Throughout the republic, barracks are being transformed into schools. Manuel Ray, another young revolutionary leader and one of the most able men in Cuba, who resigned as Minister of Public Works shortly before the end of 1959, worked closely with Hart Divalos in the campaign to bring education to the rural masses. He is now devoting himself to the creation of a technological college, a small-league MIT, in what was Campo Columbia, rechristened by the rebels Campo Libertad, the military stronghold from which Batista and other dictators terrorized Havana. The executive head of the powerful Institute Nacional de Reforma Agraria, Antonio N6flez Jiminez, is a professor of geography whose Geography of Cuba, which had been banned by Batista, is now the textbook in government high schools. This is but one of the many changes by which it is hoped to effect a basic reform in the educational system. A new univer- sity statute is being drawn up by which the students will have direct participation (co-gobierno) in the administration of the in- stitution. In general, education is in the hands of young men in their twenties or thirties. They have rejected the older genera- tion in toto, accusing it of being corrupt and of having deceived the Cuban youth which put its trust in them. Whether the Castro regime, which theoretically at least has noble puritanical ideals, will be able to erase the leopard's spots remains to be seen. In this at least we should wish him good luck, but it is all too likely that human nature will reassert itself again. The sorry record of Haiti is reflected in the highest illiteracy rate in the Americas, over 80 per cent. A bill was passed in Sep- tember, 1958, providing for a five-year campaign to eliminate illit- eracy, and UNESCO has selected Marbial (a rural region with a largely illiterate population of 26,000) as the site for a concen- trated campaign against illiteracy. The success of both projects is doubtful, since the causes are too deep to permit easy treatment. They are essentially the poverty of the overcrowded Negro popu- lation and a peculiar linguistic rivalry. In the constant struggle for power between the petits blans (or mulattoes) and Negroes, the former, with the encouragement of the Catholic clergy, which is largely French and French-Canadian and which has been conduct- ing a bitter fight against voodoo and other Negro legacies, have promoted the use of French in instruction, while the Negroes are 38 The Caribbean member of Fidel Castro's inner council, and he is making a de- termined effort to eradicate illiteracy. Throughout the republic, barracks are being transformed into schools. Manuel Ray, another young revolutionary leader and one of the most able men in Cuba, who resigned as Minister of Public Works shortly before the end of 1959, worked closely with Hart Divalos in the campaign to bring education to the rural masses. He is now devoting himself to the creation of a technological college, a small-league MIT, in what was Campo Columbia, rechristened by the rebels Campo Libertad, the military stronghold from which Batista and other dictators terrorized Havana. The executive head of the powerful Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria, Antonio Niiez Jimenez, is a professor of geography whose Geography of Cuba, which had been banned by Batista, is now the textbook in government high schools. This is but one of the many changes by which it is hoped to effect a basic reform in the educational system. A new univer- sity statute is being drawn up by which the students will have direct participation (co-gobierno) in the administration of the in- stitution. In general, education is in the hands of young men in their twenties or thirties. They have rejected the older genera- tion in toto, accusing it of being corrupt and of having deceived the Cuban youth which put its trust in them. Whether the Castro regime, which theoretically at least has noble puritanical ideals, will be able to erase the leopard's spots remains to be seen. In this at least we should wish him good luck, but it is all too likely that human nature will reassert itself again. The sorry record of Haiti is reflected in the highest illiteracy rate in the Americas, over 80 per cent. A bill was passed in Sep- tember, 1958, providing for a five-year campaign to eliminate illit- eracy, and UNESCO has selected Marbial (a rural region with a largely illiterate population of 26,000) as the site for a concen- trated campaign against illiteracy. The success of both projects is doubtful, since the causes are too deep to permit easy treatment. They are essentially the poverty of the overcrowded Negro popu- lation and a peculiar linguistic rivalry. In the constant struggle for power between the petits blancs (or mulattoes) and Negroes, the former, with the encouragement of the Catholic clergy, which is largely French and French-Canadian and which has been Conduct- ing a bitter fight against voodoo and other Negro legacies, have promoted the use of French in instruction, while the Negroes are 38 The Caribbean member of Fidel Castro's inner council, and he is making a de- termined effort to eradicate illiteracy. Throughout the republic, barracks are being transformed into schools. Manuel Ray, another young revolutionary leader and one of the most able men in Cuba, who resigned as Minister of Public Works shortly before the end of 1959, worked closely with Hart Divalos in the campaign to bring education to the rural masses. He is now devoting himself to the creation of a technological college, a small-league MIT, in what was Campo Columbia, rechristened by the rebels Campo Libertad, the military stronghold from which Batista and other dictators terrorized Havana. The executive head of the powerful Institute Nacional de Reforma Agraria, Antonio Nuez Jimenez, is a professor of geography whose Geography of Cuba, which had been banned by Batista, is now the textbook in government high schools. This is but one of the many changes by which it is hoped to effect a basic reform in the educational system. A new univer- sity statute is being drawn up by which the students will have direct participation (co-gobierno) in the administration of the in- stitution. In general, education is in the hands of young men in their twenties or thirties. They have rejected the older genera- tion in tote, accusing it of being corrupt and of having deceived the Cuban youth which put its trust in them. Whether the Castro regime, which theoretically at least has noble puritanical ideals, will be able to erase the leopard's spots remains to be seen. In this at least we should wish him good luck, but it is all too likely that human nature will reassert itself again. The sorry record of Haiti is reflected in the highest illiteracy rate in the Americas, over 80 per cent. A bill was passed in Sep- tember, 1958, providing for a five-year campaign to eliminate illit- eracy, and UNESCO has selected Marbial (a rural region with a largely illiterate population of 26,000) as the site for a concen- trated campaign against illiteracy. The success of both projects is doubtful, since the causes are too deep to permit easy treatment. They are essentially the poverty of the overcrowded Negro popu- lation and a peculiar linguistic rivalry. In the constant struggle for power between the petits blancs (or mulattoes) and Negroes, the former, with the encouragement of the Catholic clergy, which is largely French and French-Canadian and which has been conduct- ing a bitter fight against voodoo and other Negro legacies, have promoted the use of French in instruction, while the Negroes are  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 39 more sympathetic to that incomprehensible linguistic medley known as creole. The small University of Haiti is largely techni- cal in character and plays a minor role in the public affairs of the republic. The situation is better in the Dominican Republic, where a stable government has at least brought order to community life. The University of Santo Domingo, which claims to be the oldest in the Americas (it was founded in 1538), occupies an attractive campus, but the complete absence of freedom of speech and the de facto requirement that the present administration be the object of repeated adulation have made a mockery of the intellectual life of the island. The Catholic Church is closely associated with the present dictatorship, so that the state has a monolithic char- acter with obvious consequences for education. Education has made great strides in Puerto Rico, and a cause of serious friction was removed when the United States gave up in 1949 its attempt to impose English as the language of instruction. Today practically all instruction is done in Spanish, although on the university level, especially in the United States-supported Inter- American University, a small Presbyterian institution in San Ger- misn, English is used by American professors. The University of Puerto Rico, located at Rio Piedras seven miles from San Juan, is a significant institution even by United States standards. The island has been divided by the prolonged dispute between Governor Luis Munoz Maria and his former protegd, Chancellor of the University Jaime Benitez. While the reasons for this feud are very complex, one aspect of it is the prevalence of nationalist, anti-American senti- ment on the campus, which goes counter to Munoz Maria's pro- American "Commonwealth" policy. It must be admitted that Be- nitez himself has not displayed anti-American feelings. Munoz Marin has shown that his administration is of quite a different caliber from other Spanish American governments by scrupulously refraining from using the means at his command to force Benitez out of office. One interesting development is that, whereas Gover- nor Munoz Mario is deeply concerned with Middle American af- fairs, University Chancellor Jaime Benitez has an "Athenian" out- look; nevertheless, he has encouraged the foundation of an Institute of Caribbean Studies which, under the able direction of Dr. Rich- ard Morse, and with help from the Ford Foundation and the Pan American Union, may become a pan-Caribbean center. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 39 more sympathetic to that incomprehensible linguistic medley known as creole. The small University of Haiti is largely techni- cal in character and plays a minor role in the public affairs of the republic. The situation is better in the Dominican Republic, where a stable government has at least brought order to community life. The University of Santo Domingo, which claims to be the oldest in the Americas (it was founded in 1538), occupies an attractive campus, but the complete absence of freedom of speech and the de facto requirement that the present administration be the object of repeated adulation have made a mockery of the intellectual life of the island. The Catholic Church is closely associated with the present dictatorship, so that the state has a monolithic char- acter with obvious consequences for education. Education has made great strides in Puerto Rico, and a cause of serious friction was removed when the United States gave up in 1949 its attempt to impose English as the language of instruction. Today practically all instruction is done in Spanish, although on the university level, especially in the United States-supported Inter- American University, a small Presbyterian institution in San Ger- min, English is used by American professors. The University of Puerto Rico, located at Rio Piedras seven miles from San Juan, is a significant institution even by United States standards. The island has been divided by the prolonged dispute between Governor Luis Munoz Marin and his former proteg4, Chancellor of the University Jaime Benitez. While the reasons for this feud are very complex, one aspect of it is the prevalence of nationalist, anti-American senti- ment on the campus, which goes counter to Munoz Maria's pro- American "Commonwealth" policy. It must be admitted that Be- nitez himself has not displayed anti-American feelings. Munoz Marin has shown that his administration is of quite a different caliber from other Spanish American governments by scrupulously refraining from using the means at his command to force Benitez out of office. One interesting development is that, whereas Gover- nor Munoz Marin is deeply concerned with Middle American af- fairs, University Chancellor Jaime Benitez has an "Athenian" out- look; nevertheless, he has encouraged the foundation of an Institute of Caribbean Studies which, under the able direction of Dr. Rich- ard Morse, and with help from the Ford Foundation and the Pan American Union, may become a pan-Caribbean center. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 39 more sympathetic to that incomprehensible linguistic medley known as creole. The small University of Haiti is largely techni- cal in character and plays a minor role in the public affairs of the republic. The situation is better in the Dominican Republic, where a stable government has at least brought order to community life. The University of Santo Domingo, which claims to be the oldest in the Americas (it was founded in 1538), occupies an attractive campus, but the complete absence of freedom of speech and the de facto requirement that the present administration be the object of repeated adulation have made a mockery of the intellectual life of the island. The Catholic Church is closely associated with the present dictatorship, so that the state has a monolithic char- acter with obvious consequences for education. Education has made great strides in Puerto Rico, and a cause of serious friction was removed when the United States gave up in 1949 its attempt to impose English as the language of instruction. Today practically all instruction is done in Spanish, although on the university level, especially in the United States-supported Inter- American University, a small Presbyterian institution in San Ger- min, English is used by American professors. The University of Puerto Rico, located at Rio Piedras seven miles from San Juan, is a significant institution even by United States standards. The island has been divided by the prolonged dispute between Governor Luis Munoz Marfn and his former protege, Chancellor of the University Jaime Benitez. While the reasons for this feud are very complex, one aspect of it is the prevalence of nationalist, anti-American senti- ment on the campus, which goes counter to Munoz Mario's pro- American "Commonwealth" policy. It must be admitted that Be- nitez himself has not displayed anti-American feelings. Munoz Mario has shown that his administration is of quite a different caliber from other Spanish American governments by scrupulously refraining from using the means at his command to force Benitez out of office. One interesting development is that, whereas Gover- nor Munoz Marin is deeply concerned with Middle American af- fairs, University Chancellor Jaime Benitez has an "Athenian" out- look; nevertheless, he has encouraged the foundation of an Institute of Caribbean Studies which, under the able direction of Dr. Rich- ard Morse, and with help from the Ford Foundation and the Pan American Union, may become a pan-Caribbean center.  40 The Caribbean The West Indies Federation is a still untried political system, with Jamaica threatening to withdraw unless it is given representa- tion proportionate to its population. Be that as it may, Jamaica is the seat of the University College of the West Indies, still a small institution, affiliated with London University and founded in 1949. West Indian political institutions being much more stable than their Spanish American counterparts, the University has not felt called on to play a vigorous role in the history of the federa- tion. Moreover, Jamaica lives in a British framework, almost com- pletely insulated from the Spanish tradition of violent politics in universities. IV. Venezuela and Colombia Venezuela plays a key role in Caribbean politics. Its population is not large (six millions), but since Miranda, Simon Bolivar, and the other liberators burst onto the Spanish American scene, these energetic, creative, rough people have made their presence felt in the Caribbean much more than the far more numerous Colom- bians (thirteen millions), who lead a proud and withdrawn exist- ence. Caracas is essentially a Caribbean city, Bogota is not. The discovery of oil and iron ore has transformed the cowboy country of Venezuela into the Texas of Latin America. Whether dictatorial under GOmez and Perez Jimenez or democratic under R6mulo Be- tancourt, Venezuela is the senior partner in the Caribbean company, the directors of which make the most quarrelsome American cor- poration seem like a chorus of angels. Rdmulo Betancourt enjoys enormous prestige among the people of Middle America, and his friendship with university groups is especially significant in the formulation of enlightened opinion in the Caribbean. It is difficult to report fairly on the general state of Venezuelan education after the Perez Jimenez dictatorship. Like some other dictators, Pdrez Jimenez wished to prove that he was a friend of culture and education by putting up buildings which, while they may have allowed contractors who belonged to the government clique to enrich themselves unduly, at least constitute a useful material asset. Schools were built, and above all an imposing and modernistic University City replaced crowded and decrepit down- town buildings as the site of the Universidad Central, which in size and influence is in a different category from the other univer- 40 The Caribbean The West Indies Federation is a still untried political system, with Jamaica threatening to withdraw unless it is given representa- tion proportionate to its population. Be that as it may, Jamaica is the seat of the University College of the West Indies, still a small institution, affiliated with London University and founded in 1949. West Indian political institutions being much more stable than their Spanish American counterparts, the University has not felt called on to play a vigorous role in the history of the federa- tion. Moreover, Jamaica lives in a British framework, almost com- pletely insulated from the Spanish tradition of violent politics in universities. IV. Venezuela and Colombia Venezuela plays a key role in Caribbean politics. Its population is not large (six millions), but since Miranda, Simbn Bolivar, and the other liberators burst onto the Spanish American scene, these energetic, creative, rough people have made their presence felt in the Caribbean much more than the far more numerous Colom- bians (thirteen millions), who lead a proud and withdrawn exist- ence. Caracas is essentially a Caribbean city, Bogota is not. The discovery of oil and iron ore has transformed the cowboy country of Venezuela into the Texas of Latin America. Whether dictatorial under Gsmez and P4rez Jimnez or democratic under Rmulo Be- tancourt, Venezuela is the senior partner in the Caribbean company, the directors of which make the most quarrelsome American cor- poration seem like a chorus of angels. Rdmulo Betancourt enjoys enormous prestige among the people of Middle America, and his friendship with university groups is especially significant in the formulation of enlightened opinion in the Caribbean. It is difficult to report fairly on the general state of Venezuelan education after the Perez Jimenez dictatorship. Like some other dictators, Perez Jimnez wished to prove that he was a friend of culture and education by putting up buildings which, while they may have allowed contractors who belonged to the government clique to enrich themselves unduly, at least constitute a useful material asset. Schools were built, and above all an imposing and modernistic University City replaced crowded and decrepit down- town buildings as the site of the Universidad Central, which in size and influence is in a different category from the other univer- 40 The Caribbean The West Indies Federation is a still untried political system, with Jamaica threatening to withdraw unless it is given representa- tion proportionate to its population. Be that as it may, Jamaica is the seat of the University College of the West Indies, still a small institution, affiliated with London University and founded in 1949. West Indian political institutions being much more stable than their Spanish American counterparts, the University has not felt called on to play a vigorous role in the history of the federa- tion. Moreover, Jamaica lives in a British framework, almost com- pletely insulated from the Spanish tradition of violent politics in universities. IV. Venezuela and Colombia Venezuela plays a key role in Caribbean politics. Its population is not large (six millions), but since Miranda, Simon Bolivar, and the other liberators burst onto the Spanish American scene, these energetic, creative, rough people have made their presence felt in the Caribbean much more than the far more numerous Colom- bians (thirteen millions), who lead a proud and withdrawn exist- ence. Caracas is essentially a Caribbean city, Bogota is not. The discovery of oil and iron ore has transformed the cowboy country of Venezuela into the Texas of Latin America. Whether dictatorial under Gomez and Perez Jimenez or democratic under Rdmulo Be- tancourt, Venezuela is the senior partner in the Caribbean company, the directors of which make the most quarrelsome American cor- poration seem like a chorus of angels. Rdmulo Betancourt enjoys enormous prestige among the people of Middle America, and his friendship with university groups is especially significant in the formulation of enlightened opinion in the Caribbean. It is difficult to report fairly on the general state of Venezuelan education after the Perez Jimenez dictatorship. Like some other dictators, Perez Jimenez wished to prove that he was a friend of culture and education by putting up buildings which, while they may have allowed contractors who belonged to the government clique to enrich themselves unduly, at least constitute a useful material asset. Schools were built, and above all an imposing and modernistic University City replaced crowded and decrepit down- town buildings as the site of the Universidad Central, which in size and influence is in a different category from the other univer-  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS .L sities in the country. While dictator Perez Jimnez demanded credit for the building of the University City, it was in fact the idea of democratic President Rolmulo Betancourt in his 1945-48 ad- ministration. The Universidad de los Andes at M~rida and the Universidad de Zulia at Maracaibo are small and are located in the extreme west of the country, far from the center of political gravity. There are two Catholic universities in Caracas, Andres Bello and Santa Maria, and they are at present receiving support from busi- ness elements opposed to the present regime. The Catholic Church, which has traditionally been very reactionary in Latin America, is undecided as to which road to follow socially. If in Venezuela the state universities and the Catholic universities become foci for rival ideologies, there is the danger of a running feud between the two types of institutions, a danger which in greater or lesser degree is present in all of Latin America. When the Perez Jim~nez dictatorship fell, the Universidad Cen- tral was purged of the faculty members who had served it, and it became a focus of liberal thought for Caribbean intellectual lead- ers. It is ironical that in 1954 the University City, then controlled by the police of Perez Jimenez, was the scene of the Tenth Con- ference of American States, at which Secretary of State John Foster Dulles demanded a condemnation of the pro-Communist govern- ment of Guatemala. The reaction to this event in university circles probably explains why former Guatemalan President Juan Jos4 Arevalo, who was forced into exile by the June, 1954, revolution of Castillo Armas, which was the sequence to the Caracas confer- ence, was invited to join the faculty of the Universidad Central, where he is now a well-established figure. Should he, despite the efforts of the present Guatemalan government, return to the presi- dency of his country, it would represent a significant shift in the balance of power between government and university in the Carib- bean. Reports from Venezuela suggest that the students of the Univer- sidad Central are flushed with political victory as are those of the University of Havana. They played a key role in the bloody events of 1958, when Pdrez Jimenez was ousted in January and when in July faculty and students said they would take up arms if the Army carried out its alleged plot to overthrow the new regime. When R6mulo Betancourt was elected President on December 7 and assumed office peacefully on February 13, 1959, it was con- EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 41 sities in the country. While dictator Pfrez Jimenez demanded credit for the building of the University City, it was in fact the idea of democratic President R6mulo Betancourt in his 1945-48 ad- ministration. The Universidad de los Andes at Merida and the Universidad de Zulia at Maracaibo are small and are located in the extreme west of the country, far from the center of political gravity. There are two Catholic universities in Caracas, Andres Bello and Santa Maria, and they are at present receiving support from busi- ness elements opposed to the present regime. The Catholic Church, which has traditionally been very reactionary in Latin America, is undecided as to which road to follow socially. If in Venezuela the state universities and the Catholic universities become foci for rival ideologies, there is the danger of a running feud between the two types of institutions, a danger which in greater or lesser degree is present in all of Latin America. When the Pirez Jimenez dictatorship fell, the Universidad Cen- tral was purged of the faculty members who had served it, and it became a focus of liberal thought for Caribbean intellectual lead- ers. It is ironical that in 1954 the University City, then controlled by the police of Perez Jim~nez, was the scene of the Tenth Con- ference of American States, at which Secretary of State John Foster Dulles demanded a condemnation of the pro-Communist govern- ment of Guatemala. The reaction to this event in university circles probably explains why former Guatemalan President Juan Jose Arevalo, who was forced into exile by the June, 1954, revolution of Castillo Armas, which was the sequence to the Caracas confer- ence, was invited to join the faculty of the Universidad Central, where he is now a well-established figure. Should he, despite the efforts of the present Guatemalan government, return to the presi- dency of his country, it would represent a significant shift in the balance of power between government and university in the Carib- bean. Reports from Venezuela suggest that the students of the Univer- sidad Central are flushed with political victory as are those of the University of Havana. They played a key role in the bloody events of 1958, when Perez Jimnez was ousted in January and when in July faculty and students said they would take up arms if the Army carried out its alleged plot to overthrow the new regime. When R6mulo Betancourt was elected President on December 7 and assumed office peacefully on February 18, 1959, it was con- EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 41 sities in the country. While dictator P~rez Jimnez demanded credit for the building of the University City, it was in fact the idea of democratic President R6mulo Betancourt in his 1945-48 ad- ministration. The Universidad de los Andes at M~rida and the Universidad de Zulia at Maracaibo are small and are located in the extreme west of the country, far from the center of political gravity. There are two Catholic universities in Caracas, Andr~s Bello and Santa Maria, and they are at present receiving support from busi- ness elements opposed to the present regime. The Catholic Church, which has traditionally been very reactionary in Latin America, is undecided as to which road to follow socially. If in Venezuela the state universities and the Catholic universities become foci for rival ideologies, there is the danger of a running feud between the two types of institutions, a danger which in greater or lesser degree is present in all of Latin America. When the Pdrez Jim~nez dictatorship fell, the Universidad Cen- tral was purged of the faculty members who had served it, and it became a focus of liberal thought for Caribbean intellectual lead- ers. It is ironical that in 1954 the University City, then controlled by the police of Perez Jimenez, was the scene of the Tenth Con- ference of American States, at which Secretary of State John Foster Dulles demanded a condemnation of the pro-Communist govern- ment of Guatemala. The reaction to this event in university circles probably explains why former Guatemalan President Juan Jos6 Arevalo, who was forced into exile by the June, 1954, revolution of Castillo Armas, which was the sequence to the Caracas confer- ence, was invited to join the faculty of the Universidad Central, where he is now a well-established figure. Should he, despite the efforts of the present Guatemalan government, return to the presi- dency of his country, it would represent a significant shift in the balance of power between government and university in the Carib- bean. Reports from Venezuela suggest that the students of the Univer- sidad Central are flushed with political victory as are those of the University of Havana. They played a key role in the bloody events of 1958, when P~rez Jimenez was ousted in January and when in July faculty and students said they would take up arms if the Army carried out its alleged plot to overthrow the new regime. When R6mulo Betancourt was elected President on December 7 and assumed office peacefully on February 18, 1959, it was con-  42 The Caribbean sidered a triumph for the University, especially for the students. The Army lost a corresponding amount of prestige, and another country added its voice to the clamor from one end of Latin Amer- ica to the other to free the continent from militarism. The not un- justified impression that the United States has allied itself with the military in Latin America against the university groups is a prime cause of anti-Americanism in Latin America. We must in any case realize that students are a powerful political force in Caribbean politics. In an article entitled "Student Politics in Latin America: The Venezuelan Example," S. Walter Washington suggests that the faculty of the Central University of Caracas is sometimes cowed by the students? Whereas the Betancourt administration has consistently refused to have dealings with the Communists, who were less coldly treated by Perez Jimenez, there is no doubt that there are Communists among the student leaders, who are sharply divided. Just as there is a struggle to see whether Latin American labor unions will af- filiate themselves with the Communist-sponsored World Federation of Trade Unions, with headquarters in Warsaw, or the pro-Western International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, with headquar- ters in Brussels, so there is a fight to see which organization will affiliate Latin American student organizations, the Communist- sponsored International Union of Students, with headquarters in Prague, or the pro-Western Coordinating Secretariat of National Student Organizations, with offices in the Dutch city of Leyden. Three Latin American student unions have affiliated themselves with the Prague organization - those of Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador. An important event was the Third Latin American Student Con- gress, held in Caracas September 6-15, 1959. The first two con- gresses had been held in Montevideo and La Plata. The third was to have met in Costa Rica, but when that country found itself unable to meet the expenses involved, Venezuela extended an invi- tation which was approved by both the Fifth Congress of the Inter- national Union of Students (Communist), meeting in Peking, and the Eighth International Conference of Students (pro-Western), which met in Lima in February. The Latin American students proposed at Lima that the two international student confederations be united, but "the Anglo-Saxon majority" (whatever that means) frustrated the attemptsa 42 The Caribbean sidered a triumph for the University, especially for the students. The Army lost a corresponding amount of prestige, and another country added its voice to the clamor from one end of Latin Amer- ica to the other to free the continent from militarism. The not un- justified impression that the United States has allied itself with the military in Latin America against the university groups is a prime cause of anti-Americanism in Latin America. We must in any case realize that students are a powerful political force in Caribbean politics. In an article entitled "Student Politics in Latin America: The Venezuelan Example," S. Walter Washington suggests that the faculty of the Central University of Caracas is sometimes cowed by the students." Whereas the Betancourt administration has consistently refused to have dealings with the Communists, who were less coldly treated by Perez Jimenez, there is no doubt that there are Communists among the student leaders, who are sharply divided. Just as there is a struggle to see whether Latin American labor unions will af- filiate themselves with the Communist-sponsored World Federation of Trade Unions, with headquarters in Warsaw, or the pro-Western International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, with headquar- ters in Brussels, so there is a fight to see which organization will affiliate Latin American student organizations, the Communist- sponsored International Union of Students, with headquarters in Prague, or the pro-Western Coordinating Secretariat of National Student Organizations, with offices in the Dutch city of Leyden. Three Latin American student unions have affiliated themselves with the Prague organization - those of Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador. An important event was the Third Latin American Student Con- gress, held in Caracas September 6-15, 1959. The first two con- gresses had been held in Montevideo and La Plata. The third was to have met in Costa Rica, but when that country found itself unable to meet the expenses involved, Venezuela extended an invi- tation which was approved by both the Fifth Congress of the Inter- national Union of Students (Communist), meeting in Peking, and the Eighth International Conference of Students (pro-Western), which met in Lima in February. The Latin American students proposed at Lima that the two international student confederations be united, but "the Anglo-Saxon majority" (whatever that means) frustrated the attempt? 42 The Caribbean sidered a triumph for the University, especially for the students. The Army lost a corresponding amount of prestige, and another country added its voice to the clamor from one end of Latin Amer- ica to the other to free the continent from militarism. The not un- justified impression that the United States has allied itself with the military in Latin America against the university groups is a prime cause of anti-Americanism in Latin America. We must in any case realize that students are a powerful political force in Caribbean politics. In an article entitled "Student Politics in Latin America: The Venezuelan Example," S. Walter Washington suggests that the faculty of the Central University of Caracas is sometimes cowed by the students." Whereas the Betancourt administration has consistently refused to have dealings with the Communists, who were less coldly treated by Perez Jimenez, there is no doubt that there are Communists among the student leaders, who are sharply divided. Just as there is a struggle to see whether Latin American labor unions will af- filiate themselves with the Communist-sponsored World Federation of Trade Unions, with headquarters in Warsaw, or the pro-Western International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, with headquar- ters in Brussels, so there is a fight to see which organization will affiliate Latin American student organizations, the Communist- sponsored International Union of Students, with headquarters in Prague, or the pro-Western Coordinating Secretariat of National Student Organizations, with offices in the Dutch city of Leyden. Three Latin American student unions have affiliated themselves with the Prague organization - those of Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador. An important event was the Third Latin American Student Con- gress, held in Caracas September 6-15, 1959. The first two con- gresses had been held in Montevideo and La Plata. The third was to have met in Costa Rica, but when that country found itself unable to meet the expenses involved, Venezuela extended an invi- tation which was approved by both the Fifth Congress of the Inter- national Union of Students (Communist), meeting in Peking, and the Eighth International Conference of Students (pro-Western), which met in Lima in February. The Latin American students proposed at Lima that the two international student confederations be united, but "the Anglo-Saxon majority" (whatever that means) frustrated the attempt"  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 43 The Caracas Latin American Student Congress attempted to bring together both factions in a spirit of concord, and the famous writer R6mulo Gallegos gave the opening address and by implica- tion the blessing of the Venezuelan government. There immedi- ately arose a struggle as to what student organization was to rep- resent each country, and the credentials committee worked long and hard on this delicate matter. Colombia sent two rival delega- tions, and it was finally decided to admit both as observers. Cath- olic universities were looked upon as not being bona fide auton- omous institutions, and they were invited to send delegates with voice but no vote, a condition which most Catholic universities refused to accept. However, the Catholic movement Pax Romana appointed four observers. Puerto Rico was represented by the pro-independence Federaci6n Universitaria Pro-Independencia (FUPI), which both Munoz Marin and Jaime Benitez have refused to recognize. When two of the three delegates returned to Puerto Rico, the United States customs authorities at the San Juan airport seized all the printed matter they were carrying (some 40 to 50 lbs.), including some novels by R6mulo Gallegos and resolutions passed by the congress supporting independence for Puerto Rico and the "democratization" of the University of Puerto Rico. The customs men were undoubtedly acting on instructions of the FBI, with or without the knowledge of Munoz Marin and Jaime Benitez. Concepcion de Gracia, president of the Puerto Rican Independence Party, immediately pointed out that the act was illegal, since fed- eral law empowers customs men to search for "pornographic ma- terial or seditious or political propaganda of a communistic nature." Concepcidn de Gracia is acting as legal representative for the two students, who have protested to federal authorities.13 This act would seem to be as gauche as the holding by immigration author- ities in Ellis Island, a few years ago, of the distinguished Colom- bian Germin Arciniegas, now his country's Ambassador in Rome, an episode which helped to alienate Latin American intellectuals. Presumably the observers of the U.S. National Student Associa- tion brought back the same "subversive" printed matter, but there is no record that it was taken from them.sa Communist China is wooing Latin America in an attempt to offset the unyielding hostility of the United States, and Radio Peking broadcast reports on the conference, giving special attention to the Puerto Rican delegation. Argentina, Chile, and Paraguay sent no delegates to the Caracas EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 43 The Caracas Latin American Student Congress attempted to bring together both factions in a spirit of concord, and the famous writer R6mulo Gallegos gave the opening address and by implica- tion the blessing of the Venezuelan government. There immedi- ately arose a struggle as to what student organization was to rep- resent each country, and the credentials committee worked long and hard on this delicate matter. Colombia sent two rival delega- tions, and it was finally decided to admit both as observers. Cath- olic universities were looked upon as not being bona fide auton- omous institutions, and they were invited to send delegates with voice but no vote, a condition which most Catholic universities refused to accept. However, the Catholic movement Pax Romana appointed four observers. Puerto Rico was represented by the pro-independence Federacion Universitaria Pro-Independencia (FUPI), which both Muioz Marin and Jaime Benitez have refused to recognize. When two of the three delegates returned to Puerto Rico, the United States customs authorities at the San Juan airport seized all the printed matter they were carrying (some 40 to 50 lbs.), including some novels by R6mulo Gallegos and resolutions passed by the congress supporting independence for Puerto Rico and the "democratization" of the University of Puerto Rico. The customs men were undoubtedly acting on instructions of the FBI, with or without the knowledge of Munoz Marin and Jaime Benitez. Concepci6n de Gracia, president of the Puerto Rican Independence Party, immediately pointed out that the act was illegal, since fed- eral law empowers customs men to search for "pornographic ma- terial or seditious or political propaganda of a communistic nature." Concepci6n de Gracia is acting as legal representative for the two students, who have protested to federal authorities.10 This act would seem to be as gauche as the holding by immigration author- ities in Ellis Island, a few years ago, of the distinguished Colom- bian Germin Arciniegas, now his country's Ambassador in Rome, an episode which helped to alienate Latin American intellectuals. Presumably the observers of the U.S. National Student Associa- tion brought back the same "subversive" printed matter, but there is no record that it was taken from them." Communist China is wooing Latin America in an attempt to offset the unyielding hostility of the United States, and Radio Peking broadcast reports on the conference, giving special attention to the Puerto Rican delegation. Argentina, Chile, and Paraguay sent no delegates to the Caracas EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 43 The Caracas Latin American Student Congress attempted to bring together both factions in a spirit of concord, and the famous writer Romulo Gallegos gave the opening address and by implica- tion the blessing of the Venezuelan government. There immedi- ately arose a struggle as to what student organization was to rep- resent each country, and the credentials committee worked long and hard on this delicate matter. Colombia sent two rival delega- tions, and it was finally decided to admit both as observers. Cath- olic universities were looked upon as not being bona fide auton- omous institutions, and they were invited to send delegates with voice but no vote, a condition which most Catholic universities refused to accept. However, the Catholic movement Pax Romana appointed four observers. Puerto Rico was represented by the pro-independence Federacidn Universitaria Pro-Independencia (FUPI), which both Munoz Marin and Jaime Benitez have refused to recognize. When two of the three delegates returned to Puerto Rico, the United States customs authorities at the San Juan airport seized all the printed matter they were carrying (some 40 to 50 lbs.), including some novels by R6mulo Gallegos and resolutions passed by the congress supporting independence for Puerto Rico and the "democratization" of the University of Puerto Rico. The customs men were undoubtedly acting on instructions of the FBI, with or without the knowledge of Munoz Marin and Jaime Benitez. Concepcion de Gracia, president of the Puerto Rican Independence Party, immediately pointed out that the act was illegal, since fed- eral law empowers customs men to search for "pornographic ma- terial or seditious or political propaganda of a communistic nature." Concepci6n de Gracia is acting as legal representative for the two students, who have protested to federal authorities.13 This act would seem to be as gauche as the holding by immigration author- ities in Ellis Island, a few years ago, of the distinguished Colom- bian German Arciniegas, now his country's Ambassador in Rome, an episode which helped to alienate Latin American intellectuals. Presumably the observers of the U.S. National Student Associa- tion brought back the same "subversive" printed matter, but there is no record that it was taken from them.sa Communist China is wooing Latin America in an attempt to offset the unyielding hostility of the United States, and Radio Peking broadcast reports on the conference, giving special attention to the Puerto Rican delegation. Argentina, Chile, and Paraguay sent no delegates to the Caracas  44 The Caribbean 44 The Caribbean meeting, and Brazil sent only one; the student movement in Brazil has few connections with that of Spanish America. The Dominican Republic and Haiti were represented by organizations of exiled students. Despite all the wrangling at the conference, there was one con- crete result: the establishment at Caracas of a permanent secre- tariat, composed of the representatives of Venezuela, Cuba, Uruguay, Honduras, and Ecuador. The office will be financed by Latin American funds, without any contributions from interna- tional organizations. This proviso was presumably taken in order to prevent the secretariat from becoming a tool of either group, but presumably the struggle between Communists and anti-Com- munists will go on within the organization, the former having at present the edge. In any case, Venezuela is now a focal point for student activities in Latin America. When the third assembly of the Union of Latin American Universities met in Buenos Aires September 20-27, im- mediately after the student meeting in Caracas, the president of the Central University of Caracas, Dr. Francisco de Venanzi, was one of the key figures. The tone of this meeting of Latin American university administrators echoed that of the student meeting in Caracas with denunciation of dictatorships and of militarism. The voice of Colombia is not heard clearly in academic matters, partly because Bogoth is still a rather isolated Andean city, and partly because of the multiplicity of universities there and in other cities. Until recently, the law did not prevent any institution from calling itself a university, and the BogotA phone book lists an array of so-called universities, rather reminiscent of the barber col- leges in the United States. The official universities have been the scene of power struggles between Liberals and Conservatives, and the so-called parity formula by which the two traditional parties share power has not neutralized the voice of the country and of the university. One healthy phenomenon has been the development in traditionally clerical Colombia of truly independent universities, free from Church dominance; the best-known are the Universidad de Ins Andes and the Universidad de America. The creation of Catholic universities throughout Latin America may well accentuate the struggle between rival factions, and they may thus become a divisive force. It is regrettable that other countries do not, like Colombia, develop nonsectarian private universities. meeting, and Brazil sent only one; the student movement in Brazil has few connections with that of Spanish America. The Dominican Republic and Haiti were represented by organizations of exiled students. Despite all the wrangling at the conference, there was one con- crete result: the establishment at Caracas of a permanent secre- tariat, composed of the representatives of Venezuela, Cuba, Uruguay, Honduras, and Ecuador. The office will be financed by Latin American funds, without any contributions from interna- tional organizations. This proviso was presumably taken in order to prevent the secretariat from becoming a tool of either group, but presumably the struggle between Communists and anti-Com- munists will go on within the organization, the former having at present the edge. In any case, Venezuela is now a focal point for student activities in Latin America. When the third assembly of the Union of Latin American Universities met in Buenos Aires September 20-27, im- mediately after the student meeting in Caracas, the president of the Central University of Caracas, Dr. Francisco de Venanzi, was one of the key figures. The tone of this meeting of Latin American university administrators echoed that of the student meeting in Caracas with denunciation of dictatorships and of militarism. The voice of Colombia is not heard clearly in academic matters, partly because Bogoth is still a rather isolated Andean city, and partly because of the multiplicity of universities there and in other cities. Until recently, the law did not prevent any institution from calling itself a university, and the Bogoti phone book lists an array of so-called universities, rather reminiscent of the barber col- leges in the United States. The official universities have been the scene of power struggles between Liberals and Conservatives, and the so-called parity formula by which the two traditional parties share power has not neutralized the voice of the country and of the university. One healthy phenomenon has been the development in traditionally clerical Colombia of truly independent universities, free from Church dominance; the best-known are the Universidad de los Andes and the Universidad de America. The creation of Catholic universities throughout Latin America may well accentuate the struggle between rival factions, and they may thus become a divisive force. It is regrettable that other countries do not, like Colombia, develop nonsectarian private universities. 44 The Caribbean meeting, and Brazil sent only one; the student movement in Brazil has few connections with that of Spanish America. The Dominican Republic and Haiti were represented by organizations of exiled students. Despite all the wrangling at the conference, there was one con- crete result: the establishment at Caracas of a permanent secre- tariat, composed of the representatives of Venezuela, Cuba, Uruguay, Honduras, and Ecuador. The office will be financed by Latin American funds, without any contributions from interna- tional organizations. This proviso was presumably taken in order to prevent the secretariat from becoming a tool of either group, but presumably the struggle between Communists and anti-Com- munists will go on within the organization, the former having at present the edge. In any case, Venezuela is now a focal point for student activities in Latin America. When the third assembly of the Union of Latin American Universities met in Buenos Aires September 20-27, im- mediately after the student meeting in Caracas, the president of the Central University of Caracas, Dr. Francisco de Venanzi, was one of the key figures. The tone of this meeting of Latin American university administrators echoed that of the student meeting in Caracas with denunciation of dictatorships and of militarism. The voice of Colombia is not heard clearly in academic matters, partly because Bogoth is still a rather isolated Andean city, and partly because of the multiplicity of universities there and in other cities. Until recently, the law did not prevent any institution from calling itself a university, and the Bogoti phone book lists an array of so-called universities, rather reminiscent of the barber col- leges in the United States. The official universities have been the scene of power struggles between Liberals and Conservatives, and the so-called parity formula by which the two traditional parties share power has not neutralized the voice of the country and of the university. One healthy phenomenon has been the development in traditionally clerical Colombia of truly independent universities, free from Church dominance; the best-known are the Universidad de los Andes and the Universidad de America. The creation of Catholic universities throughout Latin America may well accentuate the struggle between rival factions, and they may thus become a divisive force. It is regrettable that other countries do not, like Colombia, develop nonsectarian private universities.  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 40 V. Conclusion It is clear from this survey that Latin American universities live in a tense political atmosphere quite unlike anything in the United States, and that there is an unending action and reaction between government and university. The simple consequence is that stu- dents devote a considerable amount of time to politics. How should we judge this phenomenon? On the one hand, it is admirable. The complete apathy and ignorance of the ordinary American stu- dent regarding political and international affairs contrasts sharply with the passionate concern of Latin American students and with the informed attitude of most European students. With their cult of football, most American students unwittingly follow the obscur- antist policy of Fernando VII, "pan y toros." Latin American stu- dents are often right in their idealism and brave in upholding their beliefs, while their elders willingly come to terms with evil, corrup- tion, and dictatorship. Bernard Shaw, an author whom I dislike, was at least partly right when he said: "Every man over forty is a rogue." This generalization would not apply to those idealistic professors who have really suffered because of their resistance to oppressive governments, a Spanish American tradition which goes back to the fight for independence?5 However, a university is not essentially a place for noble senti- ments and noble deeds. It is becoming more and more the guard- ian of professional standards. It alone can and must provide the atmosphere in which the various disciplines are developed. If it fails to do this, then the country is left without a system of higher education. A basic problem in most Latin American countries is the lack of serious professional standards. All too frequently the Latin American student thinks that being Latin he is automatically cultured and that being a student he is ipso facto an intellectual. Both suppositions are gratuitous. In any field, even in the arts, training involves a rigorous discipline. Beethoven and Bach did not simply sit down at the keyboard and strum off brilliant music. Even though, or perhaps precisely because, they were geniuses, they worked incredibly hard at their art. If it is true of music, it is a fortiori so in fields such as medicine and engineering. I see this problem in the preparation of the Hispanic American Report, which is extraordinarily exacting work. Latin Americans should have a running start in this field, but most Latin Americans are EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 45 V. Conclusion It is clear from this survey that Latin American universities live in a tense political atmosphere quite unlike anything in the United States, and that there is an unending action and reaction between government and university. The simple consequence is that stu- dents devote a considerable amount of time to politics. How should we judge this phenomenon? On the one hand, it is admirable. The complete apathy and ignorance of the ordinary American stu- dent regarding political and international affairs contrasts sharply with the passionate concern of Latin American students and with the informed attitude of most European students. With their cult of football, most American students unwittingly follow the obscur- antist policy of Fernando VII, "pan y toros." Latin American stu- dents are often right in their idealism and brave in upholding their beliefs, while their elders willingly come to terms with evil, corrup- tion, and dictatorship. Bernard Shaw, an author whom I dislike, was at least partly right when he said: "Every man over forty is a rogue." This generalization would not apply to those idealistic professors who have really suffered because of their resistance to oppressive governments, a Spanish American tradition which goes back to the fight for independence However, a university is not essentially a place for noble senti- ments and noble deeds. It is becoming more and more the guard- ian of professional standards. It alone can and must provide the atmosphere in which the various disciplines are developed. If it fails to do this, then the country is left without a system of higher education. A basic problem in most Latin American countries is the lack of serious professional standards. All too frequently the Latin American student thinks that being Latin he is automatically cultured and that being a student he is ipso facto an intellectual. Both suppositions are gratuitous. In any field, even in the arts, training involves a rigorous discipline. Beethoven and Bach did not simply sit down at the keyboard and strum off brilliant music. Even though, or perhaps precisely because, they were geniuses, they worked incredibly hard at their art. If it is true of music, it is a fortiori so in fields such as medicine and engineering. I see this problem in the preparation of the Hispanic American Report, which is extraordinarily exacting work. Latin Americans should have a running start in this field, but most Latin Americans are EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS V. Conclusion 45 It is clear from this survey that Latin American universities live in a tense political atmosphere quite unlike anything in the United States, and that there is an unending action and reaction between government and university. The simple consequence is that stu- dents devote a considerable amount of time to politics. How should we judge this phenomenon? On the one hand, it is admirable. The complete apathy and ignorance of the ordinary American stu- dent regarding political and international affairs contrasts sharply with the passionate concern of Latin American students and with the informed attitude of most European students. With their cult of football, most American students unwittingly follow the obscur- antist policy of Fernando VII, "pan y toros." Latin American stu- dents are often right in their idealism and brave in upholding their beliefs, while their elders willingly come to terms with evil, corrup- tion, and dictatorship. Bernard Shaw, an author whom I dislike, was at least partly right when he said: "Every man over forty is a rogue." This generalization would not apply to those idealistic professors who have really suffered because of their resistance to oppressive governments, a Spanish American tradition which goes back to the fight for independence? However, a university is not essentially a place for noble senti- ments and noble deeds. It is becoming more and more the guard- ian of professional standards. It alone can and must provide the atmosphere in which the various disciplines are developed. If it fails to do this, then the country is left without a system of higher education. A basic problem in most Latin American countries is the lack of serious professional standards. All too frequently the Latin American student thinks that being Latin he is automatically cultured and that being a student he is ipso facto an intellectual. Both suppositions are gratuitous. In any field, even in the arts, training involves a rigorous discipline. Beethoven and Bach did not simply sit down at the keyboard and strum off brilliant music. Even though, or perhaps precisely because, they were geniuses, they worked incredibly hard at their art. If it is true of music, it is a fortiori so in fields such as medicine and engineering. I see this problem in the preparation of the Hispanic American Report, which is extraordinarily exacting work. Latin Americans should have a running start in this field, but most Latin Americans are  46 The Caribbean temperamentally disinclined to get down to the business of serious analysis. Until they realize that they are engaged in the acquisi- tion of rigorous professional skills, their work remains superficial and slipshod, even though they are usually bright and pleasant people. This suggests the fnal, critical question. In the underdeveloped countries of Latin America, where the establishment of professional standards is essential if these countries are to progress by them- selves and not merely by external stimulus, what will happen if the students and indeed the faculty are so distracted that they are unable to devote themselves wholeheartedly and completely to their professional fields?1t Instead of advancing, as their peo- ples all so ardently wish, these countries will fall further and further behind in the competitive race of the nations. The cult of ill-used leisure and the constant preoccupation with immediate financial rewards may have a similar effect in more advanced countries. The laws of history are harsh. Lex, dura lex. NOTES 1. See Molly A. Moore, "Mexican Church-State Relations in the Field of Education, with Emphasis on the 1946 Reform of Articulo Tercero Constitu- cional." M.A. Thesis, Hispanic American Studies, Stanford University, 1948. 2. For an account of the quite unsatisfactory state of higher education in Mexico outside the capital, see George F. Kneller, The Education of the Mexican Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951). 3. For this information about the present status of Central American univer- sities, I am indebted to George H. Herrick of Valley College, Van Nuys, Cali- fornia, who made an on-the-spot survey of this matter in the summer of 1959. 4. Data secured in interviews with Hugo Cerezo Dard6n, chairman of the Department of Letters and former dean of the Faculty of Humanities, and with Robert W. Rosenhouse, registrar of the Summer School, June 23, 1959. 5. Data secured in interviews with Irving Lewis, U.S. Embassy Cultural Attachi, June 29, 1959, and with Napoledn Rodriguez Ruiz, acting president, July 1, 1959. 6. Data secured in interviews with Paul Vinelli, member of the Faculty of Economic Sciences and former dean, and from Jorge Fidel Dur6n, former presi- dent of the University, July 3, 1959. 7. Data secured from Mariano Fiallos Gil, president of the University, in an interview July 7, 1959, from John T. Fotes, visiting instructor of English, July 8, 1959. 8. Data secured in interviews with Rodrigo Fario Brenes, president, July 14, 1959, and with Rafael Alberto Zniiga T., instructor in economics and manager of the Banco de Costa Rica, July 16, 1959. 46 The Caribbean 46 The Caribbean temperamentally disinclined to get down to the business of serious analysis. Until they realize that they are engaged in the acquisi- tion of rigorous professional skills, their work remains superficial and slipshod, even though they are usually bright and pleasant people. This suggests the final, critical question. In the underdeveloped countries of Latin America, where the establishment of professional standards is essential if these countries are to progress by them- selves and not merely by external stimulus, what will happen if the students and indeed the faculty are so distracted that they are unable to devote themselves wholeheartedly and completely to their professional fields?t5 Instead of advancing, as their peo- ples all so ardently wish, these countries will fall further and further behind in the competitive race of the nations. The cult of ill-used leisure and the constant preoccupation with immediate financial rewards may have a similar effect in more advanced countries. The laws of history are harsh. Lex, dura lex. NOTES 1. See Molly A. Moore, "Mexican Church-State Relations in the Field of Education, with Emphasis on the 1946 Reform of Artaculo Tercero Constitu- cional." M.A. Thesis, Hispanic American Studies, Stanford University, 1948. 2. For an account of the quite unsatisfactory state of higher education in Mexico outside the capital, see George F. Kneller, The Education of the Mexican Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951). 3. For this information about the present status of Central American univer- sities, I am indebted to George H. Herrick of Valley College, Van Nuys, Cali- fornia, who made an on-the-spot survey of this matter in the summer of 1959. 4. Data secured in interviews with Hugo Cerezo Dardin, chairman of the Department of Letters and former dean of the Faculty of Humanities, and with Robert W. Rosenhouse, registrar of the Summer School, June 23, 1959. 5. Data secured in interviews with Irving Lewis, U.S. Embassy Cultural Attach6, June 29, 1959, and with Napole6n Rodriguez Ruiz, acting president, July 1, 1959. 6. Data secured in interviews with Paul Vinelli, member of the Faculty of Economic Sciences and former dean, and from Jorge Fidel Dur6n, former presi- dent of the University, July 3, 1959. 7. Data secured from Mariano Fiallos Gil, president of the University, in an interview July 7, 1959, from John T. Fotos, visiting instructor of English, July 8, 1959. 8. Data secured in interviews with Rodrigo Facis Brenes, president, July 14, 1959, and with Rafael Alberto Zniga T., instructor in economics and manager of the Banco de Costa Rica, July 16, 1959. temperamentally disinclined to get down to the business of serious analysis. Until they realize that they are engaged in the acquisi- tion of rigorous professional skills, their work remains superficial and slipshod, even though they are usually bright and pleasant people. This suggests the final, critical question. In the underdeveloped countries of Latin America, where the establishment of professional standards is essential if these countries are to progress by them- selves and not merely by external stimulus, what will happen if the students and indeed the faculty are so distracted that they are unable to devote themselves wholeheartedly and completely to their professional fields?1t Instead of advancing, as their peo- ples all so ardently wish, these countries will fall further and further behind in the competitive race of the nations. The cult of ill-used leisure and the constant preoccupation with immediate financial rewards may have a similar effect in more advanced countries. The laws of history are harsh. Lex, dura lex. NOTES 1. See Molly A. Moore, "Mexican Church-State Relations in the Field of Education, with Emphasis on the 1946 Reform of Artiulo Tercero Constitu- cional." M.A. Thesis, Hispanic American Studies, Stanford University, 1948. 2. For an aceount of the quite unsatisfactory state of higher education in Mexico outside the capital, see George F. Kneller, The Education of the Mexican Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951). 3. For this information about the present status of Central American univer- sities, I am indebted to George H. Herrick of Valley College, Van Nuys, Cali- fornia, who made an on-the-spot survey of this matter in the summer of 1959. 4. Data secured in interviews with Hugo Cerezo Dard6n, chairman of the Department of Letters and former dean of the Faculty of Humanities, and with Robert W. Rosenhouse, registrar of the Summer School, June 23, 1959. 5. Data secured in interviews with Irving Lewis, U.S. Embassy Cultural Attache, June 29, 1959, and with Napole6n Rodriguez Ruiz, acting president, July 1, 1959. 6. Data secured in interviews with Paul Vinelli, member of the Faculty of Economic Sciences and former dean, and from Jorge Fidel Durn, former presi- dent of the University, July 3, 1959. 7. Data secured from Mariano Fiallos Gil, president of the University, in an interview July 7, 1959, from John T. Fetes, visiting instructor of English, July 8,1959. 8. Data secured in interviews with Rodrigo Facio Brenes, president, July 14, 1959, and with Rafael Alberto Zdniga T., instructor in economics and manager of the Banco de Costa Rica, July 16, 1959.  EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 47 9. Dota secured ho interofiews with Bernard Lobarddo, deto of the Faculty of Natra Siences ad Phaymacdo ditRfal MosdoodaoftheFa- ulty tof Phiosoophy, Lotters, tod Educton, Juily 20, 1959. IS. Preseted at the Seventh Natitooal Conferenceo of tho U.S. Notional Cmision for UNESCO (Denve, Soptetmber 29-October 2, 1959). 11. Forignt Affir, XXXVII, 3, Apoil 1959. il2. Unfivridatd Central, informoativo peoical tof the Unoioersity of Caracas, Septem~ber 14, 1959. 13. Island Times, San Juano, Pueto Rio, Septemtber 25, 1959. 14. The U.S. Natonood Stoudent Asotiont hot its headlquaters ho Phladel- phia. ft tos rpresented ot Caracas by Wiliotid Johnon, Viovian Johno, Isohel Maru, toil Robert Aragon. The las-nameod, a tofl memobeof dt Association, it especially hoteretted ion Lt Amordct, being oil Los Angeles Meoxitoto both- ground. Hit brother, Motnual ,Aragon, Jr., it Califtoria otoudent lotiler, toho shares thisointes interost Latin Ameia sttudent ativiies. He attnded dt Lima meetHog of the Itrational Conference of Students. The two plot to tooho o soroty of Lotio Amoerioot stodent actiities net yeoo; Robot woll oe Middle Amedoc, aod Matouel, woith is beadquarters io Motevido, toil travel througteother ontrte. 15. Soo Loft Alberto Sloohot, 'To Univeorsidad y to Deooacooa," Cootsf (Soo Josh do Cota Rict), No.96, May-June 1999. 16. The day the author visited the University of Havanao campus to Detcem- beo, 1959, oil classos hod beoo caooelled tnoxpeotodly booooso tho body ofa studoot kild by Botista bad boot foood ho Saoto Claoo, ondoi t wats hoing buridinHavaooa. Studenttmilittawithfixed bayonetsttood guad overthe coffin inth mainoothall of the toivorsity, and inth ao ftertoon there woat a mass tudeot pocossion to the cemeotory. A tohk tohicb dt studeto had used io the cfiil wa deoteto tho centool cloistor of to universit. White the poati- otitto aod idooisoo of tho stuodoto 0r0 admirable, tho otoopboher isscacey conodcieto study. However,itbd otbeenfor maoyyears, aodt least stodoot trohos hoto otoppod. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 47 9. Oto soourod ho itorieows wth Bernard Lombarodo, deao of tho Foouty of Natural Sciences and Phormacy, and woith Rafool Mosooto, deant of tho Pot- utty of Philotophy, Lottors, toil Edoootooo, Joly 20, IS5S. 10. Prosonted t tho Seveoth Noatofa Conferenoe of the U.f. Noatooal Commosonl for UNESCO (Deover, Soptoeobor 29-October 2, 1959). St. Foreign Affoiro, XXXVII, 5, Aprit 1959. 12. Universidad Cental,infomtoveoperiodcoltoftheUnivorstyof C raca, Septemober 1d, 1959. 13. Iotland Timeso, Sot Joot, Poorto Rio, Soptemobor 25, 1959. 14. Tho U.S. Nottonot Stodoot Associtiono hot its headqoorters to Phittilot. phit. It tot roprotootod ot Caoaoas by Wiloord Johnon, Viovoao Johnono, Itobol Moaro,oandRbert Arago. Thelt-ntameod,oatstfftmembhrof theAooitioo, it otpocially hterested ho Ltn Ameorioa, behog of Lot Angeles Meofoot both- ground.His brother, ManualtAaono, Jr., saCalftoriatdet lede, o oharos toi intns iterest to Loatn Ameodcao otodoot activitiot. Ho attendedl tho Limao mtng of the Iteoottitonal Cooforeoto of Studotst. Tho two plot tttomakeosuooy ofLtiA mricanostdetttiitiesoo tyea; Roberttwil ovoroMiddleoAmerico, aod Motuel,owith hishedquatersinMoteofdeo, will travel throughbthe ouotheb outies. 15. Soo Loft Alberto Shoohex, toa Unioersidad y to Deooooooio," Comobote (Sot Jots do Costa Rota), No. 6, Maoy-June 1959. 16. The day the athor visited dt University of Havaota camopus ho Decem- boo, 1959, alt olaoses hod boot tancelted unoxpectedly botooto tho body ofa tudentokiled byBatsthd beenfoundhinSataClar, aditwasbeig buried ho Havana. Student mtilita with fixed bayonts stood guard tooer the tofft ho theo maoinhall of the university, toi h atoftertoon theret woos a maos otudont procestion to tho toemotory. A toth twhicthe otu~dents hod ott4 to theoiilowaoodotes thectralfloisteroof tohunverity. Whilthepti- otoot toil ideaosmo of tho studetst too tdirafblo, tho ttophereohtoocaocey condciotudy. Hoever,ithdtnot beenfor maoyyears,oandtat leas todent otrikhoe st~ topped. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 47 9. Oto sottod ho interofiewt toith Berotard Lombhardo, deano of t Ftaoulty of Natural Scientes and Pharmoaty, toil with Rafael Moscato, dean of the Fot- utty of Philosophy, Lottttt, toil Edtcatlo, Jofy 20, 1959. 19. Presootod ot doo Seventh Notonal Conferenco of doo U.S. Natonl Commoiont fot UNESCO (Dtnoto, Soptoembot 29-Ottobto 2, 1959). 11. Forefgno Affair, XXXVII, 3, Apil 1959. 12. UnhoivrilodCentral,honformttvopeodiloofdtheUfversity of Caraaot Sepotember 14, t19. 13. Ild Timtot, Sot Juto, Pootto Riot, Soptembto i5, 1959. 14. Tho U.S. Nottotal Studenot Attoohotion boo its boadquotoerst it Philde- phi. It toot repoeseted t Caratos by Willard Johnoo, Vioiao Johno, Itobel Maotto, toil Robert Arago. The last-noamed, a taff memobor of dt Assoctito, it espoecily inteoested it Lotho Ameroic, bthog of Lot Anogelot Mexitto both- grount. Hit botheo, Motoof Arogo, Jo., it a Calhfoi tudenlt ltadet, tot shares dtio hotento iterest ho Lotho American stoodeot atvitie. Ho aotteodedl doo Limoa mtong of doo Intortotiotal Coofotooto of Studentt. Tho two plto hotoo mak aosuooy of Lt Atoeiaoo student attvitiot toot yeot; Robot toil overoMidleoAmerdc, aoidbManue,withohiheadlqurtershoMotvido,oil toaool through dt sothero otrieto. 15. See Loft Alborto Shotbot, "Lo Uiertidaod y to Deotototit,' Comobate (Sot Jots do Costo Rooa), No. 9, May-Juoo 1959. 16. Tho daoy doo atoohor viiedooh Univotooty of Hootto cotoput ho Doecem- boo, 1959, oll otootes hod boot ctotelled unoxpootoly bocauto dt body ofa tudent hiloed by Botitt hod boot fotund ho Sata Claro, toil it toot behog burtid ho Haoao. Studenot miitia woith fooed bayonts stood guaod tooerthe coffin it th oi al of the uiverstity, toi h oafterntoon dter toot as osudeot prooottion to doo toemotory. A tohk tohicthe ostdets hod ottil it the civil toot deoatesl dt centoal clofit of the uiverdity. While the potri- otism toil idealiom of thoehib stdet r adirattblo, dt tosphereittotarcey ooiveio to study. Howevero, it had tot boot for maoy year, toil at leat otodenot trikbes haoe stoppedl.   Part II Part II Part II PUBLIC EDUCATION PUBLIC EDUCATION PUBLIC EDUCATION   4 4 Francisco S. Ce'spedes: PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN FIRST, A WORD about the term "Caribbean." This term is usually associated with tropical islands, palm trees, and pirates; with rhumba and hurricanes; with sugar, tobacco, and rum. To most people, the Caribbean consists primarily, if not exclusively, of the islands of the Caribbean and the ports on the mainland touched by winter cruises. For the purposes of this Conference, however, the Caribbean region includes not only those islands and ports but all the coun- tries surrounding the Caribbean: Mexico, the five Central Ameri- can republics, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas. Except for their coastal areas, several of these countries cannot be rightly considered Caribbean. . Background The Caribbean region, as defined for the purposes of this Con- ference, is about two-thirds the size of the United States and has a population of over 80 million. Of these 80 million, however, more than one-half are accounted for by the populations of Mexico and Colombia. Except for the Atlantic coast of the latter, they are strictly non-Caribbean countries. The region under consideration is extremely varied from every point of view: geographically, ethnically, economically, culturally, and politically. It follows that there is also a wide variation in the educational systems of the region. In the treatment of the subject of this paper I will group the 51 Francisco S. Ce'spedes: PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN FIRST, A WORD about the term "Caribbean." This term is usually associated with tropical islands, palm trees, and pirates; with rhumba and hurricanes; with sugar, tobacco, and rum. To most people, the Caribbean consists primarily, if not exclusively, of the islands of the Caribbean and the ports on the mainland touched by winter cruises. For the purposes of this Conference, however, the Caribbean region includes not only those islands and ports but all the coun- tries surrounding the Caribbean: Mexico, the five Central Ameri- can republics, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas. Except for their coastal areas, several of these countries cannot be rightly considered Caribbean. . Background The Caribbean region, as defined for the purposes of this Con- ference, is about two-thirds the size of the United States and has a population of over 80 million. Of these 80 million, however, more than one-half are accounted for by the populations of Mexico and Colombia. Except for the Atlantic coast of the latter, they are strictly non-Caribbean countries. The region under consideration is extremely varied from every point of view: geographically, ethnically, economically, culturally, and politically. It follows that there is also a wide variation in the educational systems of the region. In the treatment of the subject of this paper I will group the 51 Francisco S. Cespedes: PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN FIRST, A WORD about the term "Caribbean." This term is usually associated with tropical islands, palm trees, and pirates; with rhumba and hurricanes; with sugar, tobacco, and rum. To most people, the Caribbean consists primarily, if not exclusively, of the islands of the Caribbean and the ports on the mainland touched by winter cruises. For the purposes of this Conference, however, the Caribbean region includes not only those islands and ports but all the coun- tries surrounding the Caribbean: Mexico, the five Central Ameri- can republics, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas. Except for their coastal areas, several of these countries cannot be rightly considered Caribbean. . Background The Caribbean region, as defined for the purposes of this Con- ference, is about two-thirds the size of the United States and has a population of over 80 million. Of these 80 million, however, more than one-half are accounted for by the populations of Mexico and Colombia. Except for the Atlantic coast of the latter, they are strictly non-Caribbean countries. The region under consideration is extremely varied from every point of view: geographically, ethnically, economically, culturally, and politically. It follows that there is also a wide variation in the educational systems of the region. In the treatment of the subject of this paper I will group the 51  52 The Caribbean countries and territories of the region according to political consid- erations as follows: 1. The Spanish American republics (from Mexico down to Ven- ezuela, on the mainland, and the island republics of Cuba and the Dominican Republic) and the Republic of Haiti. 2. The British group: the West Indies Federation (Barbados, Jamaica, Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and Windward Islands), British Guiana, and British Honduras. 3. The French group: French Guiana, Guadeloupe, and Mar- tinique. 4. The Dutch group: the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam or Dutch Guiana. 5. The United States group: the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States. This grouping fits the varied historical background of the region and, broadly speaking, corresponds to the main ethnical, political, cultural, and educational patterns to be found in the area. I say broadly speaking because the above classification does not hold in all cases. Puerto Rico, for instance, could be rightly included with the Spanish American republics from the ethnical and cultural point of view. Haiti, on the other hand, shares some of the basic characteristics of the French group. Before presenting the picture of public elementary education in the Caribbean, I think it will be pertinent to bring out at least a few of the many factors that have contributed to shaping educa- tion in each of the political groups of the region. One of these factors is purely demographic. In this respect we find here two contrasting situations: low density of population in the Spanish American republics, and populations approaching the explosion point in the British, French, Dutch, and United States islands. If the republics had the same population density of the West Indies, they would have 12 times the 75 million they have today, that is, 900 million. A second factor derives from the differences in outlook and re- ligion prevailing in the European countries that colonized the region under consideration. With the Spanish conquistador came the priest. Catholicism is the dominant religion in the Spanish American republics. From Great Britain and the Netherlands came Protestantism, which is the dominant faith in the British and Dutch groups. 52 The Caribbean countries and territories of the region according to political consid- erations as follows: 1. The Spanish American republics (from Mexico down to Ven- ezuela, on the mainland, and the island republics of Cuba and the Dominican Republic) and the Republic of Haiti. 2. The British group: the West Indies Federation (Barbados, Jamaica, Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and Windward Islands), British Guiana, and British Honduras. 3. The French group: French Guiana, Guadeloupe, and Mar- tinique. 4. The Dutch group: the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam or Dutch Guiana. 5. The United States group: the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States. This grouping fits the varied historical background of the region and, broadly speaking, corresponds to the main ethnical, political, cultural, and educational patterns to be found in the area. I say broadly speaking because the above classification does not hold in all cases. Puerto Rico, for instance, could be rightly included with the Spanish American republics from the ethnical and cultural point of view. Haiti, on the other hand, shares some of the basic characteristics of the French group. Before presenting the picture of public elementary education in the Caribbean, I think it will be pertinent to bring out at least a few of the many factors that have contributed to shaping educa- tion in each of the political groups of the region. One of these factors is purely demographic. In this respect we find here two contrasting situations: low density of population in the Spanish American republics, and populations approaching the explosion point in the British, French, Dutch, and United States islands. If the republics had the same population density of the West Indies, they would have 12 times the 75 million they have today, that is, 900 million. A second factor derives from the differences in outlook and re- ligion prevailing in the European countries that colonized the region under consideration. With the Spanish conquistador came the priest. Catholicism is the dominant religion in the Spanish American republics. From Great Britain and the Netherlands came Protestantism, which is the dominant faith in the British and Dutch groups. 52 The Caribbean countries and territories of the region according to political consid- erations as follows: 1. The Spanish American republics (from Mexico down to Ven- ezuela, on the mainland, and the island republics of Cuba and the Dominican Republic) and the Republic of Haiti. 2. The British group: the West Indies Federation (Barbados, Jamaica, Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and Windward Islands), British Guiana, and British Honduras. 3. The French group: French Guiana, Guadeloupe, and Mar- tinique. 4. The Dutch group: the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam or Dutch Guiana. 5. The United States group: the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States. This grouping fits the varied historical background of the region and, broadly speaking, corresponds to the main ethnical, political, cultural, and educational patterns to be found in the area. I say broadly speaking because the above classification does not hold in all cases. Puerto Rico, for instance, could be rightly included with the Spanish American republics from the ethnical and cultural point of view. Haiti, on the other hand, shares some of the basic characteristics of the French group. Before presenting the picture of public elementary education in the Caribbean, I think it will be pertinent to bring out at least a few of the many factors that have contributed to shaping educa- tion in each of the political groups of the region. One of these factors is purely demographic. In this respect we find here two contrasting situations: low density of population in the Spanish American republics, and populations approaching the explosion point in the British, French, Dutch, and United States islands. If the republics had the same population density of the West Indies, they would have 12 times the 75 million they have today, that is, 900 million. A second factor derives from the differences in outlook and re- ligion prevailing in the European countries that colonized the region under consideration. With the Spanish conquistador came the priest. Catholicism is the dominant religion in the Spanish American republics. From Great Britain and the Netherlands came Protestantism, which is the dominant faith in the British and Dutch groups.  PUBLIC EDUCATION 53 The degree of self-government achieved by each of the countries and territories of the region is another significant factor - perhaps the most inclusive and therefore the most important. Spain, Eng- land, France, and Holland from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, and the United States (in the beginning of this century) imposed upon their respective possessions the set of political and economic institutions - and with them the pattern of education - best suited to their colonial interests. The Spanish American republics and Haiti, ever since they ob- tained their political independence, have been free to develop their own school systems according to their own conceptions of their national needs and to incorporate into them ideas and practices from other countries. Political independence in these republics - it should be noted - has been accompanied by political instability and the consequent lack of continuity in governmental policies and programs. The British, French, and Dutch areas, on the other hand, could not receive any influence other than the one from the respective metropolitan "mother country." They could not mold their educa- tional systems to the local situation. Within the last decade we have witnessed a movement whose educational effects can readily be seen. Puerto Rico obtained the status of a self-governing commonwealth. The larger British islands have constituted the West Indies Federation, and the French pos- sessions have become Departments of France. Throughout the whole area a deep feeling of national conscious- ness and a strong urge for economic and social improvement are clearly in evidence. All this is having, and will continue to have, far-reaching effects on education, which is universally recognized in the area as an indispensable tool for the full realization of the national potential for economic, social, and cultural development. II. The Terms "Public" and "Elementary" I should begin my presentation of the highlights of public ele- mentary education in the Caribbean by clarifying the meaning of the terms "public" and "elementary" as applied to education, inas- much as both terms do not mean exactly the same thing everywhere in the region. In the United States "public" education refers to that education PUBLIC EDUCATION 53 The degree of self-government achieved by each of the countries and territories of the region is another significant factor-perhaps the most inclusive and therefore the most important. Spain, Eng- land, France, and Holland from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, and the United States (in the beginning of this century) imposed upon their respective possessions the set of political and economic institutions - and with them the pattern of education - best suited to their colonial interests. The Spanish American republics and Haiti, ever since they ob- tained their political independence, have been free to develop their own school systems according to their own conceptions of their national needs and to incorporate into them ideas and practices from other countries. Political independence in these republics - it should be noted - has been accompanied by political instability and the consequent lack of continuity in governmental policies and programs. The British, French, and Dutch areas, on the other hand, could not receive any influence other than the one from the respective metropolitan "mother country." They could not mold their educa- tional systems to the local situation. Within the last decade we have witnessed a movement whose educational effects can readily be seen. Puerto Rico obtained the status of a self-governing commonwealth. The larger British islands have constituted the West Indies Federation, and the French pos- sessions have become Departments of France. Throughout the whole area a deep feeling of national conscious- ness and a strong urge for economic and social improvement are clearly in evidence. All this is having, and will continue to have, far-reaching effects on education, which is universally recognized in the area as an indispensable tool for the full realization of the national potential for economic, social, and cultural development. II. The Terms "Public" and "Elementary" I should begin my presentation of the highlights of public ele- mentary education in the Caribbean by clarifying the meaning of the terms "public" and "elementary" as applied to education, inas- much as both terms do not mean exactly the same thing everywhere in the region. In the United States "public" education refers to that education PUBLIC EDUCATION 53 The degree of self-government achieved by each of the countries and territories of the region is another significant factor - perhaps the most inclusive and therefore the most important. Spain, Eng- land, France, and Holland from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, and the United States (in the beginning of this century) imposed upon their respective possessions the set of political and economic institutions - and with them the pattern of education - best suited to their colonial interests. The Spanish American republics and Haiti, ever since they ob- tained their political independence, have been free to develop their own school systems according to their own conceptions of their national needs and to incorporate into them ideas and practices from other countries. Political independence in these republics - it should be noted - has been accompanied by political instability and the consequent lack of continuity in governmental policies and programs. The British, French, and Dutch areas, on the other hand, could not receive any influence other than the one from the respective metropolitan "mother country." They could not mold their educa- tional systems to the local situation. Within the last decade we have witnessed a movement whose educational effects can readily be seen. Puerto Rico obtained the status of a self-governing commonwealth. The larger British islands have constituted the West Indies Federation, and the French pos- sessions have become Departments of France. Throughout the whole area a deep feeling of national conscious- ness and a strong urge for economic and social improvement are clearly in evidence. All this is having, and will continue to have, far-reaching effects on education, which is universally recognized in the area as an indispensable tool for the full realization of the national potential for economic, social, and cultural development. II. The Terms "Public" and "Elementary" I should begin my presentation of the highlights of public ele- mentary education in the Caribbean by clarifying the meaning of the terms "public" and "elementary" as applied to education, inas- much as both terms do not mean exactly the same thing everywhere in the region. In the United States "public" education refers to that education  54 The Caribbean 54 The Caribbean which is entirely supported by public funds and is controlled and administered by public authorities, as opposed to "private" educa- tion which is supported by private funds, controlled and admin- istered by private agencies or individuals. This concept is generally prevalent in the Spanish American republics and Haiti, in the French group, in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States, with one difference. This difference is that in some of the countries mentioned some private schools receive a subsidy or other form of public financial aid. The terminology applied may vary from place to place. In Panama, for instance, "education is official or private. That education which is supported in whole or in part by the state is official; that which is offered at no cost what- ever to the State, is private; but all education is public, in the sense that all educational establishments, whether official or private, are open to all pupils without distinction of race, social position, or religion." (Art. 8, Ley 47 de 1946, Orginica de Educacion.) In all countries in these three groups, private education - even that receiving government aid - is primarily for people who can pay for it. In the British and Dutch groups, on the other hand, the distine- tion between public and private education is less clear-cut. In the British group, most schools are conducted under what is known as the "dual control system," whereby governments and the churches or other recognized bodies cooperate as partners. Here we find government-owned, government-assisted, and independent schools. In the Dutch territories the State subsidizes all forms of private schools, which in most cases are operated by religious de- nominations. In both the British and Dutch areas there is a marked trend toward the increase of government schools. The picture is not too different as regards the term "elementary." The idea of elementary or primary education as the first stage or level of a process common to all children and leading to secondary education is not yet the norm throughout the region. It is, in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States. It is also the norm in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama, Ven- ezuela, Cuba, and Haiti, though in these countries very few of the schools serving rural areas offer the established complete elementary course. In the other Spanish American republics, the elementary school system includes, in addition to the five- or six-grade elemen- tary schools, schools which by legal prescription and because of their which is entirely supported by public funds and is controlled and administered by public authorities, as opposed to "private" educa- tion which is supported by private funds, controlled and admin- istered by private agencies or individuals. This concept is generally prevalent in the Spanish American republics and Haiti, in the French group, in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States, with one difference. This difference is that in some of the countries mentioned some private schools receive a subsidy or other form of public financial aid. The terminology applied may vary from place to place. In Panama, for instance, "education is official or private. That education which is supported in whole or in part by the state is official; that which is offered at no cost what- ever to the State, is private; but all education is public, in the sense that all educational establishments, whether official or private, are open to all pupils without distinction of race, social position, or religion." (Art. 8, Ley 47 de 1946, Organica de Educaci6n.) In all countries in these three groups, private education - even that receiving government aid - is primarily for people who can pay for it, In the British and Dutch groups, on the other hand, the distinc- tion between public and private education is less clear-cut. In the British group, most schools are conducted under what is known as the "dual control system," whereby governments and the churches or other recognized bodies cooperate as partners. Here we find government-owned, government-assisted, and independent schools. In the Dutch territories the State subsidizes all forms of private schools, which in most cases are operated by religious de- nominations. In both the British and Dutch areas there is a marked trend toward the increase of government schools. The picture is not too different as regards the term "elementary." The idea of elementary or primary education as the first stage or level of a process common to all children and leading to secondary education is not yet the norm throughout the region. It is, in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States. It is also the norm in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama, Ven- ezuela, Cuba, and Haiti, though in these countries very few of the schools serving rural areas offer the established complete elementary course. In the other Spanish American republics, the elementary school system includes, in addition to the five- or six-grade elemen- tary schools, schools which by legal prescription and because of their 54 The Caribbean which is entirely supported by public funds and is controlled and administered by public authorities, as opposed to "private" educa- tion which is supported by private funds, controlled and admin- istered by private agencies or individuals. This concept is generally prevalent in the Spanish American republics and Haiti, in the French group, in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States, with one difference. This difference is that in some of the countries mentioned some private schools receive a subsidy or other form of public financial aid. The terminology applied may vary from place to place. In Panama, for instance, "education is official or private. That education which is supported in whole or in part by the state is official; that which is offered at no cost what- ever to the State, is private; but all education is public, in the sense that all educational establishments, whether official or private, are open to all pupils without distinction of race, social position, or religion." (Art. 3, Ley 47 de 1946, OrgAnica de Educaci6n.) In all countries in these three groups, private education - even that receiving government aid - is primarily for people who can pay for it. In the British and Dutch groups, on the other hand, the distinc- tion between public and private education is less clear-cut. In the British group, most schools are conducted under what is known as the "dual control system," whereby governments and the churches or other recognized bodies cooperate as partners. Here we find government-owned, government-assisted, and independent schools. In the Dutch territories the State subsidizes all forms of private schools, which in most cases are operated by religious de- nominations. In both the British and Dutch areas there is a marked trend toward the increase of government schools. The picture is not too different as regards the term "elementary." The idea of elementary or primary education as the first stage or level of a process common to all children and leading to secondary education is not yet the norm throughout the region. It is, in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States. It is also the norm in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama, Ven- ezuela, Cuba, and Haiti, though in these countries very few of the schools serving rural areas offer the established complete elementary course. In the other Spanish American republics, the elementary school system includes, in addition to the five- or six-grade elemen- tary schools, schools which by legal prescription and because of their  PUBLIC EDUCATION 55 location, offer some sort of two- (Nicaragua, Colombia) or three- year (Honduras, Dominican Republic) terminal education. In the British, French, and Dutch groups, the terms "elementary" or "primary" do not refer to a level but a kind of terminal educa- tion which covers from two to four years beyond the sixth or seventh grade ("complementary courses," "continued," "advanced," "senior" elementary) parallel to secondary or technical education. III. How Universal Is Elementary Education? Elementary education is compulsory in all the countries and territories of the Caribbean with the exception of Barbados and St. Vincent. Public elementary schooling is free everywhere in the region except in British Honduras, where tuition must be paid at the rate of five cents a week. The age limits of compulsory educa- tion are usually from 6 or 7 to 14 or 15. Children completing elementary education (or the legal minimum according to the ex- tent of schooling available) before reaching the age limit and those reaching this limit without finishing their elementary schooling are exempt from further school attendance. In other words, "com- pulsory" education applies to the elementary level only. This is in contrast with the situation in the United States, where compulsory legislation applies to school attendance up to a spec- ified age and not to school level. In Colombia, Cuba, Haiti, and Dutch Guiana the legal provision may be fulfilled by submitting adequate proof that the child has received education at home. As a general rule, the compulsory education provisions do not apply to children living beyond a prescribed distance from a public school. The principle of compulsory elementary education was adopted by the countries of the region away back in the nineteenth century. Had it been adequately carried out, no normal living person in the Caribbean would have been deprived of a full elementary education. How successful have the countries of the region been in their efforts to provide elementary education for all? For most of these countries we have official statistics on school enrollment and at- tendance and estimates of the school age population. However, the fact that the countries differ in regard to the duration of ele- mentary schooling and the length of the period of compulsory PUBLIC EDUCATION 55 location, offer some sort of two- (Nicaragua, Colombia) or three- year (Honduras, Dominican Republic) terminal education. In the British, French, and Dutch groups, the terms "elementary" or "primary" do not refer to a level but a kind of terminal educa- tion which covers from two to four years beyond the sixth or seventh grade ("complementary courses," "continued," "advanced," "senior" elementary) parallel to secondary or technical education. III. How Universal Is Elementary Education? Elementary education is compulsory in all the countries and territories of the Caribbean with the exception of Barbados and St. Vincent. Public elementary schooling is free everywhere in the region except in British Honduras, where tuition must be paid at the rate of five cents a week. The age limits of compulsory educa- tion are usually from 6 or 7 to 14 or 15. Children completing elementary education (or the legal minimum according to the ex- tent of schooling available) before reaching the age limit and those reaching this limit without finishing their elementary schooling are exempt from further school attendance. In other words, "com- pulsory" education applies to the elementary level only. This is in contrast with the situation in the United States, where compulsory legislation applies to school attendance up to a spec- ified age and not to school level. In Colombia, Cuba, Haiti, and Dutch Guiana the legal provision may be fulfilled by submitting adequate proof that the child has received education at home. As a general rule, the compulsory education provisions do not apply to children living beyond a prescribed distance from a public school. The principle of compulsory elementary education was adopted by the countries of the region away back in the nineteenth century. Had it been adequately carried out, no normal living person in the Caribbean would have been deprived of a full elementary education. How successful have the countries of the region been in their efforts to provide elementary education for all? For most of these countries we have official statistics on school enrollment and at- tendance and estimates of the school age population. However, the fact that the countries differ in regard to the duration of ele- mentary schooling and the length of the period of compulsory PUBLIC EDUCATION 55 location, offer some sort of two- (Nicaragua, Colombia) or three- year (Honduras, Dominican Republic) terminal education. In the British, French, and Dutch groups, the terms "elementary" or "primary" do not refer to a level but a kind of terminal educa- tion which covers from two to four years beyond the sixth or seventh grade ("complementary courses," "continued," "advanced," "senior" elementary) parallel to secondary or technical education. II. How Universal Is Elementary Education? Elementary education is compulsory in all the countries and territories of the Caribbean with the exception of Barbados and St. Vincent. Public elementary schooling is free everywhere in the region except in British Honduras, where tuition must be paid at the rate of five cents a week. The age limits of compulsory educa- tion are usually from 6 or 7 to 14 or 15. Children completing elementary education (or the legal minimum according to the ex- tent of schooling available) before reaching the age limit and those reaching this limit without finishing their elementary schooling are exempt from further school attendance. In other words, "com- pulsory" education applies to the elementary level only. This is in contrast with the situation in the United States, where compulsory legislation applies to school attendance up to a spec- ified age and not to school level. In Colombia, Cuba, Haiti, and Dutch Guiana the legal provision may be fulfilled by submitting adequate proof that the child has received education at home. As a general rule, the compulsory education provisions do not apply to children living beyond a prescribed distance from a public school. The principle of compulsory elementary education was adopted by the countries of the region away back in the nineteenth century. Had it been adequately carried out, no normal living person in the Caribbean would have been deprived of a full elementary education. How successful have the countries of the region been in their efforts to provide elementary education for all? For most of these countries we have ofacial statistics on school enrollment and at- tendance and estimates of the school age population. However, the fact that the countries differ in regard to the duration of ele- mentary schooling and the length of the period of compulsory  56 The Caribbean education makes it difficult, if not impossible, to express the situa- tion in comparable quantitative terms. One of the best attempts in this respect can be found in UNESCO's World Survey of Education, II: Primary Education, published in 1958. In this study a "primary enrollment ratio" is given for every country of the world, which demonstrates the rela- tionship of elementary school enrollment to the population between 5 and 14 years of age for each five-year period from 1930 through 1954. The ratio is based on the age range from 5 to 14 and is affected by the length of the elementary school course. Two coun- tries having the same proportion of school-age population enrolled in elementary schools may have different ratios if the length of the course and the school entrance age are not the same. To have an idea of what the enrollment ratio means, it should be noted that the ratio for the United States was 86, for the period 1950-54. On the basis of the data given in the above-mentioned study, elementary education in the Spanish American republics and Haiti is not so widely extended as in the other groups of the Caribbean. In other words, from a quantitative point of view, the republics do not seem to have done as well as the other countries of the Car- ibbean in the task of making elementary education universal. There are several historical, political, and geographical factors that may account for this situation. During the period in which the European powers colonized America, the ability to read was more important in the Protestant countries than in the Catholic. In all the colonies education was entrusted to the church. While in the British and Dutch territories the church congregations - mainly Protestant - paid more attention to elementary schools, in the Spanish American colonies the Catholic congregations - the only ones permitted - accorded more importance to institutions of secondary and higher education. The Spanish American republics, upon freeing themselves from the political rule of the mother coun- try, had to develop educational facilities for the training of leaders in all fields of national activity. In the territories under the rule of the other European powers, colonial officers and leaders in busi- ness and the professions came from the respective metropolitan countries; those who wanted to receive advanced training had to go to the mother country. These are perhaps some of the reasons why in the Spanish American republics and Haiti, and also in Puerto Rico, the school systems have extended more in the secon- 56 The Caribbean education makes it difficult, if not impossible, to express the situa- tion in comparable quantitative terms. One of the best attempts in this respect can be found in UNESCO's World Survey of Education, II: Primary Education, published in 1958. In this study a "primary enrollment ratio" is given for every country of the world, which demonstrates the rela- tionship of elementary school enrollment to the population between 5 and 14 years of age for each five-year period from 1980 through 1954. The ratio is based on the age range from 5 to 14 and is affected by the length of the elementary school course. Two coun- tries having the same proportion of school-age population enrolled in elementary schools may have different ratios if the length of the course and the school entrance age are not the same. To have an idea of what the enrollment ratio means, it should be noted that the ratio for the United States was 86, for the period 1950-54. On the basis of the data given in the above-mentioned study, elementary education in the Spanish American republics and Haiti is not so widely extended as in the other groups of the Caribbean. In other words, from a quantitative point of view, the republics do not seem to have done as well as the other countries of the Car- ibbean in the task of making elementary education universal. There are several historical, political, and geographical factors that may account for this situation. During the period in which the European powers colonized America, the ability to read was more important in the Protestant countries than in the Catholic. In all the colonies education was entrusted to the church. While in the British and Dutch territories the church congregations - mainly Protestant - paid more attention to elementary schools, in the Spanish American colonies the Catholic congregations - the only ones permitted - accorded more importance to institutions of secondary and higher education. The Spanish American republics, upon freeing themselves from the political rule of the mother coun- try, had to develop educational facilities for the training of leaders in all fields of national activity. In the territories under the rule of the other European powers, colonial officers and leaders in busi- ness and the professions came from the respective metropolitan countries; those who wanted to receive advanced training had to go to the mother country. These are perhaps some of the reasons why in the Spanish American republics and Haiti, and also in Puerto Rico, the school systems have extended more in the secon- 56 The Caribbean education makes it difficult, if not impossible, to express the situa- tion in comparable quantitative terms. One of the best attempts in this respect can be found in UNESCO's World Survey of Education, II: Primary Education, published in 1958. In this study a "primary enrollment ratio" is given for every country of the world, which demonstrates the rela- tionship of elementary school enrollment to the population between 5 and 14 years of age for each five-year period from 1930 through 1954. The ratio is based on the age range from 5 to 14 and is affected by the length of the elementary school course. Two coun- tries having the same proportion of school-age population enrolled in elementary schools may have different ratios if the length of the course and the school entrance age are not the same. To have an idea of what the enrollment ratio means, it should be noted that the ratio for the United States was 86, for the period 1950-54. On the basis of the data given in the above-mentioned study, elementary education in the Spanish American republics and Haiti is not so widely extended as in the other groups of the Caribbean. In other words, from a quantitative point of view, the republics do not seem to have done as well as the other countries of the Car- ibbean in the task of making elementary education universal. There are several historical, political, and geographical factors that may account for this situation. During the period in which the European powers colonized America, the ability to read was more important in the Protestant countries than in the Catholic. In all the colonies education was entrusted to the church. While in the British and Dutch territories the church congregations - mainly Protestant - paid more attention to elementary schools, in the Spanish American colonies the Catholic congregations - the only ones permitted - accorded more importance to institutions of secondary and higher education. The Spanish American republics, upon freeing themselves from the political rule of the mother coun- try, had to develop educational facilities for the training of leaders in all fields of national activity. In the territories under the rule of the other European powers, colonial officers and leaders in busi- ness and the professions came from the respective metropolitan countries; those who wanted to receive advanced training had to go to the mother country. These are perhaps some of the reasons why in the Spanish American republics and Haiti, and also in Puerto Rico, the school systems have extended more in the secon-  PUBLIC EDUCATION 57 dary and higher level than in the other areas. In addition to these historical and political considerations, it should also be noted that the Spanish American republics are thinly populated and that, other things being equal, in areas of low population density it is more difficult to provide complete elementary education than it is in densely populated areas. IV. The Public Schools The total number of children enrolled in elementary schools in the region is approximately 12 million, of which roughly 10 million are in the Spanish American republics and Haiti, and 2 million in the British, French, Dutch, and United States groups. In the Spanish American republics, the public school enrollment ranges from approximately 70 per cent (Haiti) to 95 per cent (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Panama, and the Dominican Republic) of the total elementary school enrollment. In the French group, the public school enrollment represents 76 per cent in French Guiana and 97 per cent in Martinique. In the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, public school enrollment makes up approximately 95 per cent of the total elementary school enrollment. Of the British group 53 per cent of the elementary school children in Jamaica, 95 per cent in Trinidad and Tobago, and 7 per cent in British Guiana are enrolled in public schools. In the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam, the public school enrollment represents 17 per cent and 33 per cent respectively of the total enrollment. In the British and Dutch groups, as it was pointed out earlier, many of the pri- vate schools are government-assisted. Public elementary schools are commonly classified into urban and rural in the Spanish American republics, Haiti, and Puerto Rico. In Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Panama, Venezuela, Haiti, and Cuba, the program of the rural schools extends for the same number of years (six) as that of the urban schools, though a very small proportion of them offer the complete elementary course. In the countries mentioned, there has been a marked ten- dency towards adapting the rural school program to the needs of rural life by emphasizing the teaching of agricultural practices and other aspects of country living. The actual accomplishment in this respect falls far short of official statements of principles and aims of the rural schools. It so happens that as a general rule the PUBLIC EDUCATION 57 dary and higher level than in the other areas. In addition to these historical and political considerations, it should also be noted that the Spanish American republics are thinly populated and that, other things being equal, in areas of low population density it is more difficult to provide complete elementary education than it is in densely populated areas. IV. The Public Schools The total number of children enrolled in elementary schools in the region is approximately 12 million, of which roughly 10 million are in the Spanish American republics and Haiti, and 2 million in the British, French, Dutch, and United States groups. In the Spanish American republics, the public school enrollment ranges from approximately 70 per cent (Haiti) to 95 per cent (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Panama, and the Dominican Republic) of the total elementary school enrollment. In the French group, the public school enrollment represents 76 per cent in French Guiana and 97 per cent in Martinique. In the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, public school enrollment makes up approximately 95 per cent of the total elementary school enrollment. Of the British group 53 per cent of the elementary school children in Jamaica, 95 per cent in Trinidad and Tobago, and 7 per cent in British Guiana are enrolled in public schools. In the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam, the public school enrollment represents 17 per cent and 33 per cent respectively of the total enrollment. In the British and Dutch groups, as it was pointed out earlier, many of the pri- vate schools are government-assisted. Public elementary schools are commonly classified into urban and rural in the Spanish American republics, Haiti, and Puerto Rico. In Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Panama, Venezuela, Haiti, and Cuba, the program of the rural schools extends for the same number of years (six) as that of the urban schools, though a very small proportion of them offer the complete elementary course. In the countries mentioned, there has been a marked ten- dency towards adapting the rural school program to the needs of rural life by emphasizing the teaching of agricultural practices and other aspects of country living. The actual accomplishment in this respect falls far short of official statements of principles and aims of the rural schools. It so happens that as a general rule the PUBLIC EDUCATION 57 dary and higher level than in the other areas. In addition to these historical and political considerations, it should also be noted that the Spanish American republics are thinly populated and that, other things being equal, in areas of low population density it is more difficult to provide complete elementary education than it is in densely populated areas. IV. The Public Schools The total number of children enrolled in elementary schools in the region is approximately 12 million, of which roughly 10 million are in the Spanish American republics and Haiti, and 2 million in the British, French, Dutch, and United States groups. In the Spanish American republics, the public school enrollment ranges from approximately 70 per cent (Haiti) to 95 per cent (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Panama, and the Dominican Republic) of the total elementary school enrollment. In the French group, the public school enrollment represents 76 per cent in French Guiana and 97 per cent in Martinique. In the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, public school enrollment makes up approximately 95 per cent of the total elementary school enrollment. Of the British group 53 per cent of the elementary school children in Jamaica, 95 per cent in Trinidad and Tobago, and 7 per cent in British Guiana are enrolled in public schools. In the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam, the public school enrollment represents 17 per cent and 33 per cent respectively of the total enrollment. In the British and Dutch groups, as it was pointed out earlier, many of the pri- vate schools are government-assisted. Public elementary schools are commonly classified into urban and rural in the Spanish American republics, Haiti, and Puerto Rico. In Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Panama, Venezuela, Haiti, and Cuba, the program of the rural schools extends for the same number of years (six) as that of the urban schools, though a very small proportion of them offer the complete elementary course. In the countries mentioned, there has been a marked ten- dency towards adapting the rural school program to the needs of rural life by emphasizing the teaching of agricultural practices and other aspects of country living. The actual accomplishment in this respect falls far short of official statements of principles and aims of the rural schools. It so happens that as a general rule the  58 The Caribbean rural schools are staffed by untrained teachers, and handicapped by inadequate buildings and almost complete lack of school ma- terials. In Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic, the rural school program is by law shorter in duration than the program of the urban schools. For the purpose of providing better supervision for the rural schools and enabling children to receive the complete elementary school course, several countries have established what is called the nucleos escolares. A nucleo consists of a central school - sometimes annexed to a normal school - and sectional one- or two-teacher schools feeding into the central school. The central school usually has on its staff teachers of agriculture, home economics, health, and other subjects, who supervise and assist in the teaching of these subjects in all the schools of the nucleo. Another attempt to make elementary education available to chil- dren in rural areas is represented by the hogares campesinos of Cuba. These are boarding schools offering instruction correspond- ing to the upper grades of the elementary school to children from localities where these grades are not available. A large proportion of the rural schools in the Spanish American republics are one-teacher schools. In some instances the rural schools are under the administration and supervision of a depart- ment or authority within the Ministry of Education different from the one in charge of urban schools. In Haiti the rural schools oper- ate under the Ministry of Agriculture, Development, and Natural Resources. Most of the rural schools are public. There is a grow- ing realization that opportunity for education in the rural areas should be on a par with that in the urban. The public urban schools usually consist of six grades organized, in some countries, into three levels or cycles. In the cities they are frequently overcrowded, due to the tremendous influx from the rural areas, and the inability of the government to provide the school buildings necessary to meet the demands of a fast-growing population. To cope with this problem many urban schools are housed in rented, inadequate buildings and have resorted to the practice of the double or triple shift. In the British, French, and Dutch groups the organization of the public elementary schools follows to some extent the pattern of their respective metropolitan countries. The classification of 58 The Caribbean 58 The Caribbean rural schools are staffed by untrained teachers, and handicapped by inadequate buildings and almost complete lack of school ma- terials. In Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic, the rural school program is by law shorter in duration than the program of the urban schools. For the purpose of providing better supervision for the rural schools and enabling children to receive the complete elementary school course, several countries have established what is called the nucleos escolares. A nucleo consists of a central school - sometimes annexed to a normal school - and sectional one- or two-teacher schools feeding into the central school. The central school usually has on its staff teachers of agriculture, home economics, health, and other subjects, who supervise and assist in the teaching of these subjects in all the schools of the nucleo. Another attempt to make elementary education available to chil- dren in rural areas is represented by the hogares campesinos of Cuba. These are boarding schools offering instruction correspond- ing to the upper grades of the elementary school to children from localities where these grades are not available. A large proportion of the rural schools in the Spanish American republics are one-teacher schools. In some instances the rural schools are under the administration and supervision of a depart- ment or authority within the Ministry of Education different from the one in charge of urban schools. In Haiti the rural schools oper- ate under the Ministry of Agriculture, Development, and Natural Resources. Most of the rural schools are public. There is a grow- ing realization that opportunity for education in the rural areas should be on a par with that in the urban. The public urban schools usually consist of six grades organized, in some countries, into three levels or cycles. In the cities they are frequently overcrowded, due to the tremendous influx from the rural areas, and the inability of the government to provide the school buildings necessary to meet the demands of a fast-growing population. To cope with this problem many urban schools are housed in rented, inadequate buildings and have resorted to the practice of the double or triple shift. In the British, French, and Dutch groups the organization of the public elementary schools follows to some extent the pattern of their respective metropolitan countries. The classification of rural schools are staffed by untrained teachers, and handicapped by inadequate buildings and almost complete lack of school ma- terials. In Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic, the rural school program is by law shorter in duration than the program of the urban schools. For the purpose of providing better supervision for the rural schools and enabling children to receive the complete elementary school course, several countries have established what is called the nucleos escolares. A nucleo consists of a central school - sometimes annexed to a normal school - and sectional one- or two-teacher schools feeding into the central school. The central school usually has on its staff teachers of agriculture, home economics, health, and other subjects, who supervise and assist in the teaching of these subjects in all the schools of the nucleo. Another attempt to make elementary education available to chil- dren in rural areas is represented by the hogares campesinos of Cuba. These are boarding schools offering instruction correspond- ing to the upper grades of the elementary school to children from localities where these grades are not available. A large proportion of the rural schools in the Spanish American republics are one-teacher schools. In some instances the rural schools are under the administration and supervision of a depart- ment or authority within the Ministry of Education different from the one in charge of urban schools. In Haiti the rural schools oper- ate under the Ministry of Agriculture, Development, and Natural Resources. Most of the rural schools are public. There is a grow- ing realization that opportunity for education in the rural areas should be on a par with that in the urban. The public urban schools usually consist of six grades organized, in some countries, into three levels or cycles. In the cities they are frequently overcrowded, due to the tremendous influx from the rural areas, and the inability of the government to provide the school buildings necessary to meet the demands of a fast-growing population. To cope with this problem many urban schools are housed in rented, inadequate buildings and have resorted to the practice of the double or triple shift. In the British, French, and Dutch groups the organization of the public elementary schools follows to some extent the pattern of their respective metropolitan countries. The classification of  PUBLIC EDUCATION 59 schools into urban and rural is not to be found in these areas, with the exception of Surinam, where country children attend schools (District GLO) which offer a different course of studies from that of the schools attended by city children. The average British West Indian elementary school consists of two infant classes and six "standards" or grades. In British Guiana, elementary schools are organized into four divisions making a total of eight years. The elementary school in the French areas consists of a prepara- tory section for children 6 to 7, an elementary course for children 7 to 9, a middle course for children 9 to 11, a higher course for children 11 to 12, and a school-leaving course for children 12 to 14. In Surinam the six-grade schools are classified into GLO-A schools for children from Dutch-speaking homes and GLO-B schools for children from non-Dutch-speaking homes. On complet- ing the sixth grade, children may go on for two more years of "continued" elementary education or for four more years of "ad- vanced" elementary education. Those wishing to go into a secon- dary school may do so by passing an entrance examination at age 11 or 12. This practice is also followed in the British and French groups. As in the case of the Spanish American republics and Haiti, the lack of school buildings results in overcrowded classrooms. A similar situation exists in regard to textbooks, teaching materials, and equipment. V. Curriculum The school curriculum throughout the area includes the conven- tional school subjects: reading, language, arithmetic, geography, history, nature study, and science. In the Spanish American repub- lics, Haiti, and Puerto Rico, emphasis is placed on the study of national history and geography, as a reaction against the former concern with the study of other areas of the world to the neglect of their own. In the French departements the study of local history and geography is made a part of the study of French geography and history. Instruction in the Catholic religion is compulsory in the public schools of Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, and the Do- minican Republic. In Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Venezuela, El Salvador, Puerto Rico, and the French group, re- PUBLIC EDUCATION 59 PUBLIC EDUCATION 59 schools into urban and rural is not to be found in these areas, with the exception of Surinam, where country children attend schools (District GLO) which offer a different course of studies from that of the schools attended by city children. The average British West Indian elementary school consists of two infant classes and six "standards" or grades. In British Guiana, elementary schools are organized into four divisions making a total of eight years. The elementary school in the French areas consists of a prepara- tory section for children 6 to 7, an elementary course for children 7 to 9, a middle course for children 9 to 11, a higher course for children 11 to 12, and a school-leaving course for children 12 to 14. In Surinam the six-grade schools are classified into GLO-A schools for children from Dutch-speaking homes and GLO-B schools for children from non-Dutch-speaking homes. On complet- ing the sixth grade, children may go on for two more years of "continued" elementary education or for four more years of "ad- vanced" elementary education. Those wishing to go into a secon- dary school may do so by passing an entrance examination at age 11 or 12. This practice is also followed in the British and French groups. As in the case of the Spanish American republics and Haiti, the lack of school buildings results in overcrowded classrooms. A similar situation exists in regard to textbooks, teaching materials, and equipment. V. Curriculum The school curriculum throughout the area includes the conven- tional school subjects: reading, language, arithmetic, geography, history, nature study, and science. In the Spanish American repub- lics, Haiti, and Puerto Rico, emphasis is placed on the study of national history and geography, as a reaction against the former concern with the study of other areas of the world to the neglect of their own. In the French departements the study of local history and geography is made a part of the study of French geography and history. Instruction in the Catholic religion is compulsory in the public schools of Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, and the Do- minican Republic. In Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Venezuela, El Salvador, Puerto Rico, and the French group, re- schools into urban and rural is not to be found in these areas, with the exception of Surinam, where country children attend schools (District GLO) which offer a different course of studies from that of the schools attended by city children. The average British West Indian elementary school consists of two infant classes and six "standards" or grades. In British Guiana, elementary schools are organized into four divisions making a total of eight years. The elementary school in the French areas consists of a prepara- tory section for children 6 to 7, an elementary course for children 7 to 9, a middle course for children 9 to 11, a higher course for children 11 to 12, and a school-leaving course for children 12 to 14. In Surinam the six-grade schools are classified into GLO-A schools for children from Dutch-speaking homes and GLO-B schools for children from non-Dutch-speaking homes. On complet- ing the sixth grade, children may go on for two more years of "continued" elementary education or for four more years of "ad- vanced" elementary education. Those wishing to go into a secon- dary school may do so by passing an entrance examination at age 11 or 12. This practice is also followed in the British and French groups. As in the case of the Spanish American republics and Haiti, the lack of school buildings results in overcrowded classrooms. A similar situation exists in regard to textbooks, teaching materials, and equipment. V. Curriculum The school curriculum throughout the area includes the conven- tional school subjects: reading, language, arithmetic, geography, history, nature study, and science. In the Spanish American repub- lics, Haiti, and Puerto Rico, emphasis is placed on the study of national history and geography, as a reaction against the former concern with the study of other areas of the world to the neglect of their own. In the French departements the study of local history and geography is made a part of the study of French geography and history. Instruction in the Catholic religion is compulsory in the public schools of Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, and the Do- minican Republic. In Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Venezuela, El Salvador, Puerto Rico, and the French group, re-  60 The Caribbean ligion is not taught in the schools. The public schools in the British and Dutch areas impart religious instruction without preference for any specific denomination. All over the Caribbean region, elemen- tary education places a great deal of stress on the mastery of the tool subjects and the acquisition of knowledge. In all the countries of the area, promotion from one grade to the next and satisfactory completion of the elementary course are de- termined, to a varying degree, by the results of examinations. The practice of requiring mastery of the subject matter prescribed for a grade is prevalent in most of the region. This practice is one of the many factors that account for the high percentage of children who repeat one, two, or three grades, which in turn results in an alarming rate of retardation and school desertion. In Mexico, for instance, of the 4,436,561 places existing in 1958 in the elementary schools, 738,580 were occupied by "re- peaters." An alarmingly low percentage of children finish the ele- mentary school. Other causes for this "educational wastage" must be found in poor instruction, inadequate buildings, and incomplete schools and in the handicaps that accompany the low social and economic con- ditions that the school itself cannot remedy. VI. Problems and Prospects The task of improving and extending public elementary educa- tion in the Caribbean so that every child is assured of the basic human right to education is one of tremendous magnitude. It in- volves raising the standards of the existing school system, making up for the accumulated educational deficit, and keeping up with the demands of a fast growing population. Just to illustrate what all this means in terms of human effort and financial resources it is appropriate to cite some of the figures from a report of a commission appointed by the President of Mex- ico to formulate a plan to solve the problem of elementary educa- tion. To accomplish this purpose, the Commission concludes that in eleven years Mexico will have to provide elementary school facilities for more than 7,000,000 children (present enrollment 4,500,000) which will require training 68,000 teachers; building 27,440 rural classrooms and 11,825 urban; reconditioning 36,735 rural classrooms. All this, the expansion and maintenance of the 60 The Caribbean ligion is not taught in the schools. The public schools in the British and Dutch areas impart religious instruction without preference for any specific denomination. All over the Caribbean region, elemen- tary education places a great deal of stress on the mastery of the tool subjects and the acquisition of knowledge. In all the countries of the area, promotion from one grade to the next and satisfactory completion of the elementary course are de- termined, to a varying degree, by the results of examinations. The practice of requiring mastery of the subject matter prescribed for a grade is prevalent in most of the region. This practice is one of the many factors that account for the high percentage of children who repeat one, two, or three grades, which in turn results in an alarming rate of retardation and school desertion. In Mexico, for instance, of the 4,436,561 places existing in 1958 in the elementary schools, 738,580 were occupied by "re- peaters." An alarmingly low percentage of children finish the ele- mentary school. Other causes for this "educational wastage" must be found in poor instruction, inadequate buildings, and incomplete schools and in the handicaps that accompany the low social and economic con- ditions that the school itself cannot remedy. VI. Problems and Prospects The task of improving and extending public elementary educa- tion in the Caribbean so that every child is assured of the basic human right to education is one of tremendous magnitude. It in- volves raising the standards of the existing school system, making up for the accumulated educational deficit, and keeping up with the demands of a fast growing population. Just to illustrate what all this means in terms of human effort and financial resources it is appropriate to cite some of the figures from a report of a commission appointed by the President of Mex- ico to formulate a plan to solve the problem of elementary educa- tion. To accomplish this purpose, the Commission concludes that in eleven years Mexico will have to provide elementary school facilities for more than 7,000,000 children (present enrollment 4,500,000) which will require training 68,000 teachers; building 27,440 rural classrooms and 11,825 urban; reconditioning 36,735 rural classrooms. All this, the expansion and maintenance of the 60 The Caribbean ligion is not taught in the schools. The public schools in the British and Dutch areas impart religious instruction without preference for any specific denomination. All over the Caribbean region, elemen- tary education places a great deal of stress on the mastery of the tool subjects and the acquisition of knowledge. In all the countries of the area, promotion from one grade to the next and satisfactory completion of the elementary course are de- termined, to a varying degree, by the results of examinations. The practice of requiring mastery of the subject matter prescribed for a grade is prevalent in most of the region. This practice is one of the many factors that account for the high percentage of children who repeat one, two, or three grades, which in turn results in an alarming rate of retardation and school desertion. In Mexico, for instance, of the 4,436,561 places existing in 1958 in the elementary schools, 738,580 were occupied by "re- peaters." An alarmingly low percentage of children finish the ele- mentary school. Other causes for this "educational wastage" must be found in poor instruction, inadequate buildings, and incomplete schools and in the handicaps that accompany the low social and economic con- ditions that the school itself cannot remedy. VI. Problems and Prospects The task of improving and extending public elementary educa- tion in the Caribbean so that every child is assured of the basic human right to education is one of tremendous magnitude. It in- volves raising the standards of the existing school system, making up for the accumulated educational deficit, and keeping up with the demands of a fast growing population. Just to illustrate what all this means in terms of human effort and financial resources it is appropriate to cite some of the figures from a report of a commission appointed by the President of Mex- ico to formulate a plan to solve the problem of elementary educa- tion. To accomplish this purpose, the Commission concludes that in eleven years Mexico will have to provide elementary school facilities for more than 7,000,000 children (present enrollment 4,500,000) which will require training 68,000 teachers; building 27,440 rural classrooms and 11,825 urban; reconditioning 36,735 rural classrooms. All this, the expansion and maintenance of the  PUBLIC EDUCATION 61 necessary services and the provision of textbooks and teaching ma- terials, would require the additional expenditure of 4,804,537,978 Mexican pesos (U.S. $348,363,038.00) in the eleven-year period pro- posed for the execution of the plan. Some of the countries and territories of the region may be farther ahead on the road toward the solution of their elementary school problem; others are surely behind. Be as it may, the figures quoted could be taken as indicative of the amount of effort that will be necessary to provide adequate elementary education for all. Whether the Caribbean countries are capable of this undertak- ing no one can tell for sure. Everywhere there is a sense of urgency and everywhere progress is being made. The effort is at times dra- matic, as in the case of Venezuela where the government coming into power early in 1957 immediately doubled the educational budget and established school facilities to accommodate 150,000 new elementary school pupils - an increase of 20 per cent over the preceding year. In other instances, such as the case of Puerto Rico, where education is being developed according to plan, improve- ment has been rapid and steady. At present many of the countries of the region do not seem to have the human and material resources required to solve their educational problems. However, there are signs indicating that the situation is far from hopeless. Throughout the region there is a growing popular demand for education. This demand is inherent in the urge of the masses for social and economic betterment. Parents, instead of having to be compelled to send their children to school, bring pressure upon their governments to provide schools for their children. Everywhere in the region education is assuming more importance as an instrument of national policy, as a logical result of increasing nationalism and the desire for self- or representative government, as the case may be. Among the officials responsible for the direction and administra- tion of education, two significant ideas are gaining ground. One of these ideas is that national educational needs can be adequately met only through systematic planning of education. School build- ing programs are to be found in many countries. Planning offices are being established in several of them. In order to assist the Member States to set up educational planning services, the Organ- ization of American States, with the cooperation of UNESCO and PUBLIC EDUCATION 61 necessary services and the provision of textbooks and teaching ma- terials, would require the additional expenditure of 4,804,537,978 Mexican pesos (U.S. $348,363,038.00) in the eleven-year period pro- posed for the execution of the plan. Some of the countries and territories of the region may be farther ahead on the road toward the solution of their elementary school problem; others are surely behind. Be as it may, the figures quoted could be taken as indicative of the amount of effort that will be necessary to provide adequate elementary education for all. Whether the Caribbean countries are capable of this undertak- ing no one can tell for sure. Everywhere there is a sense of urgency and everywhere progress is being made. The effort is at times dra- matic, as in the case of Venezuela where the government coming into power early in 1957 immediately doubled the educational budget and established school facilities to accommodate 150,000 new elementary school pupils - an increase of 20 per cent over the preceding year. In other instances, such as the case of Puerto Rico, where education is being developed according to plan, improve- ment has been rapid and steady. At present many of the countries of the region do not seem to have the human and material resources required to solve their educational problems. However, there are signs indicating that the situation is far from hopeless. Throughout the region there is a growing popular demand for education. This demand is inherent in the urge of the masses for social and economic betterment. Parents, instead of having to be compelled to send their children to school, bring pressure upon their governments to provide schools for their children. Everywhere in the region education is assuming more importance as an instrument of national policy, as a logical result of increasing nationalism and the desire for self- or representative government, as the case may be. Among the officials responsible for the direction and administra- tion of education, two significant ideas are gaining ground. One of these ideas is that national educational needs can be adequately met only through systematic planning of education. School build- ing programs are to be found in many countries. Planning offices are being established in several of them. In order to assist the Member States to set up educational planning services, the Organ- ization of American States, with the cooperation of UNESCO and PUBLIC EDUCATION 61 necessary services and the provision of textbooks and teaching ma- terials, would require the additional expenditure of 4,804,537,978 Mexican pesos (U.S. $348,363,038.00) in the eleven-year period pro- posed for the execution of the plan. Some of the countries and territories of the region may be farther ahead on the road toward the solution of their elementary school problem; others are surely behind. Be as it may, the figures quoted could be taken as indicative of the amount of effort that will be necessary to provide adequate elementary education for all. Whether the Caribbean countries are capable of this undertak- ing no one can tell for sure. Everywhere there is a sense of urgency and everywhere progress is being made. The effort is at times dra- matic, as in the case of Venezuela where the government coming into power early in 1957 immediately doubled the educational budget and established school facilities to accommodate 150,000 new elementary school pupils - an increase of 20 per cent over the preceding year. In other instances, such as the case of Puerto Rico, where education is being developed according to plan, improve- ment has been rapid and steady. At present many of the countries of the region do not seem to have the human and material resources required to solve their educational problems. However, there are signs indicating that the situation is far from hopeless. Throughout the region there is a growing popular demand for education. This demand is inherent in the urge of the masses for social and economic betterment. Parents, instead of having to be compelled to send their children to school, bring pressure upon their governments to provide schools for their children. Everywhere in the region education is assuming more importance as an instrument of national policy, as a logical result of increasing nationalism and the desire for self- or representative government, as the case may be. Among the officials responsible for the direction and administra- tion of education, two significant ideas are gaining ground. One of these ideas is that national educational needs can be adequately met only through systematic planning of education. School build- ing programs are to be found in many countries. Planning offices are being established in several of them. In order to assist the Member States to set up educational planning services, the Organ- ization of American States, with the cooperation of UNESCO and  62 The Caribbean the government of Colombia, recently held in BogotA an inter- American course on planning of education for high officials of the Ministries of Education. As planning becomes an established policy we can expect a more rational use of available resources and a clearer concept of needs and objectives. The idea of educational planning is closely related to the idea of social and economic planning. Educators are becoming increasingly aware of the relationship between education and social and eco- nomic conditions. Some of the present school problems, such as school desertion, are not exclusively educational problems. They can be solved only through measures designed to increase pro- ductivity and to raise social and economic conditions. Increasing the number of schools, training more teachers, devising more effective curricula - all this will help, but will not be enough. Education cannot prosper in the midst of poverty; in order to do its job well the school needs an environment that motivates and utilizes education. VII. Regional and International Cooperation The last decade has witnessed the beginning of regional cooper- ation in the Caribbean. Under the auspices of the Caribbean Com- mission (now Caribbean Organization) the member countries of this organization have got together for the study of the common problems and common lines of action, including education. The University College of the West Indies is a concrete example of this cooperation. Similar activities have been carried out by the five Central American republics through ODECA (Organizaci6n de los Estados Centroamericanos). Mention should be made of the part played by international cooperation in the improvement of education in the Caribbean. The International Cooperation Administration of the United States is developing teacher training and rural school programs through the cooperative services established with the governments of Guate- mala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. UNESCO, by means of its Major Project No. 1 on the extension of elementary education in Latin America and through its technical missions, is encouraging and assisting the governments to expand and improve their compulsory education programs. The OAS main- 62 The Caribbean the government of Colombia, recently held in Bogota an inter- American course on planning of education for high officials of the Ministries of Education. As planning becomes an established policy we can expect a more rational use of available resources and a clearer concept of needs and objectives. The idea of educational planning is closely related to the idea of social and economic planning. Educators are becoming increasingly aware of the relationship between education and social and eco- nomic conditions. Some of the present school problems, such as school desertion, are not exclusively educational problems. They can be solved only through measures designed to increase pro- ductivity and to raise social and economic conditions. Increasing the number of schools, training more teachers, devising more effective curricula - all this will help, but will not be enough. Education cannot prosper in the midst of poverty; in order to do its job well the school needs an environment that motivates and utilizes education. VII. Regional and International Cooperation The last decade has witnessed the beginning of regional cooper- ation in the Caribbean. Under the auspices of the Caribbean Com- mission (now Caribbean Organization) the member countries of this organization have got together for the study of the common problems and common lines of action, including education. The University College of the West Indies is a concrete example of this cooperation. Similar activities have been carried out by the five Central American republics through ODECA (Organizacion de los Estados Centroamericanos). Mention should be made of the part played by international cooperation in the improvement of education in the Caribbean. The International Cooperation Administration of the United States is developing teacher training and rural school programs through the cooperative services established with the governments of Guate- mala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. UNESCO, by means of its Major Project No. 1 on the extension of elementary education in Latin America and through its technical missions, is encouraging and assisting the governments to expand and improve their compulsory education programs. The OAS main- 62 The Caribbean the government of Colombia, recently held in Bogota an inter- American course on planning of education for high officials of the Ministries of Education. As planning becomes an established policy we can expect a more rational use of available resources and a clearer concept of needs and objectives. The idea of educational planning is closely related to the idea of social and economic planning. Educators are becoming increasingly aware of the relationship between education and social and eco- nomic conditions. Some of the present school problems, such as school desertion, are not exclusively educational problems. They can be solved only through measures designed to increase pro- ductivity and to raise social and economic conditions. Increasing the number of schools, training more teachers, devising more effective curricula - all this will help, but will not be enough. Education cannot prosper in the midst of poverty; in order to do its job well the school needs an environment that motivates and utilizes education. VII. Regional and International Cooperation The last decade has witnessed the beginning of regional cooper- ation in the Caribbean. Under the auspices of the Caribbean Com- mission (now Caribbean Organization) the member countries of this organization have got together for the study of the common problems and common lines of action, including education. The University College of the West Indies is a concrete example of this cooperation. Similar activities have been carried out by the five Central American republics through ODECA (Organizaci6n de Ins Estados Centroamericanos). Mention should be made of the part played by international cooperation in the improvement of education in the Caribbean. The International Cooperation Administration of the United States is developing teacher training and rural school programs through the cooperative services established with the governments of Guate- mala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. UNESCO, by means of its Major Project No. 1 on the extension of elementary education in Latin America and through its technical missions, is encouraging and assisting the governments to expand and improve their compulsory education programs. The OAS main-  PUBLIC EDUCATION 63 loins the Inter-American Rural Education Center (Robin, Vene- codla), with the cooperation of the government of Venezuela and UNESCO, for the in-service training of normal school teachers and administrators and supervisors of rmeal education. OAS and UNESCO have jointly sponsored a series at Inter-American semi- oars on educational problems. The sintha of these seminars, held in Washington in 1158, droll with the problem of over-all educational planning. Its conclusions and recommendations are helping the governments to plan their educational services. BIBLIOGRAPHY British uions, Educaton Deportosent. Asnual Report cf the Director of Edncation; Annual Summnary for the Year 1oat-io95o. Ceorgetow-n, Demrerana, British uions, 150. St. Cere's Cathedral Schsool: Schseme of Work, 1959. Trimnniol Report of the Edncatien Department fee the Years 1954- 195. Georgon, Dromerara, British uions, 1050. Haiti, President do Ia Ripuhbqoe. "Decret imprimant a I'Enseignemsent Raol oar orientation noovelte qui correspond msieux son r~altls et authbesoins do msilieo - et loxant le statrt do 'Iostituter Bondl, le 16 DOeobre 1955," Le Moniteur, Port-on-Prince, Anade No. 11 (10 lonier, lots). loins Conferenc on Education aod Smnoll Scale Pormiog. Trinidad, 0954: The Admninistration of Education. Repents hy Notiona1 Sections of the Carihbman Conmsion. .Trinidad, 1954. (accond Subhject: The Sichool in its RltototeCmuiy)Nte on thr Adminisraotion of Eduaioni is Beitih, Prench, Nether- hands and United tats Carihhean Conries. Refeence Documsent No. 6, hy Mrs. V. 0. Aleala, Reseaneh Secretarv, Ceatral Seretarias, Carnbhhmn Commuission. Trinidad, 1054. (Srvond Suhject: The School in its Relatio to the Communoity.) Note on Finaig of Eduaotion in Britih, French, Netherlands and United Storer Caribhean Countrices. Reference No. 7, Trinidad, 1054. (Sec- ond Suhject: The School icnt Relaono0 the Comsunitr.) Stotisticol Abstroct to rhe Joint Conferece..Vol. 1: Caribbean Education, 1940-1952. Coompiled hy the Statistical Unit, Research Brooch, Control Secretariat, Cotibbean Coommissdoo. Trinidad, 1054. Loara Bragan, Atoio."olciinofinalialprolema educatie,"NlUniesal, Mario, D. P. (20 do octohe de tots). Nicaraosa, Midsterio do Edneacian Priblica, Oieceeila de Servicios Adodo- istrativos, Seceam de Estadistica. oletin estaodistico, no. 1, 19t8-19t9. Managua, Nicaraoua, lots? Pan Amserican Union, Deportment of Statitrc. Aen, Total Population oad Popuaotion Denstyo of rho Auction Notions: Moat Recent Pepuations Eti- mates, Precious Population Estimates, Most Recess Censuse. Washington, D.C., 1050. PUBLIC EDUCATION 63 loins the Inter-American Rural Education Center (Rubio, Vene- cuela), with the cooperation of the goversnent of Venezuela and UNESCO, for the in-service training of normal school teachers and administrators and supervisors of rncal education. OAS and UNESCO have jointly sponsored a series of Inter-American semi- oars on educational problems. The sixth of these seminars, held in Washington in 158, dealt with the problem of over-all educational planning. Its conclusins and recommendations are helping the governments to plan their educational services. BIBLIOGRAPHY British uiana, Edocation Depostment. Annual Rport of the Director of Education; Annnol Sunnaro for the Year 1957-158. UGeogtown, Demrarao, British uions, 1058. St. Georgees Cathedral School; Scheme of Work, 10959. Triennial Report of the Nducaotions Departnment foe the Yonrs 1954- 1957. Gmeorgtown, Denerara, British uiaoa, lots. Haiti, President de to Rdpobtqu. "Deret inmprimasnt S tBnsiooenens Rural oar orientatio nouvonelle qui correspond mdesx ass nfaltis rt cot brsoins do onieu - rt roosnt In stotut de l'Isstintmnu Rural, In 10 Dcembhee 158," Lec Moniteur, Port-au-Prince, Acosir No. 11 (19 bonnier, 10501. Joint Coofrencr on Edocation cod Snotl Scale Parming. Trinidod, 1954: The Admniniatration of Educotion. Reports by National Sections of the Caribbon Commsion. . Trinidod, 1954. (Second Subhct: The School in its Relation to she Commuonity.) Note en she Adninistrmtion of Edncotion in British, Prench, Nether- iands and United States Caribbean Contrices. Refereace Docomnt No. 0, by Mrs. V. 0. Atrala, Research Seretarye, Central Secretariat, Caribben Comnission. Trinidad, 1954. (Siecood Sobject: The School is its Relation to theComuonnity.) None on Finning of Educotion in Brtiah, Prench, Netherlands and United Storer Caribbean Caneries. Reference No. 7, Trinidad, t95d. (Orc- od Soubject: The School in its Relation to she Commuonity.) Statistical Abstroct to the Joint Conference.... Vol. 1: Caribbean Education, 1940-1952. Compdred by she Statisticol Unit, Reseonch Bonet, Control Serestiat, Caribbean Commsission. Trinidad, 1014. Lana Batragan, Antonio. "Solucin tinal al problemna edncative," NI Universal, Mico, D. P. (20 de octnhre de 1050). Nicaragoa, Ministerlo de Edococido Prica, Diecoido de Seroicios Admn- istrativos, Seccian do Rstadistica. Boletin esadistico, no. 1, 19t8-1959. Manoguo, Nicaraoua, 1oto? Pan Amrcan Unioo, Deparcmnt of ttistic. Area, Total Popnlation and Popnlatian Density of the Amerion Natians: Most Recent Popnlatian Eoti- nates, Precious Popuiatien Estinotes, Most Recent Crnsses. Washiogton, D.C., 1050. PUBLIC EDUCATION 63 loins the Inter-American Rural Education Center (Rubio, Vene- aorta), with the cooperation of the goverment of Venezuela and UNESCO, foe the in-service training of normal school teachers and administratoro and supervisors of meral education. OAS and UINESCO have jointly spoosored o series of Inter-American semi- nars on educational problems. The ninth of theta seminars, held in Washington in 1958, dealt wth the problem of over-all educational planning. Its conclusions and recommendations are helping the governments to plan their educational services. BIBLIOGRAPHY British Goiaoo, Edocotin Departmen. Annual Report of the Director of Edncstion; Asnul Snumnory far the Yeor 1957-195. Urorgetoren, Demnerara, British uions, 1050. St. Geore's Cathedral Schoob: tchemse of Work, 19tS. Triennial Report of the Edncatian Departroent for she Ymarr 1954- 1957. UGoetown, Demraora, British uions, t95. Haiti,Pesirent de iatfpnbbiqnr.Decret iprimont Isigrnemnt Rural une orietatioa nouelle qui correspondonieux amx efots et ant besoins do mririe - et fixnat le stotul do l'Instdtuteur Roral, le 10 ODemobe 1050," Le Monitenr, Port-as-Prince, Annie No. 11 (10 loonvier, 10501. Ioiot Confereance as Education and Small Scale Panning. Trinidad, 1054. The Admniation of Education. Reports by National Setions of the Caribbean Conmission. . Trinidad, t9l4. (Second Sunbject: The School in its Relotion to she Conmuity.) Note on the Adninistion of Edncatin in Britiah, drench, Nether- lands and United States Caribbean Countries. Reference Docment No. 6, by Mrs. V. 0. Alcala, Research Secretory, Control Secmetariot, Coribben Commsission. Trinidad, 1054. (Second Subject: The School in its Reclation to the Comnnonity. ) Note on Finaing of Educatin in British, drench, Netherlands and Unted Orates Caribbeon Centries. Refeenace No. 7, Trinidad, 1054. (Orec- ood Subject: The School in as Ration to she Coommunity.) Statistical Abstract to rho Joint Conference -..Vol. t: Caribbhon Educotion, 1940-1952. Compiled by she tsatistical Unit, Research Branch, Central Secrnetaeiot, Caribbean Commsistio. Trinidad, 1054. Lara Barragan, Antonio. "Solocisin fnol al probhlema edocativo," El Universal, Mico, D. P. (20 de octohre de 1050). Nicoragua, Miisterio de Edneacida Poiblica, Direnin de Orvicios Admin- istraoivos, Seccidn de Estadistico. oletin estadistic, no. 1, 19t58-1959. Manogua, Nicaragua, 105Sf Pan Aomerican Unioa, Departmentr of Statistias. Area, Tooal Popnlation and Pepulation Dnsity of rhe Ameicon Nations: Most Recent Popnlation Rsi mates, Previoms Popnlation Etimatsc, Most Recent Censuse. Washington, D.C., 1050.  64 The Caribbean Octubre de 1958 [radio addess. Pueto Rico, Deprten of Edcaio. Public Schol System 4f Puero Rico: Geerl Inomain San Jun 1957. Maaga 1858. &n49i de le prbemsd la educci& rimi urba; douet rdcd o lCmt ain eHnua.Tgcgla D.C., 1958? Informe prsntd p el Comit Naiona de Ednaci. Prmai 1958. Semiari de Educacib Rura Intgral d Cntom&ic. Gutemal, 1958. 1958. Salvador, 1858. Esi de lo prbea de la edcaiorrl integral de Centrofi- igalpa, D.C., 1858? Estuio de los probema de la edncdn rura integral de Centro amrc;dcmnopouioprelCmt ainld aad a Savdr 1858. Inom prsnd por el Comit6 Nain de Educaci Rura Int- gral de Niaag Managua, D.N., 1858. Surinam Deprtmet of Educatio. Reporo Educaton i Surinam. Paa maribo,, 1854? TorsBdt am."oiinNtoa aafrua npa etnd reovre rbead neuain rmrae lpi, lUiesl Mexic, D.F. (28 de octubre de 1858). United Naions Educatioa, Scietf&, and Culal~ Organizaton. Curaent School Enrllment Statitc, No,. 5, Pais, July 5858. World Survy of Eduaio, II: Primary Eduptia. Paris, 1858. University of California, Copmte o Latin American Studies. Statistica Abstrac of La Americp a 1957. Los Angeles, 1858. 64 The Caribbean Pizani, Rafae. Eppsii del pipdadan Minfito de Eduapion. Caraa, Optubre de 1858 [radio address. Puerto ico, DepPIarten of Eduatlio. Public School System~ of Puerto Rico: General Informatio. San Juan, 1857. Sem~inario de Educaibn, FPrpmafla Urbpna de, Cenalmerica y Panama. Managu, 1858. Estudio de los prhblemas de, la educacpipn pripaia, urbpa; docmtprucd ~per el Coit6 Nacinldde od uas. eguigapa., D.C., 5858? Informe presentdo par el Comi4t Nadional de Edua44, Primarip Urbana. Maagua, D.N., 1558. Infome a lo : la,,) educacin priaa ubanp, Panam. Pppppp&, 1958. Informep fina. Managua, 1858. Sempii de Educacibn, Rural Integral de Centroameica. Gu~aemla, 1858. L a uaiIn ral en Guatemala; infrm a del4p Comit Nacionl. Guatemala, 1958. Estuie de los problepas de la, eduacpin rual integral de, C,,ppa- ica; docuent produido pore IComit Naiua dep El Salvar San Salvado, 1858. Idem. Anexps. 1958? Estudio d los problemp de I,, eduaciMd, rual integral de Centro- apalpip,; doumnt ppoducidpprpl Comit6 NonleHodua. Tegu,- cigalpa, D.C., 1858? Eapstiod Insla problemasd a e duac4in rura? intal de Cantro- d~ia;dcmenprodid p aeCmi6 ationl dePaamd. an SIao, 1858. Informea presenta par el Comit6 Nacionlde Epducacin Rural Inte- gral de Nicaragua. Managua, D.N., 1858. Spinam, Depatmet of Eduation. ReporPo Education in Suri,,. Paa maribo,, 1954? Tones Bode, Jam. "Comiin Napiona para formularu plan destinadp reolerepropbemadeedcai46n primaia enelpis,"El Uivra, Mxico, D.F. (18 de otubre de 1858). United Natipns Educationa, Scientfi, and Cu1tura1 Orgaizatio. Curret School Enrolment~p St atic, Np. 5, Pars, July 1858. World Survey of Educatio, I: Primary Eduatio. Pars, 1858. Uniert5 of California, Commitee o Latin Amercap Studies. Staitial Abstact af Latina Aperic, a 1957. Los Angeles, 1858. 64 The Caribbean Pizni, Raal. Exposidai4 delcidadano Ministro de, Educaian. Caraa, Octubre de 1858 [radio address]. Pert Sico, DePpamen of Eduation. Publac School Sydtem of Pueto Rico: Sempinaro de Eduaaidn Primparia Urbana, de Cenaapmeric y PanampI. Maagua, 1858. Esui de los proleas de 1o educacin primaia uanp; doumnt p prpodud pa lComit Nacin dep Hondua. Tegucigalp, D.C., 1958? ---Informepresentad C omit6aionaldeEdacin Priaia Urbhana. M5aaga, D.N., 1858. Informep natonl: la eduaidn primaia uralan en Ppanam. Papam, 15. Informe fial. Managu, 1858. Seminlaro dp Eduaibaa Rual Integral de Cenamt ric. Guateaa, 198. La dcc~ rur4p a enGuamla infoame del Comt6 Nacion. Guateala, 1958. Esaip de los probleasa de la eduain rural integral de Centro- dmica ,douet prpdpaide perelComit6 Npacin dea El Salvador. San Salvado, 1858. Ipdem. Anepa. 198? Estudio de, Ins problemas de la eaipn rural integal de Centr- amice documentopodcidppraelComie NaialdeaHoda. Tagu- cdgalpa, D.C., 1858? Estudio de l,, prolemp de, la eduation ruralM integral Ip Centro- &kpc; documentoproduidopar C omit6 Nacionl de Panm.San Salvado, 1858. Inforpresenpad pr eCoitNaiol&edcacSin Rual Intea- gral de Nicpaaa. Managua, D.N., 1858. Surinam, De paen of Educatio. Rporto Educaio in Suapiamp. Para- maribo, 1854? Torre Bodet, Jam. "Compisin Natioal para formuplaru plan destiado reslve elprblema de la e4daipn prmaia en elpa," El Universa, Mexico, D.F. (28 de octubre de 1858). United Nation Educatioal, Scietfi, and Cultural Organiaion. Curent School Enrollment, Statistic, Np. 5, Pars, (Mly 1858. Warll Survey of Eduatio, II: Priay Eduatio. Paris, 1858. University of CMaliona, Copmmite pp Latin Appricap Stppdies. Statistical Abstrpct of Latin Ameaia for 1957. Lps Angeles, 1858.  5 5 r T 5 Charles C. Hauch: COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY PUBLIC EDUCATION IN. THE CARIBBEAN THE SUBJECT MATTER of this paper is College and Univer- sity Public Education in the Caribbean. This term requires some definition and explanation to make clear what it is that we shall be discussing. "College and university education" is being inter- preted to mean organized programs of instruction at the higher education level generally; that is, programs requiring for admission the completion of a full program of secondary and preparatory level studies usually entailing a total of eleven or twelve years of combined primary, secondary, and preparatory schooling, and lead- ing to a higher degree, diploma, certificate, or title. With respect to the word "college," most of the so-called "colleges" or "colegios" of the area are secondary or preparatory level institutions and con- sequently will not receive treatment here. Likewise, we shall not be concerned with secondary and preparatory programs of study offered at institutions of higher education, other than to note at times the existence of such programs. On the other hand, there are a growing number of institutions, organizations, and agencies in several countries of the area (notably Mexico and Colombia) which, while not designated as universi- ties or regarded as such in the conventional understanding of that term, are offering programs of instruction at the higher education level in certain individual and specialized fields. An example of an institution of this type which has been rather common throughout the Spanish American republics of the area is the Escuela Normal Superior, or Higher Normal School, which resembles in some respects the United States teachers' college. While fully recogniz- 65 Charles C. Hauch: COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY PUBLIC EDUCATION IN, THE CARIBBEAN THE SUBJECT MATTER of this paper is College and Univer- sity Public Education in the Caribbean. This term requires some definition and explanation to make clear what it is that we shall be discussing. "College and university education" is being inter- preted to mean organized programs of instruction at the higher education level generally; that is, programs requiring for admission the completion of a full program of secondary and preparatory level studies usually entailing a total of eleven or twelve years of combined primary, secondary, and preparatory schooling, and lead- ing to a higher degree, diploma, certificate, or title. With respect to the word "college," most of the so-called "colleges" or "colegios" of the area are secondary or preparatory level institutions and con- sequently will not receive treatment here. Likewise, we shall not be concerned with secondary and preparatory programs of study offered at institutions of higher education, other than to note at times the existence of such programs. On the other hand, there are a growing number of institutions, organizations, and agencies in several countries of the area (notably Mexico and Colombia) which, while not designated as universi- ties or regarded as such in the conventional understanding of that term, are offering programs of instruction at the higher education level in certain individual and specialized fields. An example of an institution of this type which has been rather common throughout the Spanish American republics of the area is the Escuela Normal Superior, or Higher Normal School, which resembles in some respects the United States teachers' college. While fully recogniz- 65 Charles C. Hauch: COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY PUBLIC EDUCATION IN. THE CARIBBEAN THE SUBJECT MATTER of this paper is College and Univer- sity Public Education in the Caribbean. This term requires some definition and explanation to make clear what it is that we shall be discussing. "College and university education" is being inter- preted to mean organized programs of instruction at the higher education level generally; that is, programs requiring for admission the completion of a full program of secondary and preparatory level studies usually entailing a total of eleven or twelve years of combined primary, secondary, and preparatory schooling, and lead- ing to a higher degree, diploma, certificate, or title. With respect to the word "college," most of the so-called "colleges" or "colegios" of the area are secondary or preparatory level institutions and con- sequently will not receive treatment here. Likewise, we shall not be concerned with secondary and preparatory programs of study offered at institutions of higher education, other than to note at times the existence of such programs. On the other hand, there are a growing number of institutions, organizations, and agencies in several countries of the area (notably Mexico and Colombia) which, while not designated as universi- ties or regarded as such in the conventional understanding of that term, are offering programs of instruction at the higher education level in certain individual and specialized fields. An example of an institution of this type which has been rather common throughout the Spanish American republics of the area is the Escuela Normal Superior, or Higher Normal School, which resembles in some respects the United States teachers' college. While fully recogniz- 65  66 The Caribbean 66 The Caribbean 66 The Caribbean ing the existence of specialized institutions and programs and devoting some attention to them, we shall concern ourselves in this paper primarily with higher education as offered at the regular universities and comparable institutions. A second delineation of the scope of our subject here is indicated by the fact that this session was designated to deal with "public" education. If we were dealing with higher education in the United States, this would rule out consideration of a majority of its insti- tutions of higher learning. Not so in the geographic area we are discussing, because higher education in the Caribbean is primarily public education. The only territory or country where there are more private than public institutions of higher learning is Puerto Rico, whose institutions divide into four private and one public. Even here, the one public institution - the University of Puerto Rico - far outstrips the combined enrollment of the other four, being 17,579 as against 1,753 at the beginning of the 1958-59 school year, according to figures in the 1959-60 edition of the United States Office of Education's Higher Education Directory. In the European affiliated areas of the Caribbean, all higher education, with one minor exception, is public. Insofar as the Latin American republics of the area are concerned, although the universities founded in the Colonial Period were generally church-connected and -controlled, most of them were nationalized following independence, and most new universities since that time have been creatures of the State. Nevertheless, in recent decades a significant development in the Spanish American republics of the area has been the founding of private universities and other institutions of higher learning by both secular and reli- gious bodies. Detailed discussion of these institutions will not be attempted here, since they lie outside the scope of this paper and Private Education is the subject of another session of this Con- ference. Mention is simply made of such well-oown examples as, in Cuba, the Universidad Santo Tomas de Villanueva; in Mexico, the Instituto Technol6gico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, the Universidad Aut6noma de Guadalajara, the Universidad Femi- nina de M6xico, and Mexico City College; in Venezuela, the Universidad Cat6lica Andres Bello and the Universidad Santa Maria; and in Colombia, the Universidad de los Andes de BogotA, the Universidad Pontificia Catolica Bolivariana, and the Pontificia Universidad Cat6lica Javeriana, which was founded as the Acade- ing the existence of specialized institutions and programs and devoting some attention to them, we shall concern ourselves in this paper primarily with higher education as offered at the regular universities and comparable institutions. A second delineation of the scope of our subject here is indicated by the fact that this session was designated to deal with "public" education. If we were dealing with higher education in the United States, this would rule out consideration of a majority of its insti- tutions of higher learning. Not so in the geographic area we are discussing, because higher education in the Caribbean is primarily public education. The only territory or country where there are more private than public institutions of higher learning is Puerto Rico, whose institutions divide into four private and one public. Even here, the one public institution - the University of Puerto Rico - far outstrips the combined enrollment of the other four, being 17,579 as against 3,753 at the beginning of the 1958-59 school year, according to figures in the 1959-60 edition of the United States Office of Education's Higher Education Directory. In the European affiliated areas of the Caribbean, all higher education, with one minor exception, is public. Insofar as the Latin American republics of the area are concerned, although the universities founded in the Colonial Period were generally church-connected and -controlled, most of them were nationalized following independence, and most new universities since that time have been creatures of the State. Nevertheless, in recent decades a significant development in the Spanish American republics of the area has been the founding of private universities and other institutions of higher learning by both secular and reli- gious bodies. Detailed discussion of these institutions will not be attempted here, since they lie outside the scope of this paper and Private Education is the subject of another session of this Con- ference. Mention is simply made of such well-lnown examples as, in Cuba, the Universidad Santo TomAs de Villanueva; in Mexico, the Instituto Technol6gico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, the Universidad Aut6noma de Guadalajara, the Universidad Femi- nina de M6xico, and Mexico City College; in Venezuela, the Universidad Cat6lica Andres Bello and the Universidad Santa Maria; and in Colombia, the Universidad de los Andes de Bogota, the Universidad Pontificia Cat6lica Bolivariana, and the Pontificia Universidad Cat6lica Javeriana, which was founded as the Acade- ing the existence of specialized institutions and programs and devoting some attention to them, we shall concern ourselves in this paper primarily with higher education as offered at the regular universities and comparable institutions. A second delineation of the scope of our subject here is indicated by the fact that this session was designated to deal with "public" education. If we were dealing with higher education in the United States, this would rule out consideration of a majority of its insti- tutions of higher learning. Not so in the geographic area we are discussing, because higher education in the Caribbean is primarily public education. The only territory or country where there are more private than public institutions of higher learning is Puerto Rico, whose institutions divide into four private and one public. Even here, the one public institution - the University of Puerto Rico - far outstrips the combined enrollment of the other four, being 17,579 as against 3,753 at the beginning of the 1958-59 school year, according to figures in the 1959-60 edition of the United States Office of Education's Higher Education Directory. In the European affiliated areas of the Caribbean, all higher education, with one minor exception, is public. Insofar as the Latin American republics of the area are concerned, although the universities founded in the Colonial Period were generally church-connected and -controlled, most of them were nationalized following independence, and most new universities since that time have been creatures of the State. Nevertheless, in recent decades a significant development in the Spanish American republics of the area has been the founding of private universities and other institutions of higher learning by both secular and reli- gious bodies. Detailed discussion of these institutions will not be attempted here, since they lie outside the scope of this paper and Private Education is the subject of another session of this Con- ference. Mention is simply made of such well-kmown examples as, in Cuba, the Universidad Santo Tomis de Villanueva; in Mexico, the Instituto Technol6gico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, the Universidad Autonoma de Guadalajara, the Universidad Femi- nina de Mexico, and Mexico City College; in Venezuela, the Universidad Cat6lica Andres Bello and the Universidad Santa Maria; and in Colombia, the Universidad de los Andes de Bogota, the Universidad Pontificia Cat6lica Bolivariana, and the Pontificia Universidad Catblica Javeriana, which was founded as the Acade-  PUBLIC EDUCATION 67 mia Javeriana in 1622, closed in 1767 with the expulsion of the Jesuits, and reopened in the 1930's. Let us now turn to a survey of some of the main characteristics of public higher education in the Caribbean, and of the facilities for such education. There are five basic national patterns or systems represented in the area's institutions of higher public education - the British, the French, the Dutch, the United States, and the Spanish American. We shall discuss each of these in turn, recog- nizing that the last-named is represented by the vast majority of the institutions of the area - those of the 11 Spanish American republics - and that for this reason we shall devote to them the major portion of our discussion. The British system of higher education finds expression notably in the University College of the West Indies in Jamaica, and also in several institutions offering specialized forms of education. The University College was discussed in some detail in Dr. Wilgus' essay which formed the introduction to the volume containing the papers of the Eighth Conference of this series, and it is therefore unnecessary to repeat here the details of its origin, development, and programs up to that time. Suffice it to say that the University College, which under the constitution of the new West Indies Fed- eration has become a responsibility of the Federation as a whole and which serves British Guiana and British Honduras as well, exhibits some of the trends and developments common to higher education in the Caribbean area generally. One of these is the steady expansion of enrollment since the University College opened its doors in 1948. Although by comparison with the National Uni- versities of even the smaller Caribbean and Central American republics, the University College is one of the smaller institutions in the area, enrollment reached an all time high of 722 at the begin- ning of the current (1959-60) academic year, just 100 over the previous high of 622 enrolled at the beginning of the 1958-59 academic year. It is expected that enrollment will continue to increase with the planned expansion of academic programs and the demand for higher education by the rapidly increasing population of the British Caribbean territories. A second trend is the just-mentioned expansion of academic PUBLIC EDUCATION 67 mia Javeriana in 1622, closed in 1767 with the expulsion of the Jesuits, and reopened in the 1980's. Let us now turn to a survey of some of the main characteristics of public higher education in the Caribbean, and of the facilities for such education. There are five basic national patterns or systems represented in the area's institutions of higher public education - the British, the French, the Dutch, the United States, and the Spanish American. We shall discuss each of these in turn, recog- nizing that the last-named is represented by the vast majority of the institutions of the area - those of the 11 Spanish American republics - and that for this reason we shall devote to them the major portion of our discussion. The British system of higher education finds expression notably in the University College of the West Indies in Jamaica, and also in several institutions offering specialized forms of education. The University College was discussed in some detail in Dr. Wilgus' essay which formed the introduction to the volume containing the papers of the Eighth Conference of this series, and it is therefore unnecessary to repeat here the details of its origin, development, and programs up to that time. Suffice it to say that the University College, which under the constitution of the new West Indies Fed- eration has become a responsibility of the Federation as a whole and which serves British Guiana and British Honduras as well, exhibits some of the trends and developments common to higher education in the Caribbean area generally. One of these is the steady expansion of enrollment since the University College opened its doors in 1948. Although by comparison with the National Uni- versities of even the smaller Caribbean and Central American republics, the University College is one of the smaller institutions in the area, enrollment reached an all time high of 722 at the begin- ning of the current (1959-60) academic year, just 100 over the previous high of 622 enrolled at the beginning of the 1958-59 academic year. It is expected that enrollment will continue to increase with the planned expansion of academic programs and the demand for higher education by the rapidly increasing population of the British Caribbean territories. A second trend is the just-mentioned expansion of academic PUBLIC EDUCATION 67 mia Javeriana in 1622, closed in 1767 with the expulsion of the Jesuits, and reopened in the 1930's. Let us now turn to a survey of some of the main characteristics of public higher education in the Caribbean, and of the facilities for such education. There are five basic national patterns or systems represented in the area's institutions of higher public education - the British, the French, the Dutch, the United States, and the Spanish American. We shall discuss each of these in turn, recog- nizing that the last-named is represented by the vast majority of the institutions of the area -those of the 11 Spanish American republics - and that for this reason we shall devote to them the major portion of our discussion. The British system of higher education finds expression notably in the University College of the West Indies in Jamaica, and also in several institutions offering specialized forms of education. The University College was discussed in some detail in Dr. Wilgus' essay which formed the introduction to the volume containing the papers of the Eighth Conference of this series, and it is therefore unnecessary to repeat here the details of its origin, development, and programs up to that time. Suffice it to say that the University College, which under the constitution of the new West Indies Fed- eration has become a responsibility of the Federation as a whole and which serves British Guiana and British Honduras as well, exhibits some of the trends and developments common to higher education in the Caribbean area generally. One of these is the steady expansion of enrollment since the University College opened its doors in 1948. Although by comparison with the National Uni- versities of even the smaller Caribbean and Central American republics, the University College is one of the smaller institutions in the area, enrollment reached an all time high of 722 at the begin- ning of the current (1959-60) academic year, just 100 over the previous high of 622 enrolled at the beginning of the 1958-59 academic year. It is expected that enrollment will continue to increase with the planned expansion of academic programs and the demand for higher education by the rapidly increasing population of the British Caribbean territories. A second trend is the just-mentioned expansion of academic  68 The Caribbean programs. The University College has increased its programs since its inception so that today it is a combination of (a) an undergrad- uate institution offering programs for the Bachelor's degree in its Faculties, or Schools, of Arts and Natural Sciences, (b) a profes- sional medical school, and (c) a small post-graduate Department of Education whose instructional program consists of professional training primarily for secondary school teachers. New Faculties planned include (a) a Faculty of Agriculture which is to begin opera- tion in the fall of 1960 with the absorption of the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture at Trinidad into the University College and the initiation of full degree programs in agriculture, (b) a projected Faculty of Engineering, and (c) a Faculty of Social Sciences, towards which the initiation of a program in the fall of 1959 for the Bachelor of Science degree in Economics was regarded as the first step. With the addition of new programs and growing maturity, the University College of the West Indies is also looking to the time when its dependent relationship to the University of London will terminate and it will be a full university in its own right. In all of its units, except its Department of Education, it has had from the beginning the admission requirements and has granted the degrees of the University of London. Another feature of the University College that must be mentioned in any summary of its programs is the work of its active Extra-Mural Department, which brings Adult Education opportunities to each of the British Caribbean territories. It should also be noted that, with the development of the University College of the West Indies and perhaps because of it, the limited program of university level studies in the classics and theology at privately administered Codrington College in Barbados has prac- tically disappeared. Since 1875 these studies have led to the degrees of the University of Durham. In addition to the University College of the West Indies, the British Caribbean has several public institutions, some of them new, which offer programs in specialized fields at the higher education level. The one of longest standing is the aforementioned Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, founded in 1922, which is soon to merge with the University College. It has offered diploma courses at both undergraduate and graduate levels to a limited number of students. Its undergraduate programs have been intended primarily for British West Indians and its graduate work for agricultural 68 The Caribbean 68 The Caribbean programs. The University College has increased its programs since its inception so that today it is a combination of (a) an undergrad- uate institution offering programs for the Bachelor's degree in its Faculties, or Schools, of Arts and Natural Sciences, (b) a profes- sional medical school, and (c) a small post-graduate Department of Education whose instructional program consists of professional training primarily for secondary school teachers. New Faculties planned include (a) a Faculty of Agriculture which is to begin opera- tion in the fall of 1960 with the absorption of the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture at Trinidad into the University College and the initiation of full degree programs in agriculture, (b) a projected Faculty of Engineering, and (c) a Faculty of Social Sciences, towards which the initiation of a program in the fall of 1959 for the Bachelor of Science degree in Economics was regarded as the first step. With the addition of new programs and growing maturity, the University College of the West Indies is also looking to the time when its dependent relationship to the University of London will terminate and it will be a full university in its own right. In all of its units, except its Department of Education, it has had from the beginning the admission requirements and has granted the degrees of the University of London. Another feature of the University College that must be mentioned in any summary of its programs is the work of its active Extra-Mural Department, which brings Adult Education opportunities to each of the British Caribbean territories. It should also be noted that, with the development of the University College of the West Indies and perhaps because of it, the limited program of university level studies in the classics and theology at privately administered Codrington College in Barbados has prac- tically disappeared. Since 1875 these studies have led to the degrees of the University of Durham. In addition to the University College of the West Indies, the British Caribbean has several public institutions, some of them new, which offer programs in specialized fields at the higher education level. The one of longest standing is the aforementioned Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, founded in 1922, which is soon to merge with the University College. It has offered diploma courses at both undergraduate and graduate levels to a limited number of students. Its undergraduate programs have been intended primarily for British West Indians and its graduate work for agricultural programs. The University College has increased its programs since its inception so that today it is a combination of (a) an undergrad- uate institution offering programs for the Bachelor's degree in its Faculties, or Schools, of Arts and Natural Sciences, (b) a profes- sional medical school, and (c) a small post-graduate Department of Education whose instructional program consists of professional training primarily for secondary school teachers. New Faculties planned include (a) aFaculty of Agriculture which is to beginopera- tion in the fall of 1960 with the absorption of the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture at Trinidad into the University College and the initiation of full degree programs in agriculture, (b) a projected Faculty of Engineering, and (c) a Faculty of Social Sciences, towards which the initiation of a program in the fall of 1959 for the Bachelor of Science degree in Economics was regarded as the first step. With the addition of new programs and growing maturity, the University College of the West Indies is also looking to the time when its dependent relationship to the University of London will terminate and it will be a full university in its own right. In all of its units, except its Department of Education, it has had from the beginning the admission requirements and has granted the degrees of the University of London. Another feature of the University College that must be mentioned in any summary of its programs is the work of its active Extra-Mural Department, which brings Adult Education opportunities to each of the British Caribbean territories. It should also be noted that, with the development of the University College of the West Indies and perhaps because of it, the limited program of university level studies in the classics and theology at privately administered Codrington College in Barbados has prac- tically disappeared. Since 1875 these studies have led to the degrees of the University of Durham. In addition to the University College of the West Indies, the British Caribbean has several public institutions, some of them new, which offer programs in specialized fields at the higher education level. The one of longest standing is the aforementioned Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, founded in 1922, which is soon to merge with the University College. It has offered diploma courses at both undergraduate and graduate levels to a limited number of students. Its undergraduate programs have been intended primarily for British West Indians and its graduate work for agricultural  PUBLIC EDUCATION 69 specialists preparing for service in all Commonwealth tropical areas. Other institutions that have new programs of study which they regard as going beyond the secondary level include the recently reorganized and expanded Jamaica School of Agriculture, the new Jamaica Institute of Technology, and the recently opened Trinidad Polytechnic Institute. It should also be mentioned that in some United States educational institutions the work of the last year in the three-year program of the Jamaican Teacher Training Colleges has been considered to be comparable to studies at the higher education level in this field in the United States. The French and the Dutch systems of higher education are extremely limited in their representation in the French and Nether- lands affiliated Caribbean areas. In the French Caribbean areas, the only university type institution is the Ecole de Droit, or Law School, in Martinique which is affiliated with the University of Bordeaux and prepares students for its law degrees. In 1958-59 it had some 240 students enrolled, and also offered extension courses in Guade- loupe. Martinique and Guadeloupe each has an Ecole Normale (Normal School), which offers a one-year post-secondary concen- trated course in teacher education subjects, which is usually regarded in the United States as being at the higher education level. It should be noted that despite the paucity of institutions of higher learning in the French Caribbean territories, the influence of the French system is widespread in the Caribbean area. This is due to the fact that not only in French-speaking Haiti, but also in the Spanish American republics, university organization and pro- grams since independence have been patterned largely on the French example, with, of course, indigenous adaptations. Insofar as the Netherlands affiliated territories are concerned, there are two institutions of university standing in Surinam - a Law School and a Medical School. The latter grants a degree which enables the recipient to be a general practitioner in Surinam and which is usually accepted in the Netherlands as a basis for further specialized medical studies. The Medical School also trains phar- macists and prepares students who have had prior training with a dental surgeon for the dentists' certificate examinations. The United States system of higher education is represented in public institutions in the area by the University of Puerto Rico, despite the Hispanic cultural orientation of that island. Founded as a training center for teachers in 1903 after Spain's cession of the PUBLIC EDUCATION 69 specialists preparing for service in all Commonwealth tropical areas. Other institutions that have new programs of study which they regard as going beyond the secondary level include the recently reorganized and expanded Jamaica School of Agriculture, the new Jamaica Institute of Technology, and the recently opened Trinidad Polytechnic Institute. It should also be mentioned that in some United States educational institutions the work of the last year in the three-year program of the Jamaican Teacher Training Colleges has been considered to be comparable to studies at the higher education level in this field in the United States. The French and the Dutch systems of higher education are extremely limited in their representation in the French and Nether- lands affiliated Caribbean areas. In the French Caribbean areas, the only university type institution is the Ecole de Droit, or Law School, in Martinique which is affiliated with the University of Bordeaux and prepares students for its law degrees. In 1958-59 it had some 240 students enrolled, and also offered extension courses in Guade- loupe. Martinique and Guadeloupe each has an Ecole Normale (Normal School), which offers a one-year post-secondary concen- trated course in teacher education subjects, which is usually regarded in the United States as being at the higher education level. It should be noted that despite the paucity of institutions of higher learning in the French Caribbean territories, the influence of the French system is widespread in the Caribbean area. This is due to the fact that not only in French-speaking Haiti, but also in the Spanish American republics, university organization and pro- grams since independence have been patterned largely on the French example, with, of course, indigenous adaptations. Insofar as the Netherlands affiliated territories are concerned, there are two institutions of university standing in Surinam - a Law School and a Medical School. The latter grants a degree which enables the recipient to be a general practitioner in Surinam and which is usually accepted in the Netherlands as a basis for further specialized medical studies. The Medical School also trains phar- macists and prepares students who have had prior training with a dental surgeon for the dentists' certificate examinations. The United States system of higher education is represented in public institutions in the area by the University of Puerto Rico, despite the Hispanic cultural orientation of that island. Founded as a training center for teachers in 1903 after Spain's cession of the PUBLIC EDUCATION 69 specialists preparing for service in all Commonwealth tropical areas. Other institutions that have new programs of study which they regard as going beyond the secondary level include the recently reorganized and expanded Jamaica School of Agriculture, the new Jamaica Institute of Technology, and the recently opened Trinidad Polytechnic Institute. It should also be mentioned that in some United States educational institutions the work of the last year in the three-year program of the Jamaican Teacher Training Colleges has been considered to be comparable to studies at the higher education level in this field in the United States. The French and the Dutch systems of higher education are extremely limited in their representation in the French and Nether- lands affiliated Caribbean areas. In the French Caribbean areas, the only university type institution is the Ecole de Droit, or Law School, in Martinique which is affiliated with the University of Bordeaux and prepares students for its law degrees. In 1958-59 it had some 240 students enrolled, and also offered extension courses in Guade- loupe. Martinique and Guadeloupe each has an Ecole Normale (Normal School), which offers a one-year post-secondary concen- trated course in teacher education subjects, which is usually regarded in the United States as being at the higher education level. It should be noted that despite the paucity of institutions of higher learning in the French Caribbean territories, the influence of the French system is widespread in the Caribbean area. This is due to the fact that not only in French-speaking Haiti, but also in the Spanish American republics, university organization and pro- grams since independence have been patterned largely on the French example, with, of course, indigenous adaptations. Insofar as the Netherlands affiliated territories are concerned, there are two institutions of university standing in Surinam - a Law School and a Medical School. The latter grants a degree which enables the recipient to be a general practitioner in Surinam and which is usually accepted in the Netherlands as a basis for further specialized medical studies. The Medical School also trains phar- macists and prepares students who have had prior training with a dental surgeon for the dentists' certificate examinations. The United States system of higher education is represented in public institutions in the area by the University of Puerto Rico, despite the Hispanic cultural orientation of that island. Founded as a training center for teachers in 1903 after Spain's cession of the  70 The Caribbean island to the United States, the University is a fully accredited United States institution of higher learning, with its organization, programs, and degrees similar to those of a large State University in continental United States. For this reason it is not intended to discuss the University in detail here. However, a few salient facts must be noted. The first is that in sheer weight of numbers enrolled, the University of Puerto Rico is one of the three largest universities in the Caribbean area, and is perhaps second only to the National Autonomous University of Mexico in this regard. A second fact is that since its founding as an institution for teacher training - which is still recognized as its prime function - it has expanded its pro- grams to meet the needs of the Puerto Rican people and society for general, professional, and advanced education and training. In the words of its Chancellor, "the University lays special emphasis on the study of the social, economic, political, administrative, educa- tional problems affecting the Puerto Rican community." A third fact is that, as might be inferred from its character as a university in the United States pattern, its advanced undergraduate, graduate, and professional programs are grounded in basic liberal arts and preprofessional studies. And a fourth point of interest has been the development of the function of serving as a meeting place of North American and Latin American educators and educational practices. The Spanish American pattern of higher education is, of course, the one most widely represented among institutions of the Carib- bean area. Moreover, because of the common French influence, the pattern of university education is not dissimilar in Haiti, which we shall therefore consider along with the other republics of the area. In these republics, these characteristics vary in the degree of their applicability from country to country and from institution to institu- tion. While these characteristics are generally well known to stu- dents of Spanish American culture, it may not be amiss to enumer- ate and briefly discuss some of them here, before continuing our imaginary tour of institutions of higher education in the area. 1. In the Caribbean republics, as in the Latin American republics generally, higher education is primarily professional education. By and large universities are collections of professional schools and departments usually called Faculties or Schools. With a few excep- tions which will be noted later, there is no equivalent in the Caribbean republics of the United States liberal arts college or of preprofessional education at the university level. Students usually 70 The Caribbean island to the United States, the University is a fully accredited United States institution of higher learning, with its organization, programs, and degrees similar to those of a large State University in continental United States. For this reason it is not intended to discuss the University in detail here. However, a few salient facts must be noted. The first is that in sheer weight of numbers enrolled, the University of Puerto Rico is one of the three largest universities in the Caribbean area, and is perhaps second only to the National Autonomous University of Mexico in this regard. A second fact is that since its founding as an institution for teacher training - which is still recognized as its prime function - it has expanded its pro- grams to meet the needs of the Puerto Rican people and society for general, professional, and advanced education and training. In the words of its Chancellor, "the University lays special emphasis on the study of the social, economic, political, administrative, educa- tional problems affecting the Puerto Rican community." A third fact is that, as might be inferred from its character as a university in the United States pattern, its advanced undergraduate, graduate, and professional programs are grounded in basic liberal arts and preprofessional studies. And a fourth point of interest has been the development of the function of serving as a meeting place of North American and Latin American educators and educational practices. The Spanish American pattern of higher education is, of course, the one most widely represented among institutions of the Carib- bean area. Moreover, because of the common French influence, the pattern of university education is not dissimilar in Haiti, which we shall therefore consider along with the other republics of the area. In these republics, these characteristics vary in the degree of their applicability from country to country and from institution to institu- tion. While these characteristics are generally well known to stu- dents of Spanish American culture, it may not be amiss to enumer- ate and briefly discuss some of them here, before continuing our imaginary tour of institutions of higher education in the area. 1 In the Caribbean republics, as in the Latin American republics generally, higher education is primarily professional education. By and large universities are collections of professional schools and departments usually called Faculties or Schools. With a few excep- tions which will be noted later, there is no equivalent in the Caribbean republics of the United States liberal arts college or of preprofessional education at the university level. Students usually 70 The Caribbean island to the United States, the University is a fully accredited United States institution of higher learning, with its organization, programs, and degrees similar to those of a large State University in continental United States. For this reason it is not intended to discuss the University in detail here. However, a few salient facts must be noted. The first is that in sheer weight of numbers enrolled, the University of Puerto Rico is one of the three largest universities in the Caribbean area, and is perhaps second only to the National Autonomous University of Mexico in this regard. A second fact is that since its founding as an institution for teacher training - which is still recognized as its prime function - it has expanded its pro- grams to meet the needs of the Puerto Rican people and society for general, professional, and advanced education and training. In the words of its Chancellor, "the University lays special emphasis on the study of the social, economic, political, administrative, educa- tional problems affecting the Puerto Rican community." A third fact is that, as might be inferred from its character as a university in the United States pattern, its advanced undergraduate, graduate, and professional programs are grounded in basic liberal arts and preprofessional studies. And a fourth point of interest has been the development of the function of serving as a meeting place of North American and Latin American educators and educational practices. The Spanish American pattern of higher education is, of course, the one most widely represented among institutions of the Carib- bean area. Moreover, because of the common French influence, the pattern of university education is not dissimilar in Haiti, which we shall therefore consider along with the other republics of the area. In these republics, these characteristics vary in the degree of their applicability from country to country and from institution to institu- tion. While these characteristics are generally well known to stu- dents of Spanish American culture, it may not be amiss to enumer- ate and briefly discuss some of them here, before continuing our imaginary tour of institutions of higher education in the area. 1. In the Caribbean republics, as in the Latin American republics generally, higher education is primarily professional education. By and large universities are collections of professional schools and departments usually called Faculties or Schools. With a few excep- tions which will be noted later, there is no equivalent in the Caribbean republics of the United States liberal arts college or of preprofessional education at the university level. Students usually  PUBLIC EDUCATION 71 PUBLIC EDUCATION proceed directly from the secondary and preparatory schools, or an equivalent program of studies, into the Faculty of their professional specialization. What in the United States would be university level preprofessional courses relating directly to professional study are usually included in the first and second years of the professional programs. Some of these programs, for example those in medicine, law, and engineering, usually take longer to complete than purely professional programs in the United States. Programs of study within each Faculty are rigidly prescribed and there are few or no electives. There is little or no opportunity to take courses outside one's own Faculty. 2. There is usually no Faculty or School for the study of the pure sciences for their own sake. Science subjects are usually studied in different Faculties as part of, and are oriented to, professional pro- grams of study. Laboratory facilities are often deficient and learning is theoretical, though this is not the case in some institutions. In a few institutions in the Caribbean area, such as the National Autono- mous University of Mexico and the Central University of Caracas, there are Faculties or Schools of Science, which prepare for profes- sional careers in various scientific specialties. 3. Faculties of Humanities, or of Philosophy and Letters, which are now found in most public universities, are not usually intended to provide liberal arts education for university students generally. They provide education and training in various subject specialties for prospective secondary and university level instructors and in some cases for those willing and able to defer or take time out from professional preparation. There are some specific deviations from this pattern, for example in Costa Rica. It may also be mentioned here that higher education in the Caribbean republics has not, gen- erally speaking, concerned itself, or been expected to concern itself, with the education and training of elementary school teachers. Those who teach at the elementary level are usually trained in sec- ondary level normal schools. In the main, University Faculties or Schools of Education where they exist, as well as Higher Normal Schools, have been primarily concerned with the preparation of secondary level teachers. There are some exceptions to this general situation, notably, again, in Costa Rica. 4. Graduate work as organized and as understood in the United States is virtually nonexistent. In some Faculties, for example Engi- neering, where degree programs last five or six years from the time of admission, the final year or two might be comparable in some respects to graduate level work in the United States. In general, however, there are no regular university level instructional programs emphasizing advanced classroom study and research in the sense proceed directly from the secondary and preparatory schools, or an equivalent program of studies, into the Faculty of their professional specialization. What in the United States would be university level preprofessional courses relating directly to professional study are usually included in the first and second years of the professional programs. Some of these programs, for example those in medicine, law, and engineering, usually take longer to complete than purely professional programs in the United States. Programs of study within each Faculty are rigidly prescribed and there are few or no electives. There is little or no opportunity to take courses outside one's own Faculty. 2. There is usually no Faculty or School for the study of the pure sciences for their own sake. Science subjects are usually studied in different Faculties as part of, and are oriented to, professional pro- grams of study. Laboratory facilities are often deficient and learning is theoretical, though this is not the case in some institutions. In a few institutions in the Caribbean area, such as the National Autono- mous University of Mexico and the Central University of Caracas, there are Faculties or Schools of Science, which prepare for profes- sional careers in various scientific specialties. I. Faculties of Humanities, or of Philosophy and Letters, which are now found in most public universities, are not usually intended to provide liberal arts education for university students generally. They provide education and training in various subject specialties for prospective secondary and university level instructors and in some cases for those willing and able to defer or take time out from professional preparation. There are some specific deviations from this pattern, for example in Costa Rica. It may also be mentioned here that higher education in the Caribbean republics has not, gen- erally speaking, concerned itself, or been expected to concern itself, with the education and training of elementary school teachers. Those who teach at the elementary level are usually trained in sec- ondary level normal schools. In the main, University Faculties or Schools of Education where they exist, as well as Higher Normal Schools, have been primarily concerned with the preparation of secondary level teachers. There are some exceptions to this general situation, notably, again, in Costa Rica. 4. Graduate work as organized and as understood in the United States is virtually nonexistent. In some Faculties, for example Engi- neering, where degree programs last five or six years from the time of admission, the final year or two might be comparable in some respects to graduate level work in the United States. In general, however, there are no regular university level instructional programs emphasizing advanced classroom study and research in the sense PUBLIC EDUCATION 71 proceed directly from the secondary and preparatory schools, or an equivalent program of studies, into the Faculty of their professional specialization. What in the United States would be university level preprofessional courses relating directly to professional study are usually included in the first and second years of the professional programs. Some of these programs, for example those in medicine, law, and engineering, usually take longer to complete than purely professional programs in the United States. Programs of study within each Faculty are rigidly prescribed and there are few or no electives. There is little or no opportunity to take courses outside one's own Faculty. 2. There is usually no Faculty or School for the study of the pure sciences for their own sake. Science subjects are usually studied in different Faculties as part of, and are oriented to, professional pro- grams of study. Laboratory facilities are often deficient and learning is theoretical, though this is not the case in some institutions. In a few institutions in the Caribbean area, such as the National Autono- mous University of Mexico and the Central University of Caracas, there are Faculties or Schools of Science, which prepare for profes- sional careers in various scientific specialties. 3. Faculties of Humanities, or of Philosophy and Letters, which are now found in most public universities, are not usually intended to provide liberal arts education for university students generally. They provide education and training in various subject specialties for prospective secondary and university level instructors and in some cases for those willing and able to defer or take time out from professional preparation. There are some specific deviations from this pattern, for example in Costa Rica. It may also be mentioned here that higher education in the Caribbean republics has not, gen- erally speaking, concerned itself, or been expected to concern itself, with the education and training of elementary school teachers. Those who teach at the elementary level are usually trained in sec- ondary level normal schools. In the main, University Faculties or Schools of Education where they exist, as well as Higher Normal Schools, have been primarily concerned with the preparation of secondary level teachers. There are some exceptions to this general situation, notably, again, in Costa Rica. 4. Graduate work as organized and as understood in the United States is virtually nonexistent. In some Faculties, for example Engi- neering, where degree programs last five or six years from the time of admission, the final year or two might be comparable in some respects to graduate level work in the United States. In general, however, there are no regular university level instructional programs emphasizing advanced classroom study and research in the sense  72 The Caribbean of United States graduate work. The Graduate School of the National Autonomous University of Mexico is an exception in cer- tain respects. In some universities special Institutes for advanced study and research have been established, but usually not in con- nection with regular degree programs. 5. Though degrees and titles vary from country to country, degrees granted by some institutions common to many fields of study are the Licienciado and the Doctorado. These usually represent completion of three, four, or five years' work. For this and other reasons, the Doctorado is not comparable to the United States Ph.D. degree. Likewise, the title or degree of Maestro (Master), which is granted by some institutions, such as the National University of Mexico after three years of study in a program of preparation for secondary teaching, is not comparable to the Master's degree in the United States. Some institutions, instead of a general degree in various fields of study, award titles appropriate to the particular professional specialty, such as Engineer, Architect, Agronomist, Pharmacist, Chemist, or Secondary School Teacher. In some institutions titles representing completion of one- or two-year programs of specialized preparation are granted. 6. For the most part, professors are professional men devoting a few hours a week to teaching. There are at least three reasons for this. In the first place, despite provisions in many national con- stitutions and laws prescribing a fixed percentage or some other formula for financing the universities, their income is not, generally speaking, sufficient to permit full-time teaching staffs. Second, many of these professional men prefer to practice their professions while simultaneously enjoying the prestige of a part-time university affili- ation. And third, there is a dearth of persons especially prepared for teaching and scholarly pursuits at the higher education level owing to the almost exclusively professional orientation of university education and lack of graduate study. 7. Public universities in most of the republics of the Caribbean are legally autonomous and some, in fact, carry the word Autonoma in their official nomenclature. This means that legally they are self- governing, not subject to regulation or control by governments. This autonomy stems historically from the university and student reform movements which began in Argentina in 1918 and spread throughout Latin America. In practice, legal provisions for univer- sity autonomy, like constitutional provisions for civil rights and democratic government, mean as much or as little as political traditions and governments permit them to mean, as witness gov- ernment interference in the autonomous University of Habana under Batista in the 1930's and again in the 1950's, and in the 72 The Caribbean of United States graduate work. The Graduate School of the National Autonomous University of Mexico is an exception in cer- tain respects. In some universities special Institutes for advanced study and research have been established, but usually not in con- nection with regular degree programs. 5. Though degrees and titles vary from country to country, degrees granted by some institutions common to many fields of study are the Licienciado and the Doctorado. These usually represent completion of three, four, or five years' work. For this and other reasons, the Doctorado is not comparable to the United States Ph.D. degree. Likewise, the title or degree of Maestro (Master), which is granted by some institutions, such as the National University of Mexico after three years of study in a program of preparation for secondary teaching, is not comparable to the Master's degree in the United States. Some institutions, instead of a general degree in various fields of study, award titles appropriate to the particular professional specialty, such as Engineer, Architect, Agronomist, Pharmacist, Chemist, or Secondary School Teacher. In some institutions titles representing completion of one- or two-year programs of specialized preparation are granted. 6. For the most part, professors are professional men devoting a few hours a week to teaching. There are at least three reasons for this. In the first place, despite provisions in many national con- stitutions and laws prescribing a fixed percentage or some other formula for financing the universities, their income is not, generally speaking, sufficient to permit full-time teaching staffs. Second, many of these professional men prefer to practice their professions while simultaneously enjoying the prestige of a part-time university affili- ation. And third, there is a dearth of persons especially prepared for teaching and scholarly pursuits at the higher education level owing to the almost exclusively professional orientation of university education and lack of graduate study. 7. Public universities in most of the republics of the Caribbean are legally autonomous and some, in fact, carry the word Autdnoma in their official nomenclature. This means that legally they are self- governing, not subject to regulation or control by governments. This autonomy stems historically from the university and student reform movements which began in Argentina in 1918 and spread throughout Latin America. In practice, legal provisions for univer- sity autonomy, like constitutional provisions for civil rights and democratic government, mean as much or as little as political traditions and governments permit them to mean, as witness gov- ernment interference in the autonomous University of Habana under Batista in the 1930's and again in the 1950's, and in the 72 The Caribbean of United States graduate work. The Graduate School of the National Autonomous University of Mexico is an exception in cer- tain respects. In some universities special Institutes for advanced study and research have been established, but usually not in con- nection with regular degree programs. 5. Though degrees and titles vary from country to country, degrees granted by some institutions common to many fields of study are the Licienciado and the Doctorado. These usually represent completion of three, four, or five years' work. For this and other reasons, the Doctorado is not comparable to the United States Ph.D. degree. Likewise, the title or degree of Maestro (Master), which is granted by some institutions, such as the National University of Mexico after three years of study in a program of preparation for secondary teaching, is not comparable to the Master's degree in the United States. Some institutions, instead of a general degree in various fields of study, award titles appropriate to the particular professional specialty, such as Engineer, Architect, Agronomist, Pharmacist, Chemist, or Secondary School Teacher. In some institutions titles representing completion of one- or two-year programs of specialized preparation are granted. 6. For the most part, professors are professional men devoting a few hours a week to teaching. There are at least three reasons for this. In the first place, despite provisions in many national con- stitutions and laws prescribing a fixed percentage or some other formula for financing the universities, their income is not, generally speaking, sufficient to permit full-time teaching staffs. Second, many of these professional men prefer to practice their professions while simultaneously enjoying the prestige of a part-time university affili- ation. And third, there is a dearth of persons especially prepared for teaching and scholarly pursuits at the higher education level owing to the almost exclusively professional orientation of university education and lack of graduate study. 7. Public universities in most of the republics of the Caribbean are legally autonomous and some, in fact, carry the word Autonoma in their official nomenclature. This means that legally they are self- governing, not subject to regulation or control by governments. This autonomy stems historically from the university and student reform movements which began in Argentina in 1918 and spread throughout Latin America. In practice, legal provisions for univer- sity autonomy, like constitutional provisions for civil rights and democratic government, mean as much or as little as political traditions and governments permit them to mean, as witness gov- ernment interference in the autonomous University of Habana under Batista in the 1930's and again in the 1950's, and in the  PUBLIC EDUCATION 73 autonomous Central University of Caracas under Perez Jimenez in Venezuela, also in the 1950's. It should be noted that while most universities in the republics of the Caribbean area have legal auton- omy, most other public institutions or agencies giving instructional programs at the higher education level are under direct government control. Thus Higher Normal Schools usually fall under the Ministry of Education, and other public institutions or agencies offering specialized forms of education are usually subject to the appropriate Ministry. 8. In most Faculties, a large part of the student body attends classes in the late afternoon and early evening because they must work to support themselves during the day. This is a reflection of the fact that, owing to the processes of social change, university students are no longer drawn largely from the economic and social elite; those from the less privileged social groups now form the bulk of university students. Generally, instruction in public insti- tutions is either free or there may be moderate tuition, matricula- tion, and registration fees. 9. In most public universities of the Caribbean republics, students have a much greater influence in university government and admin- istration than they do in the United States. In most cases where universities are autonomous, students are represented on their gov- erning bodies and those of the individual Faculties, under the system known as cogovernment. More important in some cases is the direct action they take to achieve their objectives through student strikes and other types of mass action. University adminis- trative matters to which students have given attention have included revision of the curriculum, dismissal of professors, and the sched- uling of examinations and vacations. And closely related to student participation in these matters has been their active role in national politics generally. Except for one or two countries, university stu- dents in the Caribbean republics have exhibited varying, and in some cases intense, degrees of activity in these matters in recent years. II Having discussed some of the characteristics of public higher education in the Caribbean republics generally, we now move to a discussion of their individual facilities for such education by country or subregion. To this end we shall deal in turn with Mexico, Central America and Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and the island republics. PUBLIC EDUCATION 73 PUBLIC EDUCATION 73 autonomous Central University of Caracas under Prez Jimenez in Venezuela, also in the 1950's. It should be noted that while most universities in the republics of the Caribbean area have legal auton- omy, most other public institutions or agencies giving instructional programs at the higher education level are under direct government control. Thus Higher Normal Schools usually fall under the Ministry of Education, and other public institutions or agencies offering specialized forms of education are usually subject to the appropriate Ministry. 8. In most Faculties, a large part of the student body attends classes in the late afternoon and early evening because they must work to support themselves during the day. This is a reflection of the fact that, owing to the processes of social change, university students are no longer drawn largely from the economic and social elite; those from the less privileged social groups now form the bulk of university students. Generally, instruction in public insti- tutions is either free or there may be moderate tuition, matricula- tion, and registration fees. 9. In most public universities of the Caribbean republics, students have a much greater influence in university government and admin- istration than they do in the United States. In most cases where universities are autonomous, students are represented on their gov- erning bodies and those of the individual Faculties, under the system known as cogovernment. More important in some cases is the direct action they take to achieve their objectives through student strikes and other types of mass action. University adminis- trative matters to which students have given attention have included revision of the curriculum, dismissal of professors, and the sched- uling of examinations and vacations. And closely related to student participation in these matters has been their active role in national politics generally. Except for one or two countries, university stu- dents in the Caribbean republics have exhibited varying, and in some cases intense, degrees of activity in these matters in recent years, II Having discussed some of the characteristics of public higher education in the Caribbean republics generally, we now move to a discussion of their individual facilities for such education by country or subregion. To this end we shall deal in turn with Mexico, Central America and Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and the island republics. autonomous Central University of Caracas under Perez Jimenez in Venezuela, also in the 1950's. It should be noted that while most universities in the republics of the Caribbean area have legal auton- omy, most other public institutions or agencies giving instructional programs at the higher education level are under direct government control. Thus Higher Normal Schools usually fall under the Ministry of Education, and other public institutions or agencies offering specialized forms of education are usually subject to the appropriate Ministry. 8. In most Faculties, a large part of the student body attends classes in the late afternoon and early evening because they must work to support themselves during the day. This is a reflection of the fact that, owing to the processes of social change, university students are no longer drawn largely from the economic and social elite; those from the less privileged social groups now form the bulk of university students. Generally, instruction in public insti- tutions is either free or there may be moderate tuition, matricula- tion, and registration fees. 9. In most public universities of the Caribbean republics, students have a much greater influence in university government and admin- istration than they do in the United States. In most cases where universities are autonomous, students are represented on their gov- erning bodies and those of the individual Faculties, under the system known as cogovernment. More important in some cases is the direct action they take to achieve their objectives through student strikes and other types of mass action. University adminis- trative matters to which students have given attention have included revision of the curriculum, dismissal of professors, and the sched- uling of examinations and vacations. And closely related to student participation in these matters has been their active role in national politics generally. Except for one or two countries, university stu- dents in the Caribbean republics have exhibited varying, and in some cases intense, degrees of activity in these matters in recent years. II Having discussed some of the characteristics of public higher education in the Caribbean republics generally, we now move to a discussion of their individual facilities for such education by country or subregion. To this end we shall deal in turn with Mexico, Central America and Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and the island republics.  74 The Caribbean MEXICO If we accept as substantially accurate the Pan American Union's current provisional listing of Mexican institutions of higher educa- tion, we note that there are 53 institutions or organizations in that country offering programs of study at that level. Of these, 39 or so may be considered as public institutions, of which 21 are either called universities or are affiliated with universities. Most of the others either are called Institutos (Institutes) or Centros Tecnold- gicos (Technological Centers), each with a number of Faculties or Schools in various fields, or are denominated as independent Escuelas (Schools) in individual specialties, including several Higher Normal Schools. A good number of the public institutions offering instructional programs at the higher education level, includ- ing most of the universities, also have schools offering instruction at lower levels. Public institutions of higher learning in Mexico are either federal or State institutions. The largest, not only in Mexico but in the Caribbean area generally, is, of course, the National Autonomous University of Mexico, supported by the central government and usually considered as the country's leading public institution of higher learning. The descendant of the Real y Pontificia Universidad de Mexico founded in the sixteenth century, the present University is in reality a modern creation dating from 1910 and thus coincides in its development with the period of the Mexican Revolution. Reorganized in 1920, it obtained autonomy in 1929 and was again reorganized in 1945. Its total enrollment as given in the new Inter- national Handbook of Universities is about 30,000. The University consists of twelve regular teaching Faculties and Schools offering work at university level, and in addition about fifteen Institutes for the pursuit of specialized study and research in various fields. It is one of the Latin American universities - most of them in the Caribbean - which have summer schools offering courses and programs of study designed primarily for United States and Canadian college and university students and adapted to the United States system of higher education. Its Summer School (Escuela de Verano) has been functioning since 1921 and offers courses and programs leading as high as a United States Master's degree in certain fields. The National University is one of the institutions in the Caribbean 74 The Caribbean 74 The Caribbean MEXICO If we accept as substantially accurate the Pan American Union's current provisional listing of Mexican institutions of higher educa- tion, we note that there are 53 institutions or organizations in that country offering programs of study at that level. Of these, 39 or so may be considered as public institutions, of which 21 are either called universities or are affiliated with universities. Most of the others either are called Institutos (Institutes) or Centros Tecnold- gicos (Technological Centers), each with a number of Faculties or Schools in various fields, or are denominated as independent Escuelas (Schools) in individual specialties, including several Higher Normal Schools. A good number of the public institutions offering instructional programs at the higher education level, includ- ing most of the universities, also have schools offering instruction at lower levels. Public institutions of higher learning in Mexico are either federal or State institutions. The largest, not only in Mexico but in the Caribbean area generally, is, of course, the National Autonomous University of Mexico, supported by the central government and usually considered as the country's leading public institution of higher learning. The descendant of the Real y Pontificia Universidad de Mexico founded in the sixteenth century, the present University is in reality a modern creation dating from 1910 and thus coincides in its development with the period of the Mexican Revolution. Reorganized in 1920, it obtained autonomy in 1929 and was again reorganized in 1945. Its total enrollment as given in the new Inter- national Handbook of Universities is about 30,000. The University consists of twelve regular teaching Faculties and Schools offering work at university level, and in addition about fifteen Institutes for the pursuit of specialized study and research in various fields. It is one of the Latin American universities - most of them in the Caribbean - which have summer schools offering courses and programs of study designed primarily for United States and Canadian college and university students and adapted to the United States system of higher education. Its Summer School (Escuela de Verano) has been functioning since 1921 and offers courses and programs leading as high as a United States Master's degree in certain fields. The National University is one of the institutions in the Caribbean MEXICO If we accept as substantially accurate the Pan American Union's current provisional listing of Mexican institutions of higher educa- tion, we note that there are 53 institutions or organizations in that country offering programs of study at that level. Of these, 39 or so may be considered as public institutions, of which 21 are either called universities or are affiliated with universities. Most of the others either are called Instituteos (Institutes) or Centros Tecnold- gicos (Technological Centers), each with a number of Faculties or Schools in various fields, or are denominated as independent Escuelas (Schools) in individual specialties, including several Higher Normal Schools. A good number of the public institutions offering instructional programs at the higher education level, includ- ing most of the universities, also have schools offering instruction at lower levels. Public institutions of higher learning in Mexico are either federal or State institutions. The largest, not only in Mexico but in the Caribbean area generally, is, of course, the National Autonomous University of Mexico, supported by the central government and usually considered as the country's leading public institution of higher learning. The descendant of the Real y Pontificia Universidad de Mexico founded in the sixteenth century, the present University is in reality a modern creation dating from 1910 and thus coincides in its development with the period of the Mexican Revolution. Reorganized in 1920, it obtained autonomy in 1929 and was again reorganized in 1945. Its total enrollment as given in the new Inter- national Handbook of Universities is about 30,000. The University consists of twelve regular teaching Faculties and Schools offering work at university level, and in addition about fifteen Institutes for the pursuit of specialized study and research in various fields. It is one of the Latin American universities - most of them in the Caribbean - which have summer schools offering courses and programs of study designed primarily for United States and Canadian college and university students and adapted to the United States system of higher education. Its Summer School (Escuela de Verano) has been functioning since 1921 and offers courses and programs leading as high as a United States Master's degree in certain fields. The National University is one of the institutions in the Caribbean  PUBLIC EDUCATION 75 area to initiate the trend towards the Ciudad Universitaria, or Uni- versity City, where most Faculties and Schools are brought together in a University community or campus. This site located near Mexico City, which the University's Faculties and Schools began to occupy in 1953, is well known because of the spectacular modern architecture of its buildings, with their colorful mosaics reminding one of Mexico's pre-Hispanic and colonial history. One result of the move to the University City, which is located far from the center of the capital, has been to point up the need for a full- time faculty. It is especially difficult for part-time professors, who spend the major part of their time practicing their professions, to get to the University City, much as they may enjoy the prestige of university teaching. Some full-time professorships have been estab- lished, and the trend is in this direction. The University City is the headquarters of the Union of Latin American Universities organized in 1949, of which the National University of Mexico and most of the universities of the Caribbean republics are members. The National University also played a leading role in the formation, in 1950, of the National Association of Universities and Institutes of Higher Education of the Mexican Republic. Most of the states of Mexico now have their own individual State Universities. A few of these have existed, in some cases under other names, from the nineteenth century or earlier, but most are of twentieth century origin. There are now about 20 of these institu- tions. Although their respective programs are limited in number in comparison with those of the National University, they corre- spond in substance closely to those of the latter. Those with the most varied offerings include the Universities of Guadalajara (not to be confused with the Autonomous University of Guadalajara, a private institution), Puebla, Nuevo Leon, Sinaloa, Guanajuato, and Veracruz. The trend is towards the addition of new Faculties and Schools in the State Universities. As at the National University, preparatory schools are annexed to most of the State Universities, many of which also provide normal school departments and various types of subprofessional training for workers. As already indicated, various Institutes and independent schools also give specialized study and training at the higher education level. One of the most significant as indicating the interest of the central government in technological education is the National Poly- PUBLIC EDUCATION 75 area to initiate the trend towards the Ciudad Universitaria, or Uni- versity City, where most Faculties and Schools are brought together in a University community or campus. This site located near Mexico City, which the University's Faculties and Schools began to occupy in 1953, is well known because of the spectacular modern architecture of its buildings, with their colorful mosaics reminding one of Mexico's pre-Hispanic and colonial history. One result of the move to the University City, which is located far from the center of the capital, has been to point up the need for a full- time faculty. It is especially difficult for part-time professors, who spend the major part of their time practicing their professions, to get to the University City, much as they may enjoy the prestige of university teaching. Some full-time professorships have been estab- lished, and the trend is in this direction. The University City is the headquarters of the Union of Latin American Universities organized in 1949, of which the National University of Mexico and most of the universities of the Caribbean republics are members. The National University also played a leading role in the formation, in 1950, of the National Association of Universities and Institutes of Higher Education of the Mexican Republic. Most of the states of Mexico now have their own individual State Universities. A few of these have existed, in some cases under other names, from the nineteenth century or earlier, but most are of twentieth century origin. There are now about 20 of these institu- tions. Although their respective programs are limited in number in comparison with those of the National University, they corre- spond in substance closely to those of the latter. Those with the most varied offerings include the Universities of Guadalajara (not to be confused with the Autonomous University of Guadalajara, a private institution), Puebla, Nuevo Ledon, Sinaloa, Guanajuato, and Veracruz. The trend is towards the addition of new Faculties and Schools in the State Universities. As at the National University, preparatory schools are annexed to most of the State Universities, many of which also provide normal school departments and various types of subprofessional training for workers. As already indicated, various Institutes and independent schools also give specialized study and training at the higher education level. One of the most significant as indicating the interest of the central government in technological education is the National Poly- PUBLIC EDUCATION 75 area to initiate the trend towards the Ciudad Universitaria, or Uni- versity City, where most Faculties and Schools are brought together in a University community or campus. This site located near Mexico City, which the University's Faculties and Schools began to occupy in 1953, is well known because of the spectacular modern architecture of its buildings, with their colorful mosaics reminding one of Mexico's pre-Hispanic and colonial history. One result of the move to the University City, which is located far from the center of the capital, has been to point up the need for a full- time faculty. It is especially difficult for part-time professors, who spend the major part of their time practicing their professions, to get to the University City, much as they may enjoy the prestige of university teaching. Some full-time professorships have been estab- lished, and the trend is in this direction. The University City is the headquarters of the Union of Latin American Universities organized in 1949, of which the National University of Mexico and most of the universities of the Caribbean republics are members. The National University also played a leading role in the formation, in 1950, of the National Association of Universities and Institutes of Higher Education of the Mexican Republic. Most of the states of Mexico now have their own individual State Universities. A few of these have existed, in some cases under other names, from the nineteenth century or earlier, but most are of twentieth century origin. There are now about 20 of these institu- tions. Although their respective programs are limited in number in comparison with those of the National University, they corre- spond in substance closely to those of the latter. Those with the most varied offerings include the Universities of Guadalajara (not to be confused with the Autonomous University of Guadalajara, a private institution), Puebla, Nuevo Le6n, Sinaloa, Guanajuato, and Veracruz. The trend is towards the addition of new Faculties and Schools in the State Universities. As at the National University, preparatory schools are annexed to most of the State Universities, many of which also provide normal school departments and various types of subprofessional training for workers. As already indicated, various Institutes and independent schools also give specialized study and training at the higher education level. One of the most significant as indicating the interest of the central government in technological education is the National Poly-  76 The Caribbean technic Institute, operated directly under the Ministry of Education and consisting of nine professional schools, as well as a large num- ber of vocational secondary schools. CENTRAL AMFRICA AND PANAMA In the republics of Central America and Panama, higher educa- tion is confined almost exclusively to the one National University of each country. The University of San Carlos de Guatemala has the distinction among this group of being the oldest (founded in 1676), of having the largest enrollment (some 4,200 in 1957), and of offering the greatest number of different programs (eight Facul- ties, each with a number of Departments or Schools ). An interesting development in Guatemala is the existence of Schools of the Univer- sity in several subject fields at Quetzaltenango, away from the main University headquarters at Guatemala City. Known as Escuelas de Occidente (Schools of the West), they embrace Schools of Human- ities, Juridical and Social Sciences, and Economic Sciences (the last-named including a School of Rural Social Service). Another development which is a departure from traditional Latin American practice is the recent establishment of physical and psychological criteria for student admission, along with efforts to establish the principle of assessing fees on the basis of ability to pay. The Uni- versity also has underway the creation of a University City. Mention is also made of the University's Summer School for North American students, with which the University of Florida maintains a coopera- tive relationship. The University of Costa Rica, founded in 1848 but dating in its modern revival only from 1940, has established itself in its own University City, and enrolled something over 8,000 students in 1958. It has undergone substantial modifications and innovations in its programs of study in the past few years. Long without a Faculty of Medicine, a most unusual situation for a Latin American National University, it has seen the establishment of such a Faculty in the past year. Of major import in the University's development of new programs was its break with tradition in creating a Faculty of Arts and Sciences in 1957 and assigning to it an important role in the education of all University students, in addition to its own degree programs. The University now requires that all students take one year of preprofessional general studies in this Faculty 76 The Caribbean technic Institute, operated directly under the Ministry of Education and consisting of nine professional schools, as well as a large num- ber of vocational secondary schools. CENTRAL AMERICA AND PANAMA In the republics of Central America and Panama, higher educa- tion is confined almost exclusively to the one National University of each country. The University of San Carlos de Guatemala has the distinction among this group of being the oldest (founded in 1676), of having the largest enrollment (some 4,200 in 1957), and of offering the greatest number of different programs (eight Facul- ties, each with a number of Departments or Schools). An interesting development in Guatemala is the existence of Schools of the Univer- sity in several subject fields at Quetzaltenango, away from the main University headquarters at Guatemala City. Known as Escuelas de Occidente (Schools of the West), they embrace Schools of Human- ities, Juridical and Social Sciences, and Economic Sciences (the last-named including a School of Rural Social Service). Another development which is a departure from traditional Latin American practice is the recent establishment of physical and psychological criteria for student admission, along with efforts to establish the principle of assessing fees on the basis of ability to pay. The Uni- versity also has underway the creation of a University City. Mention is also made of the University's Summer School for North American students, with which the University of Florida maintains a coopera- tive relationship. The University of Costa Rica, founded in 1848 but dating in its modern revival only from 1940, has established itself in its own University City, and enrolled something over 8,000 students in 1958. It has undergone substantial modifications and innovations in its programs of study in the past few years. Long without a Faculty of Medicine, a most unusual situation for a Latin American National University, it has seen the establishment of such a Faculty in the past year. Of major import in the University's development of new programs was its break with tradition in creating a Faculty of Arts and Sciences in 1957 and assigning to it an important role in the education of all University students, in addition to its own degree programs. The University now requires that all students take one year of preprofessional general studies in this Faculty 76 The Caribbean technic Institute, operated directly under the Ministry of Education and consisting of nine professional schools, as well as a large num- ber of vocational secondary schools. CENTRAL AMERICA AND PANAMA In the republics of Central America and Panama, higher educa- tion is confined almost exclusively to the one National University of each country. The University of San Carlos de Guatemala has the distinction among this group of being the oldest (founded in 1676), of having the largest enrollment (some 4,200 in 1957), and of offering the greatest number of different programs (eight Facul- ties, each with a number of Departments or Schools). An interesting development in Guatemala is the existence of Schools of the Univer- sity in several subject fields at Quetzaltenango, away from the main University headquarters at Guatemala City. Known as Escuelas de Occidente (Schools of the West), they embrace Schools of Human- ities, Juridical and Social Sciences, and Economic Sciences (the last-named including a School of Rural Social Service). Another development which is a departure from traditional Latin American practice is the recent establishment of physical and psychological criteria for student admission, along with efforts to establish the principle of assessing fees on the basis of ability to pay. The Uni- versity also has underway the creation of a University City. Mention is also made of the University's Summer School for North American students, with which the University of Florida maintains a coopera- tive relationship. The University of Costa Rica, founded in 1848 but dating in its modem revival only from 1940, has established itself in its own University City, and enrolled something over 3,000 students in 1958. It has undergone substantial modifications and innovations in its programs of study in the past few years. Long without a Faculty of Medicine, a most unusual situation for a Latin American National University, it has seen the establishment of such a Faculty in the past year. Of major import in the University's development of new programs was its break with tradition in creating a Faculty of Arts and Sciences in 1957 and assigning to it an important role in the education of all University students, in addition to its own degree programs. The University now requires that all students take one year of preprofessional general studies in this Faculty  PUBLIC EDUCATION 77 PUBLIC EDUCATION before entering a professional Faculty. Another development at the University of Costa Rica has been the initiation of a two-year pro- gram by its School of Education, in conjunction with its Faculty of Arts and Sciences, for the preparation of elementary school teachers. As previously noted, training for such teachers has usually taken place at secondary level normal schools in most of the Carib- bean republics. The National University of Nicaragua and the Autonomous Uni- versity of Honduras, stemming in their origins from 1816 and 1845, respectively, have somewhat limited professional offerings, and are the only Central American universities without Faculties or Schools of Humanities, Philosophy and Letters, or Education. Each had an enrollment of about 1,000 in 1957. The University of Nicaragua, located at Ledn, away from the capital city of Managua, represents a consolidation of the three public universities which existed until the late 1940's. It officially came into existence in its present form and under its present name in 1947. The University of El Salvador had the smallest enrollment of the Central American universities in 1957, about 500 students, but the programs in its professional Faculties are an example of the liberalizing and broadening trend in such education which has begun in some universities of the area. They now include some sub- jects of a general cultural nature and others of a basic preprofes- sional orientation for the student's professional specialization. The University of Panama is the most recently founded of the universities of the Central America-Panama area, dating from 1935. It has a variety of professional curricula, including various programs under a Faculty of Public Administration and Commerce. It is housed in its own University City outside Panama City and had an enrollment of about 2,500 students in 1956-57. All the universities in Central America and Panama are now autonomous, the most recent to gain this status being the University of Nicaragua in 1958. The universities of the five Central American republics are organized into the Confederation of Central American Universities, thus paralleling in the field of university education the intergovernmental Organization of Central American States. The Confederation created earlier this year a Permanent Secretariat to promote various common interests, including the unification, in fundamental aspects, of the respective universities' plans of study. The Permanent Secretariat is provisionally located at the National before entering a professional Faculty. Another development at the University of Costa Rica has been the initiation of a two-year pro- gram by its School of Education, in conjunction with its Faculty of Arts and Sciences, for the preparation of elementary school teachers. As previously noted, training for such teachers has usually taken place at secondary level normal schools in most of the Carib- bean republics. The National University of Nicaragua and the Autonomous Uni- versity of Honduras, stemming in their origins from 1816 and 1845, respectively, have somewhat limited professional offerings, and are the only Central American universities without Faculties or Schools of Humanities, Philosophy and Letters, or Education. Each had an enrollment of about 1,000 in 1957. The University of Nicaragua, located at Leon, away from the capital city of Managua, represents a consolidation of the three public universities which existed until the late 1940's. It officially came into existence in its present form and under its present name in 1947. The University of El Salvador had the smallest enrollment of the Central American universities in 1957, about 500 students, but the programs in its professional Faculties are an example of the liberalizing and broadening trend in such education which has begun in some universities of the area. They now include some sub- jects of a general cultural nature and others of a basic preprofes- sional orientation for the student's professional specialization. The University of Panama is the most recently founded of the universities of the Central America-Panama area, dating from 1935. It has a variety of professional curricula, including various programs under a Faculty of Public Administration and Commerce. It is housed in its own University City outside Panama City and had an enrollment of about 2,500 students in 1956-57. All the universities in Central America and Panama are now autonomous, the most recent to gain this status being the University of Nicaragua in 1958. The universities of the five Central American republics are organized into the Confederation of Central American Universities, thus paralleling in the field of university education the intergovernmental Organization of Central American States. The Confederation created earlier this year a Permanent Secretariat to promote various common interests, including the unification, in fundamental aspects, of the respective universities' plans of study. The Permanent Secretariat is provisionally located at the National PUBLIC EDUCATION 77 before entering a professional Faculty. Another development at the University of Costa Rica has been the initiation of a two-year pro- gram by its School of Education, in conjunction with its Faculty of Arts and Sciences, for the preparation of elementary school teachers. As previously noted, training for such teachers has usually taken place at secondary level normal schools in most of the Carib- bean republics. The National University of Nicaragua and the Autonomous Uni- versity of Honduras, stemming in their origins from 1816 and 1845, respectively, have somewhat limited professional offerings, and are the only Central American universities without Faculties or Schools of Humanities, Philosophy and Letters, or Education. Each had an enrollment of about 1,000 in 1957. The University of Nicaragua, located at Leon, away from the capital city of Managua, represents a consolidation of the three public universities which existed until the late 1940's. It officially came into existence in its present form and under its present name in 1947. The University of El Salvador had the smallest enrollment of the Central American universities in 1957, about 500 students, but the programs in its professional Faculties are an example of the liberalizing and broadening trend in such education which has begun in some universities of the area. They now include some sub- jects of a general cultural nature and others of a basic preprofes- sional orientation for the student's professional specialization. The University of Panama is the most recently founded of the universities of the Central America-Panama area, dating from 1935. It has a variety of professional curricula, including various programs under a Faculty of Public Administration and Commerce. It is housed in its own University City outside Panama City and had an enrollment of about 2,500 students in 1956-57. All the universities in Central America and Panama are now autonomous, the most recent to gain this status being the University of Nicaragua in 1958. The universities of the five Central American republics are organized into the Confederation of Central American Universities, thus paralleling in the field of university education the intergovernmental Organization of Central American States. The Confederation created earlier this year a Permanent Secretariat to promote various common interests, including the unification, in fundamental aspects, of the respective universities' plans of study. The Permanent Secretariat is provisionally located at the National  78 The Caribbean University of Nicaragua until 1960, with its permanent seat planned for the University of Costa Rica. With respect to nonuniversity higher education, at least two of these republics - El Salvador and Honduras - have Higher Normal Schools for the education and training of secondary school teachers (in all the republics save Honduras and Nicaragua such teach- ers are, of course, also prepared in University Faculties or Schools of Humanities, Philosophy, or Education). In Costa Rica, the reg- ular normal schools, like the National University's School of Educa- tion, now offer a two-year post-secondary program of preparation for elementary school teachers. Mention should also be made of the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences at Turrialba, Costa Rica, an educational and research institution sponsored by the Organization of American States, which offers specialized instruction in agriculture. Through its Escuela de Graduados (Graduate School), it has a program for university graduates leading to a title comparable to a United States Master's degree. It also offers special courses and programs for agri- cultural specialists and technicians who are not university graduates. COLOMBIA The Pan American Union on its provisional list of institutions of higher learning in Colombia includes 41 such institutions in 1959, of which about 25 are public institutions. A few of these are schools for advanced training in various special fields, most of them attached to government Ministries. Public institutions with more generalized offerings include the regular universities and several special Colom- bian creations known as Colegios Mayores de Cultura Feminina (Higher Colleges for Women). The public universities of Colombia are either National or Departmental institutions. National univer- sities are supported directly by National government funds and are administered as National institutions. Departmental universities are the fiscal responsibility of the Departments, which are the geo- graphic units of governmental administration in Colombia, but also receive direct financial assistance from the National government. Their legal autonomy was affirmed in 1958. The National universities are three in number. The first of these is the National University of Colombia at Bogoth, which traces its history back to 1573 and which was established in its present form 78 The Caribbean 78 The Caribbean University of Nicaragua until 1960, with its permanent seat planned for the University of Costa Rica. With respect to nonuniversity higher education, at least two of these republics - El Salvador and Honduras - have Higher Normal Schools for the education and training of secondary school teachers (in all the republics save Honduras and Nicaragua such teach- ers are, of course, also prepared in University Faculties or Schools of Humanities, Philosophy, or Education). In Costa Rica, the reg- ular normal schools, like the National University's School of Educa- tion, now offer a two-year post-secondary program of preparation for elementary school teachers. Mention should also be made of the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences at Turrialba, Costa Rica, an educational and research institution sponsored by the Organization of American States, which offers specialized instruction in agriculture. Through its Escuela de Graduados (Graduate School), it has a program for university graduates leading to a title comparable to a United States Master's degree. It also offers special courses and programs for agri- cultural specialists and technicians who are not university graduates. COLOMBIA The Pan American Union on its provisional list of institutions of higher learning in Colombia includes 41 such institutions in 1959, of which about 25 are public institutions. A few of these are schools for advanced training in various special fields, most of them attached to government Ministries. Public institutions with more generalized offerings include the regular universities and several special Colom- bian creations known as Colegios Mayores de Cultura Feminina (Higher Colleges for Women). The public universities of Colombia are either National or Departmental institutions. National univer- sities are supported directly by National government funds and are administered as National institutions. Departmental universities are the fiscal responsibility of the Departments, which are the geo- graphic units of governmental administration in Colombia, but also receive direct financial assistance from the National government. Their legal autonomy was affirmed in 1958. The National universities are three in number. The first of these is the National University of Colombia at Bogoti, which traces its history back to 1573 and which was established in its present form University of Nicaragua until 1960, with its permanent seat planned for the University of Costa Rica. With respect to nonuniversity higher education, at least two of these republics - El Salvador and Honduras - have Higher Normal Schools for the education and training of secondary school teachers (in all the republics save Honduras and Nicaragua such teach- ers are, of course, also prepared in University Faculties or Schools of Humanities, Philosophy, or Education). In Costa Rica, the reg- ular normal schools, like the National University's School of Educa- tion, now offer a two-year post-secondary program of preparation for elementary school teachers. Mention should also be made of the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences at Turrialba, Costa Rica, an educational and research institution sponsored by the Organization of American States, which offers specialized instruction in agriculture. Through its Escuela de Graduados (Graduate School), it has a program for university graduates leading to a title comparable to a United States Master's degree. It also offers special courses and programs for agri- cultural specialists and technicians who are not university graduates. COLOMBIA The Pan American Union on its provisional list of institutions of higher learning in Colombia includes 41 such institutions in 1959, of which about 25 are public institutions. A few of these are schools for advanced training in various special fields, most of them attached to government Ministries. Public institutions with more generalized offerings include the regular universities and several special Colom- bian creations known as Colegios Mayores de Cultura Feminina (Higher Colleges for Women). The public universities of Colombia are either National or Departmental institutions. National univer- sities are supported directly by National government funds and are administered as National institutions. Departmental universities are the fiscal responsibility of the Departments, which are the geo- graphic units of governmental administration in Colombia, but also receive direct financial assistance from the National government. Their legal autonomy was affirmed in 1958. The National universities are three in number. The first of these is the National University of Colombia at Bogoti, which traces its history back to 1573 and which was established in its present form  PUBLIC EDUCATION 79 in 1936 by bringing together various independent Faculties, Schools, and Institutes. Generally considered the leading institution of higher learning in Colombia and setting the pattern for other universities in organization and minimum curriculum requirements, the National University has a wide variety of professional offerings through its various Faculties and Schools. Special studies and research func- tions are carried on through its several Institutes in different fields, and it also operates the National School of Fine Arts, the National Conservatory of Music, the National Museum, and the National Astronomical Observatory. Several of its Faculties maintain branches in cities other than Bogota, and its Faculty of Agriculture is located in Medellin. The National University has the largest enrollment of Colombian universities, about 4,500 students in 1957. The other two National universities are institutions primarily for the preparation of secondary and normal school teachers. They are the Universidad Pedag6gica de Colombia (Teachers University of Colombia) at Tunja, for men, and the Universidad Pedag6gica Nacional Feminina (National Teachers' University for Women). Both are of recent origin, having been developed out of the pre- vious Higher Normal Schools and organized as universities in 1953. They consist of separate Faculties for the study of various academic subjects, as well as for professional training in education and teach- ing. The establishment at Tunja also has affiliated primary and secondary schools. The Departmental universities include those of Antioquia, Cal- das, Cartagena, Atlantico, Cauca, Valle, and Popoyan. Some of these universities were founded in the nineteenth century and reorganized into their present form in more recent years; others are of completely modern origin. The number and extent of their respective Faculties vary from institution to institution, though none has the breadth of Faculty offerings of the National Univer- sity and some have as few as three or four. They generally include also a number of institutes and schools, some at below-university levels. Another Departmental university of recent origin (1947), the Industrial University of Santander, has devoted itself exclusively to technological education and consists of six Faculties in various branches of engineering. It is another institution which exemplifies, however, the innovation in university education represented by the inclusion of general culture and preprofessional courses in its cur- PUBLIC EDUCATION 79 in 1936 by bringing together various independent Faculties, Schools, and Institutes. Generally considered the leading institution of higher learning in Colombia and setting the pattern for other universities in organization and minimum curriculum requirements, the National University has a wide variety of professional offerings through its various Faculties and Schools. Special studies and research func- tions are carried on through its several Institutes in different fields, and it also operates the National School of Fine Arts, the National Conservatory of Music, the National Museum, and the National Astronomical Observatory. Several of its Faculties maintain branches in cities other than BogotA, and its Faculty of Agriculture is located in Medellin. The National University has the largest enrollment of Colombian universities, about 4,500 students in 1957. The other two National universities are institutions primarily for the preparation of secondary and normal school teachers. They are the Universidad Pedag6gica de Colombia (Teachers University of Colombia) at Tunja, for men, and the Universidad Pedag6gica Nacional Feminina (National Teachers' University for Women). Both are of recent origin, having been developed out of the pre- vious Higher Normal Schools and organized as universities in 1953. They consist of separate Faculties for the study of various academic subjects, as well as for professional training in education and teach- ing. The establishment at Tunja also has affiliated primary and secondary schools. The Departmental universities include those of Antioquia, Cal- das, Cartagena, AtlAntico, Cauca, Valle, and Popoyin. Some of these universities were founded in the nineteenth century and reorganized into their present form in more recent years; others are of completely modern origin. The number and extent of their respective Faculties vary from institution to institution, though none has the breadth of Faculty offerings of the National Univer- sity and some have as few as three or four. They generally include also a number of institutes and schools, some at below-university levels. Another Departmental university of recent origin (1947), the Industrial University of Santander, has devoted itself exclusively to technological education and consists of six Faculties in various branches of engineering. It is another institution which exemplifies, however, the innovation in university education represented by the inclusion of general culture and preprofessional courses in its cur- PUBLIC EDUCATION 79 in 1936 by bringing together various independent Faculties, Schools, and Institutes. Generally considered the leading institution of higher learning in Colombia and setting the pattern for other universities in organization and minimum curriculum requirements, the National University has a wide variety of professional offerings through its various Faculties and Schools. Special studies and research func- tions are carried on through its several Institutes in different fields, and it also operates the National School of Fine Arts, the National Conservatory of Music, the National Museum, and the National Astronomical Observatory. Several of its Faculties maintain branches in cities other than BogotA, and its Faculty of Agriculture is located in Medellin. The National University has the largest enrollment of Colombian universities, about 4,500 students in 1957. The other two National universities are institutions primarily for the preparation of secondary and normal school teachers. They are the Universidad Pedag6gica de Colombia (Teachers University of Colombia) at Tunja, for men, and the Universidad Pedagogica Nacional Feminina (National Teachers' University for Women). Both are of recent origin, having been developed out of the pre- vious Higher Normal Schools and organized as universities in 1953. They consist of separate Faculties for the study of various academic subjects, as well as for professional training in education and teach- ing. The establishment at Tunja also has affiliated primary and secondary schools. The Departmental universities include those of Antioquia, Cal- das, Cartagena, Atlintico, Cauca, Valle, and Popoyin. Some of these universities were founded in the nineteenth century and reorganized into their present form in more recent years; others are of completely modern origin. The number and extent of their respective Faculties vary from insttitution to institution, though none has the breadth of Faculty offerings of the National Univer- sity and some have as few as three or four. They generally include also a number of institutes and schools, some at below-university levels. Another Departmental university of recent origin (1947), the Industrial University of Santander, has devoted itself exclusively to technological education and consists of six Faculties in various branches of engineering. It is another institution which exemplifies, however, the innovation in university education represented by the inclusion of general culture and preprofessional courses in its cur-  80 The Caribbean riculum. Its first year of work for all Faculties consists of a pre- professional year in a separate Department of Mathematics and Physics which includes not only basic physical sciences and mathe- matics but courses in Humanities, Philosophy, and English. Other institutions in Colombia, such as the University of Cartagena, include in the first year's work in each Faculty a survey course in the Humanities, as well as in foreign languages. The universities of Colombia maintain close relations with each other and in 1958 established the Colombian Association of Universities. The Colombian Colegios Mayores de Cultura Feminina, to which reference has already been made, have been established, pursuant to a law of 1945, to expand the facilities for the professional educa- tion and training of women. To date three of these Colegios have been set up, that of Antioquia at Medellin, that of Bolivar at Carta- gena, and that of Cundinamarca at Bogota. They are national institutions and offer various programs of specialized education, some of which are at the higher education level. The Colegio Mayor de Antioquia, for example, includes five schools - Commercial Sci- ences, Library Sciences, Social Service, Architectural Drawing, and Bacteriology. VENEZUELA Public higher education in Venezuela is exclusively a function of the central government, despite Venezuela's being the only federal republic of the area other than Mexico. Of the country's eight regular institutions of higher learning, five are national universities, one is a teacher training institute, and two are private universities founded within the past five years. Of the five public universities, two were established in 1958- the University of Carabobo at Valencia and the University of Oriente at Cumani. It is expected that their Faculties and programs will emphasize higher techno- logical education. Of the older public universities the largest is the Central Univer- sity of Venezuela at Caracas, which was established as a university in 1725 and is now housed in the spectacular and physically well- equipped University City. The University has eleven Faculties with a wide variety of fields of study for degrees. The University of the Andes at Merida assumed full university rank in 1810 and now consists of eight Faculties. The newest of the three older uni- 80 The Caribbean riculum. Its first year of work for all Faculties consists of a pre- professional year in a separate Department of Mathematics and Physics which includes not only basic physical sciences and mathe- matics but courses in Humanities, Philosophy, and English. Other institutions in Colombia, such as the University of Cartagena, include in the first year's work in each Faculty a survey course in the Humanities, as well as in foreign languages. The universities of Colombia maintain close relations with each other and in 1958 established the Colombian Association of Universities. The Colombian Colegios Mayores de Cultura Feminina, to which reference has already been made, have been established, pursuant to a law of 1945, to expand the facilities for the professional educa- tion and training of women. To date three of these Colegios have been set up, that of Antioquia at Medellin, that of Bolivar at Carta- gena, and that of Cundinamarca at BogotA. They are national institutions and offer various programs of specialized education, some of which are at the higher education level. The Colegio Mayor de Antioquia, for example, includes five schools - Commercial Sci- ences, Library Sciences, Social Service, Architectural Drawing, and Bacteriology. VENEZUELA Public higher education in Venezuela is exclusively a function of the central government, despite Venezuela's being the only federal republic of the area other than Mexico. Of the country's eight regular institutions of higher learning, five are national universities, one is a teacher training institute, and two are private universities founded within the past five years. Of the five public universities, two were established in 1958- the University of Carabobo at Valencia and the University of Oriente at Cumani. It is expected that their Faculties and programs will emphasize higher techno- logical education. Of the older public universities the largest is the Central Univer- sity of Venezuela at Caracas, which was established as a university in 1725 and is now housed in the spectacular and physically well- equipped University City. The University has eleven Faculties with a wide variety of fields of study for degrees. The University of the Andes at Merida assumed full university rank in 1810 and now consists of eight Faculties. The newest of the three older uni- 80 The Caribbean riculum. Its first year of work for all Faculties consists of a pre- professional year in a separate Department of Mathematics and Physics which includes not only basic physical sciences and mathe- matics but courses in Humanities, Philosophy, and English. Other institutions in Colombia, such as the University of Cartagena, include in the first year's work in each Faculty a survey course in the Humanities, as well as in foreign languages. The universities of Colombia maintain close relations with each other and in 1958 established the Colombian Association of Universities. The Colombian Colegios Mayores de Cultura Feminina, to which reference has already been made, have been established, pursuant to a law of 1945, to expand the facilities for the professional educa- tion and training of women. To date three of these Colegios have been set up, that of Antioquia at Medellin, that of Bolivar at Carta- gena, and that of Cundinamarca at Bogoti. They are national institutions and offer various programs of specialized education, some of which are at the higher education level. The Colegio Mayor de Antioquia, for example, includes five schools - Commercial Sci- ences, Library Sciences, Social Service, Architectural Drawing, and Bacteriology. VENEZUELA Public higher education in Venezuela is exclusively a function of the central government, despite Venezuela's being the only federal republic of the area other than Mexico. Of the country's eight regular institutions of higher learning, five are national universities, one is a teacher training institute, and two are private universities founded within the past five years. Of the five public universities, two were established in 1958- the University of Carabobo at Valencia and the University of Oriente at Cumani. It is expected that their Faculties and programs will emphasize higher techno- logical education. Of the older public universities the largest is the Central Univer- sity of Venezuela at Caracas, which was established as a university in 1725 and is now housed in the spectacular and physically well- equipped University City. The University has eleven Faculties with a wide variety of fields of study for degrees. The University of the Andes at Merida assumed full university rank in 1810 and now consists of eight Faculties. The newest of the three older uni-  PUBLIC EDUCATION 81 versities, that of Zulia at Maracaibo, was founded in 1891 and reorganized in 1947. It comprises four Faculties, one of which includes a School of Petroleum Engineering, as might be expected at this center of the Venezuelan petroleum industry. The transfer of the University of Zulia to a new University City is well underway. The principal nonuniversity institution with offerings at the higher education level is the Instituto Pedagogico Nacional (Na- tional Teachers' Institute). Founded in 1938, it became in the 1950's primarily an institution for the postsecondary education and train- ing of secondary and normal school teachers. Like the National Teachers' Universities in Colombia, it has Departments for the training of teachers in various academic subjects, as well as a De- partment of professional education. Insofar as the role of the regular universities in the preparation of such teachers is concerned, the Central University established a Department of Education in the expanded Faculty of Humanities and Education in 1953. The Uni- versities of Zulia and the Andes have recently instituted courses and programs in education and teacher preparation. Provision has also been made for a new training college for secondary school teachers at Barquisimeto. Developments in higher education in Venezuela in the past two years are manifestations of changes in the political scene during that period. Just two years ago the Central University, despite provision for legal autonomy, was closed for all practical purposes by former President Pdrez Jim4nez, because of opposition of stu- dents and professors to his regime. Following his overthrow early in 1958, in which the students played a major part, the Central University was reopened, with students exercising a dominant role in the release of unwanted professors and in university administra- tion generally. Since the political change-over, there has been a rapid increase in university enrollments generally, which are per- haps growing even more rapidly than elsewhere in the Caribbean area. Thus, for the school year 1958-59 there was a better than 50 per cent increase in all university enrollment, public and private, over the school year 1957-58. Of the total enrollment of some 16,000 in 1958-59, about 13,600 were attending public universities. It was estimated in the summer of 1959 that enrollment would increase to 20,200 and 17,500, respectively, for the school year 1959-60. Another current trend in Venezuelan higher education is, as is the case for Venezuelan education generally, the substantial absolute PUBLIC EDUCATION 81 versities, that of Zulia at Maracaibo, was founded in 1891 and reorganized in 1947. It comprises four Faculties, one of which includes a School of Petroleum Engineering, as might be expected at this center of the Venezuelan petroleum industry. The transfer of the University of Zulia to a new University City is well underway. The principal nonuniversity institution with offerings at the higher education level is the Instituto Pedag6gico Nacional (Na- tional Teachers' Institute). Founded in 1938, it became in the 1950's primarily an institution for the postsecondary education and train- ing of secondary and normal school teachers. Like the National Teachers' Universities in Colombia, it has Departments for the training of teachers in various academic subjects, as well as a De- partment of professional education. Insofar as the role of the regular universities in the preparation of such teachers is concerned, the Central University established a Department of Education in the expanded Faculty of Humanities and Education in 1953. The Uni- versities of Zulia and the Andes have recently instituted courses and programs in education and teacher preparation. Provision has also been made for a new training college for secondary school teachers at Barquisimeto. Developments in higher education in Venezuela in the past two years are manifestations of changes in the political scene during that period. Just two years ago the Central University, despite provision for legal autonomy, was closed for all practical purposes by former President Pdrez Jimenez, because of opposition of stu- dents and professors to his regime. Following his overthrow early in 1958, in which the students played a major part, the Central University was reopened, with students exercising a dominant role in the release of unwanted professors and in university administra- tion generally. Since the political change-over, there has been a rapid increase in university enrollments generally, which are per- haps growing even more rapidly than elsewhere in the Caribbean area. Thus, for the school year 1958-59 there was a better than 50 per cent increase in all university enrollment, public and private, over the school year 1957-58. Of the total enrollment of some 16,000 in 1958-59, about 13,600 were attending public universities. It was estimated in the summer of 1959 that enrollment would increase to 20,200 and 17,500, respectively, for the school year 1959-60. Another current trend in Venezuelan higher education is, as is the case for Venezuelan education generally, the substantial absolute PUBLIC EDUCATION 81 versities, that of Zulia at Maracaibo, was founded in 1891 and reorganized in 1947. It comprises four Faculties, one of which includes a School of Petroleum Engineering, as might be expected at this center of the Venezuelan petroleum industry. The transfer of the University of Zulia to a new University City is well underway. The principal nonuniversity institution with offerings at the higher education level is the Instituto Pedagigico Nacional (Na- tional Teachers' Institute). Founded in 1938, it became in the 1950's primarily an institution for the postsecondary education and train- ing of secondary and normal school teachers. Like the National Teachers' Universities in Colombia, it has Departments for the training of teachers in various academic subjects, as well as a De- partment of professional education. Insofar as the role of the regular universities in the preparation of such teachers is concerned, the Central University established a Department of Education in the expanded Faculty of Humanities and Education in 1953. The Uni- versities of Zulia and the Andes have recently instituted courses and programs in education and teacher preparation. Provision has also been made for a new training college for secondary school teachers at Barquisimeto. Developments in higher education in Venezuela in the past two years are manifestations of changes in the political scene during that period. Just two years ago the Central University, despite provision for legal autonomy, was closed for all practical purposes by former President Perez Jimenez, because of opposition of stu- dents and professors to his regime. Following his overthrow early in 1958, in which the students played a major part, the Central University was reopened, with students exercising a dominant role in the release of unwanted professors and in university administra- tion generally. Since the political change-over, there has been a rapid increase in university enrollments generally, which are per- haps growing even more rapidly than elsewhere in the Caribbean area. Thus, for the school year 1958-59 there was a better than 50 per cent increase in all university enrollment, public and private, over the school year 1957-58. Of the total enrollment of some 16,000 in 1958-59, about 13,600 were attending public universities. It was estimated in the summer of 1959 that enrollment would increase to 20,200 and 17,500, respectively, for the school year 1959-60. Another current trend in Venezuelan higher education is, as is the case for Venezuelan education generally, the substantial absolute  82 The Caribbean and percentage increase in national budget items for this function. The percentage increase in the amount for national universities in 1958-59 was 160 per cent over 1957-58. Nonuniversity higher education showed a 265 per cent increase for the same period. The last-mentioned item refers principally to the Instituto Pedag6gico. It is also interesting to note in this connection the extension of the educational opportunities of the Instituto to experienced primary school teachers since the overthrow of P6rez Jimnez, even though most of them do not have a full secondary school diploma. These and other developments in Venezuelan higher education may be regarded in large part as indications of the social change which expressed itself in the political upheaval of early 1958 and which has emphasized the broadening of educational opportunities and the expansion of educational facilities at all levels. THE CARIBBEAN ISLAND REPUBLICS Cuba is the only one of the Caribbean island republics that has more than one university, public or private. Public higher educa- tion in Cuba is represented by three national institutions, the Uni- versity of Habana, the Central University of Las Villas at Santa Clara, and the University of Oriente at Santiago. Closed for more than two years during the Batista-Castro conflict, they have re- opened this year. At the time they suspended operations in Novem- ber, 1956, they had a total combined enrollment of over 20,000 students, of which 16,000 were enrolled at the University of Habana, making it one of the three largest universities in the Caribbean area. Dating back to 1728, the University of Habana assumed its present name and basic organization shortly after the winning of independence at the turn of the century and has undergone various additions to its Schools and modifications of its organization since that time. It was granted full legal autonomy following the over- throw of President Machado in the 1930's. In 1956 it consisted of 13 regular Schools, which included the usual professional schools, as well as Schools of Philosophy and Letters and of Education. Also well-known was its Summer School designed largely for stu- dents from the United States. The University of Oriente and the Central University of Las Villas are creations of the post-World War II period. The former dates from 1947 and the latter from 1948. Both were established 82 The Caribbean and percentage increase in national budget items for this function. The percentage increase in the amount for national universities in 1958-59 was 160 per cent over 1957-58. Nonuniversity higher education showed a 265 per cent increase for the same period. The last-mentioned item refers principally to the Instituto Pedagogico. It is also interesting to note in this connection the extension of the educational opportunities of the Instituto to experienced primary school teachers since the overthrow of Perez Jimmnez, even though most of them do not have a full secondary school diploma. These and other developments in Venezuelan higher education may be regarded in large part as indications of the social change which expressed itself in the political upheaval of early 1958 and which has emphasized the broadening of educational opportunities and the expansion of educational facilities at all levels. THE CARIBBEAN ISLAND REPUBLICS Cuba is the only one of the Caribbean island republics that has more than one university, public or private. Public higher educa- tion in Cuba is represented by three national institutions, the Uni- versity of Habana, the Central University of Las Villas at Santa Clara, and the University of Oriente at Santiago. Closed for more than two years during the Batista-Castro conflict, they have re- opened this year. At the time they suspended operations in Novem- ber, 1956, they had a total combined enrollment of over 20,000 students, of which 16,000 were enrolled at the University of Habana, making it one of the three largest universities in the Caribbean area. Dating back to 1728, the University of Habana assumed its present name and basic organization shortly after the winning of independence at the turn of the century and has undergone various additions to its Schools and modifications of its organization since that time. It was granted full legal autonomy following the over- throw of President Machado in the 1930's. In 1956 it consisted of 13 regular Schools, which included the usual professional schools, as well as Schools of Philosophy and Letters and of Education. Also well-known was its Summer School designed largely for stu- dents from the United States. The University of Oriente and the Central University of Las Villas are creations of the post-World War II period. The former dates from 1947 and the latter from 1948. Both were established 82 The Caribbean and percentage increase in national budget items for this function. The percentage increase in the amount for national universities in 1958-59 was 160 per cent over 1957-58. Nonuniversity higher education showed a 265 per cent increase for the same period. The last-mentioned item refers principally to the Instituto Pedag6gico. It is also interesting to note in this connection the extension of the educational opportunities of the Instituto to experienced primary school teachers since the overthrow of Perez Jimenez, even though most of them do not have a full secondary school diploma. These and other developments in Venezuelan higher education may be regarded in large part as indications of the social change which expressed itself in the political upheaval of early 1958 and which has emphasized the broadening of educational opportunities and the expansion of educational facilities at all levels. THE CARIBBEAN ISLAND REPUBLICS Cuba is the only one of the Caribbean island republics that has more than one university, public or private. Public higher educa- tion in Cuba is represented by three national institutions, the Uni- versity of Habana, the Central University of Las Villas at Santa Clara, and the University of Oriente at Santiago. Closed for more than two years during the Batista-Castro conflict, they have re- opened this year. At the time they suspended operations in Novem- ber, 1956, they had a total combined enrollment of over 20,000 students, of which 16,000 were enrolled at the University of Habana, making it one of the three largest universities in the Caribbean area. Dating back to 1728, the University of Habana assumed its present name and basic organization shortly after the winning of independence at the turn of the century and has undergone various additions to its Schools and modifications of its organization since that time. It was granted full legal autonomy following the over- throw of President Machado in the 1930's. In 1956 it consisted of 13 regular Schools, which included the usual professional schools, as well as Schools of Philosophy and Letters and of Education. Also well-known was its Summer School designed largely for stu- dents from the United States. The University of Oriente and the Central University of Las Villas are creations of the post-World War II period. The former dates from 1947 and the latter from 1948. Both were established  PUBLIC EDUCATION 83 as autonomous institutions. Neither had in 1956 the wide range of professional schools of the University of Habana, but each offered professional studies to meet needs felt in its own section of the country, and lessened dependence upon the University of Habana in western Cuba. For example, each had a School of Agriculture, and the Central University included a School of Engineering and Chemical Engineering emphasizing training for the sugar industry. The 1956 enrollment of the University of Oriente was in the neigh- borhood of 2,300; that of the Central University was about 1,800. The dominant influence of the moment in Cuban higher education is the triumph of the revolutionary forces early this year and its aftermath. Already mentioned is the reopening of the three national universities, which had closed because of wide opposition of stu- dents and professors to the Batista regime. Several other semioffi- cial institutions of higher learning - the so-called Universidades Oficializadas, which had come into existence during the 1950's - have been abolished by so-called Law 11 issued by the Castro Min- istry of Education. This law also invalidated degrees, titles, and course credits earned at private universities between November 30, 1956, when the three national universities were closed, and Janu- ary 1, 1959, when the Castro forces were victorious. One of the principal institutions affected was the private University of Santo Tomis de Villanueva. This action was vigorously supported by student organizations of the national universities, apparently on the grounds that students who had not actively supported the Revolutionary movement and had carried on an education-as-usual policy should not be allowed to gain a time advantage over stu- dents from other institutions who had devoted their efforts to the cause of the Revolution. The full effects of the triumph of the 26 of July movement on higher education remain to be seen. Aside from the foregoing de- velopments, other results to date have been the dismissal of pro- fessors, largely at student instigation, for reasons of alleged incom- petence or collaboration with the Batista regime, and a general ascendancy of student influence in university affairs. In the Dominican Republic institutions of higher education in- clude the University of Santo Domingo, and two Higher Normal Schools which have three-year programs of postsecondary level in- struction and training for secondary school teachers. It is also planned to have a new Women's University in full operation shortly. PUBLIC EDUCATION 83 as autonomous institutions. Neither had in 1956 the wide range of professional schools of the University of Habana, but each offered professional studies to meet needs felt in its own section of the country, and lessened dependence upon the University of Habana in western Cuba. For example, each had a School of Agriculture, and the Central University included a School of Engineering and Chemical Engineering emphasizing training for the sugar industry. The 1956 enrollment of the University of Oriente was in the neigh- borhood of 2,300; that of the Central University was about 1,800. The dominant influence of the moment in Cuban higher education is the triumph of the revolutionary forces early this year and its aftermath. Already mentioned is the reopening of the three national universities, which had closed because of wide opposition of stu- dents and professors to the Batista regime. Several other semioffi- cial institutions of higher learning - the so-called Universidades Oficializadas, which had come into existence during the 1950's - have been abolished by so-called Law 11 issued by the Castro Min- istry of Education. This law also invalidated degrees, titles, and course credits earned at private universities between November 30, 1956, when the three national universities were closed, and Janu- ary 1, 1959, when the Castro forces were victorious. One of the principal institutions affected was the private University of Santo Tomis de Villanueva. This action was vigorously supported by student organizations of the national universities, apparently on the grounds that students who had not actively supported the Revolutionary movement and had carried on an education-as-usual policy should not be allowed to gain a time advantage over stu- dents from other institutions who had devoted their efforts to the cause of the Revolution. The full effects of the triumph of the 26 of July movement on higher education remain to be seen. Aside from the foregoing de- velopments, other results to date have been the dismissal of pro- fessors, largely at student instigation, for reasons of alleged incom- petence or collaboration with the Batista regime, and a general ascendancy of student influence in university affairs. In the Dominican Republic institutions of higher education in- clude the University of Santo Domingo, and two Higher Normal Schools which have three-year programs of postsecondary level in- struction and training for secondary school teachers. It is also planned to have a new Women's University in full operation shortly. PUBLIC EDUCATION 83 as autonomous institutions. Neither had in 1956 the wide range of professional schools of the University of Habana, but each offered professional studies to meet needs felt in its own section of the country, and lessened dependence upon the University of Habana in western Cuba. For example, each had a School of Agriculture, and the Central University included a School of Engineering and Chemical Engineering emphasizing training for the sugar industry. The 1956 enrollment of the University of Oriente was in the neigh- borhood of 2,500; that of the Central University was about 1,800. The dominant influence of the moment in Cuban higher education is the triumph of the revolutionary forces early this year and its aftermath. Already mentioned is the reopening of the three national universities, which had closed because of wide opposition of stu- dents and professors to the Batista regime. Several other semioffi- cial institutions of higher learning - the so-called Universidades Ofcializadas, which had come into existence during the 1950's - have been abolished by so-called Law 11 issued by the Castro Min- istry of Education. This law also invalidated degrees, titles, and course credits earned at private universities between November 30, 1956, when the three national universities were closed, and Janu- ary 1, 1959, when the Castro forces were victorious. One of the principal institutions affected was the private University of Santo Tomis de Villanueva. This action was vigorously supported by student organizations of the national universities, apparently on the grounds that students who had not actively supported the Revolutionary movement and had carried on an education-as-usual policy should not be allowed to gain a time advantage over stu- dents from other institutions who had devoted their efforts to the cause of the Revolution. The full effects of the triumph of the 26 of July movement on higher education remain to be seen. Aside from the foregoing de- velopments, other results to date have been the dismissal of pro- fessors, largely at student instigation, for reasons of alleged incom- petence or collaboration with the Batista regime, and a general ascendancy of student influence in university affairs. In the Dominican Republic institutions of higher education in- clude the University of Santo Domingo, and two Higher Normal Schools which have three-year programs of postsecondary level in- struction and training for secondary school teachers. It is also planned to have a new Women's University in full operation shortly.  84 The Caribbean The University of Santo Domingo regards itself as the direct continuation of the first university of the New World founded in 1538 as the Universidad de Santo Tomis de Aquino. Closed during most of the nineteenth century, the University was reorgan- ized during the latter part of the nineteenth and the twentieth cen- tury. In its modern organization it dates from 1937, and in 1947 it occupied the spacious new University City grounds in the west- ern part of the capital city. The autonomy of the University has been affirmed in its basic legislative authority; but in its admin- istration the President of the Republic has certain powers, includ- ing the appointment of the Rector and professors, and there is no provision for student participation in university administration. The University consists of eight Faculties and several Institutes for special research and study. Included among the Faculties are Law; Medicine; Engineering and Architecture; Pharmacy and Chem- ical Sciences; Philosophy and Education; Economy, Finance and Commerce; and Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine. The two last-named are creations of very recent years and have initiated their instructional facilities through Departments of Commercial Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, respectively. The current Faculty of Philosophy and Education, which was reorganized in 1958, repre- sents an expansion of the previous Faculty of Philosophy. Its pro- grams now consist largely of a series of three-year programs of study in the humanities, linguistic, and education fields, plus a fourth year of study for the Doctorate. In some of the strictly professional fac- ulties, related basic preprofessional subjects and languages have been added to the curriculum in the past year or so, and the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture has instituted a year's preparatory or preprofessional course. The total enrollment in all Faculties was almost 4,000 in the academic year 1957-58. In Haiti higher education is organized almost exclusively around the University of Haiti in Port-au-Prince. In four cities there are so-called Free Schools of Law, which without being directly affili- ated with the National University, have their diplomas confirmed by the latter. It should also be pointed out that the Haitian system of secondary education provides for a 13th year, the program of studies known as Philosophic, which is usually considered in the United States to be at the higher education level. The University of Haiti, the most recently organized of the na- tional universities of the Caribbean republics, was founded in 1944 84 The Caribbean The University of Santo Domingo regards itself as the direct continuation of the first university of the New World founded in 1538 as the Universidad de Santo Tomis de Aquino. Closed during most of the nineteenth century, the University was reorgan- ized during the latter part of the nineteenth and the twentieth cen- tury. In its modern organization it dates from 1937, and in 1947 it occupied the spacious new University City grounds in the west- em part of the capital city. The autonomy of the University has been affirmed in its basic legislative authority; but in its admin- istration the President of the Republic has certain powers, includ- ing the appointment of the Rector and professors, and there is no provision for student participation in university administration. The University consists of eight Faculties and several Insttitutes for special research and study. Included among the Faculties are Law; Medicine; Engineering and Architecture; Pharmacy and Chem- ical Sciences; Philosophy and Education; Economy, Finance and Commerce; and Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine. The two last-named are creations of very recent years and have initiated their instructional facilities through Departments of Commercial Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, respectively. The current Faculty of Philosophy and Education, which was reorganized in 1958, repre- sents an expansion of the previous Faculty of Philosophy. Its pro- grams now consist largely of a series of three-year programs of study in the humanities, linguistic, and education fields, plus a fourth year of study for the Doctorate. In some of the strictly professional fac- ulties, related basic preprofessional subjects and languages have been added to the curriculum in the past year or so, and the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture has instituted a year's preparatory or preprofessional course. The total enrollment in all Faculties was almost 4,000 in the academic year 1957-58. In Haiti higher education is organized almost exclusively around the University of Haiti in Port-au-Prince. In four cities there are so-called Free Schools of Law, which without being directly affili- ated with the National University, have their diplomas confirmed by the latter. It should also be pointed out that the Haitian system of secondary education provides for a 13th year, the program of studies known as Philosophie, which is usually considered in the United States to be at the higher education level. The University of Haiti, the most recently organized of the na- tional universities of the Caribbean republics, was founded in 1944 84 The Caribbean The University of Santo Domingo regards itself as the direct continuation of the first university of the New World founded in 1538 as the Universidad de Santo Tomis de Aquino. Closed during most of the nineteenth century, the University was reorgan- ized during the latter part of the nineteenth and the twentieth cen- tury. In its modern organization it dates from 1937, and in 1947 it occupied the spacious new University City grounds in the west- ern part of the capital city. The autonomy of the University has been affirmed in its basic legislative authority; but in its admin- istration the President of the Republic has certain powers, includ- ing the appointment of the Rector and professors, and there is no provision for student participation in university administration. The University consists of eight Faculties and several Institutes for special research and study. Included among the Faculties are Law; Medicine; Engineering and Architecture; Pharmacy and Chem- ical Sciences; Philosophy and Education; Economy, Finance and Commerce; and Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine. The two last-named are creations of very recent years and have initiated their instructional facilities through Departments of Commercial Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, respectively. The current Faculty of Philosophy and Education, which was reorganized in 1958, repre- sents an expansion of the previous Faculty of Philosophy. Its pro- grams now consist largely of a series of three-year programs of study in the humanities, linguistic, and education fields, plus a fourth year of study for the Doctorate. In some of the strictly professional fac- ulties, related basic preprofessional subjects and languages have been added to the curriculum in the past year or so, and the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture has instituted a year's preparatory or preprofessional course. The total enrollment in all Faculties was almost 4,000 in the academic year 1957-58. In Haiti higher education is organized almost exclusively around the University of Haiti in Port-au-Prince. In four cities there are so-called Free Schools of Law, which without being directly affili- ated with the National University, have their diplomas confirmed by the latter. It should also be pointed out that the Haitian system of secondary education provides for a 13th year, the program of studies known as Philosophic, which is usually considered in the United States to be at the higher education level. The University of Haiti, the most recently organized of the na- tional universities of the Caribbean republics, was founded in 1944  PUBLIC EDUCATION 85 by affiliating existing institutions of higher education. These retain a good deal of autonomy under the University organization, and some of them have certain responsibilities to government ministries. They include Faculties of Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, and Law (which includes Economics and Sociology), as well as the Poly- technic School giving instruction in Engineering and Agriculture, the National School of Agriculture, the Higher Normal School, and a School of Surveying. The Haitian Military Academy, the Theo- logical College of Notre Dame, and the Institute of Ethnology maintain an autonomous affiliation with the University and prepare students for diplomas awarded by it. Total enrollment in all Fac- ulties and Schools was about 1,100 in the school year 1956-57. The programs of the Faculties of Medicine and Dentistry and the Polytechnic School have a preparatory or preprofessional year, which consists of subjects required as background for the profes- sional field of study, plus foreign languages. A basic reason for this preliminary year is the limited amount of science offered in the secondary schools. Another feature of special note in programs of the University is the fact that the Higher Normal School to some degree takes the place of a Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, which the University does not have. While its primary function is the preparation of teachers for secondary schools and its own staff, it is open to those who wish to augment their general knowl- edge and to study more intensively one of the academic subjects offered. The program of the School is primarily classical and scien- tific in nature, with a minimum of emphasis on pedagogy. III What generalizations may be drawn in summing up the present situation and trends in public higher education in the Caribbean area? From what has been said it seems clear that current insti- tutions of higher education are to a large extent products of the twentieth century. Not only have many new institutions come into being within recent decades, but long-established institutions have been reorganized and their facilities for instruction increased to such an extent that in many cases they bear little resemblance to the institutions from which they emerged. New Faculties and programs of study are being added in both old and new institu- tions to meet demands and needs for professional personnel in de- PUBLIC EDUCATION 85 by affiliating existing institutions of higher education. These retain a good deal of autonomy under the University organization, and some of them have certain responsibilities to government ministries. They include Faculties of Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, and Law (which includes Economics and Sociology), as well as the Poly- technic School giving instruction in Engineering and Agriculture, the National School of Agriculture, the Higher Normal School, and a School of Surveying. The Haitian Military Academy, the Theo- logical College of Notre Dame, and the Institute of Ethnology maintain an autonomous affiliation with the University and prepare students for diplomas awarded by it. Total enrollment in all Fac- ulties and Schools was about 1,100 in the school year 1956-57. The programs of the Faculties of Medicine and Dentistry and the Polytechnic School have a preparatory or preprofessional year, which consists of subjects required as background for the profes- sional field of study, plus foreign languages. A basic reason for this preliminary year is the limited amount of science offered in the secondary schools. Another feature of special note in programs of the University is the fact that the Higher Normal School to some degree takes the place of a Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, which the University does not have. While its primary function is the preparation of teachers for secondary schools and its own staff, it is open to those who wish to augment their general knowl- edge and to study more intensively one of the academic subjects offered. The program of the School is primarily classical and scien- tific in nature, with a minimum of emphasis on pedagogy. III What generalizations may be drawn in summing up the present situation and trends in public higher education in the Caribbean area? From what has been said it seems clear that current insti- tutions of higher education are to a large extent products of the twentieth century. Not only have many new institutions come into being within recent decades, but long-established institutions have been reorganized and their facilities for instruction increased to such an extent that in many cases they bear little resemblance to the institutions from which they emerged. New Faculties and programs of study are being added in both old and new institu- tions to meet demands and needs for professional personnel in de- PUBLIC EDUCATION 85 by affiliating existing institutions of higher education. These retain a good deal of autonomy under the University organization, and some of them have certain responsibilities to government ministries. They include Faculties of Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, and Law (which includes Economics and Sociology), as well as the Poly- technic School giving instruction in Engineering and Agriculture, the National School of Agriculture, the Higher Normal School, and a School of Surveying. The Haitian Military Academy, the Theo- logical College of Notre Dame, and the Institute of Ethnology maintain an autonomous affiliation with the University and prepare students for diplomas awarded by it. Total enrollment in all Fac- ulties and Schools was about 1,100 in the school year 1956-57. The programs of the Faculties of Medicine and Dentistry and the Polytechnic School have a preparatory or preprofessional year, which consists of subjects required as background for the profes- sional field of study, plus foreign languages. A basic reason for this preliminary year is the limited amount of science offered in the secondary schools. Another feature of special note in programs of the University is the fact that the Higher Normal School to some degree takes the place of a Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, which the University does not have. While its primary function is the preparation of teachers for secondary schools and its own staff, it is open to those who wish to augment their general knowl- edge and to study more intensively one of the academic subjects offered. The program of the School is primarily classical and scien- tific in nature, with a minimum of emphasis on pedagogy. III What generalizations may be drawn in summing up the present situation and trends in public higher education in the Caribbean area? From what has been said it seems clear that current insti- tutions of higher education are to a large extent products of the twentieth century. Not only have many new institutions come into being within recent decades, but long-established institutions have been reorganized and their facilities for instruction increased to such an extent that in many cases they bear little resemblance to the institutions from which they emerged. New Faculties and programs of study are being added in both old and new institu- tions to meet demands and needs for professional personnel in de-  86 The Caribbean veloping fields. Particularly significant has been the increase in facilities for technological education and for training related to economic development, business and public administration, and professional education. In some Caribbean republics subjects of a general cultural and preprofessional nature are being added to the required professional curricula. Lack of adequate library and laboratory facilities continues to be a major problem in both old and new fields of study. In the republics of the area there has been an effort, both in universities and in other institutions of higher learn- ing, to meet a need for one- or two-year short programs of special- ization in various technical and professional fields. Summer Schools for North American students have become increasingly popular in the area. Mention has been made in our discussion of only a few. With respect to the matter of growth, enrollments are expanding rapidly year by year, and it may be expected that there will be a continuing problem of adequate facilities to accommodate an ever- increasing number of students. In some cases selective admission procedures, previously unknown, are being established, and tui- tion and other charges, though usually moderate by United States standards, are being increased. At the University College of the West Indies with its higher tuition fees, about half the students have scholarships. Teaching staffs are likewise increasing in size and the percentage of full-time professors is slowly growing in the Caribbean republics, although this represents a long-term prob- lem. "University Cities" are becoming common, and in urban areas have brought problems of commuting and living accommodations for working students and part-time professors. Autonomy for universities has come to be accepted as the norm, and most institutions now have such legal provisions in their basic legislation. Practical working autonomy often depends on political and other circumstances in the given country. Universities are cooperating more closely with each other and in some cases have organized themselves into country or regional associations for this purpose. Students in most Caribbean republics continue to con- cern themselves with both university and national affairs. National social and political changes continue to have significant results in university affairs and in the development of higher education. At times these results have been quite spectacular, especially when accompanied by political repression and violence. 86 The Caribbean 86 The Caribbean veloping fields. Particularly significant has been the increase in facilities for technological education and for training related to economic development, business and public administration, and professional education. In some Caribbean republics subjects of a general cultural and preprofessional nature are being added to the required professional curricula. Lack of adequate library and laboratory facilities continues to be a major problem in both old and new fields of study. In the republics of the area there has been an effort, both in universities and in other institutions of higher learn- ing, to meet a need for one- or two-year short programs of special- ization in various technical and professional fields. Summer Schools for North American students have become increasingly popular in the area. Mention has been made in our discussion of only a few. With respect to the matter of growth, enrollments are expanding rapidly year by year, and it may be expected that there will be a continuing problem of adequate facilities to accommodate an ever- increasing number of students. In some cases selective admission procedures, previously unknown, are being established, and tui- tion and other charges, though usually moderate by United States standards, are being increased. At the University College of the West Indies with its higher tuition fees, about half the students have scholarships. Teaching staffs are likewise increasing in size and the percentage of full-time professors is slowly growing in the Caribbean republics, although this represents a long-term prob- lem. "University Cities" are becoming common, and in urban areas have brought problems of commuting and living accommodations for working students and part-time professors. Autonomy for universities has come to be accepted as the norm, and most institutions now have such legal provisions in their basic legislation. Practical working autonomy often depends on political and other circumstances in the given country. Universities are cooperating more closely with each other and in some cases have organized themselves into country or regional associations for this purpose. Students in most Caribbean republics continue to con- cern themselves with both university and national affairs. National social and political changes continue to have significant results in university affairs and in the development of higher education. At times these results have been quite spectacular, especially when accompanied by political repression and violence. veloping fields. Particularly significant has been the increase in facilities for technological education and for training related to economic development, business and public administration, and professional education. In some Caribbean republics subjects of a general cultural and preprofessional nature are being added to the required professional curricula. Lack of adequate library and laboratory facilities continues to be a major problem in both old and new fields of study. In the republics of the area there has been an effort, both in universities and in other institutions of higher learn- ing, to meet a need for one- or two-year short programs of special- ization in various technical and professional fields. Summer Schools for North American students have become increasingly popular in the area. Mention has been made in our discussion of only a few. With respect to the matter of growth, enrollments are expanding rapidly year by year, and it may be expected that there will be a continuing problem of adequate facilities to accommodate an ever- increasing number of students. In some cases selective admission procedures, previously unknown, are being established, and tui- tion and other charges, though usually moderate by United States standards, are being increased. At the University College of the West Indies with its higher tuition fees, about half the students have scholarships. Teaching staffs are likewise increasing in size and the percentage of full-time professors is slowly growing in the Caribbean republics, although this represents a long-term prob- lem. "University Cities" are becoming common, and in urban areas have brought problems of commuting and living accommodations for working students and part-time professors. Autonomy for universities has come to be accepted as the norm, and most institutions now have such legal provisions in their basic legislation. Practical working autonomy often depends on political and other circumstances in the given country. Universities are cooperating more closely with each other and in some cases have organized themselves into country or regional associations for this purpose. Students in most Caribbean republics continue to con- cern themselves with both university and national affairs. National social and political changes continue to have significant results in university affairs and in the development of higher education. At times these results have been quite spectacular, especially when accompanied by political repression and violence.  PUBLIC EDUCATION 87 In conclusion, it may be said that higher education in the Carib- bean area faces a tremendous cbsilenge in meeting the needs of an increasingly socially-conscinus citizeney and of a develnping society. It will be jndged in the light nf hew well it meets these needs. BIBLIOCRAPHY Choamhers, hi. M., ed. Unicceritica of ehe Woeld Ortside U.S.A. Watsington, D.C., 1050. Dale, Ceorge A. Education in rho Repuhlic of Daiti, Oallotan 1959, No. 2, U.S. Depacrment of Health, Educatios, and Welfare, Office of Educatin, Wash- ington, D.C., 1050. Del Rio, Angel, ed. Responsiblc Freedon is the Ancericas, especially "The Usiersity is Latin Anericas Life cod Cultsre," by Claresce Henry Harting fpp. 110-125); "Ohfectlest and Problenr of the Usiversity of Puerto Rico," by famsse Reniter (pp,. 134-141); "Sane Religio-Educational Relatioships in Scansrh Anerica," by A. Cortis Wilgus (pp. 335-340); sod "University and State in Ibero-Amterica," by large Carols Grcasr (pp. 440-454). Garden City, N.Y., 1055. Rhaugh, Consorts 0. Eduoation in El Salcado, Buletine 1047, No. 3, Federal Secourity Agenoy, Office of Eduoation, Washington, D.C., 1047. Education in Cuatoemala, Buslletin 1047, Ne. 7, Federal Secoonity Agency, Office of Educathon, Warhington, D.C., 1047. - F. ducation in Nicaragua, Bulletin 1047, No. 0, Federal Seourity Agency, Office of Education, Wasbington, D.C., 1043. -- "'Ssify is Latin Americas Uniyersitier," Higher Eduoation, VI (Nov. 1, 1040), 49-52. Fatter, J. F., ed. Comonweahth Univcersies Yoeroob, 159. London, 1000. Freeburger, Adela R. Cuido foe rho Evahiation of Acaderric Cedentials fersm rho Latin Anerican Republicr. Studies is Conparatie Eduscation, U.S. Department of Health, Elducaton, en4 Welfare, Office of Eduaon, Wash- ington, D.C., 1037. Furbay, loin H. Education in Colonbia, Bullethn 1040, Ne. 0, Federal Secorty Agency, Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 1040. Eiduoaion in Coos Rica, Bslletin 1040, Ne. 4., Federal Seosrity Agescy, Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 1040. Uoetz, Delia. Education in Panma, Bulletin 1040, No. 12, Federal Secursty Agency, Office of Eduscation, Washington, D.C., 1940. --.Educatios in Veonozuels, Busletn 1040, No. 14, Federal Secsrity Agescy, Office og Educatlos, Wasbintafos, D.C., 1040. Hilton, Ronald, ed. Dispanhc Anrioan Roport. Publithed monsthly. Stanford, Calitornia. fohnstas, Marjorde C. Educaticos in Mexio, Rulletin 1050, Ne. 1, U.S. Deptta- meat of Health, Educatian, ad Welfare, Office of Edooatian, Washington, D.C., 1050. Keyes, H. M. R., ed. fnereatianal Dandhoob of Univeriir, 1950. Farns, 1050. IKing, Margaret L. Eiducation in rho Breitirh Woot fndier. Studies in Coampara- Soce Eduoation, U.S. Dcpartmsent at Health, Educoalon, and Welfare, Offie of Edueatin, Washington, D.C., 1055. PUBLIC EDUCATION 87 In conolusion, it may he ssid that higher education in the Carih- bean aeea faces a teemendous challenge in meeting the needs of an increasingly socially-conscious citieenry and of a developing sniely. It will he judged in the light of how well it meets these needs RIBLIOGRAPHY Chambers, M. M., ed. Univresiics a) the World Ouside U.S.A. Washington, D.C., 1050. Dale, Uego A. Education in the Republic of Daiti, Ralletin 1050, No. 2, U.n. Department al Health, Education, end Welfare, Office al Educaon, Wash- fngtos, D.C., 1000. Del Rio, Angel, ed. Rosponsiblo Feedom in rho Ameeicar, especially "The Univrsity in Latin Amedica Life and Coltur," by Clarence Henry Hating (pp. 116-125); "Objetives sod Problems of the University a1 Nuests Rico," by J ames Benitez (po. 134-141); "Some Religio-Eduoatioal Relationships is Sparish Amerdca," by A. Cornis Wilgus (pp. 335-348); and "Uniersity and State in Ibero-Anerica," by Jorge Carma Cranados fpp. 446-454). Carden City, N.Y., 1005. Ehough, Cameron D. Edueation is El Salvado, Rulletin 1047, Na. 3, Federal Secsrity Agenoy, Offioe of Education, Washington, D.C., 1047. Education in uatcaa, Rulletin 1047, No. 7, Federal Security Agenoy, Office of Educatin, Washingto, D.C., 1047. - ,Eduoation in Nicaragua, Bolletin 1047, No. 6, Federal Security Agency, Office of Education, Washingtn, D.C., 1047. "Study is Latin American Uniersities," Digher Education, VI (Nov. 1, 1940), 49-52. Fostee, J. F., ed. Conmmowalth Univoeriics Ycerook, 1050. Londos, 1050. Freeburgee, Adela R. Cuide for rhe Evalutions of Acadoomic Credcetial feom the Lotin Americas Repusblics. tudies in Compartivce Educatio, U.S. Department of Health, Eiducation, aod Welfare, Offoe al Educatin, Wash- ington, D.C., 1057. Fuebay, lobs H. Education in Colombi, Bulletin 1040, No. 0, Faeda Secority Agency, Offioe of Education, Wmshington, D.C., 1040. Education in Costa flies, Rulletin 1040, No. 4., Federal Security Agency, Office of Education, Wasbingron, D.C., 1040. Carts, Dclia. Education in Panama, Balletin 1040, Na. 12, Federal Sorority Agrncy, Othie al Eduaton, Washington, D.C., 1040. Education in Venoonoha, Bulletin 1040, No. 14, Federal Securlty Agency, Offices0f Education, Washington, D.C., 1040. Hihton, Ronald, ed. Dispanic American Reipoer. Publhshed monthly. Stanford, Califomnia. Jeoston, Marjorie C. Educatien is Merioo, Rulletin 1050, No. 1, U.S. Depart- nent ofHelth, Edocatio, and Welfare, Offie of Educatan, Washington, D.C., 1050. Keyes, H. hi. R., ed. fntrtonaol Handbooh of Univ~ersitie, 1030. Faris, 1050. King, Margaret L. Education in the Bitish Wear Indios. Studies in Compara- Sove Education, U.S. Departmsent of Health, Educatlon, mnd Welfae, Othie of Education, Washington, D.C., 1055. PUBLIC EDUCATION 87 Inuconclusion, it mayhbesaid that higher eduoationoin the Carib- bean area faces a tremendous challenge in meeting the needs of an increasingly socially-conscoss citizenry and of a developing saciey. It will he judged in the light of how well it meets these needs. RIBLIOCRAPHY Chambers, M. M., ed. Univoeriie of tho World Outide U.S.A. Washingto, D.C., 1050. Dale, Ceorge A. Eduoation in the Repulio of Daii, Rulletin 1050, Na. 2, U.S. Department of Health, Education, ard Wolfare, Othie of Eduoaton,. Wath- ingto, D.C., 150. Del Rio, Angel, ed. Reoponsiblo Feeedomr in tho America, espeoialy "The Usiversity in Latin Americar Life sod Cudtue," by Claencer Henry Hating (pp. 110-125); "Obirctives sod Froblems of she University of Fontso Rim," by fames Reniter )pp. 134-141); "Some RehigimtEdocationl Relationships is Spanish Amserca," by A. Curis Wilgus (op. 335-340); ard "Universtty ard State in Iheao-Amedica," by forge Garcia Granodos (pp. 440-454). Cardren City, N.Y, 105. Ebaugh, Cameron D. Education in El Salvadoe, Bulletin 1047, Na. 3, Federal Securlty Agency, Office of Educotoon, Washington, D.C., 1047. Educaion in Cueaa, Belletsn 1047, No. 7, Federal Oeourity Agenry, Office of Eduoation, Washington, D.C., 1047. Educatlion in Nicaeaga, Bulletin 1S47, Na. 0, Federal Security Agency, Office al Education, Washington, D.C., 1947. - -"Study in Lotin American Uniyersfite," Digher Education, VI (No. 1, 1040), 49-5. Faster, f. F., ed. Coammealh Uniocersiies Yeaeboo, 1050. London, 1059. Freeborger, Adele R. Cuide foe the Ecaluatrion of Acadomc Crderrtial from rho Latlo American Republic. Stodies in Comparative Eduoatin, U.S. Department of Health, Edocation, and Welfare, Office of Edocatiin, Wash- ington, D.C., 1957. Furbay, fahn H. Educatin in Colombia, Bulletin 1040, No. 0, Federal Security Agency, Office of Edocation, Washington, D.C., 1040. Eduoation in Costa Rica, Bolatn 1040, No. 4., Federal Scurity Agescy, Othie of Education, Washington, D.C., 1040. Coeto, Delis. Education in Panama, 041Dmti 1040, Ne. 12, Federal Security Ageocy, Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 1040. Education in Vernezuela, Bulletin 1040, No. 14, Federal Srcurity Agency, Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 1048. Hiltos, Ronald, ed. Hispanic American Repoet. Publashed monthly. Starlet4, Califona. Johnston, Marjoie C. Educmtin is Merico, Bunletsn 1950, No. 1, U.S. Deport- mona of Health, Education, and Welfare, Othie of Edocation, Wmshington, D.C., 1050. Keyes, H. M. 0R, ed. Inrntional Handbooh of Universiis, 1050. Fadis, 1050. Kisg, Margaret L. Education in tho British West Indie. Studies in Comspara- teve Education, U.S. Deparhtmn of Health, Educatlon, and Welfare, Othie of Education, Washingto, D.C., 1951.  88 The Caribbean amsrica. Coral, CGables, Fla., 1955. Pan, Americn, Unon Division of Education,. S94,y de Information,, Bolehtines 1959; Lists Provisional d las1 Institu,,ions de Ense,9,,,,, Superior de Vene,- zuelab (No,. 2); Cuba (No,. 3); Colmbia, (No,. 7); M14xico, (No,. 8); Rep11- (No,. 19). Washington,, D.C., 1959. 1957, No,. 23. Washingtn,, D.C., 1957. ma5tin fr Foreign Students,, Bulletin 1959, No,. 3. Washington,, D.C., 1959. --.Infomation 9eres; Provisionl List of Institutions, of Higher~ Education, in Hathi, Bulletin 1959, No,. 4. Washington,, D.C.. 1959. Summer,,p Study in Latin Americas, 1959, com5piled by Estelbita Hart and Jane, Lubg.Winton, D.C., 19 Thompso, Weldon,. Education, in, Honduras,, Bul11etn 5955, Noh. 7, U.S. Depart- D.C., 1955. Turosienski, Severin, K. Education, 8n Cuba, Buletin 1943, No. 1, Federal Security Agency, Ofice,, of Educat9ion, Wasbington,, D.C., 5943. UNESCO. World4 Survey of Education:, 1Hndbook, 4f Educational Organiza,- tion, and Sttsis Pars, 1955. UNESCD an,,d Interainal Bureau,, of Education,,. Iternationb,,,l Yearybook of Education. Issued annually. Paris, and Geneva,. Washington, S. Walter,. "The, Poiical Activitie of Lat9,n American,,,, Students." Commission,9 for, UNESCO, Denver,,, Colorad, Sepptemberb, 1959. Wilgus, A. Curtis, ed. The, Caribbeapn: Its Culture,, especilly thy edito's into- duct,9,on; "Liberal Educaton, in tb,, Cardbbea," by Marjor4,e C. Johbnston, (pp. 1099-117); and "Engineering Educt,on in, tbe Caribbean,,," by S. 8. Florda, Serdes One, Vol1. V. Cainesvi1le, Fl, 1959. The, Caribbean: Britis, Dutcb, Frencb, United4 States, especially th,, editor's Introduction, entitld "The, Universiy Co11ege of the, West Indies"; and "An Emerging Culture, in phe, Britsh West, Indies," by Sidney W. 1ida, Series DOne, Vol1. VIII. CGanesville,, Fla,., 1958. ton, in tbe Caribbean, area,. As indicatepd, these, bear, dif9eentnams i inoratononititutons in the, Domincan Repubc and in the European, universi4ty and education ofiials in tbe fail of 1997 and 1999, res~pectvely. 88 The Caribbean Ocia d 4,, ac~ I4,; ,beramrcaa Plana,, Publicatn Quncenal,,. Ciudad Universitappa, Madrid. Palacin Iglesias, CGrego,,,o B. La, Educationp an, osEstado Unidos p nLaio ,,pdylp,. Coral, Cables, Fl, 1955. 1959: Lista, Provisional,' de lass Institutions,, de Ensen,,,,p Superiorp de Vene-p Salvador3, (No. 15); Cota Rica, )No,. 18); Nicaragua, )No,. 19); Ho~nuras )No,. 19). Washington,, D.C., 1959. Informt,on Series: Study in Latn Amria Universities, Bulletin, 1957, No,. 23. Washngto, D.C., 1957. Information,, Series:, Universidad National Aput43,,,, de M14xico, Infor-. mation,, for, Foreign, Students, Bulletin, 1959, No,. 3. Washington,,,, D.C., 1959. --- ,,,8,, Inforatio Seres:Proisinal List of Institutions, 4f Higher Education,, in Haiti, Bulletin 1959, No,. 4. Washibngton,, D.C., 1958. Summer,,, Study, 1n Latn Amria 1855, com~,piled by Este11lita Hart, and, Janet,, Lugo., Washingtn,, D.C., 5959. Republi, Bu1letin 1947, No,. 10, Federal Securit1y Agency, Oice,, of1 Educa,- tion, Washington,, D.C., 1947. Thom,,pson,, Wedon,. Education, in, Hodrs Bulltint 1855, No,. 7, U.S. Depart,- D.C., 1955. Turos,,ienski, Seve,,,4n K. Education,, in Cuba, Bulletin 1943, No,. 1, Federal, Securit,4y Agencyy, Office, of Educa,,tion,, Washington,, D.C., 1943. UNESCD. World4 Survey of Educatin:, Handbook, of Educationa,,l Organiza,- UNESCO and Inter,,5atonal, Bureau,, of Educat,8,on. International, Yearbook, of Washington,, S. Walte. "The FPolitical Activities of Latint Amer,,ican, Students,. Commissio8,n, for UNESCD, Devr Colorado,, Septem,,be, 1959. Wilgus, A. Curt9,s, ed. Th,, Caribbean:,, Its Cultuyr, especially tbe editor's, intro- duction,; "Liberal,, Education, in~ tbe Cardbbe," by Marjor4e C. Johnspton, (pp. 109-117); and "Engineering Educat,8,on in t1,e Caribbean,,," by 9. S. Florida,, Series DOne, Volt. V. Canesvi11,e, Fla,., 1955. -- Tbhe Caribbean,,, Britis, Dutchb, French,,, United4 States, especially tb,, and "An, Emeryging Culture, in, te BritNsh West Indie," by Sidney W. 14,,, Series One,, Vol. VIII. Gaineysil,, Fl,,., 1958. t,,,, in tb,, Carflbbean, aret. As indited,, these, bear, different nmsi difrn o n 88,ies , b Din ,,I,,, sompe,, case ar o 1ise ,eglry So,, of,,tpye 88 The Caribbean Uny,,,,,itar,4,, Madrid. Palacin IgliasN,, C,,ygor,, B. La, ES,,duac en, los, Estados, Unidos, y enLain amrc.Coral, Gables, Fl,,., 1955. 1959: Libs Prvsoa 4de las Institubions 4,, Ensenanza Superior, 43 Vene-,, blica,, Dominicanp (No. 11); Pa,,,,y, (No,. 13); Guatemala,, )No. 14); El (No,. 19). Washngton,, D.C., 1959. 1957, No,. 23. Wahntn D.C., 1957. -- .Inormat,,on Series: Unversidad Natina,,l A,,t4,,,,,,, 4,, M14xic, Inf,,r- mation4, for, Foreign, Studentsy, Bulltn 1959, No,. 3. Washibngton,, D.C., 1959. ---. Information, Series Provisiol,,4 List6 of( Instittions,, 4f Higher, Education,, in Hait, Bullet9,n 1959, No,. 4. Washington,, D.C., 1959. Summer,,y Study in Latdin Americay,, 1859, compilyd by Estlia Hart and Janet,, Lugo. Wahntn D.C., 1959. 8ton, Washington,, D.C., 1947. Thom,,pso, Wedon,,. Education, in Hondura, Bulletn 195, No,. 7, U.S. Depart-. D.C., 1955. Turospienski,, Seve,4,n K. Educatin, in, Cuba, Bulletin 1943, No,. 1, Federal Securidty Agency, Ofice,, of Education,,, Washingtn,, D.C., 1943. UNESCD. World4 Sury,, of Educa,,tion:, Handbook, of Educatinal' Drganiza- UNESCD a,,,d Intrty, onal,,,, Bureau,, of Education,,. Inytenil Yearbook, of University College, of tbe Wy,, Indies,. UCWI NewsleItte. Issuedy weky Washngton,, S. Walter,. "Tb,, Foit,,cal Acttiiesy of Lain American,,, Students,." An, Address, Given,, ats tbe Seventh National, Conference, of the U.S. Nat8,onal Commispion, for, UNESCD, Denver,,,, Colorapd, September,, 1959. Wilgus,, A. Curt9s, ed. The, Caribbean:, Its Culture,, esppcially the, editorp's intro- ductin~; "Liberal4 Education,, in, te Car4bbean,," by Marjorde C. Johnston, (pp. 109-117); and4 "Engineering Education,, in thy Carplbbeap," by 9. 9. Steinberg (pp. 136-145). School, of Inter,-Am,,,yican Studies, Universiy of1 Flor4da,, Series, One,, Vol. V. Gainesvill, P1la., 1955. edit,,r's Introduction,, enttled "Thy University College tof thy West~ Indies,"; and "An Emerging Culture, in the, Br491, West Indies,," by Sidney W. flockey (pp. 39-59). School of1 Inter,-American,,, 9tudies, University tof Flor- endars,, Prospectuse, and otpber pubitions,,, of institutions of 14gbher educa,,- 8ton in te Cardbbean,, area,,. As indited, thysy bea,,, different namesp in informton on, ins8tittin in thy Dominican,,, Republic and, 1in t1,, Eurpean,  6 6 6 Solomon Lipp: EDUCATIONAL FERMENTATION IN COSTA RICA: A TEST CASE SEVENTY MILLION people in Latin America cannot read or write; some 20,000,000 children lack school facilities." These star- tling figures illustrate eloquently the well-nigh superhuman task that confronts educators and social workers. The factors they have to contend with are economic, social, political, and cultural. Our neighbors "south of the border" are passing through a period of feverish activity in the field of education. School systems and pro- grams are continually being evaluated, revised, and improved. Since this paper will concern itself primarily with secondary education, it should be pointed out that the secondary school seems to be getting more than its share of attention. Within this area, the educational fermentation referred to in the title of this address has to take into account two elements of considerable force, which stand in the way of the efforts of educators to revamp the system, namely, traditionalism and inertia. Latin America, in general, and the Caribbean area, in particular, inherited the European tradition which has always viewed secon- dary education as the particular domain of the elite, and elementary education as well as trade education, as the suffieiently adequate maximum for the masses. The Polish educator Ignatius Domeyko expressed this point of view well when, in speaking of the educa- tional system of Chile, he remarked that there have always been *Notes to this chapter begin on page 104. 89 Solomon Lipp: EDUCATIONAL FERMENTATION IN COSTA RICA: A TEST CASE SEVENTY MILLION people in Latin America cannot read or write; some 20,000,000 children lack school facilities.'* These star- tling figures illustrate eloquently the well-nigh superhuman task that confronts educators and social workers. The factors they have to contend with are economic, social, political, and cultural. Our neighbors "south of the border" are passing through a period of feverish activity in the field of education. School systems and pro- grams are continually being evaluated, revised, and improved. Since this paper will concern itself primarily with secondary education, it should be pointed out that the secondary school seems to be getting more than its share of attention. Within this area, the educational fermentation referred to in the title of this address has to take into account two elements of considerable force, which stand in the way of the efforts of educators to revamp the system, namely, traditionalism and inertia. Latin America, in general, and the Caribbean area, in particular, inherited the European tradition which has always viewed secon- dary education as the particular domain of the elite, and elementary education as well as trade education, as the sufficiently adequate maximum for the masses. The Polish educator Ignatius Domeyko expressed this point of view well when, in speaking of the educa- tional system of Chile, he remarked that there have always been *Notes to this chapter begin on page 104. 89 Solomon Lipp: EDUCATIONAL FERMENTATION IN COSTA RICA: A TEST CASE SEVENTY MILLION people in Latin America cannot read or write; some 20,000,000 children lack school facilities.'* These star- tling figures illustrate eloquently the well-nigh superhuman task that confronts educators and social workers. The factors they have to contend with are economic, social, political, and cultural. Our neighbors "south of the border" are passing through a period of feverish activity in the field of education. School systems and pro- grams are continually being evaluated, revised, and improved. Since this paper will concern itself primarily with secondary education, it should be pointed out that the secondary school seems to be getting more than its share of attention. Within this area, the educational fermentation referred to in the title of this address has to take into account two elements of considerable force, which stand in the way of the efforts of educators to revamp the system, namely, traditionalism and inertia. Latin America, in general, and the Caribbean area, in particular, inherited the European tradition which has always viewed secon- dary education as the particular domain of the elite, and elementary education as well as trade education, as the sufficiently adequate maximum for the masses. The Polish educator Ignatius Domeyko expressed this point of view well when, in speaking of the educa- tional system of Chile, he remarked that there have always been *Notes to this chapter begin on page 104. 89  90 The Caribbean two classes: the poor class that makes a living with its hands, and the other class which since infancy is destined to govern society. Hence, Domeyko goes on to say, education should also be divided into two branches: elementary instruction for the first group, and secondary education for the second class.5 Yet this traditional pattern is now being buffeted by hard socio- logical facts. What has happened is that secondary education, for- merly restricted to the upper class, has in the past few decades been placed within reach of groups who come from the middle and working classes. The tremendous increase in the general pop- ulation, together with the corresponding rise in the secondary school population, experienced by us in the United States not so long ago, is now being duplicated in Latin America. The Caribbean area, as part of this general picture, is feeling this expansion for the first time. It is now faced by the difficult challenge of serving a heterogeneous student population. It was much simpler, as all teachers will admit, to care for the needs of a more or less uniform group. The change from relative homogeneity to heterogeneity is not the only force that has caused a fissure to appear in the armor of traditionalist ideology. Many Latin American educators themselves have visited and studied in this country, and have gone back, im- bued with the ideals of secondary education, as they found them here. This would help explain, at least partially, the gap one often encounters between impressive looking decrees and "reforms" postu- lated on paper, on the one hand, and actual practice which clings tenaciously to older forms, on the other. Yet change is on the way. Caribbean educators realize that the new secondary school must become increasingly aware of the biopsychological needs of its varied student body, and that it must also give careful considera- tion to the changing social and economic scene within which these students operate. Failure to do this has resulted in an alarmingly high rate of student attrition. Thus, even though the process is slow, the secondary school is virtually being forced to develop along more democratic lines, to be accessible to a larger number of stu- dents, and to offer a more diversified curriculum. This diversification involves a basic reorganization of the con- cept and structure of secondary education, one which is far more comprehensive than what has always been represented as the col- lege-preparatory function. What this suggests structurally is that 90 The Caribbean two classes: the poor class that makes a living with its hands, and the other class which since infancy is destined to govern society. Hence, Domeyko goes on to say, education should also be divided into two branches: elementary instruction for the first group, and secondary education for the second class. Yet this traditional pattern is now being buffeted by hard socio- logical facts. What has happened is that secondary education, for- merly restricted to the upper class, has in the past few decades been placed within reach of groups who come from the middle and working classes. The tremendous increase in the general pop- ulation, together with the corresponding rise in the secondary school population, experienced by us in the United States not so long ago, is now being duplicated in Latin America. The Caribbean area, as part of this general picture, is feeling this expansion for the first time. It is now faced by the difficult challenge of serving a heterogeneous student population. It was much simpler, as all teachers will admit, to care for the needs of a more or less uniform group. The change from relative homogeneity to heterogeneity is not the only force that has caused a fissure to appear in the armor of traditionalist ideology. Many Latin American educators themselves have visited and studied in this country, and have gone back, im- bued with the ideals of secondary education, as they found them here. This would help explain, at least partially, the gap one often encounters between impressive looking decrees and "reforms" postu- lated on paper, on the one hand, and actual practice which clings tenaciously to older forms, on the other. Yet change is on the way. Caribbean educators realize that the new secondary school must become increasingly aware of the biopsychological needs of its varied student body, and that it must also give careful considera- tion to the changing social and economic scene within which these students operate. Failure to do this has resulted in an alarmingly high rate of student attrition. Thus, even though the process is slow, the secondary school is virtually being forced to develop along more democratic lines, to be accessible to a larger number of stu- dents, and to offer a more diversified curriculum. This diversification involves a basic reorganization of the con- cept and structure of secondary education, one which is far more comprehensive than what has always been represented as the col- lege-preparatory function. What this suggests structurally is that 90 The Caribbean two classes: the poor class that makes a living with its hands, and the other class which since infancy is destined to govern society. Hence, Domeyko goes on to say, education should also be divided into two branches: elementary instruction for the first group, and secondary education for the second class? Yet this traditional pattern is now being buffeted by hard socio- logical facts. What has happened is that secondary education, for- merly restricted to the upper class, has in the past few decades been placed within reach of groups who come from the middle and working classes. The tremendous increase in the general pop- ulation, together with the corresponding rise in the secondary school population, experienced by us in the United States not so long ago, is now being duplicated in Latin America. The Caribbean area, as part of this general picture, is feeling this expansion for the first time. It is now faced by the difficult challenge of serving a heterogeneous student population. It was much simpler, as all teachers will admit, to care for the needs of a more or less uniform group. The change from relative homogeneity to heterogeneity is not the only force that has caused a fissure to appear in the armor of traditionalist ideology. Many Latin American educators themselves have visited and studied in this country, and have gone back, im- bued with the ideals of secondary education, as they found them here. This would help explain, at least partially, the gap one often encounters between impressive looking decrees and "reforms" postu- lated on paper, on the one hand, and actual practice which clings tenaciously to older forms, on the other. Yet change is on the way. Caribbean educators realize that the new secondary school must become increasingly aware of the biopsychological needs of its varied student body, and that it must also give careful considera- tion to the changing social and economic scene within which these students operate. Failure to do this has resulted in an alarmingly high rate of student attrition. Thus, even though the process is slow, the secondary school is virtually being forced to develop along more democratic lines, to be accessible to a larger number of stu- dents, and to offer a more diversified curriculum. This diversification involves a basic reorganization of the con- cept and structure of secondary education, one which is far more comprehensive than what has always been represented as the col- lege-preparatory function. What this suggests structurally is that  PUBLIC EDUCATION 91 secondary education, in its popularly accepted Latin American set- ting (that is, usually a five- or six-year course), be divided into two cycles. This will involve the establishment of machinery neces- sary to discover and develop human resources via a diversity of channels. In this way, unhealthy student frustration will be avoided; the resultant waste of talent will be prevented, or at least reduced. That this view is steadily gaining adherents is attested to by the continuing reappraisal of educational aims, and the reorganization of courses in evidence in the various countries of the Caribbean area. For example, in 1956, Guatemala adopted the new Organic Law of National Education, which states (Article 61): "Secondary education comprises two cycles: the first, prevocational, will con- sist of a three-year span; the second, diversified, will be variable in duration. The prevocational cycle is compulsory for those who wish to obtain a degree or diploma, recognized by the State."3 The First National Congress of Education, meeting in Guatemala in 1955, went on record as saying: "Secondary education ought to consist of a common core of preparation for citizenship and a flexible pre-professional cycle." The Commission on Secondary Education, at this same conference, declared: "The objectives of secondary education should be based... on the psychological peculiarities of adolescence for the purpose of satisfying needs, aspirations, interests and peculiarities at this stage of human development.... Secondary education should investigate the apti- tudes and interests of the students for the purpose of orienting them vocationally in the choice of profession or occupation." In Mexico, Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet, Secretary of Public Educa- tion, has urged an increased awareness of the necessity for linking educational programs more closely with the nation's needs. This involves a greater emphasis upon technical training for adolescents, without necessarily neglecting the purely college preparatory func- tion of secondary education. Cuba, too, has defined the objectives of secondary education. The National Seminar on Secondary Education in Cuba, meeting a few years ago, declared that the general aims of secondary edu- cation were: "To create ideals and to discover and channelize voca- tional possibilities."7 The two cycles referred to above necessitate positing a further distinction, one which is lately being made between what may be PUBLIC EDUCATION 91 secondary education, in its popularly accepted Latin American set- ting (that is, usually a five- or six-year course), be divided into two cycles. This will involve the establishment of machinery neces- sary to discover and develop human resources via a diversity of channels. In this way, unhealthy student frustration will be avoided; the resultant waste of talent will be prevented, or at least reduced. That this view is steadily gaining adherents is attested to by the continuing reappraisal of educational aims, and the reorganization of courses in evidence in the various countries of the Caribbean area. For example, in 1956, Guatemala adopted the new Organic Law of National Education, which states (Article 61): "Secondary education comprises two cycles: the first, prevocational, will con- sist of a three-year span; the second, diversified, will be variable in duration. The prevocational cycle is compulsory for those who wish to obtain a degree or diploma, recognized by the State." The First National Congress of Education, meeting in Guatemala in 1955, went on record as saying: "Secondary education ought to consist of a common core of preparation for citizenship and a flexible pre-professional cycle."" The Commission on Secondary Education, at this same conference, declared: "The objectives of secondary education should be based... on the psychological peculiarities of adolescence for the purpose of satisfying needs, aspirations, interests and peculiarities at this stage of human development.... Secondary education should investigate the apti- tudes and interests of the students for the purpose of orienting them vocationally in the choice of profession or occupation."5 In Mexico, Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet, Secretary of Public Educa- tion, has urged an increased awareness of the necessity for linking educational programs more closely with the nation's needs. This involves a greater emphasis upon technical training for adolescents, without necessarily neglecting the purely college preparatory func- tion of secondary education. Cuba, too, has defined the objectives of secondary education. The National Seminar on Secondary Education in Cuba, meeting a few years ago, declared that the general aims of secondary edu- cation were: "To create ideals and to discover and channelize voca- tional possibilities."7 The two cycles referred to above necessitate positing a further distinction, one which is lately being made between what may be PUBLIC EDUCATION 91 secondary education, in its popularly accepted Latin American set- ting (that is, usually a five- or six-year course), be divided into two cycles. This will involve the establishment of machinery neces- sary to discover and develop human resources via a diversity of channels. In this way, unhealthy student frustration will be avoided; the resultant waste of talent will be prevented, or at least reduced. That this view is steadily gaining adherents is attested to by the continuing reappraisal of educational aims, and the reorganization of courses in evidence in the various countries of the Caribbean area. For example, in 1956, Guatemala adopted the new Organic Law of National Education, which states (Article 61): "Secondary education comprises two cycles: the first, prevocational, will con- sist of a three-year span; the second, diversified, will be variable in duration. The prevocational cycle is compulsory for those who wish to obtain a degree or diploma, recognized by the State."a The First National Congress of Education, meeting in Guatemala in 1955, went on record as saying: "Secondary education ought to consist of a common core of preparation for citizenship and a flexible pre-professional cycle."4 The Commission on Secondary Education, at this same conference, declared: "The objectives of secondary education should be based... on the psychological peculiarities of adolescence for the purpose of satisfying needs, aspirations, interests and peculiarities at this stage of human development.... Secondary education should investigate the apti- tudes and interests of the students for the purpose of orienting them vocationally in the choice of profession or occupation."5 In Mexico, Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet, Secretary of Public Educa- tion, has urged an increased awareness of the necessity for linking educational programs more closely with the nation's needs. This involves a greater emphasis upon technical training for adolescents, without necessarily neglecting the purely college preparatory func- tion of secondary education.' Cuba, too, has defined the objectives of secondary education. The National Seminar on Secondary Education in Cuba, meeting a few years ago, declared that the general aims of secondary edu- cation were: "To create ideals and to discover and channelize voca- tional possibilities."7 The two cycles referred to above necessitate positing a further distinction, one which is lately being made between what may be  92 The Caribbean called "intermediate" education, on the one hand, and secondary school instruction, on the other. The former is the wider and more inclusive term, which applies to the entire configuration of formal school effort, designed to satisfy the varying educational needs of adolescents, ages 12 to 18. Intermediate education begins the moment primary education has been completed. So-called secon- dary education, in the conventional sense, that is, involving only college preparation, is only one form of intermediate education. The latter also encompasses vocational training, for example, tech- nical institutes; industrial, commercial, and agricultural schools; normal schools. The duration of each of the two cycles (already in existence with varying degrees of success in a number of countries) is a variable which depends upon the needs, interests, and distribution of the student population, as well as upon the requirements and resources of the particular community. Suffice it to say at this point that the first cycle may be considered a direct continuation and amplifi- cation of elementary education, compulsory, if possible, for pupils up to the age of 14 or 15 years. This is conceived of as a period of "general culture" as well as exploration and vocational guidance, at which time the student's aptitudes can best be determined for the purpose of leading him into either the second or upper cycle and thence possibly to the university, or else, to any of the other institutions connected with intermediate education. The second cycle, proper, will continue the general education of the first or prevocational cycle, but will, in addition, provide a sufficient degree of flexibility as concerns course offerings, to enable the student to elect subjects in keeping with his interests, abilities, and plans for future professional specialization. II So much for the general picture. In this article, Costa Rica has been selected as an example of the educational fermentation that is going on, as an illustration of the problems that confront edu- cators as they strive heroically to raise the educational level of their respective nations. The situation is expected to become even more acute than it is. By 1980 the population of Central America, for example, is expected to double. This poses a challenge of 92 The Caribbean called "intermediate" education, on the one hand, and secondary school instruction, on the other. The former is the wider and more inclusive term, which applies to the entire configuration of formal school effort, designed to satisfy the varying educational needs of adolescents, ages 12 to 18. Intermediate education begins the moment primary education has been completed. So-called secon- dary education, in the conventional sense, that is, involving only college preparation, is only one form of intermediate education. The latter also encompasses vocational training, for example, tech- nical institutes; industrial, commercial, and agricultural schools; normal schools. The duration of each of the two cycles (already in existence with varying degrees of success in a number of countries) is a variable which depends upon the needs, interests, and distribution of the student population, as well as upon the requirements and resources of the particular community. Suffice it to say at this point that the first cycle may be considered a direct continuation and amplifi- cation of elementary education, compulsory, if possible, for pupils up to the age of 14 or 15 years. This is conceived of as a period of "general culture" as well as exploration and vocational guidance, at which time the student's aptitudes can best be determined for the purpose of leading him into either the second or upper cycle and thence possibly to the university, or else, to any of the other institutions connected with intermediate education. The second cycle, proper, will continue the general education of the first or prevocational cycle, but will, in addition, provide a sufficient degree of flexibility as concerns course offerings, to enable the student to elect subjects in keeping with his interests, abilities, and plans for future professional specialization. II So much for the general picture. In this article, Costa Rica has been selected as an example of the educational fermentation that is going on, as an illustration of the problems that confront edu- cators as they strive heroically to raise the educational level of their respective nations. The situation is expected to become even more acute than it is. By 1980 the population of Central America, for example, is expected to double. This poses a challenge of 92 The Caribbean called "intermediate" education, on the one hand, and secondary school instruction, on the other. The former is the wider and more inclusive term, which applies to the entire configuration of formal school effort, designed to satisfy the varying educational needs of adolescents, ages 12 to 18. Intermediate education begins the moment primary education has been completed. So-called secon- dary education, in the conventional sense, that is, involving only college preparation, is only one form of intermediate education. The latter also encompasses vocational training, for example, tech- nical institutes; industrial, commercial, and agricultural schools; normal schools. The duration of each of the two cycles (already in existence with varying degrees of success in a number of countries) is a variable which depends upon the needs, interests, and distribution of the student population, as well as upon the requirements and resources of the particular community. Suffice it to say at this point that the first cycle may be considered a direct continuation and amplifi- cation of elementary education, compulsory, if possible, for pupils up to the age of 14 or 15 years. This is conceived of as a period of "general culture" as well as exploration and vocational guidance, at which time the student's aptitudes can best be determined for the purpose of leading him into either the second or upper cycle and thence possibly to the university, or else, to any of the other institutions connected with intermediate education. The second cycle, proper, will continue the general education of the first or prevocational cycle, but will, in addition, provide a sufficient degree of flexibility as concerns course offerings, to enable the student to elect subjects in keeping with his interests, abilities, and plans for future professional specialization. II So much for the general picture. In this article, Costa Rica has been selected as an example of the educational fermentation that is going on, as an illustration of the problems that confront edu- cators as they strive heroically to raise the educational level of their respective nations. The situation is expected to become even more acute than it is. By 1980 the population of Central America, for example, is expected to double. This poses a challenge of  PUBLIC EDUCATION 93 Herculean proportions, since the correlation between population figures and educational requirements is undeniably high. Some background data, it seems, become necessary at this point in order to acquire a more accurate perspective. Costa Rica pos- sesses an individuality which differentiates her from her sister re- publics, and which makes it possible to be a bit more optimistic, as concerns the solution to some of her problems. The name "Costa Rica" itself is, historically, a misnomer. The early conquistadores soon discovered that the coast on which they had set foot was not rich in precious metals, as they had been led to believe. Costa Rica never bad the potential to develop into a wealthy empire, reminiscent of the viceregal splendor of Mexico and Peru. For two very good reasons: there were no mines to exploit, and there was practically no Indian element that could be utilized in order to exploit. Add to these two factors the absence of adequate means of transportation and communication, and one can readily see why it was that the early settlers had to wrest a meager livelihood from the soil with their bare hands. Costa Rica was therefore spared the evils of a feudal system, characterized by the presence of a powerful ruling class of land- owners and millions of slave laborers.8 Spaniards who wanted to get rich quickly moved on to greener pastures. The hardier souls, the pioneers, remained in "Costa Pobre" to wrestle with their en- vironment. The Spaniards, from the Governor down, all worked to earn their daily bread. This proved to be a blessing in disguise. The country was spared the social and economic evils from which much of Latin America still suffers. The soil was thus made fertile to receive the seeds of potential democratic development at some future date. It wasn't until the Revolutionary period that the ayuntamientos, or municipalities, were empowered to establish primary schools, supported by public funds. A growing concern for education be- came evident in the period following Independence. A teacher, Juan Mora Fernandez, became the first President. It was during his second administration, in 1832, that the first law of public educa- tion was passed. The law applied to both boys and girls between the ages of 8 and 14. Succeeding constitutions urgently decreed the need for every Costa Rican to know how to read and write. That of 1869 declared that elementary education was free, compulsory, and the responsi- PUBLIC EDUCATION 93 Herculean proportions, since the correlation between population figures and educational requirements is undeniably high. Some background data, it seems, become necessary at this point in order to acquire a more accurate perspective. Costa Rica pos- sesses an individuality which differentiates her from her sister re- publics, and which makes it possible to be a bit more optimistic, as concerns the solution to some of her problems. The name "Costa Rica" itself is, historically, a misnomer. The early conquistadores soon discovered that the coast on which they had set foot was not rich in precious metals, as they had been led to believe. Costa Rica never had the potential to develop into a wealthy empire, reminiscent of the viceregal splendor of Mexico and Peru. For two very good reasons: there were no mines to exploit, and there was practically no Indian element that could be utilized in order to exploit. Add to these two factors the absence of adequate means of transportation and communication, and one can readily see why it was that the early settlers had to wrest a meager livelihood from the soil with their bare hands. Costa Rica was therefore spared the evils of a feudal system, characterized by the presence of a powerful ruling class of land- owners and millions of slave laborers.8 Spaniards who wanted to get rich quiely moved on to greener pastures. The hardier souls, the pioneers, remained in "Costa Pobre" to wrestle with their en- vironment. The Spaniards, from the Governor down, all worked to earn their daily bread. This proved to be a blessing in disguise. The country was spared the social and economic evils from which much of Latin America still suffers. The soil was thus made fertile to receive the seeds of potential democratic development at some future date. It wasn't until the Revolutionary period that the ayuntamientos, or municipalities, were empowered to establish primary schools, supported by public funds. A growing concern for education be- came evident in the period following Independence. A teacher, Juan Mora Fernindez, became the first President. It was during his second administration, in 1832, that the first law of public educa- tion was passed. The law applied to both boys and girls between the ages of 8 and 14. Succeeding constitutions urgently decreed the need for every Costa Rican to know how to read and write. That of 1869 declared that elementary education was free, compulsory, and the responsi- PUBLIC EDUCATION 93 Herculean proportions, since the correlation between population figures and educational requirements is undeniably high. Some background data, it seems, become necessary at this point in order to acquire a more accurate perspective. Costa Rica pos- sesses an individuality which differentiates her from her sister re- publics, and which makes it possible to be a bit more optimistic, as concerns the solution to some of her problems. The name "Costa Rica" itself is, historically, a misnomer. The early conquistadores soon discovered that the coast on which they had set foot was not rich in precious metals, as they had been led to believe. Costa Rica never had the potential to develop into a wealthy empire, reminiscent of the viceregal splendor of Mexico and Peru. For two very good reasons: there were no mines to exploit, and there was practically no Indian element that could be utilized in order to exploit. Add to these two factors the absence of adequate means of transportation and communication, and one can readily see why it was that the early settlers had to wrest a meager livelihood from the soil with their bare hands. Costa Rica was therefore spared the evils of a feudal system, characterized by the presence of a powerful ruling class of land- owners and millions of slave laborers.8 Spaniards who wanted to get rich quickly moved on to greener pastures. The hardier souls, the pioneers, remained in "Costa Pobre" to wrestle with their en- vironment. The Spaniards, from the Governor down, all worked to earn their daily bread. This proved to be a blessing in disguise. The country was spared the social and economic evils from which much of Latin America still suffers. The soil was thus made fertile to receive the seeds of potential democratic development at some future date. It wasn't until the Revolutionary period that the ayuntamientos, or municipalities, were empowered to establish primary schools, supported by public funds. A growing concern for education be- came evident in the period following Independence. A teacher, Juan Mora FernAndez, became the first President. It was during his second administration, in 1832, that the first law of public educa- tion was passed. The law applied to both boys and girls between the ages of 8 and 14. Succeeding constitutions urgently decreed the need for every Costa Rican to know how to read and write. That of 1869 declared that elementary education was free, compulsory, and the responsi-  94 The Caribbean bility of the State. The government also undertook to reorganize secondary and higher education. But the greatest amount of edu- cational activity developed in the 1880's, under the leadership of Costa Rica's great educator, Mauro Fernindez, who is to Costa Rica what Horace Mann is to the United States, and Sarmiento to Argentina. Mauro Fernindez, a man of "broad and liberal cul- ture,"5 was an able exponent of a democratic philosophy of educa- tion. He introduced reforms in the primary schools and placed the school system under the direct control of the Ministry of Education. Moreover, he directed his efforts toward the further development of secondary education and the training of teachers. A "practical utilitarian,"10 strongly influenced by the liberal currents of Spen- cerian positivism, he realized that Costa Rican society was entering a new phase of historical development. A religious, humanistic orientation was being challenged by scientific, technological, and industrial forces. It was necessary to explore the aptitudes of Costa Rican students, and plan the curriculum accordingly. The cultural climate of the times dictated the closing of the University of Santo Tomas in 1888 (with the exception of the Law School). Its standards, in the opinion of the government (which was opposed to clerical domination of education) were not sufficiently high, and furthermore, it was considered to have too strong a theo- logical emphasis. The University was not to be re-established until 1940. As a result, the three principal institutions of secondary edu- cation" took over the function of higher education, specifically in this case, the training of leaders in accordance with the needs and aspirations of the nation. The twentieth century, a period of accelerated social change, of cataclysmic events the world over, could not help but deposit some of its repercussions in little Costa Rica. Aside from the changes in the country's economy which involved the production and export of coffee, there were also other factors at work. British capital, which had all along acted as a powerful stimulus for the coffee industry, was forced to compete against an ever-growing market of United States investments. Costa Rica, together with the other "Banana Republics," played host to a rapidly growing rural prole- tariat. A series of road-building projects resulted in the growth of inter- and intra-state commerce. There was even some evidence of small manufacturing starting up within the country. Perhaps the most dramatic result of all this has been a painful 94 The Caribbean bility of the State. The government also undertook to reorganize secondary and higher education. But the greatest amount of edu- cational activity developed in the 1880's, under the leadership of Costa Rica's great educator, Mauro Fernandez, who is to Costa Rica what Horace Mann is to the United States, and Sarmiento to Argentina. Mauro FernAndez, a man of "broad and liberal cul- ture,"0 was an able exponent of a democratic philosophy of educa- tion. He introduced reforms in the primary schools and placed the school system under the direct control of the Ministry of Education. Moreover, he directed his efforts toward the further development of secondary education and the training of teachers. A "practical utilitarian,"10 strongly influenced by the liberal currents of Spen- cerian positivism, he realized that Costa Rican society was entering a new phase of historical development. A religious, humanistic orientation was being challenged by scientific, technological, and industrial forces. It was necessary to explore the aptitudes of Costa Rican students, and plan the curriculum accordingly. The cultural climate of the times dictated the closing of the University of Santo Tomis in 1888 (with the exception of the Law School). Its standards, in the opinion of the government (which was opposed to clerical domination of education) were not sufficiently high, and furthermore, it was considered to have too strong a theo- logical emphasis. The University was not to be re-established until 1940. As a result, the three principal institutions of secondary edu- cation" took over the function of higher education, specifically in this case, the training of leaders in accordance with the needs and aspirations of the nation. The twentieth century, a period of accelerated social change, of cataclysmic events the world over, could not help but deposit some of its repercussions in little Costa Rica. Aside from the changes in the country's economy which involved the production and export of coffee, there were also other factors at work. British capital, 'which had all along acted as a powerful stimulus for the coffee industry, was forced to compete against an ever-growing market of United States investments. Costa Rica, together with the other "Banana Republics," played host to a rapidly growing rural prole- tariat. A series of road-building projects resulted in the growth of inter- and intra-state commerce. There was even some evidence of small manufacturing starting up within the country. Perhaps the most dramatic result of all this has been a painful 94 The Caribbean bility of the State. The government also undertook to reorganize secondary and higher education. But the greatest amount of edu- cational activity developed in the 1880's, under the leadership of Costa Rica's great educator, Mauro Fernandez, who is to Costa Rica what Horace Mann is to the United States, and Sarmiento to Argentina. Mauro Fernandez, a man of "broad and liberal cul- ture,"' was an able exponent of a democratic philosophy of educa- tion. He introduced reforms in the primary schools and placed the school system under the direct control of the Ministry of Education. Moreover, he directed his efforts toward the further development of secondary education and the training of teachers. A "practical utilitarian,"0 strongly influenced by the liberal currents of Spen- cerian positivism, he realized that Costa Rican society was entering a new phase of historical development. A religious, humanistic orientation was being challenged by scientific, technological, and industrial forces. It was necessary to explore the aptitudes of Costa Rican students, and plan the curriculum accordingly. The cultural climate of the times dictated the closing of the University of Santo Tomas in 1888 (with the exception of the Law School). Its standards, in the opinion of the government (which was opposed to clerical domination of education) were not sufficiently high, and furthermore, it was considered to have too strong a theo- logical emphasis. The University was not to be re-established until 1940. As a result, the three principal institutions of secondary edu- cation" took over the function of higher education, specifically in this case, the training of leaders in accordance with the needs and aspirations of the nation. The twentieth century, a period of accelerated social change, of cataclysmic events the world over, could not help but deposit some of its repercussions in little Costa Rica. Aside from the changes in the country's economy which involved the production and export of coffee, there were also other factors at work. British capital, 'which had all along acted as a powerful stimulus for the coffee industry, was forced to compete against an ever-growing market of United States investments. Costa Rica, together with the other "Banana Republics," played host to a rapidly growing rural prole- tariat. A series of road-building projects resulted in the growth of inter- and intra-state commerce. There was even some evidence of small manufacturing starting up within the country. Perhaps the most dramatic result of all this has been a painful  PUBLIC EDUCATION 95 realization on the part of all so-called "underdeveloped" countries, Costa Rica included, of the gigantic problems confronting them. A courageous analysis of the situation reveals the complexity of the problem: lack of capital, lack of markets, lack of education. "In order to produce, it is necessary to know how to produce, to know how to utilize capital. What is needed are machines, modern techniques, an understanding of methods and systems of organiza- tion. . . . It is necessary to educate the people of the underdevel- oped countries so that they may profitably make use of modern technology."" Moreover, in countries which are economically dependent upon foreign investments, or which center their econ- omy upon one or two principal crops, or whose natural resources have yet to be developed to the full, education faces formidable tasks, because it must exploit to the maximum degree the limited possibilities which exist. The most striking fact which can perhaps be said to be the immediate cause of the educational crisis, and which has brought it to a boiling point, is the fantastic rise in population, especially in the past three decades, with its accompanying reflection on school enrollments. The population of Costa Rica has more than doubled in little more than a quarter of a century. In 1927, there were 471,000 inhabitants; in 1956, the population passed the one million mark. Together with the growth in the general population, other significant sociological changes have taken place in the past few decades. Among these, the following may be listed: 1 1. The growth of urban centers. 2. A consequent reduction in the size of the rural element. 3. An increase in the size and influence of the middle class. 4. Increased industrialization. 5. Increased utilization of diverse types of machinery. 6. Exploitation and gradual destruction of natural resources. 7. A rise in the standard of living. 8. A greater measure of participation by the government in the economic affairs of the nation. 9. Increased and improved means of transportation and com- munication. 10. Greater social mobility, both horizontally (geographically) and vertically (socioeconomically). 11. A greater impact of international events on the national economy. PUBLIC EDUCATION 95 realization on the part of all so-called "underdeveloped" countries, Costa Rica included, of the gigantic problems confronting them. A courageous analysis of the situation reveals the complexity of the problem: lack of capital, lack of markets, lack of education. "In order to produce, it is necessary to know how to produce, to know how to utilize capital. What is needed are machines, modern techniques, an understanding of methods and systems of organiza- tion. . . . It is necessary to educate the people of the underdevel- oped countries so that they may profitably make use of modern technology."55 Moreover, in countries which are economically dependent upon foreign investments, or which center their econ- omy upon one or two principal crops, or whose natural resources have yet to be developed to the full, education faces formidable tasks, because it must exploit to the maximum degree the limited possibilities which exist. The most striking fact which can perhaps be said to be the immediate cause of the educational crisis, and which has brought it to a boiling point, is the fantastic rise in population, especially in the past three decades, with its accompanying reflection on school enrollments. The population of Costa Rica has more than doubled in little more than a quarter of a century. In 1927, there were 471,000 inhabitants; in 1956, the population passed the one million mark. Together with the growth in the general population, other significant sociological changes have taken place in the past few decades. Among these, the following may be listed:"0 1. The growth of urban centers. 2. A consequent reduction in the size of the rural element. 3. An increase in the size and influence of the middle class. 4. Increased industrialization. 5. Increased utilization of diverse types of machinery. 6. Exploitation and gradual destruction of natural resources. 7. A rise in the standard of living. 8. A greater measure of participation by the government in the economic affairs of the nation. 9. Increased and improved means of transportation and com- munication. 10. Greater social mobility, both horizontally (geographically) and vertically (socioeconomically). 11. A greater impact of international events on the national economy. PUBLIC EDUCATION 95 realization on the part of all so-called "underdeveloped" countries, Costa Rica included, of the gigantic problems confronting them. A courageous analysis of the situation reveals the complexity of the problem: lack of capital, lack of markets, lack of education. "In order to produce, it is necessary to know how to produce, to know how to utilize capital. What is needed are machines, modern techniques, an understanding of methods and systems of organiza- tion. . . . It is necessary to educate the people of the underdevel- oped countries so that they may profitably make use of modern technology."12 Moreover, in countries which are economically dependent upon foreign investments, or which center their econ- omy upon one or two principal crops, or whose natural resources have yet to be developed to the full, education faces formidable tasks, because it must exploit to the maximum degree the limited possibilities which exist. The most striking fact which can perhaps be said to be the immediate cause of the educational crisis, and which has brought it to a boiling point, is the fantastic rise in population, especially in the past three decades, with its accompanying reflection on school enrollments. The population of Costa Rica has more than doubled in little more than a quarter of a century. In 1927, there were 471,000 inhabitants; in 1956, the population passed the one million mark. Together with the growth in the general population, other significant sociological changes have taken place in the past few decades. Among these, the following may be listed:1 1. The growth of urban centers. 2. A consequent reduction in the size of the rural element. 3. An increase in the size and influence of the middle class. 4. Increased industrialization. 5. Increased utilization of diverse types of machinery. 6. Exploitation and gradual destruction of natural resources. 7. A rise in the standard of living. 8. A greater measure of participation by the government in the economic affairs of the nation. 9. Increased and improved means of transportation and com- munication. 10. Greater social mobility, both horizontally (geographically) and vertically (socioeconomically). 11. A greater impact of international events on the national economy.  96 The Caribbean 12. Increase in the influence of so-called informal agencies of education (e.g., movies, press, radio, etc.). These factors, then, have contributed to the increased student enrollment on both the elementary and secondary school levels. But what is even more revealing and disturbing is the abnormally high rate of attrition, that is, the number of pupils who finish school in comparison with the number entering. For example, in the last two decades, 56 per cent of all pupils who enrolled in the first grade of elementary school, left at the end of the second grade.'0 More- over, 70 per cent of Costa Rica's primary schools do not offer instruction beyond the second grade. In the following table, it will be seen that almost half (48 per cent) of the elementary pupils leave at the end of the second grade. There are five times as many pupils in the first grade as compared with the number of pupils in the sixth or last grade. TABLE 1 COSTA RICAN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS BY GRADE FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS (1957) Public (Government) Private Grade School School Total I 51,627 2,622 54,249 II 38,077 1,675 39,752 III 27,459 1,333 28,792 IV 19,335 1,001 20,336 V 13,576 769 14,345 VI 10,152 688 10,840 Total 160,226 8,088 168,314 Source: Ministerio de Educacin Pblica, Informe sobre el estado ..., p. 16. What are the factors which contribute to this rather bleak pic- ture? These may be said to fall into four categories: socioeconomic, educational, geographic, and cultural. Broken down, these involve such items as: Poor health; Malnutrition; Tropical diseases (malaria, intestinal parasites); Need to work to help financially; 96 The Caribbean 12. Increase in the influence of so-called informal agencies of education (e.g., movies, press, radio, etc.). These factors, then, have contributed to the increased student enrollment on both the elementary and secondary school levels. But what is even more revealing and disturbing is the abnormally high rate of attrition, that is, the number of pupils who finish school in comparison with the number entering. For example, in the last two decades, 56 per cent of all pupils who enrolled in the first grade of elementary school, left at the end of the second grade." More- over, 70 per cent of Costa Rica's primary schools do not offer instruction beyond the second grade. In the following table, it will be seen that almost half (48 per cent) of the elementary pupils leave at the end of the second grade. There are five times as many pupils in the first grade as compared with the number of pupils in the sixth or last grade. TABLE 1 COSTA RICAN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS BY GRADE FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS (1957) Public (Government) Private Grade School School Total I 51,627 2,622 54,249 II 38,077 1,675 39,752 III 27,459 1,333 28,792 IV 19,335 1,001 20,336 V 13,576 769 14,345 VI 10,152 688 10,840 Total 160,226 8,088 168,314 Source: Ministerio de Educaci6n Pnblica, Informe sobre el estado .. , P. 16. What are the factors which contribute to this rather bleak pic- ture? These may be said to fall into four categories: socioeconomic, educational, geographic, and cultural. Broken down, these involve such items as: Poor health; Malnutrition; Tropical diseases (malaria, intestinal parasites); Need to work to help financially; 96 The Caribbean 12. Increase in the influence of so-called informal agencies of education (e.g., movies, press, radio, etc.). These factors, then, have contributed to the increased student enrollment on both the elementary and secondary school levels. But what is even more revealing and disturbing is the abnormally high rate of attrition, that is, the number of pupils who finish school in comparison with the number entering. For example, in the last two decades, 56 per cent of all pupils who enrolled in the first grade of elementary school, left at the end of the second grade.'0 More- over, 70 per cent of Costa Rica's primary schools do not offer instruction beyond the second grade. In the following table, it will be seen that almost half (48 per cent) of the elementary pupils leave at the end of the second grade. There are five times as many pupils in the first grade as compared with the number of pupils in the sixth or last grade. TABLE 1 COSTA RICAN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS BY GRADE FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS (1957) Public (Government) Private Grade School School Total I 51,627 2,622 54,249 II 38,077 1,675 39,752 III 27,459 1,333 28,792 IV 19,335 1,001 20,336 V 13,576 769 14,345 VI 10,152 688 10,840 Total 160,226 8,088 168,314 Source: Ministerio de Educacion Piblica, Informe sobre el estado ..., p. 16. What are the factors which contribute to this rather bleak pic- ture? These may be said to fall into four categories: socioeconomic, educational, geographic, and cultural. Broken down, these involve such items as: Poor health; Malnutrition; Tropical diseases (malaria, intestinal parasites); Need to work to help financially;  PUBLIC EDUCATION 97 Emigration of families to other areas; Abandoned children; Lack of adequate clothing and shelter;1" Absence of a suficiently diversified curriculum; Inattention to individual differences; Paucity of teaching and learning materials; Poor planning by the teacher; Inadequate financial support of schools;"6 Excessively hot climate; Poor transportation facilities; Lack of interest on the part of parents in the work of the school; Absence of a sound relationship between the school and the local community. The figures for secondary school enrollments are equally eloquent. Initial student registration reflects the phenomenal increase in the general population. One has but to examine the rate of increase in student population in the past 15 years to appreciate the accelera- tion involved. For example, in 1890, there were 300 secondary school students in Costa Rica. In 1941, there were approximately 3,500, an increase of 3,200 in 50 years. However, in 1957, there were approximately 20,000, an increase of 17,000 in 15 years." In 1941, there were only ten secondary schools in the entire country. In 1957, there were 48. The following table is of interest in that it reveals the number of students enrolled in each of the five years of secondary schooling for both private and public schools. There are 26 public schools and TABLE 2 COSTA RICAN SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS BY YEAR FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS (1957) Public (Government) Private Year School School Total I 5,070 1,692 6,762 II 3,765 1,349 5,114 III 2,424 985 3,409 IV 1,756 714 2,470 V 1,170 609 1,779 Total 14,185 5,349 19,534 Source: Ministerio de Educacin Pnblica, Informe sobre el estado ..., P. 16. PUBLIC EDUCATION 97 Emigration of families to other areas; Abandoned children; Lack of adequate clothing and shelter;1 Absence of a sufficiently diversified curriculum; Inattention to individual differences; Paucity of teaching and learning materials; Poor planning by the teacher; Inadequate financial support of schools;1" Excessively hot climate; Poor transportation facilities; Lack of interest on the part of parents in the work of the school; Absence of a sound relationship between the school and the local community. The figures for secondary school enrollments are equally eloquent. Initial student registration reflects the phenomenal increase in the general population. One has but to examine the rate of increase in student population in the past 15 years to appreciate the accelera- tion involved. For example, in 1890, there were 800 secondary school students in Costa Rica. In 1941, there were approximately 3,500, an increase of 3,200 in 50 years. However, in 1957, there were approximately 20,000, an increase of 17,000 in 15 years.'7 In 1941, there were only ten secondary schools in the entire country. In 1957, there were 48. The following table is of interest in that it reveals the number of students enrolled in each of the five years of secondary schooling for both private and public schools. There are 26 public schools and TABLE 2 COSTA RICAN SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS BY YEAR FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS (1957) Public (Government) Private Year School School Total I 5,070 1,692 6,762 II 3,765 1,349 5,114 III 2,424 985 3,409 IV 1,756 714 2,470 V 1,170 609 1,779 Total 14,185 5,349 19,534 Source: Ministerio de Educacidn Pnblica, Informe sobre el estado ..., p. 16. PUBLIC EDUCATION 97 Emigration of families to other areas; Abandoned children; Lack of adequate clothing and shelter;15 Absence of a sufficiently diversified curriculum; Inattention to individual differences; Paucity of teaching and learning materials; Poor planning by the teacher; Inadequate financial support of schools;16 Excessively hot climate; Poor transportation facilities; Lack of interest on the part of parents in the work of the school; Absence of a sound relationship between the school and the local community. The figures for secondary school enrollments are equally eloquent. Initial student registration reflects the phenomenal increase in the general population. One has but to examine the rate of increase in student population in the past 15 years to appreciate the accelera- tion involved. For example, in 1890, there were 300 secondary school students in Costa Rica. In 1941, there were approximately 3,500, an increase of 3,200 in 50 years. However, in 1957, there were approximately 20,000, an increase of 17,000 in 15 years." In 1941, there were only ten secondary schools in the entire country. In 1957, there were 48. The following table is of interest in that it reveals the number of students enrolled in each of the five years of secondary schooling for both private and public schools. There are 26 public schools and TABLE 2 COSTA RICAN SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS BY YEAR FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS (1957) Public (Government) Private Year School School Total I 5,070 1,692 6,762 II 3,765 1,349 5,114 III 2,424 985 3,409 IV 1,756 714 2,470 V 1,170 609 1,779 Total 14,185 5,349 19,534 Source: Ministerio de Educacion Pnblica, Informe sobre el estado .. , P. 16.  Tot.] Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 Elsoo. I II III IV V Sec. 1944...30,131 18,279 11,841 8,648 4,694 3,134 76,727 1,184 885 848 459 286 3,434 1945...31,030 17,540 12,644 7,719 4,842 2,834 76,618 1,373 827 696 525 464 3,85 1946...32,305 20,638 1,407 8,839 5,178 3,389 82,668 1,508 928 748 583 502 4,267 1047...33,723 22,170 12,027 0,559 8,306 4,245 80,130 1,324 1,108 884 837 313 4,484 1948...35,141 22,540 13,308 9,870 6,815 4,380 02,072 1,715 1,103 708 388 386 4,858 19149..37,302 33,384 14,445 10,198 8,228 4,838 98,513 1,881 1,181 018 887 498 5,0 190...38,011 23,584 16,961 10,856 7,226 3,102 104,770 2,232 1,487 1,137 707 628 6,203 1931...40,184 23,813 18,734 12,012 7,758 3,881 110,282 2,424 1,842 1,218 071 724 6,077 1932...41,844 27,404 10,379 13,369 8,888 8,234 118,988 3,528 1,948 1,438 1,610 822 8,830 1953...41,386 28,847 20,041 13,858 9,568 8,888 128,368 4,483 3,837 1,883 1,450 1,825 11,731 1954...46,284 38,280 21,803 13,100 1,292 7,882 131,589 3,030 3,423 2,357 1,608 1,383 13,763 1955...48,128 33,797 22,822 18,904 11,382 8,641 141,474 3,476 3,702 2,588 1,954 1,436 15,166 Total Totll 1 2 3 4 5 8 Eleoo. I II III IV V See. 1044...38,131 18,270 11,841 8,848 4,604 3,134 78,727 1,164 883 648 430 286 3,434 1945...31,030 17,540 12,644 7,713 4,842 2,834 76,618 1,373 927 806 525 464 3,085 1946...32,383 25,638 12,407 8,630 3,178 3,300 82,868 1,308 028 746 583 502 4,267 1947...33,723 22,170 12,927 0,559 6,506 4,245 80,130 1,524 1,106 684 637 513 4,464 1948...35,141 22,340 13,388 8,879 6,815 4,389 02,072 1,715 1,103 706 386 366 4,838 1949...37,282 23,284 14,443 16,106 6,228 4,858 08,013 1,801 1,183 818 867 406 3,80 1950...38,011 23,384 16,061 10,856 7,226 3,102 004,776 2,232 1,487 1,137 797 820 8,203 1951...40,104 2,815 18,734 12,012 7,756 3,861 100,282 2,424 1,642 1,218 971 724 8,077 1952...41,844 27,404 10,379 13,369 8,668 6,234 116,088 3,026 1,948 1,450 1,610 822 8,839 1933...41,386 28,847 20,041 13,658 8,568 6,840 126,368 4,403 3,037 1,863 1,459 1,025 11,701 1954...46,264 30,266 21,603 15,800 0,202 7,882 131,380 5,630 3,423 2,337 1,650 1,303 13,783 1955...48,128 33,707 22,622 16,004 11,362 8,641 141,474 5,476 3,702 2,308 1,934 1,436 15,166 0 ,o 00 891 ,oz OO 0 C -89 711 9173l 189 018 4^9 -0 18 18 1 2 3 4 5 6 Eleso. I II I11 IV V 1044...30,131 18,270 11,841 8,648 4,604 3,134 76,727 1,164 885 840 450 288 1943...31,638 17,340 12,644 7,710 4,842 2,834 76,618 1,273 827 686 325 464 1946...32,305 20,636 12,407 8,839 5,178 3,509 82,688 1,308 928 746 583 562 1947...33,723 22,178 12,027 9,550 6,506 4,245 89,120 1,524 1,106 604 637 512 1948...33,141 22,340 13,38 9,879 6,813 4,380 02,072 1,713 1,103 798 086 3866 1949...37,202 23,264 14,445 10,196 6,228 4,658 06,013 1,881 1,185 018 667 400 1930...63,911 25,364 16,961 10,868 7,226 5,192 104,770 2,252 1,487 1,137 787 628 1951...40,10423,815 18,734 12,012 7,758 3,861 110,282 2,424 1,642 1,216 071 724 1032...41,844 27,494 10,373 13,360 8,688 8,234 016,086 3,020 1,048 1,430 1,810 822 1953...41,386 2847 20,041 13,658 9,568 8,866 128,368 4,403 3,037 1,863 1,430 1,023 1954...46,284 30,286 21,603 13,10 16,202 7,882 131,389 5,030 3,423 2,357 1,638 1,383 1955...48,128 33,707 22,822 16,004 11,382 8,641 141,474 3,476 3,782 2,508 1,054 1,438 3,434 3,083 4,267 4,464 4,856 3,080 6,293 6,077 8,850 11,791 13,763 00 0o 0 17z . 18 z1 49 1- -0 l191 n 7 '-0  PUBLIC EDUCATION 99 PUBLIC EDUCATION 22 private. Attention is called to the difference in enrollment be- tween the first and fifth years. Note also the number of students in the last year of secondary school, as compared with the number of pupils in the first year of primary school (Table 1). Of even greater interest, perhaps, is Table 3, which gives a pic- ture of secondary school enrollment for a period of twelve years. If one reads the figures vertically, one will note a steady annual increase as the years go by, for each grade on both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, if one follows the arrows and reads the figures diagonally, one has a truer picture of the high attrition rate of any one given class group. A word of caution should be inserted here. Due to the student turnover, it is not necessarily true that all of the 1,436 students in the fifth year of secondary schools in 1955 were part of the original group of 30,131 pupils in the first grade of elementary school in 1944. In spite of this demur- rer, the figures are valid insofar as they reveal the general tendency toward reduced pupil enrollments as the higher class levels are reached. The problem of qualified teachers on both the elementary and secondary school levels poses an acute problem. According to the latest figures available, only 37 per cent of a total of 6,793 elemen- tary school teachers are normal school graduates. The situation with reference to secondary school teachers is even more startling. Of a total of 1,079 teachers (Table 4), only 161 (Group A, 15 per cent) TABLE 4 22 private. Attention is called to the difference in enrollment be- tween the first and fifth years. Note also the number of students in the last year of secondary school, as compared with the number of pupils in the first year of primary school (Table 1). Of even greater interest, perhaps, is Table 3, which gives a pic- ture of secondary school enrollment for a period of twelve years. If one reads the figures vertically, one will note a steady annual increase as the years go by, for each grade on both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, if one follows the arrows and reads the figures diagonally, one has a truer picture of the high attrition rate of any one given class group. A word of caution should be inserted here. Due to the student turnover, it is not necessarily true that all of the 1,436 students in the fifth year of secondary schools in 1955 were part of the original group of 30,131 pupils in the first grade of elementary school in 1944. In spite of this demur- rer, the figures are valid insofar as they reveal the general tendency toward reduced pupil enrollments as the higher class levels are reached. The problem of qualified teachers on both the elementary and secondary school levels poses an acute problem. According to the latest figures available, only 37 per cent of a total of 6,793 elemen- tary school teachers are normal school graduates. The situation with reference to secondary school teachers is even more startling. Of a total of 1,079 teachers (Table 4), only 161 (Group A, 15 per cent) TABLE 4 TEACHER STATUS: SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL Group A Group B Group C Group D University Status without Aspirantes Type of University Teacher (No University Un- School Totals Graduates Certifcation contact) classified Public 743 81 397 265 _ (Government) Private 336 80 130 114 12 Total 1,079 161 527 379 12 Source: Ministerio de Educacion Pdblica, Educacion, V. (San Jos6, noviem- bre de 1957), 50. PUBLIC EDUCATION 99 22 private. Attention is called to the difference in enrollment be- tween the first and fifth years. Note also the number of students in the last year of secondary school, as compared with the number of pupils in the first year of primary school (Table 1). Of even greater interest, perhaps, is Table 3, which gives a pic- ture of secondary school enrollment for a period of twelve years. If one reads the figures vertically, one will note a steady annual increase as the years go by, for each grade on both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, if one follows the arrows and reads the figures diagonally, one has a truer picture of the high attrition rate of any one given class group. A word of caution should be inserted here. Due to the student turnover, it is not necessarily true that all of the 1,436 students in the fifth year of secondary schools in 1955 were part of the original group of 30,131 pupils in the first grade of elementary school in 1944. In spite of this demur- rer, the figures are valid insofar as they reveal the general tendency toward reduced pupil enrollments as the higher class levels are reached. The problem of qualified teachers on both the elementary and secondary school levels poses an acute problem. According to the latest figures available, only 37 per cent of a total of 6,793 elemen- tary school teachers are normal school graduates. The situation with reference to secondary school teachers is even more startling. Of a total of 1,079 teachers (Table 4), only 161 (Group A, 15 per cent) TABLE 4 TEACHER STATUS: SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL Group A Group B Group C Group D University Status without Aspirantes Type of University Teacher (No University Un- School Totals Graduates Certinfation contact) classifed Public 743 81 397 265 - ( Government) Private 336 80 130 114 12 Total 1,079 161 527 379 12 Source: Ministerio de Educacion Pdblica, Educacion, V. (San Jos6, noviem- bre de 1957), 50. TEACHER STATUS: SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL Group A Group B Group C Group D University Status without Aspirantes Type of University Teacher (No University Un School Totals Graduates Certifcation contact) classified Public 743 81 397 265 - (Government) Private 336 80 130 114 12 Total 1,079 161 527 379 12 Source: Ministerio de Educacion Pnblica, Edumcion, V. (San Jos6, noviem- bre de 1957), 50.  100 The Caribbean are qualified, i.e., graduates. The largest group (Group B, almost half of the total) although enrolled at the University, still lacks ade- quate preparation either in areas of specialization or in specific courses in education. The teachers in Group C (Aspirantes), 85 per cent, have had no university contact whatsoever. With this general background in mind, the problem of secondary education in Costa Rica now assumes a clearer focus. It would seem evident, from all that has been said thus far, that the highly selec- tive character of the traditional secondary school, with its exclusive emphasis upon the preparation of an intellectual elite, is no longer a valid or healthy orientation. The crying need of the moment, of which educational leaders are intensely aware, is for the democra- tization of the secondary school. Not only have various commissions urged reform in the past few decades but Congress also, in 1957, de- creed reorganization of the structure of the secondary school. The latest educational reform, scheduled to go into effect this year, is an attempt to get away from the historical dichotomy which has been handed down by a centuries-old tradition, namely, a humanist- oriented liceo, or secondary school, for the upper classes, and a technical or vocational school for the lower.)5 The Basic Education Law,19 approved in 1957 by the Costa Rican Legislature, takes cognizance of the profound sociological changes which have affected the nation in the past several decades; it also recognizes the existence of a period of human growth, known as ado- lescence. It therefore speaks of the necessity for having Interme- diate Education consist of two cycles, a policy in line with the general tendency already referred to and inaugurated in a number of different countries. Under the Basic Education Law, the curriculum for the first, or prevocational, cycle involves both a common plan and a variable plan. By "common plan" is meant the course of study to be taken by all students, regardless of future vocational plans. It can be taken for granted that the common plan will not be realized equally well in all schools, because of a variation in resources or an emphasis in certain directions only, depending upon local peculi- arities. Hence, in such special situations, provision is made for a so-called "variable plan." The latest report issued by the Technical Mission of UNESC020 recommends to the Ministry of Public Edu- cation that the common plan include the following compulsory courses: Spanish, mathematics, social studies, sciences, a foreign 100 The Caribbean are qualified, i.e., graduates. The largest group (Group B, almost half of the total) although enrolled at the University, still lacks ade- quate preparation either in areas of specialization or in specific courses in education. The teachers in Group C (Aspirantes), 35 per cent, have had no university contact whatsoever. With this general background in mind, the problem of secondary education in Costa Rica now assumes a clearer focus. It would seem evident, from all that has been said thus far, that the highly selec- tive character of the traditional secondary school, with its exclusive emphasis upon the preparation of an intellectual elite, is no longer a valid or healthy orientation. The crying need of the moment, of which educational leaders are intensely aware, is for the democra- tization of the secondary school. Not only have various commissions urged reform in the past few decades but Congress also, in 1957, de- creed reorganization of the structure of the secondary school. The latest educational reform, scheduled to go into effect this year, is an attempt to get away from the historical dichotomy which has been handed down by a centuries-old tradition, namely, a humanist- oriented liceo, or secondary school, for the upper classes, and a technical or vocational school for the lower.1 The Basic Education Law,5 approved in 1957 by the Costa Rican Legislature, takes cognizance of the profound sociological changes which have affected the nation in the past several decades; it also recognizes the existence of a period of human growth, known as ado- lescence. It therefore speaks of the necessity for having Interme- diate Education consist of two cycles, a policy in line with the general tendency already referred to and inaugurated in a number of different countries. Under the Basic Education Law, the curriculum for the first, or prevocational, cycle involves both a common plan and a variable plan. By "common plan" is meant the course of study to be taken by all students, regardless of future vocational plans. It can be taken for granted that the common plan will not be realized equally well in all schools, because of a variation in resources or an emphasis in certain directions only, depending upon local peculi- arities. Hence, in such special situations, provision is made for a so-called "variable plan." The latest report issued by the Technical Mission of UNESCO2O recommends to the Ministry of Public Edu- cation that the common plan include the following compulsory courses: Spanish, mathematics, social studies, sciences, a foreign 100 The Caribbean are qualified, i.e., graduates. The largest group (Group B, almost half of the total) although enrolled at the University, still lacks ade- quate preparation either in areas of specialization or in specific courses in education. The teachers in Group C (Aspirantes), 85 per cent, have had no university contact whatsoever. With this general background in mind, the problem of secondary education in Costa Rica now assumes a clearer focus. It would seem evident, from all that has been said thus far, that the highly selec- tive character of the traditional secondary school, with its exclusive emphasis upon the preparation of an intellectual elite, is no longer a valid or healthy orientation. The crying need of the moment, of which educational leaders are intensely aware, is for the democra- tization of the secondary school. Not only have various commissions urged reform in the past few decades but Congress also, in 1957, de- creed reorganization of the structure of the secondary school. The latest educational reform, scheduled to go into effect this year, is an attempt to get away from the historical dichotomy which has been handed down by a centuries-old tradition, namely, a humanist- oriented liceo, or secondary school, for the upper classes, and a technical or vocational school for the lower." The Basic Education Law,19 approved in 1957 by the Costa Rican Legislature, takes cognizance of the profound sociological changes which have affected the nation in the past several decades; it also recognizes the existence of a period of human growth, known as ado- lescence. It therefore speaks of the necessity for having Interme- diate Education consist of two cycles, a policy in line with the general tendency already referred to and inaugurated in a number of different countries. Under the Basic Education Law, the curriculum for the first, or prevocational, cycle involves both a common plan and a variable plan. By "common plan" is meant the course of study to be taken by all students, regardless of future vocational plans. It can be taken for granted that the common plan will not be realized equally well in all schools, because of a variation in resources or an emphasis in certain directions only, depending upon local peculi- arities. Hence, in such special situations, provision is made for a so-called "variable plan." The latest report issued by the Technical Mission of UNESCO20 recommends to the Ministry of Public Edu- cation that the common plan include the following compulsory courses: Spanish, mathematics, social studies, sciences, a foreign  PUBLIC EDUCATION 101 language (English or French), physical education and hygiene, and music. The variable plan is to include religious education, plastic arts, manual arts, and home economics. The first cycle, three years in duration, will also attempt, by means of various diagnostic pro- cedures, to lead students into planning their future program, in accordance with their special aptitudes and interests. Upon completing this first cycle, the student will be free to em- bark upon one of two higher three-year cycles. The first of these will include courses in agriculture, mechanics, business, engineering, home economics, and other subjects, but will, also, still give offer- ings in general culture. The second, more academic in nature, is designed for those who definitely have the desire and the potential to prepare themselves for the university. The upper three-year cycle duplicates the lower, to the extent that it also provides for common and variable plans, except that the common plan in the upper cycle provides a greater measure of differentiation. Thus, science which is general in the lower cycle, is divided into biology, chemistry, and physics in the upper. Methodologically, the Basic Education Law speaks of the neces- sity for utilizing the most appropriate techniques to further the goals to be achieved. The Basic Law criticizes the rigidity of class recitation, the complete disregard for individual differences, and the excessive emphasis upon rote learning - all characteristics of an outmoded type of learning procedure. Education is a dynamic proc- ess which involves interaction between one individual and another. In the course of this process, attitudes are formed, ideals are de- veloped, the personality is enriched. To this end, secondary edu- cation will make use of a variety of approaches (e.g., "work units" are only one technique), designed to stimulate intelligent activity on the part of the adolescent. The teacher will no longer dare limit himself exclusively to the famous dictum: "For tomorrow, read up to Page so-and-so." In looking at the over-all picture of Costa Rican education, one is struck by a number of factors, positive and negative, that seem to be competing for supremacy. These factors are not all overt; some are quite subtle, yet nonetheless, of considerable power and influence. The outcome of Costa Rica's educational battle in general, and her skirmishes on the secondary school front in par- ticular, may well depend upon the resultant force generated by the interaction of these elements. PUBLIC EDUCATION 101 language (English or French), physical education and hygiene, and music. The variable plan is to include religious education, plastic arts, manual arts, and home economics. The first cycle, three years in duration, will also attempt, by means of various diagnostic pro- cedures, to lead students into planning their future program, in accordance with their special aptitudes and interests. Upon completing this first cycle, the student will be free to em- bark upon one of two higher three-year cycles. The first of these will include courses in agriculture, mechanics, business, engineering, home economics, and other subjects, but will, also, still give offer- ings in general culture. The second, more academic in nature, is designed for those who definitely have the desire and the potential to prepare themselves for the university. The upper three-year cycle duplicates the lower, to the extent that it also provides for common and variable plans, except that the common plan in the upper cycle provides a greater measure of differentiation. Thus, science which is general in the lower cycle, is divided into biology, chemistry, and physics in the upper. Methodologically, the Basic Education Law speaks of the neces- sity for utilizing the most appropriate techniques to further the goals to be achieved. The Basic Law criticizes the rigidity of class recitation, the complete disregard for individual differences, and the excessive emphasis upon rote learning - all characteristics of an outmoded type of learning procedure. Education is a dynamic proc- ess which involves interaction between one individual and another. In the course of this process, attitudes are formed, ideals are de- veloped, the personality is enriched. To this end, secondary edu- cation will make use of a variety of approaches (e.g., "work units" are only one technique), designed to stimulate intelligent activity on the part of the adolescent. The teacher will no longer dare limit himself exclusively to the famous dictum: "For tomorrow, read up to Page so-and-so." In looking at the over-all picture of Costa Rican education, one is struck by a number of factors, positive and negative, that seem to be competing for supremacy. These factors are not all overt; some are quite subtle, yet nonetheless, of considerable power and influence. The outcome of Costa Rica's educational battle in general, and her skirmishes on the secondary school front in par- ticular, may well depend upon the resultant force generated by the interaction of these elements. PUBLIC EDUCATION 101 language (English or French), physical education and hygiene, and music. The variable plan is to include religious education, plastic arts, manual arts, and home economics. The first cycle, three years in duration, will also attempt, by means of various diagnostic pro- cedures, to lead students into planning their future program, in accordance with their special aptitudes and interests. Upon completing this first cycle, the student will be free to em- bark upon one of two higher three-year cycles. The first of these will include courses in agriculture, mechanics, business, engineering, home economics, and other subjects, but will, also, still give offer- ings in general culture. The second, more academic in nature, is designed for those who definitely have the desire and the potential to prepare themselves for the university. The upper three-year cycle duplicates the lower, to the extent that it also provides for common and variable plans, except that the common plan in the upper cycle provides a greater measure of differentiation. Thus, science which is general in the lower cycle, is divided into biology, chemistry, and physics in the upper. Methodologically, the Basic Education Law speaks of the neces- sity for utilizing the most appropriate techniques to further the goals to be achieved. The Basic Law criticizes the rigidity of class recitation, the complete disregard for individual differences, and the excessive emphasis upon rote learning - all characteristics of an outmoded type of learning procedure. Education is a dynamic proc- ess which involves interaction between one individual and another. In the course of this process, attitudes are formed, ideals are de- veloped, the personality is enriched. To this end, secondary edu- cation will make use of a variety of approaches (e.g., "work units" are only one technique), designed to stimulate intelligent activity on the part of the adolescent. The teacher will no longer dare limit himself exclusively to the famous dictum: "For tomorrow, read up to Page so-and-so." In looking at the over-all picture of Costa Rican education, one is struck by a number of factors, positive and negative, that seem to be competing for supremacy. These factors are not all overt; some are quite subtle, yet nonetheless, of considerable power and influence. The outcome of Costa Rica's educational battle in general, and her skirmishes on the secondary school front in par- ticular, may well depend upon the resultant force generated by the interaction of these elements.  102 The Caribbean III The all-embracing, all-powerful category which is common not only to Costa Rica, but to other Latin American countries as well, includes first and foremost, the economic factor. This is funda- mental to the problem. As long as the economy of these so-called "underdeveloped" or "peripheral" nations (the term has been sup- plied by the United Nations) is such as to make it necessary for children to leave primary school in droves at the end of the second or third year in order to supplement the daily income, just so long will the educational crisis cry out for a solution. Another factor may be called psychological. Spanish America has to overcome that part of its heritage which involves looking down one's nose at the idea of having to work for a living. The dignity of labor, regardless of the type of work involved, is a con- cept still to be developed. In many quarters, having to work is still considered a punishment, visited upon men for having incurred divine wrath. A higher wage scale would go a long way in dis- pensing with this "theological" argument. This attitude is often reflected among students, most of whom aspire to a professional career - and this, in a country predom- inantly agricultural. For example, a study made in 1951 shows that in spite of the fact that agriculture is Costa Rica's chief source of income, secondary school students have no taste for agricultural subjects.21 The same questionnaire reveals the fact that students consider drafting and carpentry the least useful subjects in the cur- riculum. This, despite the necessity for having a large source of well-trained man power. Perhaps the new reform, with its more flexible approach to the question of vocational education, will con- tribute to a much needed change in attitude. There still exists considerable opposition to the general desire for reform. There are still teachers who believe that the secondary school should continue to cater to a small, select group of the popu- lation. These teachers are a significant force. They speak in terms of "pure" knowledge, that is, knowledge divorced from the needs and problems created by a rapidly changing environment. They seem indifferent to the applicability of this knowledge to the diver- sity of human interests and skills, represented by increased student enrollments. No wonder then that where this point of view prevails, the secondary school fails to hold so many entering students! 102 The Caribbean 102 The Caribbean III The all-embracing, all-powerful category which is common not only to Costa Rica, but to other Latin American countries as well, includes first and foremost, the economic factor. This is funda- mental to the problem. As long as the economy of these so-called "underdeveloped" or "peripheral" nations (the term has been sup- plied by the United Nations) is such as to make it necessary for children to leave primary school in droves at the end of the second or third year in order to supplement the daily income, just so long will the educational crisis cry out for a solution. Another factor may be called psychological. Spanish America has to overcome that part of its heritage which involves looking down one's nose at the idea of having to work for a living. The dignity of labor, regardless of the type of work involved, is a con- cept still to be developed. In many quarters, having to work is still considered a punishment, visited upon men for having incurred divine wrath. A higher wage scale would go a long way in dis- pensing with this "theological" argument. This attitude is often reflected among students, most of whom aspire to a professional career - and this, in a country predom- inantly agricultural. For example, a study made in 1951 shows that in spite of the fact that agriculture is Costa Rica's chief source of income, secondary school students have no taste for agricultural subjects.5 The same questionnaire reveals the fact that students consider drafting and carpentry the least useful subjects in the cur- riculum. This, despite the necessity for having a large source of well-trained man power. Perhaps the new reform, with its more flexible approach to the question of vocational education, will con- tribute to a much needed change in attitude. There still exists considerable opposition to the general desire for reform. There are still teachers who believe that the secondary school should continue to cater to a small, select group of the popu- lation. These teachers are a significant force. They speak in terms of "pure" knowledge, that is, knowledge divorced from the needs and problems created by a rapidly changing environment. They seem indifferent to the applicability of this knowledge to the diver- sity of human interests and skills, represented by increased student enrollments. No wonder then that where this point of view prevails, the secondary school fails to hold so many entering students! III The all-embracing, all-powerful category which is common not only to Costa Rica, but to other Latin American countries as well, includes first and foremost, the economic factor. This is funda- mental to the problem. As long as the economy of these so-called "underdeveloped" or "peripheral" nations (the term has been sup- plied by the United Nations) is such as to make it necessary for children to leave primary school in droves at the end of the second or third year in order to supplement the daily income, just so long will the educational crisis cry out for a solution. Another factor may be called psychological. Spanish America has to overcome that part of its heritage which involves looking down one's nose at the idea of having to work for a living. The dignity of labor, regardless of the type of work involved, is a con- cept still to be developed. In many quarters, having to work is still considered a punishment, visited upon men for having incurred divine wrath. A higher wage scale would go a long way in dis- pensing with this "theological" argument. This attitude is often reflected among students, most of whom aspire to a professional career - and this, in a country predom- inantly agricultural. For example, a study made in 1951 shows that in spite of the fact that agriculture is Costa Rica's chief source of income, secondary school students have no taste for agricultural subjects.52 The same questionnaire reveals the fact that students consider drafting and carpentry the least useful subjects in the cur- riculum. This, despite the necessity for having a large source of well-trained man power. Perhaps the new reform, with its more flexible approach to the question of vocational education, will con- tribute to a much needed change in attitude. There still exists considerable opposition to the general desire for reform. There are still teachers who believe that the secondary school should continue to cater to a small, select group of the popu- lation. These teachers are a significant force. They speak in terms of "pure" knowledge, that is, knowledge divorced from the needs and problems created by a rapidly changing environment. They seem indifferent to the applicability of this knowledge to the diver- sity of human interests and skills, represented by increased student enrollments. No wonder then that where this point of view prevails, the secondary school fails to hold so many entering students!  PUBLIC EDUCATION 103 But let us look at the brighter side of the picture. Costa Rican teachers, on the whole, are still a young group. The average secon- dary school teacher is 25-30 years old. In spite of woefully inade- quate salaries - a problem not peculiar to Costa Rica alone - many of them are imbued with the spirit of reform. They are enthusiastie, hardworking, and devoted, almost missionary-like in their desire and determination to improve educational conditions. As has already been pointed out, Costa Rica has a domestic tra- dition and a growing middle class - two prerequisites for a poten- tially sound system of education. The middle class has always been viewed as a desirable factor, designed to maintain a healthy social equilibrium. Didn't Aristotle himself affirm that whenever there is a preponderance of extreme wealth or extreme poverty, tyranny is certain to result? This seems a fitting point on which to conclude, a point which cannot be reiterated too often: A country's claim to a democratic philosophy of life is measured by the extent to which it affords its youth opportunities for education on the secondary level, re- gardless of social and economic status. The countries of the Carib- bean area are now faced with the necessity of identifying themselves in practice with this philosophy and its educational implications. This would mean not only a reorganization of the curriculum, but also, the re-education of significant sections of the secondary school faculty, the alleviation of crowded conditions in the schools, and finally, a concerted effort to convince the public-at-large of the desirability of this orientation. A society which gives more than lip service to a genuine demo- cratic philosophy cannot accept one type of secondary school for an economically favored class, for the class which controls political power, and another type of school, on the narrowly vocational plane, for the class which has to learn only enough to earn its daily bread. The terms "liberal education" and "vocational training" need not be mutually exclusive. Humanism is not the monopoly of any one class. The humanist spirit is representative of an attitude. This attitude is to be found not only in the humanities (where one would expect to find it), but should also penetrate the sciences, the social studies, and - why not say it - the technical subjects as well. For this spirit is simply characteristic of that cultural enrichment which man has attained throughout the ages. This is the approach which will have to be strengthened, if the Caribbean countries are to PUBLIC EDUCATION 103 But let us look at the brighter side of the picture. Costa Rican teachers, on the whole, are still a young group. The average secon- dary school teacher is 25-0 years old. In spite of woefully inade- quate salaries - a problem not peculiar to Costa Rica alone - many of them are imbued with the spirit of reform. They are enthusiastic, hardworking, and devoted, almost missionary-like in their desire and determination to improve educational conditions. As has already been pointed out, Costa Rica has a domestic tra- dition and a growing middle class - two prerequisites for a poten- tially sound system of education. The middle class has always been viewed as a desirable factor, designed to maintain a healthy social equilibrium. Didn't Aristotle himself affirm that whenever there is a preponderance of extreme wealth or extreme poverty, tyranny is certain to result? This seems a fitting point on which to conclude, a point which cannot be reiterated too often: A country's claim to a democratic philosophy of life is measured by the extent to which it affords its youth opportunities for education on the secondary level, re- gardless of social and economic status. The countries of the Carib- bean area are now faced with the necessity of identifying themselves in practice with this philosophy and its educational implications. This would mean not only a reorganization of the curriculum, but also, the re-education of significant sections of the secondary school faculty, the alleviation of crowded conditions in the schools, and finally, a concerted effort to convince the public-at-large of the desirability of this orientation. A society which gives more than lip service to a genuine demo- cratic philosophy cannot accept one type of secondary school for an economically favored class, for the class which controls political power, and another type of school, on the narrowly vocational plane, for the class which has to learn only enough to earn its daily bread. The terms "liberal education" and "vocational training" need not be mutually exclusive. Humanism is not the monopoly of any one class. The humanist spirit is representative of an attitude. This attitude is to be found not only in the humanities (where one would expect to find it), but should also penetrate the sciences, the social studies, and - why not say it - the technical subjects as well. For this spirit is simply characteristic of that cultural enrichment which man has attained throughout the ages. This is the approach which will have to be strengthened, if the Caribbean countries are to PUBLIC EDUCATION 103 But let us look at the brighter side of the picture. Costa Rican teachers, on the whole, are still a young group. The average secon- dary school teacher is 25-30 years old. In spite of woefully inade- quate salaries - a problem not peculiar to Costa Rica alone - many of them are imbued with the spirit of reform. They are enthusiastic, hardworking, and devoted, almost missionary-like in their desire and determination to improve educational conditions. As has already been pointed out, Costa Rica has a domestic tra- dition and a growing middle class -two prerequisites for a poten- tially sound system of education. The middle class has always been viewed as a desirable factor, designed to maintain a healthy social equilibrium. Didn't Aristotle himself affirm that whenever there is a preponderance of extreme wealth or extreme poverty, tyranny is certain to result? This seems a fitting point on which to conclude, a point which cannot be reiterated too often: A country's claim to a democratic philosophy of life is measured by the extent to which it affords its youth opportunities for education on the secondary level, re- gardless of social and economic status. The countries of the Carib- bean area are now faced with the necessity of identifying themselves in practice with this philosophy and its educational implications. This would mean not only a reorganization of the curriculum, but also, the re-education of significant sections of the secondary school faculty, the alleviation of crowded conditions in the schools, and finally, a concerted effort to convince the public-at-large of the desirability of this orientation. A society which gives more than lip service to a genuine demo- cratic philosophy cannot accept one type of secondary school for an economically favored class, for the class which controls political power, and another type of school, on the narrowly vocational plane, for the class which has to learn only enough to earn its daily bread. The terms "liberal education" and "vocational training" need not be mutually exclusive. Humanism is not the monopoly of any one class. The humanist spirit is representative of an attitude. This attitude is to be found not only in the humanities (where one would expect to find it), but should also penetrate the sciences, the social studies, and - why not say it - the technical subjects as well. For this spirit is simply characteristic of that cultural enrichment which man has attained throughout the ages. This is the approach which will have to be strengthened, if the Caribbean countries are to  104 The Caribbean bring their respective school systems into line with their cultural needs. Finally, Costa Rica is, at present, very much like our own United States - conscious of its educational shortcomings. A popular witti- cism today has it that the educational disorganization is beautifully organized. Yet there is a great deal of constructive activity. Teach- er-training conferences are continually in progress; articles on edu- cation appear in the press; class materials are being published and distributed throughout the country; there is pressure for revamping many courses. There was even a student strike in April, 1958 (in the best of Latin American traditions), because a secondary school, the Liceo de Costa Rica, was badly in need of repairs, and the students would not go to class until a promise was obtained that this be done. The University City is growing. Several new build- ings have already gone up, and more are scheduled to get underway. The task seems awesome, yet the possibility of successful achieve- ment, somehow, does not seem altogether remote. Costa Rica has an opportunity to show her sister republics what can be done by a growing and increasingly enlightened citizenry. She may well provide an object lesson for the rest of the hemisphere which will be watching with interest. NOTES 1. Diez de Medina, "Illiteracy, Education, and Democracy," Responsible Freedom in the Americas, ed. Angel del Rio (New York: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1955), p. 43. 2. Union Panamericana, Divisi6n de Educacion, La Educacion Secundaria en Amrica: Memoria del Seminario Interamericano de Educaci6n Secundaria (Washington, D.C., 1955), p. 3. 3. Ministerio de Educacion P6blica, Educacion Informa, III, 3 (Guate- mala, marzo de 1956), 8. 4. Ministerio de Educaci6n P6blica, Memoria del Primer Congreso Na- cional de Educacion (Guatemala, 1955), p. 17. 5. Ibid., p. 148. 6. Patronato Universitario de Nuevo Le6n, Vida uniersitaria, IX (Monter- rey, Mixico, 1 de julio de 1959), 10. 7. Ministerio de Educacion Pdblica, Educacion Informa, I, 5 (Guatemala, mayo de 1956), 7. 8. E. Rodriguez Vera, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San Jose, Costa Rica, 1953), p. 19. 104 The Caribbean bring their respective school systems into line with their cultural needs. Finally, Costa Rica is, at present, very much like our own United States - conscious of its educational shortcomings. A popular witti- cism today has it that the educational disorganization is beautifully organized. Yet there is a great deal of constructive activity. Teach- er-training conferences are continually in progress; articles on edu- cation appear in the press; class materials are being published and distributed throughout the country; there is pressure for revamping many courses. There was even a student strike in April, 1958 (in the best of Latin American traditions), because a secondary school, the Liceo de Costa Rica, was badly in need of repairs, and the students would not go to class until a promise was obtained that this be done. The University City is growing. Several new build- ings have already gone up, and more are scheduled to get underway. The task seems awesome, yet the possibility of successful achieve- ment, somehow, does not seem altogether remote. Costa Rica has an opportunity to show her sister republics what can be done by a growing and increasingly enlightened citizenry. She may well provide an object lesson for the rest of the hemisphere which will be watching with interest. NOTES 1. Diz de Medina, "Illiteracy, Education, and Democracy," Responsible Freedom in the Americas, ed. Angel del Rio (New York: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1955), p. 43. 2. Unidn Pananericana, Division de Educacidn, La Educacion Secundaria en Amesrica: Memoria del Seminario Interamericano de Educaci6n Secundaria (Washington, D.C., 1955), p. 3. 3. Ministerio de Educacidn Pnblica, Educacion Informa, III, 3 (Guate- mala, marzo de 1956), 8. 4. Ministerio de Educaci6n Pnblica, Memoria del Primer Congreso Na- cional de Educain (Guatemala, 1955), p. 17. 5. Ibid., p. 148. 6. Patronato Universitario de Nuevo Len, Vida unimersitaria, IX (Monter- rey, Mexico, 1 de julio de 1959), 10. 7. Ministerio de Educacidn Pdblica, Educacion Informa, I, 5 (Guatemala, mayo de 1956), 7. 8. E. Rodriguez Vera, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San Jose, Costa Rica, 1953), p. 19. 104 The Caribbean bring their respective school systems into line with their cultural needs. Finally, Costa Rica is, at present, very much like our own United States - conscious of its educational shortcomings. A popular witti- cism today has it that the educational disorganization is beautifully organized. Yet there is a great deal of constructive activity. Teach- er-training conferences are continually in progress; articles on edu- cation appear in the press; class materials are being published and distributed throughout the country; there is pressure for revamping many courses. There was even a student strike in April, 1958 (in the best of Latin American traditions), because a secondary school, the Liceo de Costa Rica, was badly in need of repairs, and the students would not go to class until a promise was obtained that this be done. The University City is growing. Several new build- ings have already gone up, and more are scheduled to get underway. The task seems awesome, yet the possibility of successful achieve- ment, somehow, does not seem altogether remote. Costa Rica has an opportunity to show her sister republics what can be done by a growing and increasingly enlightened citizenry. She may well provide an object lesson for the rest of the hemisphere which will be watching with interest. NOTES 1. Diz de Medina, "Illiteracy, Education, and Democracy," Responsible Freedom in the Americas, ed. Angel del Rio (New York: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1955), p. 43. 2. Uni6n Panamericana, Division de Educacion, La Educacion Secundaria en America: Memoria del Seminario Interamericano de Educacin Semndaria (Washington, D.C., 1955), p. 3. 3. Ministerio de Educacion Pnblica, Educaion Informa, III, 3 (Guate- mala, marzo de 1956), 8. 4. Ministerio de Educacion Pdblica, Memoria del Primer Congreso Na- cional de Educacion (Guatemala, 1955), p. 17. 5. Ibid., p. 148. 6. Patronato Universitario de Nuevo Le6n, Vida uniersitartia, IX (Monter- rey, Mexico, 1 de julio de 1959), 10. 7. Ministerio de Educacion Pdblica, Educacidn Informa, I, 5 (Guatemala, mayo de 1956), 7. 8. E. Rodriguez Vera, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San Jos, Costa Rica, 1953), p. 19.  PUBLIC EDUCATION 105 9. Emma CGamboa, Elemetarty Education in Cotar Rica wtin the Inter- ation of Cultr, Ph. D. Sissetation, the Ohio State Universty, 5955,un foma" eita de Bn Universidad de Cota Rica, XII (Satt Jto, noviembre St 1955), 145. 11. Colegio Se San, Lus Cttttgt, Colegio Sutperior St Senortitas, and the Lice., St Costa Rict. 1.Rodig Facie, "La tfltttt mdiay elpasd,delpresentey l Publica, San, Jos, novitembre St 1917), 23. 15. MinisItio St EducaciS, Publict, Inftttt sobtt el etadot de Ins traba- jos dtrfomde la sgunda ensettt cstttricne ,Sn1o6,5), pp. 29-30. 14. R. Cottst Ch., La dstionl~ escolar (Sat Jots, 1951), p. 15. 15. In 1550, 72 pet cent of all primarty school pupils were without shoes. See: Gmboa, op. ct., p. 72. 19. In 1950, the annual costt of emtarty e dto per ciIS was $18. See: Camboa, top. at., p. 78. 17. MinisterB de Educ~ac6tt Putblica, Inftorme tslbte el ettdt p. 17. Se Ba Universiad St Cota Rict, IX (San Its, junio de 1954), 151. 19. Miniterao de Edtttait PSblica, Ley Fundtamtatl de Edution, (San Iios6, 1557). 20. Minittrit de Eductait Pubic, Inftormt sbr etht t d t . ,pp. 36-37. 21. Marvin S. Pittmant, Algtuntt prolemaso~ eductativos St Cota Rica (San Jots, 1554), p. 54. PUBLIC EDUCATION 105 9. Ettmt CGatbtt, Elemetarty Education int Cota Ritt withint theter ation, of Cu~ltr, Ph. D. dsstto, te Ohio State Univtrsit, 1551, utn- publshed. 10. Isat F. Azofeia, "Don Mturt Ftr Ondez, Teoriay pratla St su. re forma, Relosta St Ba UniversidadS de Cota Ritt, XII (Sa osma, otvtembrt dt 1555), 145. 15. Colegio deSan Luis CGtnzagt, Colegio Superior Se Senitat, and the Liceo, dt Cota Bitt. 1. R driotaiet,taeit Lt mdkayl pasado,el preetetytel futur, dt la ttontotit cttoitoot/, Eduto, V (Miniterao de EduoacS,, Publict, Sat Josh, toiembre de 5557), 23. 13. Miniteriok St Educt~t Public, Infome ttbre el etado~ Se los traba- jostde ormaodeIttsguntdat ueaz t ostarricenseo (San.os, 1958), pp. 29-30. 14. R0. CotO, Ch., Lat dston escolar (San Jtos, 1956), p. 15. 15. In 1950, 72 per cent of all patmary schol pupils were wthtout sboet. Stt: Gamot, op. cit., p. 72. 16. Bn 5950, tht annual cost tof elementar education per child twast $28. 17. Miitio de pSdttttit Pubic, Infom sobte el etado . p. 17. 19. Isaac F. AzofifaB, "Pttblemtl de Bn segunda Ottoan," Revista de B Universded St Cota Bica, IX (Stn Jtos, tuni de 1954), 151. 19. Miniterio de Pducacitt Publoc, Ley Fundamtattl St Eduton (San Jos, 1957). 20. Miniterio de ESdtttpi~n Publc, Infom sabr tl eto. ,pp. 36-37. 21. Marvin S. Pitta, Algunost problemas educations St Cota Riot (San Ios, 1954), p. 34. PUBLIC EDUCATION 105 9. Emma Camboa, Elementtty Eduction in Cota Ritt withint the Itt- aton of Cuture, Pb. D. dissertttto, the Ohio State Uiversity, 1951, unt- pubished. Bormt," Revita Se Ba Universidad Se Cota Bic, XII (Sant Jos, ttoiebre dt 5955), 545. 51. Colegio dt Stat Lis Gtotttg, Colegio Superior Se Setitast, tad the LiceodCsagRica, tt odta ttta toty futtr dt Ba t,,toB ctotrriens," Eductat, V (Minsterio de Eductat Publica, Stan Jo, oviembrte St 1957), 23. 55. Miniti de Edtttti~t Pubic, Informtt ttbte el etadol de Bt trtbmt- jStd trtfom Se Ba segunda tettiiattt ctbtBtot (San mas, 1958), pp. 29-30. 14. R0. Cots Cb., Lt dston~ escolar (Sat Jo, 1956), p. 15. 15. In 1950, 72 ptt tttt tof tl ptimarty school ptpils were watbtut thott. Ite: Ctatbtt, top. ait., p. 72. 16. In 950, thtannu al ot o lemnarduatlioperhild wa$2. See: Ctttbtt, o. ait., p. 78. 17. Minitettt Se Edtttacit PSblic, Informs stbre el etado.St p. 17. 59. Itttt F. Azoia, "Pttbltmttbtt St Ba stgunda totfltta," Revist St Bn Unitrsiad St Cota Bitt, IX (Sant Jos, junio St 1954), 191. 19. Ministettio St Eductttion Publit, Lty Fundamtattl St Educton (Sant s, 5957). 20. MintrIo St Edttati~t Pubic, Thmtttt ttbrete tad lt. pp. 36-37. 21. Mtati S. Pittma, Algtos problemas educattions St Costa Bitt (Sa Jto, 1954), p. 34.   Part III Part III Part III PRIVATE EDUCATION PRIVATE EDUCATION PRIVATE EDUCATION   7 Fr. Mathias C. Kiemen: CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN I PROPOSE to present some general statistical information on Cath- olic schools, some general observations that seem significant to me, and finally, some idea of the philosophy behind Catholic schools. I hope merely to present our case as clearly as a nonprofessional can. I. General Information I have divided the Caribbean countries, for purposes of con- venience, into three groups: (1) Caribbean Islands; (2) Central America and Mexico; and (3) Caribbean Countries in South Amer- ica. CARIBBEAN ISLANDS (Total population 18,848,000;1* 13,785,000 Catholicsa) Cuba. Cuba has an estimated population of 6,166,000 of which some 5,620,000 are declared Catholics, or roughly 95 per cent. Nevertheless, public education is constitutionally declared laic, although released time may be given for religious instruction at the wishes of the parents. No subsidy is given to any private edu- cation, but even so, 776 primary schools, 108 secondary schools, and one university are maintained at the private level. Of *Notes to this chapter begin on page 122. 109 7 Fr. Mathias C. Kiemen: CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN I PROPOSE to present some general statistical information on Cath- olic schools, some general observations that seem significant to me, and finally, some idea of the philosophy behind Catholic schools. I hope merely to present our case as clearly as a nonprofessional can. . General Information I have divided the Caribbean countries, for purposes of con- venience, into three groups: (1) Caribbean Islands; (2) Central America and Mexico; and (3) Caribbean Countries in South Amer- ica. CARIBBEAN ISLANDS (Total population 18,848,000;1* 13,785,000 Catholics2) Cuba. Cuba has an estimated population of 6,166,000 of which some 5,620,000 are declared Catholics, or roughly 95 per cent. Nevertheless, public education is constitutionally declared laic, although released time may be given for religious instruction at the wishes of the parents. No subsidy is given to any private edu- cation, but even so, 776 primary schools, 108 secondary schools, and one university are maintained at the private level. Of *Notes to this chapter begin on page 122. 109 Fr. Mathias C. Kiemen: CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN I PROPOSE to present some general statistical information on Cath- olic schools, some general observations that seem significant to me, and finally, some idea of the philosophy behind Catholic schools. I hope merely to present our case as clearly as a nonprofessional can. 1. General Information I have divided the Caribbean countries, for purposes of con- venience, into three groups: (1) Caribbean Islands; (2) Central America and Mexico; and (3) Caribbean Countries in South Amer- ica. CARIBBEAN ISLANDS (Total population 18,848,000;1* 13,785,000 Catholics2) Cuba. Cuba has an estimated population of 6,166,000 of which some 5,620,000 are declared Catholics, or roughly 95 per cent. Nevertheless, public education is constitutionally declared laic, although released time may be given for religious instruction at the wishes of the parents. No subsidy is given to any private edu- cation, but even so, 776 primary schools, 108 secondary schools, and one university are maintained at the private level. Of *Notes to this chapter begin on page 122. 109  110 The Caribbean these 885 private institutions, 339 (including the Catholic Uni- versity) are under Catholic auspices. These furnish instruction to 61,070 students. This should be compared with 6,611 public primary, 21 public secondary, and three' public universities with almost 590,000 students in all.4 The only Catholic university in Cuba is in Havana: Universidad Cat6lica Santo Tomas de Villanueva. It was founded in the 1940's and was elevated to the rank of a pontifical university in 1957. It contains schools of philosophy and letters, pedagogy, art, law, com- merce, economics, and science and technology. No reliable figures of the number of students were available to me. Santo Domingo. The estimated population is 2,404,0001 of which over 2,300,000 are declared Catholics, some 95 per cent.6 According to the Concordat of 1954, public education "shall be guided by principles of Catholic doctrine and ethics," which will be taught to all pupils whose parents do not ask that they be excused. In 1954 there were 3,682 public and private primary schools with some 398,608 pupils; there existed 28 public secondary with 7,801, and 39 (24 aided by the government) private secondary schools with 1,836 pupils. The University of Santo Domingo was said to have 8,009 students in attendance in 1954-55.1 Haiti. With a total population of 3,305,000, Haiti is said to have a Catholic population of 2,378,0008 which makes a percentage of about 75. There is a small subsidy made to private education, especially rural. In 1954 it amounted to 248,130 out of 18,012,795 gourdes. In 1954-55 there were 240 private urban primary schools with 25,955 pupils; 340 aided rural schools with 20,122, and 290 Protestant-maintained primary schools with 18,402 enrollment; there were 25 private secondary schools with 1,880, and only 14 public secondary with 5,300. There did not seem to be any adequately clear figures for enrollment in the five private colleges. The Annuario Pontificio lists Haiti as having 513 Catholic schools with 55,137 students, but does not give a breakdown of figures into types of schools. Catholic religious and moral instruction is given on a vol- untary basis in the public schools of Haiti.0 Bahama Islands. Here Catholics are a minority of less than 20 per cent" but still maintain 34 primary and secondary schools with a combined total of 3,336 students. At least 22 of these elementary schools receive government aid." Jamaica. With only 102,000 Catholics out of a population of 110 The Caribbean these 885 private institutions, 39 (including the Catholic Uni- versity) are under Catholic auspices. These furnish instruction to 61,070 students. This should be compared with 6,611 public primary, 21 public secondary, and three public universities with almost 590,000 students in all.4 The only Catholic university in Cuba is in Havana: Universidad Cat6lica Santo Tomas de Villanueva. It was founded in the 1940's and was elevated to the rank of a pontifical university in 1957. It contains schools of philosophy and letters, pedagogy, art, law, com- merce, economics, and science and technology. No reliable figures of the number of students were available to me. Santo Domingo. The estimated population is 2,404,0006 of which over 2,300,000 are declared Catholics, some 95 per cent.0 According to the Concordat of 1954, public education "shall be guided by principles of Catholic doctrine and ethics," which will be taught to all pupils whose parents do not ask that they be excused. In 1954 there were 3,682 public and private primary schools with some 598,608 pupils; there existed 28 public secondary with 7,801, and 39 (24 aided by the government) private secondary schools with 1,836 pupils. The University of Santo Domingo was said to have 3,009 students in attendance in 1954-55.7 Haiti. With a total population of 3,305,000, Haiti is said to have a Catholic population of 2,378,0008 which makes a percentage of about 75. There is a small subsidy made to private education, especially rural. In 1954 it amounted to 248,100 out of 18,012,795 gourdes. In 1954-55 there were 240 private urban primary schools with 25,955 pupils; 340 aided rural schools with 20,122, and 290 Protestant-maintained primary schools with 18,402 enrollment; there were 25 private secondary schools with 1,880, and only 14 public secondary with 5,300. There did not seem to be any adequately clear figures for enrollment in the five private colleges. The Annuario Pontificio lists Haiti as having 513 Catholic schools with 55,137 students, but does not give a breakdown of figures into types of schools. Catholic religious and moral instruction is given on a vol- untary basis in the public schools of Haiti.' Bahama Islands. Here Catholics are a minority of less than 20 per cents' but still maintain 34 primary and secondary schools with a combined total of 3,336 students. At least 22 of these elementary schools receive government aid.' Jamaica. With only 102,000 Catholics out of a population of 110 The Caribbean these 885 private institutions, 339 (including the Catholic Uni- versity) are under Catholic auspices. These furnish instruction to 61,070 students. This should be compared with 6,611 public primary, 21 public secondary, and three' public universities with almost 590,000 students in all.4 The only Catholic university in Cuba is in Havana: Universidad Cat6lica Santo Tomis de Villanueva. It was founded in the 1940's and was elevated to the rank of a pontifical university in 1957. It contains schools of philosophy and letters, pedagogy, art, law, com- merce, economics, and science and technology. No reliable figures of the number of students were available to me. Santo Domingo. The estimated population is 2,404,0001 of which over 2,300,000 are declared Catholics, some 95 per cent. According to the Concordat of 1954, public education "shall be guided by principles of Catholic doctrine and ethics," which will be taught to all pupils whose parents do not ask that they be excused. In 1954 there were 3,682 public and private primary schools with some 398,608 pupils; there existed 28 public secondary with 7,801, and 39 (24 aided by the government) private secondary schools with 1,836 pupils. The University of Santo Domingo was said to have 3,009 students in attendance in 1954-55.7 Haiti. With a total population of 3,305,000, Haiti is said to have a Catholic population of 2,378,0008 which makes a percentage of about 75. There is a small subsidy made to private education, especially rural. In 1954 it amounted to 248,130 out of 18,012,795 gourdes. In 1954-55 there were 240 private urban primary schools with 25,955 pupils; 340 aided rural schools with 20,122, and 290 Protestant-maintained primary schools with 18,402 enrollment; there were 25 private secondary schools with 1,880, and only 14 public secondary with 5,300. There did not seem to be any adequately clear figures for enrollment in the five private colleges. The Annuario Pontificio lists Haiti as having 513 Catholic schools with 55,137 students, but does not give a breakdown of figures into types of schools. Catholic religious and moral instruction is given on a vol- untary basis in the public schools of Haiti. Bahama Islands. Here Catholics are a minority of less than 20 per cent"' but still maintain 34 primary and secondary schools with a combined total of 3,336 students. At least 22 of these elementary schools receive government aid." Jamaica. With only 102,000 Catholics out of a population of  PRIVATE EDUCATION 111 1,581,000 (less than 10 per cent), Jamaica favors the Anglican Church more than any other. UNESCO mentions that in 1915 the government took over the financing "of all elementary education except that provided by the Roman Catholics." The same report goes on to say that more than half the elementary schools and also more than half the secondary are owned by the churches, with the Church of England having the largest share. "For over 50 years there has been a legal veto on the addition of any church school to the list of grant-aided elementary schools. This veto protects their privileged position as against that of churches which have more recently expanded their activities in the island, such as the Roman Catholic church and some United States missionary churches.""a Government-maintained or -aided elementary institutions number 713 with 218,513 pupils; secondary-aided or -maintained number 28 with 7,914 students (figures are for 1953). Nevertheless, the Catholic Church maintains on the island and its dependencies 169 primary and secondary schools with 18,745 students? It does not maintain any institutions of higher learning. The University College of the West Indies itself in 1953 had only 301 students 14 In 1959-60 it had 720. Trinidad, Dominica, and Grenada. With 40 per cent of the popu- lation (503,000 of 1,125,000), the Catholics maintain 260 primary and secondary schools with 84,996 students.55 There is no break- down in these statistics in my sources. UNESCO uses a different division of the islands, making comparison between public and private schools impossible.1' St. Lucia and St. Vincent. I could not obtain complete statistics concerning Catholic schools on these two British islands, now part of the West Indies Federation. The government maintains and aids 49 primary schools with 14,505 pupils on St. Lucia, and 41 with 15,462 pupils on St. Vincent. On the former island the gov- ernment aids two secondary schools with 629 students, while on the latter the government maintains and aids three secondary in- stitutions with 503 students. The only facts I could find about Catholic schools were these: the Church in 1953 maintained un- aided one school on St. Vincent, and two colleges, one for boys and one for girls, on St. Lucia. Barbados. Here also I could not find comparative statistics for Catholic and public schools. In 1952-53 there were 25,729 primary PRIVATE EDUCATION 111 1,581,000 (less than 10 per cent), Jamaica favors the Anglican Church more than any other. UNESCO mentions that in 1915 the government took over the financing "of all elementary education except that provided by the Roman Catholics." The same report goes on to say that more than half the elementary schools and also more than half the secondary are owned by the churches, with the Church of England having the largest share. "For over 50 years there has been a legal veto on the addition of any church school to the list of grant-aided elementary schools. This veto protects their privileged position as against that of churches which have more recently expanded their activities in the island, such as the Roman Catholic church and some United States missionary churches."12 Government-maintained or -aided elementary institutions number 713 with 218,513 pupils; secondary-aided or -maintained number 28 with 7,914 students (figures are for 1953). Nevertheless, the Catholic Church maintains on the island and its dependencies 169 primary and secondary schools with 18,745 students.1' It does not maintain any institutions of higher learning. The University College of the West Indies itself in 1953 had only 301 students. In 1959-60 it had 720. Trinidad, Dominica, and Grenada. With 40 per cent of the popu- lation (503,000 of 1,125,000), the Catholics maintain 260 primary and secondary schools with 84,996 students." There is no break- down in these statistics in my sources. UNESCO uses a different division of the islands, making comparison between public and private schools impossible." St. Lucia and St. Vincent. I could not obtain complete statistics concerning Catholic schools on these two British islands, now part of the West Indies Federation. The government maintains and aids 49 primary schools with 14,505 pupils on St. Lucia, and 41 with 15,462 pupils on St. Vincent. On the former island the gov- ernment aids two secondary schools with 629 students, while on the latter the government maintains and aids three secondary in- stitutions with 503 students. The only facts I could find about Catholic schools were these: the Church in 1953 maintained un- aided one school on St. Vincent, and two colleges, one for boys and one for girls, on St. LucialT Barbados. Here also I could not find comparative statistics for Catholic and public schools. In 1952-53 there were 25,729 primary PRIVATE EDUCATION 111 1,581,000 (less than 10 per cent), Jamaica favors the Anglican Church more than any other. UNESCO mentions that in 1915 the government took over the financing "of all elementary education except that provided by the Roman Catholics." The same report goes on to say that more than half the elementary schools and also more than half the secondary are owned by the churches, with the Church of England having the largest share. "For over 50 years there has been a legal veto on the addition of any church school to the list of grant-aided elementary schools. This veto protects their privileged position as against that of churches which have more recently expanded their activities in the island, such as the Roman Catholic church and some United States missionary churches."12 Government-maintained or -aided elementary institutions number 713 with 218,513 pupils; secondary-aided or -maintained number 28 with 7,914 students (figures are for 1953). Nevertheless, the Catholic Church maintains on the island and its dependencies 169 primary and secondary schools with 18,745 students.'5 It does not maintain any institutions of higher learning. The University College of the West Indies itself in 1953 had only 301 students. In 1959-60 it had 720. Trinidad, Dominica, and Grenada. With 40 per cent of the popu- lation (503,000 of 1,125,000), the Catholics maintain 260 primary and secondary schools with 84,996 students." There is no break- down in these statistics in my sources. UNESCO uses a different division of the islands, making comparison between public and private schools impossible.16 St. Lucia and St. Vincent. I could not obtain complete statistics concerning Catholic schools on these two British islands, now part of the West Indies Federation. The government maintains and aids 49 primary schools with 14,505 pupils on St. Lucia, and 41 with 15,462 pupils on St. Vincent. On the former island the gov- ernment aids two secondary schools with 629 students, while on the latter the government maintains and aids three secondary in- stitutions with 503 students. The only facts I could find about Catholic schools were these: the Church in 1953 maintained un- aided one school on St. Vincent, and two colleges, one for boys and one for girls, on St. Lucia." Barbados. Here also I could not find comparative statistics for Catholic and public schools. In 1952-53 there were 25,729 primary  112 The Caribbean students in 122 government-maintained, eight aided, and three independent private schools. In the same year there were 12,774 secondary students in two government-maintained, 11 senior pri- mary, ten government-aided and nine independent private schools. No breakdown of figures is given. From another source I ascer- tained that in 1953 the Church maintained a college for boys with 375 students, four academy-colleges for girls with 1,350 students, and 50 elementary schools with 11,000 pupils. The Catholic popu- lation was given as 50,000.18 Curagao. The Dutch island of Curagao is about 70 per cent Cath- olic (127,000 of 186,000). The Catholic Church owns some 133 Catholic primary and secondary schools with 34,838 students in attendance.19 The situation for private schools in the Dutch pos- sessions is the most favorable in the Caribbean. Modern elementary education began in 1884. Until 1907 a "neutrality" clause in the constitution, which demanded that no religion be favored over any other, effectively stopped private schools, Protestant or Cath- olic, from obtaining subsidies. In that year the "neutrality" clause was scrapped. In 1935 a new law ordained equal subventions for private and for governmental primary education. Private schools can even pick their own textbooks, subject to state review of their adequacy for teaching purposes?* Guadeloupe and Martinique. These French islands have been departements since January 1, 1948, and hence follow French law in regard to schools. Public education must be in the hands of lay- men and must be secular. There is no evidence in the sources avail- able to me that private education is subsidized in any way, although there is an ambiguous statement that Catholic teachers in private schools are "salaried." In any case, the number of Catholic primary and secondary schools is very small (17, with 4,809 students out of a possible 130 with 40,447 students) when one considers that the declared Catholics are about 95 per cent of the population (550,000 to 555,000).21 Puerto Rico. This island commonwealth, with 2,200,000 Cath- olics in a total of 2,353,000 souls, is another predominantly Catholic Caribbean country. The United States system of public schools is firmly established. In 1954-55 there were 1,789 public primary schools with 401,775 pupils and 315 high schools with 127,140 stu- dents, while there were only 94 private primary institutions with 23,608 pupils and 121 private high schools with 15,319 students. 112 The Caribbean students in 122 government-maintained, eight aided, and three independent private schools. In the same year there were 12,774 secondary students in two government-maintained, 11 senior pri- mary, ten government-aided and nine independent private schools. No breakdown of figures is given. From another source I ascer- tained that in 1953 the Church maintained a college for boys with 375 students, four academy-colleges for girls with 1,350 students, and 50 elementary schools with 11,000 pupils. The Catholic popu- lation was given as 50,000.18 Curagao. The Dutch island of Curagao is about 70 per cent Cath- olic (127,000 of 186,000). The Catholic Church owns some 133 Catholic primary and secondary schools with 34,838 students in attendance.19 The situation for private schools in the Dutch pos- sessions is the most favorable in the Caribbean. Modern elementary education began in 1884. Until 1907 a "neutrality" clause in the constitution, which demanded that no religion be favored over any other, effectively stopped private schools, Protestant or Cath- olic, from obtaining subsidies. In that year the "neutrality" clause was scrapped. In 1935 a new law ordained equal subventions for private and for governmental primary education. Private schools can even pick their own textbooks, subject to state review of their adequacy for teaching purposes? 2 Guadeloupe and Martinique. These French islands have been departements since January 1, 1948, and hence follow French law in regard to schools. Public education must be in the hands of lay- men and must be secular. There is no evidence in the sources avail- able to me that private education is subsidized in any way, although there is an ambiguous statement that Catholic teachers in private schools are "salaried." In any case, the number of Catholic primary and secondary schools is very small (17, with 4,809 students out of a possible 130 with 40,447 students) when one considers that the declared Catholics are about 95 per cent of the population (550,000 to 555,000). Puerto Rico. This island commonwealth, with 2,200,000 Cath- olics in a total of 2,353,000 souls, is another predominantly Catholic Caribbean country. The United States system of public schools is firmly established. In 1954-55 there were 1,789 public primary schools with 401,775 pupils and 315 high schools with 127,140 stu- dents, while there were only 94 private primary institutions with 23,608 pupils and 121 private high schools with 15,319 students. 112 The Caribbean students in 122 government-maintained, eight aided, and three independent private schools. In the same year there were 12,774 secondary students in two government-maintained, 11 senior pri- mary, ten government-aided and nine independent private schools. No breakdown of figures is given. From another source I ascer- tained that in 1953 the Church maintained a college for boys with 375 students, four academy-colleges for girls with 1,350 students, and 50 elementary schools with 11,000 pupils. The Catholic popu- lation was given as 50,000.1s Curagao. The Dutch island of Curagao is about 70 per cent Cath- olic (127,000 of 186,000). The Catholic Church owns some 133 Catholic primary and secondary schools with 34,838 students in attendance.19 The situation for private schools in the Dutch pos- sessions is the most favorable in the Caribbean. Modern elementary education began in 1884. Until 1907 a "neutrality" clause in the constitution, which demanded that no religion be favored over any other, effectively stopped private schools, Protestant or Cath- olic, from obtaining subsidies. In that year the "neutrality" clause was scrapped. In 1935 a new law ordained equal subventions for private and for governmental primary education. Private schools can even pick their own textbooks, subject to state review of their adequacy for teaching purposes.?5 Guadeloupe and Martinique. These French islands have been departements since January 1, 1948, and hence follow French law in regard to schools. Public education must be in the hands of lay- men and must be secular. There is no evidence in the sources avail- able to me that private education is subsidized in any way, although there is an ambiguous statement that Catholic teachers in private schools are "salaried." In any case, the number of Catholic primary and secondary schools is very small (17, with 4,809 students out of a possible 130 with 40,447 students) when one considers that the declared Catholics are about 95 per cent of the population (550,000 to 555,000)." Puerto Rico. This island commonwealth, with 2,200,000 Cath- olics in a total of 2,353,000 souls, is another predominantly Catholic Caribbean country. The United States system of public schools is firmly established. In 1954-55 there were 1,789 public primary schools with 401,775 pupils and 315 high schools with 127,140 stu- dents, while there were only 94 private primary institutions with 23,608 pupils and 121 private high schools with 15,319 students.  PRIVATE EDUCATION 113 Included in these private schools there were (in 1956) 84 Catholic schools, primary and secondary, containing 34,446 students in all. Higher education is also well developed. The two largest schools are the University of Puerto Rico with 11,372 students in 1954-55 and the Catholic University of Puerto Rico with 3,000 students in the same year, 5,000 in 1959-60?22 Virgin Islands of the United States. The parochial schools in these islands received subsidies from the government during the tenure of Denmark. This, of course, ceased when the United States assumed ownership. In 1954-55 there were seven parochial primary schools with 1,381 pupils on these small islands of 24,000 population. Public primary schools numbered, in the same year, 21, with 3,714 pupils, and other private schools were five in number, with 296 pupils. UNESCO lists the secondary schools only as public (five, with 1,517 students) and private (nine, with 575 students) 2 CENTRAL AMERICA AND MEXICO (Total population 42,440,00024; Catholic 36,584,0002) Costa Rica. Costa Rica has an estimated population of 991,000 of which 943,000 are declared Catholics, more than 90 per cent.?" In 1954 there were some 1,240 primary schools with 121,884 pupils, while there were only 82 private schools, with 6,572 students. In the same year there were 25 public secondary schools with 9,500 students, and 22 private secondary with 4,263 students. Of this total of 104 private primary and secondary institutions, 46 were under Catholic auspices with 7,523 students in attendance.' There was a small subsidy to private education in 1954-55. It amounted to 324,317 out of a total education budget of 40,436,614 colones. Cath- olic religious and moral instruction is taught on a voluntary basis in the public schools."5 El Salvador. The population of El Salvador is 2,206,000, of which 2,181,000 are Catholic." By the constitution of September 7, 1950, public education shall be secular. Private schools are subject to regulation and inspection by the state. There is no subsidy for private education. Again the proportion of public schools is pre- dominant: there were in 1954-55, 1,937 public primary schools with 185,896 pupils and only 97 private primary schools with 11,032 pupils; in the same year there were 58 public secondary institutions with 6,218, while there were 74 private secondary establishments PRIVATE EDUCATION 113 Included in these private schools there were (in 1956) 84 Catholic schools, primary and secondary, containing 34,446 students in all. Higher education is also well developed. The two largest schools are the University of Puerto Rico with 11,372 students in 1954-55 and the Catholic University of Puerto Rico with 3,000 students in the same year, 5,000 in 1959-60.22 Virgin Islands of the United States. The parochial schools in these islands received subsidies from the government during the tenure of Denmark. This, of course, ceased when the United States assumed ownership. In 1954-55 there were seven parochial primary schools with 1,381 pupils on these small islands of 24,000 population. Public primary schools numbered, in the same year, 21, with 3,714 pupils, and other private schools were five in number, with 296 pupils. UNESCO lists the secondary schools only as public (five, with 1,517 students) and private (nine, with 575 students)a35 CENTRAL AMERICA AND MEXICO (Total population 42,440,00024; Catholic 36,584,0002) Costa Rica. Costa Rica has an estimated population of 991,000 of which 943,000 are declared Catholics, more than 90 per cent? 2 In 1954 there were some 1,240 primary schools with 121,884 pupils, while there were only 82 private schools, with 6,572 students. In the same year there were 25 public secondary schools with 9,500 students, and 22 private secondary with 4,263 students. Of this total of 104 private primary and secondary institutions, 46 were under Catholic auspices with 7,523 students in attendance. There was a small subsidy to private education in 1954-55. It amounted to 324,317 out of a total education budget of 40,436,614 colones. Cath- olic religious and moral instruction is taught on a voluntary basis in the public schools.28 El Salvador. The population of El Salvador is 2,206,000, of which 2,181,000 are Catholic " By the constitution of September 7, 1950, public education shall be secular. Private schools are subject to regulation and inspection by the state. There is no subsidy for private education. Again the proportion of public schools is pre- dominant: there were in 1954-55, 1,937 public primary schools with 185,896 pupils and only 97 private primary schools with 11,032 pupils; in the same year there were 58 public secondary institutions with 6,218, while there were 74 private secondary establishments PRIVATE EDUCATION 113 Included in these private schools there were (in 1956) 84 Catholic schools, primary and secondary, containing 34,446 students in all. Higher education is also well developed. The two largest schools are the University of Puerto Rico with 11,372 students in 1954-55 and the Catholic University of Puerto Rico with 3,000 students in the same year, 5,000 in 1959-60.22 Virgin Islands of the United States. The parochial schools in these islands received subsidies from the government during the tenure of Denmark. This, of course, ceased when the United States assumed ownership. In 1954-55 there were seven parochial primary schools with 1,381 pupils on these small islands of 24,000 population. Public primary schools numbered, in the same year, 21, with 3,714 pupils, and other private schools were five in number, with 296 pupils. UNESCO lists the secondary schools only as public (five, with 1,517 students) and private (nine, with 575 students).2 CENTRAL AMERICA AND MEXICO (Total population 42,440,00024; Catholic 36,584,0002) Costa Rica. Costa Rica has an estimated population of 991,000 of which 943,000 are declared Catholics, more than 90 per cent."5 In 1954 there were some 1,240 primary schools with 121,884 pupils, while there were only 82 private schools, with 6,572 students. In the same year there were 25 public secondary schools with 9,500 students, and 22 private secondary with 4,263 students. Of this total of 104 private primary and secondary institutions, 46 were under Catholic auspices with 7,523 students in attendance There was a small subsidy to private education in 1954-55. It amounted to 324,317 out of a total education budget of 40,436,614 colones. Cath- olic religious and moral instruction is taught on a voluntary basis in the public schoolsas El Salvador. The population of El Salvador is 2,206,000, of which 2,181,000 are Catholic."5 By the constitution of September 7, 1950, public education shall be secular. Private schools are subject to regulation and inspection by the state. There is no subsidy for private education. Again the proportion of public schools is pre- dominant: there were in 1954-55, 1,937 public primary schools with 185,896 pupils and only 97 private primary schools with 11,032 pupils; in the same year there were 58 public secondary institutions with 6,218, while there were 74 private secondary establishments  114 The Caribbean with 5,000 students. Of this total of 171 private schools there were 82 Catholic schools with 19,495 students.30 Guatemala. This country counts 3,094,000 declared Catholics out of 3,185,000 total population, over 95 per cent. Nevertheless, public education was secular from 1871 to 1955, when the new constitution allowed religion to be included in the curriculum of public schools, on a voluntary basis. Private educational establishments are subject to state inspection and for legal recognition must be expressly au- thorized and must comply with the official programs and curricula. In 1954 there were 2,654 public primary and 18 public secondary schools with 163,445 and 6,585 students, respectively. In the same year there were 878 private primary and 43 private secondary establishments with 6,585 and 3,363 students, respectively. Of this total of 921 private schools there are 72 Catholic schools of all descriptions, with a total of 14,330 students, according to another source. It is evident at once that the private, nonsectarian schools, for the most part, must be very small, perhaps single-teacher schools.01 British Honduras (Belize). There are some 50,000 Catholics in this country of only 83,000 population. United Nations figures are too fragmentary to be of any use here. A Catholic source lists 84 Catholic primary and secondary schools with a total enrollment of 11,825 studentsa Honduras. This predominantly Catholic country (1,403,000 nom- inal or declared Catholics out of 1,660,000) has had, since Novem- ber 1, 1880, "compulsory, secular, and free" primary education. The old constitution went even further and said that secondary education also should be "undenominational." But the new con- stitution approved in 1957 does not prohibit public school religious instruction (optional) or government subsidies to religious activi- ties. The UNESCO report, which is used so often in this paper because it is the most recent and reliable general report, gives no figures for private educational institutions. It lists 2,282 public primary and 19 public secondary schools with 124,879 and 1,441 students, respectively. My Catholic source lists 35 Catholic schools with 16,655 students 33 Nicaragua. Here is another predominantly Catholic country3' with largely laic education. It is refreshing to read in the 1950 constitution, however, that "the education of children is a primary duty of the parents," after the reiterated sole claim of the state to 114 The Caribbean with 5,000 students. Of this total of 171 private schools there were 82 Catholic schools with 19,495 students 30 Guatemala. This country counts 3,094,000 declared Catholics out of 3,185,000 total population, over 95 per cent. Nevertheless, public education was secular from 1871 to 1955, when the new constitution allowed religion to be included in the curriculum of public schools, on a voluntary basis. Private educational establishments are subject to state inspection and for legal recognition must be expressly au- thorized and must comply with the official programs and curricula. In 1954 there were 2,654 public primary and 18 public secondary schools with 163,445 and 6,585 students, respectively. In the same year there were 878 private primary and 43 private secondary establishments with 6,585 and 3,363 students, respectively. Of this total of 921 private schools there are 72 Catholic schools of all descriptions, with a total of 14,330 students, according to another source. It is evident at once that the private, nonsectarian schools, for the most part, must be very small, perhaps single-teacher schools." British Honduras (Belize). There are some 50,000 Catholics in this country of only 83,000 population. United Nations figures are too fragmentary to be of any use here. A Catholic source lists 84 Catholic primary and secondary schools with a total enrollment of 11,825 students."a Honduras. This predominantly Catholic country (1,403,000 nom- inal or declared Catholics out of 1,660,000) has had, since Novem- ber 1, 1880, "compulsory, secular, and free" primary education. The old constitution went even further and said that secondary education also should be "undenominational." But the new con- stitution approved in 1957 does not prohibit public school religious instruction (optional) or government subsidies to religious activi- ties. The UNESCO report, which is used so often in this paper because it is the most recent and reliable general report, gives no figures for private educational institutions. It lists 2,282 public primary and 19 public secondary schools with 124,879 and 1,441 students, respectively. My Catholic source lists 35 Catholic schools with 16,655 students. 3 Nicaragua. Here is another predominantly Catholic country" with largely laic education. It is refreshing to read in the 1950 constitution, however, that "the education of children is a primary duty of the parents," after the reiterated sole claim of the state to 114 The Caribbean with 5,000 students. Of this total of 171 private schools there were 82 Catholic schools with 19,495 students.as Guatemala. This country counts 3,094,000 declared Catholics out of 3,185,000 total population, over 95 per cent. Nevertheless, public education was secular from 1871 to 1955, when the new constitution allowed religion to be included in the curriculum of public schools, on a voluntary basis. Private educational establishments are subject to state inspection and for legal recognition must be expressly au- thorized and must comply with the official programs and curricula. In 1954 there were 2,654 public primary and 18 public secondary schools with 163,445 and 6,585 students, respectively. In the same year there were 878 private primary and 43 private secondary establishments with 6,585 and 3,363 students, respectively. Of this total of 921 private schools there are 72 Catholic schools of all descriptions, with a total of 14,330 students, according to another source. It is evident at once that the private, nonsectarian schools, for the most part, must be very small, perhaps single-teacher schools." British Honduras (Belize). There are some 50,000 Catholics in this country of only 83,000 population. United Nations figures are too fragmentary to be of any use here. A Catholic source lists 84 Catholic primary and secondary schools with a total enrollment of 11,825 students." Honduras. This predominantly Catholic country (1,403,000 nom- inal or declared Catholics out of 1,660,000) has had, since Novem- ber 1, 1880, "compulsory, secular, and free" primary education. The old constitution went even further and said that secondary education also should be "undenominational." But the new con- stitution approved in 1957 does not prohibit public school religious instruction (optional) or government subsidies to religious activi- ties. The UNESCO report, which is used so often in this paper because it is the most recent and reliable general report, gives no figures for private educational institutions. It lists 2,282 public primary and 19 public secondary schools with 124,879 and 1,441 students, respectively. My Catholic source lists 35 Catholic schools with 16,655 students "3 Nicaragua. Here is another predominantly Catholic country34 with largely laic education. It is refreshing to read in the 1950 constitution, however, that "the education of children is a primary duty of the parents," after the reiterated sole claim of the state to  PRIVATE EDUCATION 115 this duty in other Caribbean constitutions. Private schools must conform to the official program of studies. There are 2,005 public primary and ten public secondary schools given, with 101,998 and 1,498 students, respectively (1954-55); during the same year there were 90 private primary and 29 private high schools with 13,647 and 2,283 students, respectively. Ecclesiastical Statistics, 1958, based on the Annuario Pontificio for 1958, gives the number of 74 Catholic schools with 16,655 students in all. Panama. There is the same story of laic education in this small country (700,000 Catholics out of 900,000 total), with stress laid in the constitution on the overriding obligation and right of the state to regulate all education, both public and private. There is a special statement to the effect that the state may "intervene in private teaching establishments to see that the national and social purposes of culture ... are complied with in them." Public primary schools number 1,004 with 125,183 pupils as against 77 private primary institutions with 7,560 students; 12 public secondary with 12,410, with 12 private establishments with 1,843 students. Another source lists 26 Catholic schools with 9,508 students.35 Mexico. Mexico is a case apart when it comes to constitutional laws forbidding Catholic private education. Primary education was declared free and compulsory in December, 1867; it was made "secular" in 1869. In 1917 state supervision of private education was declared obligatory. The fourth section of Article 3 of the 1917 constitution declares clearly: "Religious corporations, ministers of faiths, stock corporations that exclusively or predominantly perform education activities, and associations or societies connected with the propagation of any religious belief may not intervene in any form in educational institutions in which is imparted primary, sec- ondary, or normal education and in those intended for workers and peasants."36 Even though this law is still on the books, Mexico, in spite of her difficulties, is still over 90 per cent Catholic (27,225,000 out of 29,- 679,000), and there are today some 2,002 Catholic schools with 450,711 students. UNESCO gives no figures for private primary schools, and lists 219 private secondary schools as of 1954, some of which may well be non-Catholic. There is an evident discrepancy here.37 The whole subject of Mexican education is much too com- plicated for discussion in this paper. The 20,000 rural schools alone merit extended study from many angles. PRIVATE EDUCATION 115 this duty in other Caribbean constitutions. Private schools must conform to the official program of studies. There are 2,005 public primary and ten public secondary schools given, with 101,998 and 1,498 students, respectively (1954-55); during the same year there were 90 private primary and 29 private high schools with 13,647 and 2,283 students, respectively. Ecclesiastical Statistics, 1958, based on the Annuario Pontificio for 1958, gives the number of 74 Catholic schools with 16,655 students in all. Panama. There is the same story of laic education in this small country (700,000 Catholics out of 900,000 total), with stress laid in the constitution on the overriding obligation and right of the state to regulate all education, both public and private. There is a special statement to the effect that the state may "intervene in private teaching establishments to see that the national and social purposes of culture ... are complied with in them." Public primary schools number 1,004 with 125,183 pupils as against 77 private primary institutions with 7,560 students; 12 public secondary with 12,410, with 12 private establishments with 1,843 students. Another source lists 26 Catholic schools with 9,508 students.r" Mexico. Mexico is a case apart when it comes to constitutional laws forbidding Catholic private education. Primary education was declared free and compulsory in December, 1867; it was made "secular" in 1869. In 1917 state supervision of private education was declared obligatory. The fourth section of Article 3 of the 1917 constitution declares clearly: "Religious corporations, ministers of faiths, stock corporations that exclusively or predominantly perform education activities, and associations or societies connected with the propagation of any religious belief may not intervene in any form in educational institutions in which is imparted primary, sec- ondary, or normal education and in those intended for workers and peasants."6 Even though this law is still on the books, Mexico, in spite of her difficulties, is still over 90 per cent Catholic (27,223,000 out of 29,- 679,000), and there are today some 2,002 Catholic schools with 450,711 students. UNESCO gives no figures for private primary schools, and lists 219 private secondary schools as of 1954, some of which may well be non-Catholic. There is an evident discrepancy here.37 The whole subject of Mexican education is much too com- plicated for discussion in this paper. The 20,000 rural schools alone merit extended study from many angles. PRIVATE EDUCATION 115 this duty in other Caribbean constitutions. Private schools must conform to the official program of studies. There are 2,005 public primary and ten public secondary schools given, with 101,998 and 1,498 students, respectively (1954-55); during the same year there were 90 private primary and 29 private high schools with 13,647 and 2,283 students, respectively. Ecclesiastical Statistics, 1958, based on the Annuario Pontifcio for 1958, gives the number of 74 Catholic schools with 16,655 students in all. Panama. There is the same story of laic education in this small country (700,000 Catholics out of 900,000 total), with stress laid in the constitution on the overriding obligation and right of the state to regulate all education, both public and private. There is a special statement to the effect that the state may "intervene in private teaching establishments to see that the national and social purposes of culture ... are complied with in them." Public primary schools number 1,004 with 125,183 pupils as against 77 private primary institutions with 7,560 students; 12 public secondary with 12,410, with 12 private establishments with 1,843 students. Another source lists 26 Catholic schools with 9,508 students.3" Mexico. Mexico is a case apart when it comes to constitutional laws forbidding Catholic private education. Primary education was declared free and compulsory in December, 1867; it was made "secular" in 1869. In 1917 state supervision of private education was declared obligatory. The fourth section of Article 3 of the 1917 constitution declares clearly: "Religious corporations, ministers of faiths, stock corporations that exclusively or predominantly perform education activities, and associations or societies connected with the propagation of any religious belief may not intervene in any form in educational institutions in which is imparted primary, sec- ondary, or normal education and in those intended for workers and peasants."6 Even though this law is still on the books, Mexico, in spite of her difficulties, is still over 90 per cent Catholic (27,223,000 out of 29,- 679,000), and there are today some 2,002 Catholic schools with 450,711 students. UNESCO gives no figures for private primary schools, and lists 219 private secondary schools as of 1954, some of which may well be non-Catholic. There is an evident discrepancy here.37 The whole subject of Mexican education is much too com- plicated for discussion in this paper. The 20,000 rural schools alone merit extended study from many angles.  116 The Caribbean CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES IN SOUTTH AMERICA (Total population 19,819,000; Catholics 18,818,00038) Colombia. For some reason statistics concerning schools in this highly Catholic country (12,942,000 of 13,150,000) are highly unsatisfactory. The UNESCO figures and those based on the Annu- ario Pontificio, the official Catholic source, do not agree. The for- mer lists 1,505 private urban, 68 private rural, and 440 private src- ondary schools, and 13 private universities and colleges, with 145,- 191, 2,901, 42,185, and 4,217 students respectively. All these together do not equal the figure of 4,272 Catholic schools and 355,- 099 pupils given in the Annuario. The Annuario figures are more recent, but even then it is difficult to account for such a difference." Like so many other Spanish American countries, the state takes to itself the "over-all supervision of institutions of learning, both public and private." Colombia, however, is one of the few Latin American countries in which Catholic religious and moral train- ing is given in public schools. It is this perhaps which helps to blur the statistics above40 A comparatively small subsidy of 12,096,- 000 pesos was given to private education in 1954, out of a total education budget of 155,565,000. Colombia has the unique distinction among Spanish American countries of having two Catholic Pontifical universities. They are the Universidad Javeriana in Bogota, recognized in 1937 and con- taining schools of theology, canon law, philosophy, letters, peda- gogy, law, economics, medicine, dentistry, engineering, architecture, bacteriology, and art; and the Pontificia Universidad Catflica Bol- ivariana, recognized in 1945, and possessing schools of law, political science, philosophy and letters, engineering, industrial chemistry, architecture, and urban planning.45 Venezuela. Venezuela counts 5,736,000 Catholics among its 5,900,000 population, and is one of the small group of Latin Ameri- can states where there is legal union of church and state. Public schools, however, are still secular in tone. Private schools are numerous but mostly nondenominational or non-Catholic. There were in 1953-54 some 5,227 federal and 1,154 state public primary schools with 430,750 and 65,372 pupils. At the same time there were 633 private primary schools with 87,666 pupils. On the sec- ondary level there were in 1954-55, 52 public institutions with 13,727 pupils and 148 private schools with 9,436. There were, besides, in 116 The Caribbean CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES IN Souo AMEmCA (Total population 19,819,000; Catholics 18,818,0003s) 116 The Caribbean CARUBBEAN COUNTRIES IN SOuTH AMEmCA (Total population 19,819,000; Catholics 18,818,00038) Colombia. For some reason statistics concerning schools in this highly Catholic country (12,942,000 of 13,150,000) are highly unsatisfactory. The UNESCO figures and those based on the Annu- ario Pontificio, the official Catholic source, do not agree. The for- mer lists 1,505 private urban, 68 private rural, and 440 private sec- ondary schools, and 13 private universities and colleges, with 145,- 191, 2,901, 42,185, and 4,217 students respectively. All these together do not equal the figure of 4,272 Catholic schools and 355,- 099 pupils given in the Annuario. The Annuario figures are more recent, but even then it is difficult to account for such a difference0 Like so many other Spanish American countries, the state takes to itself the "over-all supervision of institutions of learning, both public and private." Colombia, however, is one of the few Latin American countries in which Catholic religious and moral train- ing is given in public schools. It is this perhaps which helps to blur the statistics above.40 A comparatively small subsidy of 12,096,- 000 pesos was given to private education in 1954, out of a total education budget of 155,565,000. Colombia has the unique distinction among Spanish American countries of having two Catholic Pontifical universities. They are the Universidad Javeriana in Bogoti, recognized in 1937 and con- taining schools of theology, canon law, philosophy, letters, peda- gogy, law, economics, medicine, dentistry, engineering, architecture, bacteriology, and art; and the Pontificia Universidad Catblica Bol- ivariana, recognized in 1945, and possessing schools of law, political science, philosophy and letters, engineering, industrial chemistry, architecture, and urban planning.s Venezuela. Venezuela counts 5,736,000 Catholics among its 5,900,000 population, and is one of the small group of Latin Ameri- can states where there is legal union of church and state. Public schools, however, are still secular in tone. Private schools are numerous but mostly nondenominational or non-Catholic. There were in 1953-54 some 5,227 federal and 1,154 state public primary schools with 430,750 and 65,372 pupils. At the same time there were 633 private primary schools with 87,666 pupils. On the sec- ondary level there were in 1954-55, 52 public institutions with 13,727 pupils and 148 private schools with 9,436. There were, besides, in Colombia. For some reason statistics concerning schools in this highly Catholic country (12,942,000 of 13,150,000) are highly unsatisfactory. The UNESCO figures and those based on the Annu- ario Pontificio, the official Catholic source, do not agree. The for- mer lists 1,505 private urban, 68 private rural, and 440 private sec- ondary schools, and 13 private universities and colleges, with 145,- 191, 2,901, 42,185, and 4,217 students respectively. All these together do not equal the figure of 4,272 Catholic schools and 355,- 099 pupils given in the Annuario. The Annuario figures are more recent, but even then it is difficult to account for such a difference?" Like so many other Spanish American countries, the state takes to itself the "over-all supervision of institutions of learning, both public and private." Colombia, however, is one of the few Latin American countries in which Catholic religious and moral train- ing is given in public schools. It is this perhaps which helps to blur the statistics above.a A comparatively small subsidy of 12,096,- 000 pesos was given to private education in 1954, out of a total education budget of 155,565,000. Colombia has the unique distinction among Spanish American countries of having two Catholic Pontifical universities. They are the Universidad Javeriana in Bogota, recognized in 1937 and con- taining schools of theology, canon law, philosophy, letters, peda- gogy, law, economics, medicine, dentistry, engineering, architecture, bacteriology, and art; and the Pontificia Universidad Catolica Bol- ivariana, recognized in 1945, and possessing schools of law, political science, philosophy and letters, engineering, industrial chemistry, architecture, and urban planning." Venezuela. Venezuela counts 5,736,000 Catholics among its 5,900,000 population, and is one of the small group of Latin Ameri- can states where there is legal union of church and state. Public schools, however, are still secular in tone. Private schools are numerous but mostly nondenominational or non-Catholic. There were in 1953-54 some 5,227 federal and 1,154 state public primary schools with 430,750 and 65,372 pupils. At the same time there were 633 private primary schools with 87,666 pupils. On the sec- ondary level there were in 1954-55, 52 public institutions with 13,727 pupils and 148 private schools with 9,436. There were, besides, in  PRIVATE EDUCATION 117 the same year seven public teacher training schools and 37 private normal schools with 2,227 students in all. Also to be counted are two private universities with 462 students in attendance. Catholic sources list only 272 Catholic schools with 57,329 students in all. A small subsidy of 235,514 out of 257,432,837 bolivares is shown for 1954 as being given to private education.'5 British Guiana. Catholics here are in a minority, numbering less than 12 per cent of the total population (70,000 of 485,000). Sta- tistics are incomplete on private schools. In 1954-55 there were 17 public and 278 government-aided primary schools with 94,536 pupils and, in the same year, there were two public and two aided secondary schools with 1,615 students. The UNESCO survey foot- notes the fact that there were an estimated 23 unaided secondary schools with about 4,950 pupils. Catholic sources list 110 Catholic schools with 16,750 students. This includes at least one college for boys with 375 students and four academy-colleges for girls with 1,350 students. For all these private schools the question of subsidy is not clear, but it appears that primary schools are aided.43 Cayenne (French Guiana). This small country is predominantly Catholic (29,000 of 34,000 population) and, since January 1, 1948, has been a departement of France. According to French law pub- lic education must be in the hands of laymen, must be secular, and is compulsory from 6 to 14 years. It is not clear whether Cath- olic education receives a subsidy. There are 20 Catholic schools with 1,510 pupils. This compares with 31 public primary with 3,567 pupils and one public secondary with 423 students "4 Surinam (Dutch Guiana). Although Catholics number only about 18 per cent of the total population (41,000 of 250,000), they main- tain 149 Catholic schools, with 20,943 students, according to my Catholic source. The student body must include non-Catholics to be so large. UNESCO figures give 121 private primary schools aided by the government, with 27,787 students in 1954-55. This compares with only 58 public primary schools with 13,743 students. There were, in 1954-55 five public secondary schools with 1,106 students and four private secondary with 2,050 students. The gov- ernment subsidy for 1954-55 to private schools was half of the education budget: 2,907,000 out of 5,547,800 guilder.5 In the three groups listed above the over-all population is 81,107,- 000. Catholics number 69,187,000, or roughly % of the population. PRIVATE EDUCATION 117 the same year seven public teacher training schools and 37 private normal schools with 2,227 students in all. Also to be counted are two private universities with 462 students in attendance. Catholic sources list only 272 Catholic schools with 57,329 students in all. A small subsidy of 235,514 out of 257,432,837 bolivares is shown for 1954 as being given to private education.42 British Guiana. Catholics here are in a minority, numbering less than 12 per cent of the total population (70,000 of 485,000). Sta- tistics are incomplete on private schools. In 1954-55 there were 17 public and 278 government-aided primary schools with 94,536 pupils and, in the same year, there were two public and two aided secondary schools with 1,615 students. The UNESCO survey foot- notes the fact that there were an estimated 23 unaided secondary schools with about 4,950 pupils. Catholic sources list 110 Catholic schools with 16,750 students. This includes at least one college for boys with 375 students and four academy-colleges for girls with 1,350 students. For all these private schools the question of subsidy is not clear, but it appears that primary schools are aided.0 Cayenne (French Guiana). This small country is predominantly Catholic (29,000 of 34,000 population) and, since January 1, 1948, has been a departement of France. According to French law pub- lic education must be in the hands of laymen, must be secular, and is compulsory from 6 to 14 years. It is not clear whether Cath- olic education receives a subsidy. There are 20 Catholic schools with 1,510 pupils. This compares with 31 public primary with 3,567 pupils and one public secondary with 423 students. 4 Surinam (Dutch Guiana). Although Catholics number only about 18 per cent of the total population (41,000 of 250,000), they main- tain 149 Catholic schools, with 20,943 students, according to my Catholic source. The student body must include non-Catholics to be so large. UNESCO figures give 121 private primary schools aided by the government, with 27,787 students in 1954-55. This compares with only 58 public primary schools with 13,743 students. There were, in 1954-55 five public secondary schools with 1,106 students and four private secondary with 2,050 students. The gov- ernment subsidy for 1954-55 to private schools was half of the education budget: 2,907,000 out of 5,547,800 guilder.5 In the three groups listed above the over-all population is 81,107,- 000. Catholics number 69,187,000, or roughly ii of the population. PRIVATE EDUCATION 117 the same year seven public teacher training schools and 37 private normal schools with 2,227 students in all. Also to be counted are two private universities with 462 students in attendance. Catholic sources list only 272 Catholic schools with 57,329 students in all. A small subsidy of 235,514 out of 257,432,837 bolivares is shown for 1954 as being given to private education.41 British Guiana. Catholics heere are in a minority, numbering less than 12 per cent of the total population (70,000 of 485,000). Sta- tistics are incomplete on private schools. In 1954-55 there were 17 public and 278 government-aided primary schools with 94,536 pupils and, in the same year, there were two public and two aided secondary schools with 1,615 students. The UNESCO survey foot- notes the fact that there were an estimated 23 unaided secondary schools with about 4,950 pupils. Catholic sources list 110 Catholic schools with 16,750 students. This includes at least one college for boys with 375 students and four academy-colleges for girls with 1,350 students. For all these private schools the question of subsidy is not clear, but it appears that primary schools are aided.5 Cayenne (French Guiana). This small country is predominantly Catholic (29,000 of 34,000 population) and, since January 1, 1948, has been a departement of France. According to French law pub- lic education must be in the hands of laymen, must be secular, and is compulsory from 6 to 14 years. It is not clear whether Cath- olic education receives a subsidy. There are 20 Catholic schools with 1,510 pupils. This compares with 31 public primary with 3,567 pupils and one public secondary with 423 students Surinam (Dutch Guiana). Although Catholics number only about 18 per cent of the total population (41,000 of 250,000), they main- tain 149 Catholic schools, with 20,943 students, according to my Catholic source. The student body must include non-Catholics to be so large. UNESCO figures give 121 private primary schools aided by the government, with 27,787 students in 1954-55. This compares with only 58 public primary schools with 13,743 students. There were, in 1954-55 five public secondary schools with 1,106 students and four private secondary with 2,050 students. The gov- ernment subsidy for 1954-55 to private schools was half of the education budget: 2,907,000 out of 5,547,800 guilder.45 In the three groups listed above the over-all population is 81,107,- 000. Catholics number 69,187,000, or roughly % of the population.  118 The Caribbean II. Some Observations From the viewpoint of a United States Catholic observer the situation of Catholic schools in the Caribbean, with the exception of the Dutch, and, to some extent, the British areas, plus Colombia and Costa Rica, leaves much to be desired. It is a source of con- stant amazement to North American Catholics (1) that the Spanish American nations can surrender so completely to the state the prerogative of parents to educate their children, which we hold so sacred here in the United States; and (2) that so large a percentage of the schools in the area teach no formal moral Christian develop- ment. This, for us, is a tragic state of affairs, and helps partly to explain the weakness of Catholicism through much of the area, as shown in a perennial lack of religious vocations, in poor church attendance and use of the Sacraments, other than Baptism and (sometimes) Marriage, and by a certain lack of morality in social, business, and political life, not to mention the deplorable (for Cath- olics) ease with which the poorly instructed Latin American can be converted to Protestantism in many cases. The above statistical account of Catholic schools in the Caribbean is, I admit wholeheartedly, very poor because of many reasons. In many cases I was not able to tell how many of the Catholic schools were small schools for the elite, how many were primary and how many secondary, and just how "Catholic" some of them were. A real study of this subject would demand that a trained Catholic educator visit the whole area and inspect and grade the hundreds of schools, obviously an impossibility. The statistics I have given present only a very generalized idea of the over-all number of Catholic schools and their students. Another desideratum I was not able to carry through was a study of the growth of Catholic schools through a given period. It would also be of inter- est to ascertain with certainty just how many of these Catholic schools are what we call the "parochial" school, which more demo- cratically tries to cover the requirements of Catholics, rich and poor, in a given area. Certainly all these questions must be answered before a satisfactory knowledge of the subject be gained. One attempt I did make to gain more certain knowledge of Cath- olic education in the area: I sent out four letters to diocesan heads of education or others expert in the field. Two answered, but only one sent sufficient information to make a closer study: an inform- 118 The Caribbean 118 The Caribbean II. Some Observations From the viewpoint of a United States Catholic observer the situation of Catholic schools in the Caribbean, with the exception of the Dutch, and, to some extent, the British areas, plus Colombia and Costa Rica, leaves much to be desired. It is a source of con- stant amazement to North American Catholics (1) that the Spanish American nations can surrender so completely to the state the prerogative of parents to educate their children, which we hold so sacred here in the United States; and (2) that so large a percentage of the schools in the area teach no formal moral Christian develop- ment. This, for us, is a tragic state of affairs, and helps partly to explain the weakness of Catholicism through much of the area, as shown in a perennial lack of religious vocations, in poor church attendance and use of the Sacraments, other than Baptism and (sometimes) Marriage, and by a certain lack of morality in social, business, and political life, not to mention the deplorable (for Cath- olics) ease with which the poorly instructed Latin American can be converted to Protestantism in many cases. The above statistical account of Catholic schools in the Caribbean is, I admit wholeheartedly, very poor because of many reasons. In many cases I was not able to tell how many of the Catholic schools were small schools for the elite, how many were primary and how many secondary, and just how "Catholic" some of them were. A real study of this subject would demand that a trained Catholic educator visit the whole area and inspect and grade the hundreds of schools, obviously an impossibility. The statistics I have given present only a very generalized idea of the over-all number of Catholic schools and their students. Another desideratum I was not able to carry through was a study of the growth of Catholic schools through a given period. It would also be of inter- est to ascertain with certainty just how many of these Catholic schools are what we call the "parochial" school, which more demo- cratically tries to cover the requirements of Catholics, rich and poor, in a given area. Certainly all these questions must be answered before a satisfactory knowledge of the subject be gained. One attempt I did make to gain more certain knowledge of Cath- olic education in the area: I sent out four letters to diocesan heads of education or others expert in the field. Two answered, but only one sent sufficient information to make a closer study: an inform- II. Some Observations From the viewpoint of a United States Catholic observer the situation of Catholic schools in the Caribbean, with the exception of the Dutch, and, to some extent, the British areas, plus Colombia and Costa Rica, leaves much to be desired. It is a source of con- stant amazement to North American Catholics (1) that the Spanish American nations can surrender so completely to the state the prerogative of parents to educate their children, which we hold so sacred here in the United States; and (2) that so large a percentage of the schools in the area teach no formal moral Christian develop- ment. This, for us, is a tragic state of affairs, and helps partly to explain the weakness of Catholicism through much of the area, as shown in a perennial lack of religious vocations, in poor church attendance and use of the Sacraments, other than Baptism and (sometimes) Marriage, and by a certain lack of morality in social, business, and political life, not to mention the deplorable (for Cath- olics) ease with which the poorly instructed Latin American can be converted to Protestantism in many cases. The above statistical account of Catholic schools in the Caribbean is, I admit wholeheartedly, very poor because of many reasons. In many cases I was not able to tell how many of the Catholic schools were small schools for the elite, how many were primary and how many secondary, and just how "Catholic" some of them were. A real study of this subject would demand that a trained Catholic educator visit the whole area and inspect and grade the hundreds of schools, obviously an impossibility. The statistics I have given present only a very generalized idea of the over-all number of Catholic schools and their students. Another desideratum I was not able to carry through was a study of the growth of Catholic schools through a given period. It would also be of inter- est to ascertain with certainty just how many of these Catholic schools are what we call the "parochial" school, which more demo- cratically tries to cover the requirements of Catholics, rich and poor, in a given area. Certainly all these questions must be answered before a satisfactory knowledge of the subject be gained. One attempt I did make to gain more certain knowledge of Cath- olic education in the area: I sent out four letters to diocesan heads of education or others expert in the field. Two answered, but only one sent sufficient information to make a closer study: an inform-  PRIVATE EDUCATION 119 ant from Puerto Rico who gave the latest information for that interesting country. Thus we are able to see how the parochial system of Puerto Rico has grown in four years (our earlier figures were from 1954-55). In that year there were 84 primary and sec- ondary Catholic schools in Puerto Rico with 34,446 students. The figures sent to me for 1958-59 list 95 primary and secondary schools, including 14 boarding schools for boys and girls for which no at- tendance figures are given. The 81 remaining schools in 1958-59 had 37,866 students. If we allow the low number of 50 students for each boarding school that would give us a total of about 38,500, a gain of 4,000 students in four years. Of the 81 schools listed for 1958-59, 36 carry the child from kindergarten through the twelfth grade; 4 through the tenth grade; 8 through the ninth grade; and 6 through the eighth grade; the rest seven grades or less. The num- ber of teachers, not counting the 14 boarding schools, comes to 1,226, a ratio of more than one teacher for each 80 pupils. I also asked my informants to highlight "specific problems," and to give an "opinion" on Catholic education in their area. Among specific problems my Puerto Rican informant mentioned the need of more priests, brothers, and sisters from the United States, since local vocations were still too few, although they were slowly in- creasing. Other problems were: the need of financial help to build and maintain more schools; more effective religious instruc- tion; the acquiring and paying an adequate number of responsible lay teachers from the island; and finally, providing facilities for the recent influx of "continentals," particularly at the elementary level. My informant's opinion of Catholic education in Puerto Rico was as follows: He felt that as far as profane education was con- cerned they were doing as well as in the United States. Their schools in Puerto Rico are all college preparatory, he said, and at- tract the better students. They are reaching, however, only 40,000 of the approximately 600,000 students of school age. He states that "to put all Catholics in Catholic schools would necessitate the duplication of the public school system, and that is out of the ques- tion." He went on to say that Catholic education in Puerto Rico is parochial in the main. Small private Catholic schools are in a decided minority. All parochial schools are coeducational. "Our schools," he concludes, "are bi-lingual: up to the sixth grade Spanish is the medium of instruction and English is a subject; from the PRIVATE EDUCATION 119 ant from Puerto Rico who gave the latest information for that interesting country. Thus we are able to see how the parochial system of Puerto Rico has grown in four years (our earlier figures were from 1954-55). In that year there were 84 primary and sec- ondary Catholic schools in Puerto Rico with 34,446 students. The figures sent to me for 1958-59 list 95 primary and secondary schools, including 14 boarding schools for boys and girls for which no at- tendance figures are given. The 81 remaining schools in 1958-59 had 37,866 students. If we allow the low number of 50 students for each boarding school that would give us a total of about 38,500, a gain of 4,000 students in four years. Of the 81 schools listed for 1958-59, 36 carry the child from kindergarten through the twelfth grade; 4 through the tenth grade; 8 through the ninth grade; and 6 through the eighth grade; the rest seven grades or less. The num- ber of teachers, not counting the 14 boarding schools, comes to 1,226, a ratio of more than one teacher for each 30 pupils. I also asked my informants to highlight "specific problems," and to give an "opinion" on Catholic education in their area. Among specific problems my Puerto Rican informant mentioned the need of more priests, brothers, and sisters from the United States, since local vocations were still too few, although they were slowly in- creasing.46 Other problems were: the need of financial help to build and maintain more schools; more effective religious instruc- tion; the acquiring and paying an adequate number of responsible lay teachers from the island; and finally, providing facilities for the recent influx of "continentals," particularly at the elementary level. My informant's opinion of Catholic education in Puerto Rico was as follows: He felt that as far as profane education was con- cerned they were doing as well as in the United States. Their schools in Puerto Rico are all college preparatory, he said, and at- tract the better students. They are reaching, however, only 40,000 of the approximately 600,000 students of school age. He states that "to put all Catholics in Catholic schools would necessitate the duplication of the public school system, and that is out of the ques- tion." He went on to say that Catholic education in Puerto Rico is parochial in the main. Small private Catholic schools are in a decided minority. All parochial schools are coeducational. "Our schools," he concludes, "are bi-lingual: up to the sixth grade Spanish is the medium of instruction and English is a subject; from the PRIVATE EDUCATION 119 ant from Puerto Rico who gave the latest information for that interesting country. Thus we are able to see how the parochial system of Puerto Rico has grown in four years (our earlier figures were from 1954-55). In that year there were 84 primary and see- ondary Catholic schools in Puerto Rico with 34,446 students. The figures sent to me for 1958-59 list 95 primary and secondary schools, including 14 boarding schools for boys and girls for which no at- tendance figures are given. The 81 remaining schools in 1958-59 had 37,866 students. If we allow the low number of 50 students for each boarding school that would give us a total of about 58,500, a gain of 4,000 students in four years. Of the 81 schools listed for 1958-59, 36 carry the child from kindergarten through the twelfth grade; 4 through the tenth grade; 8 through the ninth grade; and 6 through the eighth grade; the rest seven grades or less. The num- ber of teachers, not counting the 14 boarding schools, comes to 1,226, a ratio of more than one teacher for each 30 pupils. I also asked my informants to highlight "specific problems," and to give an "opinion" on Catholic education in their area. Among specific problems my Puerto Rican informant mentioned the need of more priests, brothers, and sisters from the United States, since local vocations were still too few, although they were slowly in- creasing."6 Other problems were: the need of financial help to build and maintain more schools; more effective religious instruc- tion; the acquiring and paying an adequate number of responsible lay teachers from the island; and finally, providing facilities for the recent influx of "continentals," particularly at the elementary level. My informant's opinion of Catholic education in Puerto Rico was as follows: He felt that as far as profane education was con- cerned they were doing as well as in the United States. Their schools in Puerto Rico are all college preparatory, he said, and at- tract the better students. They are reaching, however, only 40,000 of the approximately 600,000 students of school age. He states that "to put all Catholics in Catholic schools would necessitate the duplication of the public school system, and that is out of the ques- tion." He went on to say that Catholic education in Puerto Rico is parochial in the main. Small private Catholic schools are in a decided minority. All parochial schools are coeducational. "Our schools," he concludes, "are bi-lingual: up to the sixth grade Spanish is the medium of instruction and English is a subject; from the  120 The Caribbean seventh and up English is generally the medium of instruction and Spanish is a subject." In Puerto Rico there is an example of a mighty effort without government subsidization, to provide for Catholic schooling. When one considers the poverty of Puerto Rico one is astounded at the success of these devoted men and women." However, some of you are thinking, perhaps, what is the fuss about? Just send the children to the public school and teach them catechism on Sundays. This brings me to the last part of my paper: the why of the private Catholic school. III. The Philosophy Behind Catholic Schools There is a reason for Catholic schools, in our opinion. You may not agree with the reason, and I do not propose to try to convert you. However, you will be fair enough to listen to our reasoning on this subject, I am sure. Please remember that I am only present- ing our viewpoint; I am not, knowingly, running down any other system of thought. We Catholics enter upon this question not as tabulae rasae but with definite principles. We do not apologize for this. We know that to have no principles is to be blank-minded, not broad-minded. Everyone approaches problems with a particular point of view. Even a relativist is absolutely convinced that there can never be any absolute truths! The determined atheist is emphatic that God and the supernatural order do not exist. The Christian is convinced that they do. The difference between the two viewpoints is not one of dogmatism versus nondogmatism. Each is equally dogmatic; each has settled principles. The most important point is: which has the right viewpoint, the correct principles?" Catholics think that the only perfect education is a completely Christian education. It is put very succinctly by Pope Pius XI in his encyclical on the Christian Education of Youth: "..since education consists essentially in preparing man for what he must be and for what he must do here below, in order to attain the sublime end for which he was created, it is clear that there can be no true education which is not wholly directed to man's last end, and that in the present order of Providence, since God has revealed Himself to us in the Person of His Only Begotten Son, who alone is 'the way, the truth and the life,' there can be 120 The Caribbean 120 The Caribbean seventh and up English is generally the medium of instruction and Spanish is a subject." In Puerto Rico there is an example of a mighty effort without government subsidization, to provide for Catholic schooling. When one considers the poverty of Puerto Rico one is astounded at the success of these devoted men and women. However, some of you are thinking, perhaps, what is the fuss about? Just send the children to the public school and teach them catechism on Sundays. This brings me to the last part of my paper: the why of the private Catholic school. III. The Philosophy Behind Catholic Schools There is a reason for Catholic schools, in our opinion. You may not agree with the reason, and I do not propose to try to convert you. However, you will be fair enough to listen to our reasoning on this subject, I am sure. Please remember that I am only present- ing our viewpoint; I am not, knowingly, running down any other system of thought. We Catholics enter upon this question not as tabulae rasae but with definite principles. We do not apologize for this. We know that to have no principles is to be blank-minded, not broad-minded. Everyone approaches problems with a particular point of view. Even a relativist is absolutely convinced that there can never be any absolute truths! The determined atheist is emphatic that God and the supernatural order do not exist. The Christian is convinced that they do. The difference between the two viewpoints is not one of dogmatism versus nondogmatism. Each is equally dogmatic; each has settled principles. The most important point is: which has the right viewpoint, the correct principles?'" Catholics think that the only perfect education is a completely Christian education. It is put very succinctly by Pope Pius XI in his encyclical on the Christian Education of Youth: "..since education consists essentially in preparing man for what he must be and for what he must do here below, in order to attain the sublime end for which he was created, it is clear that there can be no true education which is not wholly directed to man's last end, and that in the present order of Providence, since God has revealed Himself to us in the Person of His Only Begotten Son, who alone is 'the way, the truth and the life,' there can be seventh and up English is generally the medium of instruction and Spanish is a subject." In Puerto Rico there is an example of a mighty effort without government subsidization, to provide for Catholic schooling. When one considers the poverty of Puerto Rico one is astounded at the success of these devoted men and women." However, some of you are thinking, perhaps, what is the fuss about? Just send the children to the public school and teach them catechism on Sundays. This brings me to the last part of my paper: the why of the private Catholic school. II. The Philosophy Behind Catholic Schools There is a reason for Catholic schools, in our opinion. You may not agree with the reason, and I do not propose to try to convert you. However, you will be fair enough to listen to our reasoning on this subject, I am sure. Please remember that I am only present- ing our viewpoint; I am not, knowingly, running down any other system of thought. We Catholics enter upon this question not as tabulae rasae but with definite principles. We do not apologize for this. We know that to have no principles is to be blank-minded, not broad-minded. Everyone approaches problems with a particular point of view. Even a relativist is absolutely convinced that there can never be any absolute truths! The determined atheist is emphatic that God and the supernatural order do not exist. The Christian is convinced that they do. The difference between the two viewpoints is not one of dogmatism versus nondogmatism. Each is equally dogmatic; each has settled principles. The most important point is: which has the right viewpoint, the correct principles?8 Catholics think that the only perfect education is a completely Christian education. It is put very succinctly by Pope Pius XI in his encyclical on the Christian Education of Youth: "..since education consists essentially in preparing man for what he must be and for what he must do here below, in order to attain the sublime end for which he was created, it is clear that there can be no true education which is not wholly directed to man's last end, and that in the present order of Providence, since God has revealed Himself to us in the Person of His Only Begotten Son, who alone is 'the way, the truth and the life,' there can be  PRIVATE EDUCATION 121 no ideally perfect education which is not Christian education."a You may disagree violently with almost every word in that quota- tion, but it is the reason why such efforts are made by Catholics to obtain a wholly Catholic education for their children. We claim that it makes a difference in education whether one has a religious end or purpose in mind or not, because the end deter- mines the means used to that end. In Catholic schools there is a continuing emphasis, day in and day out, year in and year out, on the binding character and supremacy of genuine moral and spiritual values not only in the individual life but in the social life, including the state and every unit of government. Catholic education, then, does not consist merely in studying the catechism. The range of this education will be the whole range of human life. Nothing human will be alien to it. "Christian education," says Pope Pius XI again, "takes in the whole aggregate of human life, physical and spiritual, intellectual and moral, individual, domestic, and social, not with a view of reducing it in any way, but in order to elevate, regulate, and perfect it, in accordance with the example and teach- ing of Christ."" Stress is laid in Catholic education on the worth of the individual. "The quality of his life, the highest he is capable of in moral and spiritual development, the ordering of all his powers for self-mas- tery, self-direction, self-control: that is the essence of Catholic education.... The social order and every environment, however named, is for the welfare of man, not man for the social order, nor for the State, nor for the community."" It is clear, therefore, that for the Catholic there is more to educa- tion than its intellectual part; the whole man, intellect and will, body and soul, must be perfected in the education process, always with a view toward fitting the individual for attainment of his ultimate end: eternal happiness in heaven, enjoying the presence of God with supernatural vision and love. These ideas do not indicate contempt of this present life, rather they enrich and extend this present life by showing its importance for the attainment of our final end and purpose of existence. I believe it is quite clear, therefore, why the Catholic educator cannot accept modern educationists' views that the "end of educa- tion is more education," or is "social efficiency in a democracy," etc. We believe that we have been raised by Christ to a supernatural order, and hence no natural end can be the proper end of man's PRIVATE EDUCATION 121 no ideally perfect education which is not Christian education."49 You may disagree violently with almost every word in that quota- tion, but it is the reason why such efforts are made by Catholics to obtain a wholly Catholic education for their children. We claim that it makes a difference in education whether one has a religious end or purpose in mind or not, because the end deter- mines the means used to that end. In Catholic schools there is a continuing emphasis, day in and day out, year in and year out, on the binding character and supremacy of genuine moral and spiritual values not only in the individual life but in the social life, including the state and every unit of government. Catholic education, then, does not consist merely in studying the catechism. The range of this education will be the whole range of human life. Nothing human will be alien to it. "Christian education," says Pope Pius XI again, "takes in the whole aggregate of human life, physical and spiritual, intellectual and moral, individual, domestic, and social, not with a view of reducing it in any way, but in order to elevate, regulate, and perfect it, in accordance with the example and teach- ing of Christ."50 Stress is laid in Catholic education on the worth of the individual. "The quality of his life, the highest he is capable of in moral and spiritual development, the ordering of all his powers for self-mas- tery, self-direction, self-control: that is the essence of Catholic education.... The social order and every environment, however named, is for the welfare of man, not man for the social order, nor for the State, nor for the community."" It is clear, therefore, that for the Catholic there is more to educa- tion than its intellectual part; the whole man, intellect and will, body and soul, must be perfected in the education process, always with a view toward fitting the individual for attainment of his ultimate end: eternal happiness in heaven, enjoying the presence of God with supernatural vision and love. These ideas do not indicate contempt of this present life, rather they enrich and extend this present life by showing its importance for the attainment of our final end and purpose of existence. I believe it is quite clear, therefore, why the Catholic educator cannot accept modern educationists' views that the "end of educa- tion is more education," or is "social efficiency in a democracy," etc. We believe that we have been raised by Christ to a supernatural order, and hence no natural end can be the proper end of man's PRIVATE EDUCATION 121 no ideally perfect education which is not Christian education."" You may disagree violently with almost every word in that quota- tion, but it is the reason why such efforts are made by Catholics to obtain a wholly Catholic education for their children. We claim that it makes a difference in education whether one has a religious end or purpose in mind or not, because the end deter- mines the means used to that end. In Catholic schools there is a continuing emphasis, day in and day out, year in and year out, on the binding character and supremacy of genuine moral and spiritual values not only in the individual life but in the social life, including the state and every unit of government. Catholic education, then, does not consist merely in studying the catechism. The range of this education will be the whole range of human life. Nothing human will be alien to it. "Christian education," says Pope Pius XI again, "takes in the whole aggregate of human life, physical and spiritual, intellectual and moral, individual, domestic, and social, not with a view of reducing it in any way, but in order to elevate, regulate, and perfect it, in accordance with the example and teach- ing of Christ."00 Stress is laid in Catholic education on the worth of the individual. "The quality of his life, the highest he is capable of in moral and spiritual development, the ordering of all his powers for self-mas- tery, self-direction, self-control: that is the essence of Catholic education.... The social order and every environment, however named, is for the welfare of man, not man for the social order, nor for the State, nor for the community."' It is clear, therefore, that for the Catholic there is more to educa- tion than its intellectual part; the whole man, intellect and will, body and soul, must be perfected in the education process, always with a view toward fitting the individual for attainment of his ultimate end: eternal happiness in heaven, enjoying the presence of God with supernatural vision and love. These ideas do not indicate contempt of this present life, rather they enrich and extend this present life by showing its importance for the attainment of our final end and purpose of existence. I believe it is quite clear, therefore, why the Catholic educator cannot accept modern educationists' views that the "end of educa- tion is more education," or is "social efficiency in a democracy," etc. We believe that we have been raised by Christ to a supernatural order, and hence no natural end can be the proper end of man's  122 The Caribbean activities, good as it may be in itself. We also believe that knowl- edge without definite moral formation is simply "a weapon in the hands of a criminal," because of man's proclivity to evil since the fall of Adam. To know what is right and objectively good does not necessarily mean to do what is right and to seek what is good. Therefore a man's education must be seriously concerned with more than the attainment of mere knowledge or social adjustment: it must be concerned with man's complete perfection on this earth, as a preparation for eternal happiness in heaven. We can define true education as a total process, therefore, as "the passive and active development in first proximate act, of the Chris- tian perfection of man in all his powers, natural and supernatural, whereby he is constituted maturely self-directive toward his final end ."" This is the type of education we strive to give in our schools, whether they are in the Caribbean area or in Suburbia, U.S.A. We feel that this type of complete education makes us better citizens of any country, while we press towards our future citizenship in Heaven. NOTES 1. Based on United Nations data for 1957. See note 2. 2. Based on statistics from the Annuario Pontificio per l'anno 1958 (Citti del Vaticano: Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1958), as correlated in Basic Ecclesiastical Statistics for Latin America, 1958 [Report No. 24 of World Horizon Reports), compiled by William J. Gibbons, S.J., and Research Associ- ates (Maryknoll: Maryknoll Publications, 1958), p. 45; hereafter cited as Eccl. Statistics, 1958; Statistical Abstract of Latin America for 1957 (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959), p. 9. 3. There is some doubt as to the continued existence of these three public universities since the recent revolution. See Ley fundamental de 7 de febrero de 1959 ...Ed. por Miguel A. D'Estfao Pisani (Habana: Jesus Montero, 1959), p. 26. 4. See UNESCO World Survey of Education, Vol. If: Primary Education (London: UNESCO and Evans Bros., Ltd., 1958), pp. 276-286; hereafter cited as UNESCO World Survey, 1958. Unofficial figures given to me at the Pan American Union, presumably for the year 1958, give 634,782 and 7,635 as the numbers of primary students and primary schools respectively. It is not clear whether private schools and pupils are included in this figure or not. 5. For mid-1955, UNESCO World Suroey, 1958, p. 315. 6. Eccl. Statistics, 1958, p. 45, projected. 122 The Caribbean activities, good as it may be in itself. We also believe that knowl- edge without definite moral formation is simply "a weapon in the hands of a criminal," because of man's proclivity to evil since the fall of Adam. To know what is right and objectively good does not necessarily mean to do what is right and to seek what is good. Therefore a man's education must be seriously concerned with more than the attainment of mere knowledge or social adjustment: it must be concerned with man's complete perfection on this earth, as a preparation for eternal happiness in heaven. We can define true education as a total process, therefore, as "the passive and active development in first proximate act, of the Chris- tian perfection of man in all his powers, natural and supernatural, whereby he is constituted maturely self-directive toward his final end.""2 This is the type of education we strive to give in our schools, whether they are in the Caribbean area or in Suburbia, U.S.A. We feel that this type of complete education makes us better citizens of any country, while we press towards our future citizenship in Heaven. NOTES a. Based on United Nations data for 1957. See note 2. 2. Based on statistics from the Annuario Pontificio per l'anno 1958 (Citti del Vaticano: Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1958), as correlated in Basic Ecclesiastical Statistics for Latin America, 1958 [Report No. 24 of World Horizon Reports], compiled by William J. Gibbons, S.J., and Research Associ- ates (Maryknoll: Maryknoll Publications, 1958), p. 45; hereafter cited as Eccl. Statistics, 1958; Statistical Abstract of Latin America for 1957 (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959), p. 9. 3. There is some doubt as to the continued existence of these three public universities since the recent revolution. See Ley fundamental de 7 de febrero de 1959... Ed. por Miguel A. D'Estefano Pisani (Habana: Jesns Montero, 1959), p. 26. 4. See UNESCO World Survey of Education, Vol. II: Primary Education (London: UNESCO and Evans Bros., Ltd., 1958), pp. 276-286; hereafter cited as UNESCO World Survey, 1958. Unoficial figures given to me at the Pan American Union, presumably for the year 1958, give 634,782 and 7,635 as the numbers of primary students and primary schools respectively. It is not clear whther private schools and pupils are included in this figure or not. 5. For mid-1955, UNESCO World SurOey, 1958, p. 315. 6. Eccl. Statistics, 1958, p. 45, projected. 122 The Caribbean activities, good as it may be in itself. We also believe that knowl- edge without definite moral formation is simply "a weapon in the hands of a criminal," because of man's proclivity to evil since the fall of Adam. To know what is right and objectively good does not necessarily mean to do what is right and to seek what is good. Therefore a man's education must be seriously concerned with more than the attainment of mere knowledge or social adjustment: it must be concerned with man's complete perfection on this earth, as a preparation for eternal happiness in heaven. We can define true education as a total process, therefore, as "the passive and active development in first proximate act, of the Chris- tian perfection of man in all his powers, natural and supernatural, whereby he is constituted maturely self-directive toward his final end.""2 This is the type of education we strive to give in our schools, whether they are in the Caribbean area or in Suburbia, U.S.A. We feel that this type of complete education makes us better citizens of any country, while we press towards our future citizenship in Heaven. NOTES 1. Based on United Nations data for 1957. See note 2. 2. Based on statistics from the Annuario Pontificio per lanno 1958 (Citti del Vaticano: Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1958), as correlated in Basic Ecclesiastical Statistics for Latin America, 1958 [Report No. 24 of World Horizon Reports], compiled by William J. Gibbons, S.J., and Research Associ- ates (Maryknoll: Maryknoll Publications, 1958), p. 45; hereafter cited as Eccl. Statistics, 1958; Statistical Abstract of Latin America for 1957 (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959), p. 9. 3. There is some doubt as to the continued existence of these three public universities since the recent revolution. See Ley fundamental de 7 de febrerc de 1959... Ed. par Miguel A. D'Estfano Pisani (Habana: Jesds Montero, 1959), p. 26. 4. See UNESCO World Survey of Education, Vol. II: Primary Education (London: UNESCO and Evans Bros., Ltd., 1958), pp. 276-286; hereafter cited as UNESCO World Survey, 1958. Unofficial figures given to me at the Pan American Union, presumably for the year 1958, give 634,782 and 7,635 as the numbers of primary students and primary schools respectively. It is not clear whether private schools and pupils are included in this figure or not. 5. For mid-1955, UNESCO World Survey, 1958, p. 315. 6. Eccl. Statistics, 1958, p. 45, projected.  PRIVATE EDUCATION 123 7. UNESCO World Survey, 1858, pp. 315-324. Purely private Catholic schoto of oil kindth numobered 61, wtost 15,420 students. Ecc. Sttitic, 1958, p. 45. 8. Eccl. Stattiss, 1958, p. 45; UNESCO World Survy, 158, pp. 497-550. Figure ar for mid-1955 ftor tot population aod Catholic percetg. 9. UNESCO World Surve.y, 1958, pp. 497-550; Ecclt. Stasticts, 1958, p. 45; William~ J. Colemans, M.M., Latin-American Catbthoism, aSelf-Evaluatio. A Study of the Cbiombsoo Reor1 [Report No. 25 of Wordd Hforzon Reorts] (Marykols, N.Y.: Maryknoll Pubicatloos, 1958), p. 52. 10. 15,000 ot of 55,000; Nocl. Stathisic, 1958, p. 45. 11. Ibid., p. 45. UNESCO lists 40 ounaided privte scoolo (Cotholic sod o-Ctholic) with 3,962 pupils; 3 aided sondary scboos with 368 aod 4un aided tseondary schhssls with 555 studentts. World Surooy, 1958, pp. 1165-1169. Thp Catbolic Directorp 4f tbs Caribbean, 595 (Kingson Caribbeao Ptubsh- isng Compaoy, 1953), p. 31, lists 22 Catholic "goermet-aided elementary scoos" and three "unaided secondary shoos." 12. UNESCO World Survey, 1058, p. 1177. 13. loot. Statistic,1958, p. 45. 14. UNESCO World Survey 1958, p. 1190. 15. Notl. Stltistc, 1858, p. 47. S6. UNESCO Wortd Survey, 1S58 give s 881 fiue op Trinidad aod Tobago ps folos: Popoulaton 725,000 (mi4-1955); Prfitary schs goverotment- maintained (1954) 07 with 27,589 studets, govetoment-aided 509 with 110- 405 stsudentt, aod regstsrsd prdvate 119 with 6,028 studes; secodary shools: governmensst-maintained (1954) 2 with 577, goeroment-aided 12 with 6,112, sod registered privaoe 19, with 4,000 students (p. 1195). Who islado of Domin~ica aod Grenada ope classified under lbe Windward Islando. Ino 1955, Dominicahad 52 gsoverment-aintaned ad o-aidd pimaryschools wih 11,579 popilo ood 4 tsecoondsry schools of ohs ss clssos with 768 otodeoto, wohile Grsosda had6 "soodsy" (?) schpls with 1,201 students. Ibid. 17. Catholic Directory of thss Caroibbeano, 1953, p. 27; UNESCO World Sorvey, 1958, pp. 1197-1199. The reas00 fos msy difficuolty So obtainig cor- root sttist 0s tsophat due to lbs comsplisatod Catholc ecslsisticsl or- ganizatioo of ohs Caoibbean osgioo. "Cobs, Dominicso Repoblic, aod Hit soch haveo as fuy costtutsd histsrchy, sod oo accredited ooocio of ths Holy See. Thpoe ase too mtropolitoa ses 0n Cobs, ap4 oe each in Haiti aod Dominisan Republc. . .. Who two bisopics of Pusrto Rico aoe immediately subject to tbs Hotty See, aod depensd on the osoosiatrs in the Domliica Rspoblbc. Tht vicardate aposolic of Curslso depeoth on ohs apostolic deloga- too 0n Venop la. Who Bshamsa Islands, staffed chiefly by Aoerdcss Benodic- tinss, dspeod lot the Apotolic Noosiotupe 0n Haiti. Tho orstherppost major unit of lbs Fedsration, namssly Jamasica, boo oince 1956 a bishopois of its opn (Eingoton) immesdiately subjsot to ohs Holy See. Who diocss in ohs southernportiooof thesFderon are ow gopdinaeclsasicl pro- jots, with Port-o-Spai, (Trlonidad) 01 mestoopolbtao ls. Aong tho suf- fraga toe is Steorgstsown (British Guiaa) on tho mainlaod of Sooth Apsrica." Eccl. Statistis, 1958, p. 49. 18. UNESCO World Sosrvey, 198, pp. 1179-1182; Caoli obsrestorys of lbs Caribbsan, 1955, p. 36. 19. Esst. Statistics, 1958,p. 47. 20. UNESCO World Survey, 1958, pp. 754-758. Who figurs for Catholis schools gissn sboar ore rsoesest (probably 1857) tbao those given by PRIVATE EDUCATION 123 7. UNESCO World Stsrvet, 1958, pp. 315-324. Pursly private Catholic ochoolt of oil kindo numbsssd 61, pith 15,420 ostudets. Eoct. Statitic, 1958, p. 45. 8. Eosl. Statitc, 1959, p. 45; UNESCO World Susrvey, 1950, pp. 497-510. Figurs are los mi4-1855 fos total popultfion sod Catdolbc pesssontags. S. UNESCO World Sorvey, 1958, pp. 497-510; Ncsl. Statistis, 1959, p. 45; William J. Colsemso, M.M., Latin-Ameican Catoliismo, a Self-Evaluation. A Study of the Chihs0 epost [Rlsport No. 23 of World Hosion 800or801 (Masykoll, N.Y.; Masykntoll Pubitios, 1950), p. 52. 10. 15,000 ot of 05,000; Eost. Statistic, 1958, p. 45. 11. Ibid., p. 45. UNESCO lioto 40 unaidsd private scoplo (Catholic sod ono-Catholic) with 3,902 pupilo; 3 aidsd tsecondary schoolstoh 300 sod 4 un- aidsd ssondary tchools with 525 studes. Wosld Susvey, 1958, pp. 1165-1169. The Cathso Disecto of the Casibbes, 1955 (ingston: Csrbbeso Publish- log Compsoy, 1953), p. 31, lists 22 Cstholic "govsoooest-aidsd sesementasy scoolossad threeo"unidd seondarshool." 12. UNESCO Wosld Surveyi, 1959, p. 1177. 13. Eccl. Sttiss, 1959,p. 45. 14. UNESCO World Survey, 198, p. 1190. 15. Ecol. Statistics, 198, p. 47. 10. UNESCO World Sussvey, 198 givstohs figus for Trinidad and Tohao afollopo: Populsaton 721,000 (mid-1955); Primary sohools: goveromsnt- maiotaiosd (1954) 67 pith 27,589 tudensts, gossesomsnt-aidsd 309 with 110- 405 studets, ad regitesssd privsts 119 pith 6,028 students;tseonday scoopb: gossonmes-maintainsd (1854) 2 pith 577, govseoomsnt-aided 12 with 6,122, p4d osgitesred private 19, pith 4,098 students (p. 1195). Who idlaods of Dominicoa tod Grsnads ar lsspified undsr ohs Windpard Ittaodo. to 1955, Domiia ad 52govesttment-maintinedand -aided primar~y schoswth 11,179 pupls sod 4 sontdsry shoolo of te sseoclasss with 768 tudsnts, whils Crsnada hod 6 "sscondpry" (?) sols with 1,191 otodenos. Ibid. 17. Catholic Director of lbs Caribbsa, 1855, p. 17; UNESCO Word Surveys, 1958, pp. 1197-1199. Who rson ftor myo difficlty to obtiig tor- reot taotitc is topephat duo t hs somplissted Cstholc scclsoiastical too- goooizton of ohe Caribheon region. "Cobs, Domiicap epubls, so4 Holdi each boss a fuly constittd hierachy, and ao accredited nuncio of Ohs Holy See. Thers are two meotropolitasostootin Coho, sod one sach in Haiti sod Domoisico Rspuhlis. . .. Who two bithopris of Puesto Rico tre immeditelsy subesttootheHoly Ss,saoddpsndoo honuo aueinps hDominicao Rspoblic. Who vicariate apostolic of Cpsqsao dspesod ooo ohs apstolic delega- tion in Vsosesuol. Ths Bshooo slaotndo, staffed chdefly by Apsrdcao Beoedic- tioneo, dspsnd oo ohs Apootolic Noosistoss in Holtd. Who noortenot majorsuoit of ths Fsdoraolso, ostmely Jamaoica, hot sioce 1956 a bithopric of its opo (Kingostoo) immsdiotely oubjsct to ohs Holy Sss. The disoss in ths southsrnportioofthslsedssratoonr ow gouped inoa ecsiastical pos- loss, with Port-of-Spain, (Triodod) 00 mtoslopolitao too. Amonog thp oof- fragan lest to Gsorgetowo (Brtsh Goiao) 00 ohs omainlaod of Sooth Amessico." Eccl. Statistics, 1959, p. 48. 18. UNESCO Wosld Sosvsy, 198, pp. 1178-1182; Cathoic ODrecsor of tbs Caribbeao, 1953, p. 36. 19. Eoot. Stoatitc, 1959,p. 47. 20. UNESCO Wosld Survoy, 1958, pp. 754-758. Who figursort Catholis schools 01v00 obovea ore resossot (probably 1957) thoo those given by PRIVATE EDUCATION 123 7. UNESCO Worl Sourvey, 1959, pp. 315-324. Poosly prdvate Coathoi schoolt of oil kiods nuombeoed 61, pith 15,429 otudent. loot. Sttitis, 1858, p. 45. 8. Eccl. Stotistics, 1958, p. 45; UNESCO World Sorvey, 1928, pp 497-51. Figurs are foo mid-1955 fos totol popultdon sod Catholic percentag. 0. UNESCO World Sorvey, 1959, pp. 487-510; loot. Stasticso, 1958, p. 45; W~iliams J. Colepoo, M.M., Latin-Amerisoo Cotholiciso, a Self-Evaluto. A Stody of lbs Cbiotboto Reoport [Report No. 23 of World Horizoo Reots] (Masoyhool, N.Y.; Maoykooll Pubticaiono, 1959), p. 52. 10. 15,800 out of 85,000; Ece. Staltisic, 1958, p. 45. 11. Ibid., p. 45. UNESCO listo 49 uooided prisate shoolt (Catholic sod on-Catholbc) w5th 3,062 popis; 3 aided sondary tchoolo pith 560 ap44 oun- oided seoodory schools with 525 stodeots. World Sorvey, 1958, pp. 1165-1168. The Catbolic Directory of the Caribbeao, 153 (Kiogoton:; Cooibbeso Publiob- opg Company, 1953), p. 51, lito 25 Catholic 'gosootoooo-osdsd elemotarly schoolsadohrees"uniddsodayshool." 12. UNESCO World Sorvey, 1958, p. 1177. 13. Eccl. Stastics, 1958,p. 45. 14. UNESCO World Sosvep, 1858, p. 1100. 15. loot. Stastics, 2858, p. 47. 16. UNESCO Worl Sosvsy, 1959 givss ohe figurs Itor Troidod sod Wobago 00 folows:P Popolation 721,000 (mi4-1855); Promaoy tchoos: governmenot- ooaiotained (1954) 67 pith 27,569 otudsnts, foveotmet-aided 308 pith 110- 405 tuodent, aod regiotered poivte 119 witb 6,628 tudento; scondary shoto;s govsettmsot-maintiosd (1954) 2 pith 577, goveosoto-aidsd 12 pith 6,122, ood restered private 18, with 4,688 studsnts (p. 1195). The islando of Domiicka sod Creoodo are clotoified soder the Windpard Iolaodo. to 1853, Domoiica hd 52oversomet-masintainedand -idd prmayshoolsih 11,178 pupdls old 4 tsondary schools of tse some clssos pith 768 student, philo Greooda hod 6 sondary" (?) tcsoo witb 1,281 ooudento. Ibid. 57. Cathohic Disectory of tbs Caribbea, 1853, p. 27; UNESCO Word Surveyt, 1S58, pp. 1197-1199. Who 000000 fos toy difficlty ino obtainig or- soot otatistics it somewhat due to ttss complicated Cotholic eccleoisticol or- ganizaon of ohs Cardbbsso rsgioo. "Cobs, Doominicao Republi, ood Haii soch boos a folly coostittd hierarchy, sod an accredited ouncio of ohs Holy Soe. There aoe two mtostopolhaosee oton Cobs, sod 000 each in Hat sod Dominicao Repobli. . .. Who too bishoprdcs of Poeoto lio are immeodiately subjectto theHoly See,sad depend onthesnunciaturintheDpominica Repoblbc. Who sicariote oposolic of Cpogtao depends oo tho apostolic delega- tion So Venopoelo. Who Bohsoa Isloth, staffed chifly by Ameroicao Beonedic- tios, depsttd son ts Apootolbc Noociatose io Hti. Who orthersost maojor unt of ths Pederatison, namoely Jamaoica, hs dssc 1950 a biohopric of its opo (Kiogson) imsosdiately oobjsct to the Holy Sse. Who diocss 10 ohs soothert potono of ohs Fedesation are toss grouoped io so ecclsistical prov- inoo, 95th Port-of-Spoin, (Trioidad) 00 mtostopolitso see. Aong tho suf- fragan oess Corgetowno (Brth Cuisoa) onthe mainlaod of Sooth Amesrc." Ecet. Stastis, 1958, p. 49. 10. UNESCO World Sourvey, 1958, pp. 1179-1102; Cotholic Disectosrt of lbs Caribbeoo, 1955, p. 36. 19. Ecsl. Statisic, 1958,p. 47. 20. UNESCO World Sorosp, 198, pp. 754-758. Who figoos for Catholic tsl s hool osar ores oecoot (probably 1957) thato hose given by  124 The Caribbean UNESCO. This latter lits only 81 priate primary aiid secodary schools wiith sllghtly oitt 28,090 pttpils. 21. Ibid., pp. 404-410, 401; Eccl. Sttistics, 1958, p. 47. 22. Opt). Statistics, 1958, p. 49; UNESCO World Surveyt, 1958, pp. 1272- 1283. Mtoti il be said abpout te schiols in Pueto Rico later pon inthils paper. 23. UNESCO World Surveyp, 1958, pp. 1283-1286. 24. Basedto Uited Naftins liata fit 1957. See above, note 2. 25. Epl. Sttiics, 1958, p. 42. 26. Ibid., p. 33. 27. Cpombined sptatitc fromt ibid., p. 33, an1 UNESCO Wirld Surveyp, 1958, pp. 269-275. 28. Otn the stte of Catholicism i Cetail Ameica (except Panamtat)se the excllentt arthcle eitled "The Cathilic Churph int Cetral Ameica," by Fretderick B. Pike in eview of Poi, XXI, 1 (Jit., 1959), 83-113. 29. Pccl. Statbitic, 1958, p. 33. The total populaton figure' bitt, as i all the pouptries, istIhit ofl the lies Upited Nations ettimaptpt. 30. The reader's ittdiulgecis askebd hereas elsewhere. My sttisticsat ntiof tesay ear andniti dttut tomaktrue copaisoins. This spread int thet sttitics accoutst fit the seeinhg ctttipdictioin in toO taltdet figiuret. 31. UNESCO World Surveyt, 1838, pp. 490-496, anid Pip). Statistics, 1858, p. 33; Pike, Pp. cit., pp. 92 1. 32. Eccl. Staiicsli, 1858, p. 41. T7he UNESCO Wprld Survey-, 1958 gives no figures for numbr of pimarytchoosandlumipgvenmet-mapintine, govei'iiittt-aided, and prfite tiboois toigether ftr thp figiures of 25,588 pri- martan 1,102 sectttdary stuidents (pp. 1185-198). 33. UNESCO Wprld Survey~, 1958, pp. 510-520; Epcl. Stpatistc, 1958, p. 35; Pike, op. cit., p. 86. 34. 1,823,580 ouit o 1,067,000 ppulationt. Eccl. Stpatit, 1958, p. 33; UNESCO WorlId SurvPey, 1958, pp. 796-799. 35. UNESCO World Survepp, 1858, pp. 819828; Eccl. Statit, 1958, p. 35. 36. UNESCO World Surtvep, 1858, pp. 703 1. The text is takten fom Rut- sell H. Fitzgibbpon (ed.), Thp Consptitutons if the Ameicas~ pp if Jpnupry 1, 1948 (Chipipi; Uniersity if Chicagi Press, 1948), pp. 488 0. 37. World Survey, 1958, pp. 703-715; Pip). Statistic, 1858, p. 35. 39. Based pp Upnid Ntionst dita fpp 1957. Set pitt 2. 39. Picl. Stptipticp, 1958, p. 17; UNESCO Wpld Sup-vey, 1958, pp. 265- 287. 40. Colematt, op. cit., p. 52. The iother nattionstar Argenfti, Brazi, GuaSteml,lHondurast, Costa Ricp, 1ait9, and Peru. Sttdtis Pike, op. cit., 41. Annuaprip Ptofliti, 1959, pp. 1355-1358. Brapil hpt fpoui pitifical untivities: Universidpde It Campiias, Universidded Cptolipp do Pip Gipnde do Sil, Uiersidade Cptolicp do Rip de Janetiri, ad Uttiversidpade Cptolicp de Sip Pulp. Tht onily therp pontfcal uttiverity in Lptip Ameicpp it thpt i Havanat, Cubp, mtflntd pbovt. 42. Epel. Statistics, 1958, p. 27; Colpemap, op. pit., p. 58; UNESCO Wild Survep, 1858, pp. 1322-1333. Thttt it also i Ctholic univetsity (Universi- dpd Antdrt Pulpo) wpith 1,200 stpdeptp itt 1959-60. 43. UNESCO Worild Stuve, 1,958, pp. 192-1185; Ecpl. Stttcs, 1958, p. 27; The Cttotlip Dtirectr of the Caribbpett, 1853, p. 36. 44. Figuiet are fort 1954-55, eicept bit poplaiont figturet whtich prp 1957. UNESCO Woruld Survepy, 1958, pp. 400-403; EppI. Staptitic, 1958, p. 27. 124 The Caribbean UNESCO. Thit lpatter lits Pinly 81 private pimatry pnd stectndary sphpolp wpith plightly tiei 29,000 puilt. 21. Ibid., pp. 404-410, 491; Eppl. Stptiptip, 1858, p. 47. 22. Eppl. Stptitips, 1958, p. 49; UNESCO Wprld Suppey, 1958, pp. 1272- 1293. Mitt ill bt tpid phbopt tht sphpolt in Putoi Ripi lptir pp inp thit patpe. 23. UNESCO World Survepy, 1958, pp. 1283-1296. 24. Bpttd ont Upited Naions dalta fopt 1957, Sit ahivt, nott 2. ES. Pipl. Stpatitpc, 1958, p. 42. 26. Ibid., p. 33. 27. Copmbinetd staptistict frioi ibid., p. 33, ittd UNESCO World Sttrtiey, 1958, pp. 269-275. 28. Onut he stte if Catholiism int Cetralu Amertica (except Panamap) see tht excellent prticle etitled "Thi Cptbplic Chtttih int Cetrattl Ameicp," by Frtdtrdck P. Piktt in Revitew if Poitic, XXI, 1 (Janu., 1959), 93-113. 29. Pipl. Statiptics, 1959, p. 33. The tital poutlaftttt flgute bet, as in ill tbe coiunti, it that if tbt lattttt Unte~d Nptiiistimaptest. 30. The repdtr't indttlgencet it atked bitt it elts'pbere. My sttisttics ait spiead int the stptitics acciuts firth sipinthg conptadicionp in total studet Ofiues 31. UNESCO Wirld Stuvy, 1958, pp. 490-496, ittd Picl. Staiticsp, 1958, p. 33; Pibi, Pp. cit., pp. 92 f. 32. Pip). Stptisticp, 1,958, p. 41. Tht UNESCO Wild Sttrvey, 1958 gites notip gures fort umber if pimary schools antd lumips govet'pment-itinetd, governmenttt-aided, iand private tihipls tigether fit the figurtes if 15,666 pri- marty it4 1,161 tecoidary stutdets (pp. 1185-1188). 33. UNESCO World Sttrvey, 1958, pp. 510-520; Pip). Staiticsp, 1958, p. 35; Pike, op. pit., p. 96. 34. 1,613,008 ittt if 1,067,086 popilatdon. Eipl. Stpatiti, 1958, p. 35; UNESCO World Stuvey, 1958, pp. 796-799. 35. UNESCO World Suvp, 1958, pp. 89-828; Etil. Statisti, 1958, p. 3. 36. UNESCO Wirld Survepy, 1958, pp. 763 f. The tettt it tpkent frpoi Rpt- till H. Fitzgibbitt (ed.), The Cinstitutiots if the Ampticps it if Jattttry 1, 1948 (Chicagi: Utnivtisity if Cbicpgo Prett, 198), pp. 498 f. 37. Witl1 Survepy, 1958, pp. 703-715; Etil. Sttistics, 1,958, p. 35. 38. Pitid ont Unte~d Nptipons datp fit 1857. Siete 2~ . 39. Pip). Stptitics, 1958, p. 17; UNESCO Wiild Sttriey, 1958, pp. 265- 207. 46. Coleimant, op. ciP., p. 52. The the naitutonst ate Argetdtt, Pipzil, Giptemalp, Hiondurapt, Cista Ricp, 1100, iat1 Pettu. See alti Pike, op. pit., passim. 41. Annuattio Pottificio, 1959, pp. 1355-1358. Prazi bit fittr pitttifical uiveritiest Univeridpde di Cpampittpt, Univeisidade Catoicap do Pip Gtpande do Sul, Univertidpde CptSlica do Rip It Jairio, ittd Uniertidpde Cptdlicp dt SIP Paulp. Thi pnlp ithit pontfical untiverttity i Lttt Amicai is that int Hpavtta, Cutba, menttipned ihipe. 42. EppI. Stptistici, 1958, p. 27; Colemapn, op. cit., p. 59; UNESCO Wit)1 Survey, 1858, pp. 1322-1333. Ter is alsi p Citbolip uiirsiity (Uttiverti- dpd Antdts Pulpo) 'pith 1,260 studets itt 1959-60. 43. UNESCO Witld Survey, 1958, pp. 1182-1185; EppI. Stptiticp, 1958, p. 27; The Cpthlic Directy if the Cpribpa, 1953, p. 36. 44. Fgutret aii fit 1954-55, except fit pipultiofiitgurest 'phiph ptt 1957. UNESCO World Survey, 1958, pp. 400-403; Pcp). Statistics, 1959, p. 27. 124 The Caribbean UNESCO. Thit laut lists tidy 81 private primarpy antd seciidary 'philt 'pith tlightly iover 28,000 piupilt. 21. Ibid., pp. 404-410, 401; Eccl. Stptistics, 1958, p. 47. 22. Picl. Stptistipp, 1959, p. 49; UNESCO Witld Surveiy, 1958, pp. 1272- 1293. Mor itt be) hid abittt the schilt in Putoic luabter put in thit patptr. 53. UNESCO Wild Suvy 1858, pp. 1283-11986. 24. Bpted on Uttitid Naionitt dtt fit 1957. Sit tbivt, pitt 2. 25. eeil. Statistic, 1958, p. 42. 26. Ibiid., p. 33. 27. Coinettd ttstcs fipom ibid., p. 33, itt1 UNESCO World Sttrvey, 1858, pp. 269-275. 28. Oi tht stte if Cptholiismt int Cetttal Attutipa (ticept Pattama) sit tbi exillettt prticle etitled "The Citbilip Cbirih int Cetrl Amicap," by Fetdip P. Pike in Reti if Politicsu, XXI, 1 (Jin., 1859), 83-113. 29. Eccl. Stptiptic, 1958, p. 33. The tittl pipultion figurti bitt, at in ill the ciuptiest, it tbpt if lt lptett United Nptionsttfestit. 30. Tbtt reidtr's idlgence it asbtd bere Pt ilts'pber. My sttitits pit nttitf thetsametyearandbhenctit is difictulttbimktuecoppison. Thit stpread in tht sttiticsi iiiiuts fit the teeinttg contraiption int tital stdettt figtties. 31. UNESCO Wild Stt'pey, 1958, pp. 490-496, paid Ecc. Stpatitic, 1958, p. 33; Pike, Pp. cit., pp. 92 f. 32. Pip. Statistics, 1958, p. 41. Thi UNESCO Wirld Surveyt, 1958 giveit nopfiguesiiorttumberuif pimarpytibchold lup governmnt-intind, governmeintt-pided, and pivate schools tigthbet fir tbe f iue if 15,866 pri- marua1 1,102 secottdary sttidets (pp. 1185-1189). 33. UNESCO Wild Surveyp, 1958, pp. 510-520; Eipl. Stattistic, 1958, p. 35; Pike, op. ct., p. 96. 34. 1,613,006 ittt if 1,007,600 pipuulaiin. Pipl. Stahtitic, 1959, p. 35; UNESCO World Stt'ptp, 1958, pp. 796-799. 35. UNESCO Witld Sp'pey, 1958, pp. 819-029; Epcl. Statitic, 1958, p. 35. 36. UNESCO Wild Sttrvep, 1958, pp. 703 f. Tbt ttttt it taken ftrom Put- sell H. Pitzgibhbon (ed.), Tbe Contitionst of the Ametriicas as if Jatttary 1, 1948 (Chicigi: Univetity pf Cbicpgp Prett, 1948), pp. 498 E. 37. World Sttrvey, 1958, pp. 763-715; EppI. Statitic, 1958, p. 35. 39. Based on Utnited Nitiiont dpta fit 1957. See pitt 2. 39. Pip). Statistic, 1958, p. 17; UNESCO Wild Sttrvep, 1958, pp. 265- 287. 40. Colemanpu, Pp. pit., p. 52. Thi other ntitnsp pit Argenttitta, Pipzil, Guatemal, Httdura, Cotaic, Haiti, pttdPtttt. See plsp Pike, op. Oft, pipiim. 41. Attuipo Piitificii, 1959, pp. 155-1358. Brizil hit fouir pintiil upiversities: Universidade It Capinais, Univertidpde Cptllica do Pip Grittdi do Sul, Uiveridade Cptllica do Rip de Jaioi, and Universidpde Cptlipp de Sap Piulo. The inly otber ponttficl uiverstiity int Lptin Ampricp is thit i Havitta, Cutbi, mentioned ihbove. 42. eil. Stptistics, 1958, p. 57; Colemapn, Pp. pit., p. 59; UNESCO Wild Su'pey, 1958, pp. 1322-1333. Theti it also p Ctlic university ( Univeiti- did Atndirt Beth) with 1,200 tudtinb 1959-60. 43. UNESCO Witld Suirvey, 1858, pp. 1182-1185; Epil. Sttiti, 1959, p. 27; The Cathoic Diretortiy of the Cpribbep, 1955, p. 38. 44. Figuries are fr 1954-55, etcept fit population figures 'phiph pit 1957. UNESCO World Survep, 1939, pp. 400-403; Epil. Stpattics, 1958, p. 27.  PRIVATE EDUCATION 125 45. Eccl. Statistics, 1958, p. 27; UNESCO World Survey, 1958, pp. 763- 768. 46. As of January 1, 1958, there were 186 American priests and 385 Ameri- can sisters working in Puerto Rico. For this and other information, see U.S. Catholic Overseas Missionary Personnel January 1, 1958 (Washington: Mis- sion Secretariat, 1958), p. 106. 47. For a professional study of Catholic education in one of the two Cath- olic dioceses of Puerto Ripo, see the unpublished Ph.D. dissertation by John F. Mueller, S.M., "A Survey of the Educational Program of Catholic Elemen- tary and Secondary Schools in the San Juan Diocese of Puerto Rico," pre- sented at Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1953. 48. Most of my line of argument is taken from Kevin J. O'Brien, The Prox- imate Aim of Education (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1958), passim. See also Samuel F. Bacon, An Evaluation of the Philosophy and Pedagogy of Ethical Culture (Washington, D.C.: Catholie University Press, 1933); James N. Brown, Educational Implications of Four Conceptions of) Human Nature; a Comparative Study (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univer- sity Press, 1940); Edward A. Fitzpatrick, The Catholic College in the World Today (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1954); Id., Philosophy of Education (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1953); Edward Lee, What Is Education? (New York: Sheed & Ward Company, 1944); Joseph Mc~lade, Progressive Educators and the Catholic Church (Westminster, Md.: Newman Press, 1953); John D. Redden & Francis A. Ryan, A Catholic Phi- losophy of Education (Rev. ed.; Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1956); Finalidades de una universidad cat6lia (Marianao; Universida.d de Santo Tomas de Villanueva, 1955). 49. Pius XI, "Christian Education of Youth" (Washington, D.C.: NCWC Press, 1936), pp. 4 f. 50. Quoted in Fitzpatrick, The Catholic College in the World Today, pp. 93 f. 51. Ibid., pp. 5 f. 52. O'Brien, op. cit., pp. 193 f. PRIVATE EDUCATION 125 45. Eccl. Statistics, 1958, p. 27; UNESCO World Survey, 1958, pp. 763- 768. 46. As of January 1, 1958, there were 186 American priests and 385 Ameri- can sisters working in Puerto Rico. For this and other information, see U.S. Catholic Overseas Missionary Personnel January 1, 1958 (Washington: Mis- sion Secretariat, 1958), p. 106. 47. For a professional study of Catholic education in one of the two Cath- olic dioceses of Puerto Rico, see the unpublished Ph.D. dissertation by John F. Mueller, S.M., "A Survey of the Educational Program of Catholic Elemen- tary and Secondary Schools in the San Juan Diocese of Puerto Rico," pre- sented at Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1953. 48. Most of my line of argument is taken from Kevin J. O'Brien, The Prox- imate Aim of Education (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1958), passim. See also Samuel F. Bacon, An Evaluation of the Philosophy and Pedagogy of Ethical Culture (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University Press, 1933); James N. Brown, Educational Implications of Four Conceptions of Human Nature; a Comparative Study (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univer- sity Press, 1940); Edward A. Fitzpatrick, The Catholic College in the World Today (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1954); Id., Philosophy of Education (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1953); Edward Leen, What Is Education? (New York: Sheed & Ward Company, 1944); Joseph McGlade, Progressive Educators and the Catholic Church (Westminster, Md.: Newman Press, 1953); John D. Redden & Francis A. Ryan, A Catholic Phi- losophy of Education (Rev. ed.; Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1956); Finalidades de una universidad cat6lica (Marianao; Universidad de Santo Tomas de Villanueva, 1955). 49. Pius XI, "Christian Education of Youth" (Washington, D.C.: NCWC Press, 1936), pp. 4 f. 50. Quoted in Fitzpatrick, The Catholic College in the World Today, pp. 93 f. 51. Ibid., pp. 5 f. 52. O'Brien, op. cit., pp. 193 f. PRIVATE EDUCATION 125 45. Eccl. Statistics, 1958, p. 27; UNESCO World Survey, 1958, pp. 763- 768. 46. As of January 1, 1958, there were 186 American priests and 385 Ameri- can sisters working in Puerto Rico. For this and other information, see U.S. Catholic Overseas Missionary Personnel January 1, 1958 (Washington: Mis- sion Secretariat, 1958), p. 106. 47. For a professional study of Catholic education in one of the two Cath- olic dioceses of Puerto Rico, see the unpublished Ph.D. dissertation by John F. Mueller, S.M., "A Survey of the Educational Program of Catholic Elemen- tary and Secondary Schools in the San Juan Diocese of Puerto Rico," pre- sented at Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1953. 48. Most of my line of argument is taken from Kevin J. O'Brien, The Prox- imate Aim of Education (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1958), passim. See also Samuel F. Bacon, An Evaluation of the Philosophy and Pedagogy of Ethical Culture (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University Press, 1933); James N. Brown, Educational Implications of Four Conceptions of Human Nature; a Comparative Study (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univer- sity Press, 1940); Edward A. Fitzpatrick, The Catholic College in the World Today (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1954); Id., Philosophy of Education (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1953); Edward Leen, What Is Education? (New York: Sheed & Ward Company, 1944); Joseph McIlade, Progressive Educators and the Catholic Church (Westminster, Md.: Newman Press, 1953); John D. Redden & Francis A. Ryan, A Catholic Phi- losophy of Education (Rev. ed.; Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1956); Finalidades de una universidad cat6lica (Mariana; Universidad de Santo Tomas de Villanueva, 1955). 49. Pius XI, "Christian Education of Youth" (Washington, D.C.: NCWC Press, 1936), pp. 4 f. 50. Quoted in Fitzpatrick, The Catholic College in the World Today, pp. 93 f. 51. Ibid., pp. 5 f. 52. O'Brien, op. cit., pp. 193 f.  8 8 8 He'tor G. Valencia V.: THE CONTRIBUTION OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN THE PROTESTANT MOVEMENT in the Caribbean area is an important element in the field of education. This fact is brought out by the organizers of the Tenth Annual Conference on the Car- ibbean by including some consideration of the contribution of the Protestant schools in the area. It is hoped that from this Round Table discussion on private education one may gain an insight into the nature and extent of this important phase of school work. It is necessary to devote a few lines to the general review of the growth of the Protestant movement in Latin America before deal- ing with the specific aspect of Protestant education, which is only a part of the Evangelical effort in that continent. The strength and resources of this movement determine in almost all cases the type of school systems they have developed. They also point out the trends towards future developments in this area. It has been estimated that there are about five million Evangeli- cals in Latin Americas* In the Caribbean area alone, including the non-Spanish-speaking territories, there are about 884,343 full church members, and almost 3,450,539 people who attend Protes- tant churches.? Their activities include not only the support and propagation of churches, but also the operation of day schools, col- leges, seminaries, hospitals, youth hostels, Bible institutes, agricul- *Notes to this chapter begin on page 137. He'tor G. Valencia V.: THE CONTRIBUTION OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN THE PROTESTANT MOVEMENT in the Caribbean area is an important element in the field of education. This fact is brought out by the organizers of the Tenth Annual Conference on the Car- ibbean by including some consideration of the contribution of the Protestant schools in the area. It is hoped that from this Round Table discussion on private education one may gain an insight into the nature and extent of this important phase of school work. It is necessary to devote a few lines to the general review of the growth of the Protestant movement in Latin America before deal- ing with the specific aspect of Protestant education, which is only a part of the Evangelical effort in that continent. The strength and resources of this movement determine in almost all cases the type of school systems they have developed. They also point out the trends towards future developments in this area. It has been estimated that there are about five million Evangeli- cals in Latin America?* In the Caribbean area alone, including the non-Spanish-speaking territories, there are about 884,343 full church members, and almost 3,450,539 people who attend Protes- tant churches.? Their activities include not only the support and propagation of churches, but also the operation of day schools, col- leges, seminaries, hospitals, youth hostels, Bible institutes, agricul- *Notes to this chapter begin on page 137. 126 He'ctor G. Valencia V.: THE CONTRIBUTION OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN THE PROTESTANT MOVEMENT in the Caribbean area is an important element in the field of education. This fact is brought out by the organizers of the Tenth Annual Conference on the Car- ibbean by including some consideration of the contribution of the Protestant schools in the area. It is hoped that from this Round Table discussion on private education one may gain an insight into the nature and extent of this important phase of school work. It is necessary to devote a few lines to the general review of the growth of the Protestant movement in Latin America before deal- ing with the specific aspect of Protestant education, which is only a part of the Evangelical effort in that continent. The strength and resources of this movement determine in almost all cases the type of school systems they have developed. They also point out the trends towards future developments in this area. It has been estimated that there are about five million Evangeli- cals in Latin Americas In the Caribbean area alone, including the non-Spanish-speaking territories, there are about 884,343 full church members, and almost 3,450,539 people who attend Protes- tant churches? Their activities include not only the support and propagation of churches, but also the operation of day schools, col- leges, seminaries, hospitals, youth hostels, Bible institutes, agricul- *Notes to this chapter begin on page 137. 126  PRIVATE EDUCATION 127 tural projects, literacy work, teacher training, publishing houses, Bible agencies, radio stations, and similar activities. The Protestant church is a growing church in the countries under consideration. Benton J. Melbourne points out in a recent article that in Spanish-speaking Latin America the growth of the Protestant churches has kept pace with the increase in population. The in- crease in the population during the period from 1952 to 1957 was 11.4 per cent, while the increase in Protestant church membership was about 12.1 per cent. This growth is still more noticeable when the estimates are made on the basis of the growth of the Evangeli- cal community. "The increase in that area was from about one million six hundred thousand to two million five hundred thousand - a growth of 63.8 per cent."3 W. Stanley Rycroft estimates that the rate of increase of the total Evangelical community from 1916 to 1956 is 40 to one.4 This accelerated growth of the Protestant community is demanding more and better institutions to serve the Evangelical constituency. The different Protestant denominations have taken seriously this challenge. To meet it, Protestant schools of diverse types have been and continue to be established. It is very fortunate that the different church groups working in the Caribbean area have taken a forward-looking attitude towards edu- cation. For, with a few exceptions, it is in this area that one finds the most advanced and best organized system of schools serving the Protestant body as well as the community as a whole. II There is little organized information available concerning the historical contribution of Protestant education in the Caribbean area. We know that the Dutch and British were the only Protestant influence in this section during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Dr. Stewart W. Herman states that "from 1492 until 1818, a span of 326 years, there was no organized Protestant work done under either the Spanish or Portuguese flags."5 It is quite plausible that the Dutch and the British provided some kind of education for the children of their subjects living in these territories. However, it was not until the nineteenth century, when independence from Spain was achieved, that the first Protestant societies began to send their representatives to some of the Caribbean countries. Two of the early representatives of religious organizations were PRIVATE EDUCATION 127 tural projects, literacy work, teacher training, publishing houses, Bible agencies, radio stations, and similar activities. The Protestant church is a growing church in the countries under consideration. Benton J. Melbourne points out in a recent article that in Spanish-speaking Latin America the growth of the Protestant churches has kept pace with the increase in population. The in- crease in the population during the period from 1952 to 1957 was 11.4 per cent, while the increase in Protestant church membership was about 12.1 per cent. This growth is still more noticeable when the estimates are made on the basis of the growth of the Evangeli- cal community. "The increase in that area was from about one million six hundred thousand to two million five hundred thousand - a growth of 63.8 per cent."3 W. Stanley Rycroft estimates that the rate of increase of the total Evangelical community from 1916 to 1956 is 40 to one.a This accelerated growth of the Protestant community is demanding more and better institutions to serve the Evangelical constituency. The different Protestant denominations have taken seriously this challenge. To meet it, Protestant schools of diverse types have been and continue to be established. It is very fortunate that the different church groups working in the Caribbean area have taken a forward-looking attitude towards edu- cation. For, with a few exceptions, it is in this area that one finds the most advanced and best organized system of schools serving the Protestant body as well as the community as a whole. II There is little organized information available concerning the historical contribution of Protestant education in the Caribbean area. We know that the Dutch and British were the only Protestant influence in this section during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Dr. Stewart W. Herman states that "from 1492 until 1818, a span of 326 years, there was no organized Protestant work done under either the Spanish or Portuguese flags."5 It is quite plausible that the Dutch and the British provided some kind of education for the children of their subjects living in these territories. However, it was not until the nineteenth century, when independence from Spain was achieved, that the first Protestant societies began to send their representatives to some of the Caribbean countries. Two of the early representatives of religious organizations were PRIVATE EDUCATION 127 tural projects, literacy work, teacher training, publishing houses, Bible agencies, radio stations, and similar activities. The Protestant church is a growing church in the countries under consideration. Benton J. Melbourne points out in a recent article that in Spanish-speaking Latin America the growth of the Protestant churches has kept pace with the increase in population. The in- crease in the population during the period from 1952 to 1957 was 11.4 per cent, while the increase in Protestant church membership was about 12.1 per cent. This growth is still more noticeable when the estimates are made on the basis of the growth of the Evangeli- cal community. "The increase in that area was from about one million six hundred thousand to two million five hundred thousand - a growth of 63.8 per cent." W. Stanley Rycroft estimates that the rate of increase of the total Evangelical community from 1916 to 1956 is 40 to one.4 This accelerated growth of the Protestant community is demanding more and better institutions to serve the Evangelical constituency. The different Protestant denominations have taken seriously this challenge. To meet it, Protestant schools of diverse types have been and continue to be established. It is very fortunate that the different church groups working in the Caribbean area have taken a forward-looking attitude towards edu- cation. For, with a few exceptions, it is in this area that one finds the most advanced and best organized system of schools serving the Protestant body as well as the community as a whole. II There is little organized information available concerning the historical contribution of Protestant education in the Caribbean area. We know that the Dutch and British were the only Protestant influence in this section during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Dr. Stewart W. Herman states that "from 1492 until 1818, a span of 326 years, there was no organized Protestant work done under either the Spanish or Portuguese flags." It is quite plausible that the Dutch and the British provided some kind of education for the children of their subjects living in these territories. However, it was not until the nineteenth century, when independence from Spain was achieved, that the first Protestant societies began to send their representatives to some of the Caribbean countries. Two of the early representatives of religious organizations were  128 The Caribbean Joseph Lancaster and James Thompson, British subjects, who came to South America as envoys of the British Foreign School Society and the British and Foreign Bible Society. Joseph Lancaster came to Caracas, Venezuela, in 1824, at the invitation of the city council and for the purpose of organizing the educational system of that city. His contribution was great in spite of the many difficulties he encountered and the short time he spent in the territory of New Granada. James Thompson visited Colombia in 1825 and was influential in establishing a local Bible Society and in advising the authorities in regard to the functioning of Lancastrian schools. His aim was "to help the newly independent countries to set up a system of popular education and to carry the Word of God." Joseph Lancaster was born in London in 1778 of Quaker parents. His religious beliefs gave him a deep sense of responsibility for the welfare of his fellow men. For this reason he devoted himself to the education of the poor in a small school that he established in one of the suburbs of London. The experiences in this school helped him to formulate his method of education, which is commonly known as the Monitorial or the Lancastrian method. Sim6n Bolivar visited Lancaster's school in 1810 and was greatly impressed with what he saw. When the time came for the setting up of an educa- tional system in the New Granada, Lancaster's method seemed to be the answer. In a short time many schools were established, and the method spread throughout the land, not only in the New Gra- nada territory, but also throughout the Spanish-speaking countries of the New World, where learning was a vital part of the program of preparation for freedom.' In his Improvements in Education, published in London in 1805, Lancaster explains his philosophy and method. His philosophy of education was a simple one. He considered the child as an active being with "an almost irresistible propensity to action." He believed that "this liveliness should never be repressed but directed to useful ends" and that the task of the teacher was to direct "those active spirits to good purposes."s His method called for an atmosphere of freedom in the classroom. The main feature of the Lancastrian schools was the use of older, more advanced students to teach small groups of their own schoolmates, thus avoiding the employ- ment of more teachers. The student-teachers were called monitors, hence the name of "monitorial method." 128 The Caribbean Joseph Lancaster and James Thompson British subjects, who came to South America as envoys of the British Foreign School Society and the British and Foreign Bible Society. Joseph Lancaster came to Caracas, Venezuela, in 1824, at the invitation of the city council and for the purpose of organizing the educational system of that city. His contribution was great in spite of the many difflculties he encountered and the short time he spent in the territory of New Granada. James Thompson visited Colombia in 1825 and was influential in establishing a local Bible Society and in advising the authorities in regard to the functioning of Lancastrian schools. His aim was "to help the newly independent countries to set up a system of popular education and to carry the Word of God."O Joseph Lancaster was born in London in 1778 of Quaker parents. His religious beliefs gave him a deep sense of responsibility for the welfare of his fellow men. For this reason he devoted himself to the education of the poor in a small school that he established in one of the suburbs of London. The experiences in this school helped him to formulate his method of education, which is commonly known as the Monitorial or the Lancastrian method. Sim6n Bolivar visited Lancaster's school in 1810 and was greatly impressed with what he saw. When the time came for the setting up of an educa- tional system in the New Granada, Lancaster's method seemed to be the answer. In a short time many schools were established, and the method spread throughout the land, not only in the New Gra- nada territory, but also throughout the Spanish-speaking countries of the New World, where learning was a vital part of the program of preparation for freedom.' In his Improvements in Education, published in London in 1805, Lancaster explains his philosophy and method. His philosophy of education was a simple one. He considered the child as an active being with "an almost irresistible propensity to action." He believed that "this liveliness should never be repressed but directed to useful ends" and that the task of the teacher was to direct "those active spirits to good purposes." His method called for an atmosphere of freedom in the classroom. The main feature of the Lancastrian schools was the use of older, more advanced students to teach small groups of their own schoolmates, thus avoiding the employ- ment of more teachers. The student-teachers were called monitors, hence the name of "monitorial method." 128 The Caribbean Joseph Lancaster and James Thompson, British subjects, who came to South America as envoys of the British Foreign School Society and the British and Foreign Bible Society. Joseph Lancaster came to Caracas, Venezuela, in 1824, at the invitation of the city council and for the purpose of organizing the educational system of that city. His contribution was great in spite of the many difllculties he encountered and the short time he spent in the territory of New Granada. James Thompson visited Colombia in 1825 and was influential in establishing a local Bible Society and in advising the authorities in regard to the functioning of Lancastrian schools. His aim was "to help the newly independent countries to set up a system of popular education and to carry the Word of God." Joseph Lancaster was born in London in 1778 of Quaker parents. His religious beliefs gave him a deep sense of responsibility for the welfare of his fellow men. For this reason he devoted himself to the education of the poor in a small school that he established in one of the suburbs of London. The experiences in this school helped him to formulate his method of education, which is commonly known as the Monitorial or the Lancastrian method. Sim6n Bolivar visited Lancaster's school in 1810 and was greatly impressed with what he saw. When the time came for the setting up of an educa- tional system in the New Granada, Lancaster's method seemed to be the answer. In a short time many schools were established, and the method spread throughout the land, not only in the New Gra- nada territory, but also throughout the Spanish-speaking countries of the New World, where learning was a vital part of the program of preparation for freedom. In his Improvements in Education, published in London in 1805, Lancaster explains his philosophy and method. His philosophy of education was a simple one. He considered the child as an active being with "an almost irresistible propensity to action." He believed that "this liveliness should never be repressed but directed to useful ends" and that the task of the teacher was to direct "those active spirits to good purposes."' His method called for an atmosphere of freedom in the classroom. The main feature of the Lancastrian schools was the use of older, more advanced students to teach small groups of their own schoolmates, thus avoiding the employ- ment of more teachers. The student-teachers were called monitors, hence the name of "monitorial method."  PRIVATE EDUCATION 129 Lancaster used the Bible as his textbook in reading. This was a unique feature, which did not last long in Latin America. The sand- box and the slate, two distinctive features of his method, have lasted longer. They still remain in many schools as a silent tribute to the Quaker teacher. The monitorial plan of teaching was of great help to the new governments. It served as a means of mass education, it did not require too much training on the part of the teachers, and the equipment needed was not elaborate. In addition to this, the phi- losophy behind it was one of freedom and respect for the children, two elements which were in accord with the spirit of the times. Joseph Lancaster should be remembered today as the pioneer of Protestant education in the Caribbean as well as throughout Latin America. III Most of the Protestant schools in the Caribbean area were founded in the present century. However, there are a few which began operating in the last century; namely, Colegio Americano, in Bogota, Colombia (Presbyterian, 1869); Colegio Americano for Girls, Barranquilla, Colombia (Presbyterian, 1889); Colegio Amer- icano for Boys, in the same city (Presbyterian, 1890); Colegio Americano, Caracas, Venezuela (Presbyterian, 1896); Candler Col- lege, Havana, Cuba (Methodist, 1899). Many others were founded during the early years of this century; such as, La Progresiva, Cir- denas, Cuba (Presbyterian, 1900); George O. Robinson School, Santurce, Puerto Rico (Methodist, 1904); Pan-American Institute, Panama City (Methodist, 1906). The Friends Mission opened schools in Chiquimula, Guatemala, early in 1908; while the Seventh Day Adventists already had schools in Guatemala City in 1910. The Moravian Mission started educational work in Bluefields, Nica- ragua, in 1911; the Inter-American University, San Germin, Puerto Rico, was started by the Presbyterian Church as an elementary school in 1912; the American Baptists began schools in Managua, Nicaragua, in 1917, at about the same time that the Presbyterians founded the Colegio Americano in Merida, Mexico, and started their extensive educational work in Guatemala. From these humble beginnings Protestant schools have grown tremendously in number and in efficiency. PRIVATE EDUCATION 129 Lancaster used the Bible as his textbook in reading. This was a unique feature, which did not last long in Latin America. The sand- box and the slate, two distinctive features of his method, have lasted longer. They still remain in many schools as a silent tribute to the Quaker teacher. The monitorial plan of teaching was of great help to the new governments. It served as a means of mass education, it did not require too much training on the part of the teachers, and the equipment needed was not elaborate. In addition to this, the phi- losophy behind it was one of freedom and respect for the children, two elements which were in accord with the spirit of the times. Joseph Lancaster should be remembered today as the pioneer of Protestant education in the Caribbean as well as throughout Latin America. III Most of the Protestant schools in the Caribbean area were founded in the present century. However, there are a few which began operating in the last century; namely, Colegio Americana, in Bogota, Colombia (Presbyterian, 1869); Colegio Americano for Girls, Barranquilla, Colombia (Presbyterian, 1889); Colegio Amer- icano for Boys, in the same city (Presbyterian, 1890); Colegio Americano, Caracas, Venezuela (Presbyterian, 1896); Candler Col- lege, Havana, Cuba (Methodist, 1899). Many others were founded during the early years of this century; such as, La Progresiva, Car- denas, Cuba (Presbyterian, 1900); George O. Robinson School, Santurce, Puerto Rico (Methodist, 1904); Pan-American Institute, Panama City (Methodist, 1906). The Friends Mission opened schools in Chiquimula, Guatemala, early in 1908; while the Seventh Day Adventists already had schools in Guatemala City in 1910. The Moravian Mission started educational work in Bluefields, Nica- ragua, in 1911; the Inter-American University, San GermAn, Puerto Rico, was started by the Presbyterian Church as an elementary school in 1912; the American Baptists began schools in Managua, Nicaragua, in 1917, at about the same time that the Presbyterians founded the Colegio Americano in Merida, Mexico, and started their extensive educational work in Guatemala. From these humble beginnings Protestant schools have grown tremendously in number and in efficiency. PRIVATE EDUCATION 129 Lancaster used the Bible as his textbook in reading. This was a unique feature, which did not last long in Latin America. The sand- box and the slate, two distinctive features of his method, have lasted longer. They still remain in many schools as a silent tribute to the Quaker teacher. The monitorial plan of teaching was of great help to the new governments. It served as a means of mass education, it did not require too much training on the part of the teachers, and the equipment needed was not elaborate. In addition to this, the phi- losophy behind it was one of freedom and respect for the children, two elements which were in accord with the spirit of the times. Joseph Lancaster should be remembered today as the pioneer of Protestant education in the Caribbean as well as throughout Latin America. III Most of the Protestant schools in the Caribbean area were founded in the present century. However, there are a few which began operating in the last century; namely, Colegio Americana, in Bogoth, Colombia (Presbyterian, 1869); Colegio Americana for Girls, Barranquilla, Colombia (Presbyterian, 1889); Colegio Amer- icano for Boys, in the same city (Presbyterian, 1890); Colegio Americano, Caracas, Venezuela (Presbyterian, 1896); Candler Col- lege, Havana, Cuba (Methodist, 1899). Many others were founded during the early years of this century; such as, La Progresiva, CAr- denas, Cuba (Presbyterian, 1900); George O. Robinson School, Santurce, Puerto Rico (Methodist, 1904); Pan-American Institute, Panama City (Methodist, 1906). The Friends Mission opened schools in Chiquimula, Guatemala, early in 1908; while the Seventh Day Adventists already had schools in Guatemala City in 1910. The Moravian Mission started educational work in Bluefields, Nica- ragua, in 1911; the Inter-American University, San GermAn, Puerto Rico, was started by the Presbyterian Church as an elementary school in 1912; the American Baptists began schools in Managua, Nicaragua, in 1917, at about the same time that the Presbyterians founded the Colegio Americano in Merida, Mexico, and started their extensive educational work in Guatemala. From these humble beginnings Protestant schools have grown tremendously in number and in efficiency.  130 The Caribbean Because of a lack of organized statistics, it is impossible to give a complete numerical picture of Evangelical schools in the Caribbean. Judging from the partial reports available, gathered from publica- tions as well as a questionnaire sent to different religious bodies that work in this area, there are about 25 American mission boards or agencies and several European churches directly or indirectly connected with more than 900 educational institutions, including the 88 Bible institutes, the 26 theological seminaries," and the two Evangelical universities. The total school population served by these institutions probably exceeds 100,000.10 Schools vary in size from the modest, rural school with one teacher and 20 to 40 students to the modern, departmentalized school with more than 50 teachers and 2,000 students. Most of them are elementary schools located in rural areas and usually connected with the local church, but serving the larger community. A great number of them combine the elementary and secondary schools in the same building. Some offer teacher training; others have a commercial section in addi- tion to the elementary and the secondary departments. Still another combination that is common is the American high school operating in the same building with the Spanish-speaking elementary and secondary school. There are some specialized schools, such as, Bible institutes, seminaries, and normal schools. There are also some schools entirely devoted to the teaching of the Indians. Technical and semiprofessional schools have not been empha- sized. The majority of the secondary schools are college-preparatory, with a few offering also commercial education. In some communi- ties these schools are patronized by the upper classes, but in most countries they serve mostly the laboring and the middle-class strata of society. Bringing together this cross section of society, they are real laboratories for democracy, where people of different walks of life mix in the process of getting an education. As a rule, the large Protestant school is well staffed, while the small rural one suffers from lack of personnel and adequate facili- ties. Secondary schools usually experience difficulty in securing teachers, for the curricula require specialized teachers, who are hard to get and require a high salary. In many countries the schools have to resort to part-time teachers or to short-term missionaries. Usually a low tuition fee is charged to meet the expenses. Even so, most of the schools are unable to support themselves, and have to be helped by their supporting boards or by their national churches. 130 The Caribbean Because of a lack of organized statistics, it is impossible to give a complete numerical picture of Evangelical schools in the Caribbean. Judging from the partial reports available, gathered from publica- tions as well as a questionnaire sent to different religious bodies that work in this area, there are about 25 American mission boards or agencies and several European churches directly or indirectly connected with more than 900 educational institutions, including the 88 Bible institutes, the 26 theological seminaries, and the two Evangelical universities. The total school population served by these institutions probably exceeds 100,000.1 Schools vary in size from the modest, rural school with one teacher and 20 to 40 students to the modern, departmentalized school with more than 50 teachers and 2,000 students. Most of them are elementary schools located in rural areas and usually connected with the local church, but serving the larger community. A great number of them combine the elementary and secondary schools in the same building. Some offer teacher training; others have a commercial section in addi- tion to the elementary and the secondary departments. Still another combination that is common is the American high school operating in the same building with the Spanish-speaking elementary and secondary school. There are some specialized schools, such as, Bible institutes, seminaries, and normal schools. There are also some schools entirely devoted to the teaching of the Indians. Technical and semiprofessional schools have not been empha- sized. The majority of the secondary schools are college-preparatory, with a few offering also commercial education. In some communi- ties these schools are patronized by the upper classes, but in most countries they serve mostly the laboring and the middle-class strata of society. Bringing together this cross section of society, they are real laboratories for democracy, where people of different walks of life mix in the process of getting an education. As a rule, the large Protestant school is well staffed, while the small rural one suffers from lack of personnel and adequate facili- ties. Secondary schools usually experience difficulty in securing teachers, for the curricula require specialized teachers, who are hard to get and require a high salary. In many countries the schools have to resort to part-time teachers or to short-term missionaries. Usually a low tuition fee is charged to meet the expenses. Even so, most of the schools are unable to support themselves, and have to be helped by their supporting boards or by their national churches. 130 The Caribbean Because of a lack of organized statistics, it is impossible to give a complete numerical picture of Evangelical schools in the Caribbean. Judging from the partial reports available, gathered from publica- tions as well as a questionnaire sent to different religious bodies that work in this area, there are about 25 American mission boards or agencies and several European churches directly or indirectly connected with more than 900 educational institutions, including the 88 Bible institutes, the 26 theological seminaries,' and the two Evangelical universities. The total school population served by these institutions probably exceeds 100,0000 Schools vary in size from the modest, rural school with one teacher and 20 to 40 students to the modern, departmentalized school with more than 50 teachers and 2,000 students. Most of them are elementary schools located in rural areas and usually connected with the local church, but serving the larger community. A great number of them combine the elementary and secondary schools in the same building. Some offer teacher training; others have a commercial section in addi- tion to the elementary and the secondary departments. Still another combination that is common is the American high school operating in the same building with the Spanish-speaking elementary and secondary school. There are some specialized schools, such as, Bible institutes, seminaries, and normal schools. There are also some schools entirely devoted to the teaching of the Indians. Technical and semiprofessional schools have not been empha- sized. The majority of the secondary schools are college-preparatory, with a few offering also commercial education. In some communi- ties these schools are patronized by the upper classes, but in most countries they serve mostly the laboring and the middle-class strata of society. Bringing together this cross section of society, they are real laboratories for democracy, where people of different walks of life mix in the process of getting an education. As a rule, the large Protestant school is well staffed, while the small rural one suffers from lack of personnel and adequate facili- ties. Secondary schools usually experience difficulty in securing teachers, for the curricula require specialized teachers, who are hard to get and require a high salary. In many countries the schools have to resort to part-time teachers or to short-term missionaries. Usually a low tuition fee is charged to meet the expenses. Even so, most of the schools are unable to support themselves, and have to be helped by their supporting boards or by their national churches.  PRIVATE EDUCATION 131 PRIVATE EDUCATION 131 PRIVATE EDUCATION 131 IV The contributions that these Protestant schools are making extend into many fields. Some of them will be considered briefly. They are contributing to wipe out the deficit of schools in most of the countries in which they operate. In an analysis of the edu- cational situation of Colombia, the weekly magazine Semana states that "thirteen million Colombians want to belong to the group of free and democratic people, but ... 5 per cent are well educated, 18 per cent have had from 2 to 5 years of primary school, 34 per cent have had only first grade, 43 per cent are illiterate."" In urban areas only 11.7 per cent of the children of school age are enrolled in school; in the rural sections only 31.5 per cent have this privilege)0 Colombia has a tremendous deficit of schools. The Protestants are contributing there with more than 150 schools which enroll more than 10,000 students. The Colombian situa- tion resembles, no doubt, the educational picture of many of the Caribbean countries, if not all of them. Where there is free- dom for the Evangelical schools to operate they become staunch allies of the governments to stamp out illiteracy and ignorance. These schools are also helping to train the leaders of the com- munity. It would be very interesting to make a study of the indi- viduals who have studied at Evangelical schools and have reached prominence. The following excerpt of a letter from a member of a mission board that has work in Honduras gives an idea of the importance of the Evangelical schools: "From personal experience I can assure you that the impact of these schools and the gradu- ates on the small country of Honduras is far beyond what one might expect from small numbers of personnel involved. The educational work of the church in Honduras has been a leaven that has affected the whole of Honduras for the better. When I visited Honduras in 1957, the head of the Junta Militar was a former stu- dent of our schools and so was his interpreter and chief guide at the presidential palace, who incidentally was also the wife of the Honduran ambassador to the United States.... The influence of our schools has really been tremendous."13 Dr. Enrique Olaya Herrera, who served as president of Colombia, as member of the Colombian cabinet, and as ambassador of Colom- bia to the United States and to the Vatican, was a former student of the Colegio Americana in Bogota. So was Dr. Agustin Nieto Caba- IV The contributions that these Protestant schools are making extend into many fields. Some of them will be considered briefly. They are contributing to wipe out the deficit of schools in most of the countries in which they operate. In an analysis of the edu- cational situation of Colombia, the weekly magazine Semana states that "thirteen million Colombians want to belong to the group of free and democratic people, but ... 5 per cent are well educated, 18 per cent have had from 2 to 5 years of primary school, 34 per cent have had only first grade, 43 per cent are illiterate."0 In urban areas only 51.7 per cent of the children of school age are enrolled in school; in the rural sections only 31.5 per cent have this privilege.0 Colombia has a tremendous deficit of schools. The Protestants are contributing there with more than 150 schools which enroll more than 10,000 students. The Colombian situa- tion resembles, no doubt, the educational picture of many of the Caribbean countries, if not all of them. Where there is free- dom for the Evangelical schools to operate they become staunch allies of the governments to stamp out illiteracy and ignorance. These schools are also helping to train the leaders of the com- munity. It would be very interesting to make a study of the indi- viduals who have studied at Evangelical schools and have reached prominence. The following excerpt of a letter from a member of a mission board that has work in Honduras gives an idea of the importance of the Evangelical schools: "From personal experience I can assure you that the impact of these schools and the gradu- ates on the small country of Honduras is far beyond what one might expect from small numbers of personnel involved. The educational work of the church in Honduras has been a leaven that has affected the whole of Honduras for the better. When I visited Honduras in 1957, the head of the Junta Militar was a former stu- dent of our schools and so was his interpreter and chief guide at the presidential palace, who incidentally was also the wife of the Honduran ambassador to the United States.... The influence of our schools has really been tremendous."3 Dr. Enrique Olaya Herrera, who served as president of Colombia, as member of the Colombian cabinet, and as ambassador of Colom- bia to the United States and to the Vatican, was a former student of the Colegio Americana in Bogota. So was Dr. Agustin Nieto Caba- IV The contributions that these Protestant schools are making extend into many fields. Some of them will be considered briefly. They are contributing to wipe out the deficit of schools in most of the countries in which they operate. In an analysis of the edu- cational situation of Colombia, the weekly magazine Semana states that "thirteen million Colombians want to belong to the group of free and democratic people, but ... 5 per cent are well educated, 18 per cent have had from 2 to 5 years of primary school, 34 per cent have had only first grade, 43 per cent are illiterate."" In urban areas only 51.7 per cent of the children of school age are enrolled in school; in the rural sections only 31.5 per cent have this privilege.0 Colombia has a tremendous deficit of schools. The Protestants are contributing there with more than 150 schools which enroll more than 10,000 students. The Colombian situa- tion resembles, no doubt, the educational picture of many of the Caribbean countries, if not all of them. Where there is free- dom for the Evangelical schools to operate they become staunch allies of the governments to stamp out illiteracy and ignorance. These schools are also helping to train the leaders of the com- munity. It would be very interesting to make a study of the indi- viduals who have studied at Evangelical schools and have reached prominence. The following excerpt of a letter from a member of a mission board that has work in Honduras gives an idea of the importance of the Evangelical schools: "From personal experience I can assure you that the impact of these schools and the gradu- ates on the small country of Honduras is far beyond what one might expect from small numbers of personnel involved. The educational work of the church in Honduras has been a leaven that has affected the whole of Honduras for the better. When I visited Honduras in 1957, the head of the Junta Militar was a former stu- dent of our schools and so was his interpreter and chief guide at the presidential palace, who incidentally was also the wife of the Honduran ambassador to the United States.... The influence of our schools has really been tremendous.""0 Dr. Enrique Olaya Herrera, who served as president of Colombia, as member of the Colombian cabinet, and as ambassador of Colom- bia to the United States and to the Vatican, was a former student of the Colegio Americana in Bogota. So was Dr. Agustin Nieto Caba-  132 The Caribbean hero, one of the outstanding Latin-American educators. Wolfgang Larrazabal, who served at the head of the government following the overthrow of the Perez Jimenez regime in Venezuela, studied at the Colegio Libertador in Maracaibo, the Evangelical Alliance Mission school. Many members of Congress, judges, teachers, busi- nessmen, pastors, doctors, lawyers, and other professionals have received the beneficial influence of these institutions. And many of them gratefully remember the lessons learned in them. The spirit of the school usually extends itself into the local com- munity. As only one example might be cited the case of a famous debate between two groups of students at La Progresiva, Presby- terian school in Cardenas, Cuba. The topic of the debate was: "What is more beneficial for a country, schools or roads?" The debate helped to bring into focus the great need for paving the streets of Cardenas. A committee of citizens, headed by the prin- cipal of the school, launched a campaign taking as a unit the cost of paving one block, more or less a thousand Cuban pesos. They organized the "Club of the Thousand Men." Each member prom- ised to pay a peso. When the amount was raised, the inhabitants of Cardenas one morning found themselves watching a parade of young boys and some teachers armed with hoes, wheelbarrows, and other implements for work. They marched along singing a song about the need for better streets, until they came to the most central block in town, where they began digging and leveling the whole block to begin paving it. They were students and teachers from La Progresiva. This civic example was soon followed by other citi- zens, and Cirdenas became a town of paved streets. Most important of all, people realized how much cooperation and enthusiasm can do for a cause. This same pattern was followed by other cities on the island: Santiago de Cuba, Remedios, Colon, Pinar del Rio, and others.s This is an example of a practical lesson in citizenship, and others like it can be found launched by the progressive Prot- estant schools. In many cases the Evangelical schools have been instrumental in bringing about improvements in the educational field. They have contributed greatly to the acceptance of some features in the curriculum, such as the teaching of home economics, the method- ology of teaching English as a foreign language, the teaching of music, religion, and manual arts. In some communities the secular schools are still using textbooks introduced by the Evangelical 132 The Caribbean llero, one of the outstanding Latin-American educators. Wolfgang Larrazabal, who served at the head of the government following the overthrow of the Perez Jimdnez regime in Venezuela, studied at the Colegio Libertador in Maracaibo, the Evangelical Alliance Mission school. Many members of Congress, judges, teachers, busi- nessmen, pastors, doctors, lawyers, and other professionals have received the beneficial influence of these institutions. And many of them gratefully remember the lessons learned in them. The spirit of the school usually extends itself into the local com- munity. As only one example might be cited the case of a famous debate between two groups of students at La Progresiva, Presby- terian school in Cirdenas, Cuba. The topic of the debate was: "What is more beneficial for a country, schools or roads?" The debate helped to bring into focus the great need for paving the streets of Cirdenas. A committee of citizens, headed by the prin- cipal of the school, launched a campaign taking as a unit the cost of paving one block, more or less a thousand Cuban pesos. They organized the "Club of the Thousand Men." Each member prom- ised to pay a peso. When the amount was raised, the inhabitants of Cirdenas one morning found themselves watching a parade of young boys and some teachers armed with hoes, wheelbarrows, and other implements for work. They marched along singing a song about the need for better streets, until they came to the most central block in town, where they began digging and leveling the whole block to begin paving it. They were students and teachers from La Progresiva. This civic example was soon followed by other citi- zens, and Cardenas became a town of paved streets. Most important of all, people realized how much cooperation and enthusiasm can do for a cause. This same pattern was followed by other cities on the island: Santiago de Cuba, Remedios, Coldn, Pinar del Rio, and others.a This is an example of a practical lesson in citizenship, and others like it can be found launched by the progressive Prot- estant schools. In many cases the Evangelical schools have been instrumental in bringing about improvements in the educational field. They have contributed greatly to the acceptance of some features in the curriculum, such as the teaching of home economics, the method- ology of teaching English as a foreign language, the teaching of music, religion, and manual arts. In some communities the secular schools are still using textbooks introduced by the Evangelical 132 The Caribbean llero, one of the outstanding Latin-American educators. Wolfgang Larrazabal, who served at the head of the government following the overthrow of the Pdrez Jimenez regime in Venezuela, studied at the Colegio Libertador in Maracaibo, the Evangelical Alliance Mission school. Many members of Congress, judges, teachers, busi- nessmen, pastors, doctors, lawyers, and other professionals have received the beneficial influence of these institutions. And many of them gratefully remember the lessons learned in them. The spirit of the school usually extends itself into the local com- munity. As only one example might be cited the case of a famous debate between two groups of students at La Progresiva, Presby- terian school in Cardenas, Cuba. The topic of the debate was: "What is more beneficial for a country, schools or roads?" The debate helped to bring into focus the great need for paving the streets of Cardenas. A committee of citizens, headed by the prin- cipal of the school, launched a campaign taking as a unit the cost of paving one block, more or less a thousand Cuban pesos. They organized the "Club of the Thousand Men." Each member prom- ised to pay a peso. When the amount was raised, the inhabitants of Cirdenas one morning found themselves watching a parade of young boys and some teachers armed with hoes, wheelbarrows, and other implements for work. They marched along singing a song about the need for better streets, until they came to the most central block in town, where they began digging and leveling the whole block to begin paving it. They were students and teachers from La Progresiva. This civic example was soon followed by other citi- zens, and Cirdenas became a town of paved streets. Most important of all, people realized how much cooperation and enthusiasm can do for a cause. This same pattern was followed by other cities on the island: Santiago de Cuba, Remedios, Coldon, Pinar del Rio, and others." This is an example of a practical lesson in citizenship, and others like it can be found launched by the progressive Prot- estant schools. In many cases the Evangelical schools have been instrumental in bringing about improvements in the educational field. They have contributed greatly to the acceptance of some features in the curriculum, such as the teaching of home economics, the method- ology of teaching English as a foreign language, the teaching of music, religion, and manual arts. In some communities the secular schools are still using textbooks introduced by the Evangelical  PRIVATE EDUCATION 133 schools some years ago. The field of sports has also been enriched by these schools. They were the first ones to introduce basketball, softball, baseball, and volleyball in many countries. The extra- curricular activities, practically unknown in some countries some years ago, have been a feature of the larger Protestant schools for years. The use of audio-visual materials has found great encour- agement in these schools also. Summarizing the conditions of the large mission schools, Dr. James G. Maddox, concludes: "There is not only a better-than-average teaching staff working in a better- than-average environment, but, as contrasted with most public schools, there is usually more emphasis on English, on team sports and physical education, on extra-curricular activities of various types, and less adherence to the dictation method of teaching."5 To the above evaluation it might be added that in these schools there is found something which is vital for growing children and young people: building of character. The insistence on self- discipline, high moral ideals, and spiritual values is something that parents appreciate a great deal. The three most frequent reasons that non-Protestant parents give for sending their children to the Evangelical schools are: (1) to get a good academic preparation; (2) to get a good code of ethics; and (3) to learn English. Another important contribution the Protestant schools are making is to prepare the leaders of the Evangelical church. From answers to the questionnaires sent to different schools in the Caribbean area it was found that most of them have a high percentage of Prot- estant students. Some percentages given are as high as 95, 90, 80, 75; while only one is as low as 15 per cent. The above seems to indicate that the schools are making strong efforts to interest and serve their own constituencies. This is usually done by means of low tuition or an extensive program of scholarships. Most of the schools re- ported some kind of financial help given to needy church people and worthy students. Most national ministers of the gospel in the Caribbean countries are alumni of the Protestant schools. This is as it should be, for one of the prime purposes of these schools is to prepare the leaders of the church and to extend educational opportunities to the Protestant community. So far this paper has dealt mostly with Protestant education on PRIVATE EDUCATION 133 schools some years ago. The field of sports has also been enriched by these schools. They were the first ones to introduce basketball, softball, baseball, and volleyball in many countries. The extra- curricular activities, practically unknown in some countries some years ago, have been a feature of the larger Protestant schools for years. The use of audio-visual materials has found great encour- agement in these schools also. Summarizing the conditions of the large mission schools, Dr. James G. Maddox, concludes: "There is not only a better-than-average teaching staff working in a better- than-average environment, but, as contrasted with most public schools, there is usually more emphasis on English, on team sports and physical education, on extra-curricular activities of various types, and less adherence to the dictation method of teaching."5 To the above evaluation it might be added that in these schools there is found something which is vital for growing children and young people: building of character. The insistence on self- discipline, high moral ideals, and spiritual values is something that parents appreciate a great deal. The three most frequent reasons that non-Protestant parents give for sending their children to the Evangelical schools are: (1) to get a good academic preparation; (2) to get a good code of ethics; and (3) to learn English. Another important contribution the Protestant schools are making is to prepare the leaders of the Evangelical church. From answers to the questionnaires sent to different schools in the Caribbean area it was found that most of them have a high percentage of Prot- estant students. Some percentages given are as high as 95, 90, 80, 75; while only one is as low as 15 per cent. The above seems to indicate that the schools are making strong efforts to interest and serve their own constituencies. This is usually done by means of low tuition or an extensive program of scholarships. Most of the schools re- ported some kind of financial help given to needy church people and worthy students. Most national ministers of the gospel in the Caribbean countries are alumni of the Protestant schools. This is as it should be, for one of the prime purposes of these schools is to prepare the leaders of the church and to extend educational opportunities to the Protestant community. V So far this paper has dealt mostly with Protestant education on PRIVATE EDUCATION 133 schools some years ago. The field of sports has also been enriched by these schools. They were the first ones to introduce basketball, softball, baseball, and volleyball in many countries. The extra- curricular activities, practically unknown in some countries some years ago, have been a feature of the larger Protestant schools for years. The use of audio-visual materials has found great encour- agement in these schools also. Summarizing the conditions of the large mission schools, Dr. James G. Maddox, concludes: "There is not only a better-than-average teaching staff working in a better- than-average environment, but, as contrasted with most public schools, there is usually more emphasis on English, on team sports and physical education, on extra-curricular activities of various types, and less adherence to the dictation method of teaching."15 To the above evaluation it might be added that in these schools there is found something which is vital for growing children and young people; building of character. The insistence on self- discipline, high moral ideals, and spiritual values is something that parents appreciate a great deal. The three most frequent reasons that non-Protestant parents give for sending their children to the Evangelical schools are: (1) to get a good academic preparation; (2) to get a good code of ethics; and (3) to learn English. Another important contribution the Protestant schools are making is to prepare the leaders of the Evangelical church. From answers to the questionnaires sent to different schools in the Caribbean area it was found that most of them have a high percentage of Prot- estant students. Some percentages given are as high as 95, 90, 80, 75; while only one is as low as 15 per cent. The above seems to indicate that the schools are making strong efforts to interest and serve their own constituencies. This is usually done by means of low tuition or an extensive program of scholarships. Most of the schools re- ported some kind of financial help given to needy church people and worthy students. Most national ministers of the gospel in the Caribbean countries are alumni of the Protestant schools. This is as it should be, for one of the prime purposes of these schools is to prepare the leaders of the church and to extend educational opportunities to the Protestant community. V So far this paper has dealt mostly with Protestant education on  134 The Caribbean the primary and secondary level. But attention should also be called to higher education. It has already been said that there are about 28 theological seminaries and two Protestant universities in the Caribbean area. Several of the best-known seminaries will be mentioned. The Evangelical Seminary of Puerto Rico, in Rio Piedras, a union seminary in which five denominations cooperate, is the only Protestant seminary in Puerto Rico. It provides a trained ministry for the constituent denominations.16 The Latin American Seminary, in San Jose, Costa Rica, sponsored by the Latin Amer- ican Mission, is interdenominational in character and trains min- isters and religious education experts for the Caribbean area. The Union Theological Seminary, in Mantanzas, Cuba, founded in 1946, is already one of the outstanding theological schools in the Caribbean and in Latin America. It is supported by the Methodist, Episcopal, and United Presbyterian denominations. Here men and women of these and other denominations are being trained as ministers and Christian education workers. It has an international student body, with representatives from Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, and Chile."? This seminary is rendering an excellent service to the national church bodies in Cuba and to the denominations that cannot have theological schools in each country in which they work. On the level of university training the contribution of the Prot- estant church has been limited so far as size is concerned, but its importance is considerable. There are two universities, Universidad Candler, in Havana, and the Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, in San Germin. Candler University is a Methodist-sponsored school founded in 1957. It offers courses in pedagogy, philosophy, law, languages, pharmacy, and accounting. This is a new venture, and as Dr. Carlos Perez, the president, says, "Its results cannot be measured as yet." It has about 152 students enrolled in the different schools. Plans for expansion are under way. The officials of the school are eager to serve not only the Protestant people of Cuba and the Caribbean but also the non-Evangelical students who want to come.18 The Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, formerly called the Polytechnic Institute, has rendered a long and fruitful service. It was started as an elementary school in 1912 by Dr. Will Harris, a Presbyterian missionary; it expanded into a high school around 1921; and in 1924 college courses were added. The first class to 134 The Caribbean the primary and secondary level. But attention should also be called to higher education. It has already been said that there are about 28 theological seminaries and two Protestant universities in the Caribbean area. Several of the best-known seminaries will be mentioned. The Evangelical Seminary of Puerto Rico, in Rio Piedras, a union seminary in which five denominations cooperate, is the only Protestant seminary in Puerto Rico. It provides a trained ministry for the constituent denominations."6 The Latin American Seminary, in San Jos4, Costa Rica, sponsored by the Latin Amer- ican Mission, is interdenominational in character and trains min- isters and religious education experts for the Caribbean area. The Union Theological Seminary, in Mantanzas, Cuba, founded in 1946, is already one of the outstanding theological schools in the Caribbean and in Latin America. It is supported by the Methodist, Episcopal, and United Presbyterian denominations. Here men and women of these and other denominations are being trained as ministers and Christian education workers. It has an international student body, with representatives from Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, and Chile." This seminary is rendering an excellent service to the national church bodies in Cuba and to the denominations that cannot have theological schools in each country in which they work. On the level of university training the contribution of the Prot- estant church has been limited so far as size is concerned, but its importance is considerable. There are two universities, Universidad Candler, in Havana, and the Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, in San Germin. Candler University is a Methodist-sponsored school founded in 1957. It offers courses in pedagogy, philosophy, law, languages, pharmacy, and accounting. This is a new venture, and as Dr. Carlos Prez, the president, says, "Its results cannot be measured as yet." It has about 152 students enrolled in the different schools. Plans for expansion are under way. The officials of the school are eager to serve not only the Protestant people of Cuba and the Caribbean but also the non-Evangelical students who want to come.18 The Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, formerly called the Polytechnic Institute, has rendered a long and fruitful service. It was started as an elementary school in 1912 by Dr. Will Harris, a Presbyterian missionary; it expanded into a high school around 1921; and in 1924 college courses were added. The first class to 134 The Caribbean the primary and secondary level. But attention should also be called to higher education. It has already been said that there are about 28 theological seminaries and two Protestant universities in the Caribbean area. Several of the best-known seminaries will be mentioned. The Evangelical Seminary of Puerto Rico, in Rio Piedras, a union seminary in which five denominations cooperate, is the only Protestant seminary in Puerto Rico. It provides a trained ministry for the constituent denominations?e The Latin American Seminary, in San Jose, Costa Rica, sponsored by the Latin Amer- ican Mission, is interdenominational in character and trains min- isters and religious education experts for the Caribbean area. The Union Theological Seminary, in Mantanzas, Cuba, founded in 1946, is already one of the outstanding theological schools in the Caribbean and in Latin America. It is supported by the Methodist, Episcopal, and United Presbyterian denominations. Here men and women of these and other denominations are being trained as ministers and Christian education workers. It has an international student body, with representatives from Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, and Chile." This seminary is rendering an excellent service to the national church bodies in Cuba and to the denominations that cannot have theological schools in each country in which they work. On the level of university training the contribution of the Prot- estant church has been limited so far as size is concerned, but its importance is considerable. There are two universities, Universidad Candler, in Havana, and the Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, in San German. Candler University is a Methodist-sponsored school founded in 1957. It offers courses in pedagogy, philosophy, law, languages, pharmacy, and accounting. This is a new venture, and as Dr. Carlos Pdrez, the president, says, "Its results cannot be measured as yet." It has about 152 students enrolled in the different schools. Plans for expansion are under way. The officials of the school are eager to serve not only the Protestant people of Cuba and the Caribbean but also the non-Evangelical students who want to come.5 The Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, formerly called the Polytechnic Institute, has rendered a long and fruitful service. It was started as an elementary school in 1912 by Dr. Will Harris, a Presbyterian missionary; it expanded into a high school around 1921; and in 1924 college courses were added. The first class to  PRIVATE EDUCATION 135 receive the Bachelor of Arts degree was that of 1927. Since then it has granted more than 1,682 such degrees. In 1927 it ceased to function as a grade school, and in 1933 as a high school?0 The Mission Yearbook of Prayer of the United Presbyterian Church describes this university thus: The Inter-American University of Puerto Rico (1912), formerly the Polytechnic Institute of Puerto Rico, is the only four-year liberal arts evangelical college in the Caribbean area and the first four- year college in Latin America to be accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. It is officially accredited for the education of teachers in the island. This is a Presbyterian-related college, jointly sponsored by the Board of National Missions, the Board of Christian Education, and the Synod of New York." The program of this university, as described in a brochure pub- lished recently for promotional purposes, is: "One college with four divisions: Humanities, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, and Exper- imental and Laboratory Studies offering instruction in 20 major and 22 minor fields of concentration, including pre-professional training in various areas and a two- and four-year program in teacher education.... English is the language of instruction in nearly all classes...." This fully accredited four-year liberal arts college serves its 1,000 students in many remarkable ways. It offers a cross-cultural educa- tion, which includes both the Latin and the Anglo-Saxon elements. Most classes are taught in English, although Spanish is also used. The faculty includes American and Puerto Rican professors with degrees earned at Puerto Rican and American universities. The high academic standards are equal to the best in the United States, and yet the offerings are strongly geared to the needs of the Puerto Rican people. It is because of its contribution to the general devel- opment of the commonwealth through its strong educational pro- gram that Inter-American University has gained the respect of Puerto Ricans. Its international student body, which includes representatives from the Virgin Islands, British Guiana, Santo Domingo, Colombia, and other places in the Caribbean, is a clear testimony of the efforts made to serve the larger community of nations. The university is becoming more and more "inter- American." PRIVATE EDUCATION 135 receive the Bachelor of Arts degree was that of 1927. Since then it has granted more than 1,682 such degrees. In 1927 it ceased to function as a grade school, and in 1933 as a high school." The Mission Yearbook of Prayer of the United Presbyterian Church describes this university thus: The Inter-American University of Puerto Rico (1912), formerly the Polytechnic Institute of Puerto Rico, is the only four-year liberal arts evangelical college in the Caribbean area and the first four- year college in Latin America to be accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. It is officially accredited for the education of teachers in the island. This is a Presbyterian-related college, jointly sponsored by the Board of National Missions, the Board of Christian Education, and the Synod of New York." The program of this university, as described in a brochure pub- lished recently for promotional purposes, is: "One college with four divisions: Humanities, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, and Exper- imental and Laboratory Studies offering instruction in 20 major and 22 minor fields of concentration, including pre-professional training in various areas and a two- and four-year program in teacher education.... English is the language of instruction in nearly all classes...." This fully accredited four-year liberal arts college serves its 1,000 students in many remarkable ways. It offers a cross-cultural educa- tion, which includes both the Latin and the Anglo-Saxon elements. Most classes are taught in English, although Spanish is also used. The faculty includes American and Puerto Rican professors with degrees earned at Puerto Rican and American universities. The high academic standards are equal to the best in the United States, and yet the offerings are strongly geared to the needs of the Puerto Rican people. It is because of its contribution to the general devel- opment of the commonwealth through its strong educational pro- gram that Inter-American University has gained the respect of Puerto Ricans. Its international student body, which includes representatives from the Virgin Islands, British Guiana, Santo Domingo, Colombia, and other places in the Caribbean, is a clear testimony of the efforts made to serve the larger community of nations. The university is becoming more and more "inter- American." PRIVATE EDUCATION 135 receive the Bachelor of Arts degree was that of 1927. Since then it has granted more than 1,682 such degrees. In 1927 it ceased to function as a grade school, and in 1933 as a high school.5 The Mission Yearbook of Prayer of the United Presbyterian Church describes this university thus: The Inter-American University of Puerto Rico (1912), formerly the Polytechnic Institute of Puerto Rico, is the only four-year liberal arts evangelical college in the Caribbean area and the first four- year college in Latin America to be accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. It is officially accredited for the education of teachers in the island. This is a Presbyterian-related college, jointly sponsored by the Board of National Missions, the Board of Christian Education, and the Synod of New York."0 The program of this university, as described in a brochure pub- lished recently for promotional purposes, is: "One college with four divisions: Humanities, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, and Exper- imental and Laboratory Studies offering instruction in 20 major and 22 minor fields of concentration, including pre-professional training in various areas and a two- and four-year program in teacher education.... English is the language of instruction in nearly all classes.... This fully accredited four-year liberal arts college serves its 1,000 students in many remarkable ways. It offers a cross-cultural educa- tion, which includes both the Latin and the Anglo-Saxon elements. Most classes are taught in English, although Spanish is also used. The faculty includes American and Puerto Rican professors with degrees earned at Puerto Rican and American universities. The high academic standards are equal to the best in the United States, and yet the offerings are strongly geared to the needs of the Puerto Rican people. It is because of its contribution to the general devel- opment of the commonwealth through its strong educational pro- gram that Inter-American University has gained the respect of Puerto Ricans. Its international student body, which includes representatives from the Virgin Islands, British Guiana, Santo Domingo, Colombia, and other places in the Caribbean, is a clear testimony of the efforts made to serve the larger community of nations. The university is becoming more and more "inter- American."  136 The Caribbean Equality of opportunities for the rich and the poor is also empha- sized. Dr. Ronald C. Bauer, the president of the Inter-American University, explains this emphasis: "In this connection it has pro- vided a work-experience program that enables needy young people to earn their money for an education while they develop those qualities of character for which Polytechnic graduates are famous. All but three of the major buildings on the campus were built by students."" One impressed visitor described what she saw at the campus: "On our way up the hill we saw ... young men and girls, garbed in blue jeans and bright shirts, all busy with rakes, pruning shears, shovels, machetes, and paint brushes. They chattered, laughed, and sang as they went about their tasks. We learned that this was 'Clean Up Day,' a semi-annual affair, when faculty and students work together on the 250-acre campus. Besides giving much needed help in tidying the grounds, 'Clean Up Day' helps overcome the once prevalent Latin attitude that an educated man does not work with his hands. In addition to this day, all students give two hours of service daily, a requirement once questioned by some well-to-do parents, but now entirely accepted.""2 Another important feature of this university is its strong program of Christian Education. The newly established Religious Education Department and Center for Religious Education and Christian Service is an attempt to acquire basic knowledge in this field and to put it into practice at the same time. Here both faculty and students participate in an extensive program of study and work. They practice what they learn by helping ministers, churches, and communities in the neighborhood. They use the materials they pre- pare in their classes, and profit from the service experience. Through these departments the university is helping to prepare the Prot- estant leadership needed in the churches of the Caribbean area. Different Evangelical denominations are beginning to realize the unique contribution the Inter-American University is making, and are now sending promising young people to get a solid Christian preparation in the hopes of improving their own communities through the influence of well-trained ministers and teachers. The Inter-American University could easily become the training center for Evangelical teachers in the Caribbean. This important role will be in accord with the dreams of the men who founded it and of those who at present are doing their part to bring about this ideal. 136 The Caribbean Equality of opportunities for the rich and the poor is also empha- sized. Dr. Ronald C. Bauer, the president of the Inter-American University, explains this emphasis: "In this connection it has pro- vided a work-experience program that enables needy young people to earn their money for an education while they develop those qualities of character for which Polytechnic graduates are famous. All but three of the major buildings on the campus were built by students."52 One impressed visitor described what she saw at the campus: "On our way up the hill we saw ... young men and girls, garbed in blue jeans and bright shirts, all busy with rakes, pruning shears, shovels, machetes, and paint brushes. They chattered, laughed, and sang as they went about their tasks. We learned that this was 'Clean Up Day,' a semi-annual affair, when faculty and students work together on the 250-acre campus. Besides giving much needed help in tidying the grounds, 'Clean Up Day' helps overcome the once prevalent Latin attitude that an educated man does not work with his hands. In addition to this day, all students give two hours of service daily, a requirement once questioned by some well-to-do parents, but now entirely accepted."5 Another important feature of this university is its strong program of Christian Education. The newly established Religious Education Department and Center for Religious Education and Christian Service is an attempt to acquire basic knowledge in this field and to put it into practice at the same time. Here both faculty and students participate in an extensive program of study and work. They practice what they learn by helping ministers, churches, and communities in the neighborhood. They use the materials they pre- pare in their classes, and profit from the service experience. Through these departments the university is helping to prepare the Prot- estant leadership needed in the churches of the Caribbean area. Different Evangelical denominations are beginning to realize the unique contribution the Inter-American University is making, and are now sending promising young people to get a solid Christian preparation in the hopes of improving their own communities through the influence of well-trained ministers and teachers. The Inter-American University could easily become the training center for Evangelical teachers in the Caribbean. This important role will be in accord with the dreams of the men who founded it and of those who at present are doing their part to bring about this ideal. 136 The Caribbean Equality of opportunities for the rich and the poor is also empha- sized. Dr. Ronald C. Bauer, the president of the Inter-American University, explains this emphasis: "In this connection it has pro- vided a work-experience program that enables needy young people to earn their money for an education while they develop those qualities of character for which Polytechnic graduates are famous. All but three of the major buildings on the campus were built by students."" One impressed visitor described what she saw at the campus: "On our way up the hill we saw ... young men and girls, garbed in blue jeans and bright shirts, all busy with rakes, pruning shears, shovels, machetes, and paint brushes. They chattered, laughed, and sang as they went about their tasks. We learned that this was 'Clean Up Day,' a semi-annual affair, when faculty and students work together on the 250-acre campus. Besides giving much needed help in tidying the grounds, 'Clean Up Day' helps overcome the once prevalent Latin attitude that an educated man does not work with his hands. In addition to this day, all students give two hours of service daily, a requirement once questioned by some well-to-do parents, but now entirely accepted."25 Another important feature of this university is its strong program of Christian Education. The newly established Religious Education Department and Center for Religious Education and Christian Service is an attempt to acquire basic knowledge in this field and to put it into practice at the same time. Here both faculty and students participate in an extensive program of study and work. They practice what they learn by helping ministers, churches, and communities in the neighborhood. They use the materials they pre- pare in their classes, and profit from the service experience. Through these departments the university is helping to prepare the Prot- estant leadership needed in the churches of the Caribbean area. Different Evangelical denominations are beginning to realize the unique contribution the Inter-American University is making, and are now sending promising young people to get a solid Christian preparation in the hopes of improving their own communities through the influence of well-trained ministers and teachers. The Inter-American University could easily become the training center for Evangelical teachers in the Caribbean. This important role will be in accord with the dreams of the men who founded it and of those who at present are doing their part to bring about this ideal.  PRIVATE EDUCATION 137 It would be desirable if in the near future other missions would turn their attention to the field of higher education. Missionaries and national administrators who are related to the Protestant secondary schools realize the pressing need for well-trained, specialized teachers. Since most of these secondary schools are college-preparatory, their graduates would be able to continue their professional studies in a similar school. It is a well-known fact that the existing national and private universities are insufficient to take care of the demand of the young people who wish to study. VI From this sketchy presentation of the work of the Protestant schools in the Caribbean, one may conclude that a definite con- tribution has been and is being made by these institutions. As the churches mature and continue to grow, more and more educational establishments will emerge. They will continue to serve the peoples of the land where they function, giving their children and young people the opportunity of learning to live democratically, intelli- gently, and abundantly according to the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the Master Teacher. NOTES 1. W. S. Rycroft, "Protestantism in Latin America Today," a paper for the Committee on Cooperation in Latin America, New York, 1956. 2. The World Christian Handbook, Ed. 1957 (London: The World Do minion Press), pp. 115 ff. 3. B. J. Melbourne, "Statistical Profile of the Latin American Church," The Latin American Evangelist, XXXIX (January and February, 1959), San Jos6, Costa Rica. 4. Rycroft, op. cit. 5. S. W. Herman, "The Pattern of Protestant Cooperation in Latin Amer- ica," Committee on Cooperation in Latin America, New York, 1956. 6. Allen Clark, "A Tentative History of the Colombia Mission of the Pres- byterian Church, U.S.A." (Unpublished work, Presbyterian Mission Library, 156 Fifth Avenue, New York). 7. H. G. Valencia, "Theories and Practices of Secondary School Organiza. tion and Administration" (Unpublished dissertation, The Ohio State Univer- sity, Columbus, 1953). 8. Joseph Lancaster, Improvements in Education, (London: DarIen and Harvey, 1805), p. 31. PRIVATE EDUCATION 137 It would be desirable if in the near future other missions would turn their attention to the field of higher education. Missionaries and national administrators who are related to the Protestant secondary schools realize the pressing need for well-trained, specialized teachers. Since most of these secondary schools are college-preparatory, their graduates would be able to continue their professional studies in a similar school. It is a well-known fact that the existing national and private universities are insufficient to take care of the demand of the young people who wish to study. VI From this sketchy presentation of the work of the Protestant schools in the Caribbean, one may conclude that a definite con- tribution has been and is being made by these institutions. As the churches mature and continue to grow, more and more educational establishments will emerge. They will continue to serve the peoples of the land where they function, giving their children and young people the opportunity of learning to live democratically, intelli- gently, and abundantly according to the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the Master Teacher. NOTES 1. W. S. Rycroft, "Protestantism in Latin America Today," a paper for the Committee on Cooperation in Latin America, New York, 1956. 2. The World Christian Handbook, Ed. 1957 (London: The World Do- minion Press), pp. 115 ff. 3. B. J. Melbourne, "Statistical Profile of the Latin American Church," The Latin American Evangelist, XXXIX (January and February, 1959), San Jose, Costa Rica. 4. Rycroft, op. cit. 5. S. W. Herman, "The Pattern of Protestant Cooperation in Latin Amer- ica," Committee on Cooperation in Latin America, New York, 1956. 6. Allen Clark, "A Tentative History of the Colombia Mission of the Pres- byterian Church, U.S.A." (Unpublished work, Presbyterian Mission Library, 156 Fifth Avenue, New York). 7. H. G. Valencia, "Theories and Practices of Secondary School Organiza- tion and Administration" (Unpublished dissertation, The Ohio State Univer- sity, Columbus, 1953). 8. Joseph Lancaster, Improvements in Education, (London: Darton and Harvey, 1805), p. 31. PRIVATE EDUCATION 137 It would be desirable if in the near future other missions would turn their attention to the field of higher education. Missionaries and national administrators who are related to the Protestant secondary schools realize the pressing need for well-trained, specialized teachers. Since most of these secondary schools are college-preparatory, their graduates would be able to continue their professional studies in a similar school. It is a well-known fact that the existing national and private universities are insufficient to take care of the demand of the young people who wish to study. VI From this sketchy presentation of the work of the Protestant schools in the Caribbean, one may conclude that a definite con- tribution has been and is being made by these institutions. As the churches mature and continue to grow, more and more educational establishments will emerge. They will continue to serve the peoples of the land where they function, giving their children and young people the opportunity of learning to live democratically, intelli- gently, and abundantly according to the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the Master Teacher. NOTES . W. S. Rycroft, "Protestantism in Latin America Today," a paper for the Committee on Cooperation in Latin America, New York, 1956. 2. The World Christian Handbook, Ed. 1957 (London: The World Do- minion Press), pp. 115 ff. 3. B. J. Melbourne, "Statistical Profile of the Latin American Church," The Latin American Evangelist, XXXIX (January and February, 1959), San Jose, Costa Rica. 4. Rycroft, op. cit. 5. S. W. Herman, "The Pattern of Protestant Cooperation in Latin Amer- ica," Committee on Cooperation in Latin America, New York, 1956. 6. Allen Clark, "A Tentative History of the Colombia Mission of the Pres- byterian Church, U.S.A." (Unpublished work, Presbyterian Mission Library, 156 Fifth Avenue, New York). 7. H. G. Valencia, "Theories and Practices of Secondary School Organiza- tion and Administration" (Unpublished dissertation, The Ohio State Univer- sity, Columbus, 1953). 8. Joseph Lancaster, Improvements in Education, (London: Darton and Harvey, 1805), p. 31.  138 The Caribbean 9. Willkam Taylor, "Theological ayd Bible Schbolb in Lathn Amttrdca,"a myimeographed list, comtpiked by the id tecretary of the Cetl Atyerickat Mision. 10. This is an esttimtet, tkig as bttis the tyumtber of stydett ttetndittg som o the schoolt et Cyba, Coklombia, and Venezuela, wth whichb thy attby is familiar. 11. Sertyato, #634, tebruarw 17-23, 1959, covter page. 12. El Cytyliyiym,tty Cathtltt weekly of Cylytmbea, Nyovemter 29, 1957. 13. Ittortttttont gitven by SRyv. Jeromet J. Fusttel of thy Depatmentt of Missionarty Educattiont of thy Evanglical yttd Reftortttd Churttyb the U.S. 14. Rahael Cepetda, El forydyy de hobtrsy )Lt Habantt: Asypityidy de Ex-Altumyoy de La Progtesiva, 1953), pp. 109 ff. 15. Jamest Myddyt, Tttcttittl Astyancte by Relightous Agencies intt ine Ameryictt (Chktago: The Uiversity yf Chicago Prett, 1956), p. 112. t6. Mission Yarbyok of Pryer (Untited Presytytyan Churtyh in the Unted Stt of Amteyica, 1959), p. 233. 17. Ibid., p. 221. 19. Uttivertidad Candlet, Cturst 195859, Marianto, Cttbt. 19. Itey-Ameyiyctn University tof Puertt Skyo, Ctbtkg for 1958-59, 1959-60. 20. Misskon Yarbook of Pratyet, p. 235. 21. Ronatld C. Bauer, "Inaugural Addrest," Editoril del Depatamtot~t de kystttyyidtt P~ica (Peto Skyo, 1959). 22. Excerpt fromt reprttt of atite, "Puerto Riyy's te-Americany, by Amty Rkktmus, Thy Chritiant Scietty Montor (retprint tuydated). 188 The Caribbean 9. Wila Ttylor, "Thetlogical and Bible Schtolt in Ltit Ameriya," mtimteogttphed lest, cotmpiled by the fid tecretaty tof thy Cetrtal Ameryiyyy Mission. 16. Tbit it yy eytimty, tahing yt y batit tbe yyttbyt tof tudytsttending oo the schotl iy Cyht, Colombhia, ttnd Veyyyyla, ywith whhtbkb auyythyt it faymiliary. 11. Syymyyy, #634, Februyty 17-23, 1959, cyvey ptage. 12. El Cyyybiyiyy, y Cythylic weekly yf Colyomhia, Notvtmber 29, 1557. 13. tynyormytiyy givent by Ryv. Jeryoyy J. Futtyl yf the Delpyrtmenyt yf Missionary Educationt of the Evangelical and Reformed Churchb in the U.S. 14. Rafael Cypyda, El foriador de hobyyeys )Lt PtHtbana Atyyiyyhly de Ex-Alumnosy dy Lt Progrestv, 1955), pp. 199 if. 15. Jtamet Mtddy, Teybnictl Assistatce by Religiouy Agyyciet in Lyatn America )Cbkyagy: Tbe Uniritty yf Cbicygy Ptyts, 1956), p. 112. 19. Misyiyot Yearbo yf Pryyr (Uttited Preshbytian Chytch int thy Untited Stytyt yf Amyetict, 1959), p. 233. 17. Ibid., p. 221. 19. Uttivyttidad Candle, Cursy 1958529, Matlayty, Cyb. 19. Itery-Americyan Univettity tof Puto Ricy, Ctaltkg fyr 1958-59, 1959-6. 20. Missiytt Yearbyyk yf Pryery, p. 235. 21. Ronatld C. Btuer, "Inautguratl Addrest," Editytiayl did Depataetoyt de ttttryyyidt Pdblica (Pyyrto Ricy, 1956). 22. Excetpt ftttt teptit yf atcly, Pyety Ricoys Iyter-Amertyyy," by 138 The Caribbean 9. Willittm Taylo, "Theolygical ayd Bible, Scbtolt iy Latin Atmtydct," tmimeygryphed lit, yotptked hy ye field tsecrttay of thy Ceytral Aymyriyan Missiont. 10. Thit it an estimtyt, ttkitg tsy bytty thy yyytber tof tudyyyts ttetding oo thy tyhtylt iy Cyby, Colomybit, tnd Vytteyuela, wyith which the athort it fttmilit. It. Sonomayt, #634, Februtty 17-23, 1959, cover pag. 12. El Ctyliismyy, aCathylhc weekly tof Cylyttbit, Nytvtybey 29, 1957. 13. Informattiont gitven by Rev. Jeryoye J. Fytsel of thy Dept enyt yf Mitsittttry Eduyayiyy tof thy Evangelida and Ryeytymed Church iy the U.S. 24. Rtfael Cepyda, El )ttjttdty de htttbret )Lt Htbttt: Attyityidy de Et-Alytynyt de La Progtestv, 1953), pp. 100 if. 15. Jamtes Maddoy, ecyhticyl Ayyiytanye hy Riioust Agenties int Ltin Amteriyt (Chicago: Thy Univetsity tof Chicygy Prett, 1956), p. 112. t6. Misyitot Yarhyok yf Pryyr (Unted Prtetbyterian Chutch int thy Uited Statet tof Amtyrc, 1959), p. 235. 17. Ihid., p. 221. 19. Universidad Ctandle, Cttttt 1958-59, Mariayty, Cyba. 19. Itery-Ameryicyt Univertity tof Pyyyyy Sicy, Cttykg ftt 3959.59, 1959-69. 29. Misstitn Ythbo of Pryer, p. 235. 21. Ronald C. Btye, "Inatugural Addrets," Edityrial dyl Depataetott de Ittctyily Pdblica (Pueryo R~ico, 1956). 22. Extetpt fom~ reprint tof trtil, "Pyeyto Rikyt Iter-Amerdytan," by Amty Rehmyus, The Chrititat Scete Myotitor )repritt yydidyd).  9 9 9 James D. Baker: THE WORK OF NONDENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN AT THE OUTSET I wish to explain that there are two groups of American nondenominational schools in the Caribbean, the community-type schools, which are associated with the Inter- American Schools Service, and the privately-owned institutions. As there is no central organization through which information about this latter group can be obtained, the observations of this paper have been based chiefly upon the work of the first group. An evalu- ation of the contributions of the privately-owned schools would, I am sure, show that their services are very similar to those of the other group, about which more information is available. The development of many of the community-type schools has been closely associated with that of the Inter-American Schools Service. An analysis of the functioning of these schools can well begin with an explanation of the work of this organization. The Inter-American Schools Service was founded in 1943 as a result of a survey of Axis private educational activities throughout Latin America. At the time, information was gathered on a number of elementary and secondary schools that had been founded by American citizens or organizations in that area. Since the German schools had been very successful and popular before they became Nazified, the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs under Nelson Rockefeller, which had made the survey, conceived the idea of 139 James D. Baker: THE WORK OF NONDENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN AT THE OUTSET I wish to explain that there are two groups of American nondenominational schools in the Caribbean, the community-type schools, which are associated with the Inter- American Schools Service, and the privately-owned institutions. As there is no central organization through which information about this latter group can be obtained, the observations of this paper have been based chiefly upon the work of the first group. An evalu- ation of the contributions of the privately-owned schools would, I am sure, show that their services are very similar to those of the other group, about which more information is available. The development of many of the community-type schools has been closely associated with that of the Inter-American Schools Service. An analysis of the functioning of these schools can well begin with an explanation of the work of this organization. The Inter-American Schools Service was founded in 1943 as a result of a survey of Axis private educational activities throughout Latin America. At the time, information was gathered on a number of elementary and secondary schools that had been founded by American citizens or organizations in that area. Since the German schools had been very successful and popular before they became Nazified, the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs under Nelson Rockefeller, which had made the survey, conceived the idea of 139 James D. Baker: THE WORK OF NONDENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS IN THE CARIBBEAN AT THE OUTSET I wish to explain that there are two groups of American nondenominational schools in the Caribbean, the community-type schools, which are associated with the Inter- American Schools Service, and the privately-owned institutions. As there is no central organization through which information about this latter group can be obtained, the observations of this paper have been based chiefly upon the work of the first group. An evalu- ation of the contributions of the privately-owned schools would, I am sure, show that their services are very similar to those of the other group, about which more information is available. The development of many of the community-type schools has been closely associated with that of the Inter-American Schools Service. An analysis of the functioning of these schools can well begin with an explanation of the work of this organization. The Inter-American Schools Service was founded in 1943 as a result of a survey of Axis private educational activities throughout Latin America. At the time, information was gathered on a number of elementary and secondary schools that had been founded by American citizens or organizations in that area. Since the German schools had been very successful and popular before they became Nazified, the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs under Nelson Rockefeller, which had made the survey, conceived the idea of 139  140 The Caribbean strengthening the American schools that existed and of establishing others in key locations to fill the vacuum created by the closing of most of the German schools. The American Council on Education was asked to devise a plan of coordination and aid to the schools, and to administer the program which they had suggested. The Washington office of the Inter-American Schools Service was opened as a clearing house of financial aid and educational advice to the eighteen schools that then existed, and to a few others which were founded during the period of World War II. Since that time the number of schools has increased to more than forty, of which over one-half are located in the Caribbean area. Considering the countries of the Caribbean area in alphabetical order, we find that there are five of these schools in Colombia, one in Costa Rica, two in Cuba, one in the Dominican Republic, two in El Salvador, one in Guatemala, one in Haiti, two in Hon- duras, nine in Mexico, one in Nicarauga, and three in Venezuela, making a total of twenty-eight. There are none in Panama, Puerto Rico, or other West Indian Islands. There are fifty-five privately- owned institutions, forty-one of which are company-sponsored. These schools vary greatly as to size and enrollment, buildings and grounds, curricula, tuition rates, and other conditions. All of them are administered by a school board made up of United States citizens and in most cases with some nationals; all are largely self- supporting through tuition fees; all have United States principals except in cases of an emergency; and all employ as many United States teachers as they can afford to hire. They were established at different times, but almost all originated because a group of United States parents wanted to have educational facilities for their younger children, and later they opened their doors to children of nationals. Some go only through the ninth grade, but most of them offer full high school. These American-sponsored, nondenominational schools are op- erated much like public schools in the United States except that they do not share in any taxes and must depend almost wholly on their tuition fees and gifts. The local school board administers the school; and the parents in the community, both United States and national, own and control it. The usual accompaniments of an American school are found in these schools. They have PTA's, student organizations, yearbooks, sports, and games along Ameri- can lines. All are bilingual, teaching in both English and Spanish. 140 The Caribbean strengthening the American schools that existed and of establishing others in key locations to fill the vacuum created by the closing of most of the German schools. The American Council on Education was asked to devise a plan of coordination and aid to the schools, and to administer the program which they had suggested. The Washington office of the Inter-American Schools Service was opened as a clearing house of financial aid and educational advice to the eighteen schools that then existed, and to a few others which were founded during the period of World War II. Since that time the number of schools has increased to more than forty, of which over one-half are located in the Caribbean area. Considering the countries of the Caribbean area in alphabetical order, we find that there are five of these schools in Colombia, one in Costa Rica, two in Cuba, one in the Dominican Republic, two in El Salvador, one in Guatemala, one in Haiti, two in Hon- duras, nine in Mexico, one in Nicarauga, and three in Venezuela, making a total of twenty-eight. There are none in Panama, Puerto Rico, or other West Indian Islands. There are fifty-five privately- owned institutions, forty-one of which are company-sponsored. These schools vary greatly as to size and enrollment, buildings and grounds, curricula, tuition rates, and other conditions. All of them are administered by a school board made up of United States citizens and in most cases with some nationals; all are largely self- supporting through tuition fees; all have United States principals except in cases of an emergency; and all employ as many United States teachers as they can afford to hire. They were established at different times, but almost all originated because a group of United States parents wanted to have educational facilities for their younger children, and later they opened their doors to children of nationals. Some go only through the ninth grade, but most of them offer full high school. These American-sponsored, nondenominational schools are op- erated much like public schools in the United States except that they do not share in any taxes and must depend almost wholly on their tuition fees and gifts. The local school board administers the school; and the parents in the community, both United States and national, own and control it. The usual accompaniments of an American school are found in these schools. They have PTA's, student organizations, yearbooks, sports, and games along Ameri- can lines. All are bilingual, teaching in both English and Spanish. 140 The Caribbean strengthening the American schools that existed and of establishing others in key locations to fill the vacuum created by the closing of most of the German schools. The American Council on Education was asked to devise a plan of coordination and aid to the schools, and to administer the program which they had suggested. The Washington office of the Inter-American Schools Service was opened as a clearing house of financial aid and educational advice to the eighteen schools that then existed, and to a few others which were founded during the period of World War II. Since that time the number of schools has increased to more than forty, of which over one-half are located in the Caribbean area. Considering the countries of the Caribbean area in alphabetical order, we find that there are five of these schools in Colombia, one in Costa Rica, two in Cuba, one in the Dominican Republic, two in El Salvador, one in Guatemala, one in Haiti, two in Hon- duras, nine in Mexico, one in Nicarauga, and three in Venezuela, making a total of twenty-eight. There are none in Panama, Puerto Rico, or other West Indian Islands. There are fifty-five privately- owned institutions, forty-one of which are company-sponsored. These schools vary greatly as to size and enrollment, buildings and grounds, curricula, tuition rates, and other conditions. All of them are administered by a school board made up of United States citizens and in most cases with some nationals; all are largely self- supporting through tuition fees; all have United States principals except in cases of an emergency; and all employ as many United States teachers as they can afford to hire. They were established at different times, but almost all originated because a group of United States parents wanted to have educational facilities for their younger children, and later they opened their doors to children of nationals. Some go only through the ninth grade, but most of them offer full high school. These American-sponsored, nondenominational schools are op- erated much like public schools in the United States except that they do not share in any taxes and must depend almost wholly on their tuition fees and gifts. The local school board administers the school; and the parents in the community, both United States and national, own and control it. The usual accompaniments of an American school are found in these schools. They have PTA's, student organizations, yearbooks, sports, and games along Ameri- can lines. All are bilingual, teaching in both English and Spanish.  PRIVATE EDUCATION 141 Most of them have commercial sections, where pupils may learn typing, stenography, bookkeeping, and related subjects. These departments supply many local firms with bilingual employees. These nondenominational, nonprofit, binational schools are inde- pendent institutions. Since their founding, most of them have received small grants-in-aid under the Inter-American Schools Serv- ice program, but they are locally autonomous schools and not official schools in any sense. The funds for the IASS program are included in the Department of State's budget and have varied from about $125,000 per annum to the present amount of $250,000. It costs roughly $50,000 to maintain the Washington office, and the re- mainder of the appropriation goes to the schools. The basic law under which these grants are made is Section 203 of Public Law 402, which authorizes the Secretary of State to aid libraries and schools founded by citizens or organizations of the United States, which serve as demonstration centers of United States methods and practices. The law provides, however, that in aiding any of these institutions, the Secretary of State shall exer- cise no control over their educational policies. This is therefore an example of federal aid without federal control. Congress has indicated in the annual appropriation hearings that no aid should be given to a school unless it has a substantial enrollment of na- tional pupils. The funds available under Public Law 402 are in dollars. The average grant is around $4,000 or $5,000, but in exceptional cir- cumstances it may be more. Some schools get as little as $1,000 per annum; a few may receive as much as $10,000 on a nonrecurring basis. These grants are chiefly "pats on the back" to express ap- preciation of the good work that the schools are doing in the field of inter-American education, to create good will, friendship, and mutual understanding among the peoples of this Hemisphere. In addition to P. L. 402 aid in dollars, on the foregoing small scale, in the past two years two new sources of funds have been opened up for some of these schools. Under Section 104 (j) of P. L. 480, funds are available in local currencies generated by agreements to purchase United States surplus agricultural prod- ucts. The schools in Colombia and Mexico have received consider- able sums in Colombian and Mexican pesos from this source for building purposes, equipment, and scholarships. The International Cooperation Administration (ICA) has also received substantial PRIVATE EDUCATION 141 Most of them have commercial sections, where pupils may learn typing, stenography, bookkeeping, and related subjects. These departments supply many local firms with bilingual employees. These nondenominational, nonprofit, binational schools are inde- pendent institutions. Since their founding, most of them have received small grants-in-aid under the Inter-American Schools Serv- ice program, but they are locally autonomous schools and not official schools in any sense. The funds for the IASS program are included in the Department of State's budget and have varied from about $125,000 per annum to the present amount of $250,000. It costs roughly $50,000 to maintain the Washington office, and the re- mainder of the appropriation goes to the schools. The basic law under which these grants are made is Section 203 of Public Law 402, which authorizes the Secretary of State to aid libraries and schools founded by citizens or organizations of the United States, which serve as demonstration centers of United States methods and practices. The law provides, however, that in aiding any of these institutions, the Secretary of State shall exer- cise no control over their educational policies. This is therefore an example of federal aid without federal control. Congress has indicated in the annual appropriation hearings that no aid should be given to a school unless it has a substantial enrollment of na- tional pupils. The funds available under Public Law 402 are in dollars. The average grant is around $4,000 or $5,000, but in exceptional cir- cumstances it may be more. Some schools get as little as $1,000 per annum; a few may receive as much as $10,000 on a nonrecurring basis. These grants are chiefly "pats on the back" to express ap- preciation of the good work that the schools are doing in the field of inter-American education, to create good will, friendship, and mutual understanding among the peoples of this Hemisphere. In addition to P. L. 402 aid in dollars, on the foregoing small scale, in the past two years two new sources of funds have been opened up for some of these schools. Under Section 104 (j) of P. L. 480, funds are available in local currencies generated by agreements to purchase United States surplus agricultural prod- ucts. The schools in Colombia and Mexico have received consider- able sums in Colombian and Mexican pesos from this source for building purposes, equipment, and scholarships. The International Cooperation Administration (ICA) has also received substantial PRIVATE EDUCATION 141 Most of them have commercial sections, where pupils may learn typing, stenography, bookkeeping, and related subjects. These departments supply many local firms with bilingual employees. These nondenominational, nonprofit, binational schools are inde- pendent institutions. Since their founding, most of them have received small grants-in-aid under the Inter-American Schools Serv- ice program, but they are locally autonomous schools and not official schools in any sense. The funds for the IASS program are included in the Department of State's budget and have vaied from about $125,000 per annum to the present amount of $250,000. It costs roughly $50,000 to maintain the Washington office, and the re- mainder of the appropriation goes to the schools. The basic law under which these grants are made is Section 208 of Public Law 402, which authorizes the Secretary of State to aid libraries and schools founded by citizens or organizations of the United States, which serve as demonstration centers of United States methods and practices. The law provides, however, that in aiding any of these institutions, the Secretary of State shall exer- cise no control over their educational policies. This is therefore an example of federal aid without federal control. Congress has indicated in the annual appropriation hearings that no aid should be given to a school unless it has a substantial enrollment of na- tional pupils. The funds available under Public Law 402 are in dollars. The average grant is around $4,000 or $5,000, but in exceptional cir- cumstances it may be more. Some schools get as little as $1,000 per annum; a few may receive as much as $10,000 on a nonrecurring basis. These grants are chiefly "pats on the back" to express ap- preciation of the good work that the schools are doing in the field of inter-American education, to create good will, friendship, and mutual understanding among the peoples of this Hemisphere. In addition to P. L. 402 aid in dollars, on the foregoing small scale, in the past two years two new sources of funds have been opened up for some of these schools. Under Section 104 (j) of P. L. 480, funds are available in local currencies generated by agreements to purchase United States surplus agricultural prod- ucts. The schools in Colombia and Mexico have received consider- able sums in Colombian and Mexican pesos from this source for building purposes, equipment, and scholarships. The International Cooperation Administration (ICA) has also received substantial  142 The Caribbean sums to aid eligible schools abroad under Section 400-C of the Mutual Security Act. Under this section the schools in Guatemala and Nicaragua have been allocated aid for building programs. This aid is nonrecurring in contrast to the small grants under P. L. 402 which are appropriated annually. II Although American-sponsored schools differ greatly, there are a number of basic similarities in the services they render. I wish to emphasize that in considering many aspects of the influences of these schools, one finds that religious and lay institutions have much in common. Many of my comments about the services of the latter group apply also to the former. Some of the best evaluations of the work of the binational schools with which I am familiar were made at the First Gen- eral Conference of American-Sponsored Binational Schools in Latin America, held in Washington in April, 1957. Ambassador Victor Andrade of Bolivia, in praising the work of the American Institute of La Paz, said: Not only did the Institute bring to the country new methods of education and a new spirit in the shaping of the younger minds, but it also played an important part in our cultural development. As I have mentioned before, its mere existence constituted a coun- teracting force against the Nazi infiltration. Furthermore, when Communist influence started to spread its activities among the teachers in the public schools, the American Institute of La Paz became the source of a new concept, namely that Communist ideas and propaganda can be defeated more successfully by democratic ideals in the field of human thinking. The fact that the new pro- gressive movements in Bolivia which defeated Communism entirely have had as their leaders former students and graduates of the American Institute is not just a coincidence, but is largely the result of the influence of the school. The President of Bolivia, sev- eral Cabinet Ministers, and the most important labor leaders in the country were all educated at the American Institute. ... Bolivia today has probably the smallest rate of Communist threat in the Continent, regardless of the tremendous poverty of our masses, our workers, and our peasants. Why is it, since Communism usually breeds on destitution and poverty, why is it that in Bolivia it has never been able to do anything? 142 The Caribbean sums to aid eligible schools abroad under Section 400-C of the Mutual Security Act. Under this section the schools in Guatemala and Nicaragua have been allocated aid for building programs. This aid is nonrecurring in contrast to the small grants under P. L. 402 which are appropriated annually. II Although American-sponsored schools differ greatly, there are a number of basic similarities in the services they render. I wish to emphasize that in considering many aspects of the influences of these schools, one finds that religious and lay institutions have much in common. Many of my comments about the services of the latter group apply also to the former. Some of the best evaluations of the work of the binational schools with which I am familiar were made at the First Gen- eral Conference of American-Sponsored Binational Schools in Latin America, held in Washington in April, 1957. Ambassador Victor Andrade of Bolivia, in praising the work of the American Institute of La Paz, said: Not only did the Institute bring to the country new methods of education and a new spirit in the shaping of the younger minds, but it also played an important part in our cultural development. As I have mentioned before, its mere existence constituted a coun- teracting force against the Nazi infiltration. Furthermore, when Communist influence started to spread its activities among the teachers in the public schools, the American Institute of La Paz became the source of a new concept, namely that Communist ideas and propaganda can be defeated more successfully by democratic ideals in the field of human thinking. The fact that the new pro- gressive movements in Bolivia which defeated Communism entirely have had as their leaders former students and graduates of the American Institute is not just a coincidence, but is largely the result of the influence of the school. The President of Bolivia, sev- eral Cabinet Ministers, and the most important labor leaders in the country were all educated at the American Institute. ... Bolivia today has probably the smallest rate of Communist threat in the Continent, regardless of the tremendous poverty of our masses, our workers, and our peasants. Why is it, since Communism usually breeds on destitution and poverty, why is it that in Bolivia it has never been able to do anything? 142 The Caribbean sums to aid eligible schools abroad under Section 400-C of the Mutual Security Act. Under this section the schools in Guatemala and Nicaragua have been allocated aid for building programs. This aid is nonrecurring in contrast to the small grants under P. L. 402 which are appropriated annually. II Although American-sponsored schools differ greatly, there are a number of basic similarities in the services they render. I wish to emphasize that in considering many aspects of the influences of these schools, one finds that religious and lay institutions have much in common. Many of my comments about the services of the latter group apply also to the former. Some of the best evaluations of the work of the binational schools with which I am familiar were made at the First Gen- eral Conference of American-Sponsored Binational Schools in Latin America, held in Washington in April, 1957. Ambassador Victor Andrade of Bolivia, in praising the work of the American Institute of La Paz, said: Not only did the Institute bring to the country new methods of education and a new spirit in the shaping of the younger minds, but it also played an important part in our cultural development. As I have mentioned before, its mere existence constituted a coun- teracting force against the Nazi infiltration. Furthermore, when Communist influence started to spread its activities among the teachers in the public schools, the American Institute of La Paz became the source of a new concept, namely that Communist ideas and propaganda can be defeated more successfully by democratic ideals in the field of human thinking. The fact that the new pro- gressive movements in Bolivia which defeated Communism entirely have had as their leaders former students and graduates of the American Institute is not just a coincidence, but is largely the result of the influence of the school. The President of Bolivia, sev- eral Cabinet Ministers, and the most important labor leaders in the country were all educated at the American Institute... . Bolivia today has probably the smallest rate of Communist threat in the Continent, regardless of the tremendous poverty of our masses, our workers, and our peasants. Why is it, since Communism usually breeds on destitution and poverty, why is it that in Bolivia it has never been able to do anything?  PRIVATE EDUCATION 143 The explanation is that our country was fortunate enough to have an institution that for fifty years had been teaching a certain type of liberal conception of life that meant an opening of new horizons for the people and protected them from the confusion of those alien ideas that today serve as an instrument of that tremendous threat that we have in this communistic international. In speaking of the American School of Quito, which he helped to found, Former President Gala Plaza of Ecuador emphasized two other services of binational schools: We introduced another element which was then foreign to edu- cation in our country - coeducation. We tried to give women equal chances for education. Throughout Latin American schools they are divided by the sexes. Girls almost always go to inferior schools. Facilities are limited, to start out with. So the best facilities go to the boys' school and whatever is left over goes to the girls' school. We thought that was unfair and we realized that if we gave them both equal chances, they would both respond. Many times the girls turned out to be better than the boys as students.... We started out with this school as a nondenominational school. It is not a mission school. We tried to teach tolerance. We didn't teach religion; but we gave facilities to the Catholic priest to come in, also the Protestant minister or the Jewish rabbi. We have tried to bring up these children with a deep-rooted understanding of tolerance so that these girls and boys could grow up together normally, knowing each other, and within this framework of a dif- ferent concept of education for meeting the problems of tomorrow, help form a united Hemisphere that must look out for its very existence in the changing world. Ambassador Francisco Urrutia of Colombia explained that hav- ing schools which gave students a thorough foundation in English made a valuable contribution to the country because this language skill enabled Colombians to study in first-class universities in the United States. Mr. Milton Eisenhower, commenting upon his visits to binational schools in Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia, and the Binational Insti- tutes in Paraguay and Brazil, said, "I felt and said that I thought these institutions were doing more to promote understanding and genuine understanding among the peoples of this Hemisphere than any other effort in which the United States was engaged even in a small way."y* 'Notes to this chapter are on page 147. PRIVATE EDUCATION 143 The explanation is that our country was fortunate enough to have an institution that for fifty years had been teaching a certain type of liberal conception of life that meant an opening of new horizons for the people and protected them from the confusion of those alien ideas that today serve as an instrument of that tremendous threat that we have in this communistic international. In speaking of the American School of Quito, which he helped to found, Former President Galo Plaza of Ecuador emphasized two other services of binational schools: We introduced another element which was then foreign to edu- cation in our country - coeducation. We tried to give women equal chances for education. Throughout Latin American schools they are divided by the sexes. Girls almost always go to inferior schools. Facilities are limited, to start out with. So the best facilities go to the boys' school and whatever is left over goes to the girls' school. We thought that was unfair and we realized that if we gave them both equal chances, they would both respond. Many times the girls turned out to be better than the boys as students.... We started out with this school as a nondenominational school. It is not a mission school. We tried to teach tolerance. We didn't teach religion; but we gave facilities to the Catholic priest to come in, also the Protestant minister or the Jewish rabbi. We have tried to bring up these children with a deep-rooted understanding of tolerance so that these girls and boys could grow up together normally, knowing each other, and within this framework of a dif- ferent concept of education for meeting the problems of tomorrow, help form a united Hemisphere that must look out for its very existence in the changing world. Ambassador Francisco Urrutia of Colombia explained that hav- ing schools which gave students a thorough foundation in English made a valuable contribution to the country because this language skill enabled Colombians to study in first-class universities in the United States. Mr. Milton Eisenhower, commenting upon his visits to binational schools in Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia, and the Binational Insti- tutes in Paraguay and Brazil, said, "I felt and said that I thought these institutions were doing more to promote understanding and genuine understanding among the peoples of this Hemisphere than any other effort in which the United States was engaged even in a small way."* *Notes to this chapter are on page 147. PRIVATE EDUCATION 143 The explanation is that our country was fortunate enough to have an institution that for fifty years had been teaching a certain type of liberal conception of life that meant an opening of new horizons for the people and protected them from the confusion of those alien ideas that today serve as an instrument of that tremendous threat that we have in this communistic international. In speaking of the American School of Quito, which he helped to found, Former President Galo Plaza of Ecuador emphasized two other services of binational schools: We introduced another element which was then foreign to edu- cation in our country - coeducation. We tried to give women equal chances for education. Throughout Latin American schools they are divided by the sexes. Girls almost always go to inferior schools. Facilities are limited, to start out with. So the best facilities go to the boys' school and whatever is left over goes to the girls' school. We thought that was unfair and we realized that if we gave them both equal chances, they would both respond. Many times the girls turned out to be better than the boys as students.... We started out with this school as a nondenominational school. It is not a mission school. We tried to teach tolerance. We didn't teach religion; but we gave facilities to the Catholic priest to come in, also the Protestant minister or the Jewish rabbi. We have tried to bring up these children with a deep-rooted understanding of tolerance so that these girls and boys could grow up together normally, knowing each other, and within this framework of a dif- ferent concept of education for meeting the problems of tomorrow, help form a united Hemisphere that must look out for its very existence in the changing world. Ambassador Francisco Urrutia of Colombia explained that hav- ing schools which gave students a thorough foundation in English made a valuable contribution to the country because this language skill enabled Colombians to study in first-class universities in the United States. Mr. Milton Eisenhower, commenting upon his visits to binational schools in Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia, and the Binational Insti- tutes in Paraguay and Brazil, said, "I felt and said that I thought these institutions were doing more to promote understanding and genuine understanding among the peoples of this Hemisphere than any other effort in which the United States was engaged even in a small way."* *Notes to this chapter are on page 147.  144 The Caribbean The American-sponsored schools in many countries have been interested in making a contribution to the national systems of edu- cation. The most outstanding service in this field has been rendered by the American School of Guatemala City. In 1948 it was approved by the Ministry of Education as a laboratory school for research and experimentation. In this capacity it has served as a training school for a number of Guatemalan teachers and has developed an extensive research division, particularly in the fields of Spanish language tests, child development, curriculum development, and the production of teaching materials. The contribution to national education was such that in 1958 its official approval was extended for twenty years. In 1954 the School joined with the Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama in long-range studies of child growth and a program for nutrition education, dedicated to the improve- ment of health and the development of children in the six coun- tries cooperating in the project. The problem of locating suitable textbooks for teaching English as a foreign language and for Spanish at different levels has caused many schools to develop their own materials. In many cases these books are made available for national schools as well. III A survey of the achievements of binational schools is gratifying. But we must not rest upon our laurels. The present crisis in the Caribbean and in all Latin America, the economic and political problems, the need for industrialization, and the threat of Communism demand that the binational schools establish goals of even greater scope. We must re-evaluate our programs in terms of the criterion, "How well are we developing better citizens for democracies?" I believe that one of our major functions is to produce mature, responsible, public-spirited citizens. Recent crises in many countries have shown the urgent need to develop better procedures for effecting a broader, deeper, and more lasting influence in this area. The strength of a democracy is determined by the qualities of her citizens. Our schools must focus more attention upon the indi- vidual student and the development of his attitudes, values, and beliefs as well as his knowledge, habits, and skills. I suggest that 144 The Caribbean The American-sponsored schools in many countries have been interested in making a contribution to the national systems of edu- cation. The most outstanding service in this field has been rendered by the American School of Guatemala City. In 1948 it was approved by the Ministry of Education as a laboratory school for research and experimentation. In this capacity it has served as a training school for a number of Guatemalan teachers and has developed an extensive research division, particularly in the fields of Spanish language tests, child development, curriculum development, and the production of teaching materials. The contribution to national education was such that in 1958 its official approval was extended for twenty years. In 1954 the School joined with the Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama in long-range studies of child growth and a program for nutrition education, dedicated to the improve- ment of health and the development of children in the six coun- tries cooperating in the project. The problem of locating suitable textbooks for teaching English as a foreign language and for Spanish at different levels has caused many schools to develop their own materials. In many cases these books are made available for national schools as well. III A survey of the achievements of binational schools is gratifying. But we must not rest upon our laurels. The present crisis in the Caribbean and in all Latin America, the economic and political problems, the need for industrialization, and the threat of Communism demand that the binational schools establish goals of even greater scope. We must re-evaluate our programs in terms of the criterion, "How well are we developing better citizens for democracies?" I believe that one of our major functions is to produce mature, responsible, public-spirited citizens. Recent crises in many countries have shown the urgent need to develop better procedures for effecting a broader, deeper, and more lasting influence in this area. The strength of a democracy is determined by the qualities of her citizens. Our schools must focus more attention upon the indi- vidual student and the development of his attitudes, values, and beliefs as well as his knowledge, habits, and skills. I suggest that 144 The Caribbean The American-sponsored schools in many countries have been interested in making a contribution to the national systems of edu- cation. The most outstanding service in this field has been rendered by the American School of Guatemala City. In 1948 it was approved by the Ministry of Education as a laboratory school for research and experimentation. In this capacity it has served as a training school for a number of Guatemalan teachers and has developed an extensive research division, particularly in the fields of Spanish language tests, child development, curriculum development, and the production of teaching materials. The contribution to national education was such that in 1958 its official approval was extended for twenty years. In 1954 the School joined with the Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama in long-range studies of child growth and a program for nutrition education, dedicated to the improve- ment of health and the development of children in the six coun- tries cooperating in the project. The problem of locating suitable textbooks for teaching English as a foreign language and for Spanish at different levels has caused many schools to develop their own materials. In many cases these books are made available for national schools as well. III A survey of the achievements of binational schools is gratifying. But we must not rest upon our laurels. The present crisis in the Caribbean and in all Latin America, the economic and political problems, the need for industrialization, and the threat of Communism demand that the binational schools establish goals of even greater scope. We must re-evaluate our programs in terms of the criterion, "How well are we developing better citizens for democracies?" I believe that one of our major functions is to produce mature, responsible, public-spirited citizens. Recent crises in many countries have shown the urgent need to develop better procedures for effecting a broader, deeper, and more lasting influence in this area. The strength of a democracy is determined by the qualities of her citizens. Our schools must focus more attention upon the indi- vidual student and the development of his attitudes, values, and beliefs as well as his knowledge, habits, and skills. I suggest that  PRIVATE EDUCATION 145 there are eight qualities to which our schools should dedicate more attention. 1. First of all, future leaders must be disciplined, self-controlled, hard-working. 2. They must be able to think for themselves. 3. They need an objective, scientific attitude which will enable them to find the errors in their own ideas and the advantages of other points of view. They must realize that the facts of a situa- tion, not their wishes, should determine what should be done at a specific time. 4. They need to be realistic and to accept the fact that there are no quick, easy solutions to major problems. Only those who are reconciled to the defects and weaknesses of people and situa- tions, who accept the deficiencies of existing knowledge, can be well prepared to face the new problems of the future. 5. Students need to have faith in themselves and the future in order not to become discouraged when they see the strength of some of the forces that oppose democracy. Schools should help students realize that progress in all countries has been produced by small groups of dedicated idealists. 6. Their faith must be supported by untiring patience which will not allow them to become disheartened by difficulties. They should realize that most of the advantages which they take for granted today were produced through long, bitter struggles. 7. They must learn to become more considerate of the rights of others since the best way to protect their own liberty is to defend that of their fellow countrymen. They must realize that freedom of thought and action, of speech and press, are processes of every- day life which must be defended if they are to survive. 8. Last and most inclusive of all, they must be cooperative. The school should provide experiences which will early give a child the satisfaction of working with and for others so that he will be willing to place the interests of the group above his personal ad- vantages when the welfare of the community calls for such an action. IV Part of the crisis in the Caribbean today is due to the fact that too many North Americans residing in this area have failed to live by their values and ideals. Our history reflects countless examples of the nation's willingness to sacrifice our own interests in order PRIVATE EDUCATION 145 there are eight qualities to which our schools should dedicate more attention. S. First of all, future leaders must be disciplined, self-controlled, hard-working. 2. They must be able to think for themselves. 3. They need an objective, scientific attitude which will enable them to find the errors in their own ideas and the advantages of other points of view. They must realize that the facts of a situa- tion, not their wishes, should determine what should be done at a specific time. 4. They need to be realistic and to accept the fact that there are no quick, easy solutions to major problems. Only those who are reconciled to the defects and weaknesses of people and situa- tions, who accept the deficiencies of existing knowledge, can be well prepared to face the new problems of the future. 5. Students need to have faith in themselves and the future in order not to become discouraged when they see the strength of some of the forces that oppose democracy. Schools should help students realize that progress in all countries has been produced by small groups of dedicated idealists. 6. Their faith must be supported by untiring patience which will not allow them to become disheartened by difficulties. They should realize that most of the advantages which they take for granted today were produced through long, bitter struggles. 7. They must learn to become more considerate of the rights of others since the best way to protect their own liberty is to defend that of their fellow countrymen. They must realize that freedom of thought and action, of speech and press, are processes of every- day life which must be defended if they are to survive. 8. Last and most inclusive of all, they must be cooperative. The school should provide experiences which will early give a child the satisfaction of working with and for others so that he will be willing to place the interests of the group above his personal ad- vantages when the welfare of the community calls for such an action. IV Part of the crisis in the Caribbean today is due to the fact that too many North Americans residing in this area have failed to live by their values and ideals. Our history reflects countless examples of the nation's willingness to sacrifice our own interests in order PRIVATE EDUCATION 145 there are eight qualities to which our schools should dedicate more attention. 1. First of all, future leaders must be disciplined, self-controlled, hard-working. 2. They must be able to think for themselves. 3. They need an objective, scientific attitude which will enable them to find the errors in their own ideas and the advantages of other points of view. They must realize that the facts of a situa- tion, not their wishes, should determine what should be done at a specific time. 4. They need to be realistic and to accept the fact that there are no quick, easy solutions to major problems. Only those who are reconciled to the defects and weaknesses of people and situa- tions, who accept the deficiencies of existing knowledge, can be well prepared to face the new problems of the future. 5. Students need to have faith in themselves and the future in order not to become discouraged when they see the strength of some of the forces that oppose democracy. Schools should help students realize that progress in all countries has been produced by small groups of dedicated idealists. 6. Their faith must be supported by untiring patience which will not allow them to become disheartened by difficulties. They should realize that most of the advantages which they take for granted today were produced through long, bitter struggles. 7. They must learn to become more considerate of the rights of others since the best way to protect their own liberty is to defend that of their fellow countrymen. They must realize that freedom of thought and action, of speech and press, are processes of every- day life which must be defended if they are to survive. 8. Last and most inclusive of all, they must be cooperative. The school should provide experiences which will early give a child the satisfaction of working with and for others so that he will be willing to place the interests of the group above his personal ad- vantages when the welfare of the community calls for such an action. IV Part of the crisis in the Caribbean today is due to the fact that too many North Americans residing in this area have failed to live by their values and ideals. Our history reflects countless examples of the nation's willingness to sacrifice our own interests in order  146 The Caribbean to help others. But as individuals too many North American ex- patriates have failed to exemplify this principle. To this important problem, binational schools must dedicate more attention. The teachers must not only serve as ambassadors-of- good-will themselves; they must also help their students and other fellow residents to remember that no matter where they may be or what they may do, they are first of all considered as North Americans. In the United States they are judged as individuals; but in a foreign country their courtesy, unselfishness, and com- mendable actions contribute to the good reputation of the United States. Their careless lack of consideration, mistakes, or open criti- cism of their host countries tend to create a barrier between those nationals and our country. Most foreign residents are model guests in any home they may visit, but some of them occasionally fail to show some of the basic courtesies while they are guests of a country. My experiences in Cuba have shown me that too many North Americans reflect an unfortunate national conceit when they be- come foreign residents. They fail to realize that the countries in which they have the privilege to live and work can teach them much. Even though the local customs may be different from their own, the foreigners can follow their own ways and still respect the values of their hosts. Since the majority of the people in any country form their opin- ions of the United States on the basis of the North Americans they have known, it is especially unfortunate that a number change when they become foreign residents. I have never been able to understand how some people who have been just ordinary folk at home - friendly, democratic, outgoing - could become very con- descending when they move to another country. Although the binational schools cannot have much influence upon the adult residents, they can do something to help their students understand and avoid these discourteous mistakes. This training may contribute to better relations between the United States and other countries in later years because North American students now living abroad will likely be the businessmen and diplomats in foreign countries tomorrow. The experience of having lived outside of the United States for twenty-one years has given me a more realistic appreciation of many of our values than I would have had if I had remained 146 The Caribbean to help others. But as individuals too many North American ex- patriates have failed to exemplify this principle. To this important problem, binational schools must dedicate more attention. The teachers must not only serve as ambassadors-of- good-will themselves; they must also help their students and other fellow residents to remember that no matter where they may be or what they may do, they are first of all considered as North Americans. In the United States they are judged as individuals; but in a foreign country their courtesy, unselfishness, and com- mendable actions contribute to the good reputation of the United States. Their careless lack of consideration, mistakes, or open criti- cism of their host countries tend to create a barrier between those nationals and our country. Most foreign residents are model guests in any home they may visit, but some of them occasionally fail to show some of the basic courtesies while they are guests of a country. My experiences in Cuba have shown me that too many North Americans reflect an unfortunate national conceit when they be- come foreign residents. They fail to realize that the countries in which they have the privilege to live and work can teach them much. Even though the local customs may be different from their own, the foreigners can follow their own ways and still respect the values of their hosts. Since the majority of the people in any country form their opin- ions of the United States on the basis of the North Americans they have known, it is especially unfortunate that a number change when they become foreign residents. I have never been able to understand how some people who have been just ordinary folk at home - friendly, democratic, outgoing - could become very con- descending when they move to another country. Although the binational schools cannot have much influence upon the adult residents, they can do something to help their students understand and avoid these discourteous mistakes. This training may contribute to better relations between the United States and other countries in later years because North American students now living abroad will likely be the businessmen and diplomats in foreign countries tomorrow. The experience of having lived outside of the United States for twenty-one years has given me a more realistic appreciation of many of our values than I would have had if I had remained 146 The Caribbean to help others. But as individuals too many North American ex- patriates have failed to exemplify this principle. To this important problem, binational schools must dedicate more attention. The teachers must not only serve as ambassadors-of- good-will themselves; they must also help their students and other fellow residents to remember that no matter where they may be or what they may do, they are first of all considered as North Americans. In the United States they are judged as individuals; but in a foreign country their courtesy, unselfishness, and com- mendable actions contribute to the good reputation of the United States. Their careless lack of consideration, mistakes, or open criti- cism of their host countries tend to create a barrier between those nationals and our country. Most foreign residents are model guests in any home they may visit, but some of them occasionally fail to show some of the basic courtesies while they are guests of a country. My experiences in Cuba have shown me that too many North Americans reflect an unfortunate national conceit when they be- come foreign residents. They fail to realize that the countries in which they have the privilege to live and work can teach them much. Even though the local customs may be different from their own, the foreigners can follow their own ways and still respect the values of their hosts. Since the majority of the people in any country form their opin- ions of the United States on the basis of the North Americans they have known, it is especially unfortunate that a number change when they become foreign residents. I have never been able to understand how some people who have been just ordinary folk at home - friendly, democratic, outgoing - could become very con- descending when they move to another country. Although the binational schools cannot have much influence upon the adult residents, they can do something to help their students understand and avoid these discourteous mistakes. This training may contribute to better relations between the United States and other countries in later years because North American students now living abroad will likely be the businessmen and diplomats in foreign countries tomorrow. The experience of having lived outside of the United States for twenty-one years has given me a more realistic appreciation of many of our values than I would have had if I had remained  PRIVATE EDUCATION 147 PRIVATE EDUCATION 147 PRIVATE EDUCATION 147 at home. It has also convinced me of the urgent importance of sharing these values with other peoples and other countries. A most convincing and inspiring development of the thesis of our democratic mission is given in Image of America, a book re- cently published by a French Dominican priest, Father Bruck- berger. In the closing chapter, "A Letter to Americans," he says: Americans,... it is time to recognize that the Declaration of Independence is not yours alone. That solemn Declaration was made not just for you,... but for the whole world and for all the generations of mankind.... But now, Americans, your task is to extend the Declaration of Independence to the whole world, to all nations and all races.... The West would be doomed, and you eternally shamed, if today you proved incapable not only of ful- filling the splendid hope of the Declaration of Independence in your own country but also of bringing that hope to the rest of the world. It will mean your everlasting glory and salvation for mankind if, as I believe and hope, you can find it in you to proclaim and defend once again the right of all men to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and determine to consecrate your utmost strength, labor and generosity to the task of making it possible for all men in America and throughout the world, to enjoy these rights to the full. American-sponsored schools in the Caribbean must help to meet this challenge. NOTES 1. Quotations are from Minutes of the First General Conference of Amer- ican-Sponsored Binational Schools in Latin America (Washington: Inter- American Schools Service, 1957), pp. 22-241, passim. 2. R. L. Bruckberger, Image of America (New York, 1959), pp. 276-277. A. COMMUNITY-OWNED NONPROFIT SCHOOLS CoLOMBrA Escuela Karl C. Parrish Apartado Aereo 950 Barranquilla Colegio Nueva Granada Apartado Aireo 1858 Bogota Colegio Bolfvar Apartado Aereo 1858 Cali Escuela Jorge Apartado Areo 3 Cartagena Washington The Columbus School Apartado Aereo 980 Medellin at home. It has also convinced me of the urgent importance of sharing these values with other peoples and other countries. A most convincing and inspiring development of the thesis of our democratic mission is given in Image of America, a book re- cently published by a French Dominican priest, Father Bruck- berger. In the closing chapter, "A Letter to Americans," he says: Americans,... it is time to recognize that the Declaration of Independence is not yours alone. That solemn Declaration was made not just for you, ... but for the whole world and for all the generations of mankind.... But now, Americans, your task is to extend the Declaration of Independence to the whole world, to all nations and all races.... The West would be doomed, and you eternally shamed, if today you proved incapable not only of ful- filling the splendid hope of the Declaration of Independence in your own country but also of bringing that hope to the rest of the world. It will mean your everlasting glory and salvation for mankind if, as I believe and hope, you can find it in you to proclaim and defend once again the right of all men to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and determine to consecrate your utmost strength, labor and generosity to the task of making it possible for all men in America and throughout the world, to enjoy these rights to the full? American-sponsored schools in the Caribbean must help to meet this challenge. NOTES 1. Quotations are from Minutes of the First General Conference of Amer- ican-Sponsored Binational Schools in Latin America (Washington: later- American Schools Service, 1957), pp. 22-241, passim. 2. R. L. Bruckberger, Image of America (New York, 1959), pp. 276-277. A. COMMUNITY-OWNED NONPROFIT SCHOOLS COLOMB A Escuela Karl C. Parrish Apartado Aereo 950 Barranquilla Colegio Nueva Granada Apartado Aereo 1858 Bogoti Colegio Bolivar Apartado Aereo 1858 Cali Escuela Jorge Apartado Adreo 3 Cartagena Washington The Columbus School Apartado Adreo 980 Medellin at home. It has also convinced me of the urgent importance of sharing these values with other peoples and other countries. A most convincing and inspiring development of the thesis of our democratic mission is given in Image of America, a book re- cently published by a French Dominican priest, Father Bruck- berger. In the closing chapter, "A Letter to Americans," he says: Americans,... it is time to recognize that the Declaration of Independence is not yours alone. That solemn Declaration was made not just for you, ... but for the whole world and for all the generations of mankind.... But now, Americans, your task is to extend the Declaration of Independence to the whole world, to all nations and all races.... The West would be doomed, and you eternally shamed, if today you proved incapable not only of ful- filling the splendid hope of the Declaration of Independence in your own country but also of bringing that hope to the rest of the world. It will mean your everlasting glory and salvation for mankind if, as I believe and hope, you can find it in you to proclaim and defend once again the right of all men to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and determine to consecrate your utmost strength, labor and generosity to the task of making it possible for all men in America and throughout the world, to enjoy these rights to the full., American-sponsored schools in the Caribbean must help to meet this challenge. NOTES 1. Quotations are from Minutes of the First General Conference of Amer- ican-Sponsored Binational Schools in Latin America (Washington: Inter- American Schools Service, 1957), pp. 22-241, passim. 2. R. L. Bruckberger, Image of America (New York, 1959), pp. 276-277. A. COMMUNITY-OWNED NONPROFIT SCHOOLS COLOMBIA Escuela Karl C. Parrish Apartado Aireo 950 Barranquilla Colegio Nueva Granada Apartado Aireo 1858 Bogota Colegio Bolivar Apartado Aereo 1858 Cali Escuela Jorge Apartado Adreo 3 Cartagena Washington The Columbus School Apartado Aereo 980 Medellin  148 The Caribbean Cos-rA RICA The Lincoln School Apartado 1919 San Jos6 CUBA Ruston Academy Apartado 1944 Havana American Central School Nueva Gerona Isle of Pines DoM1NICAN REPUBLIC Carol Morgan School of Ave. Mejico y Calle Ciudad Trujillo Santo Domingo Rosa Duarte EL SALvADOR American High School Apartado Postal 907 San Salvador Escuela Americana Apartado Postal 312 San Salvador Union School Box 1175 Port-au-Prince HONDURAs Escuela Internacional Apartado 37 San Pedro Sula Sampedrana MEXICO Colegio Americano de Negrete e Hidalgo Durango Durango American School of Vallarta 1515 Guadalajara Guadalajara The American School Porfrio Diaz 200 Mexico 18 Foundation American School Foun- Apartado Postal 1762 Monterrey, Nuevo Leon dation of Monterrey Panamerican School of Apartado Postal 474 Monterrey, Nuevo Leon Monterrey Escuela Americana Apartado No. 3 Pachuca, Hidalgo Colegio Americano de 9 Poniente 2701 Puebla, Puebla Puebla American School of Apartado 407 Tampico, Tamaulipas Tampico Colegio Americano de Apartado Postal 349 Torreon, Coahuila Torreon, A. C. NICARAGUA American School c/o American Embassy Managua VENEZUELA Escuela Campo Alegre Apartado 4382 Caracas Escuela Bella Vista Apartado 172 Maracaibo Colegio Interacional Quinta Montalbin, Valencia de Carabobo Calle 139, Los Almendrones 194 B. PRIVATELY-OWNED SCHOOLS COLOMBIA 1. Company-Sponsored Intercol Staff School e/o International Barrancabermeja Petroleum Co. American Staff School e/o Colombian Cncuta Petroleum Co. Prado School c/o Cia. Frutera de Santa Marta Sevilla 148 The Caribbean COsTA RICA The Lincoln School Apartado 1919 San Jose CUBA Ruston Academy Apartado 1944 Havana American Central School Nueva Gerona Isle of Pines DOMINICAN REPuBLrc Carol Morgan School of Ave. Mejico y Calle Ciudad Trujillo Santo Domingo Rosa Duarte EL SALVADOR American High School Apartado Postal 907 San Salvador Escuela Americana Apartado Postal 312 San Salvador Harri Union School Box 1175 Port-au-Prince HONDURAs Escuela Internacional Apartado 37 San Pedro Sula Sampedrana MEXICO Colegio Americano de Negrete e Hidalgo Durango Durango American School of Vallarta 1515 Guadalajara Guadalajara The American School Porfrio Diaz 200 Mexico 18 Foundation American School Foun- Apartado Postal 1762 Monterrey, Nuevo Leon dation of Monterrey Panamerican School of Apartado Postal 474 Monterrey, Nuevo Leon Monterrey Escuela Americana Apartado No. 3 Pachuca, Hidalgo Colegio American de 9 Poniente 2701 Puebla, Puebla Puebla American School of Apartado 407 Tampico, Tamaulipas Tampico Colegio American de Apartado Postal 349 Torreon, Coahuila Torreon, A. C. NIcAnAcuA American School e/o American Embassy Managua VENEZUELA Escuela Campo Alegre Apartado 4382 Caracas Escuela Bella Vista Apartado 172 Maracaibo Colegio Internacional Quinta, Montalban, Valencia de Carabobo Calle 139, Los Almendrones 194 B. PRIVATELY-OWNED SCHOOLS COLOMBIA 1. Company-Sponsored Intercol Staff School c/o International Barrancabermeja Petroleum Co. American Staff School c/o Colombian Cncuta Petroleum Co. Prado School c/o Cia. Frutera de Santa Marta Sevilla 148 CosTA RICA The Lincoln School Apartado 1919 CUBA Ruston Academy Apartado 1944 American Central School -Nueva Gerona DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Carol Morgan School of Ave. Mejico y Calle Santo Domingo Rosa Duarte EL SALvADOR American High School Apartado Postal 907 Escuela Americana Apartado Postal 312 HAM Union School Box 1175 0 HONDURAS Escuela Interacional Apartado 37 Sampedrana MEXIcO Colegio American de Negrete e Hidalgo Durango American School of Vallarta 1515 Guadalajara The American School Porfirio Diaz 200 Foundation American School Foun- Apartado Postal 1762 dation of Monterrey Panamerican School of Apartado Postal 474 Monterrey Escuela Americana Apartado No. 3 Colegio American de 9 Poniente 2701 - Puebla American School of Apartado 407 Tampico Colegio American de Apartado Postal 349 Torreon, A. C. NICARAGUA American School c/o American Embassy VENEZUELA Escuela Campo Alegre Apartado 4382 Escuela Bella Vista Apartado 172 Colegio Internacional Quinta. Montalbin, de Carabobo Calle 139, Los Almendrones 194 The Caribbean San Jos6 Havana Isle of Pines Ciudad Trujillo San Salvador San Salvador Port-au-Prince San Pedro Sula Durango Guadalajara Mexico 18 Monterrey, Nuevo Le0n Monterrey, Nuevo Leon Pachuca, Hidalgo Puebla, Puebla Tampico, Tamaulipas Torrend, Coahuila Managua Caracas Maracaibo Valencia B. PRIVATELY-OWNED SCHOOLS COLOMBIA . Company-Sponsored Intercol Staff School e/o International Barrancabermeja Petroleum Co. American Staff School c/o Colombian Cncuta Petroleum Co. Prado School c/o Cia. Frutera de Santa Marta Sevilla  PRIVATE EDUCATION 2. Privtey-Owned and -Operatd olegio Abaa Carr 7 No. 78-22 Colegio Estados Cal2e64 No. 5-35 1. Copay-Sponsord Colfito English Cia. Baanr de Language School Cosa ica~ Amria School Cia. Baaead Lim6n Zn School Cia. Baner de Quepos Amra Cia. Banr de School Costa Rica 2. Privatey-Owned and -Operatd Anl-meia Apartado 3188 Sugar Company Gur School c/ United Frui Sugar Compay SEEf School c/o Moa Bay Min:n (Moa Bay) Company Aprtdo, 3490 Staff School Matabmbr English-Speakig c/o Nickel Processi Presto Lee School c/ United Fruit Su Lafayete School Avenida 39 No. 2121 LaCoronela The Phillips School Avenida 49 No. 2842 Reppt Kohly DOMINICAN RBLICN 1. Compay-Sponsored Grenada Company c/o United Fruil English Speaking Compaty School 2. Privtely-Ownetd ttd -Operated Colegio Repdblca Calle Cesar Nicois Dtktttan Penson No. 72 FEL SLVADOR 1. Company-Spottored None 2. Privately-Owned and -Opt-ted None BogtA, 0. F. BogtA, 0. E. Golfito Ftltttt Stt FPeto Limtot Quepos Stt Jt42 149 PRIVATE EDUCATION 2. Privtly2-Otwtd tnd -Operated Colegio Abrahatm Carrera 7 No. 78-22 Colkgio Estados Calle 64 No. 5-35 1. Copay-Spot-ored 1olfito English Cit. Bttttpt- de Latguage Scool Cota~ Ric- American School Cia. Btttttt-t de Cotab Rict LimonZone chool C. Bitte d Quepos Americnt Cia. Banatera de School Cota~ Bict 2. Privtly-Ownetd and -Operated Anglo-Aerican Apat-dt 3188 School CUBAt 1. Compay-Sponsored Amerdcan School c/o United EFrtit Bogt, 0. E. Bogt, 0. B. olfito Famttt Sur Puertb Limtdt Qupos San JosM 149 PRIVATE EDUCATION 149 2. Privately-Ownetd and -Operted Colegio Abrahamt Carr 7 N. 78-22 Bogt, 0. E. Linclnt Colegio EtaEdos Calle 64 No. 5-35 Bogt, 0. E. 1. Copay-Spottored Gofito Engl1sh Cit. Btt-tttt de- Colfito Langua-ge School Cotab Bict Lim-Ot Ztne Scool Cia. Bnaner de NuerIt LEmn Cota Ric- Que-pos AmerMcan Cia. Bantttt de Quepo- Schoolt Cota Rica 2. Prit- Iy-Owetd and -Operated Anglo-AmerMtan Apat-dt 3188 San- Jtosh SchoM CUBA 1. Compay-Sponsore-d American School c/o Unted FEui Bttnes, Ortiete Sugar Comtpany Ctaro School c/o United Fruit Ctutt, OriEN Sugar Comtpaty StafScho c/Io-A Moa Bty Mining Hatvana (Moa Bay) Companty Apata~dt 3480 Minas de Matathambre c/o Minas dt Mttitttbtt, StaE Scool Mtahamtbre Pinar del Bit Englih-Speaking c/t Nickel Procesing Nicarot, Oete Sc-hool Corporation Petont Lee Schlt- c/o 11nited Ft-MI Sugar Pretont Oriete Comtpany 2. PrteIy-Ott-ttd andM -Opete~d Lafayte Scool- Avenida 39 No. 21211, Mttiant-, Havana-t LatCoronela- The Fhillips Schootl Avenida 49 No. 2842, Marianao, Havatna Bepato Kohly Battes, OMien Guart, Oriente g Havatna g Nicaro, Oriete Fa Ptn, Ordete PutoI Libetador- Ciudad Trujtillo Bane, Oete Sugar- Comtpatty CGuab School c/o United Frt-M Guaro, Oriete Staff School- c/t Moa Bay Mining Havantt (Moa Bty) Comtpany Apatado 3490 Minas de Mattthambre c/o Mitt- de Mtahambre, SEEf School Mtthtttlt- Pinar del Bit Ftgbih-Speaking c/t Nit-kel Procesing Nictro, Or-iete Schoolt Cor-poration Prtott Leet School c/t United Fruit Stgar Prtn, Oriete 2. Privtely-Owne-d and -Operated Lafaytte Schlt Avenida 39 No. 21211, Mariant, Nt-tEa The Phillipt School Avenida 49 No. 2942, Mariana, Hatvanat BRepato Ktohly 1. Comtpttp-Spotttored Gtretata Company c-/o United Ft-MI Puerto Libetao- English Speakitng Ctompaty 2. Prt-el-4y-Owne-t-d ttd -Opeted Colegio Bepublica Catle Cesar Nit-MMs Ciudad Tru~jillo Dotmnian Pt s FttNo.72 1. Ctompay-Sponsoretd Nonet 2. PrEvatey-Owned and -Operated Noneo 1. Cpay-Sptord Crenada Copany c/t- United Fruil Englis-h Speakintg Cot-pot- 2. Privtel-Owne-ttd antd -Operted Colegio epublica Call Ceartt Nicohis ot-ictn Pens4nNo. 72 1. Comtpan-y-Sponsored Nonet 2. Privately-Ownettd atd -Opertepd Nonet FPeto Libertador Citdtd Trujillo  150 The Bammer Frt 59 Class c/o UnTited Fruit Battttt Scoolt Comtpany Barrios Schtool cot Untited Frit PuotI Escueola do "El Prado" co Cit. Agricola do Tiquisat 2. Privtely-Owneod aood -Operated Eoglish-Amoofloo, 9a. Galle 5-12, Zona 1 Gutemot Evelyn, Rogers Scool 3o. Avonida 13-09, Gutemt Zona 10 1. Comtpan-Sponooed None 2. Privtely-Owned tond -Operated Non 1. Comptany-Sponored llotopobSchool co Standard Fotit and La Coil, Steamshlip Co. La Litma Amterican cot Tela Railroad La Lioa Scolool Comopany Amertca Scool1 o Tela Railroad Progreso Comopany Ctotl Atmerican co Tela Rilroad PutotC Sc~hool Comtpany Tela Atmericao Scoo1 co Telt Railroad Tela 2. Privately-Owneod and -Operated Noneo 1. Copan-Sponored Ecuetla Colattoso Apatatdt Postal No. 11 OtIll, 2. Priaey-Ownetd antd -Opeorated Coleogio Antglo- Hlidalgo 1393 Guadlaj Nueo Colegio bSimon Bolivato Suto 194 Gttadalaj Modeot Attooicat Niolas Sant Juant 1141 Mexio Laurenso Intitteo Colegio GCivil, Norte 714 Mototo 1. Copy-Sosoretd Lagot Comtmutity Boxt 503, Lago Colonty Aroba N Schootol 1. Copay-Sponored Neptune Staff ScoOl,, co Neptunetoltd Btottoz Minfing Cotmpaty 2. Privately-Ownetd tand -Operated Caribbean Ita City ita City atb 150 Bananera First Class cot Unfited Frttit Scotol Comtpanty Barrios School c/o Untited Frufit Ctompaoty Etoctola do "El Foodo' c/o Cit. Agricola do Guatematla 2. Pritely-Owneod antd -Operaotod English-Atmoricat Ia. Colle 5-12, Zont 1 Scoolt Evlynt Rogers Scool 3a. Avonida 13-09, Zont 10 The Caribbean Batottota Puerto Barriot Tiqutiste Gutematola City Cutemattla City 150 CooTotototo 1. Copy-Sponoreod Bantoor First Class c/o Utnitod Fruit Scool~t Comopany Barrios Scoolf c/o, Uoitod Frui Comtpany Escuel de El Prado" co Cit. Agricola do Gutemattla 2. Privtely-Ownoed antd -Operoted Foglish-Attoticto I. Calle 5-12, Zoot 1 Scootl Evelyn Rogers Schootl 3a. Aovttidt 13-09, Ztoa 10 The Caribbean Bottotoot Puto Barrios Tiquiste Cuatoemala City utemala City HA- 2. Ctompany-Spoored Non 2. Pritetly-Owneod antd -Opooteod 1. Copy-posored Mazatpn Scootl cot Stantdard Fruit antd La Ceiba Stoetmship Co. La Limt Atmeoicat co Tela Railrtoad La Liot Stchottl Comtpany Ameorican Stchool o Tela Riload Prgreso Comopany Cotb Amteican co Tela Raiiroad Puerttt Ctortlo School Comopany Tela Atooricao Scoo1 c,/o Tela Railroad Tolo Comtpany 2. Privtely-Ownetd and -Optrated None 1. Comtpany-Sponoreod Etsttela Colateso Atttod Postal No,. 11 Ocotlb, Jalisco 2. Privteloy-Owneod and -Operted Colegio Anglo- Hidalgo 2390 Guadalajar, Jalisco Nueo Colegiot Simond~ Bolivar Iur 194 Guadalajar, Jalico Modeom Americtn Niolas San Juant 1141 Mlttico 12, D. Laurents Institte Colegio Cii, Norte 714 Monterrey, N.L. NETotEtLAto, WETo IhotEo 1. Company-Soored Lago Commtuity Boo 503, Lao Colony Aruba 1. Ctompany-Sponsored Neptutte Staf School t/t Neptune Cold Btoanz Mining Compoany 2. Privaty-Ownetd aond -Operted None 1. Ctompan-Spontored Noneo 2. Privtely-Ownettd and -Operted None 1. Compa-S~oored Mazapdn Scool co Stotndard Frutit antd La Ceiba Steamshiip Co. La Limt Ameroican o Tela Railroad La Lima~ Schtool Comtpany Ameroicat Sotol o Tela Ratiload Pogreso Comopany Cotilt Amtericat co Tola Rtiloaod Puoto Ctortb School Companty Tola Americtat School co Tela Railroad Telt Comopany 2. Privtely-Ownetd atnd -Operted None 2. Gopay-Sponsored Escula Celattose Apataofi Potal N. 11 Ocotli, Jalisc, 2. Privtely-Owneod atnd -Operated Clegio Angle- Htidalgo 1390 Guadaljato, Jaliso Nuevo Colegio S0ion Blivto lot 194 Cuadaljar, Jaliso oderno Atmeticat Niclat Satt Juan 1141 Mexio 12, 1SF. Laurens Itnstitteo Colegio Civ-il, Note 714 Montoorey, N. NoETHERLANttS WEST INtDIES 1. Compan-Sptosored Lago Ctomuity Btox 503, Lago Colony Artba 1. Ctompany-Sponored Notunet Staf School c/o NepttoeGold Bontatza Mining Cottpaty 2. Privtely-Ownetd tod -Operted None Jalisco tot, Jalisco aot, Jalito 12, D~. ey, N.L.  SPECIAL EDUCATION 151 PANAMA 1. Com~pany-Sponoreod Aooerioon Sobool c/o Cbiriqui Laod Co. Almiraote Las Palmas Sohool c/o Chiriqoi Laod Co. Puorlo Aorodoloo 2. Prioately-Oowoed ood -Operated None VENEZoooLA 1. Companoy-Sponoreod Esooela Siooon Bolivar c/o Cooolo Peolelom Amuoay efinory, Cooporotion Jodibaoa Aoaoo Norlh Coop o/o Mobil Oil Comopooy Carooas Schoool do Venoooelo Apoolodo del Esoe 5373 Bodonas Caop Sobool 0/0 Mobil Oil Coompooy Caoooas do Venoooola Apaotado dol Esoe 5373 La Salioo Stoff Sobool 0/0 Cooolo Peolelom Moooooibo Cororation Apaoooodo 172 Coobiio Stolf bobool c/0 Croole Petroloeum Caripio Corporation Apaoooodo 3099 biooloio StalE bobool o/o Siooloio Oil ood Baooelooo Rofiniog Co. Apoolodo 56 Jusepio boo8f bohool c/0 Cooolo Potrolooum Jusopio, Eotado Mooogos Corporatioo Loguoillos Stoff o/o Cooolo Peoleloo Looooillos, Zolio School Corporation Poooio Cobolo btaof o/o Mobil Oil Cooopooy Caoooos Sohool do Vooozoolo Apootodo 5373 dol Esto Vooooof Stolf Sobool o/o Vooozoolo Gulf Boooolooo efining Co. Apaolodo 10 Aoooicoo Exotrtiato o/o Ooinooo Mioiog Poooto Oodoo, Soboolo (2) Cooopooy Estodo Boliooo Qoiriqoiro Sloff Sohool o/o Creole Potooloooo Qoioiqoioo, Corporatloo Eolodo Monaoos Apoolodo 3098 boo Toml boaff o/o Mooo Groodo Boooolooo Coaop Sobool Oil Cooopooy Apootodo 45 Tio Joono boaff Sobool o/o Cooolo Potloolooo Moooooibo Corporatioo Apootodo 172 2. Priooately-Ownood ood -Operoted Aoodoooio Lo Apootodo doel Eoto 5640 Cooooos Castoelana Tbo Robooto Sobool Apoolodo 146 Maooooibo SPECIAL EDUCATION 151 PANAoMA0 1. Coompooy-Sponorod Amoooiooo Sobool 0/0 Chiriqoi Lood Co. Alomioooto Los Polooos Sobool o/o Chiriqoi Lood Co. Pooto doooiolloo 2. Priootely-Ownoed ood -Operoted None VENEtZUELA 1. Comopooy-Sponooed Esooelo Sion Boliooo o/o Cooolo Fotroloooo Aooooy Reofinooy, Corporatioo Jodibooo Aoooo Nooth Cooop o/o Mobil 02l Comopooy Coraoos Sohool do Vonoooolo Apootodo dol Esto 5373 Booiooo Coaop Sobool o/o Mobil Oil Comopaoy Coooooo de Venezuela Apootodo doel Esto 5373 Lo Solioo Staff Sobool o/o Cooolo Petroloooo Maroooibo Corporaoooo Apootodo 172 Cotipito StolE Sobool o/o Cooolo Potooloouo Coolpito Corpoootion Apootodo 3099 Siooloio boaff bobool c/0 Siooloio Oil ood Boooolooo efioig Co. Apodoado 58 Josopin StolE Sobool o/o Creolo Petoolooom Jooopio, Edoado Mooogos Corporation Logooiiloos btoff o/o Cooolo Potoolooom Looooiloo, Polio Scbool Corporation Poorto Cobollo Stolf 0/0 Mobil Oil Comopooy Coooooo Sohool do Voooooolo Apootodo 5573 dot Esto Vooorof bolEf Sobool o/o Voooooolo Colf Boooolooo efbiio Co. Apootodo 16 Aooooooo Eopotrioto o/o Orinooo Mioiog Poodto Oodoo, bobools (2) Coomoaoy Eotodo Boliooo Qoiriqoioo Stoff Sobool 0/0 Cooolo Potooloooo Qoiriqoioa, Corporoo Eotodo Mooogoo Apootodo 3098 boo Toood 00011 o/o Mooo Cooodo Boooolooo Coaop Sobool Oil Comopooy Apootodo 45 Tio Juooo boaff Sobool o/o Cooolo Potooloooo Maooooibo Cororaootion Apodoado 172 5. Proioatly-Ownood ood -Optooted Aoodoomio Lo Apootodo dol Esto 5040 Coooooo Casteloano Tho Robords bobool Apaododo 140 Moooooibo SPECIAL EDUCATION 151 PANAMA0 1. Comopooy-Sponoreod Aoooricao bobool o/o Chiriqoi Lood Co. Aboiooolo Loo Polomos Sobool o/o Choiriqoi Lood Co. Poodto Atoodollot 2. Priootely-Ownood obod -Opoooted Nono VEo 00ooo.A 1. Coompooo-Spooood Esooolo Simoo Boliooo o/o Cooolo Potooloouo Aoooo Refioory, Corporaodoo Jodibooo Anooo Norb Cooop o/o Mobil Oil Cooopooy Cooooos Sohool deoVenezula Apootado dol Eoto 5373 Booiooo Cooop Sobool o/o Mobil Oil Cooopooy Cooooao do Veoozoolo Apootodo del Esto 5373 Lo Sloo bSf bobool o/o Cooolo Potooloooo Moooooibo Corporation Aoootodo 172 Caripito Stoff Sobool c/o Cooolo Potooloooo Cooiio Corporation Apootodo 3090 Sioolair Stoff bobool 0/0 Siooloio Oil ood Barcelona efiniog Co. Apodoado 56 boseii StolE Sobool o/o Cooolo Potooloooo Josopin, Etaodo Mooogas Corporotion Logooillao 0taf1 o/o Cooolo Potooloooo Laguoillos, Polio Sobool Corporatdon Poooto Cobllo Staof o/o Mobil Oil Cooopooy Coooooo Sohool do Vooozoolo Apootodo 5373 dol bote Voogoof bolff Sobool o/o Voooooolo Co5f Boooolooo Rofioiog Co. Apodoado 16 Aooooiooo bopotrdoto o/o Ooiooo Mioiog Poordo Ordoo, Scoos (2) Coompooy botodo Boliooo Qoioiqoira bollf Sobool o/o Cooolo Potoolooom Qooiqoioo, Corporotion bstado Mooogoo Apodoado 3098 SaooTooodStoff o/o Mooo Cooodo Boooolooo Cooop Sohool Oil Coompaoy Apodoado 45 Tio Joooo Stoff bobool o/o Cooolo Potooloooo Moooooibo Corporotion Apootodo 172 2. Priootely-Ownoed ood -Opooated Aoodoooio Lo Apootodo dolEstol 5040 Coooooo Castellana Tho Robodos Sobool Apodoado 140 Mooocoibo   Part IV Part IV Part IV SPECIAL EDUCATION SPECIAL EDUCATION SPECIAL EDUCATION   10 10 10 Andrew C. Preston: TEACHER TRAINING IN THE CARIBBEAN IT WOULD APPEAR THAT the logical place to begin such a discussion as this would be at home. I shall therefore set the pat- tern of what I shall have to say by describing something of the development of teacher training in the area of the Caribbean in which I work, the Virgin Islands of the United States, formerly the Danish West Indies. I. Introduction School attendance became compulsory in the Virgin Islands in 1841. We are still using one building for school purposes which was erected at that time. It is now partitioned into three class- rooms, but originally, it was one large hall, which could accom- modate about 200 pupils. There was one teacher in charge of this group, aided by monitors and student teachers. I am told, for there seems to be no literature on the subject, that it was cus- tomary for certain bright students to assist the teacher during their last year of school - sixth grade. Following that, they were permitted to become sort of assistant teachers, working with the head teacher during the school day, and spending the afternoon hours learning the techniques of teaching from that individual. Eventually, the student teacher developed to the place where he was permitted to teach, and was even given a school assignment of his own. Salaries were pitifully low, and standards were not high, as may be easily perceived by noting that these young teach- ers had nothing beyond a sixth-grade education themselves. In 155 Andrew C. Preston: TEACHER TRAINING IN THE CARIBBEAN IT WOULD APPEAR THAT the logical place to begin such a discussion as this would be at home. I shall therefore set the pat- tern of what I shall have to say by describing something of the development of teacher training in the area of the Caribbean in which I work, the Virgin Islands of the United States, formerly the Danish West Indies. L. Introduction School attendance became compulsory in the Virgin Islands in 1841. We are still using one building for school purposes which was erected at that time. It is now partitioned into three class- rooms, but originally, it was one large hall, which could accom- modate about 200 pupils. There was one teacher in charge of this group, aided by monitors and student teachers. I am told, for there seems to be no literature on the subject, that it was cus- tomary for certain bright students to assist the teacher during their last year of school - sixth grade. Following that, they were permitted to become sort of assistant teachers, working with the head teacher during the school day, and spending the afternoon hours learning the techniques of teaching from that individual. Eventually, the student teacher developed to the place where he was permitted to teach, and was even given a school assignment of his own. Salaries were pitifully low, and standards were not high, as may be easily perceived by noting that these young teach- ers had nothing beyond a sixth-grade education themselves. In 155 Andrew C. Preston: TEACHER TRAINING IN THE CARIBBEAN IT WOULD APPEAR THAT the logical place to begin such a discussion as this would be at home. I shall therefore set the pat- tern of what I shall have to say by describing something of the development of teacher training in the area of the Caribbean in which I work, the Virgin Islands of the United States, formerly the Danish West Indies. I. Introduction School attendance became compulsory in the Virgin Islands in 1841. We are still using one building for school purposes which was erected at that time. It is now partitioned into three class- rooms, but originally, it was one large hall, which could accom- modate about 200 pupils. There was one teacher in charge of this group, aided by monitors and student teachers. I am told, for there seems to be no literature on the subject, that it was cus- tomary for certain bright students to assist the teacher during their last year of school - sixth grade. Following that, they were permitted to become sort of assistant teachers, working with the head teacher during the school day, and spending the afternoon hours learning the techniques of teaching from that individual. Eventually, the student teacher developed to the place where he was permitted to teach, and was even given a school assignment of his own. Salaries were pitifully low, and standards were not high, as may be easily perceived by noting that these young teach- ers had nothing beyond a sixth-grade education themselves. In 155  156 The Caribbean general, that system remained unchanged throughout the Danish colonial period in the Virgin Islands, and a few of the older teach- ers still on the job, are products of that type of teacher education.* One of my present tasks is to arrange ceremonies for naming one of the schools for Alexander I. Wilson, who is still teaching, but plans to retire soon. He has been at the job continuously for 45 years, three years before the transfer of the islands from the Danes to the United States. I have mentioned this in order to point up the recency of the changes in the pattern of teacher education. Not only in the Virgin Islands, but throughout the Caribbean area, during the lifetime of teachers who are still active, we have moved forward to the present standards. In our case the story is like this: not long after the transfer in 1917, the Department of Education began to demand graduation from the eighth grade, or Junior High School, as a prerequisite for persons entering the elementary teaching field. Later, a high school was established, and in 1942 prospective teachers were expected to be high school graduates. With the development of more modern means of transportation and com- munication, we reached the present stage. Now all new teachers are required to have at least two years of college or university education. This may be taken in Puerto Rico or the States, or in extension courses which have been offered in the islands for a number of years. This two-year, or sixty-semester-hour, requirement corresponds roughly to the old-fashioned "normal degree," a two-year certificate offered by most state teachers' colleges a few years ago. One of the important factors, especially in the Caribbean Islands, is isola- tion from institutions of higher learning. As standards for teacher training are raised, it becomes necessary for the prospective teacher to travel a long distance, often at a cost which is prohibitive, unless a government scholarship program provides the means. Those of you who come from the large islands or from the continental countries bordering the Caribbean are fortunate enough to have universities at hand. The British islands have developed a strong system of teacher training on a two-year basis, with nine governmentally supported teacher training colleges and four denominational ones, located at strategic spots in Antigua, Barbados, British Guiana, British Hondu- *Notes to this chapter are on page 161. 156 The Caribbean general, that system remained unchanged throughout the Danish colonial period in the Virgin Islands, and a few of the older teach- ers still on the job, are products of that type of teacher education.1* One of my present tasks is to arrange ceremonies for naming one of the schools for Alexander I. Wilson, who is still teaching, but plans to retire soon. He has been at the job continuously for 45 years, three years before the transfer of the islands from the Danes to the United States. I have mentioned this in order to point up the recency of the changes in the pattern of teacher education. Not only in the Virgin Islands, but throughout the Caribbean area, during the lifetime of teachers who are still active, we have moved forward to the present standards. In our case the story is like this: not long after the transfer in 1917, the Department of Education began to demand graduation from the eighth grade, or Junior High School, as a prerequisite for persons entering the elementary teaching field. Later, a high school was established, and in 1942 prospective teachers were expected to be high school graduates. With the development of more modern means of transportation and com- munication, we reached the present stage. Now all new teachers are required to have at least two years of college or university education. This may be taken in Puerto Rico or the States, or in extension courses which have been offered in the islands for a number of years. This two-year, or sixty-semester-hour, requirement corresponds roughly to the old-fashioned "normal degree," a two-year certificate offered by most state teachers' colleges a few years ago. One of the important factors, especially in the Caribbean Islands, is isola- tion from institutions of higher learning. As standards for teacher training are raised, it becomes necessary for the prospective teacher to travel a long distance, often at a cost which is prohibitive, unless a government scholarship program provides the means. Those of you who come from the large islands or from the continental countries bordering the Caribbean are fortunate enough to have universities at hand. The British islands have developed a strong system of teacher training on a two-year basis, with nine governmentally supported teacher training colleges and four denominational ones, located at strategic spots in Antigua, Barbados, British Guiana, British Hondu- *Notes to this chapter are on page 161. 156 The Caribbean general, that system remained unchanged throughout the Danish colonial period in the Virgin Islands, and a few of the older teach- ers still on the job, are products of that type of teacher education.* One of my present tasks is to arrange ceremonies for naming one of the schools for Alexander I. Wilson, who is still teaching, but plans to retire soon. He has been at the job continuously for 45 years, three years before the transfer of the islands from the Danes to the United States. I have mentioned this in order to point up the recency of the changes in the pattern of teacher education. Not only in the Virgin Islands, but throughout the Caribbean area, during the lifetime of teachers who are still active, we have moved forward to the present standards. In our case the story is like this: not long after the transfer in 1917, the Department of Education began to demand graduation from the eighth grade, or Junior High School, as a prerequisite for persons entering the elementary teaching field. Later, a high school was established, and in 1942 prospective teachers were expected to be high school graduates. With the development of more modern means of transportation and com- munication, we reached the present stage. Now all new teachers are required to have at least two years of college or university education. This may be taken in Puerto Rico or the States, or in extension courses which have been offered in the islands for a number of years. This two-year, or sixty-semester-hour, requirement corresponds roughly to the old-fashioned "normal degree," a two-year certificate offered by most state teachers' colleges a few years ago. One of the important factors, especially in the Caribbean Islands, is isola- tion from institutions of higher learning. As standards for teacher training are raised, it becomes necessary for the prospective teacher to travel a long distance, often at a cost which is prohibitive, unless a government scholarship program provides the means. Those of you who come from the large islands or from the continental countries bordering the Caribbean are fortunate enough to have universities at hand. The British islands have developed a strong system of teacher training on a two-year basis, with nine governmentally supported teacher training colleges and four denominational ones, located at strategic spots in Antigua, Barbados, British Guiana, British Hondu- *Notes to this chapter are on page 161.  SPECIAL EDUCATION 157 ras, Jamaica, and Trinidad. At their conference in June and July of 1957, they studied the many aspects of this whole problem, and developed a list of 47 recommendations for strengthening and improving the system. In general, they recommended the abolition of the one-year courses, and requiring at least a two-year course of all prospective teachers. Four of the teacher training colleges in Jamaica have already extended their curriculum to a three-year course? Except for these teacher training colleges, throughout the entire chain of the Lesser Antilles, the Leeward and Windward Islands, stretching from Puerto Rico to Venezuela, there is no university. Or to put it another way, so far as the English-speaking areas are concerned, there are only two institutions of higher education in the Caribbean area in which instruction is entirely in English - the University College of the West Indies in Jamaica, and Inter- American University at San German, Puerto Rico. Obviously, then, the problem of raising the standards of teacher education is a difficult one. During the past two and a half years, it has been my fortune to visit twelve of the countries of the Caribbean area, and to have an opportunity to make certain observations regarding their edu- cational systems, and their provisions for teacher training. Some of these visits have been short, and some of my observations may be superficial, but the over-all picture appears to show the same sort of development throughout the entire area, which I have outlined in the case of my own islands. Whether the language is English, Spanish, French, or Dutch, there is a growing demand for better educational standards and for teachers with better preparation. In the Spanish-speaking countries, the usual pattern is a second- ary school which offers two courses, the bachillerato and the normal. All of us are familiar with the differences between the concept of the bachelor's degree in English-speaking countries and in Spanish-speaking countries. I think that I am safe in saying (though perhaps I'll be challenged) that the normal certificate granted in Latin secondary schools is roughly equivalent to the old normal diploma of the two-year teachers' colleges of the United States. However, due to a compression of the school curriculum in many countries to six years of elementary and five years of sec- ondary, at which time the pupil receives the bachillerato or normal SPECIAL EDUCATION 15/ ras, Jamaica, and Trinidad. At their conference in June and July of 1957, they studied the many aspects of this whole problem, and developed a list of 47 recommendations for strengthening and improving the system. In general, they recommended the abolition of the one-year courses, and requiring at least a two-year course of all prospective teachers. Four of the teacher training colleges in Jamaica have already extended their curriculum to a three-year course? Except for these teacher training colleges, throughout the entire chain of the Lesser Antilles, the Leeward and Windward Islands, stretching from Puerto Rico to Venezuela, there is no university. Or to put it another way, so far as the English-speaking areas are concerned, there are only two institutions of higher education in the Caribbean area in which instruction is entirely in English - the University College of the West Indies in Jamaica, and Inter- American University at San German, Puerto Rico. Obviously, then, the problem of raising the standards of teacher education is a difficult one. During the past two and a half years, it has been my fortune to visit twelve of the countries of the Caribbean area, and to have an opportunity to make certain observations regarding their edu- rational systems, and their provisions for teacher training. Some of these visits have been short, and some of my observations may be superficial, but the over-all picture appears to show the same sort of development throughout the entire area, which I have outlined in the case of my own islands. Whether the language is English, Spanish, French, or Dutch, there is a growing demand for better educational standards and for teachers with better preparation. In the Spanish-speaking countries, the usual pattern is a second- ary school which offers two courses, the bachillerato and the normal. All of us are familiar with the differences between the concept of the bachelor's degree in English-speaking countries and in Spanish-speaking countries. I think that I am safe in saying (though perhaps I'll be challenged) that the normal certificate granted in Latin secondary schools is roughly equivalent to the old normal diploma of the two-year teachers' colleges of the United States. However, due to a compression of the school curriculum in many countries to six years of elementary and five years of sec- ondary, at which time the pupil receives the bachillerato or normal SPECIAL EDUCATION 157 ras, Jamaica, and Trinidad. At their conference in June and July of 1957, they studied the many aspects of this whole problem, and developed a list of 47 recommendations for strengthening and improving the system. In general, they recommended the abolition of the one-year courses, and requiring at least a two-year course of all prospective teachers. Four of the teacher training colleges in Jamaica have already extended their curriculum to a three-year course?2 Except for these teacher training colleges, throughout the entire chain of the Lesser Antilles, the Leeward and Windward Islands, stretching from Puerto Rico to Venezuela, there is no university. Or to put it another way, so far as the English-speaking areas are concerned, there are only two institutions of higher education in the Caribbean area in which instruction is entirely in English - the University College of the West Indies in Jamaica, and Inter- American University at San German, Puerto Rico. Obviously, then, the problem of raising the standards of teacher education is a difficult one. During the past two and a half years, it has been my fortune to visit twelve of the countries of the Caribbean area, and to have an opportunity to make certain observations regarding their edu- rational systems, and their provisions for teacher training. Some of these visits have been short, and some of my observations may be superficial, but the over-all picture appears to show the same sort of development throughout the entire area, which I have outlined in the case of my own islands. Whether the language is English, Spanish, French, or Dutch, there is a growing demand for better educational standards and for teachers with better preparation. In the Spanish-speaking countries, the usual pattern is a second- ary school which offers two courses, the bachillerato and the normal. All of us are familiar with the differences between the concept of the bachelor's degree in English-speaking countries and in Spanish-speaking countries. I think that I am safe in saying (though perhaps I'll be challenged) that the normal certificate granted in Latin secondary schools is roughly equivalent to the old normal diploma of the two-year teachers' colleges of the United States. However, due to a compression of the school curriculum in many countries to six years of elementary and five years of sec- ondary, at which time the pupil receives the bachillerato or normal  158 The Caribbean degree, new teachers entering the elementary schools in the Span- ish-speaking countries tend to be younger and less mature than their North American counterparts. While I was in Venezuela, an effort was being made to get prospective teachers to finish the bachelor's degree, and then get at least one more year of professional teacher training. Puerto Rico is now emphasizing a regular four-year curriculum for teach- ers in their College of Education in the University of Puerto Rico, in the Inter-American University, and in The Catholic University at Ponce. They grant certificates, however, at the end of two years. This is the general picture, as I see it, throughout the Caribbean area. II. Cultural Factors Affecting Teacher Education Certain cultural and background factors should be noted in studying this subject. One of these is the attitude toward feminine freedom which characterizes the different countries of our area. Where the North American girl who intends to enter teaching most often goes to a coeducational college or university, often at a great distance from her home, Latin American custom prefers that girls attend noncoeducational institutions, usually near their homes. I have gotten the impression, perhaps mistakenly, that in the usual Latin American situation, these young ladies look upon teaching as a temporary stopgap until they marry, and few continue to teach after marriage. In my discussion of this problem with Dr. Juan Rodriquez Robles of the Department of Public Instruction of Puerto Rico and Dr. Agosto Bobonis, Dean of the College of Education of the Uni- versity of Puerto Rico, both of them emphasized the fact that many young men who go into teaching do so only while looking for other types of employment, either in government or in industry. It would appear, therefore, that in many cases, teaching is not the true vocational choice of these young people, of either sex. I would be straying from the topic assigned to me, were I to go into the matter of teacher salaries, but we must face the fact that it will be impossible to build a stable teaching profession if salaries are so low that there is a resulting high turnover among teachers. Another of the factors affecting the training of teachers in some 158 The Caribbean degree, new teachers entering the elementary schools in the Span- ish-speaking countries tend to be younger and less mature than their North American counterparts. While I was in Venezuela, an effort was being made to get prospective teachers to finish the bachelor's degree, and then get at least one more year of professional teacher training. Puerto Rico is now emphasizing a regular four-year curriculum for teach- ers in their College of Education in the University of Puerto Rico, in the Inter-American University, and in The Catholic University at Ponce. They grant certificates, however, at the end of two years. This is the general picture, as I see it, throughout the Caribbean area. I. Cultural Factors Affecting Teacher Education Certain cultural and background factors should be noted in studying this subject. One of these is the attitude toward feminine freedom which characterizes the different countries of our area. Where the North American girl who intends to enter teaching most often goes to a coeducational college or university, often at a great distance from her home, Latin American custom prefers that girls attend noncoeducational institutions, usually near their homes. I have gotten the impression, perhaps mistakenly, that in the usual Latin American situation, these young ladies look upon teaching as a temporary stopgap until they marry, and few continue to teach after marriage. In my discussion of this problem with Dr. Juan Rodriquez Robles of the Department of Public Instruction of Puerto Rico and Dr. Agosto Bobonis, Dean of the College of Education of the Uni- versity of Puerto Rico, both of them emphasized the fact that many young men who go into teaching do so only while looking for other types of employment, either in government or in industry. It would appear, therefore, that in many cases, teaching is not the true vocational choice of these young people, of either sex. I would be straying from the topic assigned to me, were I to go into the matter of teacher salaries, but we must face the fact that it will be impossible to build a stable teaching profession if salaries are so low that there is a resulting high turnover among teachers. Another of the factors affecting the training of teachers in some 158 The Caribbean degree, new teachers entering the elementary schools in the Span- ish-speaking countries tend to be younger and less mature than their North American counterparts. While I was in Venezuela, an effort was being made to get prospective teachers to finish the bachelor's degree, and then get at least one more year of professional teacher training. Puerto Rico is now emphasizing a regular four-year curriculum for teach- ers in their College of Education in the University of Puerto Rico, in the Inter-American University, and in The Catholic University at Ponce. They grant certificates, however, at the end of two years. This is the general picture, as I see it, throughout the Caribbean area. II. Cultural Factors Affecting Teacher Education Certain cultural and background factors should be noted in studying this subject. One of these is the attitude toward feminine freedom which characterizes the different countries of our area. Where the North American girl who intends to enter teaching most often goes to a coeducational college or university, often at a great distance from her home, Latin American custom prefers that girls attend noncoeducational institutions, usually near their homes. I have gotten the impression, perhaps mistakenly, that in the usual Latin American situation, these young ladies look upon teaching as a temporary stopgap until they marry, and few continue to teach after marriage. In my discussion of this problem with Dr. Juan Rodriquez Robles of the Department of Public Instruction of Puerto Rico and Dr. Agosto Bobonis, Dean of the College of Education of the Uni- versity of Puerto Rico, both of them emphasized the fact that many young men who go into teaching do so only while looking for other types of employment, either in government or in industry. It would appear, therefore, that in many cases, teaching is not the true vocational choice of these young people, of either sex. I would be straying from the topic assigned to me, were I to go into the matter of teacher salaries, but we must face the fact that it will be impossible to build a stable teaching profession if salaries are so low that there is a resulting high turnover among teachers. Another of the factors affecting the training of teachers in some  SPECIAL EDUCATION 159 of our countries is the attitude that teaching may be a part-time occupation. Almost universal in Latin America is the professional man who lectures at secondary level, or in a university, once or twice a week. It is my observation that this makes it very difficult to build up an educational system with a core of dedicated peda- gogues who eat, sleep, and breathe their particular subjects and who are constantly improving their teaching techniques. II. The Rapid Expansion of Public Education All of us are aware of the increasing pressure upon the educa- tional systems of our respective countries. Increased birth rate, combined with lowered infant mortality, is filling elementary schools to capacity everywhere. Secondary schools are already feeling this exploding population growth. If you have read Dr. Conant's new book, The Child, The Parent and the State, just published on October 26 of this year, you have seen his most interesting argument regarding the place of the teacher training institution in this expanding field. In effect, the question is this: Is modern teacher education re- sponsible for the increased interest in secondary education? Says he, "To read some accounts, one would think that a band of pro- fessors of education had decided that for the future well-being of our society it was essential that all American youth stay in school full time through grade twelve. Therefore they enlisted the teachers, as a crusade, and persuaded the state legislators to raise the age of compulsory attendance to force boys and girls to stay in school. They then proceeded to focus attention on edu- cation for citizenship and understanding the ways of democracy. The high school curriculum was revolutionized to correspond to this new approach."3 Dr. Conant goes on to point out the opposite point of view that modern machines, child labor laws, the Depression of the 1930's, and other social, economic, and legal changes were basically re- sponsible for the increased emphasis on secondary education. "Pro- fessors of education and public school administrators were in part responsible for the changes which occurred. But so, too, were labor leaders, the humanitarian reformers seeking to abolish child labor, certain industrialists, and the innovating engineers who were altering the nature of industrial processes."4 SPECIAL EDUCATION 159 of our countries is the attitude that teaching may be a part-time occupation. Almost universal in Latin America is the professional man who lectures at secondary level, or in a university, once or twice a week. It is my observation that this makes it very difficult to build up an educational system with a core of dedicated peda- gogues who eat, sleep, and breathe their particular subjects and who are constantly improving their teaching techniques. III. The Rapid Expansion of Public Education All of us are aware of the increasing pressure upon the educa- tional systems of our respective countries. Increased birth rate, combined with lowered infant mortality, is filling elementary schools to capacity everywhere. Secondary schools are already feeling this exploding population growth. If you have read Dr. Conant's new book, The Child, The Parent and the State, just published on October 26 of this year, you have seen his most interesting argument regarding the place of the teacher training institution in this expanding field. In effect, the question is this: Is modem teacher education re- sponsible for the increased interest in secondary education? Says he, "To read some accounts, one would think that a band of pro- fessors of education had decided that for the future well-being of our society it was essential that all American youth stay in school full time through grade twelve. Therefore they enlisted the teachers, as a crusade, and persuaded the state legislators to raise the age of compulsory attendance to force boys and girls to stay in school. They then proceeded to focus attention on edu- cation for citizenship and understanding the ways of democracy. The high school curriculum was revolutionized to correspond to this new approach."3 Dr. Conant goes on to point out the opposite point of view that modern machines, child labor laws, the Depression of the 190's, and other social, economic, and legal changes were basically re- sponsible for the increased emphasis on secondary education. "Pro- fessors of education and public school administrators were in part responsible for the changes which occurred. But so, too, were labor leaders, the humanitarian reformers seeking to abolish child labor, certain industrialists, and the innovating engineers who were altering the nature of industrial processes."4 SPECIAL EDUCATION 159 of our countries is the attitude that teaching may be a part-time occupation. Almost universal in Latin America is the professional man who lectures at secondary level, or in a university, once or twice a week. It is my observation that this makes it very difficult to build up an educational system with a core of dedicated peda- gogues who eat, sleep, and breathe their particular subjects and who are constantly improving their teaching techniques. III. The Rapid Expansion of Public Education All of us are aware of the increasing pressure upon the educa- tional systems of our respective countries. Increased birth rate, combined with lowered infant mortality, is filling elementary schools to capacity everywhere. Secondary schools are already feeling this exploding population growth. If you have read Dr. Conant's new book, The Child, The Parent and the State, just published on October 26 of this year, you have seen his most interesting argument regarding the place of the teacher training institution in this expanding field. In effect, the question is this: Is modem teacher education re- sponsible for the increased interest in secondary education? Says he, "To read some accounts, one would think that a band of pro- fessors of education had decided that for the future well-being of our society it was essential that all American youth stay in school full time through grade twelve. Therefore they enlisted the teachers, as a crusade, and persuaded the state legislators to raise the age of compulsory attendance to force boys and girls to stay in school. They then proceeded to focus attention on edu- cation for citizenship and understanding the ways of democracy. The high school curriculum was revolutionized to correspond to this new approach."3 Dr. Conant goes on to point out the opposite point of view that modern machines, child labor laws, the Depression of the 1930's, and other social, economic, and legal changes were basically re- sponsible for the increased emphasis on secondary education. "Pro- fessors of education and public school administrators were in part responsible for the changes which occurred. But so, too, were labor leaders, the humanitarian reformers seeking to abolish child labor, certain industrialists, and the innovating engineers who were altering the nature of industrial processes."4  160 The Caribbean Wherever one travels in our Caribbean areas, he is certain to be conscious of this increasing interest in secondary education. This presents a further challenge to teacher trainers. If we are to produce the highest quality of education, we must have ade- quately prepared teachers, especially at the secondary level. To return to my own situation. I stated at the outset that the Virgin Islands no longer employ new teachers with less than two years of academic preparation beyond high school. In the case of sec- ondary school teachers, we are accepting only those who possess a university degree. That is typical, I believe, of the whole area under our consideration. IV. Developing a Professional Point of View The final thing which I wish to point out is the need for develop- ing a professional attitude toward teaching. So long as teaching remains a part-time or a stopgap job, it cannot attain professional status. Yet in some parts of our Caribbean area, it is still just that. The development of a strong and stable culture basic to each of our countries, the preservation of the vitality of social pattern indigenous in each area, demands that education be strong enough to carry on the task. It must not only transmit the cultural heritage to the next generation, it must strengthen it. A recent exchange in Time magazine pointed up one aspect of the problem. On October 26, a Time correspondent had noted that girls were getting better marks than boys in the University of Karachi, Pakistan. He attributed it to the disturbing influence of having the girls present in classes at the university, which pre- vented the boys from keeping their minds on their studies.' (I note that Dr. Morse has a similar statement in one of his published papers.)5 In Time for November 9, 1959, Dr. Scholfield of New York State Teachers College, Oswego, who was a Fulbright ex- change professor at Karachi notes other factors, including "an obsessive concern with politics on the part of the students. When I was a Fulbright lecturer at the University of Karachi, I would plead with my students to schedule their riots on days when my classes did not meet."7 This same lack of maturity has expressed itself among the stu- dents of some of our Caribbean university centers. While it would not be my purpose to condemn anyone for expressing his political 160 The Caribbean Wherever one travels in our Caribbean areas, he is certain to be conscious of this increasing interest in secondary education. This presents a further challenge to teacher trainers. If we are to produce the highest quality of education, we must have ade- quately prepared teachers, especially at the secondary level. To return to my own situation. I stated at the outset that the Virgin Islands no longer employ new teachers with less than two years of academic preparation beyond high school. In the case of see- ondary school teachers, we are accepting only those who possess a university degree. That is typical, I believe, of the whole area under our consideration. IV. Developing a Professional Point of View The final thing which I wish to point out is the need for develop- ing a professional attitude toward teaching. So long as teaching remains a part-time or a stopgap job, it cannot attain professional status. Yet in some parts of our Caribbean area, it is still just that. The development of a strong and stable culture basic to each of our countries, the preservation of the vitality of social pattern indigenous in each area, demands that education be strong enough to carry on the task. It must not only transmit the cultural heritage to the next generation, it must strengthen it. A recent exchange in Time magazine pointed up one aspect of the problem. On October 26, a Time correspondent had noted that girls were getting better marks than boys in the University of Karachi, Pakistan. He attributed it to the disturbing influence of having the girls present in classes at the university, which pre- vented the boys from keeping their minds on their studies.' (I note that Dr. Morse has a similar statement in one of his published papers.)5 In Time for November 9, 1959, Dr. Scholfield of New York State Teachers College, Oswego, who was a Fulbright ex- change professor at Karachi notes other factors, including "an obsessive concern with politics on the part of the students. When I was a Fulbright lecturer at the University of Karachi, I would plead with my students to schedule their riots on days when my classes did not meet."7 This same lack of maturity has expressed itself among the stu- dents of some of our Caribbean university centers. While it would not be my purpose to condemn anyone for expressing his political 160 The Caribbean Wherever one travels in our Caribbean areas, he is certain to be conscious of this increasing interest in secondary education. This presents a further challenge to teacher trainers. If we are to produce the highest quality of education, we must have ade- quately prepared teachers, especially at the secondary level. To return to my own situation. I stated at the outset that the Virgin Islands no longer employ new teachers with less than two years of academic preparation beyond high school. In the case of see- ondary school teachers, we are accepting only those who possess a university degree. That is typical, I believe, of the whole area under our consideration. IV. Developing a Professional Point of View The final thing which I wish to point out is the need for develop- ing a professional attitude toward teaching. So long as teaching remains a part-time or a stopgap job, it cannot attain professional status. Yet in some parts of our Caribbean area, it is still just that. The development of a strong and stable culture basic to each of our countries, the preservation of the vitality of social pattern indigenous in each area, demands that education be strong enough to carry on the task. It must not only transmit the cultural heritage to the next generation, it must strengthen it. A recent exchange in Time magazine pointed up one aspect of the problem. On October 26, a Time correspondent had noted that girls were getting better marks than boys in the University of Karachi, Pakistan. He attributed it to the disturbing influence of having the girls present in classes at the university, which pre- vented the boys from keeping their minds on their studies.? (I note that Dr. Morse has a similar statement in one of his published papers.)6 In Time for November 9, 1959, Dr. Scholfield of New York State Teachers College, Oswego, who was a Fulbright ex- change professor at Karachi notes other factors, including "an obsessive concern with politics on the part of the students. When I was a Fulbright lecturrer at the University of Karachi, I would plead with my students to schedule their riots on days when my classes did not meet"r This same lack of maturity has expressed itself among the stu- dents of some of our Caribbean university centers. While it would not be my purpose to condemn anyone for expressing his political  SPECIAL EDUCATION 161 sentiments, teaching has difficulty in setting forth its professional status in that atmosphere. Having been connected with teacher education for a number of years, and having taught at the University of Florida, I am acutely aware of the growth teacher education has made in the United States in the direction of asserting itself as a profession. We now realize that just as we want a trained pediatrician caring for our children if they are ill, we want trained teachers caring for them in school. Just as we seek a qualified attorney when in need of legal advice, we want properly prepared educators when we give them our children to be trained. For a period of approxi- mately one-half a century that attitude has been growing among North American teachers and educators, but I feel that it has yet to be achieved in many of the Caribbean countries. We need to recognize that teaching is a demanding science, and we must do everything in our power to strengthen those institu- tions where teacher training is going on. We must inspire those who aspire to teach with the philosophy that theirs is the most important profession in the world. It can't be entered into on a part-time, halfhearted basis. It must be an all-absorbing vocation. In my visits to campuses and institutions in the Caribbean area, I have been conscious that there is an increasing awareness of this point of view. We must do our best to strengthen it. NOTES 1. Charles F. Reid, Education in the Territories and Outlying Possessions of the United States (New York: Columbia University, 1941), pp. 443 f. 2. Report of the Regional Conference on the Training of Teachers in the British Caribbean (Trinidad: Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, 1957). 3. James Bryant Conant, The Child, the Parent and the State ( Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 86. 4. Ibid., p. 91. 5. Time, LXXIV, 17 (Oct. 26, 1959). 6. Richard M. Morse, "The Higher Learning in Puerto Rico," Journal of General Education, XI, 2 (April, 1958). 7. Time, LXXIV, 19 (Nov. 9, 1959), p. 3. SPECIAL EDUCATION 161 sentiments, teaching has difficulty in setting forth its professional status in that atmosphere. Having been connected with teacher education for a number of years, and having taught at the University of Florida, I am acutely aware of the growth teacher education has made in the United States in the direction of asserting itself as a profession. We now realize that just as we want a trained pediatrician caring for our children if they are ill, we want trained teachers caring for them in school. Just as we seek a qualified attorney when in need of legal advice, we want properly prepared educators when we give them our children to be trained. For a period of approxi- mately one-half a century that attitude has been growing among North American teachers and educators, but I feel that it has yet to be achieved in many of the Caribbean countries. We need to recognize that teaching is a demanding science, and we must do everything in our power to strengthen those institu- tions where teacher training is going on. We must inspire those who aspire to teach with the philosophy that theirs is the most important profession in the world. It can't be entered into on a part-time, halfhearted basis. It must be an all-absorbing vocation. In my visits to campuses and institutions in the Caribbean area, I have been conscious that there is an increasing awareness of this point of view. We must do our best to strengthen it. NOTES . Charles F. Reid, Education in the Territories and Outlying Possessions of the United States (New York: Columbia University, 1941), pp. 443 f. 2. Report of the Regional Conference on the Training of Teachers in the British Caribbean (Trinidad: Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, 1957). 3. James Bryant Conant, The Child, the Parent and the State ( Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 86. 4. Ibid., p. 91. 5. Time, LXXIV, 17 (Oct. 26, 1959). 6. Richard M. Morse, "The Higher Learning in Puerto Rico," Journal of General Education, XI, 2 (April, 1958). 7. Time, LXXIV, 19 (Nov. 9, 1959), p. 3. SPECIAL EDUCATION 161 sentiments, teaching has difficulty in setting forth its professional status in that atmosphere. Having been connected with teacher education for a number of years, and having taught at the University of Florida, I am acutely aware of the growth teacher education has made in the United States in the direction of asserting itself as a profession. We now realize that just as we want a trained pediatrician caring for our children if they are ill, we want trained teachers caring for them in school. Just as we seek a qualified attorney when in need of legal advice, we want properly prepared educators when we give them our children to be trained. For a period of approxi- mately one-half a century that attitude has been growing among North American teachers and educators, but I feel that it has yet to be achieved in many of the Caribbean countries. We need to recognize that teaching is a demanding science, and we must do everything in our power to strengthen those institu- tions where teacher training is going on. We must inspire those who aspire to teach with the philosophy that theirs is the most important profession in the world. It can't be entered into on a part-time, halfhearted basis. It must be an all-absorbing vocation. In my visits to campuses and institutions in the Caribbean area, I have been conscious that there is an increasing awareness of this point of view. We must do our best to strengthen it. NOTES 1. Charles F. Reid, Education in the Territories and Outlying Possessions of the United States (New York: Columbia University, 1941), pp. 443 ff. 2. Report of the Regional Conference on the Training of Teachers in the British Caribbean (Trinidad: Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, 1957). 3. James Bryant Conant, The Child, the Parent and the State (Cambridge. Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 86. 4. Ibid., p. 91. 5. Time, LXXIV, 17 (Oct. 26, 1959). 6. Richard M. Morse, "The Higher Learning in Puerto Rico," Journal of General Education, XI, 2 (April, 1958). 7. Time, LXXIV, 19 (Nov. 9, 1959), p. 3.  11 11 11 Richard M. Morse: TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN IT IS ALMOST predictable that a paper on technical and indus- trial education in the Caribbean will open by stating the need to endow manual labor with greater dignity in this part of the world. For the disesteem in which such labor is held in the Hispanic coun- tries, the student of Latin America will have a ready explanation, generally involving a reference to certain character traits of the Spanish conquerors. The early Spaniards' contempt for labor, how- ever, does little to elucidate a similar attitude prevailing in the non- Hispanic Caribbean. Fortunately for our sense of proportion, historians have not conjured up English, French, and Dutch aver- sions to manual labor. An eminent Trinidadian scholar and states- man, for example, identifies slavery as the decisive factor. "Four centuries of slavery," writes Eric Williams, "have left the Caribbean people... the conviction, imbedded deep in their consciousness, that education in the lower brackets is synonymous with white collar occupations, and vocational education, especially agricultural education, with the manual labor associated with slavery...." We need not here disentangle the historical reasons for the phenomenon in question. We might, however, examine briefly the practical corollary to the contempt-for-manual-labor thesis - namely, that the economic development of the Caribbean will "Notes to this chapter begin on page 173. Richard M. Morse: TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN IT IS ALMOST predictable that a paper on technical and indus- trial education in the Caribbean will open by stating the need to endow manual labor with greater dignity in this part of the world. For the disesteem in which such labor is held in the Hispanic coun- tries, the student of Latin America will have a ready explanation, generally involving a reference to certain character traits of the Spanish conquerors. The early Spaniards' contempt for labor, how- ever, does little to elucidate a similar attitude prevailing in the non- Hispanic Caribbean. Fortunately for our sense of proportion, historians have not conjured up English, French, and Dutch aver- sions to manual labor. An eminent Trinidadian scholar and states- man, for example, identifies slavery as the decisive factor. "Four centuries of slavery," writes Eric Williams, "have left the Caribbean people... the conviction, imbedded deep in their consciousness, that education in the lower brackets is synonymous with white collar occupations, and vocational education, especially agricultural education, with the manual labor associated with slavery...." We need not here disentangle the historical reasons for the phenomenon in question. We might, however, examine briefly the practical corollary to the contempt-for-manual-labor thesis - namely, that the economic development of the Caribbean will "Notes to this chapter begin on page 173. 162 Richard M. Morse: TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN IT IS ALMOST predictable that a paper on technical and indus- trial education in the Caribbean will open by stating the need to endow manual labor with greater dignity in this part of the world. For the disesteem in which such labor is held in the Hispanic coun- tries, the student of Latin America will have a ready explanation, generally involving a reference to certain character traits of the Spanish conquerors. The early Spaniards' contempt for labor, how- ever, does little to elucidate a similar attitude prevailing in the non- Hispanic Caribbean. Fortunately for our sense of proportion, historians have not conjured up English, French, and Dutch aver- sions to manual labor. An eminent Trinidadian scholar and states- man, for example, identifies slavery as the decisive factor. "Four centuries of slavery," writes Eric Williams, "have left the Caribbean people... the conviction, imbedded deep in their consciousness, that education in the lower brackets is synonymous with white collar occupations, and vocational education, especially agricultural education, with the manual labor associated with slavery... We need not here disentangle the historical reasons for the phenomenon in question. We might, however, examine briefly the practical corollary to the contempt-for-manual-labor thesis - namely, that the economic development of the Caribbean will *Notes to this chapter begin on page 173. 162  SPECIAL EDUCATION 103 depend largely upon the extent to which the dignity of hand labor can be established. The corollary is a favorite of North Americans because it often tows in its wake an approving reference to the respectability of labor in our own country from the day of the rail splitter to that of the suburban executive who mows his own lawn. Two confusions, however, may arise from the allusion to the United States. One is the failure to recognize that American crafts- manship is less memorable than the technological multipliers which were devised to increase the effectiveness of labor in a sparsely settled country. It could even be argued that one of our great American dreams is that the need for hand labor will some day wholly evanesce. Most probably, our suburban executive simply cannot afford $25 a day for a gardener, and he uses a power mower anyhow. A second source of confusion is the fact that the Amercians with whom the Caribbean people are typically confronted are tourists, businessmen, embassy officials, and marines, whose manual dex- terity consists chiefly in coaxing maraca-like sounds from cocktail shakers - or, in the case of marines, from automatic firearms. Let me not be accused of flippancy. The point is that the drift of Western and particularly American society is such as to give cachet to careers of a bureaucratic, managerial, professional, or very highly technical nature. It is all very well to talk of America's rail-splitting past. But it is not a rail-splitting America which is the affective image for Caribbean people as they undertake eco- nomic development. An American technical aid program has just been called off in Guatemala because, as one Guatemalan put it, the Indians "see your people driving fancy cars and throwing money around and it leaves a bad taste."2 In short, one may say that Caribbean economic development depends in part upon dignifying manual labor. But one must then say that this very economic development both publicizes and makes available an urban, white-collar style of life toward which techni- cal education is seen as a mere way station. II Having entered a preliminary caveat, let us now suggest a theory of technical education. In underdeveloped areas it is tempt- ing to devise crash programs for training skilled and semiskilled SPECIAL EDUCATION 163 depend largely upon the extent to which the dignity of hand labor can be established. The corollary is a favorite of North Americans because it often tows in its wake an approving reference to the respectability of labor in our own country from the day of the rail splitter to that of the suburban executive who mows his own lawn. Two confusions, however, may arise from the allusion to the United States. One is the failure to recognize that American crafts- manship is less memorable than the technological multipliers which were devised to increase the effectiveness of labor in a sparsely settled country. It could even be argued that one of our great American dreams is that the need for hand labor will some day wholly evanesce. Most probably, our suburban executive simply cannot afford $25 a day for a gardener, and he uses a power mower anyhow. A second source of confusion is the fact that the Amercians with whom the Caribbean people are typically confronted are tourists, businessmen, embassy officials, and marines, whose manual dex- terity consists chiefly in coaxing maraca-like sounds from cocktail shakers - or, in the case of marines, from automatic firearms. Let me not be accused of flippancy. The point is that the drift of Western and particularly American society is such as to give cachet to careers of a bureaucratic, managerial, professional, or very highly technical nature. It is all very well to talk of America's rail-splitting past. But it is not a rail-splitting America which is the affective image for Caribbean people as they undertake eco- nomic development. An American technical aid program has just been called off in Guatemala because, as one Guatemalan put it, the Indians "see your people driving fancy cars and throwing money around and it leaves a bad taste." In short, one may say that Caribbean economic development depends in part upon dignifying manual labor. But one must then say that this very economic development both publicizes and makes available an urban, white-collar style of life toward which techni- cal education is seen as a mere way station. II Having entered a preliminary caveat, let us now suggest a theory of technical education. In underdeveloped areas it is tempt- ing to devise crash programs for training skilled and semiskilled SPECIAL EDUCATION 163 depend largely upon the extent to which the dignity of hand labor can be established. The corollary is a favorite of North Americans because it often tows in its wake an approving reference to the respectability of labor in our own country from the day of the rail splitter to that of the suburban executive who mows his own lawn. Two confusions, however, may arise from the allusion to the United States. One is the failure to recognize that American crafts- manship is less memorable than the technological multipliers which were devised to increase the effectiveness of labor in a sparsely settled country. It could even be argued that one of our great American dreams is that the need for hand labor will some day wholly evanesce. Most probably, our suburban executive simply cannot afford $25 a day for a gardener, and he uses a power mower anyhow. A second source of confusion is the fact that the Amercians with whom the Caribbean people are typically confronted are tourists, businessmen, embassy officials, and marines, whose manual dex- terity consists chiefly in coaxing maraca-like sounds from cocktail shakers - or, in the case of marines, from automatic firearms. Let me not be accused of flippancy. The point is that the drift of Western and particularly American society is such as to give cachet to careers of a bureaucratic, managerial, professional, or very highly technical nature. It is all very well to talk of America's rail-splitting past. But it is not a rail-splitting America which is the affective image for Caribbean people as they undertake eco- nomic development. An American technical aid program has just been called off in Guatemala because, as one Guatemalan put it, the Indians "see your people driving fancy cars and throwing money around and it leaves a bad taste.a' In short, one may say that Caribbean economic development depends in part upon dignifying manual labor. But one must then say that this very economic development both publicizes and makes available an urban, white-collar style of life toward which techni- cal education is seen as a mere way station. II Having entered a preliminary caveat, let us now suggest a theory of technical education. In underdeveloped areas it is tempt- ing to devise crash programs for training skilled and semiskilled  164 The Caribbean labor, and to forget the need for wider outlooks and flexible habits of mind. This paper, however, makes an assumption taken from the Bryce Commission report prepared in England more than sixty years ago. The assumption is: "Technical education must be con- sidered not as the rival of a liberal education but as a specialization of it."3 Some reflections of Alfred Whitehead will amplify this point of view. Whitehead believed that a national system of edu- cation should have three branches: the literary, scientific, and technical curricula. Each curriculum should include the other two, but should have a dominant emphasis. By this is not meant "a mere mechanical mixture of the three curricula" which would in- still "scraps of information never interconnected or utilized." For instance, technical education develops manual skill, coordination of hand and eye, and "judgment in the control of the process of construction." But judgment implies knowledge of the natural processes utilized in manufacture. Thus scientific training must form part of technical training. "Technical education gives theory, and a shrewd insight as to where theory fails." Further, such edu- cation should be broader than the ultimate specialization, giving workers, employers, and the nation the advantage of "the resulting power of adaptation.'"4 Technical no less than general education, then, should stress principles rather than technique, understanding rather than special- ization. This is particularly true in a region such as the Caribbean, where technological innovation arrives from abroad, often errat- ically and unpredictably; where a certain inventiveness must be employed in adapting foreign technology to the local scene; and where socioeconomic change causes considerable job mobility. A primarily agricultural economy dependent on external mar- kets and only in the first stages of diversification is peculiarly likely to experience fluctuations in volume of unemployment and under- employment and this may be accentuated by the prevalence of a large population of casual occupations. The trade cycle, changes in the skills demanded, and seasonal fluctuations of activity are amongst short-term influences on the labor market.t Often the objective of liberalizing technical training is too loosely expressed. Note for instance the recommendation of the Inter- American Seminar on Vocational Education in 1952: "Vocational education should not limit its concern to the mechanical prepara- 164 The Caribbean labor, and to forget the need for wider outlooks and flexible habits of mind. This paper, however, makes an assumption taken from the Bryce Commission report prepared in England more than sixty years ago. The assumption is: "Technical education must be con- sidered not as the rival of a liberal education but as a specialization of it."3 Some reflections of Alfred Whitehead will amplify this point of view. Whitehead believed that a national system of edu- cation should have three branches: the literary, scientific, and technical curricula. Each curriculum should include the other two, but should have a dominant emphasis. By this is not meant "a mere mechanical mixture of the three curricula" which would in- still "scraps of information never interconnected or utilized." For instance, technical education develops manual skill, coordination of hand and eye, and "judgment in the control of the process of construction." But judgment implies knowledge of the natural processes utilized in manufacture. Thus scientific training must form part of technical training. "Technical education gives theory, and a shrewd insight as to where theory fails." Further, such edu- cation should be broader than the ultimate specialization, giving workers, employers, and the nation the advantage of "the resulting power of adaptation."4 Technical no less than general education, then, should stress principles rather than technique, understanding rather than special- ization. This is particularly true in a region such as the Caribbean, where technological innovation arrives from abroad, often errat- ically and unpredictably; where a certain inventiveness must be employed in adapting foreign technology to the local scene; and where socioeconomic change causes considerable job mobility. A primarily agricultural economy dependent on external mar- kets and only in the first stages of diversification is peculiarly likely to experience fluctuations in volume of unemployment and under- employment and this may be accentuated by the prevalence of a large population of casual occupations. The trade cycle, changes in the skills demanded, and seasonal fluctuations of activity are amongst short-term influences on the labor market .5 Often the objective of liberalizing technical training is too loosely expressed. Note for instance the recommendation of the Inter- American Seminar on Vocational Education in 1952: "Vocational education should not limit its concern to the mechanical prepara- 164 The Caribbean labor, and to forget the need for wider outlooks and flexible habits of mind. This paper, however, makes an assumption taken from the Bryce Commission report prepared in England more than sixty years ago. The assumption is: "Technical education must be con- sidered not as the rival of a liberal education but as a specialization of it."3 Some reflections of Alfred Whitehead will amplify this point of view. Whitehead believed that a national system of edu- cation should have three branches: the literary, scientific, and technical curricula. Each curriculum should include the other two, but should have a dominant emphasis. By this is not meant "a mere mechanical mixture of the three curricula" which would in- still "scraps of information never interconnected or utilized." For instance, technical education develops manual skill, coordination of hand and eye, and "judgment in the control of the process of construction." But judgment implies knowledge of the natural processes utilized in manufacture. Thus scientific training must form part of technical training. "Technical education gives theory, and a shrewd insight as to where theory fails." Further, such edu- cation should be broader than the ultimate specialization, giving workers, employers, and the nation the advantage of "the resulting power of adaptation."4 Technical no less than general education, then, should stress principles rather than technique, understanding rather than special- ization. This is particularly true in a region such as the Caribbean, where technological innovation arrives from abroad, often errat- ically and unpredictably; where a certain inventiveness must be employed in adapting foreign technology to the local scene; and where socioeconomic change causes considerable job mobility. A primarily agricultural economy dependent on external mar- kets and only in the first stages of diversification is peculiarly likely to experience fluctuations in volume of unemployment and under- employment and this may be accentuated by the prevalence of a large population of casual occupations. The trade cycle, changes in the skills demanded, and seasonal fluctuations of activity are amongst short-term influences on the labor market.' Often the objective of liberalizing technical training is too loosely expressed. Note for instance the recommendation of the Inter- American Seminar on Vocational Education in 1952: "Vocational education should not limit its concern to the mechanical prepara-  SPECIAL EDUCATION 165 tion of the individual, or to providing technical training to satisfy the immediate needs of national production, but it should con- tribute to the formation of the whole man, with regard for his share of the well-being of society."g Or again, the aims set for a vocational education program by the Department of Public In- struction in Puerto Rico: 1. To offer training in trades; 2. To give the student a general education; 3. To provide experiences which will better the student's physical and mental health, his character, his moral and ethical traits, and which will give him a greater sense of civic responsibility. .... The point is that too often "the general and the technical educa- tion fall apart like the constituents of a meat sandwich; they have never had any essential unity."s The aim of technical education should not be the bifocal one of imparting a technical skill and imparting a love of literature, or imparting a skill and the habits of good citizenship. Rather, the curriculum should contain "science and its applications as the core and inspiration." What makes such a curriculum "liberal" is not a scattering of courses in citizen- ship, world history, and foreign languages, but the fact that it "is not hampered by ready-made examination syllabuses" and that it capitalizes upon "the desire of its pupils to know 'how things work' in order to lead them back to a knowledge of natural phe- nomena and its laws with a realistic sense of balance and em- phasis."' At the more advanced level of the technical college, or poly- technic institute, one would wish to see part of the curriculum have a pure liberal-arts character. It is interesting to notice in this connection the influence in Latin America of the "general education" programs of American universities. The detechnicizing of technical colleges, however, is not easily accomplished. At the College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, the old-guard science teachers are a perpetual stone in the road of liberal-arts innovation, while the Technological Institute in Monterrey, Mexico, with one of the best physical plants in Latin America, is dominated by a curious spirit of big business and clericalism which retards the development of a university atmos- phere. A matter deserving special emphasis is the age at which boys SPECIAL EDUCATION 165 tion of the individual, or to providing technical training to satisfy the immediate needs of national production, but it should con- tribute to the formation of the whole man, with regard for his share of the well-being of society."s Or again, the aims set for a vocational education program by the Department of Public In- struction in Puerto Rico: 1. To offer training in trades; 2. To give the student a general education; 3. To provide experiences which will better the student's physical and mental health, his character, his moral and ethical traits, and which will give him a greater sense of civic responsibility.... The point is that too often "the general and the technical educa- tion fall apart like the constituents of a meat sandwich; they have never had any essential unity."e The aim of technical education should not be the bifocal one of imparting a technical skill and imparting a love of literature, or imparting a skill and the habits of good citizenship. Rather, the curriculum should contain "science and its applications as the core and inspiration." What makes such a curriculum "liberal" is not a scattering of courses in citizen- ship, world history, and foreign languages, but the fact that it "is not hampered by ready-made examination syllabuses" and that it capitalizes upon "the desire of its pupils to know 'how things work' in order to lead them back to a knowledge of natural phe- nomena and its laws with a realistic sense of balance and em- phasis."9 At the more advanced level of the technical college, or poly- technic institute, one would wish to see part of the curriculum have a pure liberal-arts character. It is interesting to notice in this connection the influence in Latin America of the "general education" programs of American universities. The detechnicizing of technical colleges, however, is not easily accomplished. At the College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts in Mayagiiez, Puerto Rico, the old-guard science teachers are a perpetual stone in the road of liberal-arts innovation, while the Technological Institute in Monterrey, Mexico, with one of the best physical plants in Latin America, is dominated by a curious spirit of big business and clericalism which retards the development of a university atmos- phere. A matter deserving special emphasis is the age at which boys SPECIAL EDUCATION 165 tion of the individual, or to providing technical training to satisfy the immediate needs of national production, but it should con- tribute to the formation of the whole man, with regard for his share of the well-being of society." Or again, the aims set for a vocational education program by the Department of Public In- struction in Puerto Rico: 1. To offer training in trades; 2. To give the student a general education; 3. To provide experiences which will better the student's physical and mental health, his character, his moral and ethical traits, and which will give him a greater sense of civic responsibility....7 The point is that too often "the general and the technical educa- tion fall apart like the constituents of a meat sandwich; they have never had any essential unity." The aim of technical education should not be the bifocal one of imparting a technical skill and imparting a love of literature, or imparting a skill and the habits of good citizenship. Rather, the curriculum should contain "science and its applications as the core and inspiration." What makes such a curriculum "liberal" is not a scattering of courses in citizen- ship, world history, and foreign languages, but the fact that it "is not hampered by ready-made examination syllabuses" and that it capitalizes upon "the desire of its pupils to know 'how things work' in order to lead them back to a knowledge of natural phe- nomena and its laws with a realistic sense of balance and em- phasis ." At the more advanced level of the technical college, or poly- technic institute, one would wish to see part of the curriculum have a pure liberal-arts character. It is interesting to notice in this connection the influence in Latin America of the "general education" programs of American universities. The detechnicizing of technical colleges, however, is not easily accomplished. At the College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, the old-guard science teachers are a perpetual stone in the road of liberal-arts innovation, while the Technological Institute in Monterrey, Mexico, with one of the best physical plants in Latin America, is dominated by a curious spirit of big business and clericalism which retards the development of a university atmos- phere. A matter deserving special emphasis is the age at which boys  166 The Caribbean and girls should be accepted into a dominantly technical cur- riculum. In the British Caribbean, pupils are expected to "enter a secondary technical school at about the age of 12," at which age it is not possible "to identify, with any confidence, a technical aptitude." It is therefore recommended in a recent report that pupils be admitted on general ability with provision for later transferral to nontechnical schools of those whose bent is clearly academic.10 Dobinson asserts that "comparatively few aptitudes are revealed by the age of eleven, but that the majority display them- selves by the age of thirteen or fourteen.""5 The recent reorganiza- tion of the Guatemalan secondary schools (1955) seems to have been planned with precisely this point in view. The reform estab- lishes the first three years of the five-year secondary course as a "pre-vocational cycle." Its effect is to extend general education three years beyond the end of the six-year primary cycle. Pre- viously, students had gone from elementary school directly into specialized courses in commerce, bookkeeping, industrial arts, and so forth. Now the choice of an occupation can be postponed from the age of 12 to the age of 15.1 Those who call for the postponement of technical education, however, frequently argue from egalitarian democracy rather than from adolescent psychology. In a book called The Democratic Value of Secondary Education Angel Ceniceros contends that the prevocational schools of Mexico should be eliminated in favor of the single secondary school, "so as to achieve the ideal of general education for all Mexican adolescents."13 Eric Williams asks that rural and urban high schools be identified as the basic postprimary schools of the British Caribbean. "The establishment of special schools for vocational education," he writes, "incurs the danger that these schools will be regarded by the community as inferior to the traditional academic schools." The new schools, while not exclusively technical, would emphasize the "vocational activity appropriate to the environment," with the rural ones stressing agriculture and the urban ones trade and industry, and with each school sponsoring frequent trips for students to the setting of the other. Special attention should be given to problems of market- ing, credit, land tenure, cooperativism, and health at the expense of courses in language and theoretical agriculture55 Of course, the success of technical education in large measure depends upon whether the doors to it are opened during the 166 The Caribbean and girls should be accepted into a dominantly technical cur- riculum. In the British Caribbean, pupils are expected to "enter a secondary technical school at about the age of 12," at which age it is not possible "to identify, with any confidence, a technical aptitude." It is therefore recommended in a recent report that pupils be admitted on general ability with provision for later transferral to nontechnical schools of those whose bent is clearly academic.10 Dobinson asserts that "comparatively few aptitudes are revealed by the age of eleven, but that the majority display them- selves by the age of thirteen or fourteen."1 The recent reorganiza- tion of the Guatemalan secondary schools (1955) seems to have been planned with precisely this point in view. The reform estab- lishes the first three years of the five-year secondary course as a "pre-vocational cycle." Its effect is to extend general education three years beyond the end of the six-year primary cycle. Pre- viously, students had gone from elementary school directly into specialized courses in commerce, bookkeeping, industrial arts, and so forth. Now the choice of an occupation can be postponed from the age of 12 to the age of 15.1 Those who call for the postponement of technical education, however, frequently argue from egalitarian democracy rather than from adolescent psychology. In a book called The Democratic Value of Secondary Education Angel Ceniceros contends that the prevocational schools of Mexico should be eliminated in favor of the single secondary school, "so as to achieve the ideal of general education for all Mexican adolescents."13 Eric Williams asks that rural and urban high schools be identified as the basic postprimary schools of the British Caribbean. "The establishment of special schools for vocational education," he writes, "incurs the danger that these schools will be regarded by the community as inferior to the traditional academic schools." The new schools, while not exclusively technical, would emphasize the "vocational activity appropriate to the environment," with the rural ones stressing agriculture and the urban ones trade and industry, and with each school sponsoring frequent trips for students to the setting of the other. Special attention should be given to problems of market- ing, credit, land tenure, cooperativism, and health at the expense of courses in language and theoretical agriculture.sa Of course, the success of technical education in large measure depends upon whether the doors to it are opened during the 166 The Caribbean and girls should be accepted into a dominantly technical cur- riculum. In the British Caribbean, pupils are expected to "enter a secondary technical school at about the age of 12," at which age it is not possible "to identify, with any confidence, a technical aptitude." It is therefore recommended in a recent report that pupils be admitted on general ability with provision for later transferral to nontechnical schools of those whose bent is clearly academic.10 Dobinson asserts that "comparatively few aptitudes are revealed by the age of eleven, but that the majority display them- selves by the age of thirteen or fourteen."" The recent reorganiza- tion of the Guatemalan secondary schools (1955) seems to have been planned with precisely this point in view. The reform estab- lishes the first three years of the five-year secondary course as a "pre-vocational cycle." Its effect is to extend general education three years beyond the end of the six-year primary cycle. Pre- viously, students had gone from elementary school directly into specialized courses in commerce, bookkeeping, industrial arts, and so forth. Now the choice of an occupation can be postponed from the age of 12 to the age of 15.1 Those who call for the postponement of technical education, however, frequently argue from egalitarian democracy rather than from adolescent psychology. In a book called The Democratic Value of Secondary Education Angel Ceniceros contends that the prevocational schools of Mexico should be eliminated in favor of the single secondary school, "so as to achieve the ideal of general education for all Mexican adolescents."1 Eric Williams asks that rural and urban high schools be identified as the basic postprimary schools of the British Caribbean. "The establishment of special schools for vocational education," he writes, "incurs the danger that these schools will be regarded by the community as inferior to the traditional academic schools." The new schools, while not exclusively technical, would emphasize the "vocational activity appropriate to the environment," with the rural ones stressing agriculture and the urban ones trade and industry, and with each school sponsoring frequent trips for students to the setting of the other. Special attention should be given to problems of market- ing, credit, land tenure, cooperativism, and health at the expense of courses in language and theoretical agriculture15 Of course, the success of technical education in large measure depends upon whether the doors to it are opened during the  SPECIAL EDUCATION 167 earliest school years. A report of four years ago reveals that the schools of the oft-studied town of Tepoztlim, Mexico, leave much to be desired in this regard, and it describes a situation that is typical for perhaps a good majority of the rural and semirural schools of the Caribbean area. In Tepoztlin, we are told, "schools are not designed to train the students for the life of small farmers and shopkeepers in a rural setting." The primary makes almost no provision for any significant teaching of vocational skills. The secondary has no laboratory; its carpentry shop is virtually with- out tools; its printing press is the size of a portable typewriter. Biology is taught, textbook fashion, by a local doctor. "By and large, the school is something apart from the villages and fields of Tepoztlin.... [It is] a place where city ideas ... prevail." In conclusion, and by way of explanation: "Mexico does not yet have an organized and respected body of rural knowledge, nor a corps of trained instructors to teach agricultural and allied sciences to the children of farm families."" These impressions should not make us lose sight of two sizable advantages which Mexico enjoys for programs of vocational edu- cation. The first of these is a vigorous tradition of craftsmanship, with roots in the colonial and pre-Columbian periods. The second is a dramatic social revolution with which a bold educational pro- gram was soon identified. Vocational and technical education on the secondary level dates from 1915, shortly after the outbreak of the revolution, and in 1923 a Department of Technical, Indus- trial and Commercial Education was created in the Ministry of Education. Whatever the shortcomings of its educational program, the image which has been forged in Mexico of the worker, espe- cially the rural worker, engaged in the cultivation and shaping of his own regional environment, is perhaps the most powerful of its kind in Latin America. The most desperate educational problems of the area, vocational or otherwise, are those posed by Haiti. Of the country's school-age population, only 15 per cent or less are enrolled in schools, and the ratio of teachers to students is about one to 75. The rural primary school is woefully underequipped and understaffed. There do not even exist rural secondaries, which Eric Williams considers to be the West Indies' basic postprimary school of the future. The train- ing given in Haiti's six or seven badly equipped vocational schools is conditioned by the French tradition of apprenticeship; students SPECIAL EDUCATION 167 earliest school years. A report of four years ago reveals that the schools of the oft-studied town of Tepoztlin, Mexico, leave much to be desired in this regard, and it describes a situation that is typical for perhaps a good majority of the rural and semirural schools of the Caribbean area. In Tepoztlin, we are told, "schools are not designed to train the students for the life of small farmers and shopkeepers in a rural setting." The primary makes almost no provision for any significant teaching of vocational skills. The secondary has no laboratory; its carpentry shop is virtually with- out tools; its printing press is the size of a portable typewriter. Biology is taught, textbook fashion, by a local doctor. "By and large, the school is something apart from the villages and fields of Tepoztlin.... [It is] a place where city ideas ... prevail." In conclusion, and by way of explanation: "Mexico does not yet have an organized and respected body of rural knowledge, nor a corps of trained instructors to teach agricultural and allied sciences to the children of farm families."tt These impressions should not make us lose sight of two sizable advantages which Mexico enjoys for programs of vocational edu- cation. The first of these is a vigorous tradition of craftsmanship, with roots in the colonial and pre-Columbian periods. The second is a dramatic social revolution with which a bold educational pro- gram was soon identified. Vocational and technical education on the secondary level dates from 1915, shortly after the outbreak of the revolution, and in 1923 a Department of Technical, Indus- trial and Commercial Education was created in the Ministry of Education. Whatever the shortcomings of its educational program, the image which has been forged in Mexico of the worker, espe- cially the rural worker, engaged in the cultivation and shaping of his own regional environment, is perhaps the most powerful of its kind in Latin America. The most desperate educational problems of the area, vocational or otherwise, are those posed by Haiti. Of the country's school-age population, only 15 per cent or less are enrolled in schools, and the ratio of teachers to students is about one to 75. The rural primary school is woefully underequipped and understaffed. There do not even exist rural secondaries, which Eric Williams considers to be the West Indies' basic postprimary school of the future. The train- ing given in Haiti's six or seven badly equipped vocational schools is conditioned by the French tradition of apprenticeship; students SPECIAL EDUCATION 167 earliest school years. A report of four years ago reveals that the schools of the oft-studied town of Tepoztlan, Mexico, leave much to be desired in this regard, and it describes a situation that is typical for perhaps a good majority of the rural and semirural schools of the Caribbean area. In Tepoztlin, we are told, "schools are not designed to train the students for the life of small farmers and shopkeepers in a rural setting." The primary makes almost no provision for any significant teaching of vocational skills. The secondary has no laboratory; its carpentry shop is virtually with- out tools; its printing press is the size of a portable typewriter. Biology is taught, textbook fashion, by a local doctor. "By and large, the school is something apart from the villages and fields of Tepoztlin.... [It is] a place where city ideas ... prevail." In conclusion, and by way of explanation: "Mexico does not yet have an organized and respected body of rural knowledge, nor a corps of trained instructors to teach agricultural and allied sciences to the children of farm families."t These impressions should not make us lose sight of two sizable advantages which Mexico enjoys for programs of vocational edu- cation. The first of these is a vigorous tradition of craftsmanship, with roots in the colonial and pre-Columbian periods. The second is a dramatic social revolution with which a bold educational pro- gram was soon identified. Vocational and technical education on the secondary level dates from 1915, shortly after the outbreak of the revolution, and in 1923 a Department of Technical, Indus- trial and Commercial Education was created in the Ministry of Education. Whatever the shortcomings of its educational program, the image which has been forged in Mexico of the worker, espe- cially the rural worker, engaged in the cultivation and shaping of his own regional environment, is perhaps the most powerful of its kind in Latin America. The most desperate educational problems of the area, vocational or otherwise, are those posed by Haiti. Of the country's school-age population, only 15 per cent or less are enrolled in schools, and the ratio of teachers to students is about one to 75. The rural primary school is woefully underequipped and understaffed. There do not even exist rural secondaries, which Eric Williams considers to be the West Indies' basic postprimary school of the future. The train- ing given in Haiti's six or seven badly equipped vocational schools is conditioned by the French tradition of apprenticeship; students  168 The Caribbean must turn out a master work demanding skills that are of little use in the local economy. The effectiveness of these schools is further diluted by the fact that they tend to become training homes for stray orphans. The agricultural college at Damien admits a class of about forty students every four years. They come from urban elite families, according to Mosher," and have neither the habit nor, at Damien, much opportunity of doing manual work. Each student's expenses are covered by the government, and all are ostensibly being trained to work in the Ministry of Agriculture. Recently, however, the Ministry has been able to hire only a frac- tion of the graduates. So massive are the problems of Haiti that it would be an imper- tinence to discuss the niceties of postprimary vocational guidance and training in such a setting. Only a broad campaign of basic education, in which the barrier lines between vocational, primary, adult, and community education are dissolved, can have any impor- tant effect. Even if the towering political and economic obstacles to such a campaign could be overcome in the near future, which seems highly unlikely, the question as far as technical education went would remain, Technical education for what? For industriali- zation? For large-scale, mechanized agriculture? Or, the most defensible solution perhaps, for invigoration of the existing peasant- subsistence economy? In short, the direction of technical education sometimes depends upon a yet-to-be-taken decision as to the strat- egy of economic development. In Haiti as in the French West Indies (to which the following statement refers) . . . the choice between agricultural and technical training will have to be made. This choice is linked with plans for economic development, and education authorities responsible for framing policy will have to be careful to avoid training people for employ- ment in branches of the economy which are unlikely to be devel- oped in the immediate future.10 In the case of a long-entrenched dictatorship that lavishes care upon public works and industrial development, one might expect to find substantial if not imaginative achievement in technical edu- cation. Such is not wholly the case in the Dominican Republic. In spite of the relatively brisk development of industry in the country, little has been done to produce high-level industrial technicians. The University trains civil engineers and architects, but not meeban- 168 The Caribbean 168 The Caribbean must turn out a master work demanding skills that are of little use in the local economy. The effectiveness of these schools is further diluted by the fact that they tend to become training homes for stray orphans. The agricultural college at Damien admits a class of about forty students every four years. They come from urban elite families, according to Mosher,1t and have neither the habit nor, at Damien, much opportunity of doing manual work. Each student's expenses are covered by the government, and all are ostensibly being trained to work in the Ministry of Agriculture. Recently, however, the Ministry has been able to hire only a frac- tion of the graduates. So massive are the problems of Haiti that it would be an imper- tinence to discuss the niceties of postprimary vocational guidance and training in such a setting. Only a broad campaign of basic education, in which the barrier lines between vocational, primary, adult, and community education are dissolved, can have any impor- tant effect. Even if the towering political and economic obstacles to such a campaign could be overcome in the near future, which seems highly unlikely, the question as far as technical education went would remain, Technical education for what? For industriali- zation? For large-scale, mechanized agriculture? Or, the most defensible solution perhaps, for invigoration of the existing peasant- subsistence economy? In short, the direction of technical education sometimes depends upon a yet-to-be-taken decision as to the strat- egy of economic development. In Haiti as in the French West Indies (to which the following statement refers) . the choice between agricultural and technical training will have to be made. This choice is linked with plans for economic development, and education authorities responsible for framing policy will have to be careful to avoid training people for employ- ment in branches of the economy which are unlikely to be devel- oped in the immediate futureJ In the case of a long-entrenched dictatorship that lavishes care upon public works and industrial development, one might expect to find substantial if not imaginative achievement in technical edu- cation. Such is not wholly the case in the Dominican Republic. In spite of the relatively brisk development of industry in the country, little has been done to produce high-level industrial technicians. The University trains civil engineers and architects, but not mechan- must turn out a master work demanding skills that are of little use in the local economy. The effectiveness of these schools is further diluted by the fact that they tend to become training homes for stray orphans. The agricultural college at Damien admits a class of about forty students every four years. They come from urban elite families, according to Mosher,1t and have neither the habit nor, at Damien, much opportunity of doing manual work. Each student's expenses are covered by the government, and all are ostensibly being trained to work in the Ministry of Agriculture. Recently, however, the Ministry has been able to hire only a frac- tion of the graduates. So massive are the problems of Haiti that it would be an imper- tinence to discuss the niceties of postprimary vocational guidance and training in such a setting. Only a broad campaign of basic education, in which the barrier lines between vocational, primary, adult, and community education are dissolved, can have any impor- tant effect. Even if the towering political and economic obstacles to such a campaign could be overcome in the near future, which seems highly unlikely, the question as far as technical education went would remain, Technical education for what? For industriali- zation? For large-scale, mechanized agriculture? Or, the most defensible solution perhaps, for invigoration of the existing peasant- subsistence economy? In short, the direction of technical education sometimes depends upon a yet-to-be-taken decision as to the strat- egy of economic development. In Haiti as in the French West Indies (to which the following statement refers) the choice between agricultural and technical training will have to be made. This choice is linked with plans for economic development, and education authorities responsible for framing policy will have to be careful to avoid training people for employ- ment in branches of the economy which are unlikely to be devel- oped in the immediate future."5 In the case of a long-entrenched dictatorship that lavishes care upon public works and industrial development, one might expect to find substantial if not imaginative achievement in technical edu- cation. Such is not wholly the case in the Dominican Republic. In spite of the relatively brisk development of industry in the country, little has been done to produce high-level industrial technicians. The University trains civil engineers and architects, but not mechan-  SPECIAL EDUCATION 169 ical, electrical, and chemical engineers. Such positions are frequently filled by foreigners, and almost the only Dominicans trained outside the country are military men. The regular public secondaries offer no prevocational training and virtually no laboratory work in science courses. The basic vocational schools are generally run by the Catholic Church, although they receive support from the state. A recent enterprise is the St. Ignatius of Loyola Polytechnic Insti- tute, founded in 1953 and directed by a Spanish Jesuit. By 1958 it was said to represent a million-dollar investment and to be training more than 2,000 pupils. With characteristic braggadocio the regime claims that this Institute will eventually be the largest of its type in Latin America. To inspect what is probably the sharpest contrast in the region to affairs on Hispaniola, one need only cross the Mona Passage to Puerto Rico. Here a broad program of technical education has gone hand in hand with the island's rapid industrialization. Agriculture is now the third source of income in Puerto Rico, following man- ufacturing and commerce, and by arrangement with the Interna- tional Cooperation Administration the island has become a technical-training ground for the whole Caribbean area, particularly for the West Indies. In a decade, the enrollment in programs spon- sored by the Division of Vocational Instruction of the Department of Public Instruction has grown from 59,998 students (1948-49) to 120,573 (1958-59). The increase for those in agricultural education, however, was only 61 per cent, as against a 425 per cent increase in trade and industrial education. In the case of Mexico it was suggested that a national tradition of craftsmanship is a boon to programs of technical education. Where, however, training is pre-eminently for modern industry, the virtual lack of such a tradition may be advantageous (for example, the case of Puerto Rico). Mosk says that handicraft skills are indi- rectly useful to industry, but that their utility "tends to be offset by the informal work habits to which handicraft workers have been accustomed." Artisans take to modern industry less well than those with no previous manufacturing experience, and the most highly skilled ones are likely even to react against machine work.55 It would be an exaggeration to say that the presence of a crafts tradi- tion, as in Mexico and Guatemala, or its absence, as in Puerto Rico and the British islands, would control the anatomy of industrial development; but this factor will certainly affect the running of SPECIAL EDUCATION 169 ical, electrical, and chemical engineers. Such positions are frequently filled by foreigners, and almost the only Dominicans trained outside the country are military men. The regular public secondaries offer no prevocational training and virtually no laboratory work in science courses. The basic vocational schools are generally run by the Catholic Church, although they receive support from the state. A recent enterprise is the St. Ignatius of Loyola Polytechnic Insti- tute, founded in 1953 and directed by a Spanish Jesuit. By 1958 it was said to represent a million-dollar investment and to be training more than 2,000 pupils. With characteristic braggadocio the regime claims that this Institute will eventually be the largest of its type in Latin America. To inspect what is probably the sharpest contrast in the region to affairs on Hispaniola, one need only cross the Mona Passage to Puerto Rico. Here a broad program of technical education has gone hand in hand with the island's rapid industrialization. Agriculture is now the third source of income in Puerto Rico, following man- ufacturing and commerce, and by arrangement with the Interna- tional Cooperation Administration the island has become a technical-training ground for the whole Caribbean area, particularly for the West Indies. In a decade, the enrollment in programs spon- sored by the Division of Vocational Instruction of the Department of Public Instruction has grown from 59,998 students (194849) to 120,573 (1958-59). The increase for those in agricultural education, however, was only 61 per cent, as against a 425 per cent increase in trade and industrial education. In the case of Mexico it was suggested that a national tradition of craftsmanship is a boon to programs of technical education. Where, however, training is pre-eminently for modern industry, the virtual lack of such a tradition may be advantageous (for example, the case of Puerto Rico). Mosk says that handicraft skills are indi- rectly useful to industry, but that their utility "tends to be offset by the informal work habits to which handicraft workers have been accustomed." Artisans take to modern industry less well than those with no previous manufacturing experience, and the most highly skilled ones are likely even to react against machine worker It would be an exaggeration to say that the presence of a crafts tradi- tion, as in Mexico and Guatemala, or its absence, as in Puerto Rico and the British islands, would control the anatomy of industrial development; but this factor will certainly affect the running of SPECIAL EDUCATION 169 ical, electrical, and chemical engineers. Such positions are frequently filled by foreigners, and almost the only Dominicans trained outside the country are military men. The regular public secondaries offer no prevocational training and virtually no laboratory work in science courses. The basic vocational schools are generally run by the Catholic Church, although they receive support from the state. A recent enterprise is the St. Ignatius of Loyola Polytechnic Insti- tute, founded in 1953 and directed by a Spanish Jesuit. By 1958 it was said to represent a million-dollar investment and to be training more than 2,000 pupils. With characteristic braggadocio the regime claims that this Institute will eventually be the largest of its type in Latin America. To inspect what is probably the sharpest contrast in the region to affairs on Hispaniola, one need only cross the Mona Passage to Puerto Rico. Here a broad program of technical education has gone band in hand with the island's rapid industrialization. Agriculture is now the third source of income in Puerto Rico, following man- ufacturing and commerce, and by arrangement with the Interna- tional Cooperation Administration the island has become a technical-training ground for the whole Caribbean area, particularly for the West Indies. In a decade, the enrollment in programs spon- sored by the Division of Vocational Instruction of the Department of Public Instruction has grown from 59,998 students (1948-49) to 120,573 (1958-59). The increase for those in agricultural education, however, was only 61 per cent, as against a 425 per cent increase in trade and industrial education. In the case of Mexico it was suggested that a national tradition of craftsmanship is a boon to programs of technical education. Where, however, training is pre-eminently for modern industry, the virtual lack of such a tradition may be advantageous (for example, the case of Puerto Rico). Mosk says that handicraft skills are indi- rectly useful to industry, but that their utility "tends to be offset by the informal work habits to which handicraft workers have been accustomed." Artisans take to modern industry less well than those with no previous manufacturing experience, and the most highly skilled ones are likely even to react against machine work?5 It would be an exaggeration to say that the presence of a crafts tradi- tion, as in Mexico and Guatemala, or its absence, as in Puerto Rico and the British islands, would control the anatomy of industrial development; but this factor will certainly affect the running of  170 The Caribbean 170 The Caribbean 170 The Caribbean factories and the emphases of vocational teaching. (And, one may add, the assertion that a rich crafts tradition is a deterrent to eco- nomic development would be a dreary one to make.) Of particular interest in Puerto Rico are the programs of industrial arts and vocational guidance, both under the Division of Vocational Instruction. The former comprises prevocational courses which serve both as an aspect of general education and as a means of exploring aptitudes and interests so that students may make well- grounded choices of vocation. This program dovetails with an extensive one of vocational guidance, which has been in force in the public schools since 1939. By 1958-59 there were 113 guidance counselors in the field, serving 341 secondary schools. As societies become more "open," and the range of life-chances which they offer more diverse, vocational counseling plays a cor- respondingly more important role. Puerto Rico's system of guid- ance is the most extensive in the area, although this is not to say that it should be in all respects a model. The relative prosperity of the island, the secondary role of agriculture, the integration with the American economy, all make the Puerto Rican case unusual. Moreover, it is clear that high standards and the reworking of pro- grams within the local context have been sacrificed to quantitative expansion of the island's school system. In view of the federal funds available for this expansion, one writer is so indelicate as to suggest that the Puerto Rican sense of urgency about education is in part "conditioned by the undoubted fact that, if sufficient agitation is made, Congress may be persuaded to make more money avail- able.""0 As another observer puts it: "The question to be faced is not whether the Puerto Rican pattern should be applied to all the Caribbean, but whether other areas cannot, within their resources and other limits, still do something more for the guidance of the youth.120 A special problem is posed in the nonself-governing areas by the ease of emigration to the metropolitan countries. Although it is frequently held that such emigrants come largely from an unskilled or marginal category, recent figures for Puerto Rico show that skilled and semiskilled workers are proportionately more numerous among the emigrants than among those who stay home?2 In the case of Jamaica, emigration of skilled workers to the United Kingdom has become a threat to home industry, including the sugar industry. Similarly, among the Jamaican emigrants not only is unskilled labor factories and the emphases of vocational teaching. (And, one may add, the assertion that a rich crafts tradition is a deterrent to eco- nomic development would be a dreary one to make.) Of particular interest in Puerto Rico are the programs of industrial arts and vocational guidance, both under the Division of Vocational Instruction. The former comprises prevocational courses which serve both as an aspect of general education and as a means of exploring aptitudes and interests so that students may make well- grounded choices of vocation. This program dovetails with an extensive one of vocational guidance, which has been in force in the public schools since 1939. By 1958-59 there were 113 guidance counselors in the field, serving 341 secondary schools. As societies become more "open," and the range of life-chances which they offer more diverse, vocational counseling plays a cor- respondingly more important role. Puerto Rico's system of guid- ance is the most extensive in the area, although this is not to say that it should be in all respects a model. The relative prosperity of the island, the secondary role of agriculture, the integration with the American economy, all make the Puerto Rican case unusual. Moreover, it is clear that high standards and the reworking of pro- grams within the local context have been sacrificed to quantitative expansion of the island's school system. In view of the federal funds available for this expansion, one writer is so indelicate as to suggest that the Puerto Rican sense of urgency about education is in part "conditioned by the undoubted fact that, if sufficient agitation is made, Congress may be persuaded to make more money avail- able."19 As another observer puts it: "The question to be faced is not whether the Puerto Rican pattern should be applied to all the Caribbean, but whether other areas cannot, within their resources and other limits, still do something more for the guidance of the youth."20 A special problem is posed in the nonself-governing areas by the ease of emigration to the metropolitan countries. Although it is frequently held that such emigrants come largely from an unskilled or marginal category, recent figures for Puerto Rico show that skilled and semiskilled workers are proportionately more numerous among the emigrants than among those who stay home. In the case of Jamaica, emigration of skilled workers to the United Kingdom has become a threat to home industry, including the sugar industry. Similarly, among the Jamaican emigrants not only is unskilled labor factories and the emphases of vocational teaching. (And, one may add, the assertion that a rich crafts tradition is a deterrent to eco- nomic development would be a dreary one to make.) Of particular interest in Puerto Rico are the programs of industrial arts and vocational guidance, both under the Division of Vocational Instruction. The former comprises prevocational courses which serve both as an aspect of general education and as a means of exploring aptitudes and interests so that students may make well- grounded choices of vocation. This program dovetails with an extensive one of vocational guidance, which has been in force in the public schools since 1939. By 1958-59 there were 113 guidance counselors in the field, serving 341 secondary schools. As societies become more "open," and the range of life-chances which they offer more diverse, vocational counseling plays a cor- respondingly more important role. Puerto Rico's system of guid- ance is the most extensive in the area, although this is not to say that it should be in all respects a model. The relative prosperity of the island, the secondary role of agriculture, the integration with the American economy, all make the Puerto Rican case unusual. Moreover, it is clear that high standards and the reworking of pro- grams within the local context have been sacrificed to quantitative expansion of the island's school system. In view of the federal funds available for this expansion, one writer is so indelicate as to suggest that the Puerto Rican sense of urgency about education is in part "conditioned by the undoubted fact that, if suflicient agitation is made, Congress may be persuaded to make more money avail- able."18 As another observer puts it: "The question to be faced is not whether the Puerto Rican pattern should be applied to all the Caribbean, but whether other areas cannot, within their resources and other limits, still do something more for the guidance of the youth."20 A special problem is posed in the nonself-governing areas by the ease of emigration to the metropolitan countries. Although it is frequently held that such emigrants come largely from an unskilled or marginal category, recent figures for Puerto Rico show that skilled and semiskilled workers are proportionately more numerous among the emigrants than among those who stay homeas In the case of Jamaica, emigration of skilled workers to the United Kingdom has become a threat to home industry, including the sugar industry. Similarly, among the Jamaican emigrants not only is unskilled labor  SPECIAL EDUCATION 171 underrepresented, but "the position with regard to agriculture and urban occupations appears to be quite the reverse of that of the general population."22 If one assumes that economic, educational, and welfare benefits are greater in the metropolitan countries than in the Caribbean, might not one say that Caribbean technical training should take metropolitan needs and standards into account so as to improve the qualifications of the potential emigrant? Many, naturally and justifiably, will protest favoring the occasional worker at the expense of the developmental possibilities of the Caribbean itself (though it must be remembered that Puerto Rican planners are forced to assume continual out-migration from the island, for the economic and demographic health of the local society). In the French West Indies this very issue has created a dilemma. There exists confusion at the policy level as to whether vocational training should be adapted to local chances for employment, or whether the leading concern should be with formal achievement, that is, with training good specialized technicians irrespective of the employment situa- tion. At present, the second policy appears to dominate. Job oppor- tunities for qualified technicians are irregular, and many with vocational training either try to get into civil service or go to France to seek employment. Those who see this situation as an artificial one frequently recommend that formal technical training be de- emphasized and that practical centers of apprenticeship be created. Prevocational training, vocational guidance, and technical edu- cation having so far been mentioned, there remains the important phase of placement. For even if a nation's training system is sound both pedagogically and in relation to the needs of the economy, it may be that the labor market is ineffective. A study of light indus- tries in Kingston, Jamaica, disclosed that: Job seekers and employers both depend mainly on hearsay and personal contacts leading up to interviews. Workers often seemed unaware of opportunities firms had to offer and members of man- agement frequently described it as a stroke of luck when a particu- lar vacancy could be filled by an applicant with the required specific qualifications. Some factories resorted to training inexperienced workers, others to using skilled persons in jobs which made no demand upon their training. Seven of the 25 factories studied made it a policy to rely SPECIAL EDUCATION 171 underrepresented, but "the position with regard to agriculture and urban occupations appears to be quite the reverse of that of the general population."22 If one assumes that economic, educational, and welfare benefits are greater in the metropolitan countries than in the Caribbean, might not one say that Caribbean technical training should take metropolitan needs and standards into account so as to improve the qualifications of the potential emigrant? Many, naturally and justifiably, will protest favoring the occasional worker at the expense of the developmental possibilities of the Caribbean itself (though it must be remembered that Puerto Rican planners are forced to assume continual out-migration from the island, for the economic and demographic health of the local society). In the French West Indies this very issue has created a dilemma. There exists confusion at the policy level as to whether vocational training should be adapted to local chances for employment, or whether the leading concern should be with formal achievement, that is, with training good specialized technicians irrespective of the employment situa- tion. At present, the second policy appears to dominate. Job oppor- tunities for qualified technicians are irregular, and many with vocational training either try to get into civil service or go to France to seek employment. Those who see this situation as an artificial one frequently recommend that formal technical training be de- emphasized and that practical centers of apprenticeship be created. Prevocational training, vocational guidance, and technical edu- cation having so far been mentioned, there remains the important phase of placement. For even if a nation's training system is sound both pedagogically and in relation to the needs of the economy, it may be that the labor market is ineffective. A study of light indus- tries in Kingston, Jamaica, disclosed that: Job seekers and employers both depend mainly on hearsay and personal contacts leading up to interviews. Workers often seemed unaware of opportunities firms had to offer and members of man- agement frequently described it as a stroke of luck when a particu- lar vacancy could be filled by an applicant with the required specific qualifications. Some factories resorted to training inexperienced workers, others to using skilled persons in jobs which made no demand upon their training. Seven of the 25 factories studied made it a policy to rely SPECIAL EDUCATION 171 underrepresented, but "the position with regard to agriculture and urban occupations appears to be quite the reverse of that of the general population."22 If one assumes that economic, educational, and welfare benefits are greater in the metropolitan countries than in the Caribbean, might not one say that Caribbean technical training should take metropolitan needs and standards into account so as to improve the qualifcations of the potential emigrant? Many, naturally and justifiably, will protest favoring the occasional worker at the expense of the developmental possibilities of the Caribbean itself (though it must be remembered that Puerto Rican planners are forced to assume continual out-migration from the island, for the economic and demographic health of the local society). In the French West Indies this very issue has created a dilemma. There exists confusion at the policy level as to whether vocational training should be adapted to local chances for employment, or whether the leading concern should be with formal achievement, that is, with training good specialized technicians irrespective of the employment situa- tion. At present, the second policy appears to dominate. Job oppor- tunities for qualified technicians are irregular, and many with vocational training either try to get into civil service or go to France to seek employment. Those who see this situation as an artificial one frequently recommend that formal technical training be de- emphasized and that practical centers of apprenticeship be created. Prevocational training, vocational guidance, and technical edu- cation having so far been mentioned, there remains the important phase of placement. For even if a nation's training system is sound both pedagogically and in relation to the needs of the economy, it may be that the labor market is ineffective. A study of light indus- tries in Kingston, Jamaica, disclosed that: Job seekers and employers both depend mainly on hearsay and personal contacts leading up to interviews. Workers often seemed unaware of opportunities firms had to offer and members of man- agement frequently described it as a stroke of luck when a particu- lar vacancy could be filled by an applicant with the required specific qualifications. Some factories resorted to training inexperienced workers, others to using skilled persons in jobs which made no demand upon their training. Seven of the 25 factories studied made it a policy to rely  172 The Caribbean on word of mouth through present employees for filling vacancies, a procedure which may help to create esprit de corps but which has several potential drawbacks. The job applicants themselves seemed more interested in "work in general" and in finding an agreeable foreman than in particular jobs. This attitude was ascribed to the fear of unemployment and to simple lack of interest in the work. Workers acquired on-the-job training in "free moments," through observation, or by trial and error. These methods failed to develop proper skills and attitudes, and they allowed for no formal check on when the candidate reached proficiency."3 Such a situa- tion would not be found in some of the large industries of the region - for instance, the oil refineries of Trinidad or the Dutch islands with their elaborate training schools. But the unskilled or semiskilled worker in the Caribbean works characteristically, per- haps, in a factory similar to those described in Jamaica. III In summary, the following points have been made with regard to technical and industrial education in the Caribbean: 1. This is an area in which the large majority of the people earns a living directly from growing, making, and processing things, rather than from provision of services, administration, office work, and bookish pursuits. Economic growth calls for increasing the dexterity and range of skills of the population, and upon the knowl- edgeable introduction and use of technological multipliers at key points in the productive process. 2. From the earliest school years the child must be encouraged in a warm, affective response toward his environment, and toward handling and shaping the materials of that environment. The affec- tive element of the education needs particular stress in view of prevailing attitudes toward manual labor that are variously de- scribed as characterizing ex-hidalgos, ex-slaves, or colonial peoples. 3. In these changing societies with their expanding range of life- chances, the system should not require vocational choices of stu- dents before they reach their teens. Such choices should be assisted by proper counseling. 4. The technical school itself should not be the victim of invidious comparison. The remedy, however, is not to window-dress the technical curriculum with a few unrelated citizenship and "culture" courses. It is to make technical studies boldly and unequivocally the core of the program, liberalizing them through a stress upon 172 The Caribbean on word of mouth through present employees for filling vacancies, a procedure which may help to create esprit de corps but which has several potential drawbacks. The job applicants themselves seemed more interested in "work in general" and in finding an agreeable foreman than in particular jobs. This attitude was ascribed to the fear of unemployment and to simple lack of interest in the work. Workers acquired on-the-job training in "free moments," through observation, or by trial and error. These methods failed to develop proper skills and attitudes, and they allowed for no formal check on when the candidate reached proficiency." Such a situa- tion would not be found in some of the large industries of the region - for instance, the oil refineries of Trinidad or the Dutch islands with their elaborate training schools. But the unskilled or semiskilled worker in the Caribbean works characteristically, per- haps, in a factory similar to those described in Jamaica. III In summary, the following points have been made with regard to technical and industrial education in the Caribbean: 1. This is an area in which the large majority of the people earns a living directly from growing, making, and processing things, rather than from provision of services, administration, office work, and bookish pursuits. Economic growth calls for increasing the dexterity and range of skills of the population, and upon the knowl- edgeable introduction and use of technological multipliers at key points in the productive process. 2. From the earliest school years the child must be encouraged in a warm, affective response toward his environment, and toward handling and shaping the materials of that environment. The affec- five element of the education needs particular stress in view of prevailing attitudes toward manual labor that are variously de- scribed as characterizing ex-hidalgos, ex-slaves, or colonial peoples. 3. In these changing societies with their expanding range of life- chances, the system should not require vocational choices of stu- dents before they reach their teens. Such choices should be assisted by proper counseling. 4. The technical school itself should not be the victim of invidious comparison. The remedy, however, is not to window-dress the technical curriculum with a few unrelated citizenship and "culture" courses. It is to make technical studies boldly and unequivocally the core of the program, liberalizing them through a stress upon 172 The Caribbean on word of mouth through present employees for filling vacancies, a procedure which may help to create esprit de corps but which has several potential drawbacks. The job applicants themselves seemed more interested in "work in general" and in finding an agreeable foreman than in particular jobs. This attitude was ascribed to the fear of unemployment and to simple lack of interest in the work. Workers acquired on-the-job training in "free moments," through observation, or by trial and error. These methods failed to develop proper skills and attitudes, and they allowed for no formal check on when the candidate reached proficiency."3 Such a situa- tion would not be found in some of the large industries of the region - for instance, the oil refineries of Trinidad or the Dutch islands with their elaborate training schools. But the unskilled or semiskilled worker in the Caribbean works characteristically, per- haps, in a factory similar to those described in Jamaica. III In summary, the following points have been made with regard to technical and industrial education in the Caribbean: 1. This is an area in which the large majority of the people earns a living directly from growing, making, and processing things, rather than from provision of services, administration, offie work, and bookish pursuits. Economic growth calls for increasing the dexterity and range of skills of the population, and upon the knowl- edgeable introduction and use of technological multipliers at key points in the productive process. 2. From the earliest school years the child must be encouraged in a warm, affective response toward his environment, and toward handling and shaping the materials of that environment. The afec- tie element of the education needs particular stress in view of prevailing attitudes toward manual labor that are variously de- scribed as characterizing ex-hidalgos, ex-slaves, or colonial peoples. 3. In these changing societies with their expanding range of life- chances, the system should not require vocational choices of stu- dents before they reach their teens. Such choices should be assisted by proper counseling. 4. The technical school itself should not be the victim of invidious comparison. The remedy, however, is not to window-dress the technical curriculum with a few unrelated citizenship and "culture" courses. It is to make technical studies boldly and unequivocally the core of the program, liberalizing them through a stress upon  SPECIAL EDUCATION 173 principles of operation rather than upon the minutiae of execution. The need for such liberalization is particularly strong in economies that are subject to technological shifts and leaps which do not orig- inate internally. 5. Technical education should be devised with an eye to local societies, economic needs, and workers' psychology. It must be seen as integral to plans for economic development. Foreign or "met- ropolitan" specifications, however, should be taken into account in cases where: (a) one assumes the eventual adoption of such standards locally, (b) items to be produced will be sold in the foreign market, (c) a sizable number of the working population are potential out-migrants. 6. With the cooperation of agriculture and industry, effective student placement arrangements must be devised so as to make optimum use of trained persons. 7. Liberalized school curricula must be complemented by formal and specialized in-service training. If a special point has not been made of the enormous cadres of additional trained workers and technicians which the Caribbean region needs, this may be attributed simply to an old-fashioned bias in favor of the qualitative aspects of education. NOTES 1. Caribbean Commission, Development of Vocational Education in the Caribbean (Port-of-Spain, 1953), p. 3. 2. New York Times, November 1, 1959. 3. Quoted in C. H. Dobinson, Technical Education for Adolescents (Lon- don: George G. Harrap, 1951), p. 60. 4. Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims of Education (New York, 1949), pp. 58-64. 5. Ella Campbell, "Industrial Training Methods," Social and Economic Studies, II, 1 (September, 1953), 18. 6. Lorenzo Garcia Hernandez, La eduacidn vocacional y eonica, la cultura y el automatismo (mimeographed, n.d.), p. 2. 7. Puerto Rico, Departmento de Instrucci6n Pdblica, Divisi6n de Instruccidn Vocacional, Trade and Industrial Education in Puerto Rico (1955), p. 3. 8. Dobinson, op. cit., p. 80. 9. Spens Report of 1938 (England) quoted in ibid., pp. 63-64. 10. Memorandum on Technical Education in the British Caribbean, Devel- opment and Welfare in the West Indies, Bulletin No. 37 (2nd ed.; Bridge- town, Barbados, 1957), p. 10. 11. Dobinson, op. cit., p. 26. 12. Robert B. MacVean and Francisco Nieves C., "Educational Reorganiza- tion in Guatemala," Comparative Education Review, I, 3 (February, 1958), 18-19. SPECIAL EDUCATION 178 principles of operation rather than upon the minutiae of execution. The need for such liberalization is particularly strong in economies that are subject to technological shifts and leaps which do not orig- inate internally. 5. Technical education should be devised with an eye to local societies, economic needs, and workers' psychology. It must be seen as integral to plans for economic development. Foreign or "met- ropolitan" specifications, however, should be taken into account in cases where: (a) one assumes the eventual adoption of such standards locally, (b) items to be produced will be sold in the foreign market, (c) a sizable number of the working population are potential out-migrants. 6. With the cooperation of agriculture and industry, effective student placement arrangements must be devised so as to make optimum use of trained persons. 7. Liberalized school curricula must be complemented by formal and specialized in-service training. If a special point has not been made of the enormous cadres of additional trained workers and technicians which the Caribbean region needs, this may be attributed simply to an old-fashioned bias in favor of the qualitative aspects of education. NOTES 1. Caribbean Commission, Development of Vocational Education in the Caribbean (Port-of-Spain, 1953), p. 3. 2. New York Times, November 1, 1959. 3. Quoted in C. H. Dobinson, Technical Education for Adolescents (Lon- don: George G. Harrap, 1951), p. 60. 4. Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims of Education (New York, 1949), pp. 58-64. 5. Ella Campbell, "Industrial Training Methods," Social and Economic Studies, II, 1 (September, 1953), 18. 6. Lorenzo Garcia Hernindez, La educacion vocacional y ldnica, la cultura y el automatismo (mimeographed, n.d.), p. 2. 7. Puerto Rico, Departmento de Instrucci6n Pdblica, Divisi6n de Instrucci6n Vocacional, Trade and Industrial Education in Puerto Rico (1955), p. 3. 8. Dobinson, op. cit., p. 80. 9. Spens Report of 1938 (England) quoted in ibid., pp. 63-64. 10. Memorandum on Technical Education in the British Caribbean, Devel- opment and Welfare in the West Indies, Bulletin No. 37 (2nd ed.; Bridge- town, Barbados, 1957), p. 10. 11. Dobinson, op. cit., p. 26. 12. Robert B. MacVean and Francisco Nieves C., "Educational Reorganiza- tion in Guatemala," Comparative Education Review, I, 3 (February, 1958), 18-19. SPECIAL EDUCATION 178 principles of operation rather than upon the minutiae of execution. The need for such liberalization is particularly strong in economies that are subject to technological shifts and leaps which do not orig- inate internally. 5. Technical education should be devised with an eye to local societies, economic needs, and workers' psychology. It must be seen as integral to plans for economic development. Foreign or "met- ropolitan" specifications, however, should be taken into account in cases where: (a) one assumes the eventual adoption of such standards locally, (b) items to be produced will be sold in the foreign market, (c) a sizable number of the working population are potential out-migrants. 6. With the cooperation of agriculture and industry, effective student placement arrangements must be devised so as to make optimum use of trained persons. 7. Liberalized school curricula must be complemented by formal and specialized in-service training. If a special point has not been made of the enormous cadres of additional trained workers and technicians which the Caribbean region needs, this may be attributed simply to an old-fashioned bias in favor of the qualitative aspects of education. NOTES 1. Caribbean Commission, Development of Vocational Education in the Caribbean (Port-of-Spain, 1953), p. 3. 2. New York Times, November 1, 1959. 3. Quoted in C. H. Dobinson, Technical Education for Adolescents (Lon- don: George G. Harrap, 1951), p. 60. 4. Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims of Education (New York, 1949), pp. 58-64. 5. Ella Campbell, "Industrial Training Methods," Social and Economic Studies, II, 1 (September, 1953), 18. 6. Lorenzo Garia Hernandez, La educacion nocacional y Idenica, la cultura y el automatismo (mimeographed, n.d.), p. 2. 7. Puerto Rico, Departmento de Instruccidn Pnblica, Divisi6n de Instruccion Vocacional, Trade and Industrial Education in Puerto Rico (1955), p. 3. 8. Dobinson, op. cit., p. 80. 9. Speas Report of 1938 (England) quoted in ibid., pp. 63-64. 10. Memorandum on Technical Education in the British Caribbean, Devel- opment and Welfare in the West Indies, Bulletin No. 37 (2nd ed.; Bridge- town, Barbados, 1957), p. 10. 11. Dobinson, op. cit., p. 26. 12. Robert B. MacVean and Francisco Nieves C., "Educational Reorganiza- tion in Guatemala," Comparative Education Review, I, 3 (February, 1958), 18-19.  174 The Caribbean 13. Qoteod in Gorogo F. Kneoller, The Educaion of the Mexhican Naton (New' Yook, 1951), p. 15600. 14. Fobc Willipomo, Educat.ion i too Broitish Wool Indies (Port-of-Spaino, 1950), pp. 46-51. 15. Jaoes G. Maddox, "Educathon io Topootido," American Uoniverstieso Fie14 Sopff Lotter Mexico ()JGM-1-'55), pp. 5-7. 16. Arthur T. Mosher, Technicapl Coopratio in Latio-Ameroican Agoicol- tuoo (Clhiapo, 5957), p.952. 17. CaribenommisonThSochild EcFooiBgounodof he Caribbean pod tho Educpionoad Pobolooos Ariig Thoooeoooo (Port-of-Spain, 1954), Agenda Itooo 4, Dop. Np. 1/1, p. 7. 18. Spoford A. Mook, Inodustral Roevolion ion Mexioo (Berkeloy and4 Lot Aoogeles, 1950), p. 563. 19. Mary Prouodfoot, Britaio oaod the Uoitod Stateos io oko Carkhopan (New Took, 1953),0p. 306. 20. Coribboan Comission, Educationo in ohe Carihbbean (Poro-of-Spino, 1956), p. 19. 21. Now Took Timoes, Ocoberho 25, 5959. 22.W. F. Maunder, "TheoNewofJamaican Emigron,"SoilodEoomoio Studies, IV, 1 (Maroh, 1955), 51. See also . W. Rioberto and D. 0. Mills, Stuodp of Externaol Migration Aftecting Jaooaico; 1953-55 (Kingston, 5959), pp. 99, 115. 23. Camopbell, loc. oil. ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY "Aspectoo do So eduocaoidon tdoio e Amorica," Lo Edoooopidno, II, 7 (July- Septembero, 1957), 22-33. Caribbean Comiion. Coaoikhbooo Educatio 1549-1952 (Port-of-Spain, 1954). Cootro Clloa, Coillermo. "El desarrollo industolal do M6oico p So doeopoda de tdnicosos oferencias (andlii y ercdo detrabo dlaocpa- cioooes poofooioooleo) (Mexico Cloy, 1959), pp. 11-34. Cosoo Rica, Mioistorio do Edoopoiho Poibliop, Seopidn do Bdooooido Voca- onaol. Colegos vooalelo do Coota Rlica (San food, 1959). Moonuol do ifoooooido 1959 (San food, 1959). Poyecto de orgoooioooid dol Consejo Nionaool de Educacoidno Voca- oional (Sa oso,on.d.). Cotgrove, Stephoen F. Technicol Educoatoon pod Soipl Choaogo (London, 1958). Doominipao Repoublic, Seoetaria do Esopdo do Edoopoido y BeoSas Arteo. Summarypo of theo Organization and Devlopmentoo of Itoe Dominican Educa- tioo io tho Trujill o )Ciudad Trujillo, 1958). Coopzdlez Ioigooyen, Bdoooolo. "Monterrey Teoh, p Revoluotion 1in Mexicao Edu- cation," Aooeodopo, VII, 5 (May, 1955), 16-19. Meyor, Hoovey Keotler. Topconicpl Educono ino Nicooguao (Coluomboot, Ohilo, 1958). Niaoogoa, Minsteooo do Edoopopido P4bliop, Inoototute Naionaol Tdooocp Voop- oional. Lapeduopin ocaionapl enmprcha (Managua,on. d.). --.Lopoo p oeglameosoo ol Institute Noooiooool Tecnioho Voaopipoopl (Managuap, 1956). 174 The Caribbean 13. Qoted Fn Cooge F. Kelor, Tho Educootioo of 19e Mexican Natioo (New Yook, 5951), p. 136o. 14. Edoc Willipoot, Educoiono i00 Iko Brtis Wostlondieo (Port-of-Spoin, 5959), pp. 46-51. 15. Joooos C. Maddox, "Edopotion 500 Topootldo," American Univerite Pield Soaff Letter, Mexloo (JGM-1-'55), pp.S5-7. 16. Aorthoo T. Mooher, Toohnicol Co-operaion 500 Lati-Ameroican Agricul- 00000 (Chloago, 1957),5p.82. 17. Coribkeoo Commoiooioo, Tho Sooiol oand Eoomic Bookgoood of tho Cooibbooao pod Iho Educaotioool Polemos Aoioioog Thorofom (Poro-of-Spino, 1954), Ageoda Iteoo 4, Doo. No. 1/1, p. 7. 59. Sanorod A. Mook, Inodustrool Rooolotiono So Mexico (Berkeley ood Los Anogeles, 5959), p. 263. 59. Mooy Poodfoot, Boitpio ood tho Unitod Stateo in tho Caribbkoan (Newo Took, 1953), p. 506. 20. Caribbkopo Commoioiono, Edocoiono io tho Caribbooo (Pot-of-Spain, 5956), p. 19. 21. Nooo Took Tiooeo, Ootober 23, 1959. 22. W. F. Maooder, "The NeowfJooaicao Emigratoon," Sooiol pool Eooic Studioo, IV, 1 (Maooco, 1955), 51. See alto C. W. Roborto pod 0. 0. Mils, Studyo of Eotoorool Migroion Affeotiog Jaoopicp; 1955-55 (Kingston, 1958). pp. 99, 115. 25. Coampbell, loo. cit. ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY "Aspeotot do la eduoppcido 1609000 op Apodosp,' Lo Eduoaoido, II, 7 (Joly- Septembeor, 1957), 22-33. Caribkepp Copooisio. Cparlbbopn Educatlion 1940-1952 (Port-of-Spai, 1994). Cootoo Clloa, CGuillermoo. "ES dooprrollo indoostrial do Mdxio y la doemanda do tios" Dos onoferencis(andlii y mercapdo do toabajo do I-o ocupa- cioneso poofeollo) (Meoico City, 1958), pp. 11-34. Cooto Riop, Miosteobo do Edooooido Publioo, Seocioip do Eduoooion Voop- piopol. Cologioo voiooolo do Costp Piop (Soo food, 1956). Maopal do iofooooooido 1959 (Sao food, 1999). --Poyoodogoiooid dl CooojooNaoioopl deEducaidnVoca- onaool (San food, od.). Cotgovo, Stophon F. Techoicpl Edooption pool Soocool Choaogo (Loodon, 1959). Domoiniopo Bopokio, Socootpoip do Eotodo do Edpopoidp p Bellas Artot. Summaryp of the Organziono pod Deoelopmento of the Dpominican Eduopo- tion So tho Trujtio Era (Ciodod Toojillo, 1958). Coppilop Irigoyoo, Roloulo. "Mooterrey Took, p Revoluon in Mooloap Edo. option," Ameoocas, VII, 5 (May, 1955), 16-19. Moyoo, Harvoy Kessler. Toocooicol Edooatioo io Nioaoogop (Coluombos, Ohio, 1959). Nioaragoa, Mhiiteoo do Edoopoido Poicaso, Iotltutp Nociooal TWeal- Voop- onaol. La eduoocindocapionaloonomarcha (Managua, on. d.). Lopos y reglameontes dol Iostituto Naciool Tdooioo Vooooional (Maoagua, 1959). 174 The Caribbean 15. Qootod in Corgo F. Koolleo, Tho Edocotioo of oko Mooiooo Natioo (New. Took, 1951), p. 136. 54. Edoc Willpoos, Edooption in tho Broti9 Woot Iodioo (Poro-of-Spai, 1950), pp. 46-51. 15. Joooeo C. Maddoo, "Eduoptsoo ho Topopoldo," Amoeriopn Univeroities Fiold Sopff Letter, Mooioo ()JGM-S-'55), pp. 5-7. 16. Arokoo T. Moohop, Toohoioal Co-oporation So Lain-Amooioao Agoicol- loop (Chioago, 1957), p. 62. 17. Caribbeapn Commoission, The Social aod EcoomicF Bookounpod of tho Coribbooo pod tho Educatioool Prokesoo Arishog Thooofom (Poro-oo-Spai, 1954), Agooodo Iteoo 4, Dpo. No. 1/1, p. 7. 19. Sanfood A. Moth, Iodostool Reoolution in Moio (Berkoloy aod Lot Angeloo, 1950), p. 263. 19. Moro Proodfoot, Boitaio pood tho Unotod Stptos io tho Caribboao (Non Took, 5953), p. 506. 20. Caribbeopo Comomipon, Edooption in tho Cordhbooo (Poro-of-Spai, 1956), p. 19. 21. Non Took Timpo, Ocobkr 25, 1959. 22. W. F. Maunder, "The New Jamaican Emigratio," Sooial pod Ecoomic Stodiop, IV, S (Maroh, 155), 1. See also C. W. Rokorto pod 0. 0. Milks, Stody of Eotorool Migoation Adootiog Jomiop; 1955-55 (Kinogson, 1956), pp. 99, 115. 25. Copbpeol, loc. oit. ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRSAPHYT "Aspectot do In odooaoido t~oooiop en Aoicaio," Lo Eduoooido, II, 7 (JuPly- Septembero, 1957), 22-33. Carihbeao Gommsonjoo. Cpoibbopn Edooptipon 1940-1952 (Port-of-Spai, 1954). Cootoo Cllop, Guillermo. "El deoarro1lo ipdotipl do Mdxiop y So demaonda do tdeos" Dos conoferenciaso(adlisis y meocado do toabajo do las ocopo- coneso poofopiooolop) (Meoico City, 1959), pp. 11-54. Costo R~ipa, Mhiisero do Edoopoidp Poico, Soooido do Edoopoido Vocp- onool. Colegios oopoioplop do Cooto Piop (Spo food, 1958). Maonool do ioforaooood 2959 (Sap food, 1959). --Poyodogoioid dl CoooNaionapl deEducaidnoVoc- osoonol (Boo Jotd, od.). Cotgooe, Stephen F. Toohnpiopl Edoopuioo ood Spoiaol Chaoge (Lonodoo, 1959). ODoiica Ropoklio, Soorotpria do Etapdo do Edoopoido y Bollso Aotet. Summarooy of the Ooganoizaiono ood Devolopmenot of tho Domniiop Eduop- tion io tho Trujillo Eooo (Ciodpd Trujillo, 1959). Gonzalop Irgoyoo, Boboooho. "Mootooooy Took, p Revooluton io Moxdopo Edo. optono," Ameroicas, VII, 5 (May, 5955), 56-29. Meyoo, Haroooy eoslor. Toohnioal Edooptioo So Niopopgup (Coluoobot, Ohio, 1958). Nioaoagoa, Mhioisoeio do Edoopoido Pdkliop, Institute Naoional Tdooioo Vopa- oional. Laoduoai oo o nloo maooha (Maoagoa,n. d.). LeyesO y oogkooooolo dol Institoto Npoiopal Tdooico Voopoioool (Managua, 1959).  SPECIAL EDUCATION 175 Voaioa Education in the Dominican,, Republic (Washbington, 1951). Vocational Educatlion in, El Salvador, (Washingt, 1951). Voctional Education in Haiti (Washingto, 1952). Vocationl Education in Hodua (Washington, 1951). Vctional Edcto 9n Paam (Washington, 1952). El Salvador y las reformas acomejable, United, Nations Technical Assistance Mission (1952). Purt Rico, Depar9mento de 9,,9,,,9,4, Publica, 055,1i6, de I,,,t,,,,,,9, Vocatna Education (Hato, Rey, 1959). Arin,9dustrialesa Puerto, Rico, (Hto, Rey, 1955). Programa des antes, industriales en, Pueto, Rico, (to, Sey, 1959). Revtiew, I, 1-2 (Decebe, 1949), 99-132. SPECIAL EDUCATION 175 Votona~l Eductnttin theS Dominican Republic (Washingtn, 1951). Vocattional, Edtucation in El Salvador (Washington,, 1951). Voca,,tional, EducaSto in Haiti (Wasigto, 1955). Vocatinal Educaton in Honduras. (Washington, 1951). Vocational Eduction in Panama, (Washington, 1955). El Salvador y las, re4tns acomejabSle, United Nat1ions Technical Assisance Mission, (1952). Vocational Eductn (Hato, Sty, 5959). Aries, indtriajlen Pernto Rico, (Hato ey, 1955). Programa des artes indstrale en Peto Rico (Ht R5,ey, 1959). "Survey ofVoctonal TraininglintheC ar1ibbeaC~ ~n, ibenEconomic Revittn, I, 1-2 (Decem,,be, 1949), 99-135. SPECIAL EDUCATION 175 Voca til Edtion , in tel ominican RWepublic 195hnto1). 1) Vocatkionl Educationi El Salvado (WWashngton, 1952). Vocationl Education in Hait (Whgtn, 195). El Salvador, y las, rformas, acome59,h1,,, United Nations Technical, Assistancte Mission, (5952). Vocattional Edution,, (Hato Rey, 1959). Antes indut9Iles en, Puerto Rico (Hto Sty, 1955). Programa 4des artes indutritles en Petot Rico (Hato Re, 1959). Revietnt, I, 1-2 (Decemtbe, 1949), 99-132.  12 "VI 12 12 Jaime de la Guardia: PROBLEMS OF THE MEDICAL CURRICULUM IN THE CARIBBEAN THE IMPORTANCE OF medical education became once more evident when 800 delegates from 66 countries met in Chicago for the Second World Conference on Medical Education in the early part of September of this year. I shall try to discuss with you, within the limitations of the time allotted me, the salient points of a medical curriculum. A medical curriculum represents an effort to organize teaching in the most efficient way. This effort is conditioned by the physical facilities and the human material available. It is costly. The medical school has been called the white elephant of the small and finan- cially poor universities. It represents, however, and as a rule, a pilot group of splendid students, well selected, disciplined in the scientific method, and holders of a high morale. Success in the teaching of medicine like in any other educational endeavor depends largely on the quality of teachers and students. The mechanics of this relationship are of secondary importance. No method of teaching can replace quality. Education is one; pri- mary, secondary, and university education are but the links of a chain, and weakness of any of them will affect the others substan- tially, hence the importance of the proper preparation and selection of the medical student before his initiation into his premedical and medical studies. A well-rounded humanistic education for a person who has to move with certain authority, capable of inspiring con- fidence in all strata of society, is practically imperative. The mere Jaime de la Guardia: PROBLEMS OF THE MEDICAL CURRICULUM IN THE CARIBBEAN THE IMPORTANCE OF medical education became once more evident when 800 delegates from 66 countries met in Chicago for the Second World Conference on Medical Education in the early part of September of this year. I shall try to discuss with you, within the limitations of the time allotted me, the salient points of a medical curriculum. A medical curriculum represents an effort to organize teaching in the most efficient way. This effort is conditioned by the physical facilities and the human material available. It is costly. The medical school has been called the white elephant of the small and finan- cially poor universities. It represents, however, and as a rule, a pilot group of splendid students, well selected, disciplined in the scientific method, and holders of a high morale. Success in the teaching of medicine like in any other educational endeavor depends largely on the quality of teachers and students. The mechanics of this relationship are of secondary importance. No method of teaching can replace quality. Education is one; pri- mary, secondary, and university education are but the links of a chain, and weakness of any of them will affect the others substan- tially, hence the importance of the proper preparation and selection of the medical student before his initiation into his premedical and medical studies. A well-rounded humanistic education for a person who has to move with certain authority, capable of inspiring con- fidence in all strata of society, is practically imperative. The mere 176 Jaime de la Guardia: PROBLEMS OF THE MEDICAL CURRICULUM IN THE CARIBBEAN THE IMPORTANCE OF medical education became once more evident when 800 delegates from 66 countries met in Chicago for the Second World Conference on Medical Education in the early part of September of this year. I shall try to discuss with you, within the limitations of the time allotted me, the salient points of a medical curriculum. A medical curriculum represents an effort to organize teaching in the most efficient way. This effort is conditioned by the physical facilities and the human material available. It is costly. The medical school has been called the white elephant of the small and finan- cially poor universities. It represents, however, and as a rule, a pilot group of splendid students, well selected, disciplined in the scientific method, and holders of a high morale. Success in the teaching of medicine like in any other educational endeavor depends largely on the quality of teachers and students. The mechanics of this relationship are of secondary importance. No method of teaching can replace quality. Education is one; pri- mary, secondary, and university education are but the links of a chain, and weakness of any of them will affect the others substan- tially, hence the importance of the proper preparation and selection of the medical student before his initiation into his premedical and medical studies. A well-rounded humanistic education for a person who has to move with certain authority, capable of inspiring con- fidence in all strata of society, is practically imperative. The mere 176  SPECIAL EDUCATION 177 SPECIAL EDUCATION 177 SPECIAL EDUCATION 177 knowledge of facts is not all, "facts are but straws in the brick of wisdom." "Knowledge comes but wisdom lingers." We must not permit, as Casberg says, that doctors become supertechnicians by isolating them from intercourse with humanities. An academic segregation could be disastrous for the future of medicine, which is a science but also an art. We believe that a very careful selection of the medical student should be made, leaving to the medical faculty the modus operandi of this selection. To realize the difficulties implied in organizing a medical cur- riculum one must remember that it aims to prepare not only medical and surgical practitioners but also investigators and teachers, a tremendous task in a profession which every day creates new and important knowledge requiring all types of specialization. Medicine is rapidly becoming a science of specialization. The applicability of any curriculum varies not only according to nations and regions but even to cities within the same country. Social and economic demands play an important role in its organization and implemen- tation. This opinion, universally accepted, should remind the dis- tinguished medical teachers attending this Conference of the dif- ficulties that I shall encounter in presenting this paper concisely and intelligently. I request your indulgence. II Physical Facilities. No medical teaching, undergraduate or graduate, should be attempted without the facilities of a well- organized, well-equipped, and efficiently-run general hospital of about 500 beds. A hospital of this type is well known and standard in this area, requiring therefore no detailed description. But many are needed in the Caribbean. Students. (Premedical and medical preparation.) The time needed in a medical school to impart a rapidly increasing knowl- edge has made it necessary to demand from the student, previous to his admission, a thorough investigation as to the soundness of his premedical education and a meticulous study of his personality, particularly directed towards his emotional behavior and profes- sional attitude. It is imperative that he should have a broad human- istic education given in high school and college, or its equivalent. This preparation should comprise besides a thorough knowledge of his native tongue, history, philosophy, foreign languages, and math- knowledge of facts is not all, "facts are but straws in the brick of wisdom." "Knowledge comes but wisdom lingers." We must not permit, as Casberg says, that doctors become supertechnicians by isolating them from intercourse with humanities. An academic segregation could be disastrous for the future of medicine, which is a science but also an art. We believe that a very careful selection of the medical student should be made, leaving to the medical faculty the modus operandi of this selection. To realize the difficulties implied in organizing a medical cur- riculum one must remember that it aims to prepare not only medical and surgical practitioners but also investigators and teachers, a tremendous task in a profession which every day creates new and important knowledge requiring all types of specialization. Medicine is rapidly becoming a science of specialization. The applicability of any curriculum varies not only according to nations and regions but even to cities within the same country. Social and economic demands play an important role in its organization and implemen- tation. This opinion, universally accepted, should remind the dis- tinguished medical teachers attending this Conference of the dif- ficulties that I shall encounter in presenting this paper concisely and intelligently. I request your indulgence. II Physical Facilities. No medical teaching, undergraduate or graduate, should be attempted without the facilities of a well- organized, well-equipped, and efficiently-run general hospital of about 500 beds. A hospital of this type is well known and standard in this area, requiring therefore no detailed description. But many are needed in the Caribbean. Students. (Premedical and medical preparation.) The time needed in a medical school to impart a rapidly increasing knowl- edge has made it necessary to demand from the student, previous to his admission, a thorough investigation as to the soundness of his premedical education and a meticulous study of his personality, particularly directed towards his emotional behavior and profes- sional attitude. It is imperative that he should have a broad human- istic education given in high school and college, or its equivalent. This preparation should comprise besides a thorough knowledge of his native tongue, history, philosophy, foreign languages, and math- knowledge of facts is not all, "facts are but straws in the brick of wisdom." "Knowledge comes but wisdom lingers." We must not permit, as Casberg says, that doctors become supertechnicians by isolating them from intercourse with humanities. An academic segregation could be disastrous for the future of medicine, which is a science but also an art. We believe that a very careful selection of the medical student should be made, leaving to the medical faculty the modus operandi of this selection. To realize the difficulties implied in organizing a medical cur- riculum one must remember that it aims to prepare not only medical and surgical practitioners but also investigators and teachers, a tremendous task in a profession which every day creates new and important knowledge requiring all types of specialization. Medicine is rapidly becoming a science of specialization. The applicability of any curriculum varies not only according to nations and regions but even to cities within the same country. Social and economic demands play an important role in its organization and implemen- tation. This opinion, universally accepted, should remind the dis- tinguished medical teachers attending this Conference of the dif- ficulties that I shall encounter in presenting this paper concisely and intelligently. I request your indulgence. II Physical Facilities. No medical teaching, undergraduate or graduate, should be attempted without the facilities of a well- organized, well-equipped, and efficiently-run general hospital of about 500 beds. A hospital of this type is well known and standard in this area, requiring therefore no detailed description. But many are needed in the Caribbean. Students. (Premedical and medical preparation.) The time needed in a medical school to impart a rapidly increasing knowl- edge has made it necessary to demand from the student, previous to his admission, a thorough investigation as to the soundness of his premedical education and a meticulous study of his personality, particularly directed towards his emotional behavior and profes- sional attitude. It is imperative that he should have a broad human- istic education given in high school and college, or its equivalent. This preparation should comprise besides a thorough knowledge of his native tongue, history, philosophy, foreign languages, and math-  178 The Caribbean ematics, the latter as an excellent training in logistic thinking, the regular courses in biology, chemistry, and physics. These scientific subjects do not have to be taught necessarily more intensively than the others. The general preparation so outlined requires time and there is unfortunately today a tendency, mani- fested everywhere, to reduce the number of years of premedical and medical education. I do not believe in the advisability of this recommendation, among other reasons, because statistical figures show that the average life expectancy in the United States, for example, has increased in the last 60 years from 49 to 72 years. Similar, if not quite as satisfactory, figures are observed in countries to the south, and I see no convincing reason why we should rush through a medical student who has today the potentialities and probabilities of living 20 years more than we had when we started our premedical education. Besides I do not consider it fair - rather a sign of unjust totalitarian regimentation - to shorten the most pleasant years in the life of a man which are unquestionably those spent in high school, college, and university. The idea of trying to crowd the teaching of a rapidly expanding medical knowledge, and knowledge of all other sorts besides, in less and less time is unjustified, antipedagogic, and definitely unfair towards the young man in his twenties. A good liberal education and a well-planned medical education ought to be the logical aim in the preparation of the Doctor of the future, regardless of the time needed to impart it. Curriculum. And now permit me to take a glance with you at the most important points of the curriculum as it should be in Caribbean medical schools. The classical subjects of anatomy, physi- ology, biochemistry, bacteriology, and pharmacology should be taught with a more dynamic conception of their relation to clinical medicine. They are but stepping-stones to clinical medicine. Per- haps it should be considered also, as Sir Francis Fraser has sug- gested, that modern physics, chemistry, and biology are now preclinical rather than premedical subjects. The teaching of anatomy as the visualization of the numerous but static component parts of the human body, without their dynamic relationship to their physiological activities, should be a thing of the past. Anatomy, gross and microscopic, should be taught expressively to facilitate the understanding of physiology and biochemistry. Pathology should be taught as a deviation from physiology. 178 The Caribbean ematics, the latter as an excellent training in logistic thinking, the regular courses in biology, chemistry, and physics. These scientific subjects do not have to be taught necessarily more intensively than the others. The general preparation so outlined requires time and there is unfortunately today a tendency, mani- fested everywhere, to reduce the number of years of premedical and medical education. I do not believe in the advisability of this recommendation, among other reasons, because statistical figures show that the average life expectancy in the United States, for example, has increased in the last 60 years from 49 to 72 years. Similar, if not quite as satisfactory, figures are observed in countries to the south, and I see no convincing reason why we should rush through a medical student who has today the potentialities and probabilities of living 20 years more than we had when we started our premedical education. Besides I do not consider it fair - rather a sign of unjust totalitarian regimentation - to shorten the most pleasant years in the life of a man which are unquestionably those spent in high school, college, and university. The idea of trying to crowd the teaching of a rapidly expanding medical knowledge, and knowledge of all other sorts besides, in less and less time is unjustified, antipedagogic, and definitely unfair towards the young man in his twenties. A good liberal education and a well-planned medical education ought to be the logical aim in the preparation of the Doctor of the future, regardless of the time needed to impart it. Curriculum. And now permit me to take a glance with you at the most important points of the curriculum as it should be in Caribbean medical schools. The classical subjects of anatomy, physi- ology, biochemistry, bacteriology, and pharmacology should be taught with a more dynamic conception of their relation to clinical medicine. They are but stepping-stones to clinical medicine. Per- haps it should be considered also, as Sir Francis Fraser has sug- gested, that modern physics, chemistry, and biology are now preclinical rather than premedical subjects. The teaching of anatomy as the visualization of the numerous but static component parts of the human body, without their dynamic relationship to their physiological activities, should be a thing of the past. Anatomy, gross and microscopic, should be taught expressively to facilitate the understanding of physiology and biochemistry. Pathology should be taught as a deviation from physiology. 178 The Caribbean ematics, the latter as an excellent training in logistic thinking, the regular courses in biology, chemistry, and physics. These scientific subjects do not have to be taught necessarily more intensively than the others. The general preparation so outlined requires time and there is unfortunately today a tendency, mani- fested everywhere, to reduce the number of years of premedical and medical education. I do not believe in the advisability of this recommendation, among other reasons, because statistical figures show that the average life expectancy in the United States, for example, has increased in the last 60 years from 49 to 72 years. Similar, if not quite as satisfactory, figures are observed in countries to the south, and I see no convincing reason why we should rush through a medical student who has today the potentialities and probabilities of living 20 years more than we had when we started our premedical education. Besides I do not consider it fair - rather a sign of unjust totalitarian regimentation - to shorten the most pleasant years in the life of a man which are unquestionably those spent in high school, college, and university. The idea of trying to crowd the teaching of a rapidly expanding medical knowledge, and knowledge of all other sorts besides, in less and less time is unjustified, antipedagogic, and definitely unfair towards the young man in his twenties. A good liberal education and a well-planned medical education ought to be the logical aim in the preparation of the Doctor of the future, regardless of the time needed to impart it. Curriculum. And now permit me to take a glance with you at the most important points of the curriculum as it should be in Caribbean medical schools. The classical subjects of anatomy, physi- ology, biochemistry, bacteriology, and pharmacology should be taught with a more dynamic conception of their relation to clinical medicine. They are but stepping-stones to clinical medicine. Per- haps it should be considered also, as Sir Francis Fraser has sug- gested, that modern physics, chemistry, and biology are now preclinical rather than premedical subjects. The teaching of anatomy as the visualization of the numerous but static component parts of the human body, without their dynamic relationship to their physiological activities, should be a thing of the past. Anatomy, gross and microscopic, should be taught expressively to facilitate the understanding of physiology and biochemistry. Pathology should be taught as a deviation from physiology.  SPECIAL EDUCATION 179 The integration of basic and clinical sciences within a definite trajectory is most important. There is no better way of bringing about this incorporation than the clinico-pathological conference which represents one of the most productive methods of clinical teaching. It is only fair to give credit to North American medicine and particularly to Dr. Cabot of Boston for this activity, which has contributed so largely to good medical education. It is well to mention here the ditficulties encountered by a rather large number of medical schools in the Caribbean to obtain the services of professors of anatomy, physiology, and other basic sci- ences, who have received a complete medical training. A large number of them are doctors in philosophy but not doctors in medi- cine, and it is obvious how difficult it should be for them all, if at all possible, to correlate their teaching with clinical subjects. Good salaries and adequate environment with better research facilities must be offered in order to draw young medical talent into the field of basic sciences to correct this anomaly which represents a weak point in the organization of an increasing number of medical schools, particularly in the United States. The Clinical Group. Internal medicine, general surgery, pedi- atrics, obstetrics, pathological psychology, and psychiatry are unquestionably fundamental pillars in the teaching of clinical medi- cine in the Caribbean as elsewhere. Time does not permit to discuss with you the relative importance of each, and much less even to suggest the proper methods of teaching them. Their signifi- cance, however, is paramount and naturally they should be taught thoroughly under the hospital environment which permits effective bedside teaching. The difficult problem comes, however, when we have to incor- porate medical specialties into the regular curriculum. The large and increasing volume of knowledge encountered in gynecology, orthopedic surgery and traumatology, dermatology, neuro-surgery, otorhinolaryngology, ophthalmology, neurology, etc., and the rap- idly expanding field of preventive and social medicine, has become one of the most difficult situations in medical teaching. No definite recommendations were offered for its solution at the World Con- ference on Medical Education; but remembering that the title of the opening and closing addresses was "Medicine, a Long Life Study," one can assume that the teaching of specialties should defi- nitely be a postgraduate activity, leaving for the undergraduate SPECIAL EDUCATION 179 The integration of basic and clinical sciences within a definite trajectory is most important. There is no better way of bringing about this incorporation than the clinico-pathological conference which represents one of the most productive methods of clinical teaching. It is only fair to give credit to North American medicine and particularly to Dr. Cabot of Boston for this activity, which has contributed so largely to good medical education. It is well to mention here the difficulties encountered by a rather large number of medical schools in the Caribbean to obtain the services of professors of anatomy, physiology, and other basic sci- ences, who have received a complete medical training. A large number of them are doctors in philosophy but not doctors in medi- cine, and it is obvious how difficult it should be for them all, if at all possible, to correlate their teaching with clinical subjects. Good salaries and adequate environment with better research facilities must be offered in order to draw young medical talent into the field of basic sciences to correct this anomaly which represents a weak point in the organization of an increasing number of medical schools, particularly in the United States. The Clinical Group. Internal medicine, general surgery, pedi- atrics, obstetrics, pathological psychology, and psychiatry are unquestionably fundamental pillars in the teaching of clinical medi- cine in the Caribbean as elsewhere. Time does not permit to discuss with you the relative importance of each, and much less even to suggest the proper methods of teaching them. Their signifi- cance, however, is paramount and naturally they should be taught thoroughly under the hospital environment which permits effective bedside teaching. The difficult problem comes, however, when we have to incor- porate medical specialties into the regular curriculum. The large and increasing volume of knowledge encountered in gynecology, orthopedic surgery and traumatology, dermatology, neuro-surgery, otorhinolaryngology, ophthalmology, neurology, etc., and the rap- idly expanding field of preventive and social medicine, has become one of the most difficult situations in medical teaching. No definite recommendations were offered for its solution at the World Con- ference on Medical Education; but remembering that the title of the opening and closing addresses was "Medicine, a Long Life Study," one can assume that the teaching of specialties should defi- nitely be a postgraduate activity, leaving for the undergraduate SPECIAL EDUCATION 179 The integration of basic and clinical sciences within a definite trajectory is most important. There is no better way of bringing about this incorporation than the clinico-pathological conference which represents one of the most productive methods of clinical teaching. It is only fair to give credit to North American medicine and particularly to Dr. Cabot of Boston for this activity, which has contributed so largely to good medical education. It is well to mention here the difficulties encountered by a rather large number of medical schools in the Caribbean to obtain the services of professors of anatomy, physiology, and other basic sci- ences, who have received a complete medical training. A large number of them are doctors in philosophy but not doctors in medi- cine, and it is obvious how difcult it should be for them all, if at all possible, to correlate their teaching with clinical subjects. Good salaries and adequate environment with better research facilities must be offered in order to draw young medical talent into the field of basic sciences to correct this anomaly which represents a weak point in the organization of an increasing number of medical schools, particularly in the United States. The Clinical Group. Internal medicine, general surgery, pedi- atrics, obstetrics, pathological psychology, and psychiatry are unquestionably fundamental pillars in the teaching of clinical medi- cine in the Caribbean as elsewhere. Time does not permit to discuss with you the relative importance of each, and much less even to suggest the proper methods of teaching them. Their signifi- cance, however, is paramount and naturally they should be taught thoroughly under the hospital environment which permits effective bedside teaching. The difficult problem comes, however, when we have to incor- porate medical specialties into the regular curriculum. The large and increasing volume of knowledge encountered in gynecology, orthopedic surgery and traumatology, dermatology, neuro-surgery, otorhinolaryngology, ophthalmology, neurology, etc., and the rap- idly expanding field of preventive and social medicine, has become one of the most difficult situations in medical teaching. No definite recommendations were offered for its solution at the World Con- ference on Medical Education; but remembering that the title of the opening and closing addresses was "Medicine, a Long Life Study," one can assume that the teaching of specialties should defi- nitely be a postgraduate activity, leaving for the undergraduate  180 The Caribbean teaching the very fundamentals of these respective specialties. The student is capable of grasping but a small part of the vast knowl- edge, and in not a few cases he can do nothing else but memorize undigested facts to pass an examination. Let us hope for the benefit of our future doctors that the problem of intelligent incor- poration of specialized knowledge into the regular curriculum will be rapidly solved. Postgraduate Education. Postgraduate education is a serious responsibility that must be assumed by medical schools in the Caribbean. They have to take care not only of the instruction of the undergraduates, interns, and residents but also of refresher courses for all medical activities, general and specialized. The preceptor, both full and partial time, is now strongly rec- ommended in the teaching of modern medicine. It represents an effort to show the senior student principally the intricacies of medi- cal practice. The experience of a well-trained preceptor serves as guidance and example to the medical student in the joint relation- ship with the patient and should be most profitable for both, because the young preceptor, who must be chosen originally from the best qualified residents, should develop into the logical candi- date for the professorship of tomorrow. This should be particularly true of the full-time hospital preceptor. Research. Research is also one of the major responsibilities of a medical school. Its beneficial influence on the adequate prep- aration of the student is well recognized as it seems to develop, more than anything else, an inquiring mind which is most impor- tant not only in the practice of medicine but also in the training and development of good teachers and investigators. Early oppor- tunities for some type of research in the undergraduate period represent instruction in the scientific method which is indispensable to the future of medicine as a whole. Vernon W. Lippard has reported recently that in Yale Medical School all students devote three afternoons each week during the preclinical years-12 weeks (two blocks of six weeks each) during the clinical years-to research and some elective courses. Also they spend one or more summers in the laboratory. All this is to prepare a dissertation or thesis required for graduation. This, in my opinion, represents extremely interesting information that should be looked into by medical edu- cators throughout the Caribbean. 180 The Caribbean teaching the very fundamentals of these respective specialties. The student is capable of grasping but a small part of the vast knowl- edge, and in not a few cases he can do nothing else but memorize undigested facts to pass an examination. Let us hope for the benefit of our future doctors that the problem of intelligent incor- poration of specialized knowledge into the regular curriculum will be rapidly solved. Postgraduate Education. Postgraduate education is a serious responsibility that must be assumed by medical schools in the Caribbean. They have to take care not only of the instruction of the undergraduates, interns, and residents but also of refresher courses for all medical activities, general and specialized. The preceptor, both full and partial time, is now strongly rec- ommended in the teaching of modern medicine. It represents an effort to show the senior student principally the intricacies of medi- cal practice. The experience of a well-trained preceptor serves as guidance and example to the medical student in the joint relation- ship with the patient and should be most profitable for both, because the young preceptor, who must be chosen originally from the best qualified residents, should develop into the logical candi- date for the professorship of tomorrow. This should be particularly true of the full-time hospital preceptor. Research. Research is also one of the major responsibilities of a medical school. Its beneficial influence on the adequate prep- aration of the student is well recognized as it seems to develop, more than anything else, an inquiring mind which is most impor- tant not only in the practice of medicine but also in the training and development of good teachers and investigators. Early oppor- tunities for some type of research in the undergraduate period represent instruction in the scientific method which is indispensable to the future of medicine as a whole. Vernon W. Lippard has reported recently that in Yale Medical School all students devote three afternoons each week during the preclinical years-12 weeks (two blocks of six weeks each) during the clinical years-to research and some elective courses. Also they spend one or more summers in the laboratory. All this is to prepare a dissertation or thesis required for graduation. This, in my opinion, represents extremely interesting information that should be looked into by medical edu- cators throughout the Caribbean. 180 The Caribbean teaching the very fundamentals of these respective specialties. The student is capable of grasping but a small part of the vast knowl- edge, and in not a few cases he can do nothing else but memorize undigested facts to pass an examination. Let us hope for the benefit of our future doctors that the problem of intelligent incor- poration of specialized knowledge into the regular curriculum will be rapidly solved. Postgraduate Education. Postgraduate education is a serious responsibility that must be assumed by medical schools in the Caribbean. They have to take care not only of the instruction of the undergraduates, interns, and residents but also of refresher courses for all medical activities, general and specialized. The preceptor, both full and partial time, is now strongly rec- ommended in the teaching of modern medicine. It represents an effort to show the senior student principally the intricacies of medi- cal practice. The experience of a well-trained preceptor serves as guidance and example to the medical student in the joint relation- ship with the patient and should be most profitable for both, because the young preceptor, who must be chosen originally from the best qualified residents, should develop into the logical candi- date for the professorship of tomorrow. This should be particularly true of the full-time hospital preceptor. Research. Research is also one of the major responsibilities of a medical school. Its beneficial influence on the adequate prep- aration of the student is well recognized as it seems to develop, more than anything else, an inquiring mind which is most impor- tant not only in the practice of medicine but also in the training and development of good teachers and investigators. Early oppor- tunities for some type of research in the undergraduate period represent instruction in the scientific method which is indispensable to the future of medicine as a whole. Vernon W. Lippard has reported recently that in Yale Medical School all students devote three afternoons each week during the preclinical years-12 weeks (two blocks of six weeks each) during the clinical years-to research and some elective courses. Also they spend one or more summers in the laboratory. All this is to prepare a dissertation or thesis required for graduation. This, in my opinion, represents extremely interesting information that should be looked into by medical edu- cators throughout the Caribbean.  SPECIAL EDUCATION 181 SPECIAL EDUCATION 181 SPECIAL EDUCATION 181 III These and other points which I cannot discuss with you today should be carefully studied by medical educators in order to estab- lish a general philosophy for the teaching of medicine to be applied wherever and whenever possible. All medical schools in the Caribbean can and should be improved. To summarize: 1. A medical curriculum represents a method to organize teaching in the most efficient way. Its applicability varies according to na- tions, regions, and even cities. 2. Education is one; primary, secondary, and university educa- tion are but links of a chain, and weakness of any of them will affect the others substantially. Hence the importance of the prepa- ration and selection of the medical student. 3. To establish effective student-teacher relationships the number of medical students should be restricted. 4. The teaching of basic sciences ought to have a more dynamic organization and should be conceived of as the steppingstones to clinical teaching. 5. A serious and objective study of the present teaching of special- ties should be made promptly in order to find an adequate way to incorporate them in the regular medical curriculum. Nothing but fundamentals should be taught. 6. A program of medical teaching is not complete unless it offers well-organized undergraduate studies, adequate hospital facilities for residents, interns, and students, and ample facilities for post- graduate education. The latter is becoming more demanding every day regardless of specialties. It represents the refresher courses of today and the "brain dusting" that Osler recommended. 7. Research is most important as the best way to develop the inquisitive mind of the student and prepare him for future inves- tigation and teaching. Nothing can replace the quality of the teacher and student. Both should be selected carefully. III These and other points which I cannot discuss with you today should be carefully studied by medical educators in order to estab- lish a general philosophy for the teaching of medicine to be applied wherever and whenever possible. All medical schools in the Caribbean can and should be improved. To summarize: 1. A medical curriculum represents a method to organize teaching in the most efficient way. Its applicability varies according to na- tions, regions, and even cities. 2. Education is one; primary, secondary, and university educa- tion are but links of a chain, and weakness of any of them will affect the others substantially. Hence the importance of the prepa- ration and selection of the medical student. 3. To establish effective student-teacher relationships the number of medical students should be restricted. 4. The teaching of basic sciences ought to have a more dynamic organization and should be conceived of as the steppingstones to clinical teaching. 5. A serious and objective study of the present teaching of special- ties should be made promptly in order to find an adequate way to incorporate them in the regular medical curriculum. Nothing but fundamentals should be taught. 6. A program of medical teaching is not complete unless it offers well-organized undergraduate studies, adequate hospital facilities for residents, interns, and students, and ample facilities for post- graduate education. The latter is becoming more demanding every day regardless of specialties. It represents the refresher courses of today and the "brain dusting" that Osler recommended. 7. Research is most important as the best way to develop the inquisitive mind of the student and prepare him for future inves- tigation and teaching. Nothing can replace the quality of the teacher and student. Both should be selected carefully. III These and other points which I cannot discuss with you today should be carefully studied by medical educators in order to estab- lish a general philosophy for the teaching of medicine to be applied wherever and whenever possible. All medical schools in the Caribbean can and should be improved. To summarize: 1. A medical curriculum represents a method to organize teaching in the most efficient way. Its applicability varies according to na- tions, regions, and even cities. 2. Education is one; primary, secondary, and university educa- tion are but links of a chain, and weakness of any of them will affect the others substantially. Hence the importance of the prepa- ration and selection of the medical student. 3. To establish effective student-teacher relationships the number of medical students should be restricted. 4. The teaching of basic sciences ought to have a more dynamic organization and should be conceived of as the steppingstones to clinical teaching. 5. A serious and objective study of the present teaching of special- ties should be made promptly in order to find an adequate way to incorporate them in the regular medical curriculum. Nothing but fundamentals should be taught. 6. A program of medical teaching is not complete unless it offers well-organized undergraduate studies, adequate hospital facilities for residents, interns, and students, and ample facilities for post- graduate education. The latter is becoming more demanding every day regardless of specialties. It represents the refresher courses of today and the "brain dusting" that Osler recommended. 7. Research is most important as the best way to develop the inquisitive mind of the student and prepare him for future inves- tigation and teaching. Nothing can replace the quality of the teacher and student. Both should be selected carefully.   Part V Part V Part V EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE   13 13 13 rT Paul E. Smith: THE TEACHER EXCHANGE PROGRAM IN THE CARIBBEAN BEFORE ONE EXAMINES certain specific details of the Teacher Exchange Program, perhaps a swift overview of the gen- eral field of cultural and informational exchange programs of our government might be in order. This background covering twenty years may be divided into three fairly distinct periods: 1938-1948; 1948-1953; and 1953 to date. Numerous and significant cultural and educational exchange programs were carried on by philanthropic foundations, universi- ties, mission societies, professional and civic associations, as well as business organizations prior to 1938. One has only to look at the form and conduct of our graduate schools, for example, to see the profound influence of the exchanges of students, teachers, and professors. Many schools and colleges were set up abroad in the nineteenth and especially the twentieth centuries. Teacher exchange programs also date back many years. For example, 1,400 Cuban teachers came to Harvard University in 1900, and some 600 American teachers went to the Philippines in 1901. During this period also an exchange program of teachers between the United Kingdom and the United States operated under the auspices of the English Speaking Union, exchanging 134 teach- ers during the fifteen years before the outbreak of World War H. Three events in 1938 gave the exchange program new life: a Division of Cultural Relations was established in the Department 185 Paul E. Smith: THE TEACHER EXCHANGE PROGRAM IN THE CARIBBEAN BEFORE ONE EXAMINES certain specific details of the Teacher Exchange Program, perhaps a swift overview of the gen- eral field of cultural and informational exchange programs of our government might be in order. This background covering twenty years may be divided into three fairly distinct periods: 1938-1948; 1948-1953; and 1953 to date. Numerous and significant cultural and educational exchange programs were carried on by philanthropic foundations, universi- ties, mission societies, professional and civic associations, as well as business organizations prior to 1938. One has only to look at the form and conduct of our graduate schools, for example, to see the profound influence of the exchanges of students, teachers, and professors. Many schools and colleges were set up abroad in the nineteenth and especially the twentieth centuries. Teacher exchange programs also date back many years. For example, 1,400 Cuban teachers came to Harvard University in 1900, and some 600 American teachers went to the Philippines in 1901. During this period also an exchange program of teachers between the United Kingdom and the United States operated under the auspices of the English Speaking Union, exchanging 134 teach- ers during the fifteen years before the outbreak of World War H. Three events in 1938 gave the exchange program new life: a Division of Cultural Relations was established in the Department 185 Paul E. Smith: THE TEACHER EXCHANGE PROGRAM IN THE CARIBBEAN BEFORE ONE EXAMINES certain specific details of the Teacher Exchange Program, perhaps a swift overview of the gen- eral field of cultural and informational exchange programs of our government might be in order. This background covering twenty years may be divided into three fairly distinct periods: 1938-1948; 1948-1953; and 1953 to date. Numerous and significant cultural and educational exchange programs were carried on by philanthropic foundations, universi- ties, mission societies, professional and civic associations, as well as business organizations prior to 1938. One has only to look at the form and conduct of our graduate schools, for example, to see the profound influence of the exchanges of students, teachers, and professors. Many schools and colleges were set up abroad in the nineteenth and especially the twentieth centuries. Teacher exchange programs also date back many years. For example, 1,400 Cuban teachers came to Harvard University in 1900, and some 600 American teachers went to the Philippines in 1901. During this period also an exchange program of teachers between the United Kingdom and the United States operated under the auspices of the English Speaking Union, exchanging 134 teach- ers during the fifteen years before the outbreak of World War II. Three events in 1938 gave the exchange program new life: a Division of Cultural Relations was established in the Department 185  186 The Caribbean of State; Congress ratified the Convention for the Promotion of Inter-American Cultural Relations; and an initial conference was convened which later developed into the Inter-Departmental Com- mittee on Scientific and Cultural Cooperation. During the following year the first permanent authority for fostering cultural relations with Latin America was established with the passage of Public Law 355, enabling the United States "to render closer and more effective the relationship between the American Republics." The next Congressional action in this field was the Fulbright Act in 1946. Public Law 584, as it is known officially, permits the use of United States currencies tied up in other lands as a result of World War II for educational exchange programs. An important extension of the Fulbright Act was passed by the 80th Congress in 1948 and became known as the Smith-Mundt Act. Public Law 402 made possible the expansion and extension of the cultural programs with Latin America to other parts of the world. Congress also passed other special emergency authorizations, such as: provisions for Chinese and Korean students stranded in the United States; programs in Occupied Areas; and cultural and educational exchange programs involving Iran, Finland, and India.0" During this rather hectic immediate postwar period, reorganiza- tion was followed by reorganization, and one emergency was fol- lowed by another. The "good neighbor policy" was all but forgotten and replaced by "the campaign of truth," the "cold war," and others. The third period of official governmental activity in cultural rela- tions begins with "Reorganization Plan No. 8,"2 which moved the activities of the International Information Administration, except those concerning the exchange of persons, to a new, independent office - the United States Information Agency. The exchange of per- sons programs remained in the Department of State. Two additional Acts of Congress expanded activities during these years: Public Law 480 was passed in 1954 extending the Fulbright Act, and Public Law 860 was passed in 1956 permitting cultural presentations abroad, especially in music and the theatre. II The first official program in teacher education for teachers from the other American republics was inaugurated in August, 1944, with *Notes to this chapter are on page 192. 186 The Caribbean of State; Congress ratified the Convention for the Promotion of Inter-American Cultural Relations; and an initial conference was convened which later developed into the Inter-Departmental Com- mittee on Scientific and Cultural Cooperation. During the following year the first permanent authority for fostering cultural relations with Latin America was established with the passage of Public Law 355, enabling the United States "to render closer and more effective the relationship between the American Republics." The next Congressional action in this field was the Fulbright Act in 1946. Public Law 584, as it is known officially, permits the use of United States currencies tied up in other lands as a result of World War II for educational exchange programs. An important extension of the Fulbright Act was passed by the 80th Congress in 1948 and became known as the Smith-Mundt Act. Public Law 402 made possible the expansion and extension of the cultural programs with Latin America to other parts of the world. Congress also passed other special emergency authorizations, such as: provisions for Chinese and Korean students stranded in the United States; programs in Occupied Areas; and cultural and educational exchange programs involving Iran, Finland, and India.* " During this rather hectic immediate postwar period, reorganiza- tion was followed by reorganization, and one emergency was fol- lowed by another. The "good neighbor policy" was all but forgotten and replaced by "the campaign of truth," the "cold war," and others. The third period of official governmental activity in cultural rela- tions begins with "Reorganization Plan No. 8,"2 which moved the activities of the International Information Administration, except those concerning the exchange of persons, to a new, independent office - the United States Information Agency. The exchange of per- sons programs remained in the Department of State. Two additional Acts of Congress expanded activities during these years: Public Law 480 was passed in 1954 extending the Fulbright Act, and Public Law 860 was passed in 1956 permitting cultural presentations abroad, especially in music and the theatre. II The first official program in teacher education for teachers from the other American republics was inaugurated in August, 1944, with *Notes to this chapter are on page 192. 186 The Caribbean of State; Congress ratified the Convention for the Promotion of Inter-American Cultural Relations; and an initial conference was convened which later developed into the Inter-Departmental Com- mittee on Scientific and Cultural Cooperation. During the following year the first permanent authority for fostering cultural relations with Latin America was established with the passage of Public Law 355, enabling the United States "to render closer and more effective the relationship between the American Republics." The next Congressional action in this field was the Fulbright Act in 1946. Public Law 584, as it is known officially, permits the use of United States currencies tied up in other lands as a result of World War II for educational exchange programs. An important extension of the Fulbright Act was passed by the 80th Congress in 1948 and became known as the Smith-Mundt Act. Public Law 402 made possible the expansion and extension of the cultural programs with Latin America to other parts of the world. Congress also passed other special emergency authorizations, such as: provisions for Chinese and Korean students stranded in the United States; programs in Occupied Areas; and cultural and educational exchange programs involving Iran, Finland, and India.'* During this rather hectic immediate postwar period, reorganiza- tion was followed by reorganization, and one emergency was fol- lowed by another. The "good neighbor policy" was all but forgotten and replaced by "the campaign of truth," the "cold war," and others. The third period of official governmental activity in cultural rela- tions begins with "Reorganization Plan No. 8,"2 which moved the activities of the International Information Administration, except those concerning the exchange of persons, to a new, independent office - the United States Information Agency. The exchange of per- sons programs remained in the Department of State. Two additional Acts of Congress expanded activities during these years: Public Law 480 was passed in 1954 extending the Fulbright Act, and Public Law 860 was passed in 1956 permitting cultural presentations abroad, especially in music and the theatre. II The first official program in teacher education for teachers from the other American republics was inaugurated in August, 1944, with *Notes to this chapter are on page 192.  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 187 a budget of about $20,000. Seven teachers took part in this first exchange during the 1944-45 school year. This was the acorn. The program really got underway at the close of World War I. At this time the United Kingdom contacted the State Department suggesting a resumption of the teacher exchange program, and on a large scale. Seventy-four pairs of teachers were exchanged during the 1946-47 program. (A teacher in the United Kingdom and one in the United States exchange places, each securing a leave of absence with pay from his school for the year.) Since that time, the program has expanded to include exchanges with 13 countries. Since 1946, 1,770 pairs or 3,540 teachers have been involved. Indeed, the growth of the teacher exchange programs from 1944 until the present time has been encouraging. Beginning with seven participants in 1944-45, now over 18,000 teachers in 64 countries are involved in some kind of exchange program. The programs include different arrangements. For example, in the one-for-one exchange, the teachers simply exchange places with other teachers. In one instance, the two not only assumed each other's academic responsibilities, but also exchanged houses, cars, and dogs for a year. In another program the teachers participate in special summer seminars. These are for American teachers of Spanish, French, Ger- man, Italian, and modern European or world history. Two addi- tional categories in the teacher program include what is called the International Teacher Development Program and Participants under the International Cooperation Administration. These pro- grams are designed to meet the needs of the visitors from abroad. Outcomes and assessments are difficult to measure, indeed if they are measurable at all. How difficult it is really to estimate results, successes, or failures. On the whole it looks auspicious. Concerning the teacher program, the sponsor of Public Law 584, 79th Congress, Senator J. W. Fulbright of Arkansas, has this to say about the importance of the American teacher in the exchange pro- gram: "Through the visual image of what the American teacher is like, foreign peoples have not only revised their notions about America as a whole; they have not only revised their textbooks on America - they have made changes which can be a firmer link between peoples than any treaty agreed to while trumpets blare; they have made changes in such vital internal matters as the social relationship between teachers and students, between teachers and parents, and between teachers and the general community." EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 187 a budget of about $20,000. Seven teachers took part in this first exchange during the 1944-45 school year. This was the acorn. The program really got underway at the close of World War II. At this time the United Kingdom contacted the State Department suggesting a resumption of the teacher exchange program, and on a large scale. Seventy-four pairs of teachers were exchanged during the 1946-47 program. (A teacher in the United Kingdom and one in the United States exchange places, each securing a leave of absence with pay from his school for the year.) Since that time, the program has expanded to include exchanges with 13 countries. Since 1946, 1,770 pairs or 3,540 teachers have been involved. Indeed, the growth of the teacher exchange programs from 1944 until the present time has been encouraging. Beginning with seven participants in 1944-45, now over 13,000 teachers in 64 countries are involved in some kind of exchange program. The programs include different arrangements. For example, in the one-for-one exchange, the teachers simply exchange places with other teachers. In one instance, the two not only assumed each other's academic responsibilities, but also exchanged houses, cars, and dogs for a year. In another program the teachers participate in special summer seminars. These are for American teachers of Spanish, French, Ger- man, Italian, and modern European or world history. Two addi- tional categories in the teacher program include what is called the International Teacher Development Program and Participants under the International Cooperation Administration. These pro- grams are designed to meet the needs of the visitors from abroad. Outcomes and assessments are difficult to measure, indeed if they are measurable at all. How difficult it is really to estimate results, successes, or failures. On the whole it looks auspicious. Concerning the teacher program, the sponsor of Public Law 584, 79th Congress, Senator J. W. Fulbright of Arkansas, has this to say about the importance of the American teacher in the exchange pro- gram: "Through the visual image of what the American teacher is like, foreign peoples have not only revised their notions about America as a whole; they have not only revised their textbooks on America - they have made changes which can be a firmer link between peoples than any treaty agreed to while trumpets blare; they have made changes in such vital internal matters as the social relationship between teachers and students, between teachers and parents, and between teachers and the general community." EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 187 a budget of about $20,000. Seven teachers took part in this first exchange during the 1944-45 school year. This was the acorn. The program really got underway at the close of World War II. At this time the United Kingdom contacted the State Department suggesting a resumption of the teacher exchange program, and on a large scale. Seventy-four pairs of teachers were exchanged during the 1946-47 program. (A teacher in the United Kingdom and one in the United States exchange places, each securing a leave of absence with pay from his school for the year.) Since that time, the program has expanded to include exchanges with 13 countries. Since 1946, 1,770 pairs or 5,540 teachers have been involved.? Indeed, the growth of the teacher exchange programs from 1944 until the present time has been encouraging. Beginning with seven participants in 1944-45, now over 13,000 teachers in 64 countries are involved in some kind of exchange program. The programs include different arrangements. For example, in the one-for-one exchange, the teachers simply exchange places with other teachers. In one instance, the two not only assumed each other's academic responsibilities, but also exchanged houses, cars, and dogs for a year. In another program the teachers participate in special summer seminars. These are for American teachers of Spanish, French, Ger- man, Italian, and modern European or world history. Two addi- tional categories in the teacher program include what is called the International Teacher Development Program and Participants under the International Cooperation Administration. These pro- grams are designed to meet the needs of the visitors from abroad. Outcomes and assessments are difficult to measure, indeed if they are measurable at all. How difficult it is really to estimate results, successes, or failures. On the whole it looks auspicious. Concerning the teacher program, the sponsor of Public Law 584, 79th Congress, Senator J. W. Fulbright of Arkansas, has this to say about the importance of the American teacher in the exchange pro- gram: "Through the visual image of what the American teacher is like, foreign peoples have not only revised their notions about America as a whole; they have not only revised their textbooks on America - they have made changes which can be a firmer link between peoples than any treaty agreed to while trumpets blare; they have made changes in such vital internal matters as the social relationship between teachers and students, between teachers and parents, and between teachers and the general community."  188 The Caribbean A report' made recently, is, on the whole, on the positive side. The survey focused on 895 former award holders from nine con- tiguous states in the middle part of the United States, including Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and South Dakota. This report takes up first, activities of the grantees abroad and then shows what happens after they have returned to the United States. Although the study is not entirely devoted to the teachers, it does include a sizable segment who were teachers. About half of the grantees (47 per cent) were teaching or con- ducting research in a college or university at the time of the study; 17 per cent were teaching in secondary and elementary schools; 12 per cent were students; 3 per cent were actors, artists, musicians, and writers; 3 per cent were housewives; 2 per cent were business- men; 1 per cent each were lawyers and physicians, social workers and public health specialists, and public administrators; 12 per cent were employed in unspecified fields, and 1 per cent were unem- ployed. Of the 895 grantees included, 97 per cent became "close friends" of 11,158 foreign nationals; 98 per cent visited in 10,806 foreign homes; an average of 13 and 12, respectively, for each grantee. Some 32 per cent collaborated with foreign nationals on research, and the 39 per cent who taught had 37,229 regular foreign students. In sum, although it will be shown that the total figures were augmented by some wives, the professional speeches, concerts, and art exhibits, as well as the talks and speeches on American culture came to a total of over 7,500 public appearances attended by about 300,000 foreign nationals. Of the total number, 96 per cent believed the experience was one of the most valuable of their lives; 97 per cent said that it had increased their interest in international affairs; 96 per cent said they had a greater perspective on the United States; 93 per cent said they now have more sympathy for their host countries; 94 per cent believed they had corrected erroneous stereo- types about American life while abroad; and 93 per cent indicated that they would be willing to accept another grant. Items seeking critical comment were included in the study to bring out unpleasant experiences and to test the validity of certain positive items. Seventeen per cent of the grantees said they found people at their host institution to be uncooperative, and 41 per cent said the host country did not make maximum use of their abilities. 188 The Caribbean A report4 made recently, is, on the whole, on the positive side. The survey focused on 895 former award holders from nine con- tiguous states in the middle part of the United States, including Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and South Dakota. This report takes up first, activities of the grantees abroad and then shows what happens after they have returned to the United States. Although the study is not entirely devoted to the teachers, it does include a sizable segment who were teachers. About half of the grantees (47 per cent) were teaching or con- ducting research in a college or university at the time of the study; 17 per cent were teaching in secondary and elementary schools; 12 per cent were students; 3 per cent were actors, artists, musicians, and writers; 3 per cent were housewives; 2 per cent were business- men; 1 per cent each were lawyers and physicians, social workers and public health specialists, and public administrators; 12 per cent were employed in unspecified fields, and 1 per cent were unem- ployed. Of the 895 grantees included, 97 per cent became "close friends" of 11,158 foreign nationals; 98 per cent visited in 10,806 foreign homes; an average of 13 and 12, respectively, for each grantee. Some 32 per cent collaborated with foreign nationals on research, and the 39 per cent who taught had 37,229 regular foreign students. In sum, although it will be shown that the total figures were augmented by some wives, the professional speeches, concerts, and art exhibits, as well as the talks and speeches on American culture came to a total of over 7,500 public appearances attended by about 300,000 foreign nationals. Of the total number, 96 per cent believed the experience was one of the most valuable of their lives; 97 per cent said that it had increased their interest in international affairs; 96 per cent said they had a greater perspective on the United States; 93 per cent said they now have more sympathy for their host countries; 94 per cent believed they had corrected erroneous stereo- types about American life while abroad; and 93 per cent indicated that they would be willing to accept another grant. Items seeking critical comment were included in the study to bring out unpleasant experiences and to test the validity of certain positive items. Seventeen per cent of the grantees said they found people at their host institution to be uncooperative, and 41 per cent said the host country did not make maximum use of their abilities. 188 The Caribbean A report4 made recently, is, on the whole, on the positive side. The survey focused on 895 former award holders from nine con- tiguous states in the middle part of the United States, including Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and South Dakota. This report takes up first, activities of the grantees abroad and then shows what happens after they have returned to the United States. Although the study is not entirely devoted to the teachers, it does include a sizable segment who were teachers. About half of the grantees (47 per cent) were teaching or con- ducting research in a college or university at the time of the study; 17 per cent were teaching in secondary and elementary schools; 12 per cent were students; 3 per cent were actors, artists, musicians, and writers; 3 per cent were housewives; 2 per cent were business- men; 1 per cent each were lawyers and physicians, social workers and public health specialists, and public administrators; 12 per cent were employed in unspecified fields, and 1 per cent were unem- ployed. Of the 895 grantees included, 97 per cent became "close friends" of 11,158 foreign nationals; 98 per cent visited in 10,806 foreign homes; an average of 13 and 12, respectively, for each grantee. Some 32 per cent collaborated with foreign nationals on research, and the 39 per cent who taught had 37,229 regular foreign students. In sum, although it will be shown that the total figures were augmented by some wives, the professional speeches, concerts, and art exhibits, as well as the talks and speeches on American culture came to a total of over 7,500 public appearances attended by about 300,000 foreign nationals. Of the total number, 96 per cent believed the experience was one of the most valuable of their lives; 97 per cent said that it had increased their interest in international affairs; 96 per cent said they had a greater perspective on the United States; 93 per cent said they now have more sympathy for their host countries; 94 per cent believed they had corrected erroneous stereo- types about American life while abroad; and 93 per cent indicated that they would be willing to accept another grant. Items seeking critical comment were included in the study to bring out unpleasant experiences and to test the validity of certain positive items. Seventeen per cent of the grantees said they found people at their host institution to be uncooperative, and 41 per cent said the host country did not make maximum use of their abilitics.  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 189 Only a few, 9 per cent, felt that differences in living comforts made their stay abroad unpleasant; and a few less, 7 per cent, said they would have been reluctant to accept the award if they had known the extent of the financial burden. A number of publications and other such accomplishments have resulted from the exchange experience. For example, 63 books and monographs have been published; 748 journal articles, newspaper articles, and book reviews have been published; 437 papers and speeches have been delivered at professional meetings; one docu- mentary film and four filmstrips have been created; 89 theses or dissertations have been completed; 54 new courses have been intro- duced, 18 in the nature of "area studies" including separate courses pertaining to the history, government, economics, literature, and philosophy of other cultures; 243 paintings, works of sculpture, and musical compositions have resulted from or been influenced by the work abroad; and 441 concerts, recitals, and exhibits have re- sulted from or been influenced by grantees' overseas experiences. In addition, grantees were working on 72 books, musical composi- tions, and so forth; 141 articles and book reviews; and 42 theses and dissertations. III This, in the over-all, looks impressive and it is. There are, how- ever, additional conditions which should be considered. According to the late Professor Donald Tewksbury, "The position of the U. S. has dramatically changed from the days when neutrality and isola- tionism were the accepted ideals of the American people. Our nation is now deeply involved in international affairs, and our very survival is at stake; yet our schools, by and large, continue to edu- cate men and women of limited vision and understanding in world affairs."' Between the end of the Theodore Roosevelt era and Pearl Harbor, the United States was basically a neutral nation - seeking to avoid foreign entanglements and developing its own potential. As late as 1935 the Congress of the United States passed a Neutrality Act and in 1939 passed a revision of it in spite of President Franklin Roose- velt's efforts to have it repealed. That the world has changed needs no detailed documentation. All of us are familiar with the conquering of distance, with the swift- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 189 Only a few, 9 per cent, felt that differences in living comforts made their stay abroad unpleasant; and a few less, 7 per cent, said they would have been reluctant to accept the award if they had known the extent of the financial burden. A number of publications and other such accomplishments have resulted from the exchange experience. For example, 63 books and monographs have been published; 748 journal articles, newspaper articles, and book reviews have been published; 437 papers and speeches have been delivered at professional meetings; one docu- mentary film and four filmstrips have been created; 89 theses or dissertations have been completed; 54 new courses have been intro- duced, 18 in the nature of "area studies" including separate courses pertaining to the history, government, economics, literature, and philosophy of other cultures; 243 paintings, works of sculpture, and musical compositions have resulted from or been influenced by the work abroad; and 441 concerts, recitals, and exhibits have re- sulted from or been influenced by grantees' overseas experiences. In addition, grantees were working on 72 books, musical composi- tions, and so forth; 141 articles and book reviews; and 42 theses and dissertations. III This, in the over-all, looks impressive and it is. There are, how- ever, additional conditions which should be considered. According to the late Professor Donald Tewksbury, "The position of the U. S. has dramatically changed from the days when neutrality and isola- tionism were the accepted ideals of the American people. Our nation is now deeply involved in international affairs, and our very survival is at stake; yet our schools, by and large, continue to edu- cate men and women of limited vision and understanding in world affairs."' Between the end of the Theodore Roosevelt era and Pearl Harbor, the United States was basically a neutral nation - seeking to avoid foreign entanglements and developing its own potential. As late as 1935 the Congress of the United States passed a Neutrality Act and in 1939 passed a revision of it in spite of President Franklin Roose- velt's efforts to have it repealed. That the world has changed needs no detailed documentation. All of us are familiar with the conquering of distance, with the swift- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 189 Only a few, 9 per cent, felt that differences in living comforts made their stay abroad unpleasant; and a few less, 7 per cent, said they would have been reluctant to accept the award if they had known the extent of the financial burden. A number of publications and other such accomplishments have resulted from the exchange experience. For example, 63 books and monographs have been published; 748 journal articles, newspaper articles, and book reviews have been published; 437 papers and speeches have been delivered at professional meetings; one docu- mentary film and four filmstrips have been created; 89 theses or dissertations have been completed; 54 new courses have been intro- duced, 18 in the nature of "area studies" including separate courses pertaining to the history, government, economics, literature, and philosophy of other cultures; 243 paintings, works of sculpture, and musical compositions have resulted from or been influenced by the work abroad; and 441 concerts, recitals, and exhibits have re- sulted from or been influenced by grantees' overseas experiences. In addition, grantees were working on 72 books, musical composi- tions, and so forth; 141 articles and book reviews; and 42 theses and dissertations. III This, in the over-all, looks impressive and it is. There are, how- ever, additional conditions which should be considered. According to the late Professor Donald Tewksbury, "The position of the U. S. has dramatically changed from the days when neutrality and isola- tionism were the accepted ideals of the American people. Our nation is now deeply involved in international affairs, and our very survival is at stake; yet our schools, by and large, continue to edu- cate men and women of limited vision and understanding in world affairs."5 Between the end of the Theodore Roosevelt era and Pearl Harbor, the United States was basically a neutral nation - seeking to avoid foreign entanglements and developing its own potential. As late as 1935 the Congress of the United States passed a Neutrality Act and in 1989 passed a revision of it in spite of President Franklin Roose- velt's efforts to have it repealed. That the world has changed needs no detailed documentation. All of us are familiar with the conquering of distance, with the swift-  190 The Caribbean ness of communication. The questions that emerge are: "Why have American schools lagged in preparing our young citizens for the realities of today's world? Have events happened so fast and are they so complex that the teachers are overwhelmed? Why haven't our schools responded to the challenges which face society today?" The question is, and recognizing the great strides we have made, Have we changed rapidly enough? We must continue to educate first and foremost national men who also have some knowledge about and appreciation of the world about them. So far as the schools lagging behind: this is, in my view, a some- what superficial note. The schools in the American culture have always lagged behind. It is, therefore, unrealistic to question this fact because it implies a fundamental questioning of the democratic system, if carried to its logical conclusion. Not to have a cultural or social lag implies a degree of planning and quick action by decree that can come only from a central power. Our heritage includes the explicit rejection, yet implicit accept- ance, of the Old World, partly brought about by the nature of this land. Isolationism was important in our formative years, but those times are gone forever. Now we live in a radically different world from the one we both rejected and accepted. There is now an imperative to prepare our youth to become at home in the world, and this, as always, is a challenge to education and to those who carry on its work. Since early attitudes are influential in shaping later ones, it is important that youngsters should be given some knowledge of the world, a knowledge which is simple, relevant, and related to things that have meaning to a youngster - his mother and father, his home, his nation. If we take a position that "international understanding begins with children," the importance of the teacher becomes obvious. The Founding Fathers made quite a bet in setting up our form of government. They bet, and were thought quite mad by many Euro- peans, that an enlightened citizenry can govern themselves. It was Thomas Jefferson who said that: "A people who expect to remain free and ignorant expect something that never was and never shall be." And it was never more true than today. If our nation is to provide the leadership that is now needed -leadership which is responsive to the responsibilities to dominate without yielding to the temptation to dominate - it needs an enlightened and educated 190 The Caribbean ness of communication. The questions that emerge are: "Why have American schools lagged in preparing our young citizens for the realities of today's world? Have events happened so fast and are they so complex that the teachers are overwhelmed? Why haven't our schools responded to the challenges which face society today?" The question is, and recognizing the great strides we have made, Have we changed rapidly enough? We must continue to educate first and foremost national men who also have some knowledge about and appreciation of the world about them. So far as the schools lagging behind: this is, in my view, a some- what superficial note. The schools in the American culture have always lagged behind. It is, therefore, unrealistic to question this fact because it implies a fundamental questioning of the democratic system, if carried to its logical conclusion. Not to have a cultural or social lag implies a degree of planning and quick action by decree that can come only from a central power. Our heritage includes the explicit rejection, yet implicit accept- ance, of the Old World, partly brought about by the nature of this land. Isolationism was important in our formative years, but those times are gone forever. Now we live in a radically different world from the one we both rejected and accepted. There is now an imperative to prepare our youth to become at home in the world, and this, as always, is a challenge to education and to those who carry on its work. Since early attitudes are influential in shaping later ones, it is important that youngsters should be given some knowledge of the world, a knowledge which is simple, relevant, and related to things that have meaning to a youngster - his mother and father, his home, his nation. If we take a position that "international understanding begins with children," the importance of the teacher becomes obvious. The Founding Fathers made quite a bet in setting up our form of government. They bet, and were thought quite mad by many Euro- peans, that an enlightened citizenry can govern themselves. It was Thomas Jefferson who said that: "A people who expect to remain free and ignorant expect something that never was and never shall be." And it was never more true than today. If our nation is to provide the leadership that is now needed - leadership which is responsive to the responsibilities to dominate without yielding to the temptation to dominate - it needs an enlightened and educated 190 The Caribbean ness of communication. The questions that emerge are: "Why have American schools lagged in preparing our young citizens for the realities of today's world? Have events happened so fast and are they so complex that the teachers are overwhelmed? Why haven't our schools responded to the challenges which face society today?" The question is, and recognizing the great strides we have made, Have we changed rapidly enough? We must continue to educate first and foremost national men who also have some knowledge about and appreciation of the world about them. So far as the schools lagging behind: this is, in my view, a some- what superficial note. The schools in the American culture have always lagged behind. It is, therefore, unrealistic to question this fact because it implies a fundamental questioning of the democratic system, if carried to its logical conclusion. Not to have a cultural or social lag implies a degree of planning and quick action by decree that can come only from a central power. Our heritage includes the explicit rejection, yet implicit accept- ance, of the Old World, partly brought about by the nature of this land. Isolationism was important in our formative years, but those times are gone forever. Now we live in a radically different world from the one we both rejected and accepted. There is now an imperative to prepare our youth to become at home in the world, and this, as always, is a challenge to education and to those who carry on its work. Since early attitudes are influential in shaping later ones, it is important that youngsters should be given some knowledge of the world, a knowledge which is simple, relevant, and related to things that have meaning to a youngster - his mother and father, his home, his nation. If we take a position that "international understanding begins with children," the importance of the teacher becomes obvious. The Founding Fathers made quite a bet in setting up our form of government. They bet, and were thought quite mad by many Euro- peans, that an enlightened citizenry can govern themselves. It was Thomas Jefferson who said that: "A people who expect to remain free and ignorant expect something that never was and never shall be." And it was never more true than today. If our nation is to provide the leadership that is now needed -leadership which is responsive to the responsibilities to dominate without yielding to the temptation to dominate - it needs an enlightened and educated  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 191 citizenry more than ever. The difference now is in depth and dimen- sion of the enlightened and the educated. We need now to know not only names, places, peaks and rivers, but also something about the people - their traditions, culture, religion, their hopes and aspirations. An encyclopedic recital of the capitals of the world will hardly suffice. Sometimes information is mistaken for knowledge, knowledge for understanding, and understanding for wisdom. IV What about the future? We can afford to be optimistic but by no means complacent. A few still fight a rear-guard action against the inclusion in the curriculum of any materials for international under- standing, but theirs is a losing cause, fortunately so. Quite to the contrary, American educators are moving ahead in teaching about international relations to their classes and taking courses and trips abroad themselves. We still have a great deal to learn - for exam- ple, about the effective use of foreign visitors in the classroom - but we are learning. All of these activities, and more, are needed. Among them the exchange of teachers is particularly real and meaningful. It is a "living library of people." Last summer President Eisenhower indi- cated the importance of the teachers from abroad in his greetings to them at the White House: One of the powerful effects of teacher exchange is that the bene- fits are multiplied a thousand-fold. A good teacher, given the opportunity to comprehend other cultures, is not just a transmitter of important facts about the language, economy, politics, science of the country he has visited. He becomes far more.-a sort of Ambassador at large, who brings to each one with whom he comes in contact, greater depth of understanding and greater toleration. All of us surely agree that the exchange of students is valuable. Indeed, I would like to see a substantial increase in the almost fifty thousand foreign students now studying in the United States. But I emphasize that through teacher exchange we can open intellec- tual windows faster and in greater number, and thus more rapidly progress toward the greater understanding so desperately needed by our quarrelsome and shrinking world. A world of understanding will be a world of true freedom. EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 191 citizenry more than ever. The difference now is in depth and dimen- sion of the enlightened and the educated. We need now to know not only names, places, peaks and rivers, but also something about the people - their traditions, culture, religion, their hopes and aspirations. An encyclopedic recital of the capitals of the world will hardly suffice. Sometimes information is mistaken for knowledge, knowledge for understanding, and understanding for wisdom. IV What about the future? We can afford to be optimistic but by no means complacent. A few still fight a rear-guard action against the inclusion in the curriculum of any materials for international under- standing, but theirs is a losing cause, fortunately so. Quite to the contrary, American educators are moving ahead in teaching about international relations to their classes and taking courses and trips abroad themselves. We still have a great deal to learn - for exam- ple, about the effective use of foreign visitors in the classroom - but we are learning. All of these activities, and more, are needed. Among them the exchange of teachers is particularly real and meaningful. It is a "living library of people." Last summer President Eisenhower indi- cated the importance of the teachers from abroad in his greetings to them at the White House: One of the powerful effects of teacher exchange is that the bene- fits are multiplied a thousand-fold. A good teacher, given the opportunity to comprehend other cultures, is not just a transmitter of important facts about the language, economy, politics, science of the country he has visited. He becomes far more -a sort of Ambassador at large, who brings to each one with whom he comes in contact, greater depth of understanding and greater toleration. All of us surely agree that the exchange of students is valuable. Indeed, I would like to see a substantial increase in the almost fifty thousand foreign students now studying in the United States. But I emphasize that through teacher exchange we can open intellec- tual windows faster and in greater number, and thus more rapidly progress toward the greater understanding so desperately needed by our quarrelsome and shrinking world. A world of understanding will be a world of true freedom. EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 191 citizenry more than ever. The difference now is in depth and dimen- sion of the enlightened and the educated. We need now to know not only names, places, peaks and rivers, but also something about the people - their traditions, culture, religion, their hopes and aspirations. An encyclopedic recital of the capitals of the world will hardly suffice. Sometimes information is mistaken for knowledge, knowledge for understanding, and understanding for wisdom. IV What about the future? We can afford to be optimistic but by no means complacent. A few still fight a rear-guard action against the inclusion in the curriculum of any materials for international under- standing, but theirs is a losing cause, fortunately so. Quite to the contrary, American educators are moving ahead in teaching about international relations to their classes and taking courses and trips abroad themselves. We still have a great deal to learn - for exam- ple, about the effective use of foreign visitors in the classroom - but we are learning. All of these activities, and more, are needed. Among them the exchange of teachers is particularly real and meaningful. It is a "living library of people." Last summer President Eisenhower indi- cated the importance of the teachers from abroad in his greetings to them at the White House: One of the powerful effects of teacher exchange is that the bene- fits are multiplied a thousand-fold. A good teacher, given the opportunity to comprehend other cultures, is not just a transmitter of important facts about the language, economy, politics, science of the country he has visited. He becomes far more - a sort of Ambassador at large, who brings to each one with whom he comes in contact, greater depth of understanding and greater toleration. All of us surely agree that the exchange of students is valuable. Indeed, I would like to see a substantial increase in the almost fifty thousand foreign students now studying in the United States. But I emphasize that through teacher exchange we can open intellec- tual windows faster and in greater number, and thus more rapidly progress toward the greater understanding so desperately needed by our quarrelsome and shrinking world. A world of understanding will be a world of true freedom.  192 The Caribbean NOTES 1. Francis J. Colligay, "Twentty Years After: Twoy Decades of Governmen- Sponsord Cultural Reaton," Department of Stat Bultin, Vol. 39 (Jyly 21, 1958), p. 112. tion of Foreign Aid ayd Infortyyion Prygramy," Departt of Sytt Buletin, Vol. 28 (Juney 15, 1953), p. 854. 3. TbomasE. Co te, A Sumr of the Exchange and Training Programy Adminyistered by the Division of International Education, U. S. Offie of Educationy, 1939-1959 (Washington: Departmenyt of Health, Education and1 Welfare, U. S. Ofllce of Educaiony, 1919), p. 4. 4. GCompiled and editd by John T. OGulahorn and Jtanne E. ylyahyy, Professional and Social Consequences of Fulbdight andy Smith-Mundt Awar~ds, M~ichigan State Univerty (East Laninyg, June, 1958). 5. Doyyld G. Tewtksbury, "Ameryicyy Edyucytiyy and the International Scyye," Teychers College Record, Vyl. 60, Ny. 7 (April, 1959), p. 357. 192 The Caribbean 192 The Caribbean NOTES 1. Fraycis J. Colbigyy, "Twenyty Yeart After: Twoy Decydes if Gyoyyrnyent- Spoisottd Cyltyyyl Relytiyyt," Depatmty yf Styte Bylleiy, Vyl. 39 (July 21, 1958), p. 112. 2. Dw~ight D. Eibyhoty (Speech to Congress-Jun, 1913), "Reorganiza- tiyy yf Foreigy Aid yyd Infyrmytiyy Program," Depytment it) Styte Bylletiy, Vyl. 28 (Jyyy 15, 1953), p. 854. 3. Thyymys E. Cytner, A Summay, yf thy Exchynge andl Training Programs Admyinistired by the Diisiyon yf Iternaytiynyl Edtucation, U. S. Ofice~ y) Educytion, 1939-1959 (Washyington: Departiet yf Heaylth, Eduyatyy and Welfare, U5. S. Offic of Edycaydyy, 1959), p. 4. 4. Comypiled yyd edite4 by John T. Guylyahyry yyd Jtayye E. Gyllabotn, Professional ynd Syciyl Consequences of) Fulbright ynd Smtith-Mundt Awtyrdy, Micbigyy State Universtiy (Eyst Lyyyiyg, Jyye, 1918). 5. Donald4 G. Tewksybury, "Amerdcan Education ayd tht Itertinalyl Sceyne," Teachers College ecordy, Vol. 69, Ny. 7 (April, 1919), p. 357. NOTES 1. Fraycis J. Goyliga, Twetnty Years After: Twoy Detadet of overnment- Sponsoted Cultutal Rltions," Depatmenttt it) State Bulleti, Vol. 39 (July 21, 1958), p. 112. 2. Dwight 1D. Eiseyhyower (Speech to Congress-June, 1913), "Reorgaiza- tion of Ftrtign Aid andf nfortmation Program," Depatmtt of Styte Butyin, Vol. 58 (June 15, 1953), p. 854. 3. ThomasyE. Cotner,A Summay ofthe Exhage andriig Prgram Adminisaered by the Diio it) Iternattiontal Eductaio, U. S. Ofice it) Eductiony, 1939-1939 (Watbitony Dtpatmentt of Healt, Education yyd Welfyte, U. S. Ofeic yf Edytytiyy, 1919), p. 4. 4. Comypiled and edited by Jthn T. Gullahoty and Jeayne E. Gullyayom, Professional yyd Social Conseqtuetcts of Fulbright and Smth-Munydt Awaryd, Michigan Stite Uivettity (East Laitii, Junt, 5958). 5.onaltdG. Tewksbury,"AmicanyyEducationand tIternaionl Scene" Teaycherst College Record, Vyl. 60, Ny. 7 (Aprd1, 1919), p. 357.  14 14 14 Robert D. Barton: STUDENT EXCHANGE IN THE CARIBBEAN: PROBLEMS AND POTENTIALS THE TERM "educational exchange" describes what is basically a simple idea - one which is so natural to men that it has never been formulated or organized until recently. Men have always travelled to learn, from the time of the first artisans. This is not the same thing as learning by travel - men have always travelled, too, and always learned from what they have seen. But the desire to learn from each other, as opposed to a general desire for travel and its broadening effects, is the basis of educational exchange. During the Middle Ages students came from all parts of Europe to study under a particular teacher like Abelard at Paris or to pursue a particular subject like law at Bologna. Usually before returning home they wandered to centers of learning to listen to other great mas- ters. This was not difficult because all studies and discussion every- where were conducted in the same language, Latin. During these times students were identified first by their university and then by their nationality. With the establishment of national states follow- ing the Renaissance, the movement of students from one country to another gradually decreased and finally almost ceased. Today boundaries are more rigid and are given far greater importance than they were then; there is no common language for students and scholars, and their exchange is not the easy and natural movement it should be. Education is as old as Europe, and Europe's universities have long histories, beside which the oldest institutions of the Americas seem mere beginners. But organized educational exchange is new, and its history belongs to this hemisphere. Let me give you a brief 198 Robert D. Barton: STUDENT EXCHANGE IN THE CARIBBEAN: PROBLEMS AND POTENTIALS THE TERM "educational exchange" describes what is basically a simple idea - one which is so natural to men that it has never been formulated or organized until recently. Men have always travelled to learn, from the time of the first artisans. This is not the same thing as learning by travel - men have always travelled, too, and always learned from what they have seen. But the desire to learn from each other, as opposed to a general desire for travel and its broadening effects, is the basis of educational exchange. During the Middle Ages students came from all parts of Europe to study under a particular teacher like Abelard at Paris or to pursue a particular subject like law at Bologna. Usually before returning home they wandered to centers of learning to listen to other great mas- ters. This was not difficult because all studies and discussion every- where were conducted in the same language, Latin. During these times students were identified first by their university and then by their nationality. With the establishment of national states follow- ing the Renaissance, the movement of students from one country to another gradually decreased and finally almost ceased. Today boundaries are more rigid and are given far greater importance than they were then; there is no common language for students and scholars, and their exchange is not the easy and natural movement it should be. Education is as old as Europe, and Europe's universities have long histories, beside which the oldest institutions of the Americas seem mere beginners. But organized educational exchange is new, and its history belongs to this hemisphere. Let me give you a brief 193 Robert D. Barton: STUDENT EXCHANGE IN THE CARIBBEAN: PROBLEMS AND POTENTIALS THE TERM "educational exchange" describes what is basically a simple idea - one which is so natural to men that it has never been formulated or organized until recently. Men have always travelled to learn, from the time of the first artisans. This is not the same thing as learning by travel - men have always travelled, too, and always learned from what they have seen. But the desire to learn from each other, as opposed to a general desire for travel and its broadening effects, is the basis of educational exchange. During the Middle Ages students came from all parts of Europe to study under a particular teacher like Abelard at Paris or to pursue a particular subject like law at Bologna. Usually before returning home they wandered to centers of learning to listen to other great mas- ters. This was not difircult because all studies and discussion every- where were conducted in the same language, Latin. During these times students were identified first by their university and then by their nationality. With the establishment of national states follow- ing the Renaissance, the movement of students from one country to another gradually decreased and finally almost ceased. Today boundaries are more rigid and are given far greater importance than they were then; there is no common language for students and scholars, and their exchange is not the easy and natural movement it should be. Education is as old as Europe, and Europe's universities have long histories, beside which the oldest institutions of the Americas seem mere beginners. But organized educational exchange is new, and its history belongs to this hemisphere. Let me give you a brief 193  194 The Caribbean sketch of the background of this movement, before discussing the present situation in the Caribbean. . Background of Educational Exchange The first Latin American students to come to the United States appear to have been from Chile; they were the two Blanco brothers, for whom President Madison suspended the rule against foreign students at West Point; they entered the Academy in 1816, the first foreign students there. Unfortunately, the auspicious beginning of this episode is marred by the fact that the Blanco brothers and West Point got along rather badly; in fact the Academy asked President Madison to have them withdrawn. They returned to Chile and were never heard from again. A much more successful career was that of Fernando Bolivar, Sim6n Bolivar's nephew and adopted son, who studied at the University of Virginia. All he did to be accepted was to write to them, saying he liked their school, and enclose his credentials; how easy it would be if such matters had not become so much more complicated over the years! In 1847, the great educator and statesman Domingo Faustino Sarmiento visited the United States and discussed educational problems with Horace Mann. When Sarmiento returned to Argen- tina, he took with him not only new ideas in education, but also a group of school teachers who were to introduce North American teaching methods to Latin America. Almost everything he saw in the United States seemed superior to its counterpart in Europe. For Sarmiento, America was the land of hope. He saw it realizing its ambitions through education. When he returned to Argentina to assume the presidency in 1868, he said: "I return from a country where education is everything; where education has succeeded in establishing true democracy, making races and classes equall" In the Caribbean area, a monumental project in inter-American educational exchange took place in 1900 when 1,250 Cuban teachers spent six weeks at Harvard. The project was conceived by two army officers in Havana, and was designed to train teachers for the new public primary schools in Cuba. From the first to last, it was con- ducted on a grand scale; towns all over the island had elections to choose which teacher would go; in some cases, the mayor had to make the final choice. The enterprise was financed by more than 194 The Caribbean 194 The Caribbean sketch of the background of this movement, before discussing the present situation in the Caribbean. . Background of Educational Exchange The first Latin American students to come to the United States appear to have been from Chile; they were the two Blanco brothers, for whom President Madison suspended the rule against foreign students at West Point; they entered the Academy in 1816, the first foreign students there. Unfortunately, the auspicious beginning of this episode is marred by the fact that the Blanco brothers and West Point got along rather badly; in fact the Academy asked President Madison to have them withdrawn. They returned to Chile and were never heard from again. A much more successful career was that of Fernando Bolivar, Sim6n Bolivar's. nephew and adopted son, who studied at the University of Virginia. All he did to be accepted was to write to them, saying he liked their school, and enclose his credentials; how easy it would be if such matters had not become so much more complicated over the years! In 1847, the great educator and statesman Domingo Faustino Sarmiento visited the United States and discussed educational problems with Horace Mann. When Sarmiento returned to Argen- tina, he took with him not only new ideas in education, but also a group of school teachers who were to introduce North American teaching methods to Latin America. Almost everything he saw in the United States seemed superior to its counterpart in Europe. For Sarmiento, America was the land of hope. He saw it realizing its ambitions through education. When he returned to Argentina to assume the presidency in 1868, he said: "I return from a country where education is everything; where education has succeeded in establishing true democracy, making races and classes equal!" In the Caribbean area, a monumental project in inter-American educational exchange took place in 1900 when 1,250 Cuban teachers spent six weeks at Harvard. The project was conceived by two army officers in Havana, and was designed to train teachers for the new public primary schools in Cuba. From the first to last, it was con- ducted on a grand scale; towns all over the island had elections to choose which teacher would go; in some cases, the mayor had to make the final choice. The enterprise was financed by more than sketch of the background of this movement, before discussing the present situation in the Caribbean. L Background of Educational Exchange The first Latin American students to come to the United States appear to have been from Chile; they were the two Blanco brothers, for whom President Madison suspended the rule against foreign students at West Point; they entered the Academy in 1816, the first foreign students there. Unfortunately, the auspicious beginning of this episode is marred by the fact that the Blanco brothers and West Point got along rather badly; in fact the Academy asked President Madison to have them withdrawn. They returned to Chile and were never heard from again. A much more successful career was that of Fernando Bolivar, Sim6n Bolivar's nephew and adopted son, who studied at the University of Virginia. All he did to be accepted was to write to them, saying he liked their school, and enclose his credentials; how easy it would be if such matters had not become so much more complicated over the yearsl In 1847, the great educator and statesman Domingo Faustino Sarmiento visited the United States and discussed educational problems with Horace Mann. When Sarmiento returned to Argen- tina, he took with him not only new ideas in education, but also a group of school teachers who were to introduce North American teaching methods to Latin America. Almost everything he saw in the United States seemed superior to its counterpart in Europe. For Sarmiento, America was the land of hope. He saw it realizing its ambitions through education. When he returned to Argentina to assume the presidency in 1868, he said: "I return from a country where education is everything; where education has succeeded in establishing true democracy, making races and classes equal!" In the Caribbean area, a monumental project in inter-American educational exchange took place in 1900 when 1,250 Cuban teachers spent six weeks at Harvard. The project was conceived by two army officers in Havana, and was designed to train teachers for the new public primary schools in Cuba. From the first to last, it was con- ducted on a grand scale; towns all over the island had elections to choose which teacher would go; in some cases, the mayor had to make the final choice. The enterprise was financed by more than  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 195 1,000 individuals and institutions. Five crowded army transports brought the teachers to the States where they landed amid much fanfare. The project received great publicity for it was admirably organized, and was an unqualified success. So much so, in fact, that its effects were still in evidence fifty years later; methodology taught at Cambridge was still being practiced in Cuba, and just a decade ago the visit of the Cuban teachers was returned when, on the anniversary of the Cuban public school system, one teacher from each of the United States was invited to the island as a guest of the Cuban government. In 1919, Dr. Stephen Duggan, a professor of history and political science at the College of the City of New York, Nicholas Murray Butler, President of Columbia University, and Elihu Root, Theodore Roosevelt's great Secretary of State, convinced the Carnegie Endow- ment for International Peace that it should finance an organization which would develop systematic educational exchange. Long before the end of World War I, the existence of a peaceful world, united through mutual understanding, had seemed possible to Dr. Duggan. He believed that the people of the world could live in friendship and harmony and that international understanding could best be developed through educational exchange of students and scholars. Within a decade his idea had won world-wide acceptance. From the early beginning when a borrowed typewriter, a second-hand army desk, and old ling cabinets filled the small office, the Insti- tute of International Education grew and became a highly respected, internationally known organization. In 1929, Dr. Duggan's lIE established its own Latin American Department and planned a tour for 22 Argentine scholars to study at American educational and industrial institutions. Funds for this tour were provided by the Carnegie Endowment through the Pan American Union. In 1930, twelve Brazilians toured the United States. Also in that year, the Committee on Inter-American Relations granted $8,000 to the Insti- tute to help carry out Latin American exchange. From then on, lIE has arranged study, research, or lecture projects in the United States for prominent scholars from every Latin American country. In the 1930's, as the menace of fascism in Europe became more evident, the twenty-one American republics recognized that friendly relations in this hemisphere must be founded on mutual knowledge, understanding, and respect. At the Inter-American Peace Confer- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 195 1,000 individuals and institutions. Five crowded army transports brought the teachers to the States where they landed amid much fanfare. The project received great publicity for it was admirably organized, and was an unqualified success. So much so, in fact, that its effects were still in evidence fifty years later; methodology taught at Cambridge was still being practiced in Cuba, and just a decade ago the visit of the Cuban teachers was returned when, on the anniversary of the Cuban public school system, one teacher from each of the United States was invited to the island as a guest of the Cuban government. In 1919, Dr. Stephen Duggan, a professor of history and political science at the College of the City of New York, Nicholas Murray Butler, President of Columbia University, and Elihu Root, Theodore Roosevelt's great Secretary of State, convinced the Carnegie Endow- ment for International Peace that it should finance an organization which would develop systematic educational exchange. Long before the end of World War I, the existence of a peaceful world, united through mutual understanding, had seemed possible to Dr. Duggan. He believed that the people of the world could live in friendship and harmony and that international understanding could best be developed through educational exchange of students and scholars. Within a decade his idea had won world-wide acceptance. From the early beginning when a borrowed typewriter, a second-hand army desk, and old filing cabinets filled the small office, the Insti- tute of International Education grew and became a highly respected, internationally known organization. In 1929, Dr. Duggan's lIE established its own Latin American Department and planned a tour for 22 Argentine scholars to study at American educational and industrial institutions. Funds for this tour were provided by the Carnegie Endowment through the Pan American Union. In 1930, twelve Brazilians toured the United States. Also in that year, the Committee on Inter-American Relations granted $8,000 to the Insti- tute to help carry out Latin American exchange. From then on, lIE has arranged study, research, or lecture projects in the United States for prominent scholars from every Latin American country. In the 1930's, as the menace of fascism in Europe became more evident, the twenty-one American republics recognized that friendly relations in this hemisphere must be founded on mutual knowledge, understanding, and respect. At the Inter-American Peace Confer- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 195 1,000 individuals and institutions. Five crowded army transports brought the teachers to the States where they landed amid much fanfare. The project received great publicity for it was admirably organized, and was an unqualified success. So much so, in fact, that its effects were still in evidence fifty years later; methodology taught at Cambridge was still being practiced in Cuba, and just a decade ago the visit of the Cuban teachers was returned when, on the anniversary of the Cuban public school system, one teacher from each of the United States was invited to the island as a guest of the Cuban government. In 1919, Dr. Stephen Duggan, a professor of history and political science at the College of the City of New York, Nicholas Murray Butler, President of Columbia University, and Elihu Root, Theodore Roosevelt's great Secretary of State, convinced the Carnegie Endow- ment for International Peace that it should finance an organization which would develop systematic educational exchange. Long before the end of World War I, the existence of a peaceful world, united through mutual understanding, had seemed possible to Dr. Duggan. He believed that the people of the world could live in friendship and harmony and that international understanding could best be developed through educational exchange of students and scholars. Within a decade his idea had won world-wide acceptance. From the early beginning when a borrowed typewriter, a second-hand army desk, and old filing cabinets filled the small office, the Insti- tute of International Education grew and became a highly respected, internationally known organization. In 1929, Dr. Duggan's lIE established its own Latin American Department and planned a tour for 22 Argentine scholars to study at American educational and industrial institutions. Funds for this tour were provided by the Carnegie Endowment through the Pan American Union. In 1930, twelve Brazilians toured the United States. Also in that year, the Committee on Inter-American Relations granted $8,000 to the Insti- tute to help carry out Latin American exchange. From then on, tIE has arranged study, research, or lecture projects in the United States for prominent scholars from every Latin American country. In the 1930's, as the menace of fascism in Europe became more evident, the twenty-one American republics recognized that friendly relations in this hemisphere must be founded on mutual knowledge, understanding, and respect. At the Inter-American Peace Confer-  196 The Caribbean ence in Buenos Aires, which met in December, 1936, the Convention for the Promotion of Inter-American Cultural Relations was signed. Later ratified by the United States and 16 of the other American republics, the Buenos Aires Convention, as it came to be called, was designed to promote wider scientific cooperation and deeper mutual understanding through the educational exchange. In 1940, as an important part of the National Defense Act, the Office of the Coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Relations between the American Republics (CIAA) was created. At first, its Division of Cultural Relations was primarily concerned with carrying out the programs of the Buenos Aires Convention and with the administration of United States government grants for travel. But by the mid-1940's, the exchange movement had become a co- operative program worked out by the United States and Latin American governments, private or state-supported universities, and private agencies of the United States. The joint effort of these groups made possible the coordination of grants for travel, mainte- nance, tuition, and general expenses. In January, 1948, the United States Information and Educational Exchange Act provided for a world-wide program to promote better understanding between the people of the United States and the peoples of other countries. The International Educational Exchange Service, created by this act, as an agency of our Department of State, was to cooperate with other nations in the interchange of persons, knowledge, developments, and skills. Within a few years, however, there was a decline in government support for Latin American exchanges. Ironically, the wartime success of the United States government exchange programs with Latin America contributed to their decline after World War II; the government, anticipating a similar success in other areas of the world, shifted the priority of dollar grants away from the Western Hemisphere. With the passage of the Ful- bright Act in 1947 and the Smith-Mundt Act In 1948, United States government-sponsored programs broadened to include every part of the world. At that time, the Institute of International Education (IIE) seek- ing scholarship funds elsewhere, tried to interest private sources in its Latin American programs. In these programs, then as now, tIE acts as a sponsoring organization, bringing together the students and the interested institution or group and exercising general super- 196 The Caribbean ence in Buenos Aires, which met in December, 1936, the Convention for the Promotion of Inter-American Cultural Relations was signed. Later ratified by the United States and 16 of the other American republics, the Buenos Aires Convention, as it came to be called, was designed to promote wider scientific cooperation and deeper mutual understanding through the educational exchange. In 1940, as an important part of the National Defense Act, the Office of the Coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Relations between the American Republics (CIAA) was created. At first, its Division of Cultural Relations was primarily concerned with carrying out the programs of the Buenos Aires Convention and with the administration of United States government grants for travel. But by the mid-1940's, the exchange movement had become a co- operative program worked out by the United States and Latin American governments, private or state-supported universities, and private agencies of the United States. The joint effort of these groups made possible the coordination of grants for travel, mainte- nance, tuition, and general expenses. In January, 1948, the United States Information and Educational Exchange Act provided for a world-wide program to promote better understanding between the people of the United States and the peoples of other countries. The International Educational Exchange Service, created by this act, as an agency of our Department of State, was to cooperate with other nations in the interchange of persons, knowledge, developments, and skills. Within a few years, however, there was a decline in government support for Latin American exchanges. Ironically, the wartime success of the United States government exchange programs with Latin America contributed to their decline after World War II; the government, anticipating a similar success in other areas of the world, shifted the priority of dollar grants away from the Western Hemisphere. With the passage of the Ful- bright Act in 1947 and the Smith-Mundt Act In 1948, United States government-sponsored programs broadened to include every part of the world. At that time, the Institute of International Education (IIE) seek- ing scholarship funds elsewhere, tried to interest private sources in its Latin American programs. In these programs, then as now, IIE acts as a sponsoring organization, bringing together the students and the interested institution or group and exercising general super- 196 The Caribbean ence in Buenos Aires, which met in December, 1916, the Convention for the Promotion of Inter-American Cultural Relations was signed. Later ratified by the United States and 16 of the other American republics, the Buenos Aires Convention, as it came to be called, was designed to promote wider scientific cooperation and deeper mutual understanding through the educational exchange. In 1940, as an important part of the National Defense Act, the Office of the Coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Relations between the American Republics (CIAA) was created. At first, its Division of Cultural Relations was primarily concerned with carrying out the programs of the Buenos Aires Convention and with the administration of United States government grants for travel. But by the mid-1940's, the exchange movement had become a co- operative program worked out by the United States and Latin American governments, private or state-supported universities, and private agencies of the United States. The joint effort of these groups made possible the coordination of grants for travel, mainte- nance, tuition, and general expenses. In January, 1948, the United States Information and Educational Exchange Act provided for a world-wide program to promote better understanding between the people of the United States and the peoples of other countries. The International Educational Exchange Service, created by this act, as an agency of our Department of State, was to cooperate with other nations in the interchange of persons, knowledge, developments, and skills. Within a few years, however, there was a decline in government support for Latin American exchanges. Ironically, the wartime success of the United States government exchange programs with Latin America contributed to their decline after World War II; the government, anticipating a similar success in other areas of the world, shifted the priority of dollar grants away from the Western Hemisphere. With the passage of the Ful- bright Act in 1947 and the Smith-Mundt Act In 1948, United States government-sponsored programs broadened to include every part of the world. At that time, the Institute of International Education (IIE) seek- ing scholarship funds elsewhere, tried to interest private sources in its Latin American programs. In these programs, then as now, tIE acts as a sponsoring organization, bringing together the students and the interested institution or group and exercising general super-  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 197 EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 197 EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 197 vision and evaluation of the students' programs in this country. The funds which flnance study under IIE's private programs come from colleges and universities, industrial firms, foundations, civic groups, and individuals. Latin American candidates for tIE-administered scholarships and fellowships, under both the United States government and private programs, are screened by one of the 40 Latin American Commit- tees on Study and Training in the United States which have been established in the capitals of the other American republics and in many of the provincial cities as well. These Committees serve as IIE's agents in initial contact with prospective scholarship can- didates, publicizing awards in the respective countries and receiv- ing applications. They also evaluate the applications and supporting credentials and, in turn, recommend to tIE the candidates from their country who, in their collective opinion, are most outstanding and deserving of awards for study in the United States. The Com- mittees in almost every case have their headquarters at a binational cultural center. The chairman of the Committee is usually a leading citizen of his country, while the secretary is more apt to be the director of the binational center and in the service of the USIA. The Cultural Affairs Officer of the United States Embassy serves as a nonvoting member of the Committee. Howland H. Sargeant, formerly Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, explained the CAD's presence on the Committee when he said: "The Cultural Affairs Officer soon sees that the hard core of any cultural relations program which he can carry out must center around interchange of persons programs." The first Fulbright agreement with a Latin American republic was signed with Chile in 1955. Under the Fulbright Act, as amended, a portion of the foreign credits and currencies acquired by the United States through the sale of surplus agricultural com- modities may be used for educational exchange. The funds finance the travel of foreign scholars and students to the United States and also finance the travel to and study in foreign countries of United States citizens. So far Fulbright agreements have been signed with Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Peru. IE assists the Department of State in administering the student portion of the Fulbright program for both Americans and Latin Americans. I am sad to report there are no Fulbright programs with any of the Caribbean countries. vision and evaluation of the students' programs in this country. The funds which finance study under IIE's private programs come from colleges and universities, industrial firms, foundations, civic groups, and individuals. Latin American candidates for lIE-administered scholarships and fellowships, under both the United States government and private programs, are screened by one of the 40 Latin American Commit- tees on Study and Training in the United States which have been established in the capitals of the other American republics and in many of the provincial cities as well. These Committees serve as IIE's agents in initial contact with prospective scholarship can- didates, publicizing awards in the respective countries and receiv- ing applications. They also evaluate the applications and supporting credentials and, in turn, recommend to IE the candidates from their country who, in their collective opinion, are most outstanding and deserving of awards for study in the United States. The Com- mittees in almost every case have their headquarters at a binational cultural center. The chairman of the Committee is usually a leading citizen of his country, while the secretary is more apt to be the director of the binational center and in the service of the USIA. The Cultural Affairs Officer of the United States Embassy serves as a nonvoting member of the Committee. Howland H. Sargeant, formerly Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, explained the CAO's presence on the Committee when he said: "The Cultural Affairs Officer soon sees that the hard core of any cultural relations program which he can carry out must center around interchange of persons programs." The first Fulbright agreement with a Latin American republic was signed with Chile in 1955. Under the Fulbright Act, as amended, a portion of the foreign credits and currencies acquired by the United States through the sale of surplus agricultural com- modities may be used for educational exchange. The funds finance the travel of foreign scholars and students to the United States and also finance the travel to and study in foreign countries of United States citizens. So far Fulbright agreements have been signed with Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Peru. IE assists the Department of State in administering the student portion of the Fulbright program for both Americans and Latin Americans. I am sad to report there are no Fulbright programs with any of the Caribbean countries. vision and evaluation of the students' programs in this country. The funds which finance study under IIE's private programs come from colleges and universities, industrial firms, foundations, civic groups, and individuals. Latin American candidates for IIE-administered scholarships and fellowships, under both the United States government and private programs, are screened by one of the 40 Latin American Commit- tees on Study and Training in the United States which have been established in the capitals of the other American republics and in many of the provincial cities as well. These Committees serve as IIE's agents in initial contact with prospective scholarship can- didates, publicizing awards in the respective countries and receiv- ing applications. They also evaluate the applications and supporting credentials and, in turn, recommend to tIE the candidates from their country who, in their collective opinion, are most outstanding and deserving of awards for study in the United States. The Com- mittees in almost every case have their headquarters at a binational cultural center. The chairman of the Committee is usually a leading citizen of his country, while the secretary is more apt to be the director of the binational center and in the service of the USIA. The Cultural Affairs Officer of the United States Embassy serves as a nonvoting member of the Committee. Howland H. Sargeant, formerly Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, explained the CAO's presence on the Committee when he said: "The Cultural Affairs Officer soon sees that the hard core of any cultural relations program which he can carry out must center around interchange of persons programs." The first Fulbright agreement with a Latin American republic was signed with Chile in 1955. Under the Fulbright Act, as amended, a portion of the foreign credits and currencies acquired by the United States through the sale of surplus agricultural com- modities may be used for educational exchange. The funds finance the travel of foreign scholars and students to the United States and also finance the travel to and study in foreign countries of United States citizens. So far Fulbright agreements have been signed with Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Peru. tIE assists the Department of State in administering the student portion of the Fulbright program for both Americans and Latin Americans. I am sad to report there are no Fulbright programs with any of the Caribbean countries.  198 The Caribbean Nevertheless, student exchange with this area and with all of Latin America continues to increase. Just as the shattering effects of World War I led to the founding of IIE, whose aim was to put an end to American isolation and strengthen the bonds between her and other nations, World War II emphasized even more forcefully the need for international understanding, and led to greater ex- change. The need for a solid foundation of friendship is clearer than ever today, as we stand under the threat of a continuous "cold war." It seems a matter of the simplest necessity that we in the same hemisphere should be closely joined; the kind of exchange we have been talking about can make solid our mutual trust, respect, and friendship. II. Goals of Educational Exchange If never before has there been such universal concern for a sympathetic understanding among nations, it is because never has the need for it been greater. Essentially the goal of most people and institutions sponsoring educational exchange is to encourage international good will. But another important objective is in a sense at odds with the first; the aim of the beneficiary of these exchange programs is and ought to be education. This is, by defini- tion, the primary purpose of any international educational exchange program. It is made explicit in the selection process, by which individuals are chosen in large part on the basis of their academic records, their level of previous training, and the soundness of their study or research plans in the United States. Looking into this further a few years ago, IE found that as far as sponsors were concerned the following "Goals of Student Exchange" stood out: 1. To promote international understanding and to contribute to peace and good will; 2. To develop friends for the United States by helping others understand us; 8. To contribute to the economic and social progress of other countries; 4. To aid in the educational and professional development of outstanding individuals. At the same time applications submitted to the IE showed that students normally listed their objectives in the following order of frequency: 198 The Caribbean Nevertheless, student exchange with this area and with all of Latin America continues to increase. Just as the shattering effects of World War I led to the founding of IIE, whose aim was to put an end to American isolation and strengthen the bonds between her and other nations, World War II emphasized even more forcefully the need for international understanding, and led to greater ex- change. The need for a solid foundation of friendship is clearer than ever today, as we stand under the threat of a continuous "cold war." It seems a matter of the simplest necessity that we in the same hemisphere should be closely joined; the kind of exchange we have been talking about can make solid our mutual trust, respect, and friendship. IL Goals of Educational Exchange If never before has there been such universal concern for a sympathetic understanding among nations, it is because never has the need for it been greater. Essentially the goal of most people and institutions sponsoring educational exchange is to encourage international good will. But another important objective is in a sense at odds with the first; the aim of the beneficiary of these exchange programs is and ought to be education. This is, by defini- tion, the primary purpose of any international educational exchange program. It is made explicit in the selection process, by which individuals are chosen in large part on the basis of their academic records, their level of previous training, and the soundness of their study or research plans in the United States. Looking into this further a few years ago, IE found that as far as sponsors were concerned the following "Goals of Student Exchange" stood out: 1. To promote international understanding and to contribute to peace and good will; 2. To develop friends for the United States by helping others understand us; 3. To contribute to the economic and social progress of other countries; 4. To aid in the educational and professional development of outstanding individuals. At the same time applications submitted to the tIE showed that students normally listed their objectives in the following order of frequency: 198 The Caribbean Nevertheless, student exchange with this area and with all of Latin America continues to increase. Just as the shattering effects of World War I led to the founding of IIE, whose aim was to put an end to American isolation and strengthen the bonds between her and other nations, World War II emphasized even more forcefully the need for international understanding, and led to greater ex- change. The need for a solid foundation of friendship is clearer than ever today, as we stand under the threat of a continuous "cold war." It seems a matter of the simplest necessity that we in the same hemisphere should be closely joined; the kind of exchange we have been talking about can make solid our mutual trust, respect, and friendship. II. Goals of Educational Exchange If never before has there been such universal concern for a sympathetic understanding among nations, it is because never has the need for it been greater. Essentially the goal of most people and institutions sponsoring educational exchange is to encourage international good will. But another important objective is in a sense at odds with the first; the aim of the beneficiary of these exchange programs is and ought to be education. This is, by defini- tion, the primary purpose of any international educational exchange program. It is made explicit in the selection process, by which individuals are chosen in large part on the basis of their academic records, their level of previous training, and the soundness of their study or research plans in the United States. Looking into this further a few years ago, IE found that as far as sponsors were concerned the following "Goals of Student Exchange" stood out: 1. To promote international understanding and to contribute to peace and good will; 2. To develop friends for the United States by helping others understand us; 3. To contribute to the economic and social progress of other countries; 4. To aid in the educational and professional development of outstanding individuals. At the same time applications submitted to the tIE showed that students normally listed their objectives in the following order of frequency:  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 199 1. To advance their personal or professional development; 2. To prepare them for service in their home country through the acquisition of additional knowledge or skill; 3. To promote international understanding; 4. To contribute to the advancement of knowledge through cooperative study and research with professional colleagues in the United States. In other words, sponsors emphasized broad social goals, while applicants are primarily oriented toward definite academic achieve- ment and professional advancement. Fortunately, both sponsors and participants usually look at all exchange objectives as being inter- related parts of a whole. Insistence on a particular goal by either sponsor or grantee could easily circumscribe the extent of educa- tional exchange programs. The broad social and political goals of exchange programs usually are obtained - at least to some degree - but they must be recognized as long range and indirect. All of us who have been working at this kind of exchange over the years have come to realize through an objective evaluation of the results of such programs that we could endanger the exchange movement if we set for it unrealistic or impossible goals. II. The Present Situation "Open Doors," IIE's annual statistical report on international edu- cational exchange, shows that last year, as in previous years, Latin America has supplied the second largest number of foreign nationals. who have come to the United States for educational purposes. The 12,111 from Latin America represent 21 per cent of all foreign ex- changees in this country. Yet only 1,188 Americans were studying in Latin America during the same year. Moreover, these figures are somewhat misleading, for they include summer schools. The major- ity of United States students -952- are studying in Mexico; many at the summer school at the University of Mexico, and most of the others at Mexico City College. The unusually high number of United States students in Mexico can be accounted for by a number of different factors. The prox- imity of the two countries makes getting there cheap and easy. American familiarity with Mexico is another factor; it does not seem as remote and strange to the less venturesome students as perhaps Ecuador or Bolivia would. The tremendous cultural influ- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 199 1. To advance their personal or professional development; 2. To prepare them for service in their home country through the acquisition of additional knowledge or skill; 3. To promote international understanding; 4. To contribute to the advancement of knowledge through cooperative study and research with professional colleagues in the United States. In other words, sponsors emphasized broad social goals, while applicants are primarily oriented toward definite academic achieve- ment and professional advancement. Fortunately, both sponsors and participants usually look at all exchange objectives as being inter- related parts of a whole. Insistence on a particular goal by either sponsor or grantee could easily circumscribe the extent of educa- tional exchange programs. The broad social and political goals of exchange programs usually are obtained - at least to some degree - but they must be recognized as long range and indirect. All of us who have been working at this kind of exchange over the years have come to realize through an objective evaluation of the results of such programs that we could endanger the exchange movement if we set for it unrealistic or impossible goals. II. The Present Situation "Open Doors," IIE's annual statistical report on international edu- cational exchange, shows that last year, as in previous years, Latin America has supplied the second largest number of foreign nationals who have come to the United States for educational purposes. The 12,111 from Latin America represent 21 per cent of all foreign ex- changees in this country. Yet only 1,188 Americans were studying in Latin America during the same year. Moreover, these figures are somewhat misleading, for they include summer schools. The major- ity of United States students - 952- are studying in Mexico; many at the summer school at the University of Mexico, and most of the others at Mexico City College. The unusually high number of United States students in Mexico can be accounted for by a number of different factors. The prox- imity of the two countries makes getting there cheap and easy. American familiarity with Mexico is another factor; it does not seem as remote and strange to the less venturesome students as perhaps Ecuador or Bolivia would. The tremendous cultural influ- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 199 1. To advance their personal or professional development; 2. To prepare them for service in their home country through the acquisition of additional knowledge or skill; 3. To promote international understanding; 4. To contribute to the advancement of knowledge through cooperative study and research with professional colleagues in the United States. In other words, sponsors emphasized broad social goals, while applicants are primarily oriented toward definite academic achieve- ment and professional advancement. Fortunately, both sponsors and participants usually look at all exchange objectives as being inter- related parts of a whole. Insistence on a particular goal by either sponsor or grantee could easily circumscribe the extent of educa- tional exchange programs. The broad social and political goals of exchange programs usually are obtained - at least to some degree - but they must be recognized as long range and indirect. All of us who have been working at this kind of exchange over the years have come to realize through an objective evaluation of the results of such programs that we could endanger the exchange movement if we set for it unrealistic or impossible goals. III. The Present Situation "Open Doors," IIE's annual statistical report on international edu- rational exchange, shows that last year, as in previous years, Latin America has supplied the second largest number of foreign nationals who have come to the United States for educational purposes. The 12,111 from Latin America represent 21 per cent of all foreign ex- changees in this country. Yet only 1,188 Americans were studying in Latin America during the same year. Moreover, these figures are somewhat misleading, for they include summer schools. The major- ity of United States students -952 - are studying in Mexico; many at the summer school at the University of Mexico, and most of the others at Mexico City College. The unusually high number of United States students in Mexico can be accounted for by a number of different factors. The prox- imity of the two countries makes getting there cheap and easy. American familiarity with Mexico is another factor; it does not seem as remote and strange to the less venturesome students as perhaps Ecuador or Bolivia would. The tremendous cultural infu-  200 The Caribbean ence of the United States in that country also makes some Mexican institutions, such as Mexico City College and the Instituto Tecno- ldgico de Monterrey, seem less like a Latin American university than a transplanted American college. Some of the same reasons in reverse account for the great number of Mexican students studying in the United States. One of the chief ones, again, is proximity. It is relatively easy and inexpensive to get to the United States from Mexico, and along our 1,500-mile mutual border the cultural differences between our two countries are less pronounced. On the other hand, the previously mentioned cultural influence of the United States in Mexico is great and leads to a wide interest among Mexican university students in the United States and American life. An important factor, too, is the desire of many students to acquire advanced technical training available to them only in this country. And the more ambitious of the young Mexicans are also eager, naturally, to replace Americans in jointly owned industrial plants in Mexico itself. I am delighted that the exchange with our neighbors is so great in both directions. It is quite natural that we should get to know each other better, but I hope that the total number of United States students studying in the Caribbean area can be increased. At the present, it appears to be considerably below its potential level. Otherwise, student exchange from this area to the United States has, I am happy to report, been good. Mexico, Venezuela, and the smaller republics of the Caribbean and Central America account for more foreign students than does all of South America combined. Of all Latin American countries, Cuba sends the most foreign stu- dents to the United States. Last year, 1,645 attended our schools and universities. Mexico's 1,372 was next on the "Open Door" census list, and Venezuela with 1,157 stood third. And this despite conditions in the Caribbean which have fre- quently militated against extensive educational exchange with the United States. Not least among them at present is the enormous political unrest in the area which is not only a serious obstacle to student exchange, but even more, is an obstacle to education. Cuba has, since the turn of the century, had an extremely close relationship with the United States, and although the tone of our friendship has often varied, our contact has been of a necessity continuous and close. American cultural influence in Cuba is exten- sive, and together with our geographic proximity, largely accounts 200 The Caribbean ence of the United States in that country also makes some Mexican institutions, such as Mexico City College and the Instituto Tecno- lgico de Monterrey, seem less like a Latin American university than a transplanted American college. Some of the same reasons in reverse account for the great number of Mexican students studying in the United States. One of the chief ones, again, is proximity. It is relatively easy and inexpensive to get to the United States from Mexico, and along our 1,500-mile mutual border the cultural differences between our two countries are less pronounced. On the other hand, the previously mentioned cultural influence of the United States in Mexico is great and leads to a wide interest among Mexican university students in the United States and American life. An important factor, too, is the desire of many students to acquire advanced technical training available to them only in this country. And the more ambitious of the young Mexicans are also eager, naturally, to replace Americans in jointly owned industrial plants in Mexico itself. I am delighted that the exchange with our neighbors is so great in both directions. It is quite natural that we should get to know each other better, but I hope that the total number of United States students studying in the Caribbean area can be increased. At the present, it appears to be considerably below its potential level. Otherwise, student exchange from this area to the United States has, I am happy to report, been good. Mexico, Venezuela, and the smaller republics of the Caribbean and Central America account for more foreign students than does all of South America combined. Of all Latin American countries, Cuba sends the most foreign stu- dents to the United States. Last year, 1,645 attended our schools and universities. Mexico's 1,372 was next on the "Open Door" census list, and Venezuela with 1,157 stood third. And this despite conditions in the Caribbean which have fre- quently militated against extensive educational exchange with the United States. Not least among them at present is the enormous political unrest in the area which is not only a serious obstacle to student exchange, but even more, is an obstacle to education. Cuba has, since the turn of the century, had an extremely close relationship with the United States, and although the tone of our friendship has often varied, our contact has been of a necessity continuous and close. American cultural influence in Cuba is exten- sive, and together with our geographic proximity, largely accounts 200 The Caribbean ence of the United States in that country also makes some Mexican institutions, such as Mexico City College and the Instituto Tecno- ligico de Monterrey, seem less like a Latin American university than a transplanted American college. Some of the same reasons in reverse account for the great number of Mexican students studying in the United States. One of the chief ones, again, is proximity. It is relatively easy and inexpensive to get to the United States from Mexico, and along our 1,500-mile mutual border the cultural differences between our two countries are less pronounced. On the other hand, the previously mentioned cultural influence of the United States in Mexico is great and leads to a wide interest among Mexican university students in the United States and American life. An important factor, too, is the desire of many students to acquire advanced technical training available to them only in this country. And the more ambitious of the young Mexicans are also eager, naturally, to replace Americans in jointly owned industrial plants in Mexico itself. I am delighted that the exchange with our neighbors is so great in both directions. It is quite natural that we should get to know each other better, but I hope that the total number of United States students studying in the Caribbean area can be increased. At the present, it appears to be considerably below its potential level. Otherwise, student exchange from this area to the United States has, I am happy to report, been good. Mexico, Venezuela, and the smaller republics of the Caribbean and Central America account for more foreign students than does all of South America combined. Of all Latin American countries, Cuba sends the most foreign stu- dents to the United States. Last year, 1,645 attended our schools and universities. Mexico's 1,372 was next on the "Open Door" census list, and Venezuela with 1,157 stood third. And this despite conditions in the Caribbean which have fre- quently militated against extensive educational exchange with the United States. Not least among them at present is the enormous political unrest in the area which is not only a serious obstacle to student exchange, but even more, is an obstacle to education. Cuba has, since the turn of the century, had an extremely close relationship with the United States, and although the tone of our friendship has often varied, our contact has been of a necessity continuous and close. American cultural influence in Cuba is exten- sive, and together with our geographic proximity, largely accounts  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 201 for the great number of Cuban students matriculating in this coun- try. I would hope that the Cuban government will eventually sup- port more student exchange with the United States, but I must confess that at this time such a possibility seems remote. Cuba and Panama should perhaps be discussed together in this respect because both harbor elements of rancor towards the United States. The dissatisfactions and disturbances that attend Cuba's new government are common to most that are established by revolution. In Panama, the friction with the United States arises primarily from a long-standing condition - the Canal. Examination of United States political position vis-a-vis the Canal Zone is not within the scope of this paper, but the effects of the situation are a mild but constant irritation, with occasional flare-ups, rather than the more intense virulence of Castro's attack on the United States. The lengthy turbulence of Cuban politics and the extent of stu- dent involvement in Castro's revolution have complicated educa- tional exchanges. The University of Havana was closed for two years before Castro took over last January, and his edict invalidat- ing all study carried out in Cuba or abroad during those two years has only complicated an already difficult situation. Nevertheless, there have been such encouraging private developments as the four Moa Bay Mining Company scholarships offered annually, and the Cuban Design Fellowship established by Mrs. Florence Pritch- ett Smith, wife of the former Ambassador to Cuba, and her friends. And finally, the selection committee in Havana has done a remark- able job in maintaining close connections with IE in our student exchange work despite all the restrictions they had to deal with. The University of Panama, though it has not faced such extreme difficulties as the University of Havana, also suffers from the fre- quent involvement of its student body in national politics. In addi- tion, it is fairly new and still in the process of being converted from a night school to a regular university. Students have insisted on night classes as most work at full-time jobs during the day. By the time they have completed three years of study or received their degree, they are usually of an age which corresponds neither to the United States graduate nor undergraduate age limits. The Pan- ama Refinery, a subsidiary of an American corporation, has recently established five scholarships to be given annually to students in scientific and technical fields. This is a hopeful step in the direction of stronger private support for educational exchange. EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 201 for the great number of Cuban students matriculating in this coun- try. I would hope that the Cuban government will eventually sup- port more student exchange with the United States, but I must confess that at this time such a possibility seems remote. Cuba and Panama should perhaps be discussed together in this respect because both harbor elements of rancor towards the United States. The dissatisfactions and disturbances that attend Cuba's new government are common to most that are established by revolution. In Panama, the friction with the United States arises primarily from a long-standing condition - the Canal. Examination of United States political position vis-a-vis the Canal Zone is not within the scope of this paper, but the effects of the situation are a mild but constant irritation, with occasional flare-ups, rather than the more intense virulence of Castro's attack on the United States. The lengthy turbulence of Cuban politics and the extent of stu- dent involvement in Castro's revolution have complicated educa- tional exchanges. The University of Havana was closed for two years before Castro took over last January, and his edict invalidat- ing all study carried out in Cuba or abroad during those two years has only complicated an already difficult situation. Nevertheless, there have been such encouraging private developments as the four Moa Bay Mining Company scholarships offered annually, and the Cuban Design Fellowship established by Mrs. Florence Pritch- ett Smith, wife of the former Ambassador to Cuba, and her friends. And finally, the selection committee in Havana has done a remark- able job in maintaining close connections with tIE in our student exchange work despite all the restrictions they had to deal with. The University of Panama, though it has not faced such extreme difficulties as the University of Havana, also suffers from the fre- quent involvement of its student body in national politics. In addi- tion, it is fairly new and still in the process of being converted from a night school to a regular university. Students have insisted on night classes as most work at full-time jobs during the day. By the time they have completed three years of study or received their degree, they are usually of an age which corresponds neither to the United States graduate nor undergraduate age limits. The Pan- ama Refinery, a subsidiary of an American corporation, has recently established five scholarships to be given annually to students in scientific and technical fields. This is a hopeful step in the direction of stronger private support for educational exchange. EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 201 for the great number of Cuban students matriculating in this coun- try. I would hope that the Cuban government will eventually sup- port more student exchange with the United States, but I must confess that at this time such a possibility seems remote. Cuba and Panama should perhaps be discussed together in this respect because both harbor elements of rancor towards the United States. The dissatisfactions and disturbances that attend Cuba's new government are common to most that are established by revolution. In Panama, the friction with the United States arises primarily from a long-standing condition - the Canal. Examination of United States political position vis-A-vis the Canal Zone is not within the scope of this paper, but the effects of the situation are a mild but constant irritation, with occasional flare-ups, rather than the more intense virulence of Castro's attack on the United States. The lengthy turbulence of Cuban politics and the extent of stu- dent involvement in Castro's revolution have complicated educa- tional exchanges. The University of Havana was closed for two years before Castro took over last January, and his edict invalidat- ing all study carried out in Cuba or abroad during those two years has only complicated an already difficult situation. Nevertheless, there have been such encouraging private developments as the four Moa Bay Mining Company scholarships offered annually, and the Cuban Design Fellowship established by Mrs. Florence Pritch- ett Smith, wife of the former Ambassador to Cuba, and her friends. And finally, the selection committee in Havana has done a remark- able job in maintaining close connections with tIE in our student exchange work despite all the restrictions they had to deal with. The University of Panama, though it has not faced such extreme difficulties as the University of Havana, also suffers from the fre- quent involvement of its student body in national politics. In addi- tion, it is fairly new and still in the process of being converted from a night school to a regular university. Students have insisted on night classes as most work at full-time jobs during the day. By the time they have completed three years of study or received their degree, they are usually of an age which corresponds neither to the United States graduate nor undergraduate age limits. The Pan- ama Refinery, a subsidiary of an American corporation, has recently established five scholarships to be given annually to students in scientific and technical fields. This is a hopeful step in the direction of stronger private support for educational exchange.  202 The Caribbean Venezuela has, since the establishment of the American oil com- panies, been enjoying a prosperity unknown to her neighbors. With new wealth, Venezuelan parents, ambitious for their children to have opportunities previously available only to the landed aristoc- racy, have sent them to the United States to study, feeling that the education there was superior to local opportunities. The Venezuelan government (and most of the American oil companies) have re- cently given strong support to educational exchange, and have financed many of the other Venezuelan students now in this country. In discussing the Caribbean, I cannot overlook the West Indies Federation which is sending over 1,000 students to this country annually. Over one-half are self-supporting, however, and a still larger proportion is in undergraduate schools. Few are here on scholarships because American colleges for colored students almost never are blessed with a rich endowment which will allow them the luxury of offering grants to foreign students. Our own govern- ment gives only a few grants annually to Jamaicans and other West Indies graduates, and the new Federation can afford to give only 15 to 20. I would like to see more awarded to young men and women graduating from University College who plan to go into teaching or research. Having visited the island last spring, I am firmly convinced that the level of employment, of national income, and of standards of living can be raised by improved resources and technology. This will mean an enormous expenditure must be made on research, education, and the improvement of human material. Many of the same problems found in the West Indies face the other republics in the Caribbean and Central America. The govern- ments of both Haiti and the Dominican Republic have not been encouraging the importation of foreign ideas in these recently trou- bled times. Nevertheless, there were 81 students here last year from the Dominican Republic and 118 from Haiti. Nicaragua for a long time suffered also from a similar xenophobia, but all the Central American states, except impoverished Honduras, are sending over 200 students apiece to this country to attend our universities and colleges. Even Honduras had 140 here last year. Again, a large proportion of them are self-supporting undergradu- ates, and not particularly conspicuous as they are spread thinly among the 2,900 institutions included in IIE's survey. One of the first things I look for in this survey is what the foreign 202 The Caribbean 202 The Caribbean Venezuela has, since the establishment of the American oil com- panies, been enjoying a prosperity unknown to her neighbors. With new wealth, Venezuelan parents, ambitious for their children to have opportunities previously available only to the landed aristoc- racy, have sent them to the United States to study, feeling that the education there was superior to local opportunities. The Venezuelan government (and most of the American oil companies) have re- cently given strong support to educational exchange, and have financed many of the other Venezuelan students now in this country. In discussing the Caribbean, I cannot overlook the West Indies Federation which is sending over 1,000 students to this country annually. Over one-half are self-supporting, however, and a still larger proportion is in undergraduate schools. Few are here on scholarships because American colleges for colored students almost never are blessed with a rich endowment which will allow them the luxury of offering grants to foreign students. Our own govern- ment gives only a few grants annually to Jamaicans and other West Indies graduates, and the new Federation can afford to give only 15 to 20. I would like to see more awarded to young men and women graduating from University College who plan to go into teaching or research. Having visited the island last spring, I am firmly convinced that the level of employment, of national income, and of standards of living can be raised by improved resources and technology. This will mean an enormous expenditure must be made on research, education, and the improvement of human material. Many of the same problems found in the West Indies face the other republics in the Caribbean and Central America. The govern- ments of both Haiti and the Dominican Republic have not been encouraging the importation of foreign ideas in these recently trou- bled times. Nevertheless, there were 81 students here last year from the Dominican Republic and 118 from Haiti. Nicaragua for a long time suffered also from a similar xenophobia, but all the Central American states, except impoverished Honduras, are sending over 200 students apiece to this country to attend our universities and colleges. Even Honduras had 140 here last year. Again, a large proportion of them are self-supporting undergradu- ates, and not particularly conspicuous as they are spread thinly among the 2,900 institutions included in IIE's survey. One of the first things I look for in this survey is what the foreign Venezuela has, since the establishment of the American oil com- panies, been enjoying a prosperity unknown to her neighbors. With new wealth, Venezuelan parents, ambitious for their children to have opportunities previously available only to the landed aristoc- racy, have sent them to the United States to study, feeling that the education there was superior to local opportunities. The Venezuelan government (and most of the American oil companies) have re- cently given strong support to educational exchange, and have financed many of the other Venezuelan students now in this country. In discussing the Caribbean, I cannot overlook the West Indies Federation which is sending over 1,000 students to this country annually. Over one-half are self-supporting, however, and a still larger proportion is in undergraduate schools. Few are here on scholarships because American colleges for colored students almost never are blessed with a rich endowment which will allow them the luxury of offering grants to foreign students. Our own govern- ment gives only a few grants annually to Jamaicans and other West Indies graduates, and the new Federation can afford to give only 15 to 20. I would like to see more awarded to young men and women graduating from University College who plan to go into teaching or research. Having visited the island last spring, I am firmly convinced that the level of employment, of national income, and of standards of living can be raised by improved resources and technology. This will mean an enormous expenditure must be made on research, education, and the improvement of human material. Many of the same problems found in the West Indies face the other republics in the Caribbean and Central America. The govern- ments of both Haiti and the Dominican Republic have not been encouraging the importation of foreign ideas in these recently trou- bled times. Nevertheless, there were 81 students here last year from the Dominican Republic and 118 from Haiti. Nicaragua for a long time suffered also from a similar xenophobia, but all the Central American states, except impoverished Honduras, are sending over 200 students apiece to this country to attend our universities and colleges. Even Honduras had 140 here last year. Again, a large proportion of them are self-supporting undergradu- ates, and not particularly conspicuous as they are spread thinly among the 2,900 institutions included in IIE's survey. One of the first things I look for in this survey is what the foreign  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 203 governments are doing to help their own citizens. Except for El Salvador, none comes close to matching the grants made by the United States to their students, yet I am convinced that there exists a great awareness in Central America of the benefits to be derived from educational exchange, and I believe their participation will grow year by year. On my trip through the Caribbean and Central American nations last spring, I talked with university administrators, Ministry of Education officials, diplomats, professors, teachers, and students in an effort to see what was needed in this field and what problems we had to overcome if we were to encourage more educational exchange. Some of the current problems common to the Caribbean area in general I would like to touch on briefly. 1. Inadequate educational facilities in many of the countries are probably the greatest obstacle. Secondary preparation at the public schools is generally inadequate for admission to United States colleges and even the most highly qualified students are apt to face difficulties. 2. The radical difference between the educational systems of the United States and the countries of the Caribbean is another prob- lem. The universities of those countries are organized with the Euro- pean emphasis on prestige professions such as law and medicine, rather than along our lines which emphasize the natural sciences, teaching, and research. For this reason, it is often difficult for a student to transfer for one year to a university whose methods and curriculum are so completely different from that to which he has been accustomed. 8. State universities in Latin America generally do not receive enough financial support from the government to pay professors a salary which would induce them to teach full-time. Professors can- not afford to teach on more than a part-time basis and students, too, frequently do not have the funds necessary to support them full- time at the universities. 4. Students from these countries naturally want to study in the fields where the greatest lack of personnel is felt. They face stren- uous competition, however, as those same fields in the United States are extremely overcrowded. In many there are few places or schol- arships for United States students, and even fewer for foreign students. 5. Scholarships to American universities are almost always given for one year, renewable often, it is true, if the grantee's perform- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 203 governments are doing to help their own citizens. Except for El Salvador, none comes close to matching the grants made by the United States to their students, yet I am convinced that there exists a great awareness in Central America of the benefits to be derived from educational exchange, and I believe their participation will grow year by year. On my trip through the Caribbean and Central American nations last spring, I talked with university administrators, Ministry of Education officials, diplomats, professors, teachers, and students in an effort to see what was needed in this field and what problems we had to overcome if we were to encourage more educational exchange. Some of the current problems common to the Caribbean area in general I would like to touch on briefly. 1. Inadequate educational facilities in many of the countries are probably the greatest obstacle. Secondary preparation at the public schools is generally inadequate for admission to United States colleges and even the most highly qualified students are apt to face difficulties. 2. The radical difference between the educational systems of the United States and the countries of the Caribbean is another prob- lem. The universities of those countries are organized with the Euro- pean emphasis on prestige professions such as law and medicine, rather than along our lines which emphasize the natural sciences, teaching, and research. For this reason, it is often difficult for a student to transfer for one year to a university whose methods and curriculum are so completely different from that to which he has been accustomed. S. State universities in Latin America generally do not receive enough financial support from the government to pay professors a salary which would induce them to teach full-time. Professors can- not afford to teach on more than a part-time basis and students, too, frequently do not have the funds necessary to support them full- time at the universities. 4. Students from these countries naturally want to study in the fields where the greatest lack of personnel is felt. They face stren- uous competition, however, as those same fields in the United States are extremely overcrowded. In many there are few places or schol- arships for United States students, and even fewer for foreign students. 5. Scholarships to American universities are almost always given for one year, renewable often, it is true, if the grantee's perform- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 203 governments are doing to help their own citizens. Except for El Salvador, none comes close to matching the grants made by the United States to their students, yet I am convinced that there exists a great awareness in Central America of the benefits to be derived from educational exchange, and I believe their participation will grow year by year. On my trip through the Caribbean and Central American nations last spring, I talked with university administrators, Ministry of Education officials, diplomats, professors, teachers, and students in an effort to see what was needed in this field and what problems we had to overcome if we were to encourage more educational exchange. Some of the current problems common to the Caribbean area in general I would like to touch on briefly. 1. Inadequate educational facilities in many of the countries are probably the greatest obstacle. Secondary preparation at the public schools is generally inadequate for admission to United States colleges and even the most highly qualified students are apt to face difficulties. 2. The radical difference between the educational systems of the United States and the countries of the Caribbean is another prob- lem. The universities of those countries are organized with the Euro- pean emphasis on prestige professions such as law and medicine, rather than along our lines which emphasize the natural sciences, teaching, and research. For this reason, it is often difficult for a student to transfer for one year to a university whose methods and curriculum are so completely different from that to which he has been accustomed. 3. State universities in Latin America generally do not receive enough financial support from the government to pay professors a salary which would induce them to teach full-time. Professors can- not afford to teach on more than a part-time basis and students, too, frequently do not have the funds necessary to support them full- time at the universities. 4. Students from these countries naturally want to study in the fields where the greatest lack of personnel is felt. They face stren- uous competition, however, as those same fields in the United States are extremely overcrowded. In many there are few places or schol- arships for United States students, and even fewer for foreign students. 5. Scholarships to American universities are alnost always given for one year, renewable often, it is true, if the grantee's perform-  204 The Caribbean 204 The Caribbean 204 The Caribbean ance warrants it, but discouraging to students who know they need extended programs in order to get the maximum benefit, as, for instance, a two-year graduate business administration course. 6. The anti-Americanism being whipped up in some countries by dictators, ultranationalists, Communists, and other political extrem- ists influences some good prospects to go to other countries such as France, Germany, or Czechoslovakia. 7. The uncertainty of many of the American grants, which require applications to be made out almost a full year in advance of actual matriculation, discourages many from applying. 8. Incomplete financial assistance, which many of our grants offer to foreign students who come from impoverished countries suffering from inflation, disadvantageous rates of exchange, and other eco- nomic woes, prevents many good students from accepting grants offered by American universities through IE. 9. The inconspicuous support given by the Caribbean govern- ments and private businesses to educational exchange has meant that little encouragement is given to many fine students with good academic records, the proper personality, and viable study projects to go abroad to seek the education and technical know-how which will improve the country's government, economy, and cultural level. IV. Future Potential In spite of all these difficulties, the encouraging fact remains that the American people now have a keen interest in the Caribbean countries, and the people of these countries, in turn, show an equal amount of interest in the United States. There is a particularly strong desire on both sides to study abroad. Last year about 2,500 Cuban students came to the United States Embassy in Havana for guidance and information on schools, colleges, and universities in the United States. The West Indies Federation has a liaison office in Washington working especially to maintain and further study opportunities for its best graduates in United States universities. Some other governments are now in the process of encouraging student exchange. The Venezuelan government stimulates support of education by private corporations; in fact, it has made the terms of such support a part of their contracts with the oil companies, and has itself established a government agency to administer and finance more educational exchange projects. Assistance from private cor- porations in recent years has not been widespread, but there are definite indications that it is substantially increasing. In the van- ance warrants it, but discouraging to students who know they need extended programs in order to get the maximum benefit, as, for instance, a two-year graduate business administration course. 6. The anti-Americanism being whipped up in some countries by dictators, ultranationalists, Communists, and other political extrem- ists influences some good prospects to go to other countries such as France, Germany, or Czechoslovakia. 7. The uncertainty of many of the American grants, which require applications to be made out almost a full year in advance of actual matriculation, discourages many from applying. 8. Incomplete financial assistance, which many of our grants offer to foreign students who come from impoverished countries suffering from inflation, disadvantageous rates of exchange, and other eco- nomic woes, prevents many good students from accepting grants offered by American universities through tIE. 9. The inconspicuous support given by the Caribbean govern- ments and private businesses to educational exchange has meant that little encouragement is given to many fine students with good academic records, the proper personality, and viable study projects to go abroad to seek the education and technical know-how which will improve the country's government, economy, and cultural level. IV. Future Potential In spite of all these difficulties, the encouraging fact remains that the American people now have a keen interest in the Caribbean countries, and the people of these countries, in turn, show an equal amount of interest in the United States. There is a particularly strong desire on both sides to study abroad. Last year about 2,500 Cuban students came to the United States Embassy in Havana for guidance and information on schools, colleges, and universities in the United States. The West Indies Federation has a liaison office in Washington working especially to maintain and further study opportunities for its best graduates in United States universities. Some other governments are now in the process of encouraging student exchange. The Venezuelan government stimulates support of education by private corporations; in fact, it has made the terms of such support a part of their contracts with the oil companies, and has itself established a government agency to administer and finance more educational exchange projects. Assistance from private cor- porations in recent years has not been widespread, but there are definite indications that it is substantially increasing. In the van- ance warrants it, but discouraging to students who know they need extended programs in order to get the maximum benefit, as, for instance, a two-year graduate business administration course. 6. The anti-Americanism being whipped up in some countries by dictators, ultranationalists, Communists, and other political extrem- ists influences some good prospects to go to other countries such as France, Germany, or Czechoslovakia. 7. The uncertainty of many of the American grants, which require applications to be made out almost a full year in advance of actual matriculation, discourages many from applying. 8. Incomplete financial assistance, which many of our grants offer to foreign students who come from impoverished countries suffering from inflation, disadvantageous rates of exchange, and other eco- nomic woes, prevents many good students from accepting grants offered by American universities through tIE. 9. The inconspicuous support given by the Caribbean govern- ments and private businesses to educational exchange has meant that little encouragement is given to many fine students with good academic records, the proper personality, and viable study projects to go abroad to seek the education and technical know-how which will improve the country's government, economy, and cultural level. IV. Future Potential In spite of all these difficulties, the encouraging fact remains that the American people now have a keen interest in the Caribbean countries, and the people of these countries, in turn, show an equal amount of interest in the United States. There is a particularly strong desire on both sides to study abroad. Last year about 2,500 Cuban students came to the United States Embassy in Havana for guidance and information on schools, colleges, and universities in the United States. The West Indies Federation has a liaison office in Washington working especially to maintain and further study opportunities for its best graduates in United States universities. Some other governments are now in the process of encouraging student exchange. The Venezuelan government stimulates support of education by private corporations; in fact, it has made the terms of such support a part of their contracts with the oil companies, and has itself established a government agency to administer and finance more educational exchange projects. Assistance from private cor- porations in recent years has not been widespread, but there are definite indications that it is substantially increasing. In the van-  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 205 guard have been the Moa Bay Mining Company Scholarships, the Panama Refinery Scholarships, the Cuban Design Fellowship, and the work of the Creole Foundation. I hope others will increasingly follow their example in the future. Educational exchange is no longer a new or startling idea. Nearly every small town, college, and university in the United States has had experience with foreign students. Americans know the prob- lems of student exchange and can cope with them. The foundation has been laid in this country, and I hope also in the Caribbean countries, for a far greater exchange of students than we have had in the past. I hope that the Caribbean countries will before long become as familiar with the presence of foreign students as we are. A hopeful step in this direction is the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which will encourage the study of foreign languages in the United States, including Spanish and Portuguese. Such study should increase interest in the countries where these languages are spoken. The ideal situation would be the sponsorship of a broad exchange program by the government of each of the Caribbean nations which would not only encourage more of their students to come here, but would also attract more Americans to carry on grad- uate work and research in these countries. Venezuela and El Salva- dor already have government-coordinated programs which are partly financed by the government and whose administration is centralized in one office. A bill creating an Instituto Nacional de Cooperacidn Educativa has recently been enacted by the Venezue- lan Congress. The new Institute will, among other things, promote the training of specialized personnel, of professional workers, and of graduates from agricultural schools by importing foreign teachers and by giving grants to the better students to study abroad. The West Indies Federation also has a government-sponsored program. Perhaps Mexico will extend its program for Americans to study at the National University to include participation on the part of its provincial universities. And Costa Rica, whose educational philos- ophy is so advanced, is also seeking ways to get graduate training in the United States for the younger members of its university faculty. Other Caribbean universities are becoming increasingly inter- ested in promoting exchange with the United States. The University of Le6n in Nicaragua recently arranged a special course in com- parative law for American law students; and the Instituto Tecno- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 205 guard have been the Moa Bay Mining Company Scholarships, the Panama Refinery Scholarships, the Cuban Design Fellowship, and the work of the Creole Foundation. I hope others will increasingly follow their example in the future. Educational exchange is no longer a new or startling idea. Nearly every small town, college, and university in the United States has had experience with foreign students. Americans know the prob- lems of student exchange and can cope with them. The foundation has been laid in this country, and I hope also in the Caribbean countries, for a far greater exchange of students than we have had in the past. I hope that the Caribbean countries will before long become as familiar with the presence of foreign students as we are. A hopeful step in this direction is the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which will encourage the study of foreign languages in the United States, including Spanish and Portuguese. Such study should increase interest in the countries where these languages are spoken. The ideal situation would be the sponsorship of a broad exchange program by the government of each of the Caribbean nations which would not only encourage more of their students to come here, but would also attract more Americans to carry on grad- uate work and research in these countries. Venezuela and El Salva- dor already have government-coordinated programs which are partly financed by the government and whose administration is centralized in one office. A bill creating an Instituto Nacional de Cooperacion Educativa has recently been enacted by the Venezue- lan Congress. The new Institute will, among other things, promote the training of specialized personnel, of professional workers, and of graduates from agricultural schools by importing foreign teachers and by giving grants to the better students to study abroad. The West Indies Federation also has a government-sponsored program. Perhaps Mexico will extend its program for Americans to study at the National University to include participation on the part of its provincial universities. And Costa Rica, whose educational philos- ophy is so advanced, is also seeking ways to get graduate training in the United States for the younger members of its university faculty. Other Caribbean universities are becoming increasingly inter- ested in promoting exchange with the United States. The University of Leon in Nicaragua recently arranged a special course in com- parative law for American law students; and the Instituto Tecno- EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 205 guard have been the Moa Bay Mining Company Scholarships, the Panama Refinery Scholarships, the Cuban Design Fellowship, and the work of the Creole Foundation. I hope others will increasingly follow their example in the future. Educational exchange is no longer a new or startling idea. Nearly every small town, college, and university in the United States has had experience with foreign students. Americans know the prob- lems of student exchange and can cope with them. The foundation has been laid in this country, and I hope also in the Caribbean countries, for a far greater exchange of students than we have had in the past. I hope that the Caribbean countries will before long become as familiar with the presence of foreign students as we are. A hopeful step in this direction is the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which will encourage the study of foreign languages in the United States, including Spanish and Portuguese. Such study should increase interest in the countries where these languages are spoken. The ideal situation would be the sponsorship of a broad exchange program by the government of each of the Caribbean nations which would not only encourage more of their students to come here, but would also attract more Americans to carry on grad- uate work and research in these countries. Venezuela and El Salva- dor already have government-coordinated programs which are partly financed by the government and whose administration is centralized in one office. A bill creating an Instituto Nacional de Cooperacin Educativa has recently been enacted by the Venezue- lan Congress. The new Institute will, among other things, promote the training of specialized personnel, of professional workers, and of graduates from agricultural schools by importing foreign teachers and by giving grants to the better students to study abroad. The West Indies Federation also has a government-sponsored program. Perhaps Mexico will extend its program for Americans to study at the National University to include participation on the part of its provincial universities. And Costa Rica, whose educational philos- ophy is so advanced, is also seeking ways to get graduate training in the United States for the younger members of its university faculty. Other Caribbean universities are becoming increasingly inter- ested in promoting exchange with the United States. The University of Le6n in Nicaragua recently arranged a special course in com- parative law for American law students; and the Instituto Tecno-  206 The Caribbean 16gico de Monterrey in Mexico has made an agreement with ten American universities which provides for an annual interchange of 20 professors and 200 students between Mexico and the States. International agencies are playing an important part in promoting student exchange by granting fellowships. They also serve as cen- ters for coordinating the cultural activities of many Latin American governmental and private institutions. The program of the Organi- zation of American States, which provides 500 student scholarships a year, should be strengthened by increasing its budget and by making its achievements better known. I would like to see the Caribbean governments offer tax incentives to business concerns, both domestic and foreign, which would stim- ulate them to give educational exchange grants. Venezuela and Panama are already incorporating special provisions into contracts with concerns which compel them to give special training grants to citizens of those countries. American business firms, I am happy to say, have not in the past needed legislated recognition of their responsibility to the community which acts as host to their branches. Most have long-established and extensive training courses both in their branches and at "headquarters" in the United States for the apt, able, and ambitious and do their utmost to promote quiely capable personnel. United States business concerns are also becom- ing increasingly aware of the advantages to be gained by giving pro bono publico exchange grants to citizens not employed by them. Frequent reasons given to explain such philanthropy are: the good will which is created by a gesture of this sort; the development of American-trained citizens who may be recruited for employment by the company if their academic records in the United States merit it; and the long-range benefit to the community by improving its education resources and thereby its future standard of living. Private philanthropy is another source of additional support to educational exchange. We are all acquainted with the excellent work performed by family foundations in the United States. The Fords, Rockefellers, Kelloggs, and Guggenheims have their counter- parts in Latin America. Some of them like Eugenio Mendoza in Venezuela, Jose M. Bosch of the Bacardi Company in Cuba, Al- fonso Alvarez and the young Freund brothers in El Salvador, are already known in their own countries for philanthropy and work in educational exchange. As their good work becomes wider known abroad, I hope others will be stimulated to emulate them. 206 The Caribbean 16gico de Monterrey in Mexico has made an agreement with ten American universities which provides for an annual interchange of 20 professors and 200 students between Mexico and the States. International agencies are playing an important part in promoting student exchange by granting fellowships. They also serve as cen- ters for coordinating the cultural activities of many Latin American governmental and private institutions. The program of the Organi- zation of American States, which provides 500 student scholarships a year, should be strengthened by increasing its budget and by making its achievements better known. I would like to see the Caribbean governments offer tax incentives to business concerns, both domestic and foreign, which would stim- ulate them to give educational exchange grants. Venezuela and Panama are already incorporating special provisions into contracts with concerns which compel them to give special training grants to citizens of those countries. American business firms, I am happy to say, have not in the past needed legislated recognition of their responsibility to the community which acts as host to their branches. Most have long-established and extensive training courses both in their branches and at "headquarters" in the United States for the apt, able, and ambitious and do their utmost to promote quickly capable personnel. United States business concerns are also becom- ing increasingly aware of the advantages to be gained by giving pro bono publico exchange grants to citizens not employed by them. Frequent reasons given to explain such philanthropy are: the good will which is created by a gesture of this sort; the development of American-trained citizens who may be recruited for employment by the company if their academic records in the United States merit it; and the long-range benefit to the community by improving its education resources and thereby its future standard of living. Private philanthropy is another source of additional support to educational exchange. We are all acquainted with the excellent work performed by family foundations in the United States. The Fords, Rockefellers, Kelloggs, and Guggenheims have their counter- parts in Latin America. Some of them like Eugenio Mendoza in Venezuela, Jos4 M. Bosch of the Bacardi Company in Cuba, Al- fonso Alvarez and the young Freund brothers in El Salvador, are already known in their own countries for philanthropy and work in educational exchange. As their good work becomes wider known abroad, I hope others will be stimulated to emulate them. 206 The Caribbean 16gico de Monterrey in Mexico has made an agreement with ten American universities which provides for an annual interchange of 20 professors and 200 students between Mexico and the States. International agencies are playing an important part in promoting student exchange by granting fellowships. They also serve as cen- ters for coordinating the cultural activities of many Latin American governmental and private institutions. The program of the Organi- zation of American States, which provides 500 student scholarships a year, should be strengthened by increasing its budget and by making its achievements better known. I would like to see the Caribbean governments offer tax incentives to business concerns, both domestic and foreign, which would stim- ulate them to give educational exchange grants. Venezuela and Panama are already incorporating special provisions into contracts with concerns which compel them to give special training grants to citizens of those countries. American business firms, I am happy to say, have not in the past needed legislated recognition of their responsibility to the community which acts as host to their branches. Most have long-established and extensive training courses both in their branches and at "headquarters" in the United States for the apt, able, and ambitious and do their utmost to promote quickly capable personnel. United States business concerns are also becom- ing increasingly aware of the advantages to be gained by giving pro bono publico exchange grants to citizens not employed by them. Frequent reasons given to explain such philanthropy are: the good will which is created by a gesture of this sort; the development of American-trained citizens who may be recruited for employment by the company if their academic records in the United States merit it; and the long-range benefit to the community by improving its education resources and thereby its future standard of living. Private philanthropy is another source of additional support to educational exchange. We are all acquainted with the excellent work performed by family foundations in the United States. The Fords, Rockefellers, Kelloggs, and Guggenheims have their counter- parts in Latin America. Some of them like Eugenio Mendoza in Venezuela, Jos4 M. Bosch of the Bacardi Company in Cuba, Al- fonso Alvarez and the young Freund brothers in El Salvador, are already known in their own countries for philanthropy and work in educational exchange. As their good work becomes wider known abroad, I hope others will be stimulated to emulate them.  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE ZiH V. What Is Still Needed Here in the United States the value of educational exchange seems so obvious it hardly needs repeating. At a meeting of the Sixteenth American Assembly last October, 66 leaders of American government, business, industry, education, and journalism dis- cussed every aspect of American relations with Latin America. Prominent among the group's recommendations for improving our relationship was one which read: "We must identify ourselves with the aspirations of the Latin American people for social reforms, higher standards of living and greater educational opportunities." These 66 important Americans representing many walks of life agreed unanimously that one way to accomplish this was through international exchange of persons. "The exchange of persons pro- grams should be extended to university students, teachers, jour- nalists, trade union leaders, and others without neglecting the arts and humanities. For the same reasons, funds should be provided to expand the activities of private and public educational agencies working in Latin America." I hope you will give particular attention to that last sentence. "Funds should be provided to expand the activities of public and private educational agencies working in Latin America." We are apt in the United States to assume that everything is working well because everyone knows about it and agrees it is a fine thing. I am afraid, that is not now and never has been the case. Like any other good thing, educational exchange needs the continuous attention of its adherents and requires a constant infusion of new blood. One important reason for this is that new ideas for improving educational exchange are always needed. A fresh point of view might find solu- tions to problems which have become chronic. Above all, enthusi- astic recruits will take up the challenge to get done all that is still needed if we want to realize the goals of educational exchange which I mentioned earlier. As I see it, there is still much to be done. I submit for your consideration five proposals which might help improve educational exchange. 1. We should do everything possible to promote more knowledge on the part of Americans about the curricula and functions of Latin American universities. At the Seventh National Conference of the United States Commission for UNESCO at Denver in September, Professor Lewis Hanke suggested that a lively, readable book be EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE V. What Is Still Needed Here in the United States the value of educational excl seems so obvious it hardly needs repeating. At a meeting c Sixteenth American Assembly last October, 66 leaders of Am government, business, industry, education, and journalism cussed every aspect of American relations with Latin Am Prominent among the group's recommendations for improvin relationship was one which read: "We must identify ourselves the aspirations of the Latin American people for social ref higher standards of living and greater educational opportun These 66 important Americans representing many walks o agreed unanimously that one way to accomplish this was th international exchange of persons. "The exchange of persons grams should be extended to university students, teachers, nalists, trade union leaders, and others without neglecting th and humanities. For the same reasons, funds should be provid expand the activities of private and public educational ag< working in Latin America." I hope you will give particular attention to that last sen "Funds should be provided to expand the activities of publi private educational agencies working in Latin America." W apt in the United States to assume that everything is working because everyone knows about it and agrees it is a fine thing. afraid, that is not now and never has been the case. Like any good thing, educational exchange needs the continuous att< of its adherents and requires a constant infusion of new blood important reason for this is that new ideas for improving educa exchange are always needed. A fresh point of view might find tions to problems which have become chronic. Above all, en astic recruits will take up the challenge to get done all that needed if we want to realize the goals of educational ex which I mentioned earlier. As I see it, there is still much to be I submit for your consideration five proposals which might improve educational exchange. 1. We should do everything possible to promote more knoms on the part of Americans about the curricula and functions of American universities. At the Seventh National Conference < United States Commission for UNESCO at Denver in Septe Professor Lewis Hanke suggested that a lively, readable bo 207 EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE V. What Is Still Needed 207 Here in the United States the value of educational exchange seems so obvious it hardly needs repeating. At a meeting of the Sixteenth American Assembly last October, 66 leaders of American government, business, industry, education, and journalism dis- cussed every aspect of American relations with Latin America. Prominent among the group's recommendations for improving our relationship was one which read: "We must identify ourselves with the aspirations of the Latin American people for social reforms, higher standards of living and greater educational opportunities." These 66 important Americans representing many walks of life agreed unanimously that one way to accomplish this was through international exchange of persons. "The exchange of persons pro- grams should be extended to university students, teachers, jour- nalists, trade union leaders, and others without neglecting the arts and humanities. For the same reasons, funds should be provided to expand the activities of private and public educational agencies working in Latin America." I hope you will give particular attention to that last sentence. "Funds should be provided to expand the activities of public and private educational agencies working in Latin America." We are apt in the United States to assume that everything is working well because everyone knows about it and agrees it is a fine thing. I am afraid, that is not now and never has been the case. Like any other good thing, educational exchange needs the continuous attention of its adherents and requires a constant infusion of new blood. One important reason for this is that new ideas for improving educational exchange are always needed. A fresh point of view might find solu- tions to problems which have become chronic. Above all, enthusi- astic recruits will take up the challenge to get done all that is still needed if we want to realize the goals of educational exchange which I mentioned earlier. As I see it, there is still much to be done. I submit for your consideration five proposals which might help improve educational exchange. 1. We should do everything possible to promote more knowledge on the part of Americans about the curricula and functions of Latin American universities. At the Seventh National Conference of the United States Commission for UNESCO at Denver in September, Professor Lewis Hanke suggested that a lively, readable book be  208 The Caribbean written on the diverse conditions under which Latin American uni- versities function so that United States teachers and scholars could be better oriented. Likewise, there should be greater stimulation of interest on the part of the American public in Latin Amer- ican affairs. This would involve more teaching of Spanish and Por- tuguese in schools and colleges, better coverage by the press of Latin American news, and cooperation on a grand scale from the thousands of educational institutions and civic and community asso- ciations which dot our country. Rotarians, women's clubs, and other social groups, for example, give scholarships through IE and learn from the visiting students by having them speak about their country before community gatherings or by visiting in the homes of mem- bers. Clifford A. Randall, President of Rotary International, under- scored this activity when he said, "We are definitely committed to a policy that nothing is better calculated to develop international understanding than face to face meetings between people" By knowing more about them the first barrier to exchanges is let down. 2. I would like to see a concentrated effort made by our govern- ment and the educational associations of the United States to work out cooperatively an exchange of academic credits. Nothing could do more to encourage student exchanges. Many students are de- terred from spending a year in a foreign university by the realization that when they return home they will receive no credit from their own university for work done abroad. I suggest an inter-American commission be created which would evaluate the system of credits of the universities, and eventually work out a workable means of transferring credits from any university to any other. 3. As a former United States Embassy officer I should, perhaps, be the last to criticize, but I would welcome an inter-American agreement to remove vexatious governmental red tape and replace archaic and ineffective regulations with arrangements which would facilitate student exchange visas and improve all immigration poli- cies affecting bona fide foreign student exchanges. I am not pointing the finger solely at our own country, but rather at all the 21 Amer- ican republics. Gainza Paz of Argentina pointed out spontaneous exchange is discouraged despite pan-American conferences going back to the 1826 meeting in Panama summoned by Bolivar. "We not only have the customs and tariffs as they existed in 1889, but we have import and export bans, differential rates of the various cur- rencies, passports, and meticulous visa procedures which did not exist previously. Who among us would be willing to tolerate in our country its division into zones or regions with this type of barrier? ... Where understanding and friendship are concerned, no islands should be formed anywhere in the Americas." 208 The Caribbean written on the diverse conditions under which Latin American uni- versities function so that United States teachers and scholars could be better oriented. Likewise, there should be greater stimulation of interest on the part of the American public in Latin Amer- ican affairs. This would involve more teaching of Spanish and Por- tuguese in schools and colleges, better coverage by the press of Latin American news, and cooperation on a grand scale from the thousands of educational institutions and civic and community asso- ciations which dot our country. Rotarians, women's clubs, and other social groups, for example, give scholarships through IE and learn from the visiting students by having them speak about their country before community gatherings or by visiting in the homes of mem- bers. Clifford A. Randall, President of Rotary International, under- scored this activity when he said, "We are definitely committed to a policy that nothing is better calculated to develop international understanding than face to face meetings between people." By knowing more about them the first barrier to exchanges is let down. 2. I would like to see a concentrated effort made by our govern- ment and the educational associations of the United States to work out cooperatively an exchange of academic credits. Nothing could do more to encourage student exchanges. Many students are de- terred from spending a year in a foreign university by the realization that when they return home they will receive no credit from their own university for work done abroad. I suggest an inter-American commission be created which would evaluate the system of credits of the universities, and eventually work out a workable means of transferring credits from any university to any other. 8. As a former United States Embassy officer I should, perhaps, be the last to criticize, but I would welcome an inter-American agreement to remove vexatious governmental red tape and replace archaic and ineffective regulations with arrangements which would facilitate student exchange visas and improve all immigration poli- cies affecting bona fide foreign student exchanges. I am not pointing the finger solely at our own country, but rather at all the 21 Amer- ican republics. Gainza Paz of Argentina pointed out spontaneous exchange is discouraged despite pan-American conferences going back to the 1826 meeting in Panama summoned by Bolivar. "We not only have the customs and tariffs as they existed in 1889, but we have import and export bans, differential rates of the various cur- rencies, passports, and meticulous visa procedures which did not exist previously. Who among us would be willing to tolerate in our country its division into zones or regions with this type of barrier? ... Where understanding and friendship are concerned, no islands should be formed anywhere in the Americas." 208 The Caribbean written on the diverse conditions under which Latin American uni- versities function so that United States teachers and scholars could be better oriented. Likewise, there should be greater stimulation of interest on the part of the American public in Latin Amer- ican affairs. This would involve more teaching of Spanish and Por- tuguese in schools and colleges, better coverage by the press of Latin American news, and cooperation on a grand scale from the thousands of educational institutions and civic and community asso- ciations which dot our country. Rotarians, women's clubs, and other social groups, for example, give scholarships through tIE and learn from the visiting students by having them speak about their country before community gatherings or by visiting in the homes of mem- bers. Clifford A. Randall, President of Rotary International, under- scored this activity when he said, "We are definitely committed to a policy that nothing is better calculated to develop international understanding than face to face meetings between people." By knowing more about them the first barrier to exchanges is let down. 2. I would like to see a concentrated effort made by our govern- ment and the educational associations of the United States to work out cooperatively an exchange of academic credits. Nothing could do more to encourage student exchanges. Many students are de- terred from spending a year in a foreign university by the realization that when they return home they will receive no credit from their own university for work done abroad. I suggest an inter-American commission be created which would evaluate the system of credits of the universities, and eventually work out a workable means of transferring credits from any university to any other. 8. As a former United States Embassy officer I should, perhaps, be the last to criticize, but I would welcome an inter-American agreement to remove vexatious governmental red tape and replace archaic and ineffective regulations with arrangements which would facilitate student exchange visas and improve all immigration poli- cies affecting bona fide foreign student exchanges. I am not pointing the finger solely at our own country, but rather at all the 21 Amer- ican republics. Gainza Paz of Argentina pointed out spontaneous exchange is discouraged despite pan-American conferences going back to the 1826 meeting in Panama summoned by Bolivar. "We not only have the customs and tariffs as they existed in 1889, but we have import and export bans, differential rates of the various cur- rencies, passports, and meticulous visa procedures which did not exist previously. Who among us would be willing to tolerate in our country its division into zones or regions with this type of barrier? .. Where understanding and friendship are concerned, no islands should be formed anywhere in the Americas."  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 209 4. Educational exchange could be enriched in the Caribbean countries, even in those already blessed with some kind of national supervision, by having adequately financed organizations to coordi- nate the exchange programs, give them greater publicity, improve methods of selecting candidates, plan student orientation, and assist grantees on their return to make the greatest possible use of their experience. To allow for greater participation of students now ineligible because of insufficient English, some fellowships should be extended to provide special training in the language in the United States. 5. Finally, I would like to see, with no reduction in our technical and scientific exchanges, more exchanges in the humanities and the social sciences which have received insufficient stress in recent years. Perhaps as we reach the conclusion of these remarks you wonder that I have neglected to ally educational exchange with political causes and to justify it in those terms. Conductor Leonard Bern- stein of the New York Philharmonic summed up the hopes of many of us in this regard when he said: "For the cost of one wing of a jet bomber, think what we can do for international relations through beauty. For nothing - not arms, nor technical help - can reach on so deep a level the peoples of the earth that we want to reach now - that, in fact, we must reach now, if we are to save everything good and beautiful in our world from utter ruin." But I hesitate, and have so far refrained, from considering international exchanges as a political panacea. I am more inclined to President Eisenhower's down-to-earth approach. He said to a large number of us meeting in Washington to consider ways to improve our various exchange programs: "We need more individual diplomats from 'main street' - from every walk of life. I can think of no finer work than that you are doing for yourselves, your family, your nation - indeed for civilization." If we set our sights on helping deserving students broaden their intellectual horizons we will be doing our part to advance the education - and here I use the word in its broadest sense - of all men. Let us do our part by concentrating on this portion of the world which is at our threshold, our good neighbors in the Caribbean. EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 209 4. Educational exchange could be enriched in the Caribbean countries, even in those already blessed with some kind of national supervision, by having adequately financed organizations to coordi- nate the exchange programs, give them greater publicity, improve methods of selecting candidates, plan student orientation, and assist grantees on their return to make the greatest possible use of their experience. To allow for greater participation of students now ineligible because of insufficient English, some fellowships should be extended to provide special training in the language in the United States. 5. Finally, I would like to see, with no reduction in our technical and scientific exchanges, more exchanges in the humanities and the social sciences which have received insufficient stress in recent years. Perhaps as we reach the conclusion of these remarks you wonder that I have neglected to ally educational exchange with political causes and to justify it in those terms. Conductor Leonard Bern- stein of the New York Philharmonic summed up the hopes of many of us in this regard when he said: "For the cost of one wing of a jet bomber, think what we can do for international relations through beauty. For nothing - not arms, nor technical help - can reach on so deep a level the peoples of the earth that we want to reach now -that, in fact, we must reach now, if we are to save everything good and beautiful in our world from utter ruin." But I hesitate, and have so far refrained, from considering international exchanges as a political panacea. I am more inclined to President Eisenhower's down-to-earth approach. He said to a large number of us meeting in Washington to consider ways to improve our various exchange programs: "We need more individual diplomats from 'main street' - from every walk of life. I can think of no finer work than that you are doing for yourselves, your family, your nation - indeed for civilization." If we set our sights on helping deserving students broaden their intellectual horizons we will be doing our part to advance the education - and here I use the word in its broadest sense - of all men. Let us do our part by concentrating on this portion of the world which is at our threshold, our good neighbors in the Caribbean. EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 209 4. Educational exchange could be enriched in the Caribbean countries, even in those already blessed with some kind of national supervision, by having adequately financed organizations to coordi- nate the exchange programs, give them greater publicity, improve methods of selecting candidates, plan student orientation, and assist grantees on their return to make the greatest possible use of their experience. To allow for greater participation of students now ineligible because of insufficient English, some fellowships should be extended to provide special training in the language in the United States. 5. Finally, I would like to see, with no reduction in our technical and scientific exchanges, more exchanges in the humanities and the social sciences which have received insufficient stress in recent years. Perhaps as we reach the conclusion of these remarks you wonder that I have neglected to ally educational exchange with political causes and to justify it in those terms. Conductor Leonard Bern- stein of the New York Philharmonic summed up the hopes of many of us in this regard when he said: "For the cost of one wing of a jet bomber, think what we can do for international relations through beauty. For nothing -not arms, nor technical help - can reach on so deep a level the peoples of the earth that we want to reach now - that, in fact, we must reach now, if we are to save everything good and beautiful in our world from utter ruin." But I hesitate, and have so far refrained, from considering international exchanges as a political panacea. I am more inclined to President Eisenhower's down-to-earth approach. He said to a large number of us meeting in Washington to consider ways to improve our various exchange programs: "We need more individual diplomats from 'main street' - from every walk of life. I can think of no finer work than that you are doing for yourselves, your family, your nation - indeed for civilization." If we set our sights on helping deserving students broaden their intellectual horizons we will be doing our part to advance the education - and here I use the word in its broadest sense - of all men. Let us do our part by concentrating on this portion of the world which is at our threshold, our good neighbors in the Caribbean.  15 15 15 Raul d'Eca: CULTURAL EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND LATIN AMERICA ALTHOUGH THE CULTURAL exchange relations between peoples - or acculturation, to use the ethnological term - is as old and inevitable as the contacts, friendly or otherwise, between groups of people, the expression is used in this Conference to mean, I believe, the conscious and systematic efforts to render one people's cultural achievements - scientifle, artistic, educational - known to others. It includes, of course, the assistance given by one people to another to improve the latter's cultural level of development. In modern times, the governments of a few European countries, such as Italy, France, Germany, Great Britain, and Spain, have maintained regular cultural propaganda programs as part of their foreign policies. These programs have included, among other things, invitations to students, teachers, artists, writers, and scientists to visit, study, lecture, or work in their territories as guests of the inviting government. France has also, for many years, maintained a system of well- organized and coordinated schools abroad for the purpose of offer- ing courses in French language, literature, the arts, as well as scholarships and other cultural incentives to goodwill. Between World Wars I and II, cultural propaganda in Latin America was intensified by certain nations including Germany and Japan, as part of their economic and political expansion programs. Until a few years before World War II, the government of the United States did not engage, to any great extent, in such cultural exchange activities abroad, although American private individuals and institutions, many of them inspired by religious or humanitarian Raul d'Ega: CULTURAL EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND LATIN AMERICA ALTHOUGH THE CULTURAL exchange relations between peoples - or acculturation, to use the ethnological term - is as old and inevitable as the contacts, friendly or otherwise, between groups of people, the expression is used in this Conference to mean, I believe, the conscious and systematic efforts to render one people's cultural achievements - scientific, artistic, educational - known to others. It includes, of course, the assistance given by one people to another to improve the latter's cultural level of development. In modem times, the governments of a few European countries, such as Italy, France, Germany, Great Britain, and Spain, have maintained regular cultural propaganda programs as part of their foreign policies. These programs have included, among other things, invitations to students, teachers, artists, writers, and scientists to visit, study, lecture, or work in their territories as guests of the inviting government. France has also, for many years, maintained a system of well- organized and coordinated schools abroad for the purpose of offer- ing courses in French language, literature, the arts, as well as scholarships and other cultural incentives to goodwill. Between World Wars I and II, cultural propaganda in Latin America was intensified by certain nations including Germany and Japan, as part of their economic and political expansion programs. Until a few years before World War II, the government of the United States did not engage, to any great extent, in such cultural exchange activities abroad, although American private individuals and institutions, many of them inspired by religious or humanitarian 210 Raul d'Eca: CULTURAL EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND LATIN AMERICA ALTHOUGH THE CULTURAL exchange relations between peoples - or acculturation, to use the ethnological term - is as old and inevitable as the contacts, friendly or otherwise, between groups of people, the expression is used in this Conference to mean, I believe, the conscious and systematic efforts to render one people's cultural achievements - scientific, artistic, educational - known to others. It includes, of course, the assistance given by one people to another to improve the latter's cultural level of development. In modern times, the governments of a few European countries, such as Italy, France, Germany, Great Britain, and Spain, have maintained regular cultural propaganda programs as part of their foreign policies. These programs have included, among other things, invitations to students, teachers, artists, writers, and scientists to visit, study, lecture, or work in their territories as guests of the inviting government. France has also, for many years, maintained a system of well- organized and coordinated schools abroad for the purpose of offer- ing courses in French language, literature, the arts, as well as scholarships and other cultural incentives to goodwill. Between World Wars I and II, cultural propaganda in Latin America was intensified by certain nations including Germany and Japan, as part of their economic and political expansion programs. Until a few years before World War II, the government of the United States did not engage, to any great extent, in such cultural exchange activities abroad, although American private individuals and institutions, many of them inspired by religious or humanitarian 210  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 211 motives, have for years done valuable work in Latin America and elsewhere in the world. Among the many instances of such private efforts, probably the best known cases of cultural exchange relations promoted by United States citizens in the Western Hemisphere, mention should be made of the friendly and cooperative relationship established between Horace Mann and two distinguished Latin American leaders: the Argentine educator and statesman Domingo Faustino Sarmiento and the Uruguayan educator Jose Pedro Varela, who greatly influ- enced the educational progress of their countries. Both Sarmiento and Varela visited this country in the middle of the nineteenth century, became acquainted with Mann and other American edu- cators as well as the American system of public education, and later initiated in their respective countries radical educational reforms with the assistance of American teachers. The action of private institutions is well exemplified by the gen- erous financial cooperation of the Carnegie Endowment for Inter- national Peace, which contributed to the success of the first Pan American Scientific Congress, held in Washington, in 1915, under the auspices of the United States government. The papers presented to this Congress constitute a permanent contribution to the devel- opment of scientific knowledge in the hemisphere. The Carnegie Endowment also promoted the organization of the American Insti- tute of International Law which helped to prepare many a draft resolution on international law later adopted by the American republics. Other organizations which have made valuable contributions to cultural exchange in the hemisphere include the Rockefeller Foundation, mostly in the realm of public health and medical sciences; and the Guggenheim Foundation, which, since 1925, has offered some of its valuable fellowships to Latin American artists, writers, scientists, and other scholars with especially worth-while projects. It is true that the United States government cooperated with the other American governments, through the Pan American Union, in the creation, in 1917, of a Division of Intellectual Cooperation in that organization. The Division was later considerably enlarged EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 211 motives, have for years done valuable work in Latin America and elsewhere in the world. Among the many instances of such private efforts, probably the best known cases of cultural exchange relations promoted by United States citizens in the Western Hemisphere, mention should be made of the friendly and cooperative relationship established between Horace Mann and two distinguished Latin American leaders: the Argentine educator and statesman Domingo Faustino Sarmiento and the Uruguayan educator Jose Pedro Varela, who greatly influ- enced the educational progress of their countries. Both Sarmiento and Varela visited this country in the middle of the nineteenth century, became acquainted with Mann and other American edu- cators as well as the American system of public education, and later initiated in their respective countries radical educational reforms with the assistance of American teachers. The action of private institutions is well exemplified by the gen- erous financial cooperation of the Carnegie Endowment for Inter- national Peace, which contributed to the success of the first Pan American Scientific Congress, held in Washington, in 1915, under the auspices of the United States government. The papers presented to this Congress constitute a permanent contribution to the devel- opment of scientific knowledge in the hemisphere. The Carnegie Endowment also promoted the organization of the American Insti- tute of International Law which helped to prepare many a draft resolution on international law later adopted by the American republics. Other organizations which have made valuable contributions to cultural exchange in the hemisphere include the Rockefeller Foundation, mostly in the realm of public health and medical sciences; and the Guggenheim Foundation, which, since 1925, has offered some of its valuable fellowships to Latin American artists, writers, scientists, and other scholars with especially worth-while projects. It is true that the United States government cooperated with the other American governments, through the Pan American Union, in the creation, in 1917, of a Division of Intellectual Cooperation in that organization. The Division was later considerably enlarged EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 211 motives, have for years done valuable work in Latin America and elsewhere in the world. Among the many instances of such private efforts, probably the best known cases of cultural exchange relations promoted by United States citizens in the Western Hemisphere, mention should be made of the friendly and cooperative relationship established between Horace Mann and two distinguished Latin American leaders: the Argentine educator and statesman Domingo Faustino Sarmiento and the Uruguayan educator Jos4 Pedro Varela, who greatly influ- enced the educational progress of their countries. Both Sarmiento and Varela visited this country in the middle of the nineteenth century, became acquainted with Mann and other American edu- cators as well as the American system of public education, and later initiated in their respective countries radical educational reforms with the assistance of American teachers. The action of private institutions is well exemplified by the gen- erous financial cooperation of the Carnegie Endowment for Inter- national Peace, which contributed to the success of the first Pan American Scientific Congress, held in Washington, in 1915, under the auspices of the United States government. The papers presented to this Congress constitute a permanent contribution to the devel- opment of scientific knowledge in the hemisphere. The Carnegie Endowment also promoted the organization of the American Insti- tute of International Law which helped to prepare many a draft resolution on international law later adopted by the American republics. Other organizations which have made valuable contributions to cultural exchange in the hemisphere include the Rockefeller Foundation, mostly in the realm of public health and medical sciences; and the Guggenheim Foundation, which, since 1925, has offered some of its valuable fellowships to Latin American artists, writers, scientists, and other scholars with especially worth-while projects. It is true that the United States government cooperated with the other American governments, through the Pan American Union, in the creation, in 1917, of a Division of Intellectual Cooperation in that organization. The Division was later considerably enlarged  212 The Caribbean under provisions of the Charter of the Organization of the American States, signed during the Bogota Conference of 1948. This Charter embodied the principle of promoting free cultural interchange among the American nations by every media of expression. An Inter- American Cultural Council was organized as a result of these provi- sions, to promote the educational, scientific, and cultural exchange between the American nations. Since then, the cultural program carried out under the auspices of the OAS has constantly increased in scope and significance. It includes today, among other things, the exchange of publications and documents, of bibliographic information, of information on education, and of textbooks; it promotes the translation and publica- tion of books of scientific and literary merit into the languages of the American republics; it has an expanding scholarship program; and it has endeavored to bring about continental agreement on copyright as well as the adoption of conventions on cultural matters. The number of inter-American congresses and conferences on specific cultural subjects promoted by the OAS is very large, includ- ing the Inter-American Seminars on Education; the Inter-American Cultural meetings; the meetings of the Ministers of Education of the American Nations; the Regional Conference on Compulsory Primary Education; the meetings of the Pan American Institute of Geography and History; the organization of the Inter-American Indian Institute; and many others. II It was not, however, as already indicated, until foreign anti- American propaganda in Latin America was intensified after World War I that the people and government of the United States became seriously concerned with the problems of cultural exchange and tried to offset the insidious propaganda lies that Americans were a purely materialistic people with no true cultural interests or contributions to the culture of the world. Thus, during the Buenos Aires Peace Conference of 1936, through the initiative of the United States delegation, a treaty on cultural relations was signed providing for the exchange of students and teachers between the signatory nations at the expense of their gov- ernments. To carry out the United States government's responsibilities under 212 The Caribbean under provisions of the Charter of the Organization of the American States, signed during the Bogoth Conference of 1948. This Charter embodied the principle of promoting free cultural interchange among the American nations by every media of expression. An Inter- American Cultural Council was organized as a result of these provi- sions, to promote the educational, scientific, and cultural exchange between the American nations. Since then, the cultural program carried out under the auspices of the OAS has constantly increased in scope and significance. It includes today, among other things, the exchange of publications and documents, of bibliographic information, of information on education, and of textbooks; it promotes the translation and publica- tion of books of scientific and literary merit into the languages of the American republics; it has an expanding scholarship program; and it has endeavored to bring about continental agreement on copyright as well as the adoption of conventions on cultural matters. The number of inter-American congresses and conferences on specific cultural subjects promoted by the OAS is very large, includ- ing the Inter-American Seminars on Education; the Inter-American Cultural meetings; the meetings of the Ministers of Education of the American Nations; the Regional Conference on Compulsory Primary Education; the meetings of the Pan American Institute of Geography and History; the organization of the Inter-American Indian Institute; and many others. II It was not, however, as already indicated, until foreign anti- American propaganda in Latin America was intensified after World War I that the people and government of the United States became seriously concerned with the problems of cultural exchange and tried to offset the insidious propaganda lies that Americans were a purely materialistic people with no true cultural interests or contributions to the culture of the world. Thus, during the Buenos Aires Peace Conference of 1936, through the initiative of the United States delegation, a treaty on cultural relations was signed providing for the exchange of students and teachers between the signatory nations at the expense of their gov- ernments. To carry out the United States government's responsibilities under 212 The Caribbean under provisions of the Charter of the Organization of the American States, signed during the Bogoth Conference of 1948. This Charter embodied the principle of promoting free cultural interchange among the American nations by every media of expression. An Inter- American Cultural Council was organized as a result of these provi- sions, to promote the educational, scientific, and cultural exchange between the American nations. Since then, the cultural program carried out under the auspices of the OAS has constantly increased in scope and significance. It includes today, among other things, the exchange of publications and documents, of bibliographic information, of information on education, and of textbooks; it promotes the translation and publica- tion of books of scientific and literary merit into the languages of the American republics; it has an expanding scholarship program; and it has endeavored to bring about continental agreement on copyright as well as the adoption of conventions on cultural matters. The number of inter-American congresses and conferences on specific cultural subjects promoted by the OAS is very large, includ- ing the Inter-American Seminars on Education; the Inter-American Cultural meetings; the meetings of the Ministers of Education of the American Nations; the Regional Conference on Compulsory Primary Education; the meetings of the Pan American Institute of Geography and History; the organization of the Inter-American Indian Institute; and many others. II It was not, however, as already indicated, until foreign anti- American propaganda in Latin America was intensified after World War I that the people and government of the United States became seriously concerned with the problems of cultural exchange and tried to offset the insidious propaganda lies that Americans were a purely materialistic people with no true cultural interests or contributions to the culture of the world. Thus, during the Buenos Aires Peace Conference of 1936, through the initiative of the United States delegation, a treaty on cultural relations was signed providing for the exchange of students and teachers between the signatory nations at the expense of their gov- ernments. To carry out the United States government's responsibilities under  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 213 this agreement, a Division of Cultural Relations was created in the Department of State, on July 27, 1938. The same year, an Inter- departmental Committee for Scientific and Cultural Cooperation was organized in Washington to coordinate the program of tech- nical departmental assistance to government officials of the other American republics. These various bodies were later absorbed into the International Educational Exchange Service created in the Department of State, and after the outbreak of the World War II in Europe, into the Office of the Coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Affairs estab- lished in August, 1940, by Nelson Rockefeller, with President F. D. Roosevelt's hearty blessing. One year later (July 30, 1941), this Office was renamed Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, and a vast program of cultural exchange projects was initiated with the other American republics which is still today the basis of the broad program carried out by the United States Infor- mation Agency and the Education Exchange Division of the Department of State. Prior to the organization of Nelson Rockefeller's Office, the Department of State had sent cultural attaches to twelve of the United States embassies in Latin America. These officers were in charge of a rather meager cultural program including the distri- bution of books, the awarding of scholarships, the supplying of information on the United States educational facilities, and other similar activities. Two interesting developments date back to this period: the organization of binational cultural centers and the establishment of United States public libraries in a number of Latin American cities. The first two important binational centers were organized in Buenos Aires in 1925 and in Rio de Janeiro in 1927, by local friends of the United States and American citizens residing in those two cities. It is interesting to note that these two cultural centers were organ- ized under the auspices of the local Commissions of Intellectual Exchange affliated with the League of Nations. It was only years later, in fact during World War II, that these two centers received regular financial assistance from the United States government and that others were organized along the same lines. Today, such cen- ters exist in every country of Latin America, with well-stocked libraries on a great variety of subjects, including translations into Spanish, Portuguese, and French of important works by United EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 213 this agreement, a Division of Cultural Relations was created in the Department of State, on July 27, 1938. The same year, an Inter- departmental Committee for Scientific and Cultural Cooperation was organized in Washington to coordinate the program of tech- nical departmental assistance to government officials of the other American republics. These various bodies were later absorbed into the International Educational Exchange Service created in the Department of State, and after the outbreak of the World War II in Europe, into the Office of the Coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Affairs estab- lished in August, 1940, by Nelson Rockefeller, with President F. D. Roosevelt's hearty blessing. One year later (July 80, 1941), this Office was renamed Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, and a vast program of cultural exchange projects was initiated with the other American republics which is still today the basis of the broad program carried out by the United States Infor- mation Agency and the Education Exchange Division of the Department of State. Prior to the organization of Nelson Rockefeller's Office, the Department of State had sent cultural attaches to twelve of the United States embassies in Latin America. These officers were in charge of a rather meager cultural program including the distri- bution of books, the awarding of scholarships, the supplying of information on the United States educational facilities, and other similar activities. Two interesting developments date back to this period: the organization of binational cultural centers and the establishment of United States public libraries in a number of Latin American cities. The first two important binational centers were organized in Buenos Aires in 1925 and in Rio de Janeiro in 1927, by local friends of the United States and American citizens residing in those two cities. It is interesting to note that these two cultural centers were organ- ized under the auspices of the local Commissions of Intellectual Exchange affiliated with the League of Nations. It was only years later, in fact during World War II, that these two centers received regular financial assistance from the United States government and that others were organized along the same lines. Today, such cen- ters exist in every country of Latin America, with well-stocked libraries on a great variety of subjects, including translations into Spanish, Portuguese, and French of important works by United EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 213 this agreement, a Division of Cultural Relations was created in the Department of State, on July 27, 1938. The same year, an Inter- departmental Committee for Scientific and Cultural Cooperation was organized in Washington to coordinate the program of tech- nical departmental assistance to government officials of the other American republics. These various bodies were later absorbed into the International Educational Exchange Service created in the Department of State, and after the outbreak of the World War II in Europe, into the Office of the Coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Affairs estab- lished in August, 1940, by Nelson Rockefeller, with President F. D. Roosevelt's hearty blessing. One year later (July 30, 1941), this Office was renamed Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, and a vast program of cultural exchange projects was initiated with the other American republics which is still today the basis of the broad program carried out by the United States Infor- mation Agency and the Education Exchange Division of the Department of State. Prior to the organization of Nelson Rockefeller's Office, the Department of State had sent cultural attaches to twelve of the United States embassies in Latin America. These officers were in charge of a rather meager cultural program including the distri- bution of books, the awarding of scholarships, the supplying of information on the United States educational facilities, and other similar activities. Two interesting developments date back to this period: the organization of binational cultural centers and the establishment of United States public libraries in a number of Latin American cities. The first two important binational centers were organized in Buenos Aires in 1925 and in Rio de Janeiro in 1927, by local friends of the United States and American citizens residing in those two cities. It is interesting to note that these two cultural centers were organ- ized under the auspices of the local Commissions of Intellectual Exchange affiliated with the League of Nations. It was only years later, in fact during World War II, that these two centers received regular financial assistance from the United States government and that others were organized along the same lines. Today, such cen- ters exist in every country of Latin America, with well-stocked libraries on a great variety of subjects, including translations into Spanish, Portuguese, and French of important works by United  214 The Caribbean States authors, and English classes taught mostly by American teachers. The organization and maintenance of independent public libra- ries is also worth noting. There are today such libraries in a number of cities, including Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, and Panama City. These libraries, the most famous of which is the Benjamin Franklin Library of Mexico City, are financed and staffed by the United States Information Agency. Their impor- tance in the cultural life of the other American republics may be appreciated by the declaration, a few years ago, of the Mexican Foreign Minister to an American diplomat, that, in his opinion, "the finest thing the United States has ever done for Mexico was to establish the Benjamin Franklin Library down there on the main street of town." These libraries, incidentally, have helped to dem- onstrate the role of a modern library in the education of the common people by allowing access to the stacks and the loan of books to be read at home by practically any interested person. Any one familiar with Latin America knows how difficult and expensive it is, in some countries, to acquire books published in the United States. This is due to a number of reasons, including the depreciation of local currencies in terms of dollars. To obviate such difficulties, two important projects have been promoted by the Cultural Service of the United States Information Agency. The first is the assistance afforded to foreign publishers to obtain copy- right and to finance, in part, the publication of books by United States authors in Spanish, Portuguese, and French translations. Since 1950, the United States government has assisted in the publication of some 2,000 books in the Latin American countries, under this project. The second project worth noting is the assistance rendered by the United States government-financed Informational Media Guar- anty program in countries where dollar exchange shortages have practically eliminated the sale of books published in the United States. Under this program, the United States government guaran- tees that American publishers can convert into dollars the foreign currencies they obtain from the sale of their books in foreign book- stores. A vast presentation program of worth-while books has also been carried out, for many years, by the cultural agencies of the United States government. 214 The Caribbean States authors, and English classes taught mostly by American teachers. The organization and maintenance of independent public libra- ries is also worth noting. There are today such libraries in a number of cities, including Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, and Panama City. These libraries, the most famous of which is the Benjamin Franklin Library of Mexico City, are financed and staffed by the United States Information Agency. Their impor- tance in the cultural life of the other American republics may be appreciated by the declaration, a few years ago, of the Mexican Foreign Minister to an American diplomat, that, in his opinion, "the finest thing the United States has ever done for Mexico was to establish the Benjamin Franklin Library down there on the main street of town." These libraries, incidentally, have helped to dem- onstrate the role of a modern library in the education of the common people by allowing access to the stacks and the loan of books to be read at home by practically any interested person. Any one familiar with Latin America knows how difficult and expensive it is, in some countries, to acquire books published in the United States. This is due to a number of reasons, including the depreciation of local currencies in terms of dollars. To obviate such difficulties, two important projects have been promoted by the Cultural Service of the United States Information Agency. The first is the assistance afforded to foreign publishers to obtain copy- right and to finance, in part, the publication of books by United States authors in Spanish, Portuguese, and French translations. Since 1950, the United States government has assisted in the publication of some 2,000 books in the Latin American countries, under this project. The second project worth noting is the assistance rendered by the United States government-financed Informational Media Guar- anty program in countries where dollar exchange shortages have practically eliminated the sale of books published in the United States. Under this program, the United States government guaran- tees that American publishers can convert into dollars the foreign currencies they obtain from the sale of their books in foreign book- stores. A vast presentation program of worth-while books has also been carried out, for many years, by the cultural agencies of the United States government. 214 The Caribbean States authors, and English classes taught mostly by American teachers. The organization and maintenance of independent public libra- ries is also worth noting. There are today such libraries in a number of cities, including Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, and Panama City. These libraries, the most famous of which is the Benjamin Franlin Library of Mexico City, are financed and staffed by the United States Information Agency. Their impor- tance in the cultural life of the other American republics may be appreciated by the declaration, a few years ago, of the Mexican Foreign Minister to an American diplomat, that, in his opinion, "the finest thing the United States has ever done for Mexico was to establish the Benjamin Franklin Library down there on the main street of town." These libraries, incidentally, have helped to dem- onstrate the role of a modern library in the education of the common people by allowing access to the stacks and the loan of books to be read at home by practically any interested person. Any one familiar with Latin America knows how difficult and expensive it is, in some countries, to acquire books published in the United States. This is due to a number of reasons, including the depreciation of local currencies in terms of dollars. To obviate such difficulties, two important projects have been promoted by the Cultural Service of the United States Information Agency. The first is the assistance afforded to foreign publishers to obtain copy- right and to finance, in part, the publication of books by United States authors in Spanish, Portuguese, and French translations. Since 1950, the United States government has assisted in the publication of some 2,000 books in the Latin American countries, under this project. The second project worth noting is the assistance rendered by the United States government-financed Informational Media Guar- anty program in countries where dollar exchange shortages have practically eliminated the sale of books published in the United States. Under this program, the United States government guaran- tees that American publishers can convert into dollars the foreign currencies they obtain from the sale of their books in foreign book- stores. A vast presentation program of worth-while books has also been carried out, for many years, by the cultural agencies of the United States government.  EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 215 EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 215 EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE 215 One more interesting development in the cultural exchange relations of this country with Latin America is the College and University Affiliation program of the People-to-People movement sponsored by the United States government. Under certain formal procedures, a number of very successful affiliations have been pro- moted including certain activities such as the exchange of short visits by executives, faculty members, and students; the exchange of books and scholarly writings; the exchange of microfilms of scholarly papers; the publication of newsletters and student news- papers in the language of the affiliated institutions; exchange of motion pictures, photographs, and other materials; the exchange of tape-recorded debates on cultural subjects; and the translation of important articles, essays, and talks. To date, the following Latin American institutions of higher learning have entered into affiliation agreements with United States institutions: the Pontifical Catholic University of Lima, Peru, with the Catholic University of America; the University of San Marcos, Lima, Peru, with the University of Denver; the Central University of Venezuela, Caracas, with the University of Massachusetts; the University of the Andes, Bogoti, Colombia, the National University of Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina, and the Central University of Quito, Ecuador, with the University of Miami; the University of San Andres, La Paz, Bolivia, with the University of Tennessee; the National University of Mexico, with the University of Texas; the Escuela Normal Superior of Mexico City, with the School of Edu- cation, University of North Carolina; the Escuela Normal La Can- tata, Chosica, Peru, with the State Teachers College, Edinboro, Pennsylvania. III In this brief study of the cultural exchange relations between the United States and Latin America, the valuable work carried out by the Institute of International Education and many of the most important institutions of higher learning in this country, has not been included. That work is being studied in detail in other papers presented to this Conference. Nevertheless, mention must be here made of the extremely val- uable work carried out by the University of Texas, which sponsored the Institute of Latin American Studies; by Stanford University; and, One more interesting development in the cultural exchange relations of this country with Latin America is the College and University Affiliation program of the People-to-People movement sponsored by the United States government. Under certain formal procedures, a number of very successful affiliations have been pro- moted including certain activities such as the exchange of short visits by executives, faculty members, and students; the exchange of books and scholarly writings; the exchange of microfilms of scholarly papers; the publication of newsletters and student news- papers in the language of the affiliated institutions; exchange of motion pictures, photographs, and other materials; the exchange of tape-recorded debates on cultural subjects; and the translation of important articles, essays, and talks. To date, the following Latin American institutions of higher learning have entered into affiliation agreements with United States institutions: the Pontifical Catholic University of Lima, Peru, with the Catholic University of America; the University of San Marcos, Lima, Peru, with the University of Denver; the Central University of Venezuela, Caracas, with the University of Massachusetts; the University of the Andes, Bogota, Colombia, the National University of Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina, and the Central University of Quito, Ecuador, with the University of Miami; the University of San Andras, La Paz, Bolivia, with the University of Tennessee; the National University of Mexico, with the University of Texas; the Escuela Normal Superior of Mexico City, with the School of Edu- cation, University of North Carolina; the Escuela Normal La Can- tata, Chosica, Peru, with the State Teachers College, Edinboro, Pennsylvania. III In this brief study of the cultural exchange relations between the United States and Latin America, the valuable work carried out by the Institute of International Education and many of the most important institutions of higher learning in this country, has not been included. That work is being studied in detail in other papers presented to this Conference. Nevertheless, mention must be here made of the extremely val- nable work carried out by the University of Texas, which sponsored the Institute of Latin American Studies; by Stanford University; and, One more interesting development in the cultural exchange relations of this country with Latin America is the College and University Affiliation program of the People-to-People movement sponsored by the United States government. Under certain formal procedures, a number of very successful affiliations have been pro- moted including certain activities such as the exchange of short visits by executives, faculty members, and students; the exchange of books and scholarly writings; the exchange of microfilms of scholarly papers; the publication of newsletters and student news- papers in the language of the affiliated institutions; exchange of motion pictures, photographs, and other materials; the exchange of tape-recorded debates on cultural subjects; and the translation of important articles, essays, and talks. To date, the following Latin American institutions of higher learning have entered into affiliation agreements with United States institutions: the Pontifical Catholic University of Lima, Peru, with the Catholic University of America; the University of San Marcos, Lima, Peru, with the University of Denver; the Central University of Venezuela, Caracas, with the University of Massachusetts; the University of the Andes, Bogot, Colombia, the National University of Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina, and the Central University of Quito, Ecuador, with the University of Miami; the University of San Andres, La Paz, Bolivia, with the University of Tennessee; the National University of Mexico, with the University of Texas; the Escuela Normal Superior of Mexico City, with the School of Edu- cation, University of North Carolina; the Escuela Normal La Can- tata, Chosica, Peru, with the State Teachers College, Edinboro, Pennsylvania. III In this brief study of the cultural exchange relations between the United States and Latin America, the valuable work carried out by the Institute of International Education and many of the most important institutions of higher learning in this country, has not been included. That work is being studied in detail in other papers presented to this Conference. Nevertheless, mention must be here made of the extremely val- uable work carried out by the University of Texas, which sponsored the Institute of Latin American Studies; by Stanford University; and,  216 The Caribbean indeed, by the School of Inter-American Studies of the University of Florida, which has sponsored this series of annual Conferences on the Caribbean. Many other such projects could be mentioned, equally valuable in the promotion of cultural relations between the United States and Latin America. Their profound and lasting influence in the cultural development of the hemisphere can never be overestimated. 216 The Caribbean indeed, by the School of Inter-American Studies of the University of Florida, which has sponsored this series of annual Conferences on the Caribbean. Many other such projects could be mentioned, equally valuable in the promotion of cultural relations between the United States and Latin America. Their profound and lasting influence in the cultural development of the hemisphere can never be overestimated. 216 The Caribbean indeed, by the School of Inter-American Studies of the University of Florida, which has sponsored this series of annual Conferences on the Caribbean. Many other such projects could be mentioned, equally valuable in the promotion of cultural relations between the United States and Latin America. Their profound and lasting influence in the cultural development of the hemisphere can never be overestimated.  Part VI Part VI Part VI SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS   16 16 16 Arthur S. Flemming: SOME FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATIONAL ISSUES IN THE CARIBBEAN AND IN THE UNITED STATES IT SEEMS TO ME that in connection with this tenth Caribbean Conference it is most appropriate to focus attention on education. I am confident that "education" also must have played a part in all of the preceding nine Conferences. I believe wholeheartedly in the soundness of a conviction that was concurred in, I am told, at one of the previous Conferences. It was stated in this way: Education must be regarded not as an amenity to be afforded after the achieve- ment of economic progress, but as an essential and concomitant instrument of economic, social, and political development. In other words, it seems to me that those who phrased this particular state- ment were saying that unless all of the countries represented in this conference are willing to make the investment that it is necessary for us to make in order to enable our fellow human beings to realize their highest potential, it will be impossible for us to take full advantage of our opportunities in the economic, social, and political realms of life. I wish that I might have had the privilege of participating in all of the round tables held in connection with these meetings. If I had, I would now have a better understanding and a better appreciation of the educational systems that have been developed in the coun- tries in the Caribbean area. I would also, I feel confident, be more aware than ever before of the fact that in spite of the differences in our educational systems we are all called upon to come to grips with the same basic issues in the field of education. For a few moments, therefore, I should like to identify and discuss briefly just three of these basic or fundamental issues. 219 Arthur S. Flemming: SOME FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATIONAL ISSUES IN THE CARIBBEAN AND IN THE UNITED STATES IT SEEMS TO ME that in connection with this tenth Caribbean Conference it is most appropriate to focus attention on education. I am confident that "education" also must have played a part in all of the preceding nine Conferences. I believe wholeheartedly in the soundness of a conviction that was concurred in, I am told, at one of the previous Conferences. It was stated in this way: Education must be regarded not as an amenity to be afforded after the achieve- ment of economic progress, but as an essential and concomitant instrument of economic, social, and political development. In other words, it seems to me that those who phrased this particular state- ment were saying that unless all of the countries represented in this conference are willing to make the investment that it is necessary for us to make in order to enable our fellow human beings to realize their highest potential, it will be impossible for us to take full advantage of our opportunities in the economic, social, and political realms of life. I wish that I might have had the privilege of participating in all of the round tables held in connection with these meetings. If I had, I would now have a better understanding and a better appreciation of the educational systems that have been developed in the coun- tries in the Caribbean area. I would also, I feel confident, be more aware than ever before of the fact that in spite of the differences in our educational systems we are all called upon to come to grips with the same basic issues in the field of education. For a few moments, therefore, I should like to identify and discuss briefly just three of these basic or fundamental issues. 219 Arthur S. Flemming: SOME FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATIONAL ISSUES IN THE CARIBBEAN AND IN THE UNITED STATES IT SEEMS TO ME that in connection with this tenth Caribbean Conference it is most appropriate to focus attention on education. I am confident that "education" also must have played a part in all of the preceding nine Conferences. I believe wholeheartedly in the soundness of a conviction that was concurred in, I am told, at one of the previous Conferences. It was stated in this way: Education must be regarded not as an amenity to be afforded after the achieve- ment of economic progress, but as an essential and concomitant instrument of economic, social, and political development. In other words, it seems to me that those who phrased this particular state- ment were saying that unless all of the countries represented in this conference are willing to make the investment that it is necessary for us to make in order to enable our fellow human beings to realize their highest potential, it will be impossible for us to take full advantage of our opportunities in the economic, social, and political realms of life. I wish that I might have had the privilege of participating in all of the round tables held in connection with these meetings. If I had, I would now have a better understanding and a better appreciation of the educational systems that have been developed in the coun- tries in the Caribbean area. I would also, I feel confident, be more aware than ever before of the fact that in spite of the differences in our educational systems we are all called upon to come to grips with the same basic issues in the field of education. For a few moments, therefore, I should like to identify and discuss briefly just three of these basic or fundamental issues. 219  220 The Caribbean 220 The Caribbean 220 The Caribbean First, no matter what our system of education, all of us are called upon constantly to address our thinking to this question: What should be the controlling objective of our educational program? I believe that there are many ways in which this question can be answered. If I were asked to summarize in a few words the con- tribution I believe the educational institutions in all of the countries represented here must make for a man if he is to adapt himself to a contracting world in an expanding universe, I would put it this way: I believe that our controlling objective should be to motivate man to pursue excellence and then to provide him with the oppor- tunity for achieving it. All of our educational systems have certainly made some contribution to the achievement of this objective, and for this, all of us should be thankful. Addressing myself now to our own country, I believe that we have not as a nation lived up to our opportunities to the extent that we should. Here is just one example. Too many of those who have come in contact with, and who have graduated from, our educa- tional institutions are unable to use effectively the basic skills that determine whether or not we are able to communicate successfully with one another. Too many people are unable to write effectively, to speak both privately and publicly, and to use some language or languages other than our own. Personally, I know of no greater obstacle standing in the way of man's being able to comprehend, and as a result to adjust in a positive manner to an expanding uni- verse. Certainly it has been my own observation that in the fields of business, education, government, and religion, one of the most serious obstacles standing in the way of effective administration is our inability to communicate effectively with one another. Take any organization. Sit down with some of the members and ask them to identify for you the objectives of their organization. I guarantee that you will start a debate among them because one will say, "this is our objective" and another will say, "oh no, this is our objective." The first will say, "well, you did not understand what I said in the first place," and that is probably right because he failed to commu- nicate what he was trying to say in an effective manner. I know of nothing that creates more misunderstanding, more confusion, more wasted effort in the life of our day, within the institutions of our day, than this inability to communicate effectively with one another. First, no matter what our system of education, all of us are called upon constantly to address our thinking to this question: What should be the controlling objective of our educational program? I believe that there are many ways in which this question can be answered. If I were asked to summarize in a few words the con- tribution I believe the educational institutions in all of the countries represented here must make for a man if he is to adapt himself to a contracting world in an expanding universe, I would put it this way: I believe that our controlling objective should be to motivate man to pursue excellence and then to provide him with the oppor- tunity for achieving it. All of our educational systems have certainly made some contribution to the achievement of this objective, and for this, all of us should be thankful. Addressing myself now to our own country, I believe that we have not as a nation lived up to our opportunities to the extent that we should. Here is just one example. Too many of those who have come in contact with, and who have graduated from, our educa- tional institutions are unable to use effectively the basic skills that determine whether or not we are able to communicate successfully with one another. Too many people are unable to write effectively, to speak both privately and publicly, and to use some language or languages other than our own. Personally, I know of no greater obstacle standing in the way of man's being able to comprehend, and as a result to adjust in a positive manner to an expanding uni- verse. Certainly it has been my own observation that in the fields of business, education, government, and religion, one of the most serious obstacles standing in the way of effective administration is our inability to communicate effectively with one another. Take any organization. Sit down with some of the members and ask them to identify for you the objectives of their organization. I guarantee that you will start a debate among them because one will say, "this is our objective" and another will say, "oh no, this is our objective." The first will say, "well, you did not understand what I said in the first place," and that is probably right because he failed to commu- nicate what he was trying to say in an effective manner. I know of nothing that creates more misunderstanding, more confusion, more wasted effort in the life of our day, within the institutions of our day, than this inability to communicate effectively with one another. First, no matter what our system of education, all of us are called upon constantly to address our thinking to this question: What should be the controlling objective of our educational program? I believe that there are many ways in which this question can be answered. If I were asked to summarize in a few words the con- tribution I believe the educational institutions in all of the countries represented here must make for a man if he is to adapt himself to a contracting world in an expanding universe, I would put it this way: I believe that our controlling objective should be to motivate man to pursue excellence and then to provide him with the oppor- tunity for achieving it. All of our educational systems have certainly made some contribution to the achievement of this objective, and for this, all of us should be thankful. Addressing myself now to our own country, I believe that we have not as a nation lived up to our opportunities to the extent that we should. Here is just one example. Too many of those who have come in contact with, and who have graduated from, our educa- tional institutions are unable to use effectively the basic skills that determine whether or not we are able to communicate successfully with one another. Too many people are unable to write effectively, to speak both privately and publicly, and to use some language or languages other than our own. Personally, I know of no greater obstacle standing in the way of man's being able to comprehend, and as a result to adjust in a positive manner to an expanding uni- verse. Certainly it has been my own observation that in the fields of business, education, government, and religion, one of the most serious obstacles standing in the way of effective administration is our inability to communicate effectively with one another. Take any organization. Sit down with some of the members and ask them to identify for you the objectives of their organization. I guarantee that you will start a debate among them because one will say, "this is our objective" and another will say, "oh no, this is our objective." The first will say, "well, you did not understand what I said in the first place," and that is probably right because he failed to commu- nicate what he was trying to say in an effective manner. I know of nothing that creates more misunderstanding, more confusion, more wasted effort in the life of our day, within the institutions of our day, than this inability to communicate effectively with one another.  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ZZL Also I know of no greater obstacle standing in the way of strength- ening the relationships of our nation with the peoples of other nations than our inability to use their languages. Just a few weeks ago the United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee notified the Executive Branch that they were not going to look with favor in the future on nominations of persons to serve in other countries if those persons were unable to speak and write the language of those countries. Many editorials have been written applauding this statement on the part of a Senate committee which must consider these nominations. Certainly you and I would applaud it. The difficulty is that the Secretary of State is going to find it at times almost impossible to discover persons who have that competence and who can represent us adequately in some of the other nations of the world. This, it seems to me, is a reflection of the fact that in the area of communications our educational system has failed to pursue excellence in the way in which it should. Now I know that you recognize, as I do, that I could add to this list of illustrations as a result of my own experiences and observations. I do believe that it is necessary to place far more emphasis on motivating our young people to the place where they will want to pursue excellence. I am a little bit disturbed - probably I should not take this too seriously - but I am a little bit disturbed that not only on our col- lege campuses and within our secondary schools, and within our communities, but apparently in all walks of life, there is a growing tendency for us after we have engaged in conversation with some of our fellow human beings to end the conversation, not with a "good-bye" but with, "take it easy." Just note how many times that expression is used! It is my conviction that we are living in the kind of world where, certainly in the field of education, we cannot afford to take it easy. We must motivate young men and young women to pursue excellence, and having motivated them we must make it possible for them to do so. II The second basic or fundamental issue that I would like to dis- cuss briefly with you is this. In all of the countries represented here the field of education is faced with the opportunity of preparing young people, not only to become productive members of society SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 221 Also I know of no greater obstacle standing in the way of strength- ening the relationships of our nation with the peoples of other nations than our inability to use their languages. Just a few weeks ago the United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee notified the Executive Branch that they were not going to look with favor in the future on nominations of persons to serve in other countries if those persons were unable to speak and write the language of those countries. Many editorials have been written applauding this statement on the part of a Senate committee which must consider these nominations. Certainly you and I would applaud it. The difficulty is that the Secretary of State is going to find it at times almost impossible to discover persons who have that competence and who can represent us adequately in some of the other nations of the world. This, it seems to me, is a reflection of the fact that in the area of communications our educational system has failed to pursue excellence in the way in which it should. Now I know that you recognize, as I do, that I could add to this list of illustrations as a result of my own experiences and observations. I do believe that it is necessary to place far more emphasis on motivating our young people to the place where they will want to pursue excellence. I am a little bit disturbed - probably I should not take this too seriously - but I am a little bit disturbed that not only on our col- lege campuses and within our secondary schools, and within our communities, but apparently in all walks of life, there is a growing tendency for us after we have engaged in conversation with some of our fellow human beings to end the conversation, not with a "good-bye" but with, "take it easy." Just note how many times that expression is used! It is my conviction that we are living in the kind of world where, certainly in the field of education, we cannot afford to take it easy. We must motivate young men and young women to pursue excellence, and having motivated them we must make it possible for them to do so. II The second basic or fundamental issue that I would like to dis- cuss briefly with you is this. In all of the countries represented here the field of education is faced with the opportunity of preparing young people, not only to become productive members of society SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 221 Also I know of no greater obstacle standing in the way of strength- ening the relationships of our nation with the peoples of other nations than our inability to use their languages. Just a few weeks ago the United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee notified the Executive Branch that they were not going to look with favor in the future on nominations of persons to serve in other countries if those persons were unable to speak and write the language of those countries. Many editorials have been written applauding this statement on the part of a Senate committee which must consider these nominations. Certainly you and I would applaud it. The difficulty is that the Secretary of State is going to find it at times almost impossible to discover persons who have that competence and who can represent us adequately in some of the other nations of the world. This, it seems to me, is a reflection of the fact that in the area of communications our educational system has failed to pursue excellence in the way in which it should. Now I know that you recognize, as I do, that I could add to this list of illustrations as a result of my own experiences and observations. I do believe that it is necessary to place far more emphasis on motivating our young people to the place where they will want to pursue excellence. I am a little bit disturbed - probably I should not take this too seriously - but I am a little bit disturbed that not only on our col- lege campuses and within our secondary schools, and within our communities, but apparently in all walks of life, there is a growing tendency for us after we have engaged in conversation with some of our fellow human beings to end the conversation, not with a "good-bye" but with, "take it easy." Just note how many times that expression is used! It is my conviction that we are living in the kind of world where, certainly in the field of education, we cannot afford to take it easy. We must motivate young men and young women to pursue excellence, and having motivated them we must make it possible for them to do so. II The second basic or fundamental issue that I would like to dis- cuss briefly with you is this. In all of the countries represented here the field of education is faced with the opportunity of preparing young people, not only to become productive members of society  222 The Caribbean as we sometimes express it, but also with the opportunity of pre- paring them for responsible citizenship. Personally I do not feel that there is really any conflict between what we sometimes refer to as vocational training or special education and what we also refer to at times as liberal or general education. Vocational educa- tion, if placed in the right setting, can be a liberal education, and a liberal or general education can be the best kind of vocational training or education. But I do recognize that it is possible to over- emphasize, for example, vocational education at the expense of a liberal education and vice versa, although the latter is not so apt to happen as the forner. Our educational institutions, and now I am talking about the educational institutions of our own country, have an obligation to do everything within their power to provide our young people with a clear understanding of the concept of freedom and above all of the contribution that each person in our nation must make to its preservation. I believe that it has always been true that each generation must rediscover for itself the concept of freedom. We cannot assume that this can be handed down from one generation to another. Each generation must rediscover it. I feel that this is even more true in today's world. The basic concept does not change, but its application to life must change. In our country we cannot help but admit that many, certainly of my generation, have failed to rediscover this concept and as a result many of my generation have failed to think through all that needs to be done to preserve the concept of freedom. How else can we explain the failure of many to vote, to participate actively in the political party of their choice, and to assume, when called upon, the duties of public office, whether one is thinking of membership on a school board, or state office, or national office? How else do we explain the fact that many of our voters decide great issues by listening to and accepting slo- gans instead of making a thoughtful study of the issue? I think that in our nation we are confronted with a serious prob- lem looked at from the standpoint of whether or not we in our generation have really rediscovered the concept of freedom and are willing to make sacrifices in its behalf in order that it may be preserved. Now I believe that one of the reasons why we are con- fronted with this situation is because at times we have overempha- sized vocational education at the expense of a liberal or general education. Please do not misunderstand me. I believe in vocational 222 The Caribbean as we sometimes express it, but also with the opportunity of pre- paring them for responsible citizenship. Personally I do not feel that there is really any conflict between what we sometimes refer to as vocational training or special education and what we also refer to at times as liberal or general education. Vocational educa- tion, if placed in the right setting, can be a liberal education, and a liberal or general education can be the best kind of vocational training or education. But I do recognize that it is possible to over- emphasize, for example, vocational education at the expense of a liberal education and vice versa, although the latter is not so apt to happen as the former. Our educational institutions, and now I am talking about the educational institutions of our own country, have an obligation to do everything within their power to provide our young people with a clear understanding of the concept of freedom and above all of the contribution that each person in our nation must make to its preservation. I believe that it has always been true that each generation must rediscover for itself the concept of freedom. We cannot assume that this can be handed down from one generation to another. Each generation must rediscover it. I feel that this is even more true in today's world. The basic concept does not change, but its application to life must change. In our country we cannot help but admit that many, certainly of my generation, have failed to rediscover this concept and as a result many of my generation have failed to think through all that needs to be done to preserve the concept of freedom. How else can we explain the failure of many to vote, to participate actively in the political party of their choice, and to assume, when called upon, the duties of public office, whether one is thinking of membership on a school board, or state office, or national office? How else do we explain the fact that many of our voters decide great issues by listening to and accepting slo- gans instead of making a thoughtful study of the issue? I think that in our nation we are confronted with a serious prob- lem looked at from the standpoint of whether or not we in our generation have really rediscovered the concept of freedom and are willing to make sacrifices in its behalf in order that it may be preserved. Now I believe that one of the reasons why we are con- fronted with this situation is because at times we have overempha- sized vocational education at the expense of a liberal or general education. Please do not misunderstand me. I believe in vocational 222 The Caribbean as we sometimes express it, but also with the opportunity of pre- paring them for responsible citizenship. Personally I do not feel that there is really any conflict between what we sometimes refer to as vocational training or special education and what we also refer to at times as liberal or general education. Vocational educa- tion, if placed in the right setting, can be a liberal education, and a liberal or general education can be the best kind of vocational training or education. But I do recognize that it is possible to over- emphasize, for example, vocational education at the expense of a liberal education and vice versa, although the latter is not so apt to happen as the former. Our educational institutions, and now I am talking about the educational institutions of our own country, have an obligation to do everything within their power to provide our young people with a clear understanding of the concept of freedom and above all of the contribution that each person in our nation must make to its preservation. I believe that it has always been true that each generation must rediscover for itself the concept of freedom. We cannot assume that this can be handed down from one generation to another. Each generation must rediscover it. I feel that this is even more true in today's world. The basic concept does not change, but its application to life must change. In our country we cannot help but admit that many, certainly of my generation, have failed to rediscover this concept and as a result many of my generation have failed to think through all that needs to be done to preserve the concept of freedom. How else can we explain the failure of many to vote, to participate actively in the political party of their choice, and to assume, when called upon, the duties of public office, whether one is thinking of membership on a school board, or state office, or national office? How else do we explain the fact that many of our voters decide great issues by listening to and accepting slo- gans instead of making a thoughtful study of the issue? I think that in our nation we are confronted with a serious prob- lem looked at from the standpoint of whether or not we in our generation have really rediscovered the concept of freedom and are willing to make sacrifices in its behalf in order that it may be preserved. Now I believe that one of the reasons why we are con- fronted with this situation is because at times we have overempha- sized vocational education at the expense of a liberal or general education. Please do not misunderstand me. I believe in vocational  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 223 education. I believe that the investment that we have made in it has paid tremendous dividends. I believe that this investment should be stepped up. I also believe, however, that we have not made the investment that we should make at all levels of education in what I refer to as liberal or general education. And it is because of this latter failure that we have not made it possible for young men and women to come to grips with this concept of freedom and to think through for themselves the sacrifices that must be made if it is to be preserved. III The third issue that I should like to touch on briefly might be expressed in this way. In all of the countries that are represented here we are faced with the issue of obtaining adequate support for our educational programs. Take, for example, the question of sala- ries for teachers - and I intended to use this as an illustration before knowing that I was going to have the privilege of addressing so many teachersl My comments now again apply to our own country. Personally, and this is a generalization which of course is subject to exceptions, I feel that the way in which we as a nation have com- pensated teachers at all levels is a disgrace. I know, as everyone in this audience knows, that persons do not become members of the teaching profession in order to become wealthy. They become members of the teaching profession because they feel that the teaching profession provides them with an unparalleled opportunity for serving their fellow human beings. My point is that our nation has no right to take advantage of that willingness to serve by delib- erately penalizing teachers and the members of their families be- cause of their willingness to render the most important service that can be rendered to any nation. There is not any question in my mind at all but that throughout our nation, whether we are talking about local school districts, state programs, private institutions, or public institutions, we must raise our sights and invest far more of our total wealth in salaries for members of the teaching profession than we are now doing. Often at times in the field of education we are forced, not because of lack of potential resources but because of a love for the luxuries of life, to put up also with totally inadequate facilities and equipment. As we think of these two issues of teacher's salaries, and of adequate SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 223 education. I believe that the investment that we have made in it has paid tremendous dividends. I believe that this investment should be stepped up. I also believe, however, that we have not made the investment that we should make at all levels of education in what I refer to as liberal or general education. And it is because of this latter failure that we have not made it possible for young men and women to come to grips with this concept of freedom and to think through for themselves the sacrifices that must be made if it is to be preserved. III The third issue that I should like to touch on briefly might be expressed in this way. In all of the countries that are represented here we are faced with the issue of obtaining adequate support for our educational programs. Take, for example, the question of sala- ries for teachers - and I intended to use this as an illustration before knowing that I was going to have the privilege of addressing so many teachers! My comments now again apply to our own country. Personally, and this is a generalization which of course is subject to exceptions, I feel that the way in which we as a nation have com- pensated teachers at all levels is a disgrace. I know, as everyone in this audience knows, that persons do not become members of the teaching profession in order to become wealthy. They become members of the teaching profession because they feel that the teaching profession provides them with an unparalleled opportunity for serving their fellow human beings. My point is that our nation has no right to take advantage of that willingness to serve by delib- erately penalizing teachers and the members of their families be- cause of their willingness to render the most important service that can be rendered to any nation. There is not any question in my mind at all but that throughout our nation, whether we are talking about local school districts, state programs, private institutions, or public institutions, we must raise our sights and invest far more of our total wealth in salaries for members of the teaching profession than we are now doing. Often at times in the field of education we are forced, not because of lack of potential resources but because of a love for the luxuries of life, to put up also with totally inadequate facilities and equipment. As we think of these two issues of teacher's salaries, and of adequate SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 223 education. I believe that the investment that we have made in it has paid tremendous dividends. I believe that this investment should be stepped up. I also believe, however, that we have not made the investment that we should make at all levels of education in what I refer to as liberal or general education. And it is because of this latter failure that we have not made it possible for young men and women to come to grips with this concept of freedom and to think through for themselves the sacrifices that must be made if it is to be preserved. III The third issue that I should like to touch on briefly might be expressed in this way. In all of the countries that are represented here we are faced with the issue of obtaining adequate support for our educational programs. Take, for example, the question of sala- ries for teachers - and I intended to use this as an illustration before knowing that I was going to have the privilege of addressing so many teachers! My comments now again apply to our own country. Personally, and this is a generalization which of course is subject to exceptions, I feel that the way in which we as a nation have com- pensated teachers at all levels is a disgrace. I know, as everyone in this audience knows, that persons do not become members of the teaching profession in order to become wealthy. They become members of the teaching profession because they feel that the teaching profession provides them with an unparalleled opportunity for serving their fellow human beings. My point is that our nation has no right to take advantage of that willingness to serve by delib- erately penalizing teachers and the members of their families be- cause of their willingness to render the most important service that can be rendered to any nation. There is not any question in my mind at all but that throughout our nation, whether we are talking about local school districts, state programs, private institutions, or public institutions, we must raise our sights and invest far more of our total wealth in salaries for members of the teaching profession than we are now doing. Often at times in the field of education we are forced, not because of lack of potential resources but because of a love for the luxuries of life, to put up also with totally inadequate facilities and equipment. As we think of these two issues of teacher's salaries, and of adequate  224 The Caribbean resources for facilities and equipment, and as we think of where we are now as contrasted with where we might be if we were only willing to travel the second mile and make sacrificial contributions to the field of education, sometimes one wonders how firmly com- mitted we are as a nation to taking advantage of the opportunities for service that are presented to us through the field of education. IV Personally, I do not believe that the situation which now confronts us is going to be corrected because of our fears of any nation. I do not, I can not, think of any illustration in history of where a people have maintained a sustained effort in the direction of achieving a constructive objective because of their fear. Now do not misunder- stand me. We do, or we are able to, observe some fits and starts in the direction of a constructive objective by reason of the motivation of fear. I do not think that the National Defense Education Act would have been passed if it had not been for Sputnik. And I do think the National Defense Education Act represents a constructive contribution to the strengthening of our total educational system. But all people adjust very quickly to their fears; they forget about them. In my judgment we will pursue excellence in the field of educa- tion and will provide the personnel, equipment, and facilities for its pursuit only as we are motivated to do so as a result of our rec- ognizing and determining to put into practice the great spiritual laws of life. And let me be specific. It seems to me that we will make a concerted effort in the direction of strengthening our total edu- cational program only as we are willing to place at the center of our life that commandment that is at the heart of our Judeo- Christian tradition: "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." To me this places upon us a spiritual obligation never to pass up any opportunity that is presented to us to help our fellow human beings realize their highest potential. It is only as the citizens of our nations recognize and accept a spiritual obligation of this kind that we will take full advantage of the opportunities that confront us in the field of education. I think that I can best sum up all that I have been trying to say here by referring to Phillips' translation of Paul's admonition to Timothy, "For yourself, concentrate on winning God's approval, on 224 The Caribbean resources for facilities and equipment, and as we think of where we are now as contrasted with where we might be if we were only willing to travel the second mile and make sacrificial contributions to the field of education, sometimes one wonders how firmly com- mitted we are as a nation to taking advantage of the opportunities for service that are presented to us through the field of education. IV Personally, I do not believe that the situation which now confronts us is going to be corrected because of our fears of any nation. I do not, I can not, think of any illustration in history of where a people have maintained a sustained effort in the direction of achieving a constructive objective because of their fear. Now do not misunder- stand me. We do, or we are able to, observe some fits and starts in the direction of a constructive objective by reason of the motivation of fear. I do not think that the National Defense Education Act would have been passed if it had not been for Sputnik. And I do think the National Defense Education Act represents a constructive contribution to the strengthening of our total educational system. But all people adjust very quickly to their fears; they forget about them. In my judgment we will pursue excellence in the field of educa- tion and will provide the personnel, equipment, and facilities for its pursuit only as we are motivated to do so as a result of our ree- ognizing and determining to put into practice the great spiritual laws of life. And let me be specific. It seems to me that we will make a concerted effort in the direction of strengthening our total edu- cational program only as we are willing to place at the center of our life that commandment that is at the heart of our Judeo- Christian tradition: "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." To me this places upon us a spiritual obligation never to pass up any opportunity that is presented to us to help our fellow human beings realize their highest potential. It is only as the citizens of our nations recognize and accept a spiritual obligation of this kind that we will take full advantage of the opportunities that confront us in the field of education. I think that I can best sum up all that I have been trying to say here by referring to Phillips' translation of Paul's admonition to Timothy, "For yourself, concentrate on winning God's approval, on 224 The Caribbean resources for facilities and equipment, and as we think of where we are now as contrasted with where we might be if we were only willing to travel the second mile and make sacrificial contributions to the field of education, sometimes one wonders how firmly com- mitted we are as a nation to taking advantage of the opportunities for service that are presented to us through the field of education. IV Personally, I do not believe that the situation which now confronts us is going to be corrected because of our fears of any nation. I do not, I can not, think of any illustration in history of where a people have maintained a sustained effort in the direction of achieving a constructive objective because of their fear. Now do not misunder- stand me. We do, or we are able to, observe some fits and starts in the direction of a constructive objective by reason of the motivation of fear. I do not think that the National Defense Education Act would have been passed if it had not been for Sputnik. And I do think the National Defense Education Act represents a constructive contribution to the strengthening of our total educational system. But all people adjust very quickly to their fears; they forget about them. In my judgment we will pursue excellence in the field of educa- tion and will provide the personnel, equipment, and facilities for its pursuit only as we are motivated to do so as a result of our ree- ognizing and determining to put into practice the great spiritual laws of life. And let me be specific. It seems to me that we will make a concerted effort in the direction of strengthening our total edu- cational program only as we are willing to place at the center of our life that commandment that is at the heart of our Judeo- Christian tradition: "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." To me this places upon us a spiritual obligation never to pass up any opportunity that is presented to us to help our fellow human beings realize their highest potential. It is only as the citizens of our nations recognize and accept a spiritual obligation of this kind that we will take full advantage of the opportunities that confront us in the field of education. I think that I can best sum up all that I have been trying to say here by referring to Phillips' translation of Paul's admonition to Timothy, "For yourself, concentrate on winning God's approval, on  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 225 being a workman with nothing to be ashamed of, and who knows bow to use the word of faith to the best advantage." This, it seems to me, should be the over-all objective that we keep in mind in connection with all of our activities in all of our countries in the field of education. And it seems to me that we should keep it in mind in the light of these words from that same letter of Paul to Timothy: "Never lose your sense of urgency, in season and out of season." I am sure that I do not need to urge those who are participating in these conferences never to lose their sense of urgency as far as the field of education is concerned in season and out of season. Your presence here is a clear indication of the fact that you have this sense of urgency. Let us never pass up any opportunity to do everything we can to convey to our fellow citizens of all of the countries represented here this sense of urgency in terms of the tremendous opportunities for service that confront the field of education today. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 225 being a workman with nothing to be ashamed of, and who knows how to use the word of faith to the best advantage." This, it seems to me, should be the over-all objective that we keep in mind in connection with all of our activities in all of our countries in the field of education. And it seems to me that we should keep it in mind in the light of these words from that same letter of Paul to Timothy: "Never lose your sense of urgency, in season and out of season." I am sure that I do not need to urge those who are participating in these conferences never to lose their sense of urgency as far as the field of education is concerned in season and out of season. Your presence here is a clear indication of the fact that you have this sense of urgency. Let us never pass up any opportunity to do everything we can to convey to our fellow citizens of all of the countries represented here this sense of urgency in terms of the tremendous opportunities for service that confront the field of education today. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 225 being a workman with nothing to be ashamed of, and who knows how to use the word of faith to the best advantage." This, it seems to me, should be the over-all objective that we keep in mind in connection with all of our activities in all of our countries in the field of education. And it seems to me that we should keep it in mind in the light of these words from that same letter of Paul to Timothy: "Never lose your sense of urgency, in season and out of season." I am sure that I do not need to urge those who are participating in these conferences never to lose their sense of urgency as far as the field of education is concerned in season and out of season. Your presence here is a clear indication of the fact that you have this sense of urgency. Let us never pass up any opportunity to do everything we can to convey to our fellow citizens of all of the countries represented here this sense of urgency in terms of the tremendous opportunities for service that confront the field of education today.  17 17 17 J. K. Jamieson: THE PARTNERSHIP OF INDUSTRY AND EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN I SHOULD LIKE to say a few words about the role of industry in regard to education and to education in general as an indispen- sable prerequisite for its development. I hope that you, as educators, will not think it presumptuous that a businessman should discuss the subject of education. But our company, like many others in this country and the world over, is really in the business of education for the simple reason that an industry cannot disassociate itself from the all-important task of preparing new generations of well-trained, cultured young people. Industry must leave the educational process as such to the schools and universities; but it can and must assist financially to keep these institutions going and to help get them the best possible people to whose care the proper education of young people may be entrusted. Today, industry is fully aware of its role and its duties toward edu- cation, and businessmen and educators alike understand the nature of this interrelationship. What is not so well known is that industry's part, as a partner of our educational system, is an impor- tant factor in the preservation of our democratic ideals and way of life. All this may sound as if I were concerned only with the North American educational system and the collaboration of industry in this country with schools and universities. Living in the United States, it is only natural that I should draw on experiences that are most familiar to me. But this should not give the impression that I am unaware of the efforts being made in other countries, espe- cially those of Latin America, where collaboration between industry 226 J. K. Jamieson: THE PARTNERSHIP OF INDUSTRY AND EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN I SHOULD LIKE to say a few words about the role of industry in regard to education and to education in general as an indispen- sable prerequisite for its development. I hope that you, as educators, will not think it presumptuous that a businessman should discuss the subject of education. But our company, like many others in this country and the world over, is really in the business of education for the simple reason that an industry cannot disassociate itself from the all-important task of preparing new generations of well-trained, cultured young people. Industry must leave the educational process as such to the schools and universities; but it can and must assist financially to keep these institutions going and to help get them the best possible people to whose care the proper education of young people may be entrusted. Today, industry is fully aware of its role and its duties toward edu- cation, and businessmen and educators alike understand the nature of this interrelationship. What is not so well known is that industry's part, as a partner of our educational system, is an impor- tant factor in the preservation of our democratic ideals and way of life. All this may sound as if I were concerned only with the North American educational system and the collaboration of industry in this country with schools and universities. Living in the United States, it is only natural that I should draw on experiences that are most familiar to me. But this should not give the impression that I am unaware of the efforts being made in other countries, espe- cially those of Latin America, where collaboration between industry 226 J. K. Jamieson: THE PARTNERSHIP OF INDUSTRY AND EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN I SHOULD LIKE to say a few words about the role of industry in regard to education and to education in general as an indispen- sable prerequisite for its development. I hope that you, as educators, will not think it presumptuous that a businessman should discuss the subject of education. But our company, like many others in this country and the world over, is really in the business of education for the simple reason that an industry cannot disassociate itself from the all-important task of preparing new generations of well-trained, cultured young people. Industry must leave the educational process as such to the schools and universities; but it can and must assist financially to keep these institutions going and to help get them the best possible people to whose care the proper education of young people may be entrusted. Today, industry is fully aware of its role and its duties toward edu- cation, and businessmen and educators alike understand the nature of this interrelationship. What is not so well known is that industry's part, as a partner of our educational system, is an impor- tant factor in the preservation of our democratic ideals and way of life. All this may sound as if I were concerned only with the North American educational system and the collaboration of industry in this country with schools and universities. Living in the United States, it is only natural that I should draw on experiences that are most familiar to me. But this should not give the impression that I am unaware of the efforts being made in other countries, espe- cially those of Latin America, where collaboration between industry 226  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 227 SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 227 SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 227 and education is equally important, although perhaps less devel- oped than here. However, the situation in the northern part of our hemisphere is basically so different from that of the southern part that I should like to discuss them separately. Let us look first at North America. A great deal has been said and written of late about the shortcomings of our educational system, of our failures as well as of our achievements. When a new Sputnik or Lunik is successfully launched into space by Soviet scientists, peoples around the world are inclined to attribute these achievements directly to a superior system of education in the Soviet Union. I don't think that anyone would deny that extraordinary progress has been made by Russia in the physical sciences, but to draw a general conclusion from their prowess in this particular field of knowledge would be a mistake. The two systems of education, ours and theirs, cannot easily be compared because the under- lying ideological beliefs concerning the role of the individual in the state and the community are so radically different. In Soviet Russia the young student does not pay any tuition or make any sort of economic sacrifice to obtain an education. But, on the other hand, the student is not a free agent and has no say in making a choice of profession. The state decides if he is talented for this or that job and, according to his academic standing, the state determines whether he will continue or terminate his studies. If a student, say in his second year of higher education, should show a lack of ability in mathematics, he is detailed off to supervise an industrial plant where this ability is not required. Should he fail earlier in his career in one of his subjects, he may be assigned to work on a farm or in a mine. The whole system of education is like a trial period through which the young must go so that the state may determine at what point the student's innate talents cannot be appreciably improved by formal training. For every person who falls by the academic wayside, the state Snds some job, but not necessarily the occupation which the student had hoped for when he set out. I need not point out that our system differs basically from this concept. In giving our students an opportunity to get a higher edu- cation, they remain free to do with it what they want. On the other and education is equally important, although perhaps less devel- oped than here. However, the situation in the northern part of our hemisphere is basically so different from that of the southern part that I should like to discuss them separately. Let us look first at North America. A great deal has been said and written of late about the shortcomings of our educational system, of our failures as well as of our achievements. When a new Sputnik or Lunik is successfully launched into space by Soviet scientists, peoples around the world are inclined to attribute these achievements directly to a superior system of education in the Soviet Union. I don't think that anyone would deny that extraordinary progress has been made by Russia in the physical sciences, but to draw a general conclusion from their prowess in this particular field of knowledge would be a mistake. The two systems of education, ours and theirs, cannot easily be compared because the under- lying ideological beliefs concerning the role of the individual in the state and the community are so radically different. In Soviet Russia the young student does not pay any tuition or make any sort of economic sacrifice to obtain an education. But, on the other hand, the student is not a free agent and has no say in making a choice of profession. The state decides if he is talented for this or that job and, according to his academic standing, the state determines whether he will continue or terminate his studies. If a student, say in his second year of higher education, should show a lack of ability in mathematics, he is detailed off to supervise an industrial plant where this ability is not required. Should he fail earlier in his career in one of his subjects, he may be assigned to work on a farm or in a mine. The whole system of education is like a trial period through which the young must go so that the state may determine at what point the student's innate talents cannot be appreciably improved by formal training. For every person who falls by the academic wayside, the state finds some job, but not necessarily the occupation which the student had hoped for when he set out. I need not point out that our system differs basically from this concept. In giving our students an opportunity to get a higher edu- cation, they remain free to do with it what they want. On the other and education is equally important, although perhaps less devel- oped than here. However, the situation in the northern part of our hemisphere is basically so different from that of the southern part that I should like to discuss them separately. Let us look first at North America. A great deal has been said and written of late about the shortcomings of our educational system, of our failures as well as of our achievements. When a new Sputnik or Lunik is successfully launched into space by Soviet scientists, peoples around the world are inclined to attribute these achievements directly to a superior system of education in the Soviet Union. I don't think that anyone would deny that extraordinary progress has been made by Russia in the physical sciences, but to draw a general conclusion from their prowess in this particular field of knowledge would be a mistake. The two systems of education, ours and theirs, cannot easily be compared because the under- lying ideological beliefs concerning the role of the individual in the state and the community are so radically different. In Soviet Russia the young student does not pay any tuition or make any sort of economic sacrifice to obtain an education. But, on the other hand, the student is not a free agent and has no say in making a choice of profession. The state decides if he is talented for this or that job and, according to his academic standing, the state determines whether he will continue or terminate his studies. If a student, say in his second year of higher education, should show a lack of ability in mathematics, he is detailed off to supervise an industrial plant where this ability is not required. Should he fail earlier in his career in one of his subjects, he may be assigned to work on a farm or in a mine. The whole system of education is like a trial period through which the young must go so that the state may determine at what point the student's innate talents cannot be appreciably improved by formal training. For every person who falls by the academic wayside, the state finds some job, but not necessarily the occupation which the student had hoped for when he set out. I need not point out that our system differs basically from this concept. In giving our students an opportunity to get a higher edu- cation, they remain free to do with it what they want. On the other  228 The Caribbean 228 The Caribbean 228 The Caribbean hand, higher education in this country is not free and not every talented young man or woman has the opportunity for undergrad- uate or graduate studies. The cost of going to college has doubled since 1940 and is expected to double again by 1970. America's colleges are desperately short of funds. They cannot pay their fac- ulty members anywhere near the salaries their skills could command in private industry. Educators tell us that a trend is developing in which the cost of a college education is more and more being assessed against the student, with the result that the parental income determines whether a youngster will go to college or not, rather than the personal ability of the student. This is a serious situation, not only because it denies many tal- ented people their full development through higher education, but also from the viewpoint of our democracy ideals. Some sociologists have concluded that America is no longer the land of unlimited op- portunities where anyone with a will can get to the top of the social and economic ladder. The fact is that today a college education is a prerequisite for attaining the upper social levels, and unless we are to abandon our ideals of democracy and thus foster a society with sharp class distinction, we must widen the educational oppor- tunities for all talented young people. The role which industry must play under these conditions is obvious. The thousands of scholarships that are given today by industry must be raised in proportion to increased enrollments, which educators estimate will double within the next decade. The cost of education must be brought down to the economic level of more prospective students and at the same time colleges and uni- versities should be in a position to offer salaries to teachers which are comparable to those of industry. This financial help to education on the part of industry is not a philanthropic gesture. Industry is dependent on education to pro- vide increasing numbers of technicians, engineers, business gradu- ates, and administrators - in short, to educate the thousands of young people for all positions it has to offer. This is a program of enormous magnitude and perhaps industry alone will not be able to shoulder the entire burden. State appropriations for education must also be enlarged. In this country, as you know, there is a marked difference between the cost of education in a state uni- versity and one privately financed. The state university, which draws part of its funds directly from the taxpayer, offers an educa- hand, higher education in this country is not free and not every talented young man or woman has the opportunity for undergrad- uate or graduate studies. The cost of going to college has doubled since 1940 and is expected to double again by 1970. America's colleges are desperately short of funds. They cannot pay their fac- ulty members anywhere near the salaries their skills could command in private industry. Educators tell us that a trend is developing in which the cost of a college education is more and more being assessed against the student, with the result that the parental income determines whether a youngster will go to college or not, rather than the personal ability of the student. This is a serious situation, not only because it denies many tal- ented people their full development through higher education, but also from the viewpoint of our democracy ideals. Some sociologists have concluded that America is no longer the land of unlimited op- portunities where anyone with a will can get to the top of the social and economic ladder. The fact is that today a college education is a prerequisite for attaining the upper social levels, and unless we are to abandon our ideals of democracy and thus foster a society with sharp class distinction, we must widen the educational oppor- tunities for all talented young people. The role which industry must play under these conditions is obvious. The thousands of scholarships that are given today by industry must be raised in proportion to increased enrollments, which educators estimate will double within the next decade. The cost of education must be brought down to the economic level of more prospective students and at the same time colleges and uni- versities should be in a position to offer salaries to teachers which are comparable to those of industry. This financial help to education on the part of industry is not a philanthropic gesture. Industry is dependent on education to pro- vide increasing numbers of technicians, engineers, business gradu- ates, and administrators - in short, to educate the thousands of young people for all positions it has to offer. This is a program of enormous magnitude and perhaps industry alone will not be able to shoulder the entire burden. State appropriations for education must also be enlarged. In this country, as you know, there is a marked difference between the cost of education in a state uni- versity and one privately financed. The state university, which draws part of its funds directly from the taxpayer, offers an educa- hand, higher education in this country is not free and not every talented young man or woman has the opportunity for undergrad- uate or graduate studies. The cost of going to college has doubled since 1940 and is expected to double again by 1970. America's colleges are desperately short of funds. They cannot pay their fac- ulty members anywhere near the salaries their skills could command in private industry. Educators tell us that a trend is developing in which the cost of a college education is more and more being assessed against the student, with the result that the parental income determines whether a youngster will go to college or not, rather than the personal ability of the student. This is a serious situation, not only because it denies many tal- ented people their full development through higher education, but also from the viewpoint of our democracy ideals. Some sociologists have concluded that America is no longer the land of unlimited op- portunities where anyone with a will can get to the top of the social and economic ladder. The fact is that today a college education is a prerequisite for attaining the upper social levels, and unless we are to abandon our ideals of democracy and thus foster a society with sharp class distinction, we must widen the educational oppor- tunities for all talented young people. The role which industry must play under these conditions is obvious. The thousands of scholarships that are given today by industry must be raised in proportion to increased enrollments, which educators estimate will double within the next decade. The cost of education must be brought down to the economic level of more prospective students and at the same time colleges and uni- versities should be in a position to offer salaries to teachers which are comparable to those of industry. This financial help to education on the part of industry is not a philanthropic gesture. Industry is dependent on education to pro- vide increasing numbers of technicians, engineers, business gradu- ates, and administrators - in short, to educate the thousands of young people for all positions it has to offer. This is a program of enormous magnitude and perhaps industry alone will not be able to shoulder the entire burden. State appropriations for education must also be enlarged. In this country, as you know, there is a marked difference between the cost of education in a state uni- versity and one privately financed. The state university, which draws part of its funds directly from the taxpayer, offers an educa-  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 229 tion at half the price of that of many private schools. In other countries, especially those of Latin American, the state does even more for the simple reason that education is largely in the hands of the state, and private institutions are rather the exception than the rule. I don't mean to imply that this is a better system in itself because, as experience shows, considerations of a purely political kind are often a disturbing influence on schools that are entirely dependent on government. This, again, applies to Latin America as well as to the United States. As I mentioned earlier, a great many companies in this country have clearly understood their responsibility as regards education. Scholarships are being offered which are helping substantially to raise the general level of education. But all too often companies extend this help only to those who are willing to study something which will be directly useful to industry. It is only natural that a company must look for people who have acquired or are willing to acquire those technical or professional skills which it needs. But this criterion must not blind industry to the fact that any help offered to education, be it connected or not with the specific job needs of a company, will pay handsome dividends in the future. This enlightened attitude is especially necessary in Latin American countries where financial help is offered to students of engineering and science but not so frequently to those in nontechnical fields. II In speaking of Latin America and of its educational problems one can fall only too easily into the error of generalization. Each coun- try has its special problems and its specific educational system. Many of these countries are today on the threshold of an industrial revolution, many others have already passed over this threshold. But the need for education - from the primary to the university level - is common to all of them. We in industry recognize that unless there is adequate education at all levels in Latin America, sound democratic societies cannot be developed and maintained. And this is the cornerstone upon which each country must build a solid, stable economy that offers decent living standards to all its citizens and the freedom of action and thought which are indispensable to the full life. As in most parts of the world, Latin America's educational needs SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 2Z tion at half the price of that of many private schools. In other countries, especially those of Latin American, the state does even more for the simple reason that education is largely in the hands of the state, and private institutions are rather the exception than the rule. I don't mean to imply that this is a better system in itself because, as experience shows, considerations of a purely political kind are often a disturbing influence on schools that are entirely dependent on government. This, again, applies to Latin America as well as to the United States. As I mentioned earlier, a great many companies in this country have clearly understood their responsibility as regards education. Scholarships are being offered which are helping substantially to raise the general level of education. But all too often companies extend this help only to those who are willing to study something which will be directly useful to industry. It is only natural that a company must look for people who have acquired or are willing to acquire those technical or professional skills which it needs. But this criterion must not blind industry to the fact that any help offered to education, be it connected or not with the specific job needs of a company, will pay handsome dividends in the future. This enlightened attitude is especially necessary in Latin American countries where financial help is offered to students of engineering and science but not so frequently to those in nontechnical fields. II In speaking of Latin America and of its educational problems one can fall only too easily into the error of generalization. Each coun- try has its special problems and its specific educational system. Many of these countries are today on the threshold of an industrial revolution, many others have already passed over this threshold. But the need for education - from the primary to the university level - is common to all of them. We in industry recognize that unless there is adequate education at all levels in Latin America, sound democratic societies cannot be developed and maintained. And this is the cornerstone upon which each country must build a solid, stable economy that offers decent living standards to all its citizens and the freedom of action and thought which are indispensable to the full life. As in most parts of the world, Latin America's educational needs SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 229 tion at half the price of that of many private schools. In other countries, especially those of Latin American, the state does even more for the simple reason that education is largely in the hands of the state, and private institutions are rather the exception than the rule. I don't mean to imply that this is a better system in itself because, as experience shows, considerations of a purely political kind are often a disturbing influence on schools that are entirely dependent on government. This, again, applies to Latin America as well as to the United States. As I mentioned earlier, a great many companies in this country have clearly understood their responsibility as regards education. Scholarships are being offered which are helping substantially to raise the general level of education. But all too often companies extend this help only to those who are willing to study something which will be directly useful to industry. It is only natural that a company must look for people who have acquired or are willing to acquire those technical or professional skills which it needs. But this criterion must not blind industry to the fact that any help offered to education, be it connected or not with the specific job needs of a company, will pay handsome dividends in the future. This enlightened attitude is especially necessary in Latin American countries where financial help is offered to students of engineering and science but not so frequently to those in nontechnical fields. II In speaking of Latin America and of its educational problems one can fall only too easily into the error of generalization. Each coun- try has its special problems and its specific educational system. Many of these countries are today on the threshold of an industrial revolution, many others have already passed over this threshold. But the need for education - from the primary to the university level - is common to all of them. We in industry recognize that unless there is adequate education at all levels in Latin America, sound democratic societies cannot be developed and maintained. And this is the cornerstone upon which each country must build a solid, stable economy that offers decent living standards to all its citizens and the freedom of action and thought which are indispensable to the full life. As in most parts of the world, Latin America's educational needs  230 The Caribbean are tremendous and are growing at an unprecedented rate. Opportu- nities for primary and secondary education must be offered to more young people outside the large centers of population who at present are receiving only the most rudimentary schooling. Better equipped schools must be built, more teachers trained and others now in the profession given additional preparation, curricula should be revised to meet the demands of contemporary life, and in an endless variety of ways efforts must be made to give more and better education to the future citizens of each nation. The problem is aggravated by Latin America's rate of population growth, which is one of the highest in the world, so that each year the financial effort must be increased in order to "stay even." I would hazard the guess that to meet its educational needs ade- quately over the next decade many countries will have to double and treble their expenditures in this field. The perennial question is: where will this money come from? One answer - and it is only one avenue of approach to this thorny problem -is to devote more of the public revenue from taxes to areas of broad public interest, such as schools, roads, water systems, sanitation, and health. At times governments, for varied reasons, have devoted scarce public funds to business and industrial enter- prises which, however laudatory their aims, might have been more wisely spent in improving public services. It would seem only good sense to attract private capital to take the risks of industrial and commercial investments, and to devote as much tax income as is humanly possible to those areas of vital public services, such as education, which are primarily a public responsibility. Consequently, our company - together with many other corpora- tions both foreign and national which operate in Latin America - is keenly aware that it must work as a partner with education. In fact, I would go so far as to say that what industry needs is what our whole society needs: adequate educational systems which will prepare young people to work and live decently and in freedom. As a corollary of this, I would say that what is good for Latin America is good for those individuals and companies which are privileged to work there. The long-run interests of business in Latin America, as elsewhere, are constructive and beneficial. This is so because the objectives of industry and business are to produce more, better, and cheaper goods and services on which the economic progress of all nations depends. To sell these goods and services 230 The Caribbean 230 The Caribbean are tremendous and are growing at an unprecedented rate. Opportu- nities for primary and secondary education must be offered to more young people outside the large centers of population who at present are receiving only the most rudimentary schooling. Better equipped schools must be built, more teachers trained and others now in the profession given additional preparation, curricula should be revised to meet the demands of contemporary life, and in an endless variety of ways efforts must be made to give more and better education to the future citizens of each nation. The problem is aggravated by Latin America's rate of population growth, which is one of the highest in the world, so that each year the financial effort must be increased in order to "stay even." I would hazard the guess that to meet its educational needs ade- quately over the next decade many countries will have to double and treble their expenditures in this field. The perennial question is: where will this money come from? One answer - and it is only one avenue of approach to this thorny problem -is to devote more of the public revenue from taxes to areas of broad public interest, such as schools, roads, water systems, sanitation, and health. At times governments, for varied reasons, have devoted scarce public funds to business and industrial enter- prises which, however laudatory their aims, might have been more wisely spent in improving public services. It would seem only good sense to attract private capital to take the risks of industrial and commercial investments, and to devote as much tax income as is humanly possible to those areas of vital public services, such as education, which are primarily a public responsibility. Consequently, our company - together with many other corpora- tions both foreign and national which operate in Latin America - is keenly aware that it must work as a partner with education. In fact, I would go so far as to say that what industry needs is what our whole society needs: adequate educational systems which will prepare young people to work and live decently and in freedom. As a corollary of this, I would say that what is good for Latin America is good for those individuals and companies which are privileged to work there. The long-run interests of business in Latin America, as elsewhere, are constructive and beneficial. This is so because the objectives of industry and business are to produce more, better, and cheaper goods and services on which the economic progress of all nations depends. To sell these goods and services are tremendous and are growing at an unprecedented rate. Opportu- nities for primary and secondary education must be offered to more young people outside the large centers of population who at present are receiving only the most rudimentary schooling. Better equipped schools must be built, more teachers trained and others now in the profession given additional preparation, curricula should be revised to meet the demands of contemporary life, and in an endless variety of ways efforts must be made to give more and better education to the future citizens of each nation. The problem is aggravated by Latin America's rate of population growth, which is one of the highest in the world, so that each year the financial effort must be increased in order to "stay even." I would hazard the guess that to meet its educational needs ade- quately over the next decade many countries will have to double and treble their expenditures in this field. The perennial question is: where will this money come from? One answer - and it is only one avenue of approach to this thorny problem -is to devote more of the public revenue from taxes to areas of broad public interest, such as schools, roads, water systems, sanitation, and health. At times governments, for varied reasons, have devoted scarce public funds to business and industrial enter- prises which, however laudatory their aims, might have been more wisely spent in improving public services. It would seem only good sense to attract private capital to take the risks of industrial and commercial investments, and to devote as much tax income as is humanly possible to those areas of vital public services, such as education, which are primarily a public responsibility. Consequently, our company - together with many other corpora- tions both foreign and national which operate in Latin America - is keenly aware that it must work as a partner with education. In fact, I would go so far as to say that what industry needs is what our whole society needs: adequate educational systems which will prepare young people to work and live decently and in freedom. As a corollary of this, I would say that what is good for Latin America is good for those individuals and companies which are privileged to work there. The long-run interests of business in Latin America, as elsewhere, are constructive and beneficial. This is so because the objectives of industry and business are to produce more, better, and cheaper goods and services on which the economic progress of all nations depends. To sell these goods and services  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 231 requires expanding, prosperous communities in which people are able to acquire the material things they need and want. Today, as perhaps never before, Latin American nations are liv- ing in what has been aptly termed an "era of great expectations." It is a time when great numbers of people are seeking - and demand- ing - more of the good things of life and an equitable distribution of material goods. This offers an unparalleled challenge to private industry, which has the means of providing these things for the great mass of people. The capacity of industry and business to satisfy mass needs has not been lost to statist and totalitarian opponents who are conduct- ing an evermounting campaign to impugn the motives and objec- tives of private capital investment. I think that business people, in turn, must do an equally effective job of telling people the truth about how industry operates and the contribution it can make to national economic development. We must convince them that rather than being in conflict with the public interest, as some of our critics pretend, no business can long survive which does not take into account the welfare of the nation and its citizens. III The keystone of progress, then, is education. As I said at the beginning, International Petroleum is in the business of education, because without trained people it cannot prosper. One year before our refinery at Cartagena, Colombia, was dedicated, some 200 high school graduates were selected and trained for a wide range of technical and scientific jobs. By the time the refinery was inau- gurated, these young men were able to step into highly technical jobs with which they had been totally unfamiliar only a year before. The job of training employees is a never-ending process and at all our major installations hundreds of our people are constantly learning new skills which will enable them to occupy higher paying and more responsible positions in the future. In one country, for example, we have sent 67 national employees overseas since 1956 in order to give them advanced training lasting from a few weeks to more than a year. Of course, our company and the oil industry in general take a broader interest in education than in merely training and upgrading employees. In addition to offering financial assistance, we maintain SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 231 requires expanding, prosperous communities in which people are able to acquire the material things they need and want. Today, as perhaps never before, Latin American nations are liv- ing in what has been aptly termed an "era of great expectations." It is a time when great numbers of people are seeking - and demand- ing - more of the good things of life and an equitable distribution of material goods. This offers an unparalleled challenge to private industry, which has the means of providing these things for the great mass of people. The capacity of industry and business to satisfy mass needs has not been lost to statist and totalitarian opponents who are conduct- ing an evermounting campaign to impugn the motives and objec- tives of private capital investment. I think that business people, in turn, must do an equally effective job of telling people the truth about how industry operates and the contribution it can make to national economic development. We must convince them that rather than being in conflict with the public interest, as some of our critics pretend, no business can long survive which does not take into account the welfare of the nation and its citizens. III The keystone of progress, then, is education. As I said at the beginning, International Petroleum is in the business of education, because without trained people it cannot prosper. One year before our refinery at Cartagena, Colombia, was dedicated, some 200 high school graduates were selected and trained for a wide range of technical and scientific jobs. By the time the refinery was inau- gurated, these young men were able to step into highly technical jobs with which they had been totally unfamiliar only a year before. The job of training employees is a never-ending process and at all our major installations hundreds of our people are constantly learning new skills which will enable them to occupy higher paying and more responsible positions in the future. In one country, for example, we have sent 67 national employees overseas since 1956 in order to give them advanced training lasting from a few weeks to more than a year. Of course, our company and the oil industry in general take a broader interest in education than in merely training and upgrading employees. In addition to offering financial assistance, we maintain SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 231 requires expanding, prosperous communities in which people are able to acquire the material things they need and want. Today, as perhaps never before, Latin American nations are liv- ing in what has been aptly termed an "era of great expectations." It is a time when great numbers of people are seeking - and demand- ing - more of the good things of life and an equitable distribution of material goods. This offers an unparalleled challenge to private industry, which has the means of providing these things for the great mass of people. The capacity of industry and business to satisfy mass needs has not been lost to statist and totalitarian opponents who are conduct- ing an evermounting campaign to impugn the motives and objec- tives of private capital investment. I think that business people, in turn, must do an equally effective job of telling people the truth about how industry operates and the contribution it can make to national economic development. We must convince them that rather than being in conflict with the public interest, as some of our critics pretend, no business can long survive which does not take into account the welfare of the nation and its citizens. III The keystone of progress, then, is education. As I said at the beginning, International Petroleum is in the business of education, because without trained people it cannot prosper. One year before our refinery at Cartagena, Colombia, was dedicated, some 200 high school graduates were selected and trained for a wide range of technical and scientific jobs. By the time the refinery was inau- gurated, these young men were able to step into highly technical jobs with which they had been totally unfamiliar only a year before. The job of training employees is a never-ending process and at all our major installations hundreds of our people are constantly learning new skills which will enable them to occupy higher paying and more responsible positions in the future. In one country, for example, we have sent 67 national employees overseas since 1956 in order to give them advanced training lasting from a few weeks to more than a year. Of course, our company and the oil industry in general take a broader interest in education than in merely training and upgrading employees. In addition to offering financial assistance, we maintain  232 The Caribbean 232 The Caribbean 232 The Caribbean a close liaison with educational institutions in several Latin Amer- ican countries, providing educational materials and lecturers on business and technical subjects, and in many ways we attempt to work closely with schools and universities. In this time of transcendent challenge and danger to our way of thinking and living, we can only prevail with our ideas if the vast majority of our people believe in democratic, free institutions. They must be convinced that our system offers them more than any other and that within this system they can realize their aspirations for a happy and dignified life. One of the essential ways of reaching this goal is through education. This conference to which you have come from many countries will, I am sure, help to clarify the problems confronting education, and will undoubtedly contribute to finding a solution for many of them. a close liaison with educational institutions in several Latin Amer- ican countries, providing educational materials and lecturers on business and technical subjects, and in many ways we attempt to work closely with schools and universities. In this time of transcendent challenge and danger to our way of thinking and living, we can only prevail with our ideas if the vast majority of our people believe in democratic, free institutions. They must be convinced that our system offers them more than any other and that within this system they can realize their aspirations for a happy and dignified life. One of the essential ways of reaching this goal is through education. This conference to which you have come from many countries will, I am sure, help to clarify the problems confronting education, and will undoubtedly contribute to finding a solution for many of them. a close liaison with educational institutions in several Latin Amer- ican countries, providing educational materials and lecturers on business and technical subjects, and in many ways we attempt to work closely with schools and universities. In this time of transcendent challenge and danger to our way of thinking and living, we can only prevail with our ideas if the vast majority of our people believe in democratic, free institutions. They must be convinced that our system offers them more than any other and that within this system they can realize their aspirations for a happy and dignified life. One of the essential ways of reaching this goal is through education. This conference to which you have come from many countries will, I am sure, help to clarify the problems confronting education, and will undoubtedly contribute to finding a solution for many of them.  18 18 18 Luther H. Evans: SOME ACTIVITIES OF UNESCO IN THE CARIBBEAN I WISH TO PRESENT to you some facts rather than theories or emotional appeals about what UNESCO has been doing regarding education in the Caribbean countries. Let me start with a few statistics. I want you to get some concept of what UNESCO, with a global budget of less than $13 million a year, supplemented by Technical Assistance funds from the United Nations of $3 or $4 million a year, has spent in the last decade in aid of education in these countries. In British Guiana, there has been one UNESCO fellowship; in Colombia, there have been 15 fellowships and 11 experts who have worked a total of 270 man- months, at a cost of $281,000. In Costa Rica, there were 11 fellow- ships, 13 experts, 267 man-months, totaling $273,000; in Cuba, 2 fellowships, and $6,000 for a Latin American Youth Documentation Center. (Cuba has not requested aid in the same magnitude as some of the other countries.) There have been no fellowships in the Dominican Republic, and there was one expert who served for six months. In Guatemala, there have been 22 fellowships, and 14 experts who have served 402 man-months, and the cost has been $485,000. In Haiti, there have been 10 fellowships, 10 experts (153 man-months), and the total cost including some equipment has been $242,000. In British Honduras, there has been one expert for 12 months. In Honduras, there have been 14 fellowships and 9 experts for 174 man-months at a total cost of $230,000. In Jamaica, 233 Luther H. Evans: SOME ACTIVITIES OF UNESCO IN THE CARIBBEAN I WISH TO PRESENT to you some facts rather than theories or emotional appeals about what UNESCO has been doing regarding education in the Caribbean countries. Let me start with a few statistics. I want you to get some concept of what UNESCO, with a global budget of less than $13 million a year, supplemented by Technical Assistance funds from the United Nations of $3 or $4 million a year, has spent in the last decade in aid of education in these countries. In British Guiana, there has been one UNESCO fellowship; in Colombia, there have been 15 fellowships and 11 experts who have worked a total of 270 man- months, at a cost of $281,000. In Costa Rica, there were 11 fellow- ships, 13 experts, 267 man-months, totaling $273,000; in Cuba, 2 fellowships, and $6,000 for a Latin American Youth Documentation Center. (Cuba has not requested aid in the same magnitude as some of the other countries.) There have been no fellowships in the Dominican Republic, and there was one expert who served for six months. In Guatemala, there have been 22 fellowships, and 14 experts who have served 402 man-months, and the cost has been $485,000. In Haiti, there have been 10 fellowships, 10 experts (153 man-months), and the total cost including some equipment has been $242,000. In British Honduras, there has been one expert for 12 months. In Honduras, there have been 14 fellowships and 9 experts for 174 man-months at a total cost of $230,000. In Jamaica, 233 Luther H. Evans: SOME ACTIVITIES OF UNESCO IN THE CARIBBEAN I WISH TO PRESENT to you some facts rather than theories or emotional appeals about what UNESCO has been doing regarding education in the Caribbean countries. Let me start with a few statistics. I want you to get some concept of what UNESCO, with a global budget of less than $13 million a year, supplemented by Technical Assistance funds from the United Nations of $3 or $4 million a year, has spent in the last decade in aid of education in these countries. In British Guiana, there has been one UNESCO fellowship; in Colombia, there have been 15 fellowships and 11 experts who have worked a total of 270 man- months, at a cost of $281,000. In Costa Rica, there were 11 fellow- ships, 13 experts, 267 man-months, totaling $273,000; in Cuba, 2 fellowships, and $6,000 for a Latin American Youth Documentation Center. (Cuba has not requested aid in the same magnitude as some of the other countries.) There have been no fellowships in the Dominican Republic, and there was one expert who served for six months. In Guatemala, there have been 22 fellowships, and 14 experts who have served 402 man-months, and the cost has been $485,000. In Haiti, there have been 10 fellowships, 10 experts (153 man-months), and the total cost including some equipment has been $242,000. In British Honduras, there has been one expert for 12 months. In Honduras, there have been 14 fellowships and 9 experts for 174 man-months at a total cost of $230,000. In Jamaica, 233  234 The Caribbean 2 fellowships, 2 experts for 35 man-months, at a cost of $38,000. In Mexico, 21 fellowships, one expert for 38 man-months, at a cost of $76,000; but this doesn't include two projects which are regional in character, which I will mention later. Nicaragua has had 16 fellowships, 6 experts for 154 man-months, at $205,000; Panama, 8 fellowships, 3 experts for 50 months, at $57,000; El Salvador, 5 fellowships, and 5 experts for 81 months, $60,000; Trinidad, 2 experts, 49 man-months, $45,000 dollars but no fellowships; and Venezuela, 6 fellowships, 6 experts for 68 man-months, at $98,000. There is a regional rural education project in Venezuela, run mostly by the Organization of American States to which UNESCO gives some support. Under Regional Projects, there have been 6 fellow- ships, and 33 experts, for a total of 754 man-months, at $741,000. An interesting regional project has been going on in Mexico since 1949, known as the Regional Center for Fundamental Educa- tion for Latin America. In Spanish the initials come out as CREFAL. CREFAL has trained for practically all Latin American countries some hundreds of experts in fundamental education, which in UNESCO's terminology means education in literacy, in better agri- culture, in better health methods, and in community organization for all of the people who have not gone to school, including the children. It is largely a rural project, and though centered in Mexico, it is for all of Latin America. The total budget per annum of CREFAL at present is about $800,000: something over $400,000 from the regular program of UNESCO, about $105,000 from Technical Assistance of the United Nations, $89,000 contributed by other United Nations organizations and $76,000 contributed by the Organization of American States, plus $80,000 a year from the Mexican government. The Organiza- tion of American States also has in its budget an item for the preparation of literacy materials which brings the total amount of its contribution up to about $100,000. UNESCO has recently added some short courses as well as the regular 18-month courses. The original plan was to send teams of five as a group from each coun- try. The reason for the five-man team was that they were to have these different specializations: literacy, agriculture, health, handi- crafts, and things of that kind. We later decided that this wasn't such a good idea. If you did this, you had to have the cooperation of various ministries back home and that has proved in UNESCO's experience to be a very difficult cooperative venture. We also 234 The Caribbean 2 fellowships, 2 experts for 35 man-months, at a cost of $38,000. In Mexico, 21 fellowships, one expert for 38 man-months, at a cost of $76,000; but this doesn't include two projects which are regional in character, which I will mention later. Nicaragua has had 16 fellowships, 6 experts for 154 man-months, at $205,000; Panama, 8 fellowships, 3 experts for 50 months, at $57,000; El Salvador, 5 fellowships, and 5 experts for 81 months, $60,000; Trinidad, 2 experts, 49 man-months, $45,000 dollars but no fellowships; and Venezuela, 6 fellowships, 6 experts for 68 man-months, at $98,000. There is a regional rural education project in Venezuela, run mostly by the Organization of American States to which UNESCO gives some support. Under Regional Projects, there have been 6 fellow- ships, and 33 experts, for a total of 754 man-months, at $741,000. An interesting regional project has been going on in Mexico since 1949, known as the Regional Center for Fundamental Educa- tion for Latin America. In Spanish the initials come out as CREFAL. CREFAL has trained for practically all Latin American countries some hundreds of experts in fundamental education, which in UNESCO's terminology means education in literacy, in better agri- culture, in better health methods, and in community organization for all of the people who have not gone to school, including the children. It is largely a rural project, and though centered in Mexico, it is for all of Latin America. The total budget per annum of CREFAL at present is about $800,000: something over $400,000 from the regular program of UNESCO, about $105,000 from Technical Assistance of the United Nations, $89,000 contributed by other United Nations organizations and $76,000 contributed by the Organization of American States, plus $80,000 a year from the Mexican government. The Organiza- tion of American States also has in its budget an item for the preparation of literacy materials which brings the total amount of its contribution up to about $100,000. UNESCO has recently added some short courses as well as the regular 18-month courses. The original plan was to send teams of five as a group from each coun- try. The reason for the five-man team was that they were to have these different specializations: literacy, agriculture, health, handi- crafts, and things of that kind. We later decided that this wasn't such a good idea. If you did this, you had to have the cooperation of various ministries back home and that has proved in UNESCO's experience to be a very difficult cooperative venture. We also 234 The Caribbean 2 fellowships, 2 experts for 35 man-months, at a cost of $38,000. In Mexico, 21 fellowships, one expert for 38 man-months, at a cost of $76,000; but this doesn't include two projects which are regional in character, which I will mention later. Nicaragua has had 16 fellowships, 6 experts for 154 man-months, at $205,000; Panama, 8 fellowships, 3 experts for 50 months, at $57,000; El Salvador, 5 fellowships, and 5 experts for 81 months, $60,000; Trinidad, 2 experts, 49 man-months, $45,000 dollars but no fellowships; and Venezuela, 6 fellowships, 6 experts for 68 man-months, at $98,000. There is a regional rural education project in Venezuela, run mostly by the Organization of American States to which UNESCO gives some support. Under Regional Projects, there have been 6 fellow- ships, and 33 experts, for a total of 754 man-months, at $741,000. An interesting regional project has been going on in Mexico since 1949, known as the Regional Center for Fundamental Educa- tion for Latin America. In Spanish the initials come out as CREFAL. CREFAL has trained for practically all Latin American countries some hundreds of experts in fundamental education, which in UNESCO's terminology means education in literacy, in better agri- culture, in better health methods, and in community organization for all of the people who have not gone to school, including the children. It is largely a rural project, and though centered in Mexico, it is for all of Latin America. The total budget per annum of CREFAL at present is about $800,000: something over $400,000 from the regular program of UNESCO, about $105,000 from Technical Assistance of the United Nations, $89,000 contributed by other United Nations organizations and $76,000 contributed by the Organization of American States, plus $80,000 a year from the Mexican government. The Organiza- tion of American States also has in its budget an item for the preparation of literacy materials which brings the total amount of its contribution up to about $100,000. UNESCO has recently added some short courses as well as the regular 18-month courses. The original plan was to send teams of five as a group from each coun- try. The reason for the five-man team was that they were to have these different specializations: literacy, agriculture, health, handi- crafts, and things of that kind. We later decided that this wasn't such a good idea. If you did this, you had to have the cooperation of various ministries back home and that has proved in UNESCO's experience to be a very difficult cooperative venture. We also  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 235 found that this was more than was necessary as far as expertness was concerned. A real health expert is not necessary to look after the public health aspect of teacher training for work in the villages. When a difficult problem requiring expertness arises, it is necessary anyway to call in a doctor. But the teacher can teach what is necessary for people in this kind of program to learn about public health, so that we decided to try to give all of the leaders being trained in our program the capacity to teach the rudiments of all of the subjects covered by fundamental education. The Di- rector-General proposes, in his draft program for 1961-62, to con- tinue the work of CREFAL at about the same level as it is being carried on at present. II Now I wish to come to the matter of UNESCO's general policy in establishing its program. When I became Director-General in July, 1953, I made a speech in which I said that I thought UNESCO was too much oriented toward the Paris bureaucracy. We were setting up projects because the Paris office proposed activities that the staff would like to do, selecting subjects they would like to write books about, activities that were logical extensions of what they were already doing whether they were important to member states or not; hence I decided to have the projects oriented toward the activities member states wanted and thought were important. I worked with my staff during the fall of 1953 to develop the draft program for 1955 and 1956. The staff persuaded me not to go very far in changing the program at that stage, and I went to the Executive Board in the spring of 1954 with pretty largely the same kind of program. But the Board had caught the spirit of member- state orientation and it said, "we don't want this." I said, "all right, I will bring you a revised program in a couple of months." They said, "we think you will not be able to do that, but we will let you try." And I brought them a revised program. By this time I had visited a good many countries of Latin America and Asia, where I had seen and felt the need for a new orientation. The countries I visited were not entirely satisfied with what they had been given and were ready to insist on a new approach. This was the pressure I needed to persuade the directors to accept a new principle of program construction. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 235 found that this was more than was necessary as far as expertness was concerned. A real health expert is not necessary to look after the public health aspect of teacher training for work in the villages. When a difficult problem requiring expertness arises, it is necessary anyway to call in a doctor. But the teacher can teach what is necessary for people in this kind of program to learn about public health, so that we decided to try to give all of the leaders being trained in our program the capacity to teach the rudiments of all of the subjects covered by fundamental education. The Di- rector-General proposes, in his draft program for 1961-62, to con- tinue the work of CREFAL at about the same level as it is being carried on at present. II Now I wish to come to the matter of UNESCO's general policy in establishing its program. When I became Director-General in July, 1953, I made a speech in which I said that I thought UNESCO was too much oriented toward the Paris bureaucracy. We were setting up projects because the Paris office proposed activities that the staff would like to do, selecting subjects they would like to write books about, activities that were logical extensions of what they were already doing whether they were important to member states or not; hence I decided to have the projects oriented toward the activities member states wanted and thought were important. I worked with my staff during the fall of 1953 to develop the draft program for 1955 and 1956. The staff persuaded me not to go very far in changing the program at that stage, and I went to the Executive Board in the spring of 1954 with pretty largely the same kind of program. But the Board had caught the spirit of member- state orientation and it said, "we don't want this." I said, "all right, I will bring you a revised program in a couple of months." They said, "we think you will not be able to do that, but we will let you try." And I brought them a revised program. By this time I had visited a good many countries of Latin America and Asia, where I had seen and felt the need for a new orientation. The countries I visited were not entirely satisfied with what they had been given and were ready to insist on a new approach. This was the pressure I needed to persuade the directors to accept a new principle of program construction. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 235 found that this was more than was necessary as far as expertness was concerned. A real health expert is not necessary to look after the public health aspect of teacher training for work in the villages. When a difficult problem requiring expertness arises, it is necessary anyway to call in a doctor. But the teacher can teach what is necessary for people in this kind of program to learn about public health, so that we decided to try to give all of the leaders being trained in our program the capacity to teach the rudiments of all of the subjects covered by fundamental education. The Di- rector-General proposes, in his draft program for 1961-62, to con- tinue the work of CREFAL at about the same level as it is being carried on at present. II Now I wish to come to the matter of UNESCO's general policy in establishing its program. When I became Director-General in July, 1953, I made a speech in which I said that I thought UNESCO was too much oriented toward the Paris bureaucracy. We were setting up projects because the Paris office proposed activities that the staff would like to do, selecting subjects they would like to write books about, activities that were logical extensions of what they were already doing whether they were important to member states or not; hence I decided to have the projects oriented toward the activities member states wanted and thought were important. I worked with my staff during the fall of 1953 to develop the draft program for 1955 and 1956. The staff persuaded me not to go very far in changing the program at that stage, and I went to the Executive Board in the spring of 1954 with pretty largely the same kind of program. But the Board had caught the spirit of member- state orientation and it said, "we don't want this." I said, "all right, I will bring you a revised program in a couple of months." They said, "we think you will not be able to do that, but we will let you try." And I brought them a revised program. By this time I had visited a good many countries of Latin America and Asia, where I had seen and felt the need for a new orientation. The countries I visited were not entirely satisfied with what they had been given and were ready to insist on a new approach. This was the pressure I needed to persuade the directors to accept a new principle of program construction.  236 The Caribbean In the second stage, therefore, with the help of the chairman and another member of the Board, who traveled to several Asian countries with me, and of other Board members, the revised pro- gram had easy sailing. This was the origin of the program of aid to member states adopted at Montevideo in 1954, renamed in 1956 the program of participation in the activities of member states, or just the participation program. As adopted at Montevideo the aid program called for about a million dollars a year, and it has remained near that figure. Also with the strong support of the Board, we secured approval of the principle of major projects. A major project is an activity participated in by the Secretariat and a group of member states, aimed at solving an important prob- lem in a region in a limited time by mounting a campaign suffi- ciently large and diversified to accomplish the job. The Montevideo Conference instructed the Director-General to develop a number of proposals for the consideration of the Con- ference in 1956, with the idea that it might select from the list for approval certain projects which appealed to it. Before going on with my story, let me say that a similar idea was proposed to the Conference in 1950 (at Florence) by the United States delegation. At that time mention was made of "sky- scraper projects" on which the major efforts of the Organization would be concentrated, thus pushing aside many small projects not capable of having much impact. It was an idea for concentrating and focusing the program to an increased degree. In developing proposals for the 1956 Conference, which was held in New Delhi, the Secretariat prepared four tentative sugges- tions in the summer of 1955 for a preliminary discussion in the Executive Board in November of that year. These were: (1) a project for training enough primary school teachers in Latin Amer- ican countries which did not have all the pupils in primary schools, to take care of the total load; (2) a project for encouraging and assisting governments in the area from Morocco and Turkey through North Africa and the Middle East to India and Ceylon to do the scientific research necessary to find out how the problems of the arid lands could be solved; (3) a project for mutual apprecia- tion of cultures by the peoples of the East and the West; and (4) a project for encouraging and assisting the development of adequate reading materials for people who had just achieved literacy. After the Executive Board had discussed all four projects, I 236 The Caribbean 236 The Caribbean In the second stage, therefore, with the help of the chairman and another member of the Board, who traveled to several Asian countries with me, and of other Board members, the revised pro- gram had easy sailing. This was the origin of the program of aid to member states adopted at Montevideo in 1954, renamed in 1956 the program of participation in the activities of member states, or just the participation program. As adopted at Montevideo the aid program called for about a million dollars a year, and it has remained near that figure. Also with the strong support of the Board, we secured approval of the principle of major projects. A major project is an activity participated in by the Secretariat and a group of member states, aimed at solving an important prob- lem in a region in a limited time by mounting a campaign suffi- ciently large and diversified to accomplish the job. The Montevideo Conference instructed the Director-General to develop a number of proposals for the consideration of the Con- ference in 1956, with the idea that it might select from the list for approval certain projects which appealed to it. Before going on with my story, let me say that a similar idea was proposed to the Conference in 1950 (at Florence) by the United States delegation. At that time mention was made of "sky- scraper projects" on which the major efforts of the Organization would be concentrated, thus pushing aside many small projects not capable of having much impact. It was an idea for concentrating and focusing the program to an increased degree. In developing proposals for the 1956 Conference, which was held in New Delhi, the Secretariat prepared four tentative sugges- tions in the summer of 1955 for a preliminary discussion in the Executive Board in November of that year. These were: (1) a project for training enough primary school teachers in Latin Amer- ican countries which did not have all the pupils in primary schools, to take care of the total load; (2) a project for encouraging and assisting governments in the area from Morocco and Turkey through North Africa and the Middle East to India and Ceylon to do the scientific research necessary to find out how the problems of the arid lands could be solved; (3) a project for mutual apprecia- tion of cultures by the peoples of the East and the West; and (4) a project for encouraging and assisting the development of adequate reading materials for people who had just achieved literacy. After the Executive Board had discussed all four projects, I In the second stage, therefore, with the help of the chairman and another member of the Board, who traveled to several Asian countries with me, and of other Board members, the revised pro- gram had easy sailing. This was the origin of the program of aid to member states adopted at Montevideo in 1954, renamed in 1956 the program of participation in the activities of member states, or just the participation program. As adopted at Montevideo the aid program called for about a million dollars a year, and it has remained near that figure. Also with the strong support of the Board, we secured approval of the principle of major projects. A major project is an activity participated in by the Secretariat and a group of member states, aimed at solving an important prob- lem in a region in a limited time by mounting a campaign suffi- ciently large and diversified to accomplish the job. The Montevideo Conference instructed the Director-General to develop a number of proposals for the consideration of the Con- ference in 1956, with the idea that it might select from the list for approval certain projects which appealed to it. Before going on with my story, let me say that a similar idea was proposed to the Conference in 1950 (at Florence) by the United States delegation. At that time mention was made of "sky- scraper projects" on which the major efforts of the Organization would be concentrated, thus pushing aside many small projects not capable of having much impact. It was an idea for concentrating and focusing the program to an increased degree. In developing proposals for the 1956 Conference, which was held in New Delhi, the Secretariat prepared four tentative sugges- tions in the summer of 1955 for a preliminary discussion in the Executive Board in November of that year. These were: (1) a project for training enough primary school teachers in Latin Amer- ican countries which did not have all the pupils in primary schools, to take care of the total load; (2) a project for encouraging and assisting governments in the area from Morocco and Turkey through North Africa and the Middle East to India and Ceylon to do the scientific research necessary to find out how the problems of the arid lands could be solved; (3) a project for mutual apprecia- tion of cultures by the peoples of the East and the West; and (4) a project for encouraging and assisting the development of adequate reading materials for people who had just achieved literacy. After the Executive Board had discussed all four projects, I  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 237 announced my intention of recommending the first two of them, that is, the Latin American teacher training project and the arid lands project, to the General Conference. The Executive Board would have preferred the East-West project to the Latin American one, but I would not yield. The Board and I both eventually won, because at a later stage in response to pressure from member states, I added the East-West project to the list. All three projects were approved by the New Delhi Conference just three years ago. An important reason why the Latin American primary educa- tion project was approved by the Conference was that the Ministers of Education of all the Latin American countries had unan- imously supported the proposal, six months before the Conference, at a meeting in Lima, Peru. I had said earlier that I would not persist in my support of the project unless the governments con- cerned manifested the kind of enthusiasm for it which seemed necessary for it to have a chance of success. After all, it was the governments and peoples of the countries which would have to put in the major effort, and unless they were ready to do so, there was no point in having the Secretariat put in its minor effort. The Secretariat's effort might be major in terms of the total activity of the Secretariat, but it could be only minor in terms of the total job of developing enough teachers in ten years for the half and more of the primary school children of Latin America not then in school. The enthusiasm of Latin America for the project was made manifest in various ways, from 1956 on. III The project was launched in 1957 with a budget of about $400,- 000 per year, supplemented to some extent by U. N. Technical Assistance funds. It has concentrated on certain of the key prob- lems related to teacher training, including certain preliminary activities which must be put right in order for any plan to succeed. The first of these relates to educational planning itself. With the help of the Organization of American States an important seminar on educational planning was held in Washington in 1958, and experts are advising certain governments in this field. To the regional office of UNESCO in Havana, which is the operating mechanism of the project in the field, is attached an expert in educational statistics, who is aiding and encouraging governments SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 237 announced my intention of recommending the first two of them, that is, the Latin American teacher training project and the arid lands project, to the General Conference. The Executive Board would have preferred the East-West project to the Latin American one, but I would not yield. The Board and I both eventually won, because at a later stage in response to pressure from member states, I added the East-West project to the list. All three projects were approved by the New Delhi Conference just three years ago. An important reason why the Latin American primary educa- tion project was approved by the Conference was that the Ministers of Education of all the Latin American countries had unan- imously supported the proposal, six months before the Conference, at a meeting in Lima, Peru. I had said earlier that I would not persist in my support of the project unless the governments con- cerned manifested the kind of enthusiasm for it which seemed necessary for it to have a chance of success. After all, it was the governments and peoples of the countries which would have to put in the major effort, and unless they were ready to do so, there was no point in having the Secretariat put in its minor effort. The Secretariat's effort might be major in terms of the total activity of the Secretariat, but it could be only minor in terms of the total job of developing enough teachers in ten years for the half and more of the primary school children of Latin America not then in school. The enthusiasm of Latin America for the project was made manifest in various ways, from 1956 on. III The project was launched in 1957 with a budget of about $400,- 000 per year, supplemented to some extent by U. N. Technical Assistance funds. It has concentrated on certain of the key prob- lems related to teacher training, including certain preliminary activities which must be put right in order for any plan to succeed. The first of these relates to educational planning itself. With the help of the Organization of American States an important seminar on educational planning was held in Washington in 1958, and experts are advising certain governments in this field. To the regional office of UNESCO in Havana, which is the operating mechanism of the project in the field, is attached an expert in educational statistics, who is aiding and encouraging governments SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 237 announced my intention of recommending the first two of them, that is, the Latin American teacher training project and the arid lands project, to the General Conference. The Executive Board would have preferred the East-West project to the Latin American one, but I would not yield. The Board and I both eventually won, because at a later stage in response to pressure from member states, I added the East-West project to the list. All three projects were approved by the New Delhi Conference just three years ago. An important reason why the Latin American primary educa- tion project was approved by the Conference was that the Ministers of Education of all the Latin American countries had unan- imously supported the proposal, six months before the Conference, at a meeting in Lima, Peru. I had said earlier that I would not persist in my support of the project unless the governments con- cerned manifested the kind of enthusiasm for it which seemed necessary for it to have a chance of success. After all, it was the governments and peoples of the countries which would have to put in the major effort, and unless they were ready to do so, there was no point in having the Secretariat put in its minor effort. The Secretariat's effort might be major in terms of the total activity of the Secretariat, but it could be only minor in terms of the total job of developing enough teachers in ten years for the half and more of the primary school children of Latin America not then in school. The enthusiasm of Latin America for the project was made manifest in various ways, from 1956 on. III The project was launched in 1957 with a budget of about $400,- 000 per year, supplemented to some extent by U. N. Technical Assistance funds. It has concentrated on certain of the key prob- lems related to teacher training, including certain preliminary activities which must be put right in order for any plan to succeed. The first of these relates to educational planning itself. With the help of the Organization of American States an important seminar on educational planning was held in Washington in 1958, and experts are advising certain governments in this field. To the regional office of UNESCO in Havana, which is the operating mechanism of the project in the field, is attached an expert in educational statistics, who is aiding and encouraging governments  238 The Caribbean in the improvement of the factual bases for their plans. Another basic reform concerns the curriculum and teaching methods of the primary schools. These need changing in order to catch up with modern educational thinking, and in order to lay a good foundation for an up-to-date teacher training program. For teacher training itself, much attention is given to the im- provement of the work of the teachers already on the job by in-service training programs in vacation periods. At two levels, UNESCO has designated institutions to receive aid in the training program-at the university level and at the normal school level. Two Associated Universities (Sho Paulo and Santiago de Chile) are being aided in training high-level leaders in teacher education and educational administration. Two UNESCO experts are at Sio Paulo and one at Santiago, and UNESCO has provided funds for books, equipment, and research. Although neither of the universi- ties is in the Caribbean area, persons from these countries are eligible to receive fellowships to attend them. Fellows have gone to them from Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Mex- ico, Panama, El Salvador, and Venezuela. Some countries have received help in the training of specialists in educational administration, as Costa Rica. Associated Normal Schools have been designated in Colombia (at Pamplona), in Honduras (El Carrizel), and Nicaragua (Jino- tepe for men and San Marcos for Women), as well as in Ecuador (San Pablo del Lago). Experts and other forms of aid are given these institutions by UNESCO, and teachers from several coun- tries are eligible to attend each of them for training and for in- service training. It is planned to designate additional institutions as Associated Normal Schools. Among the applicants are the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, and Haiti. In addition, UNESCO has sent experts (under the Technical Assistance program) to assist Colombia, Haiti, Honduras, and Nicaragua in various aspects of teacher training and related educa- tional reforms. UNESCO, out of the Paris office, is providing help and encour- agement in the establishment of education clearing houses, which we would call special libraries in educational documentation. One of the proposals for the future is to have a meeting of Directors-General of Primary Education to discuss practical meas- ures for carrying out the project. Seminars have been held, meet- 238 The Caribbean 238 The Caribbean in the improvement of the factual bases for their plans. Another basic reform concerns the curriculum and teaching methods of the primary schools. These need changing in order to catch up with modern educational thinking, and in order to lay a good foundation for an up-to-date teacher training program. For teacher training itself, much attention is given to the im- provement of the work of the teachers already on the job by in-service training programs in vacation periods. At two levels, UNESCO has designated institutions to receive aid in the training program-at the university level and at the normal school level. Two Associated Universities (Sio Paulo and Santiago de Chile) are being aided in training high-level leaders in teacher education and educational administration. Two UNESCO experts are at Sio Paulo and one at Santiago, and UNESCO has provided funds for books, equipment, and research. Although neither of the universi- ties is in the Caribbean area, persons from these countries are eligible to receive fellowships to attend them. Fellows have gone to them from Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Mex- ico, Panama, El Salvador, and Venezuela. Some countries have received help in the training of specialists in educational administration, as Costa Rica. Associated Normal Schools have been designated in Colombia (at Pamplona), in Honduras (El Carrizel), and Nicaragua (Jino- tepe for men and San Marcos for Women), as well as in Ecuador (San Pablo del Lago). Experts and other forms of aid are given these institutions by UNESCO, and teachers from several coun- tries are eligible to attend each of them for training and for in- service training. It is planned to designate additional institutions as Associated Normal Schools. Among the applicants are the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, and Haiti. In addition, UNESCO has sent experts (under the Technical Assistance program) to assist Colombia, Haiti, Honduras, and Nicaragua in various aspects of teacher training and related educa- tional reforms. UNESCO, out of the Paris office, is providing help and encour- agement in the establishment of education clearing houses, which we would call special libraries in educational documentation. One of the proposals for the future is to have a meeting of Directors-General of Primary Education to discuss practical meas- ures for carrying out the project. Seminars have been held, meet- in the improvement of the factual bases for their plans. Another basic reform concerns the curriculum and teaching methods of the primary schools. These need changing in order to catch up with modem educational thinking, and in order to lay a good foundation for an up-to-date teacher training program. For teacher training itself, much attention is given to the im- provement of the work of the teachers already on the job by in-service training programs in vacation periods. At two levels, UNESCO has designated institutions to receive aid in the training program-at the university level and at the normal school level. Two Associated Universities (Sio Paulo and Santiago de Chile) are being aided in training high-level leaders in teacher education and educational administration. Two UNESCO experts are at Sio Paulo and one at Santiago, and UNESCO has provided funds for books, equipment, and research. Although neither of the universi- ties is in the Caribbean area, persons from these countries are eligible to receive fellowships to attend them. Fellows have gone to them from Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Mex- ico, Panama, El Salvador, and Venezuela. Some countries have received help in the training of specialists in educational administration, as Costa Rica. Associated Normal Schools have been designated in Colombia (at Pamplona), in Honduras (El Carrizel), and Nicaragua (Jino- tepe for men and San Marcos for Women), as well as in Ecuador (San Pablo del Lago). Experts and other forms of aid are given these institutions by UNESCO, and teachers from several coun- tries are eligible to attend each of them for training and for in- service training. It is planned to designate additional institutions as Associated Normal Schools. Among the applicants are the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, and Haiti. In addition, UNESCO has sent experts (under the Technical Assistance program) to assist Colombia, Haiti, Honduras, and Nicaragua in various aspects of teacher training and related educa- tional reforms. UNESCO, out of the Paris office, is providing help and encour- agement in the establishment of education clearing houses, which we would call special libraries in educational documentation. One of the proposals for the future is to have a meeting of Directors-General of Primary Education to discuss practical meas- ures for carrying out the project. Seminars have been held, meet-  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 239 ings on how to do statistics, meetings on technical aspects of teacher-training, etc. One of the fields that we think is weak in Latin America is social science, and some special work is being done to increase and encourage teaching in social science, and manuals are being written to that end. One of the things UNESCO has done is to encourage govern- ments outside of Latin America to support the project. Spain has set up a seminar, with a good many fellowships, in educational statistics. Other countries have offered fellowships, including France and Argentina. I should point out, of course, that some of the countries already have pretty well conquered their problem of primary education. One of them in this area is Costa Rica, but it is trying to make a contribution to the solution of the total prob- lem in the area. Nicaragua, according to the future plans, will soon receive an expert to advise on educational administration; Panama on edu- cational planning; Colombia, an expert in school supervision and administration, and one in teacher-training; Cuba will receive an expert in in-service training for primary school teachers; Haiti, two experts, one in text-book production, and one in in-service teacher-training; Nicaragua, one expert in school administration and supervision. There is a regional center in Mexico for teaching how to make educational films, and actually to make educational films on behalf of the Latin American countries. Guatemala will have an expert to help the Minister of Education plan educational research, and the training of educational specialists. Someone in our round table this afternoon mentioned the importance of educational research. UNESCO gives a good many fellowships, in addition to encour- aging various countries to give them. How are the Latin American countries reacting to the major project? It is difficult to give figures of accomplishment, but there have been cases which are indicative. Some of the countries have greatly increased their financial provision for primary education. I believe one country has doubled its budget in this respect. A great deal of support is being given so that people can take ad- vantage of fellowships, and attend the teacher-training courses; support is being given to the plans for in-service training which is important because half of the teachers in Latin America have never had one bit of training to be teachers. Probably quicker SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 239 ings on how to do statistics, meetings on technical aspects of teacher-training, etc. One of the fields that we think is weak in Latin America is social science, and some special work is being done to increase and encourage teaching in social science, and manuals are being written to that end. One of the things UNESCO has done is to encourage govern- ments outside of Latin America to support the project. Spain has set up a seminar, with a good many fellowships, in educational statistics. Other countries have offered fellowships, including France and Argentina. I should point out, of course, that some of the countries already have pretty well conquered their problem of primary education. One of them in this area is Costa Rica, but it is trying to make a contribution to the solution of the total prob- lem in the area. Nicaragua, according to the future plans, will soon receive an expert to advise on educational administration; Panama on edu- rational planning; Colombia, an expert in school supervision and administration, and one in teacher-training; Cuba will receive an expert in in-service training for primary school teachers; Haiti, two experts, one in text-book production, and one in in-service teacher-training; Nicaragua, one expert in school administration and supervision. There is a regional center in Mexico for teaching how to make educational films, and actually to make educational films on behalf of the Latin American countries. Guatemala will have an expert to help the Minister of Education plan educational research, and the training of educational specialists. Someone in our round table this afternoon mentioned the importance of educational research. UNESCO gives a good many fellowships, in addition to encour- aging various countries to give them. How are the Latin American countries reacting to the major project? It is difficult to give figures of accomplishment, but there have been cases which are indicative. Some of the countries have greatly increased their financial provision for primary education. I believe one country has doubled its budget in this respect. A great deal of support is being given so that people can take ad- vantage of fellowships, and attend the teacher-training courses; support is being given to the plans for in-service training which is important because half of the teachers in Latin America have never had one bit of training to be teachers. Probably quicker SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 239 ings on how to do statistics, meetings on technical aspects of teacher-training, etc. One of the fields that we think is weak in Latin America is social science, and some special work is being done to increase and encourage teaching in social science, and manuals are being written to that end. One of the things UNESCO has done is to encourage govern- ments outside of Latin America to support the project. Spain has set up a seminar, with a good many fellowships, in educational statistics. Other countries have offered fellowships, including France and Argentina. I should point out, of course, that some of the countries already have pretty well conquered their problem of primary education. One of them in this area is Costa Rica, but it is trying to make a contribution to the solution of the total prob- lem in the area. Nicaragua, according to the future plans, will soon receive an expert to advise on educational administration; Panama on edu- rational planning; Colombia, an expert in school supervision and administration, and one in teacher-training; Cuba will receive an expert in in-service training for primary school teachers; Haiti, two experts, one in text-book production, and one in in-service teacher-training; Nicaragua, one expert in school administration and supervision. There is a regional center in Mexico for teaching how to make educational films, and actually to make educational films on behalf of the Latin American countries. Guatemala will have an expert to help the Minister of Education plan educational research, and the training of educational specialists. Someone in our round table this afternoon mentioned the importance of educational research. UNESCO gives a good many fellowships, in addition to encour- aging various countries to give them. How are the Latin American countries reacting to the major project? It is difficult to give figures of accomplishment, but there have been cases which are indicative. Some of the countries have greatly increased their financial provision for primary education. I believe one country has doubled its budget in this respect. A great deal of support is being given so that people can take ad- vantage of fellowships, and attend the teacher-training courses; support is being given to the plans for in-service training which is important because half of the teachers in Latin America have never had one bit of training to be teachers. Probably quicker  240 The Caribbean 240 The Caribbean results can be gotten from in-service training than otherwise. There has been a good deal of additional provision for school buildings. UNESCO has been asked for experts by some countries to help with their school building problem, designing school buildings that are functional, that can be built with local materials, that can be built very much on the same architectural plan with econ- omies coming from that. My latest piece of information is that Guatemala has built 40 new schools in the past 18 months in the rural areas, and a good deal of the cost has been covered by com- munity self-help. Many schools in various countries have been built with the help of local citizens who contributed their labor free of charge, or contributed materials. One of the proposals UNESCO made to the State Department was that the United States should make a considerable grant for fellowships in aid of this project under the United States bilateral program. The Department has expressed sympathy, but has said its projects are not planned from Washington, but are planned in the countries, and that if the countries propose fellowships in sup- port of this project, they could be included through the country programming procedures. In most recent statistics of fellowship grants by countries (figures given by Mr. Vera of the Havana office in September) I see no reference to United States fellowship grants. I suspect there are some and I suspect there will be more. But we were somewhat disappointed when we could not get the United States government to say in a policy statement that it would like this project to be supported by fellowships in the various plans for American aid to Latin American countries. The American aid pro- gram is big enough that it could stand a considerable number of fel- lowships of this kind; many of the fellowships in various fields now given by us are used in the United States, that is, the people come here for their out-of-country fellowship training. IV Some people ask, what is UNESCO's program in Latin America? Well, to some extent UNESCO has a program but it can not have a particular program unless the countries want it. They want this major project; they want the Fundamental Education Training Cen- ter in Mexico. But beyond that the experts that are sent, are sent, as I said before, on a demand basis. The governments demand results can be gotten from in-service training than otherwise. There has been a good deal of additional provision for school buildings. UNESCO has been asked for experts by some countries to help with their school building problem, designing school buildings that are functional, that can be built with local materials, that can be built very much on the same architectural plan with econ- omies coming from that. My latest piece of information is that Guatemala has built 40 new schools in the past 18 months in the rural areas, and a good deal of the cost has been covered by com- munity self-help. Many schools in various countries have been built with the help of local citizens who contributed their labor free of charge, or contributed materials. One of the proposals UNESCO made to the State Department was that the United States should make a considerable grant for fellowships in aid of this project under the United States bilateral program. The Department has expressed sympathy, but has said its projects are not planned from Washington, but are planned in the countries, and that if the countries propose fellowships in sup- port of this project, they could be included through the country programming procedures. In most recent statistics of fellowship grants by countries (figures given by Mr. Vera of the Havana office in September) I see no reference to United States fellowship grants. I suspect there are some and I suspect there will be more. But we were somewhat disappointed when we could not get the United States government to say in a policy statement that it would like this project to be supported by fellowships in the various plans for American aid to Latin American countries. The American aid pro- gram is big enough that it could stand a considerable number of fel- lowships of this kind; many of the fellowships in various fields now given by us are used in the United States, that is, the people come heere for their out-of-country fellowship training. IV Some people ask, what is UNESCO's program in Latin America? Well, to some extent UNESCO has a program but it can not have a particular program unless the countries want it. They want this major project; they want the Fundamental Education Training Cen- ter in Mexico. But beyond that the experts that are sent, are sent, as I said before, on a demand basis. The governments demand 240 The Caribbean results can be gotten from in-service training than otherwise. There has been a good deal of additional provision for school buildings. UNESCO has been asked for experts by some countries to help with their school building problem, designing school buildings that are functional, that can be built with local materials, that can be built very much on the same architectural plan with econ- omies coming from that. My latest piece of information is that Guatemala has built 40 new schools in the past 18 months in the rural areas, and a good deal of the cost has been covered by com- munity self-help. Many schools in various countries have been built with the help of local citizens who contributed their labor free of charge, or contributed materials. One of the proposals UNESCO made to the State Department was that the United States should make a considerable grant for fellowships in aid of this project under the United States bilateral program. The Department has expressed sympathy, but has said its projects are not planned from Washington, but are planned in the countries, and that if the countries propose fellowships in sup- port of this project, they could be included through the country programming procedures. In most recent statistics of fellowship grants by countries (figures given by Mr. Vera of the Havana office in September) I see no reference to United States fellowship grants. I suspect there are some and I suspect there will be more. But we were somewhat disappointed when we could not get the United States government to say in a policy statement that it would like this project to be supported by fellowships in the various plans for American aid to Latin American countries. The American aid pro- gram is big enough that it could stand a considerable number of fel- lowships of this kind; many of the fellowships in various fields now given by us are used in the United States, that is, the people come here for their out-of-country fellowship training. IV Some people ask, what is UNESCO's program in Latin America? Well, to some extent UNESCO has a program but it can not have a particular program unless the countries want it. They want this major project; they want the Fundamental Education Training Cen- ter in Mexico. But beyond that the experts that are sent, are sent, as I said before, on a demand basis. The governments demand  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 241 what they want, and UNESCO does the best it can within its resources and its controlling budget and program to answer the demand. UNESCO is very conscious and proud of its democratic character in this regard, but at the same time it is not reluctant to tell a country what it thinks is for the good of the country. That is, if a country asks for an expert in nuclear physics, and the situa- tion does not seem to justify such a request - there are not the library and other facilities, there are not mathematicians and others at this level of activity, so that the expert would be lonely in his work - UNESCO might refuse and advise having an expert in general science teaching at the secondary school level. If the country does not pick up such a suggestion, then of course nothing is done to try to persuade it to do so. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 241 what they want, and UNESCO does the best it can within its resources and its controlling budget and program to answer the demand. UNESCO is very conscious and proud of its democratic character in this regard, but at the same time it is not reluctant to tell a country what it thinks is for the good of the country. That is, if a country asks for an expert in nuclear physics, and the situa- tion does not seem to justify such a request - there are not the library and other facilities, there are not mathematicians and others at this level of activity, so that the expert would be lonely in his work - UNESCO might refuse and advise having an expert in general science teaching at the secondary school level. If the country does not pick up such a suggestion, then of course nothing is done to try to persuade it to do so. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 241 what they want, and UNESCO does the best it can within its resources and its controlling budget and program to answer the demand. UNESCO is very conscious and proud of its democratic character in this regard, but at the same time it is not reluctant to tell a country what it thinks is for the good of the country. That is, if a country asks for an expert in nuclear physics, and the situa- tion does not seem to justify such a request - there are not the library and other facilities, there are not mathematicians and others at this level of activity, so that the expert would be lonely in his work - UNESCO might refuse and advise having an expert in general science teaching at the secondary school level. If the country does not pick up such a suggestion, then of course nothing is done to try to persuade it to do so.  19 Amalia Castillo Ledon: THE STRUGGLE FOR LITERACY AND RURAL EDUCATION IN MEXICO EDUCATION IN MEXICO is a task of affirmation - affirmation of a nation within a broad spirit of collective betterment and uni- versal understanding. It is a struggle against illiteracy, with not enough schools and teachers to integrate our pre-Columbian peo- ples into the nation and into the world; peoples, some of whom, though fortunately now fewer, do not even speak the Spanish tongue. The problems we face are those of education in all its range, from the point of view of the human being within Western culture, and we do this with our peculiar, native Mexican person- ality, both nationally and internationally considered. We have reached the point of maturity where it is possible to have clear consciousness of the function of the highest cultural values in education. Mexico is now a country that, sifted by a re- form movement and its social revolution, has freed itself from the yoke of colonialism and is seeking and shaping its own life and ideals. Since it is impossible to cover in one discussion all the educa- tional forces and directions in Mexico, I shall speak only of those aspects which have been our major problems and which we have been meeting in ways most characteristically Mexican: that of the rural school and the campaign against illiteracy. It can be said flatly, that there does not exist in Mexico a single problem of any kind which has not some relation to, or is not rooted 242 19 Amalia Castillo Ledon: THE STRUGGLE FOR LITERACY AND RURAL EDUCATION IN MEXICO EDUCATION IN MEXICO is a task of affirmation - affirmation of a nation within a broad spirit of collective betterment and uni- versal understanding. It is a struggle against illiteracy, with not enough schools and teachers to integrate our pre-Columbian peo- ples into the nation and into the world; peoples, some of whom, though fortunately now fewer, do not even speak the Spanish tongue. The problems we face are those of education in all its range, from the point of view of the human being within Western culture, and we do this with our peculiar, native Mexican person- ality, both nationally and internationally considered. We have reached the point of maturity where it is possible to have clear consciousness of the function of the highest cultural values in education. Mexico is now a country that, sifted by a re- form movement and its social revolution, has freed itself from the yoke of colonialism and is seeking and shaping its own life and ideals. Since it is impossible to cover in one discussion all the educa- tional forces and directions in Mexico, I shall speak only of those aspects which have been our major problems and which we have been meeting in ways most characteristically Mexican: that of the rural school and the campaign against illiteracy. It can be said flatly, that there does not exist in Mexico a single problem of any kind which has not some relation to, or is not rooted 242 19 Amalia Castillo Ledon: THE STRUGGLE FOR LITERACY AND RURAL EDUCATION IN MEXICO EDUCATION IN MEXICO is a task of affirmation - affirmation of a nation within a broad spirit of collective betterment and uni- versal understanding. It is a struggle against illiteracy, with not enough schools and teachers to integrate our pre-Columbian peo- ples into the nation and into the world; peoples, some of whom, though fortunately now fewer, do not even speak the Spanish tongue. The problems we face are those of education in all its range, from the point of view of the human being within Western culture, and we do this with our peculiar, native Mexican person- ality, both nationally and internationally considered. We have reached the point of maturity where it is possible to have clear consciousness of the function of the highest cultural values in education. Mexico is now a country that, sifted by a re- form movement and its social revolution, has freed itself from the yoke of colonialism and is seeking and shaping its own life and ideals. Since it is impossible to cover in one discussion all the educa- tional forces and directions in Mexico, I shall speak only of those aspects which have been our major problems and which we have been meeting in ways most characteristically Mexican: that of the rural school and the campaign against illiteracy. It can be said flatly, that there does not exist in Mexico a single problem of any kind which has not some relation to, or is not rooted 242  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 243 in, the earth. Around land, and for the sake of its possession, our revolutions and governments have taken shape, and throughout our history rulers rise and fall because of it. Land in Mexican lives has a significance like that of motherhood for woman: complete fulfillment, absolute meaning, and a cosmic, and at the same time, human sense of life. This is a Mexican feeling time without end. It is with us among the pre-Cortesian tribes, the colonial creoles and mestizos, the conservatives and liberals, the dictators and revo- lutionaries; present as a live memory or a forgotten one, and it is this forgetting or daily remembrance which makes the balance of decision in the power and the victory. And all this unceasing and many-faceted battle which has been the political life of Mexico for more than 400 years can be summed up in one sentence: it is the struggle to be at one with the earth, for life in continuous understanding and wedlock with the earth. The paradoxes of the course of education in Mexico lose their complexity if seen in this context. On the one hand, we have a highly developed culture like the European, inspired by it and with its glow, which has given to Mexico since the sixteenth century a posterity described by great Spanish authors as an American Athens. On the other hand, we have as a problem a native population, a considerable percentage of which is still lacking sometimes even the most elementary knowledge that gives mankind the beginning of light. The ideals that several revolutionary generations fought for were crystallized in the Constitution of 1917. Article 123 of this docu- ment consecrates the principle of protection for labor and the redistribution of the land, it being established as a fundamental law that industry and landlords maintain at their expense schools for the children of all laborers, including wage-earning workers on farms. This legislation which reflects the thinking of the framers of the Constitution of 1917, can be considered, for the time in which it was written, as among the most advanced in the world, measured by the yardstick of respect for the dignity of the human individual and the protection of the rights and needs of each social group. The distribution of Mexico's population can be summed up as follows: rural population 57.6 per cent, which is more than half of the people, and the rest distributed in cities and towns. Since the rural population is the majority and the neediest, it SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 243 in, the earth. Around land, and for the sake of its possession, our revolutions and governments have taken shape, and throughout our history rulers rise and fall because of it. Land in Mexican lives has a significance like that of motherhood for woman: complete fulfillment, absolute meaning, and a cosmic, and at the same time, human sense of life. This is a Mexican feeling time without end. It is with us among the pre-Cortesian tribes, the colonial creoles and mestizos, the conservatives and liberals, the dictators and revo- lutionaries; present as a live memory or a forgotten one, and it is this forgetting or daily remembrance which makes the balance of decision in the power and the victory. And all this unceasing and many-faceted battle which has been the political life of Mexico for more than 400 years can be summed up in one sentence: it is the struggle to be at one with the earth, for life in continuous understanding and wedlock with the earth. The paradoxes of the course of education in Mexico lose their complexity if seen in this context. On the one hand, we have a highly developed culture like the European, inspired by it and with its glow, which has given to Mexico since the sixteenth century a posterity described by great Spanish authors as an American Athens. On the other hand, we have as a problem a native population, a considerable percentage of which is still lacking sometimes even the most elementary knowledge that gives mankind the beginning of light. The ideals that several revolutionary generations fought for were crystallized in the Constitution of 1917. Article 123 of this docu- ment consecrates the principle of protection for labor and the redistribution of the land, it being established as a fundamental law that industry and landlords maintain at their expense schools for the children of all laborers, including wage-earning workers on farms. This legislation which reflects the thinking of the framers of the Constitution of 1917, can be considered, for the time in which it was written, as among the most advanced in the world, measured by the yardstick of respect for the dignity of the human individual and the protection of the rights and needs of each social group. The distribution of Mexico's population can be summed up as follows: rural population 57.6 per cent, which is more than half of the people, and the rest distributed in cities and towns. Since the rural population is the majority and the neediest, it SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 243 in, the earth. Around land, and for the sake of its possession, our revolutions and governments have taken shape, and throughout our history rulers rise and fall because of it. Land in Mexican lives has a significance like that of motherhood for woman: complete fulfillment, absolute meaning, and a cosmic, and at the same time, human sense of life. This is a Mexican feeling time without end. It is with us among the pre-Cortesian tribes, the colonial creoles and mestizos, the conservatives and liberals, the dictators and revo- lutionaries; present as a live memory or a forgotten one, and it is this forgetting or daily remembrance which makes the balance of decision in the power and the victory. And all this unceasing and many-faceted battle which has been the political life of Mexico for more than 400 years can be summed up in one sentence: it is the struggle to be at one with the earth, for life in continuous understanding and wedlock with the earth. The paradoxes of the course of education in Mexico lose their complexity if seen in this context. On the one hand, we have a highly developed culture like the European, inspired by it and with its glow, which has given to Mexico since the sixteenth century a posterity described by great Spanish authors as an American Athens. On the other hand, we have as a problem a native population, a considerable percentage of which is still lacking sometimes even the most elementary knowledge that gives mankind the beginning of light. The ideals that several revolutionary generations fought for were crystallized in the Constitution of 1917. Article 123 of this docu- ment consecrates the principle of protection for labor and the redistribution of the land, it being established as a fundamental law that industry and landlords maintain at their expense schools for the children of all laborers, including wage-earning workers on farms. This legislation which reflects the thinking of the framers of the Constitution of 1917, can be considered, for the time in which it was written, as among the most advanced in the world, measured by the yardstick of respect for the dignity of the human individual and the protection of the rights and needs of each social group. The distribution of Mexico's population can be summed up as follows: rural population 57.6 per cent, which is more than half of the people, and the rest distributed in cities and towns. Since the rural population is the majority and the neediest, it  244 The Caribbean has absorbed our major efforts in the field of education. The rural Mexican school is indeed the product of the social and political phenomenon known as the Revolution. Its ideals, orientation, and content are consequences of this move- ment. The special characteristic of the rural school is its bond with the people. It is not only a school. It teaches and also en- courages, supports, and guides the people in the solution of their fundamental problems. Thus the rural school and the Mexican Revolution are two con- cepts that are intimately linked; the existence of one has been nourished for six decades in the ideals of the other. Being genu- inely popular and democratic, it could not be separated from the ideals that the Revolution set up. It was able to carry on in the country precisely the work that was demanded of it by the men who had fought to break with a stormy past. Thus, the Mexican Revolution forged a school with the high purpose of taking into itself the needs of the people of the land. The achievements of the rural school are of considerable scope and importance as statistics verify, but its value is incalculable in its projection, because it opens to the people the highway of an integral betterment and the accomplishment of their ideals. II Another interesting aspect of this activity appears in the Cultural Missions, whose system of work is worthy of attention. All educa- tional systems aim at adaptation, and parallel the relationship of mother and child. As Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet, Secretary of Public Education, remarked recently: "Although there have been great educators and pedagogues among men, teaching has always found its greatest ally in woman." To teach in any school, adapting oneself to the sensibility of the child without neglecting the task of maturization, is indeed work that has the splendor of motherhood. But the task of the country teacher especially is undoubtedly more natural, alive, and complete. We do not mean this in the romantic sense, which is generally attached to work of the missionary teachers, but rather in a profounder and more human way. Rural teaching, like the work of sixteenth century missionaries and the naturalist dreams of Jean Jacques Rousseau, is a type of return to the essentials of liv- 244 The Caribbean has absorbed our major efforts in the field of education. The rural Mexican school is indeed the product of the social and political phenomenon known as the Revolution. Its ideals, orientation, and content are consequences of this move- ment. The special characteristic of the rural school is its bond with the people. It is not only a school. It teaches and also en- courages, supports, and guides the people in the solution of their fundamental problems. Thus the rural school and the Mexican Revolution are two con- cepts that are intimately linked; the existence of one has been nourished for six decades in the ideals of the other. Being genu- inely popular and democratic, it could not be separated from the ideals that the Revolution set up. It was able to carry on in the country precisely the work that was demanded of it by the men who had fought to break with a stormy past. Thus, the Mexican Revolution forged a school with the high purpose of taking into itself the needs of the people of the land. The achievements of the rural school are of considerable scope and importance as statistics verify, but its value is incalculable in its projection, because it opens to the people the highway of an integral betterment and the accomplishment of their ideals. II Another interesting aspect of this activity appears in the Cultural Missions, whose system of work is worthy of attention. All educa- tional systems aim at adaptation, and parallel the relationship of mother and child. As Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet, Secretary of Public Education, remarked recently: "Although there have been great educators and pedagogues among men, teaching has always found its greatest ally in woman." To teach in any school, adapting oneself to the sensibility of the child without neglecting the task of maturization, is indeed work that has the splendor of motherhood. But the task of the country teacher especially is undoubtedly more natural, alive, and complete. We do not mean this in the romantic sense, which is generally attached to work of the missionary teachers, but rather in a profounder and more human way. Rural teaching, like the work of sixteenth century missionaries and the naturalist dreams of Jean Jacques Rousseau, is a type of return to the essentials of liv- 244 The Caribbean has absorbed our major efforts in the field of education. The rural Mexican school is indeed the product of the social and political phenomenon known as the Revolution. Its ideals, orientation, and content are consequences of this move- ment. The special characteristic of the rural school is its bond with the people. It is not only a school. It teaches and also en- courages, supports, and guides the people in the solution of their fundamental problems. Thus the rural school and the Mexican Revolution are two con- cepts that are intimately linked; the existence of one has been nourished for six decades in the ideals of the other. Being genu- inely popular and democratic, it could not be separated from the ideals that the Revolution set up. It was able to carry on in the country precisely the work that was demanded of it by the men who had fought to break with a stormy past. Thus, the Mexican Revolution forged a school with the high purpose of taking into itself the needs of the people of the land. The achievements of the rural school are of considerable scope and importance as statistics verify, but its value is incalculable in its projection, because it opens to the people the highway of an integral betterment and the accomplishment of their ideals. II Another interesting aspect of this activity appears in the Cultural Missions, whose system of work is worthy of attention. All educa- tional systems aim at adaptation, and parallel the relationship of mother and child. As Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet, Secretary of Public Education, remarked recently: "Although there have been great educators and pedagogues among men, teaching has always found its greatest ally in woman." To teach in any school, adapting oneself to the sensibility of the child without neglecting the task of maturization, is indeed work that has the splendor of motherhood. But the task of the country teacher especially is undoubtedly more natural, alive, and complete. We do not mean this in the romantic sense, which is generally attached to work of the missionary teachers, but rather in a profounder and more human way. Rural teaching, like the work of sixteenth century missionaries and the naturalist dreams of Jean Jacques Rousseau, is a type of return to the essentials of liv-  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 245 ing. In it the teacher, the missionary, works with all that which connects the child with its surroundings. He brings man back to his relation with astronomy and Nature, without neglecting his intellectual development, but never permitting him to lose sight of the realities of this earth. As a whole, it is in the teaching of the rural missions where the desire to put man once again in con- tact with the earth is clearly seen. I do not need to add that a woman was indispensable in the launching of the first cultural mission, to support the hazards of the experiment and to give it that sense of curious, balanced, active motherhood of which I have already spoken. It is interesting to describe the elementary way in which a work was begun which now reaches proportions of major importance. The first mission, which set out for a place in the State of Morelos, was, with heroic simplicity, made up of one directress, one nurse, one bricklayer, and one carpenter. Its task included teaching as such, knowledge of agriculture, a program of building, a program of sanitation and health, home nursing, and child care. I believe that the simple words of the report of Elena Torres, who headed this mission, describe it better than anything that anyone can now say. It was a project that lasted for only 5 months -from November, 1928, to March, 1924. She writes: Last October I made a trip with the object of visiting certain points in the State of Morelos, a state chosen for this experiment because, the land there being completely distributed in ejidos and it being the cradle of the agrarian ideals, one could work better there than anywhere else. I made the trip on horseback from Cuernavaca and Cuautla (there were no highways at that time), accompanied by General Genaro Amezcua, delegate of the Secre- tary of Agriculture. Of the towns we looked over, we selected San Jos6 which really bore the name of Gabriel Tepepa.... In talking with the people of the town about what we wanted to do, we were told by one of them, Felix Camacho, that the year before (1922), they had started to put up some walls for a one-room school on a lot that no one wanted to live on because the ground had too much lime in it, and nothing could be grown there. He told us that they had stopped the work because most of the people had mistrusted the expense, since they had no faith that they would ever be able to finish.... We immediately opened student registration in San Jose and started in Cuautla the organization of special classes in hygiene and child care for girls who were in the last years of ele- SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 245 ing. In it the teacher, the missionary, works with all that which connects the child with its surroundings. He brings man back to his relation with astronomy and Nature, without neglecting his intellectual development, but never permitting him to lose sight of the realities of this earth. As a whole, it is in the teaching of the rural missions where the desire to put man once again in con- tact with the earth is clearly seen. I do not need to add that a woman was indispensable in the launching of the first cultural mission, to support the hazards of the experiment and to give it that sense of curious, balanced, active motherhood of which I have already spoken. It is interesting to describe the elementary way in which a work was begun which now reaches proportions of major importance. The first mission, which set out for a place in the State of Morelos, was, with heroic simplicity, made up of one directress, one nurse, one bricklayer, and one carpenter. Its task included teaching as such, knowledge of agriculture, a program of building, a program of sanitation and health, home nursing, and child care. I believe that the simple words of the report of Elena Torres, who headed this mission, describe it better than anything that anyone can now say. It was a project that lasted for only 5 months - from November, 1923, to March, 1924. She writes: Last October I made a trip with the object of visiting certain points in the State of Morelos, a state chosen for this experiment because, the land there being completely distributed in ejidos and it being the cradle of the agrarian ideals, one could work better there than anywhere else. I made the trip on horseback from Cuernavaca and Cuautla (there were no highways at that time), accompanied by General Genaro Amezcua, delegate of the Secre- tary of Agriculture. Of the towns we looked over, we selected San Jos6 which really bore the name of Gabriel Tepepa.... In talking with the people of the town about what we wanted to do, we were told by one of them, Felix Camacho, that the year before (1922), they had started to put up some walls for a one-room school on a lot that no one wanted to live on because the ground had too much lime in it, and nothing could be grown there. He told us that they had stopped the work because most of the people had mistrusted the expense, since they had no faith that they would ever be able to finish.... We immediately opened student registration in San Jos6 and started in Cuautla the organization of special classes in hygiene and child care for girls who were in the last years of ele- SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 245 ing. In it the teacher, the missionary, works with all that which connects the child with its surroundings. He brings man back to his relation with astronomy and Nature, without neglecting his intellectual development, but never permitting him to lose sight of the realities of this earth. As a whole, it is in the teaching of the rural missions where the desire to put man once again in con- tact with the earth is clearly seen. I do not need to add that a woman was indispensable in the launching of the first cultural mission, to support the hazards of the experiment and to give it that sense of curious, balanced, active motherhood of which I have already spoken. It is interesting to describe the elementary way in which a work was begun which now reaches proportions of major importance. The first mission, which set out for a place in the State of Morelos, was, with heroic simplicity, made up of one directress, one nurse, one bricklayer, and one carpenter. Its task included teaching as such, knowledge of agriculture, a program of building, a program of sanitation and health, home nursing, and child care. I believe that the simple words of the report of Elena Torres, who headed this mission, describe it better than anything that anyone can now say. It was a project that lasted for only 5 months -from November, 1928, to March, 1924. She writes: Last October I made a trip with the object of visiting certain points in the State of Morelos, a state chosen for this experiment because, the land there being completely distributed in ejidos and it being the cradle of the agrarian ideals, one could work better there than anywhere else. I made the trip on horseback from Cuernavaca and Cuautla (there were no highways at that time), accompanied by General Genaro Amezcua, delegate of the Secre- tary of Agriculture. Of the towns we looked over, we selected San Jose which really bore the name of Gabriel Tepepa.... In talking with the people of the town about what we wanted to do, we were told by one of them, Felix Camacho, that the year before (1922), they had started to put up some walls for a one-room school on a lot that no one wanted to live on because the ground had too much lime in it, and nothing could be grown there. He told us that they had stopped the work because most of the people had mistrusted the expense, since they had no faith that they would ever be able to finish.... We immediately opened student registration in San Jose and started in Cuautla the organization of special classes in hygiene and child care for girls who were in the last years of ele-  246 The Caribbean mentary school in both the state and religious parish schools. We organized a series of lectures in order to tell the people of the neighborhood the object of our work and to obtain thereby their cooperation.... As of this date (March of 1924) the school has been finished and bears the name "School of Free Peasants," with a cost of $1,120.29, without counting naturally the value of the labor of 4 peones - which the town supplied daily. The quarters built to house the first cooperative are also finished and this has had great importance, because this house and that of the school are in reality the only solid constructions in the town. In San Jos4 all the houses are of twigs and grass. The house cost $89.90.... The program of this experiment, to judge by the report, was quite varied and was adapted to the conditions and rhythm of the life of the town, in so far as circumstances permitted. Outside of the teaching of reading, writing, geography, the history of Mex- ico, geometry, arithmetic, and agriculture, it is touching to find in it the reading of such works as Uncle Tom's Cabin, the stories of Leo Tolstoy, and the mention of a small library. In another part of her report, Elena Torres says: "I was also convinced that many of these men, though still unable to read or write, have a considerable amount of scientific knowledge, if we accept as such that which is related to natural phenomena and the process of sowing, planting, and cultivation necessary for a good crop yield. In each of these villages there are also men who know some craft, such as leather working, tinsmithing, brick-lay- ing, and so on. These capacities should be taken advantage of for the greater benefit of rural life in general." In this quotation I find truly a statement of the creed of the Cultural Missions. I remember a certain Greek teacher who, when a youth, disciple of a rival, asked him for lessons, charged double because, as he said, he had first to teach him to forget what he had learned from the other maestro. How different and how much more human is the attitude of this unassuming missionary who realizes that she must utilize and try to develop that which experi- ence with the earth has already given. Soon after, now on an official basis, the Cultural Missions as winter courses were being carried out in this same spirit of under- standing, interest, and energy. I sincerely believe that no other phase of education at that time in Mexico had a greater splendor, nor aroused greater enthusiasm. When Jose Manuel Puig Casauranc was Minister of Public Edu- 246 The Caribbean mentary school in both the state and religious parish schools. We organized a series of Iectures in order to tell the people of the neighborhood the object of our work and to obtain thereby their cooperation.... As of this date (March of 1924) the school has been finished and bears the name "School of Free Peasants," with a cost of $1,120.29, without counting naturally the value of the labor of 4 peones - which the town supplied daily. The quarters built to house the first cooperative are also finished and this has had great importance, because this house and that of the school are in reality the only solid constructions in the town. In San Jos6 all the houses are of twigs and grass. The house cost $89.90.... The program of this experiment, to judge by the report, was quite varied and was adapted to the conditions and rhythm of the life of the town, in so far as circumstances permitted. Outside of the teaching of reading, writing, geography, the history of Mex- ico, geometry, arithmetic, and agriculture, it is touching to find in it the reading of such works as Uncle Tom's Cabin, the stories of Leo Tolstoy, and the mention of a small library. In another part of her report, Elena Torres says: "I was also convinced that many of these men, though still unable to read or write, have a considerable amount of scientific knowledge, if we accept as such that which is related to natural phenomena and the process of sowing, planting, and cultivation necessary for a good crop yield. In each of these villages there are also men who know some craft, such as leather working, tinsmithing, brick-lay- ing, and so on. These capacities should be taken advantage of for the greater benefit of rural life in general." In this quotation I find truly a statement of the creed of the Cultural Missions. I remember a certain Greek teacher who, when a youth, disciple of a rival, asked him for lessons, charged double because, as he said, he had first to teach him to forget what he had learned from the other maestro. How different and how much more human is the attitude of this unassuming missionary who realizes that she must utilize and try to develop that which experi- ence with the earth has already given. Soon after, now on an official basis, the Cultural Missions as winter courses were being carried out in this same spirit of under- standing, interest, and energy. I sincerely believe that no other phase of education at that time in Mexico had a greater splendor, nor aroused greater enthusiasm. When Jose Manuel Puig Casauranc was Minister of Public Edu- 246 The Caribbean mentary school in both the state and religious parish schools. We organized a series of lectures in order to tell the people of the neighborhood the object of our work and to obtain thereby their cooperation.... As of this date (March of 1924) the school has been finished and bears the name "School of Free Peasants," with a cost of $1,120.29, without counting naturally the value of the labor of 4 peones - which the town supplied daily. The quarters built to house the first cooperative are also finished and this has had great importance, because this house and that of the school are in reality the only solid constructions in the town. In San Jose all the houses are of twigs and grass. The house cost $89.90.... The program of this experiment, to judge by the report, was quite varied and was adapted to the conditions and rhythm of the life of the town, in so far as circumstances permitted. Outside of the teaching of reading, writing, geography, the history of Mex- ico, geometry, arithmetic, and agriculture, it is touching to find in it the reading of such works as Uncle Tom's Cabin, the stories of Leo Tolstoy, and the mention of a small library. In another part of her report, Elena Torres says: "I was also convinced that many of these men, though still unable to read or write, have a considerable amount of scientific knowledge, if we accept as such that which is related to natural phenomena and the process of sowing, planting, and cultivation necessary for a good crop yield. In each of these villages there are also men who know some craft, such as leather working, tinsmithing, brick-lay- ing, and so on. These capacities should be taken advantage of for the greater benefit of rural life in general." In this quotation I find truly a statement of the creed of the Cultural Missions. I remember a certain Greek teacher who, when a youth, disciple of a rival, asked him for lessons, charged double because, as he said, he bad first to teach him to forget what he had learned from the other maestro. How different and how much more human is the attitude of this unassuming missionary who realizes that she must utilize and try to develop that which experi- ence with the earth has already given. Soon after, now on an official basis, the Cultural Missions as winter courses were being carried out in this same spirit of under- standing, interest, and energy. I sincerely believe that no other phase of education at that time in Mexico had a greater splendor, nor aroused greater enthusiasm. When Jose Manuel Puig Casauranc was Minister of Public Edo-  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 247 cation, he had working with him as his sub-secretary Moises Sienz, whose virtues as a true and pure teacher it would be superfluous for me to praise, for he is known throughout the Americas. Being what he was, he understood the spirit and exceptional usefulness of the Cultural Missions, and being thoroughly acquainted with the environment in which the work had begun, he could handle the problem objectively. He knew that the conditions of morale in Mexico, because of its biological and economic complexity, would be difficult and was prepared for the fact that his principal stumbling block in any undertaking of teaching would be that desperate question of the Indian, who when offered any beginning of cultural betterment, says always: "What for?" Nevertheless, SAenz reacted optimistically, for he commented: The breath of the Revolution and the clamour of modern times animate the sad hearts and warm the cold awareness of our Indians and peasants. There is a stirring of hope; these souls are, after all, not dead. When we travel, the natives come to see us eagerly, and perhaps not knowing what to ask for, but feeling that it is time to ask for something, that they must ask for something, ask for a school and a teacher. The people then build the house, give a piece of their precious land to make the school for their children, put up a chicken coop, clean up the yard, bring their plows, and help in the garden. In the warmth of new times and to the degree that the teacher in this new school can make them live, apathy and incapacity dis- appear, and in their place there arise elements of unquestionable value: faith, enthusiasm, and a heroic effort to conquer the poverty in their midst. That means their cooperation. This is, then, the human scene in which the rural school must play its part: rough country, untamed mountains, thirsty plains, gentle highlands, virgin forests, wild gorges, generous climates; people wise with the wisdom of many races, with memories of many traditions, weary at times but of primordial vigor most often; a confused murmuring of strange tongues, a kaleidoscope of lives and customs; a fluid race, in constant transition, pure here, mixed there; the complex mentality of the Indian, the Moor, the Castilian; a strange religion that scatters in front of the Christian cross the pagan petals of the native flower of the dead; in brief, a land of many peoples, but one in its feeling. A magnificent scene within which the rural teacher rises full of a spirit that is the product of this same people, planted in this soil and shaken with the anxiety to be. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 247 cation, he had working with him as his sub-secretary Moises Sienz, whose virtues as a true and pure teacher it would be superfluous for me to praise, for he is known throughout the Americas. Being what he was, he understood the spirit and exceptional usefulness of the Cultural Missions, and being thoroughly acquainted with the environment in which the work had begun, he could handle the problem objectively. He knew that the conditions of morale in Mexico, because of its biological and economic complexity, would be difficult and was prepared for the fact that his principal stumbling block in any undertaking of teaching would be that desperate question of the Indian, who when offered any beginning of cultural betterment, says always: "What for?" Nevertheless, SAenz reacted optimistically, for he commented: The breath of the Revolution and the clamour of modem times animate the sad hearts and warm the cold awareness of our Indians and peasants. There is a stirring of hope; these souls are, after all, not dead. When we travel, the natives come to see us eagerly, and perhaps not knowing what to ask for, but feeling that it is time to ask for something, that they must ask for something, ask for a school and a teacher. The people then build the house, give a piece of their precious land to make the school for their children, put up a chicken coop, clean up the yard, bring their plows, and help in the garden. In the warmth of new times and to the degree that the teacher in this new school can make them live, apathy and incapacity dis- appear, and in their place there arise elements of unquestionable value: faith, enthusiasm, and a heroic effort to conquer the poverty in their midst. That means their cooperation. This is, then, the human scene in which the rural school must play its part: rough country, untamed mountains, thirsty plains, gentle highlands, virgin forests, wild gorges, generous climates; people wise with the wisdom of many races, with memories of many traditions, weary at times but of primordial vigor most often; a confused murmuring of strange tongues, a kaleidoscope of lives and customs; a fluid race, in constant transition, pure here, mixed there; the complex mentality of the Indian, the Moor, the Castilian; a strange religion that scatters in front of the Christian cross the pagan petals of the native flower of the dead; in brief, a land of many peoples, but one in its feeling. A magnificent scene within which the rural teacher rises full of a spirit that is the product of this same people, planted in this soil and shaken with the anxiety to be. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 247 cation, he had working with him as his sub-secretary Moises SAenz, whose virtues as a true and pure teacher it would be superfluous for me to praise, for he is known throughout the Americas. Being what he was, he understood the spirit and exceptional usefulness of the Cultural Missions, and being thoroughly acquainted with the environment in which the work had begun, he could handle the problem objectively. He knew that the conditions of morale in Mexico, because of its biological and economic complexity, would be dificult and was prepared for the fact that his principal stumbling block in any undertaking of teaching would be that desperate question of the Indian, who when offered any beginning of cultural betterment, says always: "What for?" Nevertheless, SAenz reacted optimistically, for he commented: The breath of the Revolution and the clamour of modem times animate the sad hearts and warm the cold awareness of our Indians and peasants. There is a stirring of hope; these souls are, after all, not dead. When we travel, the natives come to see us eagerly, and perhaps not knowing what to ask for, but feeling that it is time to ask for something, that they must ask for something, ask for a school and a teacher. The people then build the house, give a piece of their precious land to make the school for their children, put up a chicken coop, clean up the yard, bring their plows, and help in the garden. In the warmth of new times and to the degree that the teacher in this new school can make them live, apathy and incapacity dis- appear, and in their place there arise elements of unquestionable value: faith, enthusiasm, and a heroic effort to conquer the poverty in their midst. That means their cooperation. This is, then, the human scene in which the rural school must play its part: rough country, untamed mountains, thirsty plains, gentle highlands, virgin forests, wild gorges, generous climates; people wise with the wisdom of many races, with memories of many traditions, weary at times but of primordial vigor most often; a confused murmuring of strange tongues, a kaleidoscope of lives and customs; a Suid race, in constant transition, pure here, mixed there; the complex mentality of the Indian, the Moor, the Castilian; a strange religion that scatters in front of the Christian cross the pagan petals of the native flower of the dead; in brief, a land of many peoples, but one in its feeling. A magnificent scene within which the rural teacher rises full of a spirit that is the product of this same people, planted in this soil and shaken with the anxiety to be.  248 The Caribbean In this atmosphere of work and with young enthusiastic teach- ers - professionals truly with a vocation, many of them risen from the fighting ranks of the Revolution, most of them orators - true transformations were achieved in the barren places to which they were sent. The report of any teacher gives us an idea of the results. For example: During these 4 months we have not rested. To date we have: a garden with its beehives; a chicken coop with 28 chickens and 10 chicks; corn planted in the intensive agriculture field, with the ears already formed; a small field of chile; a ballground and adequate scholastic materials, with 42 students in the day school and 22 in the night school. Also we have made a thousand adobes that will serve to begin the new school building, and from the produce of our fields, to- gether with the tax of 24 cents paid by the townsfolk and which adds up to 16 pesos a month, we think we will be able to buy for next August our carpentry tools and increase our farming imple- ments. We are looking for some way to have a piece of land that will be school property, big enough for intensive agriculture, be- cause what there is now is too small. The school and the authorities are working together to develop effective social action against alcoholism, which was becoming a local habit, and also are seeking bases for economic independence. For the recreation of the children and townspeople, I have a phono- graph of my own, with which I give them concerts. I hope that as soon as circumstances allow me to do so, I will be able to widen the sphere of my activities. The work of this teacher is typical. The teachers vaccinate, carry on campaigns for cleanliness, organize expositions and fairs; together with their pupils they begin to build roads, bring water to the towns; and, even - with the students themselves doing the work - many thousands of kilometers of telegraph and telephone lines have been strung. One could ask perhaps what kind of school is this where the old people sing in the daytime and the children at night, where there is talk of chickens and rabbits, of cooperatives, of small indus- tries, of vaccinating people, of cutting hair, and in proportion so little of the A B C's. Moises Saenz explains it clearly: "This is a new kind of school, a school that functions in a society where life is still so primitive that the school must assume many of the functions and responsi- 248 The Caribbean In this atmosphere of work and with young enthusiastic teach- ers - professionals truly with a vocation, many of them risen from the fighting ranks of the Revolution, most of them orators - true transformations were achieved in the barren places to which they were sent. The report of any teacher gives us an idea of the results. For example: During these 4 months we have not rested. To date we have: a garden with its beehives; a chicken coop with 28 chickens and 10 chicks; corn planted in the intensive agriculture field, with the ears already formed; a small field of chile; a ballground and adequate scholastic materials, with 42 students in the day school and 22 in the night school. Also we have made a thousand adobes that will serve to begin the new school building, and from the produce of our fields, to- gether with the tax of 24 cents paid by the townsfolk and which adds up to 16 pesos a month, we think we will be able to buy for next August our carpentry tools and increase our farming imple- ments. We are looking for some way to have a piece of land that will be school property, big enough for intensive agriculture, be- cause what there is now is too small. The school and the authorities are working together to develop effective social action against alcoholism, which was becoming a local habit, and also are seeking bases for economic independence. For the recreation of the children and townspeople, I have a phono- graph of my own, with which I give them concerts. I hope that as soon as circumstances allow me to do so, I will be able to widen the sphere of my activities. The work of this teacher is typical. The teachers vaccinate, carry on campaigns for cleanliness, organize expositions and fairs; together with their pupils they begin to build roads, bring water to the towns; and, even - with the students themselves doing the work-many thousands of kilometers of telegraph and telephone lines have been strung. One could ask perhaps what kind of school is this where the old people sing in the daytime and the children at night, where there is talk of chickens and rabbits, of cooperatives, of small indus- tries, of vaccinating people, of cutting hair, and in proportion so little of the A B C's. Moises Saenz explains it clearly: "This is a new kind of school, a school that functions in a society where life is still so primitive that the school must assume many of the functions and responsi- 248 The Caribbean In this atmosphere of work and with young enthusiastic teach- ers - professionals truly with a vocation, many of them risen from the fighting ranks of the Revolution, most of them orators - true transformations were achieved in the barren places to which they were sent. The report of any teacher gives us an idea of the results. For example: During these 4 months we have not rested. To date we have: a garden with its beehives; a chicken coop with 28 chickens and 10 chicks; corn planted in the intensive agriculture field, with the ears already formed; a small field of chile; a ballground and adequate scholastic materials, with 42 students in the day school and 22 in the night school. Also we have made a thousand adobes that will serve to begin the new school building, and from the produce of our fields, to- gether with the tax of 24 cents paid by the townsfolk and which adds up to 16 pesos a month, we think we will be able to buy for next August our carpentry tools and increase our farming imple- ments. We are looking for some way to have a piece of land that will be school property, big enough for intensive agriculture, be- cause what there is now is too small. The school and the authorities are working together to develop effective social action against alcoholism, which was becoming a local habit, and also are seeking bases for economic independence. For the recreation of the children and townspeople, I have a phono- graph of my own, with which I give them concerts. I hope that as soon as circumstances allow me to do so, I will be able to widen the sphere of my activities. The work of this teacher is typical. The teachers vaccinate, carry on campaigns for cleanliness, organize expositions and fairs; together with their pupils they begin to build roads, bring water to the towns; and, even - with the students themselves doing the work - many thousands of kilometers of telegraph and telephone lines have been strung. One could ask perhaps what kind of school is this where the old people sing in the daytime and the children at night, where there is talk of chickens and rabbits, of cooperatives, of small indus- tries, of vaccinating people, of cutting hair, and in proportion so little of the A B C's. Moises Sienz explains it clearly: "This is a new kind of school, a school that functions in a society where life is still so primitive that the school must assume many of the functions and responsi-  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 249 bilities which, in more advanced social groups, would be carried on by other agencies." Its program, moreover, is coherent and unified. It has the unity of life itself, it does not recognize bound- aries to knowledge and skill. There is only one method: to open wide the doors and let life enter in. Reading and writing naturally figure in the programs, but always in subordination to the bigger objectives which are pursued, because the ideal is not just to teach reading and writing, but, to put it simply, to teach how to live. Sienz, who knew the problem to its very roots, since he had studied it in these roots, in its ethnography and peculiar folk psy- chology, gave it his most faithful attention. Following his instruc- tions, Professors Pichardo and Cesar Ruiz formulated a program in October, 1925, with a view to systematizing and coordinating the missions, in order to give them permanence and a secure course of growth. Nurses and social workers were sent to the country, the Secre- tary of Agriculture contributed farming tools, and in 1926 the first Bank for Ejidal Credits was founded. The first six Cultural Mis- sions went out, prepared by the most skillful, unselfish, and devoted teachers, and among them went people who later occupied bril- liant positions of leadership in national life, such as Lie. Ramon Beteta, later Secretary of the Treasury; Dr. Manuel Martinez Biez, later head of the National Institute for Research in Tropical Dis- eases; and many more. The objective was to conquer the people of Mexico by persua- sion and love, and to bring them towards a better life, and to teach four million Indians to speak Spanish, for otherwise they would be mute within our world. One of these missions, in going from place to place, met with a curious experience. This was a mission headed by Moises Sienz himself, and they came to a town called Paracho. They were going to stay two months. It is a place inhabited almost completely by musicians. They themselves make all kinds of instruments and their musical knowledge is handed down from fathers to sons. They have among themselves various musical ensembles and, if all of them were to come together, they would have an immense orches- tra in which all the inhabitants would be participating. Naturally, with such an extraordinary musical ensemble, they compose their own choruses, dances, and songs of strange and delicate melodies. Then there occurred something very odd: the conquering mission- SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 249 bilities which, in more advanced social groups, would be carried on by other agencies." Its program, moreover, is coherent and unified. It has the unity of life itself, it does not recognize bound- aries to knowledge and skill. There is only one method: to open wide the doors and let life enter in. Reading and writing naturally figure in the programs, but always in subordination to the bigger objectives which are pursued, because the ideal is not just to teach reading and writing, but, to put it simply, to teach how to live. Sienz, who knew the problem to its very roots, since he had studied it in these roots, in its ethnography and peculiar folk psy- chology, gave it his most faithful attention. Following his instruec- tions, Professors Pichardo and Cesar Ruiz formulated a program in October, 1925, with a view to systematizing and coordinating the missions, in order to give them permanence and a secure course of growth. Nurses and social workers were sent to the country, the Secre- tary of Agriculture contributed farming tools, and in 1926 the first Bank for Ejidal Credits was founded. The first six Cultural Mis- sions went out, prepared by the most skillful, unselfish, and devoted teachers, and among them went people who later occupied bril- liant positions of leadership in national life, such as Lie. Ramin Beteta, later Secretary of the Treasury; Dr. Manuel Martinez Biez, later head of the National Institute for Research in Tropical Dis- eases; and many more. The objective was to conquer the people of Mexico by persua- sion and love, and to bring them towards a better life, and to teach four million Indians to speak Spanish, for otherwise they would be mute within our world. One of these missions, in going from place to place, met with a curious experience. This was a mission headed by Moises Saenz himself, and they came to a town called Paracho. They were going to stay two months. It is a place inhabited almost completely by musicians. They themselves make all kinds of instruments and their musical knowledge is handed down from fathers to sons. They have among themselves various musical ensembles and, if all of them were to come together, they would have an immense orches- tra in which all the inhabitants would be participating. Naturally, with such an extraordinary musical ensemble, they compose their own choruses, dances, and songs of strange and delicate melodies. Then there occurred something very odd: the conquering mission- SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 249 bilities which, in more advanced social groups, would be carried on by other agencies." Its program, moreover, is coherent and unified. It has the unity of life itself, it does not recognize bound- aries to knowledge and skill. There is only one method: to open wide the doors and let life enter in. Reading and writing naturally figure in the programs, but always in subordination to the bigger objectives which are pursued, because the ideal is not just to teach reading and writing, but, to put it simply, to teach how to live. Saenz, who knew the problem to its very roots, since he had studied it in these roots, in its ethnography and peculiar folk psy- chology, gave it his most faithful attention. Following his instruc- tions, Professors Pichardo and Cesar Ruiz formulated a program in October, 1925, with a view to systematizing and coordinating the missions, in order to give them permanence and a secure course of growth. Nurses and social workers were sent to the country, the Secre- tary of Agriculture contributed farming tools, and in 1926 the first Bank for Ejidal Credits was founded. The first six Cultural Mis- sions went out, prepared by the most skillful, unselfish, and devoted teachers, and among them went people who later occupied bril- liant positions of leadership in national life, such as Lie. Ramdn Beteta, later Secretary of the Treasury; Dr. Manuel Martinez BAez, later head of the National Institute for Research in Tropical Dis- eases; and many more. The objective was to conquer the people of Mexico by persua- sion and love, and to bring them towards a better life, and to teach four million Indians to speak Spanish, for otherwise they would be mute within our world. One of these missions, in going from place to place, met with a curious experience. This was a mission headed by Moisos Sienz himself, and they came to a town called Paracho. They were going to stay two months. It is a place inhabited almost completely by musicians. They themselves make all kinds of instruments and their musical knowledge is handed down from fathers to sons. They have among themselves various musical ensembles and, if all of them were to come together, they would have an immense orches- tra in which all the inhabitants would be participating. Naturally, with such an extraordinary musical ensemble, they compose their own choruses, dances, and songs of strange and delicate melodies. Then there occurred something very odd: the conquering mission-  250 The Caribbean aries ended by being themselves conquered. The mission which was going to stay for two months, remained two years, in which it studied the unusual psychology of these people and collected their abundance of music. All this work began to give visible fruit very soon, the reward for all the sacrifices of those who took part in the dangers of the task, and moreover with no fixed budget. Despite the deficiencies inherent to all beginnings, Mexico acquired in a short time the reputation of a country that had created a system of popular education out of its own needs and energies, and it was soon being studied as an example by others, who, following in these footsteps, founded Cultural Missions in Venezuela, Spain, and so on. III In 1926, during the regime of Minister Puig Casauranc, the department that had this work in its charge was converted into a Department for Rural Education, headed by Professor Ignacio Ramirez, and there was also set up a Direction of Cultural Missions, which was placed in the hands of Rafael Ramirez, a teacher about whose competence and devotion much needs to be said, as well as about those who worked with him and after him. In its beginnings, the rural education campaign was dramatic and also moving. The natural distrust of the neglected Indians, with no faith in the goodness of the aims of this work, often became aggression. But the teachers who were assassinated by the fanatical inhabitants of some places, till then cut off from all edu- cation, have become the inspiration of their colleagues and are venerated by all the leaders of the nation and its writers and artists. There is, for instance, a fine series of woodcuts on this theme by the artist Leopoldo Mendez, and there have been written many ballads about the victims of the rural story. There have been a number of young teachers, moreover, with the capacity to write, who have put down on paper their personal experiences, their adventures and dangers, and a sense of the great and simple beauty of their mission,. I had personal contact with one case which for me was of great human interest. Years ago, when my husband was governor of the State of Nayarit, he was carrying on a very active politico-social educational campaign, in which I had the honor to share. Working 250 The Caribbean aries ended by being themselves conquered. The mission which was going to stay for two months, remained two years, in which it studied the unusual psychology of these people and collected their abundance of music. All this work began to give visible fruit very soon, the reward for all the sacrifices of those who took part in the dangers of the task, and moreover with no fixed budget. Despite the deficiencies inherent to all beginnings, Mexico acquired in a short time the reputation of a country that had created a system of popular education out of its own needs and energies, and it was soon being studied as an example by others, who, following in these footsteps, founded Cultural Missions in Venezuela, Spain, and so on. III In 1926, during the regime of Minister Puig Casauranc, the department that had this work in its charge was converted into a Department for Rural Education, headed by Professor Ignacio Ramirez, and there was also set up a Direction of Cultural Missions, which was placed in the hands of Rafael Ramirez, a teacher about whose competence and devotion much needs to be said, as well as about those who worked with him and after him. In its beginnings, the rural education campaign was dramatic and also moving. The natural distrust of the neglected Indians, with no faith in the goodness of the aims of this work, often became aggression. But the teachers who were assassinated by the fanatical inhabitants of some places, till then cut off from all edu- cation, have become the inspiration of their colleagues and are venerated by all the leaders of the nation and its writers and artists. There is, for instance, a fine series of woodcuts on this theme by the artist Leopoldo Mendez, and there have been written many ballads about the victims of the rural story. There have been a number of young teachers, moreover, with the capacity to write, who have put down on paper their personal experiences, their adventures and dangers, and a sense of the great and simple beauty of their mission. I had personal contact with one case which for me was of great human interest. Years ago, when my husband was governor of the State of Nayarit, he was carrying on a very active politico-social educational campaign, in which I had the honor to share. Working 250 The Caribbean aries ended by being themselves conquered. The mission which was going to stay for two months, remained two years, in which it studied the unusual psychology of these people and collected their abundance of music. All this work began to give visible fruit very soon, the reward for all the sacrifices of those who took part in the dangers of the task, and moreover with no fixed budget. Despite the deficiencies inherent to all beginnings, Mexico acquired in a short time the reputation of a country that had created a system of popular education out of its own needs and energies, and it was soon being studied as an example by others, who, following in these footsteps, founded Cultural Missions in Venezuela, Spain, and so on. III In 1926, during the regime of Minister Puig Casauranc, the department that had this work in its charge was converted into a Department for Rural Education, headed by Professor Ignacio Ramirez, and there was also set up a Direction of Cultural Missions, which was placed in the hands of Rafael Ramirez, a teacher about whose competence and devotion much needs to be said, as well as about those who worked with him and after him. In its beginnings, the rural education campaign was dramatic and also moving. The natural distrust of the neglected Indians, with no faith in the goodness of the aims of this work, often became aggression. But the teachers who were assassinated by the fanatical inhabitants of some places, till then cut off from all edu- cation, have become the inspiration of their colleagues and are venerated by all the leaders of the nation and its writers and artists. There is, for instance, a fine series of woodcuts on this theme by the artist Leopoldo Mendez, and there have been written many ballads about the victims of the rural story. There have been a number of young teachers, moreover, with the capacity to write, who have put down on paper their personal experiences, their adventures and dangers, and a sense of the great and simple beauty of their mission. I had personal contact with one case which for me was of great human interest. Years ago, when my husband was governor of the State of Nayarit, he was carrying on a very active politico-social educational campaign, in which I had the honor to share. Working  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 251 under me in a humble position was a girl named Augustina Mar- tinez. She had not gone further than primary school, but she had a lively, natural intelligence. My husband and I, together with other educational authorities, were particularly interested in the develop- ment of a rural Normal School and in the increase in scope of some of the other rural schools. My husband, complying with one of the principles laid down by the Mexican Revolution, was one of the first to partition and distribute landed estates in our part of the country. Augustina, without my realizing how closely, was an active observer of our work. Later, when my husband's term was finished, and we returned to Mexico City, Augustina asked for my husband's help in obtaining a position as rural teacher, and it was arranged. Some time later we began to get interesting news about her from here and there. The Maestra Augustina had become very popular throughout the sierra because somehow or other she had learned the system of petitioning land for the peasants, and there she was on a good horse, apparently tireless, crossing the sierra back and forth, head- ing groups of peasants to petition for land. She had become a full-fledged social worker, and had learned to plead with under- standing and eloquence, and would return to her mountain happy with the peasant titles to the lands in her pocket. The owners of large estates became her enemies, but the peasants protected and cared for her, and as their head she built a school, a small clinic and workshops, improved the town where she was stationed, helped them with their crops, and, along with all this, also taught her people how to read and write. This is a story that is found often and in many places in our country. IV Today the rural school is recognized as the soul of the com- munity and it carries on a task that it is not exaggerated to call truly heroic, because of the proportion between the available means and the ends it needs to fulfill. The self-sacrificing character of the rural teacher and the admirable temper of the educational missions have supplemented - and will continue to supplement, of this we are sure - the unavoidably limited resources, which the government continually seeks to increase. A further Mexican contribution to the over-all problem of rural SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 251 under me in a humble position was a girl named Augustina Mar- tinez. She had not gone further than primary school, but she had a lively, natural intelligence. My husband and I, together with other educational authorities, were particularly interested in the develop- ment of a rural Normal School and in the increase in scope of some of the other rural schools. My husband, complying with one of the principles laid down by the Mexican Revolution, was one of the first to partition and distribute landed estates in our part of the country. Augustina, without my realizing how closely, was an active observer of our work. Later, when my husband's term was finished, and we returned to Mexico City, Augustina asked for my husband's help in obtaining a position as rural teacher, and it was arranged. Some time later we began to get interesting news about her from here and there. The Maestra Augustina had become very popular throughout the sierra because somehow or other she had learned the system of petitioning land for the peasants, and there she was on a good horse, apparently tireless, crossing the sierra back and forth, head- ing groups of peasants to petition for land. She had become a full-fledged social worker, and had learned to plead with under- standing and eloquence, and would return to her mountain happy with the peasant titles to the lands in her pocket. The owners of large estates became her enemies, but the peasants protected and cared for her, and as their head she built a school, a small clinic and workshops, improved the town where she was stationed, helped them with their crops, and, along with all this, also taught her people how to read and write. This is a story that is found often and in many places in our country. IV Today the rural school is recognized as the soul of the com- munity and it carries on a task that it is not exaggerated to call truly heroic, because of the proportion between the available means and the ends it needs to fulfill. The self-sacrificing character of the rural teacher and the admirable temper of the educational missions have supplemented - and will continue to supplement, of this we are sure - the unavoidably limited resources, which the government continually seeks to increase. A further Mexican contribution to the over-all problem of rural SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 251 under me in a humble position was a girl named Augustina Mar- tinez. She had not gone further than primary school, but she had a lively, natural intelligence. My husband and I, together with other educational authorities, were particularly interested in the develop- ment of a rural Normal School and in the increase in scope of some of the other rural schools. My husband, complying with one of the principles laid down by the Mexican Revolution, was one of the first to partition and distribute landed estates in our part of the country. Augustina, without my realizing how closely, was an active observer of our work. Later, when my husband's term was finished, and we returned to Mexico City, Augustina asked for my husband's help in obtaining a position as rural teacher, and it was arranged. Some time later we began to get interesting news about her from here and there. The Maestra Augustina had become very popular throughout the sierra because somehow or other she had learned the system of petitioning land for the peasants, and there she was on a good horse, apparently tireless, crossing the sierra back and forth, head- ing groups of peasants to petition for land. She had become a full-fledged social worker, and had learned to plead with under- standing and eloquence, and would return to her mountain happy with the peasant titles to the lands in her pocket. The owners of large estates became her enemies, but the peasants protected and cared for her, and as their head she built a school, a small clinic and workshops, improved the town where she was stationed, helped them with their crops, and, along with all this, also taught her people how to read and write. This is a story that is found often and in many places in our country. IV Today the rural school is recognized as the soul of the com- munity and it carries on a task that it is not exaggerated to call truly heroic, because of the proportion between the available means and the ends it needs to fulfill. The self-sacrificing character of the rural teacher and the admirable temper of the educational missions have supplemented - and will continue to supplement, of this we are sure - the unavoidably limited resources, which the government continually seeks to increase. A further Mexican contribution to the over-all problem of rural  252 The Caribbean education is the institutionalization of the Cultural Missions. These now take responsibility for the betterment of living conditions in the rural home, including the teaching of sanitation, the care of farm stock, the development of social life and recreation, and civic education, along with the A B C's. This work is carried out at times by means of motorized units, which have at their disposal vehicles equipped with power plants, small circulating libraries, motion-picture apparatus, collections of film, medical supplies, a workshop for domestic art and another for carpentry and mechan- ics, scholastic material, implements for the care of animals, and sports and recreational equipment. The missions are made up of a director, agricultural technicians, academic teachers, teachers in animal husbandry, workshop instructors, domestic arts teachers, social workers, recreational teachers and leaders, and drivers who are also trained operators of radio and motion-picture apparatus. Another campaign which has opened new horizons for education is that of the building of schools. In a country in which the growth of population constantly outstrips the number of schools, our gov- ernment today follows a most flexible system: that of constructing rooms which are added to the schools as they need them or are the core of new schools. The type of building put up follows a design determined by a new viewpoint, since it does not limit itself to taking care of a given number of children who lack schoolrooms, but also provides living quarters for the teacher and storage space for equipment. The house of the teacher is complete and includes a study and a small medical clinic. We feel that rural education will be the more effective the more we can guarantee to the teacher a way of living worthy of his work and, moreover, the very way in which he lives is itself an example for the whole community. The materials used in the buildings are preferably local, to which are added the resources of regional crafts and the construction materials nationally available. Equipment includes audiovisual appa- ratus, such as a projector, teaching films, a screen, a radio, a rec- ord player, and specialized books. The classroom is so designed that it can be divided by means of low, hygienic screens. This design is the result of special research to find the bottom cost of construction units. Also the possibility of easy transportation of the units or parts most practical to produce in mass was considered. As a starting point, however, each school begins with electric power at its dis- posal, including a generator of its own, if this is necessary. Translu- 252 The Caribbean education is the institutionalization of the Cultural Missions. These now take responsibility for the betterment of living conditions in the rural home, including the teaching of sanitation, the care of farm stock, the development of social life and recreation, and civic education, along with the A B C's. This work is carried out at times by means of motorized units, which have at their disposal vehicles equipped with power plants, small circulating libraries, motion-picture apparatus, collections of film, medical supplies, a workshop for domestic art and another for carpentry and mechan- ics, scholastic material, implements for the care of animals, and sports and recreational equipment. The missions are made up of a director, agricultural technicians, academic teachers, teachers in animal husbandry, workshop instructors, domestic arts teachers, social workers, recreational teachers and leaders, and drivers who are also trained operators of radio and motion-picture apparatus. Another campaign which has opened new horizons for education is that of the building of schools. In a country in which the growth of population constantly outstrips the number of schools, our gov- ernment today follows a most flexible system: that of constructing rooms which are added to the schools as they need them or are the core of new schools. The type of building put up follows a design determined by a new viewpoint, since it does not limit itself to taking care of a given number of children who lack schoolrooms, but also provides living quarters for the teacher and storage space for equipment. The house of the teacher is complete and includes a study and a small medical clinic. We feel that rural education will be the more effective the more we can guarantee to the teacher a way of living worthy of his work and, moreover, the very way in which he lives is itself an example for the whole community. The materials used in the buildings are preferably local, to which are added the resources of regional crafts and the construction materials nationally available. Equipment includes audiovisual appa- ratus, such as a projector, teaching films, a screen, a radio, a rec- ord player, and specialized books. The classroom is so designed that it can be divided by means of low, hygienic screens. This design is the result of special research to find the bottom cost of construction units. Also the possibility of easy transportation of the units or parts most practical to produce in mass was considered. As a starting point, however, each school begins with electric power at its dis- posal, including a generator of its own, if this is necessary. Translu- 252 The Caribbean education is the institutionalization of the Cultural Missions. These now take responsibility for the betterment of living conditions in the rural home, including the teaching of sanitation, the care of farm stock, the development of social life and recreation, and civic education, along with the A B C's. This work is carried out at times by means of motorized units, which have at their disposal vehicles equipped with power plants, small circulating libraries, motion-picture apparatus, collections of film, medical supplies, a workshop for domestic art and another for carpentry and mechan- ics, scholastic material, implements for the care of animals, and sports and recreational equipment. The missions are made up of a director, agricultural technicians, academic teachers, teachers in animal husbandry, workshop instructors, domestic arts teachers, social workers, recreational teachers and leaders, and drivers who are also trained operators of radio and motion-picture apparatus. Another campaign which has opened new horizons for education is that of the building of schools. In a country in which the growth of population constantly outstrips the number of schools, our gov- ernment today follows a most flexible system: that of constructing rooms which are added to the schools as they need them or are the core of new schools. The type of building put up follows a design determined by a new viewpoint, since it does not limit itself to taking care of a given number of children who lack schoolrooms, but also provides living quarters for the teacher and storage space for equipment. The house of the teacher is complete and includes a study and a small medical clinic. We feel that rural education will be the more effective the more we can guarantee to the teacher a way of living worthy of his work and, moreover, the very way in which he lives is itself an example for the whole community. The materials used in the buildings are preferably local, to which are added the resources of regional crafts and the construction materials nationally available. Equipment includes audiovisual appa- ratus, such as a projector, teaching films, a screen, a radio, a rec- ord player, and specialized books. The classroom is so designed that it can be divided by means of low, hygienic screens. This design is the result of special research to find the bottom cost of construction units. Also the possibility of easy transportation of the units or parts most practical to produce in mass was considered. As a starting point, however, each school begins with electric power at its dis- posal, including a generator of its own, if this is necessary. Translu-  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 253 cent plastic often substitutes for glass and at the same time functions as teaching apparatus on which are mounted portraits, maps, illus- trations of daily life, educational drawings, scientific sketches, zoo- logical and botanical specimens, and so on. These classrooms are also equipped with farming tools, child- sized. The blackboard functions at the same time as a screen, which is designed for movie projection in daylight. It is evident that the country school in Mexico has received a great deal of attention for many reasons having to do with our own make-up and history, but also because we are largely an agricul- tural nation and must develop ourselves increasingly in this area. Therefore, it is part and parcel of the school program to give primary importance to farming knowledge and techniques, bringing advanced skill to every farmer and extending the teaching also to adults. This whenever possible also includes teaching the use of farm machinery and goes into related farm industries, such as bee keeping, animal husbandry, grafting, and so on. There are at present in Mexico 18,511 country schools, attended by 2,157,018 students and having 44,420 teachers. We have 28 Normal schools for training rural teachers, and we are at present planning four regional centers to function as day schools in this training. We are planning, as well, to enlarge four of the state Normals. V Mexico's campaign for the eradication of illiteracy has a long and interesting history, which though closely related to the growth of rural education is a separate and equally dramatic story. It begins (for our time) in 1921, when the late great philosopher Jose Vasconcelos was Secretary of Public Education. Under his ener- getic leadership, the task of reducing the appalling proportion of illiteracy was attacked, making imagination and energy often sup- plement the lack of anything material. By 1940, the census gave us a figure of 47.88 per cent of absolute illiteracy, counting from the age of 6 up, which, though it repre- sented a considerable advance over previous figures, was neverthe- less an amount that determined President Avila Camacho to support the initiative of his Secretary of Public Education, Don Jaime Torres Bodet, and decree an Emergency Law on August 24, 1944, in SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 253 cent plastic often substitutes for glass and at the same time functions as teaching apparatus on which are mounted portraits, maps, illus- trations of daily life, educational drawings, scientific sketches, zoo- logical and botanical specimens, and so on. These classrooms are also equipped with farming tools, child- sized. The blackboard functions at the same time as a screen, which is designed for movie projection in daylight. It is evident that the country school in Mexico has received a great deal of attention for many reasons having to do with our own make-up and history, but also because we are largely an agricul- tural nation and must develop ourselves increasingly in this area. Therefore, it is part and parcel of the school program to give primary importance to farming knowledge and techniques, bringing advanced skill to every farmer and extending the teaching also to adults. This whenever possible also includes teaching the use of farm machinery and goes into related farm industries, such as bee keeping, animal husbandry, grafting, and so on. There are at present in Mexico 18,511 country schools, attended by 2,157,018 students and having 44,420 teachers. We have 28 Normal schools for training rural teachers, and we are at present planning four regional centers to function as day schools in this training. We are planning, as well, to enlarge four of the state Normals. V Mexico's campaign for the eradication of illiteracy has a long and interesting history, which though closely related to the growth of rural education is a separate and equally dramatic story. It begins (for our time) in 1921, when the late great philosopher Jose Vasconcelos was Secretary of Public Education. Under his ener- getic leadership, the task of reducing the appalling proportion of illiteracy was attacked, making imagination and energy often sup- plement the lack of anything material. By 1940, the census gave us a figure of 47.88 per cent of absolute illiteracy, counting from the age of 6 up, which, though it repre- sented a considerable advance over previous figures, was neverthe- less an amount that determined President Avila Camacho to support the initiative of his Secretary of Public Education, Don Jaime Torres Bodet, and decree an Emergency Law on August 24, 1944, in SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 253 cent plastic often substitutes for glass and at the same time functions as teaching apparatus on which are mounted portraits, maps, illus- trations of daily life, educational drawings, scientific sketches, zoo- logical and botanical specimens, and so on. These classrooms are also equipped with farming tools, child- sized. The blackboard functions at the same time as a screen, which is designed for movie projection in daylight. It is evident that the country school in Mexico has received a great deal of attention for many reasons having to do with our own make-up and history, but also because we are largely an agricul- tural nation and must develop ourselves increasingly in this area. Therefore, it is part and parcel of the school program to give primary importance to farming knowledge and techniques, bringing advanced skill to every farmer and extending the teaching also to adults. This whenever possible also includes teaching the use of farm machinery and goes into related farm industries, such as bee keeping, animal husbandry, grafting, and so on. There are at present in Mexico 18,511 country schools, attended by 2,157,018 students and having 44,420 teachers. We have 28 Normal schools for training rural teachers, and we are at present planning four regional centers to function as day schools in this training. We are planning, as well, to enlarge four of the state Normals. V Mexico's campaign for the eradication of illiteracy has a long and interesting history, which though closely related to the growth of rural education is a separate and equally dramatic story. It begins (for our time) in 1921, when the late great philosopher Jose Vasconcelos was Secretary of Public Education. Under his ener- getic leadership, the task of reducing the appalling proportion of illiteracy was attacked, making imagination and energy often sup- plement the lack of anything material. By 1940, the census gave us a figure of 47.88 per cent of absolute illiteracy, counting from the age of 6 up, which, though it repre- sented a considerable advance over previous figures, was neverthe- less an amount that determined President Avila Camacho to support the initiative of his Secretary of Public Education, Don Jaime Torres Bodet, and decree an Emergency Law on August 24, 1944, in  254 The Caribbean the name of which "all Mexicans residing in national territory, regardless of gender or occupation, of age over 18 and less than 60, who know how to read and write and are not invalids, are obligated to teach to read and write at least one other inhabitant of the Republic who does not at present know how and who is not inca- pacitated and is of an age between 6 and 40." When the campaign had already begun and the teachers had been integrated into it, there were organized 69,881 Centers of Collective Learning, where 1,440,749 illiterates were taught to read and write. In order to reach by this means also the non-Spanish speaking Indian groups, the Secretary organized a special Institute, which edited bilingual primers in Maya, Tarascan, Otomi, and Nahuatl, and he also trained a special group of rural school teachers in methods suitable for the teaching of Spanish. There was also created a special office which was called the Administration of the National Campaign Against Illiteracy, with several dependencies: technical offices, administrative offices, press, a Literacy Institute for Monolingual groups, and a radio station. State commissions were set up to collaborate with the national direction, and there were printed something like 10 million primers along with other basic textbooks. This first step was followed in 1948, when President AlemAn established the National Office for Literacy and Extra-Curricular Teaching, which, together with the Cultural Missions and the Institute for Literacy in Indian tongues, the army's teaching organization, radio teaching groups, and insti- tutes set up by private initiative, made up the National Office. In the next 10 years, from 1944 to 1954, nearly 3 million illit- erates were taught to read and write and 173 thousand teaching centers were functioning. In 1955 the National Office was reorganized, enlarging the scope of the campaign beyond simple A B C's, in an effort to teach the illiterate not only how to read and write, but also all that could help to draw him into becoming a valuable vehicle for the over-all task of raising the national standard of living. With this aim, the National Office acquired much more audiovisual equipment, includ- ing films that teach the principles of basic education. In various parts of the country, those literacy schools are now being transformed into regular rural primaries, utilizing the co- operation of local, state, or municipal governments, and community 254 The Caribbean the name of which "all Mexicans residing in national territory, regardless of gender or occupation, of age over 18 and less than 60, who know how to read and write and are not invalids, are obligated to teach to read and write at least one other inhabitant of the Republic who does not at present know how and who is not inca- pacitated and is of an age between 6 and 40." When the campaign had already begun and the teachers had been integrated into it, there were organized 69,881 Centers of Collective Learning, where 1,440,749 illiterates were taught to read and write. In order to reach by this means also the non-Spanish speaking Indian groups, the Secretary organized a special Institute, which edited bilingual primers in Maya, Tarascan, Otomi, and Nahuatl, and he also trained a special group of rural school teachers in methods suitable for the teaching of Spanish. There was also created a special office which was called the Administration of the National Campaign Against Illiteracy, with several dependencies: technical offices, administrative offices, press, a Literacy Institute for Monolingual groups, and a radio station. State commissions were set up to collaborate with the national direction, and there were printed something like 10 million primers along with other basic textbooks. This first step was followed in 1948, when President Aleman established the National Office for Literacy and Extra-Curricular Teaching, which, together with the Cultural Missions and the Institute for Literacy in Indian tongues, the army's teaching organization, radio teaching groups, and insti- tutes set up by private initiative, made up the National Office. In the next 10 years, from 1944 to 1954, nearly 39 million illit- erates were taught to read and write and 173 thousand teaching centers were functioning. In 1955 the National Office was reorganized, enlarging the scope of the campaign beyond simple A B C's, in an effort to teach the illiterate not only how to read and write, but also all that could help to draw him into becoming a valuable vehicle for the over-all task of raising the national standard of living. With this aim, the National Office acquired much more audiovisual equipment, includ- ing films that teach the principles of basic education. In various parts of the country, those literacy schools are now being transformed into regular rural primaries, utilizing the co- operation of local, state, or municipal governments, and community 254 The Caribbean the name of which "all Mexicans residing in national territory, regardless of gender or occupation, of age over 18 and less than 60, who know how to read and write and are not invalids, are obligated to teach to read and write at least one other inhabitant of the Republic who does not at present know how and who is not inca- pacitated and is of an age between 6 and 40." When the campaign had already begun and the teachers had been integrated into it, there were organized 69,881 Centers of Collective Learning, where 1,440,749 illiterates were taught to read and write. In order to reach by this means also the non-Spanish speaking Indian groups, the Secretary organized a special Institute, which edited bilingual primers in Maya, Tarascan, Otomi, and Nahuatl, and he also trained a special group of rural school teachers in methods suitable for the teaching of Spanish. There was also created a special office which was called the Administration of the National Campaign Against Illiteracy, with several dependencies: technical offices, administrative offices, press, a Literacy Institute for Monolingual groups, and a radio station. State commissions were set up to collaborate with the national direction, and there were printed something like 10 million primers along with other basic textbooks. This first step was followed in 1948, when President Aleman established the National Office for Literacy and Extra-Curricular Teaching, which, together with the Cultural Missions and the Institute for Literacy in Indian tongues, the army's teaching organization, radio teaching groups, and insti- tutes set up by private initiative, made up the National Office. In the next 10 years, from 1944 to 1954, nearly 31 million illit- erates were taught to read and write and 173 thousand teaching centers were functioning. In 1955 the National Office was reorganized, enlarging the scope of the campaign beyond simple A B C's, in an effort to teach the illiterate not only how to read and write, but also all that could help to draw him into becoming a valuable vehicle for the over-all task of raising the national standard of living. With this aim, the National Office acquired much more audiovisual equipment, includ- ing films that teach the principles of basic education. In various parts of the country, those literacy schools are now being transformed into regular rural primaries, utilizing the co- operation of local, state, or municipal governments, and community  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 255 effort. We still carry on some work of simple A B C teaching, in charge of approximately 4,000 instructors, who receive a small state salary. The major part of our work in this area, however, has now been enlarged to include all that which can help primarily the economic, moral, and social improvement of family life: improvement of living quarters, of nutrition, clothing, utilization of leisure time, recreation, and in all make for a better life. Not long ago, the fifteenth anniversary of the Literacy Campaign was celebrated. It is a happy coincidence that Dr. Torres Bodet, who launched it, is today again Minister of Education. He com- memorated the occasion by saying: We consider it indispensable to encourage not only the teaching body, but all the citizens to return to that mood of all-out national cooperation invoked by the Law of 1944. Unfortunately illiteracy has not been wiped out. And although its true size will be known with accuracy only when we have the results of the 1960 census, it is proper to state that, however intense our educational work has been, the increase of population has also been great. Given the number - still inadequate - of the primary schools in the Republic, the size of this increase implies for us a constant threat, namely that the rhythm of population growth be greater than the rhythm of preparation of our new generations. It is urgent, therefore, to keep alive the popular action first tried in 1944 and see to it that now, as then, all Mexicans share in it, who can grasp it with true unselfishness. In order to facilitate this partition within the norm laid down by directives authorized to implement the law of August, 1944, we have decided to promote the creation of new committees for literacy, both local and regional. I am thinking now about what was done and can be done anew - by the unions and the business firms, the students and the pro- fessionals, and, above all, the women, hundreds of thousands of women of unbounded goodness. In the cities and even in the tiny villages, there are feminine groups that could set aside certain hours each day on given days a week, to teach reading and writing to those who are still illiterate. Such groups are destined to occupy in this new campaign a place of honor. The zones, where the scarcity of schools and the difficulty of organizing proper committees for literacy impose a more systematic and arduous task, will from today on, be serviced by five new motorized cultural missions. Each of these will have at its disposal a power plant, circulating library, projector, medical supplies, films, SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 255 effort. We still carry on some work of simple A B C teaching, in charge of approximately 4,000 instructors, who receive a small state salary. The major part of our work in this area, however, has now been enlarged to include all that which can help primarily the economic, moral, and social improvement of family life: improvement of living quarters, of nutrition, clothing, utilization of leisure time, recreation, and in all make for a better life. Not long ago, the fifteenth anniversary of the Literacy Campaign was celebrated. It is a happy coincidence that Dr. Torres Bodet, who launched it, is today again Minister of Education. He com- memorated the occasion by saying: We consider it indispensable to encourage not only the teaching body, but all the citizens to return to that mood of all-out national cooperation invoked by the Law of 1944. Unfortunately illiteracy has not been wiped out. And although its true size will be known with accuracy only when we have the results of the 1960 census, it is proper to state that, however intense our educational work has been, the increase of population has also been great. Given the number - still inadequate - of the primary schools in the Republic, the size of this increase implies for us a constant threat, namely that the rhythm of population growth be greater than the rhythm of preparation of our new generations. It is urgent, therefore, to keep alive the popular action first tried in 1944 and see to it that now, as then, all Mexicans share in it, who can grasp it with true unselfishness. In order to facilitate this partition within the norm laid down by directives authorized to implement the law of August, 1944, we have decided to promote the creation of new committees for literacy, both local and regional. I am thinking now about what was done and can be done anew -by the unions and the business firms, the students and the pro- fessionals, and, above all, the women, hundreds of thousands of women of unbounded goodness. In the cities and even in the tiny villages, there are feminine groups that could set aside certain hours each day on given days a week, to teach reading and writing to those who are still illiterate. Such groups are destined to occupy in this new campaign a place of honor. The zones, where the scarcity of schools and the difficulty of organizing proper committees for literacy impose a more systematic and arduous task, will from today on, be serviced by five new motorized cultural missions. Each of these will have at its disposal a power plant, circulating library, projector, medical supplies, films, SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 255 effort. We still carry on some work of simple A B C teaching, in charge of approximately 4,000 instructors, who receive a small state salary. The major part of our work in this area, however, has now been enlarged to include all that which can help primarily the economic, moral, and social improvement of family life: improvement of living quarters, of nutrition, clothing, utilization of leisure time, recreation, and in all make for a better life. Not long ago, the fifteenth anniversary of the Literacy Campaign was celebrated. It is a happy coincidence that Dr. Torres Bodet, who launched it, is today again Minister of Education. He com- memorated the occasion by saying: We consider it indispensable to encourage not only the teaching body, but all the citizens to return to that mood of all-out national cooperation invoked by the Law of 1944. Unfortunately illiteracy has not been wiped out. And although its true size will be known with accuracy only when we have the results of the 1960 census, it is proper to state that, however intense our educational work has been, the increase of population has also been great. Given the number - still inadequate - of the primary schools in the Republic, the size of this increase implies for us a constant threat, namely that the rhythm of population growth be greater than the rhythm of preparation of our new generations. It is urgent, therefore, to keep alive the popular action first tried in 1944 and see to it that now, as then, all Mexicans share in it, who can grasp it with true unselfishness. In order to facilitate this partition within the norm laid down by directives authorized to implement the law of August, 1944, we have decided to promote the creation of new committees for literacy, both local and regional. I am thinking now about what was done and can be done anew - by the unions and the business firms, the students and the pro- fessionals, and, above all, the women, hundreds of thousands of women of unbounded goodness. In the cities and even in the tiny villages, there are feminine groups that could set aside certain hours each day on given days a week, to teach reading and writing to those who are still illiterate. Such groups are destined to occupy in this new campaign a place of honor. The zones, where the scarcity of schools and the difficulty of organizing proper committees for literacy impose a more systematic and arduous task, will from today on, be serviced by five new motorized cultural missions. Each of these will have at its disposal a power plant, circulating library, projector, medical supplies, films,  256 The Caribbean workshops, and recreation and sports equipment, together with the necessary personnel. And he added: As I have been saying over and over in the past few months, we do not want to be a country with millions of illiterates, but neither do we want to be a country with millions of "literates" who lack true schooling. This is why we have chosen this anniversary to remind ourselves of the essential task: to train teachers and build classrooms. The government has developed - and is daily developing - intensive activity for primary education. But we need to offer further proof of our will to contribute to the betterment of that school which needs our support the most, and that is the humble and admirable rural school. VI So this is the story. This is the present point we have reached in the history of the fight for literacy and for rural education in Mexico. Only the purest realistic sense of life, the obsession with one's work which places the dream always at an unreachable height, impels mankind to pick up and carry through tasks close both to the earth and to the spirit. The achievement that has already been realized is worthy of great admiration. Those who have participated in it, have done so in a spirt of self-sacrifice, of unselfishness and true love. One must see close up the teachers who have given up the comforts of the city and who live austerely, sharing the sadnesses and the poverty of the peasants, making their lives more worth living, and binging in their own selves a token of civilization. The problem of rural education under such conditions is not unique to Mexico, but is found in all countries with conditions similar to ours. To attack and resolve it, the same elements every- where are indispensable, above all the right human material: men and women with a true sense of selflessness, whose thoughts focus first on their people. The profession of rural school teacher is one for apostles or for poets. The first will find within it a field without end in which to do what is good, and the second the means whereby they come truly in contact with Nature and mankind, the eternal sources of wisdom, beauty, and the arts. 256 The Caribbean workshops, and recreation and sports equipment, together with the necessary personnel. And he added: As I have been saying over and over in the past few months, we do not want to be a country with millions of illiterates, but neither do we want to be a country with millions of "literates" who lack true schooling. This is why we have chosen this anniversary to remind ourselves of the essential task: to train teachers and build classrooms. The government has developed - and is daily developing - intensive activity for primary education. But we need to offer further proof of our will to contribute to the betterment of that school which needs our support the most, and that is the humble and admirable rural school. VI So this is the story. This is the present point we have reached in the history of the fight for literacy and for rural education in Mexico. Only the purest realistic sense of life, the obsession with one's work which places the dream always at an unreachable height, impels mankind to pick up and carry through tasks close both to the earth and to the spirit. The achievement that has already been realized is worthy of great admiration. Those who have participated in it, have done so in a spirt of self-sacrifice, of unselfishness and true love. One must see close up the teachers who have given up the comforts of the city and who live austerely, sharing the sadnesses and the poverty of the peasants, making their lives more worth living, and bringing in their own selves a token of civilization. The problem of rural education under such conditions is not unique to Mexico, but is found in all countries with conditions similar to ours. To attack and resolve it, the same elements every- where are indispensable, above all the right human material: men and women with a true sense of selflessness, whose thoughts focus first on their people. The profession of rural school teacher is one for apostles or for poets. The first will find within it a field without end in which to do what is good, and the second the means whereby they come truly in contact with Nature and mankind, the eternal sources of wisdom, beauty, and the arts. 256 The Caribbean workshops, and recreation and sports equipment, together with the necessary personnel. And he added: As I have been saying over and over in the past few months, we do not want to be a country with millions of illiterates, but neither do we want to be a country with millions of "literates" who lack true schooling. This is why we have chosen this anniversary to remind ourselves of the essential task: to train teachers and build classrooms. The government has developed - and is daily developing - intensive activity for primary education. But we need to offer further proof of our will to contribute to the betterment of that school which needs our support the most, and that is the humble and admirable rural school. VI So this is the story. This is the present point we have reached in the history of the fight for literacy and for rural education in Mexico. Only the purest realistic sense of life, the obsession with one's work which places the dream always at an unreachable height, impels mankind to pick up and carry through tasks close both to the earth and to the spirit. The achievement that has already been realized is worthy of great admiration. Those who have participated in it, have done so in a spirt of self-sacrifice, of unselfishness and true love. One must see close up the teachers who have given up the comforts of the city and who live austerely, sharing the sadnesses and the poverty of the peasants, making their lives more worth living, and bringing in their own selves a token of civilization. The problem of rural education under such conditions is not unique to Mexico, but is found in all countries with conditions similar to ours. To attack and resolve it, the same elements every- where are indispensable, above all the right human material: men and women with a true sense of selflessness, whose thoughts focus first on their people. The profession of rural school teacher is one for apostles or for poets. The first will find within it a field without end in which to do what is good, and the second the means whereby they come truly in contact with Nature and mankind, the eternal sources of wisdom, beauty, and the arts.  20 20 20 eraT Jaime Samper Ortega: THE PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN COLOMBIA ALTHOUGH SOME OF the speakers have already referred to it, let me begin with a short exposition of the historical background which is common to all countries in Latin America. You will recall that the entire organizational setup of Latin America, from the days of its first colonization by the Spaniards to well after the period of emancipation, bore the imprint of the dual principle of church and state. The state, represented by the mili- tary element of the conquest, proposed to take care of all matters pertaining to the organization and administration of the newly con- quered territories, while the representatives of the religious orders who accompanied the conquerors dedicated themselves to the Christianization of the native and the intellectual formation of the young. This latter aim was achieved through the founding of schools in which we can already discern the beginning of an organization that later developed into universities. We need not dwell here on the outstanding merits of the church in the field of education and the great contributions made by the religious orders. Sufficient to say that they established the base from which, towards the end of the eighteenth century, a movement sprang which was decisive in the life of the country. It was this movement integrated by students and educators that led directly to the independence of Colombia in the lrst decades of the nineteenth century. 257 Jaime Samper Ortega: THE PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN COLOMBIA ALTHOUGH SOME OF the speakers have already referred to it, let me begin with a short exposition of the historical background which is common to all countries in Latin America. You will recall that the entire organizational setup of Latin America, from the days of its first colonization by the Spaniards to well after the period of emancipation, bore the imprint of the dual principle of church and state. The state, represented by the mili- tary element of the conquest, proposed to take care of all matters pertaining to the organization and administration of the newly con- quered territories, while the representatives of the religious orders who accompanied the conquerors dedicated themselves to the Christianization of the native and the intellectual formation of the young. This latter aim was achieved through the founding of schools in which we can already discern the beginning of an organization that later developed into universities. We need not dwell here on the outstanding merits of the church in the field of education and the great contributions made by the religious orders. Sufficient to say that they established the base from which, towards the end of the eighteenth century, a movement sprang which was decisive in the life of the country. It was this movement integrated by students and educators that led directly to the independence of Colombia in the first decades of the nineteenth century. 257 Jaime Samper Ortega: THE PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN COLOMBIA ALTHOUGH SOME OF the speakers have already referred to it, let me begin with a short exposition of the historical background which is common to all countries in Latin America. You will recall that the entire organizational setup of Latin America, from the days of its first colonization by the Spaniards to well after the period of emancipation, bore the imprint of the dual principle of church and state. The state, represented by the mili- tary element of the conquest, proposed to take care of all matters pertaining to the organization and administration of the newly con- quered territories, while the representatives of the religious orders who accompanied the conquerors dedicated themselves to the Christianization of the native and the intellectual formation of the young. This latter aim was achieved through the founding of schools in which we can already discern the beginning of an organization that later developed into universities. We need not dwell here on the outstanding merits of the church in the field of education and the great contributions made by the religious orders. Sufficient to say that they established the base from which, towards the end of the eighteenth century, a movement sprang which was decisive in the life of the country. It was this movement integrated by students and educators that led directly to the independence of Colombia in the first decades of the nineteenth century. 257  258 The Caribbean Once this independence was achieved, the state under the lead- ership of its civilian founder, Francisco de Paula Santander, gave its attention to education. Some high schools and institutes were established which, beside their training in the sciences and human- ities, also took upon themselves the intellectual formation of the new generations in the budding Republic. Thus, an important con- tribution was made in the field of education which is symbolized by the fact that many of the Colombian presidents were first of all teachers and that several among them kept on giving classes in the presidential palace from where they were directing the business of the country. But it is only now in our century that a real concern for the transformation and democratization of education in Colombia is taking place. The government has done a good deal in the estab- lishing of primary schools throughout the country, the so-called cultura aldeana (village culture movement). Some facilities were offered by the government to students of normal schools - the fore- runners of the teachers colleges - and to the high school students who, although in small numbers, can enjoy their education free of charge. In the same spirit the universities were helped by the gov- ernment to carry out new programs with special emphasis on diversification of professional careers. This happened in Colombia, but a similar pattern of democrati- zation and diversification in education can be observed in other Latin American countries. There are, of course, differences between these countries due to the character of their inhabitants but Colom- bia showed very early a certain predilection or affinity for edu- cation. II It is therefore in keeping with the national character of Colombia, that we have in our country, with a total population around the 13 million mark, 28 schools of higher learning. These are called univer- sities for the simple reason that our high schools are called colegios (colleges). In reality, the great majority of Colombian universities do not go beyond the college level in their educational programs. There are very few facilities available for graduate studies, even in those professions that can be studied within the country. Conse- quently, students who wish to go beyond the B.A. or B.Sc. level 258 The Caribbean Once this independence was achieved, the state under the lead- ership of its civilian founder, Francisco de Paula Santander, gave its attention to education. Some high schools and institutes were established which, beside their training in the sciences and human- ities, also took upon themselves the intellectual formation of the new generations in the budding Republic. Thus, an important con- tribution was made in the field of education which is symbolized by the fact that many of the Colombian presidents were frst of all teachers and that several among them kept on giving classes in the presidential palace from where they were directing the business of the country. But it is only now in our century that a real concern for the transformation and democratization of education in Colombia is taking place. The government has done a good deal in the estab- lishing of primary schools throughout the country, the so-called cultura aldeana (village culture movement). Some facilities were offered by the government to students of normal schools - the fore- runners of the teachers colleges - and to the high school students who, although in small numbers, can enjoy their education free of charge. In the same spirit the universities were helped by the gov- ernment to carry out new programs with special emphasis on diversification of professional careers. This happened in Colombia, but a similar pattern of democrati- zation and diversifleation in education can be observed in other Latin American countries. There are, of course, differences between these countries due to the character of their inhabitants but Colom- bia showed very early a certain predilection or affinity for edu- cation. II It is therefore in keeping with the national character of Colombia, that we have in our country, with a total population around the 13 million mark, 23 schools of higher learning. These are called univer- sities for the simple reason that our high schools are called colegios (colleges). In reality, the great majority of Colombian universities do not go beyond the college level in their educational programs. There are very few facilities available for graduate studies, even in those professions that can be studied within the country. Conse- quently, students who wish to go beyond the B.A. or B.Sc. level 258 The Caribbean Once this independence was achieved, the state under the lead- ership of its civilian founder, Francisco de Paula Santander, gave its attention to education. Some high schools and institutes were established which, beside their training in the sciences and human- ities, also took upon themselves the intellectual formation of the new generations in the budding Republic. Thus, an important con- tribution was made in the field of education which is symbolized by the fact that many of the Colombian presidents were first of all teachers and that several among them kept on giving classes in the presidential palace from where they were directing the business of the country. But it is only now in our century that a real concern for the transformation and democratization of education in Colombia is taking place. The government has done a good deal in the estab- lishing of primary schools throughout the country, the so-called cultura aldeana (village culture movement). Some facilities were offered by the government to students of normal schools - the fore- runners of the teachers colleges - and to the high school students who, although in small numbers, can enjoy their education free of charge. In the same spirit the universities were helped by the gov- ernment to carry out new programs with special emphasis on diversification of professional careers. This happened in Colombia, but a similar pattern of democrati- zation and diversification in education can be observed in other Latin American countries. There are, of course, differences between these countries due to the character of their inhabitants but Colom- bia showed very early a certain predilection or affinity for edu- cation. II It is therefore in keeping with the national character of Colombia, that we have in our country, with a total population around the 13 million mark, 28 schools of higher learning. These are called univer- sities for the simple reason that our high schools are called colegios (colleges). In reality, the great majority of Colombian universities do not go beyond the college level in their educational programs. There are very few facilities available for graduate studies, even in those professions that can be studied within the country. Conse- quently, students who wish to go beyond the B.A. or B.Sc. level  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 259 in Colombia must look for opportunities outside their own country, and go to the United States or to Europe in order to complete their studies. This is particularly true in the field of technology and the sciences. I need not draw your attention to the obvious fact that study abroad for a Colombian - or almost any Latin American - is very costly indeed, due to the unfavorable exchange rate. As a result, relatively few Colombians can afford to go beyond the college level in their education and this, in turn, constitutes one of the main difficulties for the development of higher education. To give a good education we need adequately prepared teachers and these are difficult to come by. I am fully aware that this situation prevails all over the world today for the simple reason that schools, on the whole, cannot afford to pay a man with the necessary qualifications the same salary that industry is able to offer the same man. But in Colombia the situation is much more acute than, say, in the United States, because we in Colombia are only at the beginning of our educational development and do not have the personnel to man our schools of higher learning which, in turn, prepare new teachers and scientists for the education of future generations. III What can be done to remedy this serious and, I would say, alarming situation? In the last ten years determined efforts have been made to foster the preparation of both teachers and professionals outside Colombia. Foremost in this field has been the work of Instituto Colombiano de Especializacidn Tecnica en el Exterior - an official Colombian insti- tution for the specialized training of graduate students abroad, which on the basis of long-term loans enables Colombian graduate students to go abroad and receive advanced training. Through the creation of ICETEX, study abroad, formerly the privilege of the wealthy, has become available to anyone, regardless of income, as long as he shows talent and an earnest desire to learn. Originally the government set up ICETEX with a capital of 100,- 000 pesos but today after seven years, its holdings exceed the 10 mil- lion mark. Besides that, several companies and institutions, official and private, have created special funds in ICETEX for the prepara- tion of their employees and for the training of their students to in- SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 259 in Colombia must look for opportunities outside their own country, and go to the United States or to Europe in order to complete their studies. This is particularly true in the field of technology and the sciences. I need not draw your attention to the obvious fact that study abroad for a Colombian - or almost any Latin American - is very costly indeed, due to the unfavorable exchange rate. As a result, relatively few Colombians can afford to go beyond the college level in their education and this, in turn, constitutes one of the main difficulties for the development of higher education. To give a good education we need adequately prepared teachers and these are difficult to come by. I am fully aware that this. situation prevails all over the world today for the simple reason that schools, on the whole, cannot afford to pay a man with the necessary qualifications the same salary that industry is able to offer the same man. But in Colombia the situation is much more acute than, say, in the United States, because we in Colombia are only at the beginning of our educational development and do not have the personnel to man our schools of higher learning which, in turn, prepare new teachers and scientists for the education of future generations. III What can be done to remedy this serious and, I would say, alarming situation? In the last ten years determined efforts have been made to foster the preparation of both teachers and professionals outside Colombia. Foremost in this field has been the work of Instituto Colombiano de Especializacion Tecnica en el Exterior - an official Colombian insti- tution for the specialized training of graduate students abroad, which on the basis of long-term loans enables Colombian graduate students to go abroad and receive advanced training. Through the creation of ICETEX, study abroad, formerly the privilege of the wealthy, has become available to anyone, regardless of income, as long as he shows talent and an earnest desire to learn. Originally the government set up ICETEX with a capital of 100,- 000 pesos but today after seven years, its holdings exceed the 10 mil- lion mark. Besides that, several companies and institutions, official and private, have created special funds in ICETEX for the prepara- tion of their employees and for the training of their students to in- SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 259 in Colombia must look for opportunities outside their own country, and go to the United States or to Europe in order to complete their studies. This is particularly true in the field of technology and the sciences. I need not draw your attention to the obvious fact that study abroad for a Colombian - or almost any Latin American - is very costly indeed, due to the unfavorable exchange rate. As a result, relatively few Colombians can afford to go beyond the college level in their education and this, in turn, constitutes one of the main difficulties for the development of higher education. To give a good education we need adequately prepared teachers and these are difficult to come by. I am fully aware that this situation prevails all over the world today for the simple reason that schools, on the whole, cannot afford to pay a man with the necessary qualifications the same salary that industry is able to offer the same man. But in Colombia the situation is much more acute than, say, in the United States, because we in Colombia are only at the beginning of our educational development and do not have the personnel to man our schools of higher learning which, in turn, prepare new teachers and scientists for the education of future generations. III What can be done to remedy this serious and, I would say, alarming situation? In the last ten years determined efforts have been made to foster the preparation of both teachers and professionals outside Colombia. Foremost in this field has been the work of Instituto Colombiano de Especializacidn Tecnica en el Exterior - an official Colombian insti- tution for the specialized training of graduate students abroad, which on the basis of long-term loans enables Colombian graduate students to go abroad and receive advanced training. Through the creation of ICETEX, study abroad, formerly the privilege of the wealthy, has become available to anyone, regardless of income, as long as he shows talent and an earnest desire to learn. Originally the government set up ICETEX with a capital of 100,- 000 pesos but today after seven years, its holdings exceed the 10 mil- lion mark. Besides that, several companies and institutions, official and private, have created special funds in ICETEX for the prepara- tion of their employees and for the training of their students to in-  260 The Caribbean sure thereby that in the future they would be able to have an ade- quately trained and specialized staff. The University of the Andes, for instance, agreed to create a 2 million peso fund within the framework of ICETEX which is being used to finance the study-abroad program of the University, which I will explain in a minute. Since its founding, ICETEX has helped over 4,500 Colombian stu- dents to study abroad, with emphasis in those fields which are not available in the country. This, in theory at least, would mean that each year 680 people return to Colombia with advanced training, from whom the Colombian universities could recruit their person- nel. But, as mentioned before, the competition with industries and commercial companies is very stiff indeed because of the incompar- ably higher remuneration offered. Only the person with a true vocation for teaching would come to the universities and this type of vocation is rare. Also it must be recognized that a country like Colombia, which is now at the threshold of its industrial develop- ment, needs properly trained personnel as badly as do the schools of higher learning. Private industry in Colombia has, therefore, been most generous with its help for education by means of schol- arships and other donations for equipment, laboratories, and the like. The scarcity of equipment, teachers, laboratories, and libraries gave rise in the year 1951 to another system of facilitating study abroad for Colombians. This happened in the University of the Andes which, then only two years old, realized that its School of Engineering was seriously handicapped by the lack of laboratory and teachers for the two final years of the undergraduate program in engineering. An agreement was reached with the University of Illinois that students from the Andes might transfer from the Andes to Illinois without any special examinations and continue their stud- ies through their Junior and Senior years at that school. This system, known today as the 3-2 program, was very successful and was soon extended to other schools in the United States which offered their collaboration to the University of the Andes. Among them are the universities of Pittsburgh, Texas, Bradley, Notre Dame, and others. These universities in the United States receive transfer students from the Andes who, in many cases, after finishing their undergrad- uate work go on to take their Master's and their Ph.D. degrees. The system is unique as it offers the student who enters the Andes 260 The Caribbean 260 The Caribbean sure thereby that in the future they would be able to have an ade- quately trained and specialized staff. The University of the Andes, for instance, agreed to create a 2 million peso fund within the framework of ICETEX which is being used to finance the study-abroad program of the University, which I will explain in a minute. Since its founding, ICETEX has helped over 4,500 Colombian stu- dents to study abroad, with emphasis in those fields which are not available in the country. This, in theory at least, would mean that each year 680 people return to Colombia with advanced training, from whom the Colombian universities could recruit their person- nel. But, as mentioned before, the competition with industries and commercial companies is very stiff indeed because of the incompar- ably higher remuneration offered. Only the person with a true vocation for teaching would come to the universities and this type of vocation is rare. Also it must be recognized that a country like Colombia, which is now at the threshold of its industrial develop- ment, needs properly trained personnel as badly as do the schools of higher learning. Private industry in Colombia has, therefore, been most generous with its help for education by means of schol- arships and other donations for equipment, laboratories, and the like. The scarcity of equipment, teachers, laboratories, and libraries gave rise in the year 1951 to another system of facilitating study abroad for Colombians. This happened in the University of the Andes which, then only two years old, realized that its School of Engineering was seriously handicapped by the lack of laboratory and teachers for the two final years of the undergraduate program in engineering. An agreement was reached with the University of Illinois that students from the Andes might transfer from the Andes to Illinois without any special examinations and continue their stud- ies through their Junior and Senior years at that school. This system, known today as the 3-2 program, was very successful and was soon extended to other schools in the United States which offered their collaboration to the University of the Andes. Among them are the universities of Pittsburgh, Texas, Bradley, Notre Dame, and others. These universities in the United States receive transfer students from the Andes who, in many cases, after finishing their undergrad- uate work go on to take their Master's and their Ph.D. degrees. The system is unique as it offers the student who enters the Andes sure thereby that in the future they would be able to have an ade- quately trained and specialized staff. The University of the Andes, for instance, agreed to create a 2 million peso fund within the framework of ICETEX which is being used to finance the study-abroad program of the University, which I will explain in a minute. Since its founding, ICETEX has helped over 4,500 Colombian stu- dents to study abroad, with emphasis in those fields which are not available in the country. This, in theory at least, would mean that each year 630 people return to Colombia with advanced training, from whom the Colombian universities could recruit their person- nel. But, as mentioned before, the competition with industries and commercial companies is very stiff indeed because of the incompar- ably higher remuneration offered. Only the person with a true vocation for teaching would come to the universities and this type of vocation is rare. Also it must be recognized that a country like Colombia, which is now at the threshold of its industrial develop- ment, needs properly trained personnel as badly as do the schools of higher learning. Private industry in Colombia has, therefore, been most generous with its help for education by means of schol- arships and other donations for equipment, laboratories, and the like. The scarcity of equipment, teachers, laboratories, and libraries gave rise in the year 1951 to another system of facilitating study abroad for Colombians. This happened in the University of the Andes which, then only two years old, realized that its School of Engineering was seriously handicapped by the lack of laboratory and teachers for the two final years of the undergraduate program in engineering. An agreement was reached with the University of Illinois that students from the Andes might transfer from the Andes to Illinois without any special examinations and continue their stud- ies through their Junior and Senior years at that school. This system, known today as the 3-2 program, was very successful and was soon extended to other schools in the United States which offered their collaboration to the University of the Andes. Among them are the universities of Pittsburgh, Texas, Bradley, Notre Dame, and others. These universities in the United States receive transfer students from the Andes who, in many cases, after finishing their undergrad- uate work go on to take their Master's and their Ph.D. degrees. The system is unique as it offers the student who enters the Andes  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 251 an opportunity to study in two different countries as a matter of routine, regardless of his economic situation, as the expense of study abroad is financed by a rotating loan fund established by the Uni- versity of the Andes. Loans under this plan are complementary, that is to say they cover the amount which the student or his family is unable to raise on their own. Frequently the economic situation of the student demands a total loan, but about 60 per cent of the students are able to contribute something towards the total cost. These loans are paid back by the student once he has finished his studies and is gainfully employed. So far 135 engineering grad- uates, eight economists, and one architect have returned to Colom- bia under this plan. The system has been in operation for over eight years and has shown excellent results not only because of the technical training which these students receive but also because of the imprint made on the students' general outlook by the two years that he spends abroad. The University of the Andes thereby makes a contribution to the country's dire need for adequately trained personnel, even though numerically this contribution is limited today to about 30 young graduates per year in the field of engineering. Special effort is made by the University of the Andes to stimulate graduate studies abroad with a view to training teachers. Grants are offered to those who will dedicate themselves to the teaching profession, but, in the last analysis, this is again a purely economic problem as the funds to foster such a program are almost nonexistent. The youngest entity in Colombia founded to help solve the financial difficulties of higher education is the Fondo Universitario Nacional. This came into being in the year 1954 and was reorgan- ized in 1958 as an adjunct of the Association of Colombian Univer- sities, founded in 1957. While the Association, which is the result of the harmonious collaboration of all Colombian universities, is primarily concerned with the study of the general problems and policies of higher education in Colombia, the Fondo Universitario is its working organ, which specifically deals with financial problems affecting the universities as a whole. Each Colombian university contributes to the Fondo Universitario, while the National govern- ment gives an annual subsidy. The specific functions of the Fondo Universitario are to foster research in education and methodology, to publish textbooks and other publications bearing on education, to foment and finance visits of Colombian scholars to educational SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 261 an opportunity to study in two different countries as a matter of routine, regardless of his economic situation, as the expense of study abroad is financed by a rotating loan fund established by the Uni- versity of the Andes. Loans under this plan are complementary, that is to say they cover the amount which the student or his family is unable to raise on their own. Frequently the economic situation of the student demands a total loan, but about 60 per cent of the students are able to contribute something towards the total cost. These loans are paid back by the student once he has finished his studies and is gainfully employed. So far 135 engineering grad- uates, eight economists, and one architect have returned to Colom- bia under this plan. The system has been in operation for over eight years and has shown excellent results not only because of the technical training which these students receive but also because of the imprint made on the students' general outlook by the two years that he spends abroad. The University of the Andes thereby makes a contribution to the country's dire need for adequately trained personnel, even though numerically this contribution is limited today to about 30 young graduates per year in the field of engineering. Special effort is made by the University of the Andes to stimulate graduate studies abroad with a view to training teachers. Grants are offered to those who will dedicate themselves to the teaching profession, but, in the last analysis, this is again a purely economic problem as the funds to foster such a program are almost nonexistent. The youngest entity in Colombia founded to help solve the financial difficulties of higher education is the Fondo Universitario Nacional. This came into being in the year 1954 and was reorgan- ized in 1958 as an adjunct of the Association of Colombian Univer- sities, founded in 1957. While the Association, which is the result of the harmonious collaboration of all Colombian universities, is primarily concerned with the study of the general problems and policies of higher education in Colombia, the Fondo Universitario is its working organ, which specifically deals with financial problems affecting the universities as a whole. Each Colombian university contributes to the Fondo Universitario, while the National govern- ment gives an annual subsidy. The specific functions of the Fondo Universitario are to foster research in education and methodology, to publish textbooks and other publications bearing on education, to foment and finance visits of Colombian scholars to educational SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 261 an opportunity to study in two different countries as a matter of routine, regardless of his economic situation, as the expense of study abroad is financed by a rotating loan fund established by the Uni- versity of the Andes. Loans under this plan are complementary, that is to say they cover the amount which the student or his family is unable to raise on their own. Frequently the economic situation of the student demands a total loan, but about 60 per cent of the students are able to contribute something towards the total cost. These loans are paid back by the student once he has finished his studies and is gainfully employed. So far 135 engineering grad- uates, eight economists, and one architect have returned to Colom- bia under this plan. The system has been in operation for over eight years and has shown excellent results not only because of the technical training which these students receive but also because of the imprint made on the students' general outlook by the two years that he spends abroad. The University of the Andes thereby makes a contribution to the country's dire need for adequately trained personnel, even though numerically this contribution is limited today to about 30 young graduates per year in the field of engineering. Special effort is made by the University of the Andes to stimulate graduate studies abroad with a view to training teachers. Grants are offered to those who will dedicate themselves to the teaching profession, but, in the last analysis, this is again a purely economic problem as the funds to foster such a program are almost nonexistent. The youngest entity in Colombia founded to help solve the financial dificulties of higher education is the Fondo Universitario Nacional. This came into being in the year 1954 and was reorgan- ized in 1958 as an adjunct of the Association of Colombian Univer- sities, founded in 1957. While the Association, which is the result of the harmonious collaboration of all Colombian universities, is primarily concerned with the study of the general problems and policies of higher education in Colombia, the Fondo Universitario is its working organ, which specifically deals with financial problems affecting the universities as a whole. Each Colombian university contributes to the Fondo Universitario, while the National govern- ment gives an annual subsidy. The specific functions of the Fondo Universitario are to foster research in education and methodology, to publish textbooks and other publications bearing on education, to foment and finance visits of Colombian scholars to educational  262 The Caribbean centers abroad, and to bring foreign scholars to Colombia for a time. It promotes interuniversity agreements for the better utilization of the physical plant and teaching facilities available within the country. It may some day develop into an Educational Bank ac- cording to the splendid plan elaborated by Dr. Gabriel Betancourt, the founder and present director of ICETEX. An interesting joint program for the training of teachers was established between the Colombian universities, ICETEX, and the Fondo Universitario and is just beginning. This is known as the "Third Operational Plan," by which graduate students who have had some teaching experience in Colombia are sent abroad to com- plete their training and to specialize in a particular field. The financing of this program is shared in equal parts between the uni- versities, ICETEX, and the Fondo Universitario. The university which contributes its third is the one where the teacher will work upon his return for a minimum period of two years on a full-time basis. Should the teacher transfer to another university, this latter institution will assume the payments. Should he give up teaching altogether, he will assume the payments himself. IV The measures which I have mentioned are undoubtedly effective toward remedying the critical situation in which the Colombian university finds itself. But up to now the scale on which these measures are applied is still insufficient. There are two main reasons why this scale cannot be enlarged from one day to another and these are: first, that the education of an able teacher takes time and, second, that the funds available for such programs are always short. Through American Foundations the university has received great encouragement in research; by special grants they send very fine scholars who are now at the university teaching and pursuing research activities. A new development stemming from the help received from the United States is now appearing. Some European countries have approached the University of the Andes and have offered to help with scholarships for engineering and science stu- dents; Germany has helped by subsidizing university professors for two or more years. As I have said before, Colombian industry and commerce have 262 The Caribbean centers abroad, and to bring foreign scholars to Colombia for a time. It promotes interuniversity agreements for the better utilization of the physical plant and teaching facilities available within the country. It may some day develop into an Educational Bank ac- cording to the splendid plan elaborated by Dr. Gabriel Betancourt, the founder and present director of ICETEX. An interesting joint program for the training of teachers was established between the Colombian universities, ICETEX, and the Fondo Universitario and is just beginning. This is known as the "Third Operational Plan," by which graduate students who have had some teaching experience in Colombia are sent abroad to com- plete their training and to specialize in a particular field. The financing of this program is shared in equal parts between the uni- versities, ICETEX, and the Fondo Universitario. The university which contributes its third is the one where the teacher will work upon his return for a minimum period of two years on a full-time basis. Should the teacher transfer to another university, this latter institution will assume the payments. Should he give up teaching altogether, he will assume the payments himself. IV The measures which I have mentioned are undoubtedly effective toward remedying the critical situation in which the Colombian university finds itself. But up to now the scale on which these measures are applied is still insufficient. There are two main reasons why this scale cannot be enlarged from one day to another and these are: first, that the education of an able teacher takes time and, second, that the funds available for such programs are always short. Through American Foundations the university has received great encouragement in research; by special grants they send very fine scholars who are now at the university teaching and pursuing research activities. A new development stemming from the help received from the United States is now appearing. Some European countries have approached the University of the Andes and have offered to help with scholarships for engineering and science stu- dents; Germany has helped by subsidizing university professors for two or more years. As I have said before, Colombian industry and commerce have 262 The Caribbean centers abroad, and to bring foreign scholars to Colombia for a time. It promotes interuniversity agreements for the better utilization of the physical plant and teaching facilities available within the country. It may some day develop into an Educational Bank ac- cording to the splendid plan elaborated by Dr. Gabriel Betancourt, the founder and present director of ICETEX. An interesting joint program for the training of teachers was established between the Colombian universities, ICETEX, and the Fondo Universitario and is just beginning. This is known as the "Third Operational Plan," by which graduate students who have had some teaching experience in Colombia are sent abroad to com- plete their training and to specialize in a particular field. The financing of this program is shared in equal parts between the uni- versities, ICETEX, and the Fondo Universitario. The university which contributes its third is the one where the teacher will work upon his return for a minimum period of two years on a full-time basis. Should the teacher transfer to another university, this latter institution will assume the payments. Should he give up teaching altogether, he will assume the payments himself. IV The measures which I have mentioned are undoubtedly effective toward remedying the critical situation in which the Colombian university finds itself. But up to now the scale on which these measures are applied is still insufficient. There are two main reasons why this scale cannot be enlarged from one day to another and these are: first, that the education of an able teacher takes time and, second, that the funds available for such programs are always short. Through American Foundations the university has received great encouragement in research; by special grants they send very fine scholars who are now at the university teaching and pursuing research activities. A new development stemming from the help received from the United States is now appearing. Some European countries have approached the University of the Andes and have offered to help with scholarships for engineering and science stu- dents; Germany has helped by subsidizing university professors for two or more years. As I have said before, Colombian industry and commerce have  SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 263 been most generous in their help for education. But the potential of industry in a country like Colombia cannot be compared to the potential in other countries, and for this reason the help that can be reasonably expected from industry in Colombia is proportionate to the economic life of the country. And for the badly needed edu- cational development this is not enough. For the costly program of training teachers, of sending students abroad, and of getting equipment, libraries, and laboratories for the Colombian university we must look for financial help from abroad. Let me make it quite clear that the very fact that the universities of the United States ac- cept our students is already a substantial and invaluable help. But the cost connected with the privilege of studying abroad is still much too high for the university to expand this program on a large scale. A year's study abroad for one student represents an investment of up to 25,000 pesos and that, no matter how you look at it, is a great deal of money. V Coming back to my own school, I cannot close without mention- ing the generous assistance which the University of the Andes has received from the United States; from industry, from the Founda- tions, from the universities which collaborate with us, and from private individuals. This help has been essential in keeping the University of the Andes' program going and permitting its develop- ment. However, I feel that I am not speaking here in the name of my university only but in the name of all Colombian universities. I have tried to explain the main difficulties that beset us in the field of higher education and some of the remedies already adopted. In closing, let me call for yet a greater effort in closer collaboration, for finding ways and means in a joint effort between North and South to advance the cause of education in Latin America and to obviate, if possible, the financial obstacles which now handicap us so severely. Mutual help and collaboration have been achieved in other fields and surely can be achieved in education, which after all is the basis for all other progress and for civilization itself. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 263 been most generous in their help for education. But the potential of industry in a country like Colombia cannot be compared to the potential in other countries, and for this reason the help that can be reasonably expected from industry in Colombia is proportionate to the economic life of the country. And for the badly needed edu- cational development this is not enough. For the costly program of training teachers, of sending students abroad, and of getting equipment, libraries, and laboratories for the Colombian university we must look for financial help from abroad. Let me make it quite clear that the very fact that the universities of the United States ac- cept our students is already a substantial and invaluable help. But the cost connected with the privilege of studying abroad is still much too high for the university to expand this program on a large scale. A year's study abroad for one student represents an investment of up to 25,000 pesos and that, no matter how you look at it, is a great deal of money. V Coming back to my own school, I cannot close without mention- ing the generous assistance which the University of the Andes has received from the United States; from industry, from the Founda- tions, from the universities which collaborate with us, and from private individuals. This help has been essential in keeping the University of the Andes' program going and permitting its develop- ment. However, I feel that I am not speaking here in the name of my university only but in the name of all Colombian universities. I have tried to explain the main difficulties that beset us in the field of higher education and some of the remedies already adopted. In closing, let me call for yet a greater effort in closer collaboration, for finding ways and means in a joint effort between North and South to advance the cause of education in Latin America and to obviate, if possible, the financial obstacles which now handicap us so severely. Mutual help and collaboration have been achieved in other fields and surely can be achieved in education, which after all is the basis for all other progress and for civilization itself. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 263 been most generous in their help for education. But the potential of industry in a country like Colombia cannot be compared to the potential in other countries, and for this reason the help that can be reasonably expected from industry in Colombia is proportionate to the economic life of the country. And for the badly needed edu- cational development this is not enough. For the costly program of training teachers, of sending students abroad, and of getting equipment, libraries, and laboratories for the Colombian university we must look for financial help from abroad. Let me make it quite clear that the very fact that the universities of the United States ac- cept our students is already a substantial and invaluable help. But the cost connected with the privilege of studying abroad is still much too high for the university to expand this program on a large scale. A year's study abroad for one student represents an investment of up to 25,000 pesos and that, no matter how you look at it, is a great deal of money. V Coming back to my own school, I cannot close without mention- ing the generous assistance which the University of the Andes has received from the United States; from industry, from the Founda- tions, from the universities which collaborate with us, and from private individuals. This help has been essential in keeping the University of the Andes' program going and permitting its develop- ment. However, I feel that I am not speaking here in the name of my university only but in the name of all Colombian universities. I have tried to explain the main difficulties that beset us in the field of higher education and some of the remedies already adopted. In closing, let me call for yet a greater effort in closer collaboration, for finding ways and means in a joint effort between North and South to advance the cause of education in Latin America and to obviate, if possible, the financial obstacles which now handicap us so severely. Mutual help and collaboration have been achieved in other fields and surely can be achieved in education, which after all is the basis for all other progress and for civilization itself.   Part VII Part VII Part VII BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES   21 Estellita Hart: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES ON EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN THE COURSE of preparing a paper on bibliographical source of information on any subject becomes attended by many tempta- tions to explore just one more possibility, particularly when the subject covered is as broad and diverse as "Education in the Carib- bean" and when that intriguing, and in other cases romantic, area known as the Caribbean includes the miscellany of independent and dependent countries whose official languages are Spanish, French, English, or Dutch, and whose waters from the semicircle of islands on the east reach westward to Mexico, the Central American states, and Panama, and southward to the important South American nations of Venezuela and Colombia and to the Guianas. The number of possibilities, with the varying results provided by their examination is so great, that I am tempted to put them down - without analysis and as fast as I can - just as I watched a well- known Latin American author and political figure do when be was completing a manuscript in a Library of Congress study room a number of years ago. Working, as we do in the Pan American Union, with prime source materials and making frequent use of the direct questionnaire, we are rather prone to lose sight of that most important tool of the researcher, the bibliography; that is, until we ourselves are called upon to compile a bibliography in support of our own studies or for the information of others. Even then, we often find it more conve- nient to use the card catalog of our own excellent Columbus Memo- rial Library, or that of the Library of Congress, or that of the United States Office of Education, in addition to the standard and widely- used cumulative indexes and guides. 267 21 Estellita Hart: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES ON EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN THE COURSE of preparing a paper on bibliographical source of information on any subject becomes attended by many tempta- tions to explore just one more possibility, particularly when the subject covered is as broad and diverse as "Education in the Carib- bean" and when that intriguing, and in other cases romantic, area known as the Caribbean includes the miscellany of independent and dependent countries whose official languages are Spanish, French, English, or Dutch, and whose waters from the semicircle of islands on the east reach westward to Mexico, the Central American states, and Panama, and southward to the important South American nations of Venezuela and Colombia and to the Guianas. The number of possibilities, with the varying results provided by their examination is so great, that I am tempted to put them down - without analysis and as fast as I can - just as I watched a well- known Latin American author and political figure do when he was completing a manuscript in a Library of Congress study room a number of years ago. Working, as we do in the Pan American Union, with prime source materials and making frequent use of the direct questionnaire, we are rather prone to lose sight of that most important tool of the researcher, the bibliography; that is, until we ourselves are called upon to compile a bibliography in support of our own studies or for the information of others. Even then, we often find it more conve- nient to use the card catalog of our own excellent Columbus Memo- rial Library, or that of the Library of Congress, or that of the United States Office of Education, in addition to the standard and widely- used cumulative indexes and guides. 267 21 Estellita Hart: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES ON EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN THE COURSE of preparing a paper on bibliographical source of information on any subject becomes attended by many tempta- tions to explore just one more possibility, particularly when the subject covered is as broad and diverse as "Education in the Carib- bean" and when that intriguing, and in other cases romantic, area known as the Caribbean includes the miscellany of independent and dependent countries whose official languages are Spanish, French, English, or Dutch, and whose waters from the semicircle of islands on the east reach westward to Mexico, the Central American states, and Panama, and southward to the important South American nations of Venezuela and Colombia and to the Guianas. The number of possibilities, with the varying results provided by their examination is so great, that I am tempted to put them down - without analysis and as fast as I can - just as I watched a well- known Latin American author and political figure do when he was completing a manuscript in a Library of Congress study room a number of years ago. Working, as we do in the Pan American Union, with prime source materials and making frequent use of the direct questionnaire, we are rather prone to lose sight of that most important tool of the researcher, the bibliography; that is, until we ourselves are called upon to compile a bibliography in support of our own studies or for the information of others. Even then, we often find it more conve- nient to use the card catalog of our own excellent Columbus Memo- rial Library, or that of the Library of Congress, or that of the United States Office of Education, in addition to the standard and widely- used cumulative indexes and guides. 267  268 The Caribbean The major cumulative indexes and bibliographies are so familiar that it seems superfluous to mention them again. Nevertheless, as a bibliographical study must inevitably begin with these sources, I, too, shall mention the Library of Congress' printed catalogs by author and subject arrangement; the Cumulative Book Index; the Education Index; the Union List of Serials in Libraries of the United States and Canada and its companion compilation, New Serial Titles, issued by the Library of Congress since 1958; also Ulrich's Periodicals Directory: a Classified Guide to a Selected List of Cur- rent Periodicals Foreign and Domestic; Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature; Catholic University of America's Catholic Periodical Index: a Cumulative Author and Subject Index to a Selected List of Catholic Periodicals; and the International Index: a Guide to Periodical Literature in the Social Sciences and Humanities. The several bibliographic indexes examined proved to be of little or no assistance in locating information on education in the Caribbean. Even Besterman's A World Bibliography of Bibliographies was unfruitful; for under "Education: Countries," the titles to be found for the area under discussion are for: Costa Rica, one, dated 1896; Mexico, one, 1889; Puerto Rico, one, 1953; and Venezuela, two, 1946. With education and the study of educational problems appearing more and more frequently upon the international scene, bibliograph- ical tools related to education have acquired greater importance. General bibliographies are not scarce, but bibliographies devoted to education in a limited geographical area are harder to find. Now I must say with sincere regret, the volume of paper work that must pass every day over our desks in the Division of Educa- tion in the Pan American Union, combined with the frequent extra- ordinary activities connected with conferences, does not permit our maintaining a continuous check on bibliographical production throughout the Americas - although our own Library does an admir- able job of this. We find ourselves getting into the habit of using a few of the consistently more helpful compilations along with others that come with little or no effort to hand. Duplication in bibliogra- phies and in indexes also makes the regular periodic examination of more than a selected few a rather unrewarding and time-consuming task. Frequently, however, we must make an exhaustive study of the bibliographies in a given field, and familiarity with what is currently available greatly facilitates our task. The educational studies and documents prepared by the Division 268 The Caribbean The major cumulative indexes and bibliographies are so familiar that it seems superfluous to mention them again. Nevertheless, as a bibliographical study must inevitably begin with these sources, I, too, shall mention the Library of Congress' printed catalogs by author and subject arrangement; the Cumulative Book Index; the Education Index; the Union List of Serials in Libraries of the United States and Canada and its companion compilation, New Serial Titles, issued by the Library of Congress since 1953; also Ulrich's Periodicals Directory: a Classified Guide to a Selected List of Cur- rent Periodicals Foreign and Domestic; Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature; Catholic University of America's Catholic Periodical Index: a Cumulative Author and Subject Index to a Selected List of Catholic Periodicals; and the International Index: a Guide to Periodical Literature in the Social Sciences and Humanities. The several bibliographic indexes examined proved to be of little or no assistance in locating information on education in the Caribbean. Even Besterman's A World Bibliography of Bibliographies was unfruitful; for under "Education: Countries," the titles to be found for the area under discussion are for: Costa Rica, one, dated 1896; Mexico, one, 1889; Puerto Rico, one, 1953; and Venezuela, two, 1946. With education and the study of educational problems appearing more and more frequently upon the international scene, bibliograph- ical tools related to education have acquired greater importance. General bibliographies are not scarce, but bibliographies devoted to education in a limited geographical area are harder to find. Now I must say with sincere regret, the volume of paper work that must pass every day over our desks in the Division of Educa- tion in the Pan American Union, combined with the frequent extra- ordinary activities connected with conferences, does not permit our maintaining a continuous check on bibliographical production throughout the Americas - although our own Library does an admir- able job of this. We find ourselves getting into the habit of using a few of the consistently more helpful compilations along with others that come with little or no effort to hand. Duplication in bibliogra- phies and in indexes also makes the regular periodic examination of more than a selected few a rather unrewarding and time-consuming task. Frequently, however, we must make an exhaustive study of the bibliographies in a given field, and familiarity with what is currently available greatly facilitates our task. The educational studies and documents prepared by the Division 268 The Caribbean The major cumulative indexes and bibliographies are so familiar that it seems superfluous to mention them again. Nevertheless, as a bibliographical study must inevitably begin with these sources, I, too, shall mention the Library of Congress' printed catalogs by author and subject arrangement; the Cumulative Book Index; the Education Index; the Union List of Serials in Libraries of the United States and Canada and its companion compilation, New Serial Titles, issued by the Library of Congress since 1953; also Ulrich's Periodicals Directory: a Classified Guide to a Selected List of Cur- rent Periodicals Foreign and Domestic; Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature; Catholic University of America's Catholic Periodical Index: a Cumulative Author and Subject Index to a Selected List of Catholic Periodicals; and the International Index: a Guide to Periodical Literature in the Social Sciences and Humanities. The several bibliographic indexes examined proved to be of little or no assistance in locating information on education in the Caribbean. Even Besterman's A World Bibliography of Bibliographies was unfruitful; for under "Education: Countries," the titles to be found for the area under discussion are for: Costa Rica, one, dated 1896; Mexico, one, 1889; Puerto Rico, one, 1958; and Venezuela, two, 1946. With education and the study of educational problems appearing more and more frequently upon the international scene, bibliograph- ical tools related to education have acquired greater importance. General bibliographies are not scarce, but bibliographies devoted to education in a limited geographical area are harder to find. Now I must say with sincere regret, the volume of paper work that must pass every day over our desks in the Division of Educa- tion in the Pan American Union, combined with the frequent extra- ordinary activities connected with conferences, does not permit our maintaining a continuous check on bibliographical production throughout the Americas - although our own Library does an admir- able job of this. We find ourselves getting into the habit of using a few of the consistently more helpful compilations along with others that come with little or no effort to hand. Duplication in bibliogra- phies and in indexes also makes the regular periodic examination of more than a selected few a rather unrewarding and time-consuming task. Frequently, however, we must make an exhaustive study of the bibliographies in a given field, and familiarity with what is currently available greatly facilitates our task. The educational studies and documents prepared by the Division  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 269 of Education are rarely devoted to a geographic area (a rather regular exception will be dealt with later), but are on a given problem of education of concern to all, or the majority, of the American nations. Consequently, the bibliographies accompanying them have a wide international coverage. It has been a challenge, therefore, and one I have been very grate- ful to receive, to ascertain just what bibliographical resources there are for a study of education in the Caribbean. A search for bibliographies on education produced by the indi- vidual countries of the Caribbean, whether independent, semi- independent, or dependent, leads inevitably to disappointment and one must examine the all-inclusive bibliographies or listings of national publications. National bibliographies or even lists of publications issued by the national presses could be valuable aids to all persons concerned with education if they were complete and appeared on a regular basis. The development of education in Latin America has been receiving more of the attention than is its due. Now with the in- creasing realization of the important role of education in the devel- opment of industry and science in those countries, it is natural to presume that publication on educational matters will increase. Up-to-date national bibliographies would reflect the concern for and the treatment given to education in the country. An examina- tion, country by country, of the national bibliographies is also dis- appointing in the main. It is necessary, therefore, to turn to national institutions or organizations with international interests, within a few countries, and to the international organizations. David K. Easton in his paper, "Sources for the Study of Carib- bean Culture," presented at the Fifth Conference on the Caribbean held at the University of Florida in 1954, presents an excellent summary of bibliographical sources for culture, in general, which must perforce include education. He says, however, that bibliogra- phers who work in out-of-the-way places must be "opportunists" or "hopelessly optimistic, for the rivers of information which can be tapped from the collections which approximate universal knowledge are exclusively the preserve of great library systems in the developed areas of the world." In agreeing with him, I must add that they must also be optimists if they feel they can locate and review even the majority of them in the time which most of us can enjoy for the thorough research required. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 269 of Education are rarely devoted to a geographic area (a rather regular exception will be dealt with later), but are on a given problem of education of concern to all, or the majority, of the American nations. Consequently, the bibliographies accompanying them have a wide international coverage. It has been a challenge, therefore, and one I have been very grate- ful to receive, to ascertain just what bibliographical resources there are for a study of education in the Caribbean. A search for bibliographies on education produced by the indi- vidual countries of the Caribbean, whether independent, semi- independent, or dependent, leads inevitably to disappointment and one must examine the all-inclusive bibliographies or listings of national publications. National bibliographies or even lists of publications issued by the national presses could be valuable aids to all persons concerned with education if they were complete and appeared on a regular basis. The development of education in Latin America has been receiving more of the attention than is its due. Now with the in- creasing realization of the important role of education in the devel- opment of industry and science in those countries, it is natural to presume that publication on educational matters will increase. Up-to-date national bibliographies would reflect the concern for and the treatment given to education in the country. An examina- tion, country by country, of the national bibliographies is also dis- appointing in the main. It is necessary, therefore, to turn to national institutions or organizations with international interests, within a few countries, and to the international organizations. David K. Easton in his paper, "Sources for the Study of Carib- bean Culture," presented at the Fifth Conference on the Caribbean held at the University of Florida in 1954, presents an excellent summary of bibliographical sources for culture, in general, which must perforce include education. He says, however, that bibliogra- phers who work in out-of-the-way places must be "opportunists" or "hopelessly optimistic, for the rivers of information which can be tapped from the collections which approximate universal knowledge are exclusively the preserve of great library systems in the developed areas of the world." In agreeing with him, I must add that they must also be optimists if they feel they can locate and review even the majority of them in the time which most of us can enjoy for the thorough research required. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 269 of Education are rarely devoted to a geographic area (a rather regular exception will be dealt with later), but are on a given problem of education of concern to all, or the majority, of the American nations. Consequently, the bibliographies accompanying them have a wide international coverage. It has been a challenge, therefore, and one I have been very grate- ful to receive, to ascertain just what bibliographical resources there are for a study of education in the Caribbean. A search for bibliographies on education produced by the indi- vidual countries of the Caribbean, whether independent, semi- independent, or dependent, leads inevitably to disappointment and one must examine the all-inclusive bibliographies or listings of national publications. National bibliographies or even lists of publications issued by the national presses could be valuable aids to all persons concerned with education if they were complete and appeared on a regular basis. The development of education in Latin America has been receiving more of the attention than is its due. Now with the in- creasing realization of the important role of education in the devel- opment of industry and science in those countries, it is natural to presume that publication on educational matters will increase. Up-to-date national bibliographies would reflect the concern for and the treatment given to education in the country. An examina- tion, country by country, of the national bibliographies is also dis- appointing in the main. It is necessary, therefore, to turn to national institutions or organizations with international interests, within a few countries, and to the international organizations. David K. Easton in his paper, "Sources for the Study of Carib- bean Culture," presented at the Fifth Conference on the Caribbean held at the University of Florida in 1954, presents an excellent summary of bibliographical sources for culture, in general, which must perforce include education. He says, however, that bibliogra- phers who work in out-of-the-way places must be "opportunists" or "hopelessly optimistic, for the rivers of information which can be tapped from the collections which approximate universal knowledge are exclusively the preserve of great library systems in the developed areas of the world." In agreeing with him, I must add that they must also be optimists if they feel they can locate and review even the majority of them in the time which most of us can enjoy for the thorough research required.  270 The Caribbean However, as Katherine Oliver Murra was moved to remark in the introduction to her study on sources of information for fundamental education, "There is admittedly, a vast amount of material of use to those engaged in fundamental education. The chief diificulty is finding it. Much of the most valuable material cannot be found through the use of bibliographies, indexes, library catalogs, and similar bibliographical controls."5' Also, Javier Lasso de la Vega Jimenez-Placer states in the pro- logue to his excellent annual compilation for 1954-55, "With the same difficulties as in the past years, we bring out this eighth vol- ume.a..." He consoles himself that not even UNESCO in its Books for All, by R. B. Barker, can report on book production in more than nine Spanish-language countries, including Spain. Speaking of national bibliographies, Mr. Easton says in his paper mentioned above, "The national bibliography is the primary guide to all other printed sources of information concerning a country. These have been issued at one time or another for all the Caribbean republics, but in no one country has genuinely national bibliog- raphy persisted continuously for a period of a decade, and the intervals of intermittent lapses have been, with few exceptions, longer than the periods of existence."3 Centenary celebrations for- tunately have provided the occasion, and apparently the means, for commendable bibliographical effort and production. We are also indebted to dedicated bibliographers whose fine work is to be found only in typescript even in libraries such as ours. Rather than repeat much of the information that Mr. Easton pro- vides on the availability of national bibliographies, I shall try merely to supplement it. First of all, in order to produce at least a record of works published nationally during a given year, or period of years, many of the bibliographies have come out in the form of comprehensive listings by author, a few with subject headings, and even fewer with annotations. Some, conceivably because of lack of government publications on education during the period cov- ered, do not include official publications. It is necessary, then, to search the bibliographies item for item to arrive at even the first conclusion as to its value as a source of information on education. Comments on the educational content of some of the bibliogra- phies are made by way of illustration of the general situation. *Notes to this chapter are on page 283. 270 The Caribbean 270 The Caribbean However, as Katherine Oliver Murra was moved to remark in the introduction to her study on sources of information for fundamental education, "There is admittedly, a vast amount of material of use to those engaged in fundamental education. The chief difficulty is finding it. Much of the most valuable material cannot be found through the use of bibliographies, indexes, library catalogs, and similar bibliographical controls."* Also, Javier Lasso de la Vega Jimenez-Placer states in the pro- logue to his excellent annual compilation for 1954-55, "With the same difficulties as in the past years, we bring out this eighth vol- ume .. .2 He consoles himself that not even UNESCO in its Books for All, by R. B. Barker, can report on book production in more than nine Spanish-language countries, including Spain. Speaking of national bibliographies, Mr. Easton says in his paper mentioned above, "The national bibliography is the primary guide to all other printed sources of information concerning a country. These have been issued at one time or another for all the Caribbean republics, but in no one country has genuinely national bibliog- raphy persisted continuously for a period of a decade, and the intervals of intermittent lapses have been, with few exceptions, longer than the periods of existence."3 Centenary celebrations for- tunately have provided the occasion, and apparently the means, for commendable bibliographical effort and production. We are also indebted to dedicated bibliographers whose fine work is to be found only in typescript even in libraries such as ours. Rather than repeat much of the information that Mr. Easton pro- vides on the availability of national bibliographies, I shall try merely to supplement it. First of all, in order to produce at least a record of works published nationally during a given year, or period of years, many of the bibliographies have come out in the form of comprehensive listings by author, a few with subject headings, and even fewer with annotations. Some, conceivably because of lack of government publications on education during the period cov- ered, do not include official publications. It is necessary, then, to search the bibliographies item for item to arrive at even the first conclusion as to its value as a source of information on education. Comments on the educational content of some of the bibliogra- phies are made by way of illustration of the general situation. *Notes to this chapter are on page 283. However, as Katherine Oliver Murra was moved to remark in the introduction to her study on sources of information for fundamental education, "There is admittedly, a vast amount of material of use to those engaged in fundamental education. The chief difficulty is finding it. Much of the most valuable material cannot be found through the use of bibliographies, indexes, library catalogs, and similar bibliographical controls."" Also, Javier Lasso de la Vega Jimenez-Placer states in the pro- logue to his excellent annual compilation for 1954-55, "With the same difficulties as in the past years, we bring out this eighth vol- ume...."2 He consoles himself that not even UNESCO in its Books for All, by R. B. Barker, can report on book production in more than nine Spanish-language countries, including Spain. Speaking of national bibliographies, Mr. Easton says in his paper mentioned above, "The national bibliography is the primary guide to all other printed sources of information concerning a country. These have been issued at one time or another for all the Caribbean republics, but in no one country has genuinely national bibliog- raphy persisted continuously for a period of a decade, and the intervals of intermittent lapses have been, with few exceptions, longer than the periods of existence." Centenary celebrations for- tunately have provided the occasion, and apparently the means, for commendable bibliographical effort and production. We are also indebted to dedicated bibliographers whose fine work is to be found only in typescript even in libraries such as ours. Rather than repeat much of the information that Mr. Easton pro- vides on the availability of national bibliographies, I shall try merely to supplement it. First of all, in order to produce at least a record of works published nationally during a given year, or period of years, many of the bibliographies have come out in the form of comprehensive listings by author, a few with subject headings, and even fewer with annotations. Some, conceivably because of lack of government publications on education during the period cov- ered, do not include official publications. It is necessary, then, to search the bibliographies item for item to arrive at even the first conclusion as to its value as a source of information on education. Comments on the educational content of some of the bibliogra- phies are made by way of illustration of the general situation. 'Notes to this chapter are on page 283.  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 271 The National Library of Costa Rica, in San Jose, has issued its Boletin bibliogrdfico annually, with some interruptions, since 1938. The issues corresponding to 1954 and to 1955, both published in 1956, are 32 and 40 pages long respectively, with about nine or ten entries per page. The 1954 issue includes 32 entries, which are titles of new textbooks published and university reports; in the 1955 issue, there are 24 miscellaneous entries related to education. The Columbus Memorial Library has a typescript of Publicaciones naci- onales, 1938-1945, of the National Library. The Adolfo Blen Na- tional Committee on Bibliography of the Costa Rican Association of Librarians published in 1958 the Anuario bibliogrico costarri- cense, 1956. Entries are made by author and by subject, with an analytical index. Fifteen entries appear under the subject heading "Education," in addition to those under "Universidad" and the titles of textbooks entered according to subject matter. The Catdlogo general de libros, folletos y revistas editados en la tipografia nacional de Guatemala desde 1892 haste 1943, which was issued in homage to the fiftieth anniversary of the national press, is a record of government publications. It includes works on educa- tion and textbooks printed by the press during that period. The handsome 638-page publication compiled by J. Antonio Villacorta C., Bibliografia guatemalteca; exposiciones abiertas en el Sal6n de Historia y Bellas Artes del Museo Nacional en los meses de noviem- bre de 1939, 1940, 1941, y 1942, and printed by the Tipografia Nacional in 1944, includes works from 1660-1942. Of the 155 entries on education, 32 are on military instruction, 66 are textbooks, 16 on "pedagogy," and six on "education." The issue of the Boletisn de la Biblioteca Nacional for 1948 (ano 1, nnm. 1, 4a. 4poca) devoted to publications of the Ministry of Public Education includes a 25- page listing of publications for 1944-1948 of the National Printing Office and of several other official agencies, including the Univer- sity of San Carlos. Ano I, ndm. 2, 1949 (with date 1951 on the cover) includes an 18-page listing of Guatemalan publications received in the National Library during 1949. In 1954 the National Library of El Salvador published the Anuario bibliogrdfico salvadorei0, 1952, which lists books printed in El Salvador, books by authors from El Salvador printed abroad, and books referring to El Salvador. Its 59 pages carry only one entry on education. However, the 430-page typescript prepared by the National Library, under the direction of Dr. Mariano Garcia BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 271 The National Library of Costa Rica, in San Jose, has issued its Boletin bibliogrdfico annually, with some interruptions, since 1938. The issues corresponding to 1954 and to 1955, both published in 1956, are 32 and 40 pages long respectively, with about nine or ten entries per page. The 1954 issue includes 32 entries, which are titles of new textbooks published and university reports; in the 1955 issue, there are 24 miscellaneous entries related to education. The Columbus Memorial Library has a typescript of Publicaciones naci- onales, 1938-1945, of the National Library. The Adolfo Blen Na- tional Committee on Bibliography of the Costa Rican Association of Librarians published in 1958 the Anuario bibliogrdfico costarri- cense, 1956. Entries are made by author and by subject, with an analytical index. Fifteen entries appear under the subject heading "Education," in addition to those under "Universidad" and the titles of textbooks entered according to subject matter. The Catdlogo general de libros, folletos y revistas editados en la tipografia nacional de Guatemala desde 1892 hasta 1943, which was issued in homage to the fiftieth anniversary of the national press, is a record of government publications. It includes works on educa- tion and textbooks printed by the press during that period. The handsome 638-page publication compiled by J. Antonio Villacorta C., Bibliografia guatemalteca; expositions abiertas en el Saln de Historia y Bellas Artes del Museo Nacional en las meses de noviem- bre de 1939, 1940, 1941, y 1942, and printed by the Tipografia Nacional in 1944, includes works from 1660-1942. Of the 155 entries on education, 32 are on military instruction, 66 are textbooks, 16 on "pedagogy," and six on "education." The issue of the Boletin de la Biblioteca Nacional for 1948 (ano 1, nnm. 1, 4a. 6poca) devoted to publications of the Ministry of Public Education includes a 25- page listing of publications for 1944-1948 of the National Printing Office and of several other official agencies, including the Univer- sity of San Carlos. Aio I, ndm. 2, 1949 (with date 1951 on the cover) includes an 18-page listing of Guatemalan publications received in the National Library during 1949. In 1954 the National Library of El Salvador published the Anuario bibliogrdico salvadoreni, 1952, which lists books printed in El Salvador, books by authors from El Salvador printed abroad, and books referring to El Salvador. Its 39 pages carry only one entry on education. However, the 430-page typescript prepared by the National Library, under the direction of Dr. Mariano Garcia BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 271 The National Library of Costa Rica, in San Jose, has issued its Boletin bibliogrd fco annually, with some interruptions, since 1938. The issues corresponding to 1954 and to 1955, both published in 1956, are 32 and 40 pages long respectively, with about nine or ten entries per page. The 1954 issue includes 32 entries, which are titles of new textbooks published and university reports; in the 1955 issue, there are 24 miscellaneous entries related to education. The Columbus Memorial Library has a typescript of Publicaciones naci- onales, 1938-1945, of the National Library. The Adolfo Blen Na- tional Committee on Bibliography of the Costa Rican Association of Librarians published in 1958 the Anuario bibliogrdfico costarri- cense, 1956. Entries are made by author and by subject, with an analytical index. Fifteen entries appear under the subject heading "Education," in addition to those under "Universidad" and the titles of textbooks entered according to subject matter. The Catalogo general de libros, folletos y revistas editados en Ia tipografia nacional de Guatemala desde 1892 hasta 1943, which was issued in homage to the fiftieth anniversary of the national press, is a record of government publications. It includes works on educa- tion and textbooks printed by the press during that period. The handsome 638-page publication compiled by J. Antonio Villacorta C., Bibliografia guatemalteca; exposciones abiertas en el Sal6n de Historia y Bellas Artes del Museo Nacional en los meses de noviem- bre de 1939, 1940, 1941, y 1942, and printed by the Tipografia Nacional in 1944, includes works from 1660-1942. Of the 155 entries on education, 32 are on military instruction, 66 are textbooks, 16 on "pedagogy," and six on "education." The issue of the Boletin de la Biblioteca Nacional for 1948 (ano 1, ndm. 1, 4a. epoca) devoted to publications of the Ministry of Public Education includes a 25- page listing of publications for 1944-1948 of the National Printing Office and of several other official agencies, including the Univer- sity of San Carlos. Aio I, nom. 2, 1949 (with date 1951 on the cover) includes an 18-page listing of Guatemalan publications received in the National Library during 1949. In 1954 the National Library of El Salvador published the Anuario bibliogrdfico salvadore5o, 1952, which lists books printed in El Salvador, books by authors from El Salvador printed abroad, and books referring to El Salvador. Its 39 pages carry only one entry on education. However, the 430-page typescript prepared by the National Library, under the direction of Dr. Mariano Garcia  272 The Caribbean Villas in 1952, Lista preliminar de la bibliografia salvadorena de las obras existentes en la Biblioteca Nacional, includes the publications of the national ministries, including those of the Ministry of Culture. Anaqueles, the review of the National Library, carries a section, "Obras impresas en El Salvador durante el afo." Fidel Duro's compilation, Indice de la bibliografia hondurea, appeared in 1946; and in 1951, Honduras rotaria published "Los libros y publicaciones hondurenas de 1951." The latest bibliography I have been able to locate for Nicaragua is the Bibliography of Works Published in Nicaragua: 1945-1946- 1947, issued in May, 1948, by the American Library of Nicaragua in its Bibliographical Series. The introduction is in English and Spanish and entries appear under headings for books, pamphlets, government publications, theses, etc. The mimeographed Bibliografia panameia existente en la Bibli- oteca de la Uniuersidad was issued by the University of Panama for the celebration of the nation's fiftieth anniversary in 1953. A number of items on education are included, but entries were made by the author only. Columbus Memorial Library also contains a typescript copy of the Bibliografia panamea prepared by the National Committee for Libraries. Sections T-Z were, apparently, not completed. While the government of Mexico has been actively concerned with the problems of education ranging from illiteracy and the education of adults to postgraduate research throughout the coun- try, it is difficult to locate national listings of studies, reports, and other material on education published in, or about, Mexico. In 1943, the Library of the II Book Fair and National Exposition of Jour- nalism published the Ensayo de una bibliografia de bibliografias mexicanas (la imprenta, el libro, las bibliotecas, etc.), which was prepared by Augustin Millares Carlo and Jose Ignacio Mantecon. Its 224 pages reveal very little published on education in Mexico. The Bibliografia mexicana: 1943, of the Mexican Commission on Intellectual Cooperation, is a listing of works published in Mexico, books by Mexican authors published abroad, and books about Mex- ico published abroad. A few items on education are to be found under the heading for social sciences. Vol. IX, No. 4, of the Boletsn de la Biblioteca Nacional of the National Autonomous University of Mexico lists publications received, for October-December, 1958. Of the 33 entries under social sciences, 11 are related to education; 272 The Caribbean Villas in 1952, Lista preliminar de Ta bibliografia salvadorea de las obras existentes en la Biblioteca Nacional, includes the publications of the national ministries, including those of the Ministry of Culture. Anaqueles, the review of the National Library, carries a section, "Obras impresas en El Salvador durante el aio." Fidel Durdn's compilation, Indice de la bibliografTa hondurena, appeared in 1946; and in 1951, Honduras rotaria published "Los libros y publicaciones hondureias de 1951." The latest bibliography I have been able to locate for Nicaragua is the Bibliography of Works Published in Nicaragua: 1945-1946- 1947, issued in May, 1948, by the American Library of Nicaragua in its Bibliographical Series. The introduction is in English and Spanish and entries appear under headings for books, pamphlets, government publications, theses, etc. The mimeographed Bibliografia panamena existente en la Bibli- oteca de la Universidad was issued by the University of Panama for the celebration of the nation's fiftieth anniversary in 1953. A number of items on education are included, but entries were made by the author only. Columbus Memorial Library also contains a typescript copy of the Bibliografia panamefa prepared by the National Committee for Libraries. Sections T-Z were, apparently, not completed. While the government of Mexico has been actively concerned with the problems of education ranging from illiteracy and the education of adults to postgraduate research throughout the coun- try, it is difficult to locate national listings of studies, reports, and other material on education published in, or about, Mexico. In 1945, the Library of the II Book Fair and National Exposition of Jour- nalism published the Ensayo de una bibliografia de bibliograffas mexicanas (la imprenta, el libro, las bibliotecas, etc.), which was prepared by Augustin Millares Carlo and Jose Ignacio Mantec6n. Its 224 pages reveal very little published on education in Mexico. The Bibliografia mexicana: 1943, of the Mexican Commission on Intellectual Cooperation, is a listing of works published in Mexico, books by Mexican authors published abroad, and books about Mex- ico published abroad. A few items on education are to be found under the heading for social sciences. Vol. IX, No. 4, of the Boletin de la Biblioteca Nacional of the National Autonomous University of Mexico lists publications received, for October-December, 1958. Of the 55 entries under social sciences, 11 are related to education; 272 The Caribbean Villas in 1952, Lista preliminar de la bibliografia salvadorea de las obras existentes en la Biblioteca Nacional, includes the publications of the national ministries, including those of the Ministry of Culture. Anaqueles, the review of the National Library, carries a section, "Obras impresas en El Salvador durante el ano." Fidel Durdn's compilation, Indice de la bibliografia hondureha, appeared in 1946; and in 1951, Honduras rotaria published "Los libros y publicaciones hondurefias de 1951." The latest bibliography I have been able to locate for Nicaragua is the Bibliography of Works Published in Nicaragua: 1945-1946- 1947, issued in May, 1948, by the American Library of Nicaragua in its Bibliographical Series. The introduction is in English and Spanish and entries appear under headings for books, pamphlets, government publications, theses, etc. The mimeographed Bibliografia panamea existente en la Bibli- oteca de Ta Universidad was issued by the University of Panama for the celebration of the nation's fiftieth anniversary in 1955. A number of items on education are included, but entries were made by the author only. Columbus Memorial Library also contains a typescript copy of the Bibliografia panamena prepared by the National Committee for Libraries. Sections T-Z were, apparently, not completed. While the government of Mexico has been actively concerned with the problems of education ranging from illiteracy and the education of adults to postgraduate research throughout the coun- try, it is difficult to locate national listings of studies, reports, and other material on education published in, or about, Mexico. In 1943, the Library of the II Book Fair and National Exposition of Jour- nalism published the Ensayo de una bibliografia de bibliograffas mexicanas (la imprenta, el libro, las bibliotecas, etc.), which was prepared by Augustin Millares Carlo and Jose Ignacio Mantecn. Its 224 pages reveal very little published on education in Mexico. The Bibliografia mexicana: 1943, of the Mexican Commission on Intellectual Cooperation, is a listing of works published in Mexico, books by Mexican authors published abroad, and books about Mex- ico published abroad. A few items on education are to be found under the heading for social sciences. Vol. IX, No. 4, of the Boletin de la Biblioteca Nacional of the National Autonomous University of Mexico lists publications received, for October-December, 1958. Of the 33 entries under social sciences, 11 are related to education;  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 273 Vol. X, No. 2, for April-June, 1959, lists 14 related to education, including textbooks, among the 59 items given under social sciences. It is interesting to note the official decree from the Diario Oficial for February 3, 1958, reprinted in the October-December, 1958, issue:"All authors, publishers, and printers of the country, are under obligation to send to the National Library and to the Library of Congress of the Union, two copies of the books of any kind, news- papers, and magazines that they may publish." Failure to do so makes the offending party subject to a fine of from 50 to 500 pesos. A similar decree went into effect in 1857, but there were no means to enforce it. In response to our request for a recent catalog of the University of Mexico, we were surprised, but not displeased, to receive a copy of Libros: 1959, which is a 30-page listing of publications of the University. The listing bears the notice that it is not a complete catalog of the university press, which is in preparation. It does, however, include textbooks and publications regarding the univer- sity itself. One of the best bibliographies on education in Mexico that we have seen in recent years is in George Frederick Kneller's Education of the Mexican Nation (Columbia University Press, 1951). On the northern coast of South America, we find bibliographical activity flourishing in Colombia. Most of the university libraries issue boletines informativos; the Association of Librarians of Anti- oquia published in its journal ABA for October, 1955, through July, 1956, the Bibliografia colombiano, prepared by Alfonso Peliez V., and Luis Floren, of the Inter-American Center for Housing and Planning in Bogot&, compiled the Bibliografia bibliotecoldgica y bibliogrdfica colombianas: 1956-1958. But most encouraging of all to researchers in education is the excellent Anuario bibliogrdfico colombiano: 1951-1956, compiled by Ruben Perez Ortiz, and pub- lished in 1958 by the Department of Bibliography of the Caro y Cuervo Institute. It is a fine source of information on publications related to education in Colombia during the years covered. In Caracas, Venezuela, the National Library issued the Anuario bibliogrdfico venezolano: 1947-1948. The first volume, which gave the publications received in 1942, appeared in 1944. The last I have seen is the sixth edition, which is dated 1950 and covers the years 1947 and 1948. Leaving the mainland for the independent island countries, we BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 273 Vol. X, No. 2, for April-June, 1959, lists 14 related to education, including textbooks, among the 59 items given under social sciences. It is interesting to note the official decree from the Diario Oficial for February 3, 1958, reprinted in the October-December, 1958, issue:"All authors, publishers, and printers of the country, are under obligation to send to the National Library and to the Library of Congress of the Union, two copies of the books of any kind, news- papers, and magazines that they may publish." Failure to do so makes the offending party subject to a fine of from 50 to 500 pesos. A similar decree went into effect in 1857, but there were no means to enforce it. In response to our request for a recent catalog of the University of Mexico, we were surprised, but not displeased, to receive a copy of Libros: 1959, which is a 30-page listing of publications of the University. The listing bears the notice that it is not a complete catalog of the university press, which is in preparation. It does, however, include textbooks and publications regarding the univer- sity itself. One of the best bibliographies on education in Mexico that we have seen in recent years is in George Frederick Kneller's Education of the Mexican Nation (Columbia University Press, 1951). On the northern coast of South America, we find bibliographical activity flourishing in Colombia. Most of the university libraries issue boletines informativos; the Association of Librarians of Anti- oquia published in its journal ABA for October, 1955, through July, 1956, the Bibliografia colombiano, prepared by Alfonso Peliez V., and Luis Floren, of the Inter-American Center for Housing and Planning in Bogota, compiled the Bibliografia bibliotecoldgica y bibliogrdfca colombianas: 1956-1958. But most encouraging of all to researchers in education is the excellent Anuario bibliogrdfico colombiano: 1951-1956, compiled by Ruben Prez Ortiz, and pub- lished in 1958 by the Department of Bibliography of the Caro y Cuervo Institute. It is a fine source of information on publications related to education in Colombia during the years covered. In Caracas, Venezuela, the National Library issued the Anuario bibliogrdfico venezolano: 1947-1948. The first volume, which gave the publications received in 1942, appeared in 1944. The last I have seen is the sixth edition, which is dated 1950 and covers the years 1947 and 1948. Leaving the mainland for the independent island countries, we BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 273 Vol. X, No. 2, for April-June, 1959, lists 14 related to education, including textbooks, among the 59 items given under social sciences. It is interesting to note the official decree from the Diario Oficial for February 3, 1958, reprinted in the October-December, 1958, issue:"All authors, publishers, and printers of the country, are under obligation to send to the National Library and to the Library of Congress of the Union, two copies of the books of any kind, news- papers, and magazines that they may publish." Failure to do so makes the offending party subject to a fine of from 50 to 500 pesos. A similar decree went into effect in 1857, but there were no means to enforce it. In response to our request for a recent catalog of the University of Mexico, we were surprised, but not displeased, to receive a copy of Libros: 1959, which is a 30-page listing of publications of the University. The listing bears the notice that it is not a complete catalog of the university press, which is in preparation. It does, however, include textbooks and publications regarding the univer- sity itself. One of the best bibliographies on education in Mexico that we have seen in recent years is in George Frederick Kneller's Education of the Mexican Nation (Columbia University Press, 1951). On the northern coast of South America, we find bibliographical activity flourishing in Colombia. Most of the university libraries issue boletines informativos; the Association of Librarians of Anti- oquia published in its journal ABA for October, 1955, through July, 1956, the Bibliografia colombiano, prepared by Alfonso Peliez V., and Luis Floren, of the Inter-American Center for Housing and Planning in Bogoti, compiled the Bibliografia bibliotecologica y bibliogrdfica colombianas: 1956-1958. But most encouraging of all to researchers in education is the excellent Anuario bibliogrdico colombiano: 1951-1956, compiled by Ruben Prez Ortiz, and pub- lished in 1958 by the Department of Bibliography of the Caro y Cuervo Institute. It is a fine source of information on publications related to education in Colombia during the years covered. In Caracas, Venezuela, the National Library issued the Anuario bibliogrdfico venezolano: 1947-1948. The first volume, which gave the publications received in 1942, appeared in 1944. The last I have seen is the sixth edition, which is dated 1950 and covers the years 1947 and 1948. Leaving the mainland for the independent island countries, we  274 The Caribbean 274 The Caribbean 274 The Caribbean come to the Dominican Republic, where as in other countries, in- terruptions in bibliographical production have not been entirely due to lack of interest nor to lack of scholars. A typescript copy of the 1951 issue of the Anuario bibliogrdfico dominicano, first printed in 1946, is in the Columbus Memorial Library. The Anuario was compiled by Luis Florin Lozano, then Director of the Library of the University of Santo Domingo in Ciudad Trujillo. It is arranged by subject, with author index. Sections cover books and pamphlets, index of newspaper and magazine articles; theses; government pub- lications, newspapers, and magazines. David Easton and others have given due attention to Max Bis- sainthe's Dictionnaire de bibliographic haitienne, published in 1951 by the Scarecrow Press of Washington, D.C. Fermin Peraza y Sarausa has, for a number of years, been the outstanding bibliographer of Cuba. His production has been as ex- cellent as it has been prolific. His Anuario bibliogrdfico cubano first appeared in 198. In 1956 the Anuario, 19 appeared under the title Bibliograffa cubana, 1955. It is all-inclusive, with entries made by author and subject. In this number there is a special section, "Bibli- ograffa cubana, 1937-1954," which is complementary to the Anuario corresponding to those years. In 1958 two volumes of a new bibliography which promises to become an indispensable tool to all researchers in education, not only of the Caribbean but possibly of the whole Spanish-speaking world, made their appearance. They are the result of united na- tional and international efforts to meet the need for technically accurate up-to-date information on important publications in the area covered. I refer to the Bibliografia de Centroamerica y del Caribe for 1956 and 1957. Its technical director was Fermin Peraza y Sarausa; it was compiled under the auspices of UNESCO by the Agrupaci6n Bibliogrifica Cubana Jose Toribio Medina and pub- lished by the Department of Archives and Libraries of Spain. The compilation and publication of this bibliography resulted from a resolution of the First Pilot Seminar on Bibliography meeting in Havana, July 11-15, 1955, which was called by the Agrupacion with the collaboration of the UNESCO Regional Center for the Western Hemisphere. National bibliographical groups in Mexico, the six Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Cuba, and Puerto Rico contributed to it. Puerto Rico is, of course, covered in the general United States come to the Dominican Republic, where as in other countries, in- terruptions in bibliographical production have not been entirely due to lack of interest nor to lack of scholars. A typescript copy of the 1951 issue of the Anuario bibliogrdifico dominicano, first printed in 1946, is in the Columbus Memorial Library. The Anuario was compiled by Luis Florin Lozano, then Director of the Library of the University of Santo Domingo in Ciudad Trujillo. It is arranged by subject, with author index. Sections cover books and pamphlets, index of newspaper and magazine articles; theses; government pub- lications, newspapers, and magazines. David Easton and others have given due attention to Max Bis- sainthe's Dictionnaire de bibliographie haitienne, published in 1951 by the Scarecrow Press of Washington, D.C. Fermin Peraza y Sarausa has, for a number of years, been the outstanding bibliographer of Cuba. His production has been as ex- cellent as it has been prolific. His Anuario bibliogrdfico cubano first appeared in 198. In 1956 the Anuario, 19 appeared under the title Bibliografia cabana, 1955. It is all-inclusive, with entries made by author and subject. In this number there is a special section, "Bibli- ograffa cabana, 1937-1954," which is complementary to the Anuario corresponding to those years. In 1958 two volumes of a new bibliography which promises to become an indispensable tool to all researchers in education, not only of the Caribbean but possibly of the whole Spanish-speaking world, made their appearance. They are the result of united na- tional and international efforts to meet the need for technically accurate up-to-date information on important publications in the area covered. I refer to the Bibliografia de Centroamsrica y del Caribe for 1956 and 1957. Its technical director was Fermin Peraza y Sarausa; it was compiled under the auspices of UNESCO by the Agrupaci6n Bibliografica Cubana Jos6 Toribio Medina and pub- lished by the Department of Archives and Libraries of Spain. The compilation and publication of this bibliography resulted from a resolution of the First Pilot Seminar on Bibliography meeting in Havana, July 11-15, 1955, which was called by the Agrupacidn with the collaboration of the UNESCO Regional Center for the Western Hemisphere. National bibliographical groups in Mexico, the six Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Cuba, and Puerto Rico contributed to it. Puerto Rico is, of course, covered in the general United States come to the Dominican Republic, where as in other countries, in- terruptions in bibliographical production have not been entirely due to lack of interest nor to lack of scholars. A typescript copy of the 1951 issue of the Anuario bibliogrdico dominicano, first printed in 1946, is in the Columbus Memorial Library. The Anuario was compiled by Luis Floren Lozano, then Director of the Library of the University of Santo Domingo in Ciudad Trujillo. It is arranged by subject, with author index. Sections cover books and pamphlets, index of newspaper and magazine articles; theses; government pub- lications, newspapers, and magazines. David Easton and others have given due attention to Max Bis- sainthe's Dictionnaire de bibliographie haitienne, published in 1951 by the Scarecrow Press of Washington, D.C. Fermin Peraza y Sarausa has, for a number of years, been the outstanding bibliographer of Cuba. His production has been as ex- cellent as it has been prolific. His Anuario bibliogrdico cubano first appeared in 1938. In 1956 the Anuario, 19 appeared under the title Bibliografia cubana, 1955. It is all-inclusive, with entries made by author and subject. In this number there is a special section, "Bibli- ografia cubana, 1937-1954," which is complementary to the Anuario corresponding to those years. In 1958 two volumes of a new bibliography which promises to become an indispensable tool to all researchers in education, not only of the Caribbean but possibly of the whole Spanish-speaking world, made their appearance. They are the result of united na- tional and international efforts to meet the need for technically accurate up-to-date information on important publications in the area covered. I refer to the Bibliografia de Centroamsrica y del Caribe for 1956 and 1957. Its technical director was Fermin Peraza y Sarausa; it was compiled under the auspices of UNESCO by the Agrupaci6n Bibliogrifica Cubana Jose Toribio Medina and pub- lished by the Department of Archives and Libraries of Spain. The compilation and publication of this bibliography resulted from a resolution of the First Pilot Seminar on Bibliography meeting in Havana, July 11-15, 1955, which was called by the Agrupacion with the collaboration of the UNESCO Regional Center for the Western Hemisphere. National bibliographical groups in Mexico, the six Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Cuba, and Puerto Rico contributed to it. Puerto Rico is, of course, covered in the general United States  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 275 indexes and bibliographies on education. The Anuario bibliogrdfico puertorriqueno, which was edited by Gonzalo Veliazquez, now Director, Library Division, Department of Education of Puerto Rico, is an alphabetical index of books, pamphlets, magazines, and newspapers published in Puerto Rico. It has suspended publication, and the last number I have seen was the one corresponding to 1952, published in 1954. Mr. Velizquez, as Librarian of the Carnegie Library of San Juan, has been the regional correspondent for the Current Caribbean Bibliography. The Current Caribbean Bibliography, of the Caribbean Commis- sion in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, is an annual list of publications issued in the Caribbean countries of France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States. Regional correspondents throughout these countries provide a good coverage of the yearly production of publications. However, the issue for 1957, Vol. 7, featuring West Indian literature, with a section listing all works printed during 1957, is the latest one published. Leonard John Lewis' Educational Policy and Practice in British Tropical Areas (London, Thomas Nelson & Sons, Ltd., 1954) includes an eleven- page bibliography which, in turn, includes only eleven titles refer- ring specifically to the Caribbean countries, none of which is dated later than 1945, and nine journals and reports. Among the journals listed, two merit mention: Overseas Education, a quarterly journal of educational experiment and research published for the Secretary of State for the Colonies by HMSO since July, 1946, which regu- larly features reviews of recent publications on colonial education; and the Colonial Review, a quarterly published by the Colonial Department of the University of London Institute of Education, a reader's digest of important articles on colonial affairs, including special articles on education. Not a bibliographical source, but nonetheless fruitful sources of information on education in the Caribbean, are the several West Indies Conferences and, particularly, the Joint Conference on Edu- cation and Small Scale Farming (1954), the monographic publica- tions of the Caribbean Commission, and its monthly information bulletin, The Caribbean. United States academic and scholarly interest in Latin America has fluxed and waned with the tide of political and economic inter- est. The period beginning a few years before World War II and ending a few years thereafter was richly productive in studies, rc- BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 275 indexes and bibliographies on education. The Anuario bibliogrdfico puertorriqueo, which was edited by Gonzalo Velizquez, now Director, Library Division, Department of Education of Puerto Rico, is an alphabetical index of books, pamphlets, magazines, and newspapers published in Puerto Rico. It has suspended publication, and the last number I have seen was the one corresponding to 1952, published in 1954. Mr. Velizquez, as Librarian of the Carnegie Library of San Juan, has been the regional correspondent for the Current Caribbean Bibliography. The Current Caribbean Bibliography, of the Caribbean Commis- sion in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, is an annual list of publications issued in the Caribbean countries of France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States. Regional correspondents throughout these countries provide a good coverage of the yearly production of publications. However, the issue for 1957, Vol. 7. featuring West Indian literature, with a section listing all works printed during 1957, is the latest one published. Leonard John Lewis' Educational Policy and Practice in British Tropical Areas (London, Thomas Nelson & Sons, Ltd., 1954) includes an eleven- page bibliography which, in turn, includes only eleven titles refer- ring specifically to the Caribbean countries, none of which is dated later than 1945, and nine journals and reports. Among the journals listed, two merit mention: Overseas Education, a quarterly journal of educational experiment and research published for the Secretary of State for the Colonies by HMSO since July, 1946, which regu- larly features reviews of recent publications on colonial education; and the Colonial Review, a quarterly published by the Colonial Department of the University of London Institute of Education, a reader's digest of important articles on colonial affairs, including special articles on education. Not a bibliographical source, but nonetheless fruitful sources of information on education in the Caribbean, are the several West Indies Conferences and, particularly, the Joint Conference on Edu- cation and Small Scale Farming (1954), the monographic publica- tions of the Caribbean Commission, and its monthly information bulletin, The Caribbean. United States academic and scholarly interest in Latin America has fluxed and waned with the tide of political and economic inter- est. The period beginning a few years before World War II and ending a few years thereafter was richly productive in studies, rc- BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 275 indexes and bibliographies on education. The Anuario bibliogrdfico puertorriqueio, which was edited by Gonzalo Veliazquez, now Director, Library Division, Department of Education of Puerto Rico, is an alphabetical index of books, pamphlets, magazines, and newspapers published in Puerto Rico. It has suspended publication, and the last number I have seen was the one corresponding to 1952, published in 1954. Mr. Veliazquez, as Librarian of the Carnegie Library of San Juan, has been the regional correspondent for the Current Caribbean Bibliography. The Current Caribbean Bibliography, of the Caribbean Commis- sion in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, is an annual list of publications issued in the Caribbean countries of France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States. Regional correspondents throughout these countries provide a good coverage of the yearly production of publications. However, the issue for 1957, Vol. 7, featuring West Indian literature, with a section listing all works printed during 1957, is the latest one published. Leonard John Lewis' Educational Policy and Practice in British Tropical Areas (London, Thomas Nelson & Sons, Ltd., 1954) includes an eleven- page bibliography which, in turn, includes only eleven titles refer- ring specifically to the Caribbean countries, none of which is dated later than 1945, and nine journals and reports. Among the journals listed, two merit mention: Overseas Education, a quarterly journal of educational experiment and research published for the Secretary of State for the Colonies by HMSO since July, 1946, which regu- larly features reviews of recent publications on colonial education; and the Colonial Review, a quarterly published by the Colonial Department of the University of London Institute of Education, a reader's digest of important articles on colonial affairs, including special articles on education. Not a bibliographical source, but nonetheless fruitful sources of information on education in the Caribbean, are the several West Indies Conferences and, particularly, the Joint Conference on Edu- cation and Small Scale Farming (1954), the monographic publica- tions of the Caribbean Commission, and its monthly information bulletin, The Caribbean. United States academic and scholarly interest in Latin America has fluxed and waned with the tide of political and economic inter- est. The period beginning a few years before World War II and ending a few years thereafter was richly productive in studies, rec-  276 The Caribbean ords, and bibliographies on Latin America. Latin American area studies were the fashion and the compulsion to get something into print about Latin America was felt throughout the land. Fortu- nately, the United States has long enjoyed the presence of a few Latin Americanists whose interest has been enduring, not merely opportunistic. Out of the mass of publications that appeared during that era, a few bibliographical records remain as invaluable aids to research. The Handbook of Latin America Studies, first published by the Harvard University Press in 1936 (covering items published in 1935), but now prepared in the Hispanic Foundation of the Library of Congress and published by the University of Florida Press, regularly carries a section on education. Also prepared in the Hispanic Foundation was the directory Latin American Periodicals Currently Received in the Library of Congress and in the Library of the Department of Agriculture, published in 1944. Educational journals were included, but as the majority of them are short-lived, this directory is not of service as a source of publications on current educational developments. Other invaluable aids to research are the Memorias of the Republics of Central America and of the Antilles, by James B. Childs, published by the Library of Congress in 1932, and the 19-volume Guide to the Official Publications of the Other American Republics, of which Childs and, later, Henry V. Basso were the general editors. The volumes on the independent countries of the Caribbean appeared in 1947 and 1948. The sections on each ministry are introduced by a brief historical statement on that ministry and the listing of its publications begins with the earliest memoria, or annual report, and continues through to date of pub- lication. A continuation of these listings for Latin America in a convenient form would be most welcome. The United States Office of Education, Division of International Education, has issued two bibliographies directly related to our subject within the last few years: the Bibliografia de publicaciones sobre educacidon, by Marjorie C. Johnston and Adela R. Freeburger (October, 1955); and Bibliography: 1956 Publications in Compara- tive and International Education, compiled by Kathryn G. Heath (May, 1957). The former contains approximately 400 entries of which the following are on or from the Caribbean area: Mexico, 19; Puerto Rico, 29; Cuba, 2; Venezuela, 4; Colombia, 2; Guatemala, 1; the Dominican Republic 1; and Panama, 1. The latter has been "off the shelf" each time I have attempted to consult it. In ad- 276 The Caribbean 276 The Caribbean ords, and bibliographies on Latin America. Latin American area studies were the fashion and the compulsion to get something into print about Latin America was felt throughout the land. Fortu- nately, the United States has long enjoyed the presence of a few Latin Americanists whose interest has been enduring, not merely opportunistic. Out of the mass of publications that appeared during that era, a few bibliographical records remain as invaluable aids to research. The Handbook of Latin America Studies, first published by the Harvard University Press in 1936 (covering items published in 1935), but now prepared in the Hispanic Foundation of the Library of Congress and published by the University of Florida Press, regularly carries a section on education. Also prepared in the Hispanic Foundation was the directory Latin American Periodicals Currently Received in the Library of Congress and in the Library of the Department of Agriculture, published in 1944. Educational journals were included, but as the majority of them are short-lived, this directory is not of service as a source of publications on current educational developments. Other invaluable aids to research are the Memorias of the Republics of Central America and of the Antilles, by James B. Childs, published by the Library of Congress in 1932, and the 19-volume Guide to the Official Publications of the Other American Republics, of which Childs and, later, Henry V. Basso were the general editors. The volumes on the independent countries of the Caribbean appeared in 1947 and 1948. The sections on each ministry are introduced by a brief historical statement on that ministry and the listing of its publications begins with the earliest memoria, or annual report, and continues through to date of pub- lication. A continuation of these listings for Latin America in a convenient form would be most welcome. The United States Office of Education, Division of International Education, has issued two bibliographies directly related to our subject within the last few years: the Bibliografia de publicaciones sobre educacion, by Marjorie C. Johnston and Adela R. Freeburger (October, 1955); and Bibliography: 1956 Publications in Compara- tive and International Education, compiled by Kathryn G. Heath (May, 1957). The former contains approximately 400 entries of which the following are on or from the Caribbean area: Mexico, 19; Puerto Rico, 29; Cuba, 2; Venezuela, 4; Colombia, 2; Guatemala, 1; the Dominican Republic 1; and Panama, 1. The latter has been "off the shelf" each time I have attempted to consult it. In ad- ords, and bibliographies on Latin America. Latin American area studies were the fashion and the compulsion to get something into print about Latin America was felt throughout the land. Fortu- nately, the United States has long enjoyed the presence of a few Latin Americanists whose interest has been enduring, not merely opportunistic. Out of the mass of publications that appeared during that era, a few bibliographical records remain as invaluable aids to research. The Handbook of Latin America Studies, first published by the Harvard University Press in 1936 (covering items published in 1935), but now prepared in the Hispanic Foundation of the Library of Congress and published by the University of Florida Press, regularly carries a section on education. Also prepared in the Hispanic Foundation was the directory Latin American Periodicals Currently Received in the Library of Congress and in the Library of the Department of Agriculture, published in 1944. Educational journals were included, but as the majority of them are short-lived, this directory is not of service as a source of publications on current educational developments. Other invaluable aids to research are the Memorias of the Republics of Central America and of the Antilles, by James B. Childs, published by the Library of Congress in 1932, and the 19-volume Guide to the Official Publications of the Other American Republics, of which Childs and, later, Henry V. Basso were the general editors. The volumes on the independent countries of the Caribbean appeared in 1947 and 1948. The sections on each ministry are introduced by a brief historical statement on that ministry and the listing of its publications begins with the earliest memoria, or annual report, and continues through to date of pub- lication. A continuation of these listings for Latin America in a convenient form would be most welcome. The United States Office of Education, Division of International Education, has issued two bibliographies directly related to our subject within the last few years: the Bibliograffa de publicaciones sobre educaidon, by Marjorie C. Johnston and Adela R. Freeburger (October, 1955); and Bibliography: 1956 Publications in Compara- five and International Education, compiled by Kathryn G. Heath (May, 1957). The former contains approximately 400 entries of which the following are on or from the Caribbean area: Mexico, 19; Puerto Rico, 29; Cuba, 2; Venezuela, 4; Colombia, 2; Guatemala, 1; the Dominican Republic 1; and Panama, 1. The latter has been "off the shelf" each time I have attempted to consult it. In ad-  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 277 dition, the monographs on education in Latin America, which the Office of Education is continuing, carry selective bibliographies. Among the universities whose concern with Latin America has endured and even become stronger throughout the vagaries of public interest, our host, the University of Florida stands out for its contributions to the published studies related to Latin America. In addition to its volumes containing the papers delivered at these annual Conferences on the Caribbean, there are the quarterly Doors to Latin America, prepared by the Inter-American Biblio- graphical and Library Association, and the Survey of Investigations in Progress in the Field of Latin American Studies (published by the School of Inter-American Studies of the University of Florida with the collaboration of the Pan American Union). Also there is the University of Florida Libraries' Caribbean Acquisitions; Ma- terials Acquired by the University of Florida, 1957-1958. A note to the list of acquisitions states that it includes "only the purchases for 1957 and 1958 with the expectation of bringing out annual sup- plements and in time a list of the original 1947-1957 purchases." Fifty-one items on education are included. Individual interest and effort in the United States can be surpris- ingly productive of resource material. William W. Brickman, Professor of Education, New York University, has kept in very close touch with educational developments - and bibliography - in Latin America. His "Education in Latin America" (School and Society, Vol. 67, No. 1748, June 26, 1948) and "Education in Central and South America" (School and Society, Vol. 77, No. 1933, February 28, 1953) are reviews of "recent" literature in several languages on Latin American education. Mrs. Sophie Downs has been editing the Foreign Education Digest (Berkeley, California) since about 1936. It is published quarterly in mimeographed form, but as a review that frequently contains summaries in English of items on Latin American education that originally appeared in foreign lan- guage publications, often official, it is an aid to those who do not have access to the originals or who can not use materials in Spanish or Portuguese, anyway. Education and Its Environment in the United States and Overseas: a Tentative Selective Checklist of Books and Articles was compiled (1959) by Henry Grattan Doyle, now Higher Education Specialist of the International Cooperation Ad- ministration. Part IL 3. "Education Overseas (b) Latin America" includes "the British, French, and Dutch colonies in the Western BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 277 dition, the monographs on education in Latin America, which the Office of Education is continuing, carry selective bibliographies. Among the universities whose concern with Latin America has endured and even become stronger throughout the vagaries of public interest, our host, the University of Florida stands out for its contributions to the published studies related to Latin America. In addition to its volumes containing the papers delivered at these annual Conferences on the Caribbean, there are the quarterly Doors to Latin America, prepared by the Inter-American Biblio- graphical and Library Association, and the Survey of Investigations in Progress in the Field of Latin American Studies (published by the School of Inter-American Studies of the University of Florida with the collaboration of the Pan American Union). Also there is the University of Florida Libraries' Caribbean Acquisitions; Ma- terials Acquired by the University of Florida, 1957-1958. A note to the list of acquisitions states that it includes "only the purchases for 1957 and 1958 with the expectation of bringing out annual sup- plements and in time a list of the original 1947-1957 purchases." Fifty-one items on education are included. Individual interest and effort in the United States can be surpris- ingly productive of resource material. William W. Brickman, Professor of Education, New York University, has kept in very close touch with educational developments - and bibliography - in Latin America. His "Education in Latin America" (School and Society, Vol. 67, No. 1748, June 26, 1948) and "Education in Central and South America" (School and Society, Vol. 77, No. 1933, February 28, 1953) are reviews of "recent" literature in several languages on Latin American education. Mrs. Sophie Downs has been editing the Foreign Education Digest (Berkeley, California) since about 1936. It is published quarterly in mimeographed form, but as a review that frequently contains summaries in English of items on Latin American education that originally appeared in foreign lan- guage publications, often official, it is an aid to those who do not have access to the originals or who can not use materials in Spanish or Portuguese, anyway. Education and Its Environment in the United States and Overseas: a Tentative Selective Checklist of Books and Articles was compiled (1959) by Henry Grattan Doyle, now Higher Education Specialist of the International Cooperation Ad- ministration. Part II. 3. "Education Overseas (b) Latin America" includes "the British, French, and Dutch colonies in the Western BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 277 dition, the monographs on education in Latin America, which the Office of Education is continuing, carry selective bibliographies. Among the universities whose concern with Latin America has endured and even become stronger throughout the vagaries of public interest, our host, the University of Florida stands out for its contributions to the published studies related to Latin America. In addition to its volumes containing the papers delivered at these annual Conferences on the Caribbean, there are the quarterly Doors to Latin America, prepared by the Inter-American Biblio- graphical and Library Association, and the Survey of Investigations in Progress in the Field of Latin American Studies (published by the School of Inter-American Studies of the University of Florida with the collaboration of the Pan American Union). Also there is the University of Florida Libraries' Caribbean Acquisitions; Ma- terials Acquired by the University of Florida, 1957-1958. A note to the list of acquisitions states that it includes "only the purchases for 1957 and 1958 with the expectation of bringing out annual sup- plements and in time a list of the original 1947-1957 purchases." Fifty-one items on education are included. Individual interest and effort in the United States can be surpris- ingly productive of resource material. William W. Brickman, Professor of Education, New York University, has kept in very close touch with educational developments - and bibliography - in Latin America. His "Education in Latin America" (School and Society, Vol. 67, No. 1748, June 26, 1948) and "Education in Central and South America" (School and Society, Vol. 77, No. 1933, February 28, 1953) are reviews of "recent" literature in several languages on Latin American education. Mrs. Sophie Downs has been editing the Foreign Education Digest (Berkeley, California) since about 1936. It is published quarterly in mimeographed form, but as a review that frequently contains summaries in English of items on Latin American education that originally appeared in foreign lan- guage publications, often official, it is an aid to those who do not have access to the originals or who can not use materials in Spanish or Portuguese, anyway. Education and Its Environment in the United States and Overseas: a Tentative Selective Checklist of Books and Articles was compiled (1959) by Henry Grattan Doyle, now Higher Education Specialist of the International Cooperation Ad- ministration. Part II. 3. "Education Overseas (b) Latin America" includes "the British, French, and Dutch colonies in the Western  278 The Caribbean Hemisphere, the British West Indies Federation, the Common- wealth of Puerto Rico (U.S.), as well as the American Republics." In time for the meeting of the World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession in Washington, D.C., this summer, the Committee on International Relations of the National Education Association published Walter Crosby Eells' American Dissertations on Foreign Education: Doctor's Dissertations and Master's Theses Written at American Universities and Colleges Concerning Education or Educators in Foreign Countries ... 1884-1958. Irene Zimmerman of the University of Florida submitted as her doctoral dissertation (University of Michigan, 1956) "Latin American Peri- odicals of Mid-Twentieth Century as Source Material for Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences," with a ten-page bibliog- raphy. Spain's desire to maintain and strengthen her ties with Spanish- speaking America has led to stepped-up activity in the educational field. The Ministry of National Education publishes the quarterly list of publications received, Boletin informativo de documentacion, which indexes important articles in journals, many dealing with education, legislation, and courses of study. However, only a few of the Caribbean nations, including Puerto Rico, are covered. We certainly must not fail to mention here Javier Lasso de la Vega Jimenez-Placer's Anuario espahol e hispanoamericano del libro de las artes grdficas con el catdlogo mundial del libro impreso en lengua espaiola. (See note 2.) The eighth volume, for 1954-1955, pub- lished in 1956, is the latest received in our library. Under the auspices of the Office of Ibero-American Education, several Ibero-American Conferences on education have been held in Latin America. The Office publishes an air-mail edition of its biweekly Plana, which contains notices, news, and resumes of articles published elsewhere, all related to education in Spain and the Americas. A regular feature is "Chasqui," which contains very brief "deadline" notices on developments in education. In the Current Caribbean Bibliography and the Bibliography of the Caribbean and Central America, we have seen how international cooperation has fortified bibliographical publication. International efforts, of course, find their finest expression through the official international organizations. UNESCO's publications, in general, provide a formidable array of material for examination for content on Latin America - and the Caribbean. (See UNESCO's Publica- 278 The Caribbean 278 The Caribbean Hemisphere, the British West Indies Federation, the Common- wealth of Puerto Rico (U.S.), as well as the American Republics." In time for the meeting of the World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession in Washington, D.C., this summer, the Committee on International Relations of the National Education Association published Walter Crosby Eells' American Dissertations on Foreign Education: Doctor's Dissertations and Master's Theses Written at American Universities and Colleges Concerning Education or Educators in Foreign Countries ... 1884-1958. Irene Zimmerman of the University of Florida submitted as her doctoral dissertation (University of Michigan, 1956) "Latin American Peri- odicals of Mid-Twentieth Century as Source Material for Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences," with a ten-page bibliog- raphy. Spain's desire to maintain and strengthen her ties with Spanish- speaking America has led to stepped-up activity in the educational field. The Ministry of National Education publishes the quarterly list of publications received, Boletin informativo de documentacion, which indexes important articles in journals, many dealing with education, legislation, and courses of study. However, only a few of the Caribbean nations, including Puerto Rico, are covered. We certainly must not fail to mention here Javier Lasso de la Vega Jimenez-Placer's Anuario espanol e hispanoamericano del libro de las artes grdicas con el catdlogo mundial del libro impreso en lengua espanola. (See note 2.) The eighth volume, for 1954-1955, pub- lished in 1956, is the latest received in our library. Under the auspices of the Office of Ibero-American Education, several Ibero-American Conferences on education have been held in Latin America. The Office publishes an air-mail edition of its biweekly Plana, which contains notices, news, and resumes of articles published elsewhere, all related to education in Spain and the Americas. A regular feature is "Chasqui," which contains very brief "deadline" notices on developments in education. In the Current Caribbean Bibliography and the Bibliography of the Caribbean and Central America, we have seen how international cooperation has fortified bibliographical publication. International efforts, of course, find their finest expression through the official international organizations. UNESCO's publications, in general, provide a formidable array of material for examination for content on Latin America - and the Caribbean. (See UNESCO's Publica- Hemisphere, the British West Indies Federation, the Common- wealth of Puerto Rico (U.S.), as well as the American Republics." In time for the meeting of the World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession in Washington, D.C., this summer, the Committee on International Relations of the National Education Association published Walter Crosby Eells' American Dissertations on Foreign Education: Doctor's Dissertations and Master's Theses Written at American Universities and Colleges Concerning Education or Educators in Foreign Countries ... 1884-1958. Irene Zimmerman of the University of Florida submitted as her doctoral dissertation (University of Michigan, 1956) "Latin American Peri- odicals of Mid-Twentieth Century as Source Material for Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences," with a ten-page bibliog- raphy. Spain's desire to maintain and strengthen her ties with Spanish- speaking America has led to stepped-up activity in the educational field. The Ministry of National Education publishes the quarterly list of publications received, Boletin informativo de documentacion, which indexes important articles in journals, many dealing with education, legislation, and courses of study. However, only a few of the Caribbean nations, including Puerto Rico, are covered. We certainly must not fail to mention here Javier Lasso de la Vega Jimenez-Placer's Anuario espaiol e hispanoamericano del libro de las artes grdfcas con el catdlogo mundial del libro impreso en lengua espanola. (See note 2.) The eighth volume, for 1954-1955, pub- lished in 1956, is the latest received in our library. Under the auspices of the Office of Ibero-American Education, several Ibero-American Conferences on education have been held in Latin America. The Office publishes an air-mail edition of its biweekly Plana, which contains notices, news, and resumes of articles published elsewhere, all related to education in Spain and the Americas. A regular feature is "Chasqui," which contains very brief "deadline" notices on developments in education. In the Current Caribbean Bibliography and the Bibliography of the Caribbean and Central America, we have seen how international cooperation has fortified bibliographical publication. International efforts, of course, find their finest expression through the official international organizations. UNESCO's publications, in general, provide a formidable array of material for examination for content on Latin America - and the Caribbean. (See UNESCO's Publica-  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 279 tions; General Catalog and Publications Checklist.) Its Education Clearing House publishes Education Abstracts monthly, except July and August, which consists of bibliographies on selected educational topics with summary abstracts. Most titles on Latin American edu- cation appear in the language of the country, but are reviewed and summarized in the language of the edition. Also, each issue contains a general study on the topic it covers. The International Bureau of Education in Geneva has published since 1925 an Annual Educa- tional Bibliography. It is analytical by subject and generally devotes a section to brief reviews of educational books published in various countries. Reference to the countries of the Caribbean is infrequent. It is natural to expect the emphasis of UNESCO's publications to be on the aspects of education on which UNESCO's major atten- tion in currently focussed. Thus, for a number of years, many of its series of publications were on fundamental and adult education, and the problems of illiteracy and community development. Among them should be mentioned the study prepared by H. W. Howes for the West Indian Conference (Sixth Session) in Puerto Rico, 1955, entitled Fundamental, Adult, Literacy, and Community Education in the West Indies, which gives consideration to these problems in the Caribbean countries that are dependencies of Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands, to Puerto Rico, and to the "four Member States of UNESCO" - Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. In addition to bibliographies on selected subject matter, Educa- tional Abstracts provides further tools for research in its "Official Reports on Education" (Vol. VI, No. 10, December, 1954; and Vol. VIII, No. 1, January, 1956); "Sources of Educational Publi- cations of an Official Nature" (Vol. VIII, No. 10, December, 1956); and "Research in Education; a Directory of Organizations, Bibli- ographical Materials and Periodicals" (Vol. IX, No. 2, February, 1957). UNESCO collaborated with the Educational Press Association of America to produce America's Education Press; a Classified List of Educational Periodicals Issued in the United States of America Together with an International List of Educational Periodicals. This was issued in 1957 as the Association's twenty-sixth yearbook. It is arranged alphabetically by country and, while no annotations are given as to content, the subject classifications provide a work- BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 279 tions; General Catalog and Publications Checklist.) Its Education Clearing House publishes Education Abstracts monthly, except July and August, which consists of bibliographies on selected educational topics with summary abstracts. Most titles on Latin American edu- cation appear in the language of the country, but are reviewed and summarized in the language of the edition. Also, each issue contains a general study on the topic it covers. The International Bureau of Education in Geneva has published since 1925 an Annual Educa- tional Bibliography. It is analytical by subject and generally devotes a section to brief reviews of educational books published in various countries. Reference to the countries of the Caribbean is infrequent. It is natural to expect the emphasis of UNESCO's publications to be on the aspects of education on which UNESCO's major atten- tion in currently focussed. Thus, for a number of years, many of its series of publications were on fundamental and adult education, and the problems of illiteracy and community development. Among them should be mentioned the study prepared by H. W. Howes for the West Indian Conference (Sixth Session) in Puerto Rico, 1955, entitled Fundamental, Adult, Literacy, and Community Education in the West Indies, which gives consideration to these problems in the Caribbean countries that are dependencies of Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands, to Puerto Rico, and to the "four Member States of UNESCO" - Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. In addition to bibliographies on selected subject matter, Educa- tional Abstracts provides further tools for research in its "Official Reports on Education" (Vol. VI, No. 10, December, 1954; and Vol. VIII, No. 1, January, 1956); "Sources of Educational Publi- cations of an Official Nature" (Vol. VIII, No. 10, December, 1956); and "Research in Education; a Directory of Organizations, Bibli- ographical Materials and Periodicals" (Vol. IX, No. 2, February, 1957). UNESCO collaborated with the Educational Press Association of America to produce America's Education Press; a Classified List of Educational Periodicals Issued in the United States of America Together with an International List of Educational Periodicals. This was issued in 1957 as the Association's twenty-sixth yearbook. It is arranged alphabetically by country and, while no annotations are given as to content, the subject classifications provide a work- BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 279 tions; General Catalog and Publications Checklist.) Its Education Clearing House publishes Education Abstracts monthly, except July and August, which consists of bibliographies on selected educational topics with summary abstracts. Most titles on Latin American edu- cation appear in the language of the country, but are reviewed and summarized in the language of the edition. Also, each issue contains a general study on the topic it covers. The International Bureau of Education in Geneva has published since 1925 an Annual Educa- tional Bibliography. It is analytical by subject and generally devotes a section to brief reviews of educational books published in various countries. Reference to the countries of the Caribbean is infrequent. It is natural to expect the emphasis of UNESCO's publications to be on the aspects of education on which UNESCO's major atten- tion in currently focussed. Thus, for a number of years, many of its series of publications were on fundamental and adult education, and the problems of illiteracy and community development. Among them should be mentioned the study prepared by H. W. Howes for the West Indian Conference (Sixth Session) in Puerto Rico, 1955, entitled Fundamental, Adult, Literacy, and Community Education in the West Indies, which gives consideration to these problems in the Caribbean countries that are dependencies of Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands, to Puerto Rico, and to the "four Member States of UNESCO"-Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. In addition to bibliographies on selected subject matter, Educa- tional Abstracts provides further tools for research in its "Official Reports on Education" (Vol. VI, No. 10, December, 1954; and Vol. VIII, No. 1, January, 1956); "Sources of Educational Publi- cations of an Official Nature" (Vol. VIII, No. 10, December, 1956); and "Research in Education; a Directory of Organizations, Bibli- ographical Materials and Periodicals" (Vol. IX, No. 2, February, 1957). UNESCO collaborated with the Educational Press Association of America to produce America's Education Press; a Classified List of Educational Periodicals Issued in the United States of America Together with an International List of Educational Periodicals. This was issued in 1957 as the Association's twenty-sixth yearbook. It is arranged alphabetically by country and, while no annotations are given as to content, the subject classifications provide a work-  280 The Caribbean able clew. Some of the European dependencies in the Caribbean are covered. The Directory of Current Latin American Periodicals, prepared by the Pan American Union, and published by UNESCO in 1958, is another flne tool. It is trilingual (Spanish, English, French), arranged by subject classification and indexed alpha- betically by country and subject. Two more UNESCO publications must be mentioned here. Their usefulness is commensurate with their size. Both have lists of bibliographical references at the end of the country exhibits that add to their value. They are World Surcey of Educational Orangization and Statistics (1955) and World Survey of Education, II: Primary Education (1958). The publications of the International Bureau of Universities and of the International Labour Organization should not be ignored as sources of information on education in the Caribbean. The Organization of American States, the oldest international organization in continuous existence, is a prime source of bibli- ographies and information in general on education in its Member States. Within the Pan American Union, which is the central and permanent organ and general secretariat of the Organization several divisions have published studies and bibliographies on education, principally the Department of Cultural Affairs, which includes the Columbus Memorial Library and, of course, the Division of Education. The catalog of publications of the OAS lists only those titles that are for sale; consequently numerous studies and conference documents that are published in limited editions are not included. The majority of the latter do, however, find their way into the Columbus Memorial Library archives of Pan Ameri- can Union publications and are listed in the Library's monthly List of Books Accessioned and Periodical Articles Indexed. Entries in the List of Books Accessioned are made under subject headings, so items on education are easily located. The Library also published a Bibliographic Series. Number 37 (1952) is Bibliografia de la lit- eratura sobre educaci6n de adultos en la America Latina, compiled by John M. Connor with addenda by Germania Moncayo de Monge. For the Seventh Annual Conference on the Caribbean (1956), Norah Albanell, Nancy Mango, and Victoria Conroy, of the refer- ence staff of the Library, compiled Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Puerto Rico; a Selected Bibliography on the Caribbean Area Including Only Islands Which Are Members of the Organiza- tion of American States, including materials issued since 1950 only. 280 The Caribbean able clew. Some of the European dependencies in the Caribbean are covered. The Directory of Current Latin American Periodicals, prepared by the Pan American Union, and published by UNESCO in 1958, is another fine tool. It is trilingual (Spanish, English, French), arranged by subject classification and indexed alpha- betically by country and subject. Two more UNESCO publications must be mentioned here. Their usefulness is commensurate with their size. Both have lists of bibliographical references at the end of the country exhibits that add to their value. They are World Survey of Educational Orangization and Statistics (1955) and World Survey of Education, II: Primary Education (1958). The publications of the International Bureau of Universities and of the International Labour Organization should not be ignored as sources of information on education in the Caribbean. The Organization of American States, the oldest international organization in continuous existence, is a prime source of bibli- ographies and information in general on education in its Member States. Within the Pan American Union, which is the central and permanent organ and general secretariat of the Organization several divisions have published studies and bibliographies on education, principally the Department of Cultural Affairs, which includes the Columbus Memorial Library and, of course, the Division of Education. The catalog of publications of the OAS lists only those titles that are for sale; consequently numerous studies and conference documents that are published in limited editions are not included. The majority of the latter do, however, find their way into the Columbus Memorial Library archives of Pan Ameri- can Union publications and are listed in the Library's monthly List of Books Accessioned and Periodical Articles Indexed. Entries in the List of Books Accessioned are made under subject headings, so items on education are easily located. The Library also published a Bibliographic Series. Number 37 (1952) is Bibliografia de la lit- eratura sobre educacion de adultos en la Amsrica Latina, compiled by John M. Connor with addenda by Germania Moncayo de Mange. For the Seventh Annual Conference on the Caribbean (1956), Norah Albanell, Nancy Mango, and Victoria Conroy, of the refer. ence staff of the Library, compiled Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Puerto Rico; a Selected Bibliography on the Caribbean Area Including Only Islands Which Are Members of the Organiza- tion of American States, including materials issued since 1950 only. 280 The Caribbean able clew. Some of the European dependencies in the Caribbean are covered. The Directory of Current Latin American Periodicals, prepared by the Pan American Union, and published by UNESCO in 1958, is another fine tool. It is trilingual (Spanish, English, French), arranged by subject classification and indexed alpha- betically by country and subject. Two more UNESCO publications must be mentioned here. Their usefulness is commensurate with their size. Both have lists of bibliographical references at the end of the country exhibits that add to their value. They are World Survey of Educational Orangization and Statistics (1955) and World Survey of Education, II: Primary Education (1958). The publications of the International Bureau of Universities and of the International Labour Organization should not be ignored as sources of information on education in the Caribbean. The Organization of American States, the oldest international organization in continuous existence, is a prime source of bibli- ographies and information in general on education in its Member States. Within the Pan American Union, which is the central and permanent organ and general secretariat of the Organization several divisions have published studies and bibliographies on education, principally the Department of Cultural Affairs, which includes the Columbus Memorial Library and, of course, the Division of Education. The catalog of publications of the OAS lists only those titles that are for sale; consequently numerous studies and conference documents that are published in limited editions are not included. The majority of the latter do, however, find their way into the Columbus Memorial Library archives of Pan Ameri- can Union publications and are listed in the Library's monthly List of Books Accessioned and Periodical Articles Indexed. Entries in the List of Books Accessioned are made under subject headings, so items on education are easily located. The Library also published a Bibliographic Series. Number 37 (1952) is Bibliografia de la lit- eratura sobre educacidn de adultos on /0 Amirica Latina, compiled by John M. Connor with addenda by Germania Moncayo de Monge. For the Seventh Annual Conference on the Caribbean (1956), Norah Albanell, Nancy Mango, and Victoria Conroy, of the refer- ence staff of the Library, compiled Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Puerto Rico; a Selected Bibliography on the Caribbean Area Including Only Islands Which Are Members of the Organiza- tion of American States, including materials issued since 1950 only.  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 281 Frederick E. Kidder of the University of Florida made additions to it, so I presume he is responsible for the section headed "General" which lists a number of important publications on the nonindepend- ent areas, in addition to Puerto Rico which is covered in a section devoted to that island. Before taking up the publications of the Division of Education, I wish to mention the monthly magazine of the Pan American Union, Americas, issued in English, Spanish, and Portuguese, whose biblio- graphic section includes, from time to time, significant works on education in Latin America, and the Revista Interamericana de Bibliografia (RIB, as it is affectionately called). The Revista is the quarterly official organ of the Inter-American Committee on Bibli- ography, prepared within the Division of Philosophy and Letters of the Department of Cultural Affairs. For a number of years it has carried a section on education in its list of recent books, which is contributed by Francisco Cespedes. It, too, lists the new publica- tions of the Pan American Union. The Division of Education and its predecessor, the Division of Intellectual Cooperation, have constantly been concerned with the problem of bibliographical sources on education in general and in Latin America, in particular. "Latin America," of course, excludes the dependent Caribbean countries, with the exception of Puerto Rico. The United States is one of the 21 Member States of the OAS; Puerto Rico is thus, indirectly, a part of the OAS; but Puerto Rico's traditional and cultural heritage is Hispanic, thus she has a common bond with Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America. So you might say she enters into our studies through two doors. Bibliographies and directories have been prepared over the years as one means of meeting the tremendous demand for information on education. Education in Latin America; a Partial Bibliography (June, 1958) is the latest of these efforts. It first appeared as Bul- letin 1957, Nos. 1-21 of our Information Series. Limited to fairly current material in English, it was necessary to make an exhaustive search of the standard cumulative indexes and readers' guides men- tioned at the beginning of this paper, of the UNESCO and Inter- national Bureau of Education publications, of general works on Latin America and on the individual countries, and to keep an alert eye on magazines not regularly featuring Latin America. The majority of the bibliographies prepared in the Division have been compiled in connection with the study of a given problem or level BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 281 Frederick E. Kidder of the University of Florida made additions to it, so I presume he is responsible for the section headed "General" which lists a number of important publications on the nonindepend- ent areas, in addition to Puerto Rico which is covered in a section devoted to that island. Before taking up the publications of the Division of Education, I wish to mention the monthly magazine of the Pan American Union, Americas, issued in English, Spanish, and Portuguese, whose biblio- graphic section includes, from time to time, significant works on education in Latin America, and the Revista Interamericana de Bibliografia (RIB, as it is affectionately called). The Revista is the quarterly official organ of the Inter-American Committee on Bibli- ography, prepared within the Division of Philosophy and Letters of the Department of Cultural Affairs. For a number of years it has carried a section on education in its list of recent books, which is contributed by Francisco Cespedes. It, too, lists the new publica- tions of the Pan American Union. The Division of Education and its predecessor, the Division of Intellectual Cooperation, have constantly been concerned with the problem of bibliographical sources on education in general and in Latin America, in particular. "Latin America," of course, excludes the dependent Caribbean countries, with the exception of Puerto Rico. The United States is one of the 21 Member States of the OAS; Puerto Rico is thus, indirectly, a part of the OAS; but Puerto Rico's traditional and cultural heritage is Hispanic, thus she has a common bond with Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America. So you might say she enters into our studies through two doors. Bibliographies and directories have been prepared over the years as one means of meeting the tremendous demand for information on education. Education in Latin America; a Partial Bibliography (June, 1958) is the latest of these efforts. It first appeared as Bul- letin 1957, Nos. 1-21 of our Information Series. Limited to fairly current material in English, it was necessary to make an exhaustive search of the standard cumulative indexes and readers' guides men- tioned at the beginning of this paper, of the UNESCO and Inter- national Bureau of Education publications, of general works on Latin America and on the individual countries, and to keep an alert eye on magazines not regularly featuring Latin America. The majority of the bibliographies prepared in the Division have been compiled in connection with the study of a given problem or level BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 281 Frederick E. Kidder of the University of Florida made additions to it, so I presume he is responsible for the section headed "General" which lists a number of important publications on the nonindepend- ent areas, in addition to Puerto Rico which is covered in a section devoted to that island. Before taking up the publications of the Division of Education, I wish to mention the monthly magazine of the Pan American Union, Americas, issued in English, Spanish, and Portuguese, whose biblio- graphic section includes, from time to time, significant works on education in Latin America, and the Resista Interamericana de Bibliografia (RIB, as it is affectionately called). The Revista is the quarterly official organ of the Inter-American Committee on Bibli- ography, prepared within the Division of Philosophy and Letters of the Department of Cultural Affairs. For a number of years it has carried a section on education in its list of recent books, which is contributed by Francisco Caspedes. It, too, lists the new publica- tions of the Pan American Union. The Division of Education and its predecessor, the Division of Intellectual Cooperation, have constantly been concerned with the problem of bibliographical sources on education in general and in Latin America, in particular. "Latin America," of course, excludes the dependent Caribbean countries, with the exception of Puerto Rico. The United States is one of the 21 Member States of the OAS; Puerto Rico is thus, indirectly, a part of the OAS; but Puerto Rico's traditional and cultural heritage is Hispanic, thus she has a common bond with Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America. So you might say she enters into our studies through two doors. Bibliographies and directories have been prepared over the years as one means of meeting the tremendous demand for information on education. Education in Latin America; a Partial Bibliography (June, 1958) is the latest of these efforts. It first appeared as Bul- letin 1957, Nos. 1-21 of our Information Series. Limited to fairly current material in English, it was necessary to make an exhaustive search of the standard cumulative indexes and readers' guides men- tioned at the beginning of this paper, of the UNESCO and Inter- national Bureau of Education publications, of general works on Latin America and on the individual countries, and to keep an alert eye on magazines not regularly featuring Latin America. The majority of the bibliographies prepared in the Division have been compiled in connection with the study of a given problem or level  282 The Caribbean of education, not of a geographic area. Consequently the publica- tions listed frequently represent countries outside of the Western Hemisphere. Bibliografia de la educaci6n primaria en Amsrica (1958) includes sections on theory and techniques, studies and reports on the individual countries, legislation, and education jour- nals. The bilingual (Spanish and English) Secondary Education in the Americas: a Bibliography (1955) gives no geographical break- down. A study, Estado actual de la educaci6n secundaria en la Amirica Latina (1957. 2nd ed. rev. and enlarged), ends with a ten-page bibliography. La Educactin, our quarterly review of edu- cation, regularly features "La educaci6n en America," a section of notices of educational developments and activities supplied by cor- respondents in each of the American nations, including the United States and Puerto Rico. One of the beneficial, and far from least important, side effects of our inter-American seminars on education are the working papers, documents, and reports that are an integral part of their work. The final reports of the Inter-American Seminars on Illiteracy and Adult Education (Rio de Janeiro, 1949); Elementary Education (Monte- video, 1950); Vocational/Technical Education (University of Mary- land, 1952); and the working papers of the Seminar on the Over-all Planning of Education (Washington, D.C., 1958) carry extensive bibliographies. Documents, working papers, etc., are generally translated, reproduced, and distributed by the Pan American Union prior to a conference. Those produced during the conference are primarily for the use of the participants, with surplus copies being made available for distribution afterwards. The final act or report is printed and distributed several months later. Which brings us to the closing and to a note on the most important sources of all for information on education. First, there are the conferences on education -national or international, spon- sored by governments, by official international organizations such as the OAS, UNESCO, ODECA, OIE, and the Caribbean Commis- sion, or by nongovernmental organizations such as the Union of Latin American Universities, the Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession. The Pan American Union's Forthcoming Inter-American Conferences and Meetings provides an almost com- plete checklist of such conferences. The Caribbean is not isolated as a unique sector of the Western Hemisphere in these conferences, of course, but the deliberations 282 The Caribbean of education, not of a geographic area. Consequently the publica- tions listed frequently represent countries outside of the Western Hemisphere. Bibliografia de la educaci6n primaria en Amsrica (1958) includes sections on theory and techniques, studies and reports on the individual countries, legislation, and education jour- nals. The bilingual (Spanish and English) Secondary Education in the Americas: a Bibliography (1955) gives no geographical break- down. A study, Estado actual de la educaci6n secundaria en la Amirica Latina (1957. 2nd ed. rev. and enlarged), ends with a ten-page bibliography. La Educaci6n, our quarterly review of edu- cation, regularly features "La educaci6n en America," a section of notices of educational developments and activities supplied by cor- respondents in each of the American nations, including the United States and Puerto Rico. One of the beneficial, and far from least important, side effects of our inter-American seminars on education are the working papers, documents, and reports that are an integral part of their work. The final reports of the Inter-American Seminars on Illiteracy and Adult Education (Rio de Janeiro, 1949); Elementary Education (Monte- video, 1950); Vocational/Technical Education (University of Mary- land, 1952); and the working papers of the Seminar on the Over-all Planning of Education (Washington, D.C., 1958) carry extensive bibliographies. Documents, working papers, etc., are generally translated, reproduced, and distributed by the Pan American Union prior to a conference. Those produced during the conference are primarily for the use of the participants, with surplus copies being made available for distribution afterwards. The final act or report is printed and distributed several months later. Which brings us to the closing and to a note on the most important sources of all for information on education. First, there are the conferences on education -national or international, spon- sored by governments, by official international organizations such as the OAS, UNESCO, ODECA, OIE, and the Caribbean Commis- sion, or by nongovernmental organizations such as the Union of Latin American Universities, the Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession. The Pan American Union's Forthcoming Inter-American Conferences and Meetings provides an almost com- plete checklist of such conferences. The Caribbean is not isolated as a unique sector of the Western Hemisphere in these conferences, of course, but the deliberations 282 The Caribbean of education, not of a geographic area. Consequently the publica- tions listed frequently represent countries outside of the Western Hemisphere. Bibliografia de la educaci6n primaria en America (1958) includes sections on theory and techniques, studies and reports on the individual countries, legislation, and education jour- nals. The bilingual (Spanish and English) Secondary Education in the Americas: a Bibliography (1955) gives no geographical break- down. A study, Estado actual de la educacion secundaria en la America Latina (1957. 2nd ed. rev. and enlarged), ends with a ten-page bibliography. La Educacisn, our quarterly review of edu- cation, regularly features "La educacion en America," a section of notices of educational developments and activities supplied by cor- respondents in each of the American nations, including the United States and Puerto Rico. One of the beneficial, and far from least important, side effects of our inter-American seminars on education are the working papers, documents, and reports that are an integral part of their work. The final reports of the Inter-American Seminars on Illiteracy and Adult Education (Rio de Janeiro, 1949); Elementary Education (Monte- video, 1950); Vocational/Technical Education (University of Mary- land, 1952); and the working papers of the Seminar on the Over-all Planning of Education (Washington, D.C., 1958) carry extensive bibliographies. Documents, working papers, etc., are generally translated, reproduced, and distributed by the Pan American Union prior to a conference. Those produced during the conference are primarily for the use of the participants, with surplus copies being made available for distribution afterwards. The final act or report is printed and distributed several months later. Which brings us to the closing and to a note on the most important sources of all for information on education. First, there are the conferences on education -national or international, spon- sored by governments, by official international organizations such as the OAS, UNESCO, ODECA, OIE, and the Caribbean Commis- sion, or by nongovernmental organizations such as the Union of Latin American Universities, the Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession. The Pan American Union's Forthcoming Inter-American Conferences and Meetings provides an almost com- plete cheeklist of such conferences. The Caribbean is not isolated as a unique sector of the Western Hemisphere in these conferences, of course, but the deliberations  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 288 of their meetings can be said to refer to the Caribbean as much as to any other part of the Americas when the problems are not those of a restricted area but of the hemisphere as a whole. Annual reports of the ministries of education, the national budg- ets, statistical reports, and other official publications provide factual information on developments in education. The official gazettes or dailies publish verbatim laws and decrees affecting education such as organic laws, decrees establishing universities and other edu- cational institutions, changes in curricula, etc. Educational journals are the organ for educational thought, but are frequently valuable sources for substantial information on important educational devel- opments. Guides to identifying these sources have been mentioned above, but how to obtain them and what to expect from them is a subject for another paper. NOTES 1. Sources of Information for Fundamental Education with Reference to Education for Literacy; a Preliminary Report Prepared by the Library of Con- gress for the Libraries Section of UNESCO (Washington, 1948). 2. Anuario espanol e hispanoamericano del libro y de las artes grdfcas con el catdlogo mundial del libro impreso en lengua espanola (Madrid, 1956). 3. See also Fermin Peraza, "Cooperacion biblotecaria entre Amirica y Espana," Cuba bibliotecoldgica, revista trimestral, drgano oficial del Colegio Nacional de Bibliotecarios Universitarios, 2a. tpoca, III (enero-junio 1958). BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 283 of their meetings can be said to refer to the Caribbean as much as to any other part of the Americas when the problems are not those of a restricted area but of the hemisphere as a whole. Annual reports of the ministries of education, the national budg- ets, statistical reports, and other official publications provide factual information on developments in education. The official gazettes or dailies publish verbatim laws and decrees affecting education such as organic laws, decrees establishing universities and other edu- cational institutions, changes in curricula, etc. Educational journals are the organ for educational thought, but are frequently valuable sources for substantial information on important educational devel- opments. Guides to identifying these sources have been mentioned above, but how to obtain them and what to expect from them is a subject for another paper. NOTES . Sources of Information for Fundamental Education with Reference to Education for Literacy; a Preliminary Report Prepared by the Library of Con- gress for the Libraries Section of UNESCO (Washington, 1948). 2. Anuario espaiol e hispanoamericano del libro y de las artes grdfcas con el catdlogo mundial del libro impreso en lengua espanola (Madrid, 1956). 3. See also Fermin Peraza, "Cooperacion biblotecaria entre America y Espana," Cuba bibliotecol6gica, revista trimestral, 6rgano ofcial del Colegio Nacional de Bibliotecarios Universitarios, 2a. epoca, III (enero-junio 1958). BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES 283 of their meetings can be said to refer to the Caribbean as much as to any other part of the Americas when the problems are not those of a restricted area but of the hemisphere as a whole. Annual reports of the ministries of education, the national budg- ets, statistical reports, and other official publications provide factual information on developments in education. The official gazettes or dailies publish verbatim laws and decrees affecting education such as organic laws, decrees establishing universities and other edu- cational institutions, changes in curricula, etc. Educational journals are the organ for educational thought, but are frequently valuable sources for substantial information on important educational devel- opments. Guides to identifying these sources have been mentioned above, but how to obtain them and what to expect from them is a subject for another paper. NOTES . Sources of Information for Fundamental Education with Reference to Education for Literacy; a Preliminary Report Prepared by the Library of Con- gress for the Libraries Section of UNESCO (Washington, 1948). 2. Anuario espanol e hispanoamericano del libro y de las artes grdicas con el catdlogo mundial del libro impreso en lengua espanola (Madrid, 1956). 3. See also Fermin Peraza, "Cooperacidn biblotecaria entre Amdrica y Espana," Cuba bibliotecologica, recista trimestral, drgano ofcial del Colegio Nacional de Bibliotecarios Universitarios, 2a. 6poca, III (enero-junio 1958).   Index Index Index [Peparedf by Charles M. Nissly] [Preparedl by Cbarles M. Nissl] [Prepared by Charle M. Nissly] ALCOA Steamshbip Com~pay, Inc., x Aleman, Jos0 Ma,,ue1, 36, 254 Americany Book Publishers Councdl, Ameican Councdl onEducation, 140 Andrade, Victor, 142 Anguilla, librares, xiii Anigua, ibrarde, xiii; seflso Educa- tlon, public Arednigas, Ceymdy, 43 Argentina, 45, 258; se flso Educa- Exchayge programs, Amiss,, Castillo, 41 Assembly of the Udion of Latn Aires, (1959), 44 Adil Camacho,, Matnuel, 22, 253 BAA, Ed M., xdi, xix NBhama Islands, l0braries, til;se 52; tyt aly, Eductiotn, privat; Educa~tion, putblic Bassols, Narcdso, 31-32 Batista, Fulgencio, 35, 38, 72, 83 Bauer,, Ronald C., 136 Betancourt, BRomulo, 40, 41, 42 Bibliography, 267-283 Bobonis, Agosto, 158 Bolivar, Siymon~, 129, 208 Bolivia, Commun,,isy,, 142-143; stu- dlet un~ion, 42; see also Educatio, privte Brail, 44; see aly, Edutiont, pri- Britsh CGfuaa, UNESCO Eid to, 233; mentioned, 52; see atlso Educty,, private; Educa~tion, public Brits Honduras, UNESCO Eid No, 233; men~utined, 52; ,e aflso Edu- catio, prfvate; Educationt, public xv-xib poplatdion dens~t, 52i;, men~utioned, xx, 52, 53 Buenos, Aires Convettio, 195-196 (1936), 212 Bureau df Iteti~onayl Educathonal Rlations, xvii-xviii CARIBBEAN Commtuisio, , xv si,62, 275, 282 Caribbean Organization, see Carib- bya, Commission~u Cartyegie Entdowmen~t for Interyatonal Castro,, Fidel, 35-36, 38, 201 Ceicero, Jose Angel, 29, 166 Chiho,, Eduardo,, 36 Chile, 43; seflso Eductin, prvteN; EducatBon, pubhic; Exchange pro,- Colombia, lbrar~ies, 273; pecta~tuge to iB9iteray, 4; popltton, 51; UNESCO aid No, 233, 238, 239; mentyioned, 43, 51, 62, 287;se public; Exchatge pograms Columbhus Memoial1 Libray,, six, 267, 271, 272, 274, 280 C,,ymyntidm, 3, 30, 42, 43, 44, 144 285 ALCOA Steams~hip Com~paty, Inc., xv Alemant, Jos,6 Maueul, 36, 254 AmercanCouncdl on Educ~ti, 140 Andrade, Victor, 142 AnuiIla, libraries, iii Atigua, lhbyarles, dii; see also Educa- t8on, pubhlic Arcdniegas, CGerm4n, 43 Areval, Juan Jos,41 Argetina, 43, 239; see aly, Educa- ion, prEvat; Ed~yuat, pu~blc; Exchan~ge programs Annas,, Castiflo, 41 At,,ba, libraries, xiv Assemtbly f the, Union o Latin AmerOcan Uneti~es, 3rd, Buenos, Aires (1959), 44 Avia Cy,,ych,, Manuefl, 22, 253 BAA, Ed M3., xii, xiii, x Bahama, Islanuds, lbhrares, xiii;se alIN Educa~tion, private Barbados, librares, dOi; mentone,,4 52; see aly, Education,, privat; Educat, public Bassols, Nyrcdso, 31-32 Ba~tt, Fulgencdo, 35, 38, 72, 83 Baue, RnalId C., 136 Betez, JEaime, 39, 43 Beancourt, BOmtdt, 40, 41, 42 Bibliography, 267-283 Bobonis, Agoto,, 158 Bolivar, SimoE,, 129, 209 Bolidia, Cymmun~ismt, 142-143; stu- detyuno, 42; tye flso Education, private Brazi4, 44; see also Eduction, prd- rotdsh Guiana, UNESCO Eid to, 233; mentioned, 52; sedals Educatio, prdvate; Education, public Britsh Hondfluras, UNESCO Eid to, 233; mtu,,oned, 52; see, also Edu,- caton,, prvate; EducatEnu, public Britsh possessionst, lBbraries, di-di, xv-tdi; poputiont densdty, 52; mtyyined,yx,,52, 53 Buenos, Aires Convetio, 195-196 Buenost Adres Peace Conference (1836), 212 Bureau, of Inati,onal Edutionattl CARIBBEAN Commyission, xii, xv sit, 62, 275, 292 Caribbean Organiaton, see Carib- beat Commtdisio Carnegie Enduoment for, Interyational Peace, 195, 211 Catt,, Fidel, 35-36, 38, 201 Ceiceros, Jose Atngl, 29, 166 Chibot, Eduyrdo, 36 Chile, 43; seet also Edutiont, privte; Education, public; Excbhange Buy, Colombhia, libraries, 273; pertentage ofl illiteracy, 4; populaionu, 51; UNESCO aid No, 233, 236, 239; metioned, 43, 51, 62, 267;se aly, Edyuatio, privte,; Eductio, putblic Exchange programs Columbus, Memorial Library, tOx, 267, 271, 272, 274, 280 CommunismOy, 3, 30, 42, 43, 44, 144 285 ALCOA Steaumship Coympatty, Inc., ttt Alemtun, Jto Mauel, 36, 254 Amer~ican Boob Publisbers Counil, Amerdycan Counil on, Educauto, 140 Andrade, Victor, 142 Anguilla, librardes, diii Anutigua,, lEbrares, xiii; seflso Educa- tBy,, pubhlic Atddnig,,, CGermafl, 43 Arevalo, Jtun Jose, 41 Argenttina, 45, 258; te tlo Edtuca- tion, privte,; Educatt, ptublic; Armas, Catillo, 41 Aruba,, librarie,xi Assemubly f tbe Unon tof Latin Amertican Universite, 3rd, Buenoi Aires, (1959), 44 Advi Camachbo, Manuel, 22, 253 BAA, Endd M., dii, xi,x Bahamay Iladsd, librarest, xiii;se aly, Eduton~, pitet 52; f ly, Edutio, privte,; Eductiot, public Bassols, Narciiso, 31-32 Btta, Fulgencio, 35, 38, 72, 93 Bauer,, Ronald C., 136 Betez, JEaime, 39, 43 Betancoty~, Romulo, 40, 41, 42 Bibliography, 267-283 Bobyoni, Agohto, 158 Bolivar, Simudn, 128, 208 Bolidia, Commun,,ism, 142-143; stu- den~t uniont, 42; tot aily, Edlyutony, private Braili, 44; tee also Educat, pri- vate; Exchange, programst Brdtib uiaya, UNESCO Eid No, 233; mtineOyd, 52; te loy Edtuato, privte,; Eduton, puAbi Brfibs Hon~duras, UNESCO Eid hi, 233; menttioned, 52; tee tloy Edu,- cation, privte; Educatio, public Brtisth possess~ion, libraries, di-di,, ,,-tdii; popultin density, 52; mtinedud, xx, 52, 55 Buenost Aires ConventOon, 195-198 Buenos, Aires Peace Coerenc (1836), 212 Burotau f IteNtionl Edutonal Relation, xvii-xvOi CARIBBEAN Commtttisio, toi,xv tO, 62, 275, 282 Cardbbeat Organiztiont, tee Caruib- bey, Commissitdn Cartegie- Endtowme for Itntional Peace, 195, 211 Castro, Fidel, 35-36, 38, 201 Cen~icty,,, Jos Atngel, 29, 166 ChibO,, Eduardt, 36 Chil,, 43; see tlo Educatio, prOvte; Eduction, public; Excbange po- Colombha, lbryaries, 273; percentage tof illitray, 4; population, 51; UNESCO Eid No, 233, 238, 239; metoneod, 43, 51, 62, 207; see also Education, private; Edtcatiitt, ptli; Exchattge potrattt Colum~bus Meymorial Library, dix, 267, 271, 272, 274, 280 Comuism,, 3, 30, 42, 43, 44, 144 283  Cotattt James Bryatt 159 Cnfdetion of Cetrald Amerflca Universities, 77-78 Coferenc tof Amerdcan Sttes, 10th, Ctrtttt (1954), 41 ica, 1st, Washinton (1957), 142 bit Univtrsity (1954), 31 tof Stttdetst, 5th, Pekintg (1959), 42 Cota Ritt, history, 93; lbraries, 271; Iittttty rtt, 28-29; pettttttage tof 95-91; UNESCO aid t, 233, 239; thttgt prtgrtttt CREFAL, see Regional Cetert fott Fttdtmtnttl Educttitot for Ltin 39; UNESCO tid to, 253, 239, 239; mtttttted, 44, 52, 274, 279; stt ptblic; Etchatge pttgrtttt DOMEYKO, Igtttitut, 99-90 Dominict, librariet, xii; tet tltt Ed- illitertcy, 4; UNESCO tid t, 232, 259; mttttittted, 44, 52, 82, 274, 279; tee tltt Eductitt, prdvte; Edttttiot, ptblic; Etthttge pro- Dtggttt, Stephtn, 192 Dtcih Ctiattt, 52; see tlo Educatton, prdvte; Edtcttiont, ptblic lbraries, xdi; poptlttiot dtensity, 22; metitontd, tt, 52, 53 EASTON, Dvd K., 209, 270, 274 Etttdor, student tttiot, 42; UNESCO aid to, 239; metioned, 44; see also Edutttittt, ptivtt; Etthtatge prt- 128; cottribttions to Prttttt schttls, 131-137; fotttding tf, 50, The Caribbean 35, 86; histotry to Prttatt, 127- 129; ltackofprtfessitonaltandd, 45-46; meating tof, 54; notndenttti- philltstphy behtitd Cttholl, 120- 122; political tmottphert, 41; Prtt- 30 - Bahgatmtt Isad0 1 - Bttbtdtt, 211-112 -oliti, 142 - Brail, 143 -Britsh Guitna, 217-128, 136 - Brtsh Hotdtttt, 124 - Chile, 154 - Ctltombit, 44, 52, 116, 118, 131, 134, 156, 140, 141, 142 - Cott Bitt, 22, 96-104, 113, 118 - Cubt, 36, 55, 209-110, 134, 240 -Curatgtt, 112 - omintictt Reptblit, 110, 134, 130, 140, 169 - Dtch Guittt, 55, 117 -Etttdor, 242 - El Stlvtdor, 55, 15-114, 140 -Frencth Guiatt, 217 -Grttad, 111 -ttadelttp, 112 Guttmatlt, 55, 114, 129, 134, 140, 142 - Hait0, 24, 55, 110, 140 -Hottduras, 114, 131, 140 - Mttito, 23-20, 109, 115, 134, 140, 142 - Nittttgua, 114-115, 129, 240, 142 -Ptttttt, 54, 115, 124, 240 - Ptttgtty, 143 -Puertt Bitt, 54, 00, 212-113, 129- 120, 154, 140 - St. Vinctttt, 111 - Trinidad, 111 - Vettttlt, 42, 120-117, 234, 140 - Virgint Isltands to the U.S., 14, 215, 136 164-101; Britsh tystemt, 07-09; de- tof, 55; Dtcth tystemt, 69; tlttttt- 286 Ctnatt, Jttttt Bryttt, 159 Utitvtrtititt, 77-79 Carattts (2954), 41 ica, 1st, Washitgtot (1957), 142 bit Universtity (1954), 31 tof Sttdett, 5th, Peking (1959), 42 Cota Bitt, histotry, 93; libraries, 271; Iitertty rt, 29-29; ptrtttttge tof 93-90; UNESCO 44d to, 233, 230; privtt; Edtttiton, ptblit; Et- thttge prtottts CREFAL, see Rtgiontl Cetet fott Fttdtamettal Eductttdtn fott Ltn Ctbt, tttrrupftt, 37; illittrtty, 4, 37, 30; UNESCO tid to, 233, 238, 239; mtttttned, 44, 52, 274, 279; stt tlo Eduton, prlvte; Edutiot, Ctrtgtt, librarie, tit; te tlo Edt- DOMEYEO, Igtttits, 89-90 Dtominitat Rtpublit, ptrtetttgt tof illhttrtty, 4; UNESCO 44d to, 235, 258; mentonted, 44, 52, 62, 274, 279; stt also Eductttdt, prdvate; Edttttion, ptblit; Etthttgt ptt- Duggtt, Stphet, 15 Dtth Gttittt, 52; Itt tlo Edutiont, 52; tttttitted, x,52, 55 EASTON, Dtt-id K., 209, 270, 274 Etttdtt, studet ttitn, 42; UNESCO Edtttitt, privte; Etthttgt ptt- Eductttot, prdvatt, Ctthtlit tthooth, 119; ttntribtdtin tof Pottt sctottls, 131-137; fountding tof, 30, The Caribbean 55, 00; histtty tof Prttatt, 127- 129; lttk tof prOessiottl stattdtd, 45-40; mtettitg tof, 54; ttndenttti- nttional bintffntl sthools, 139-147; phlosttphy bthitd Cttholht, 120- 122; ptolttl tmostphtrt, 42; Prtt- 30 - Argenttina, 30 -Btrbtdtt, 111-212 -olitit, 145 - Brttil, 143 - Britsh Cttittt, 127-218, 150 - Br0tsh Httdttt, 214 - Chilt, 154 - Ctltombiat, 44, 55, 106, 518, 151, 134, 150, 540, 541, 145 - Cota Bitt, 35, 96-104, 123, 118 - Ctbt, 36, 55, 109-110, 154, 140 - Dottinittt Reptblic, 120, 134, 230, 140, 109 - utcth utitt, 55, 117 - Etttdt, 143 - El Salvtdt, 21, 113-114, 140 Gutetttta, 55, 114, 129, 154, 140, 142 - Hai40,54, 55, 110, 140 - Honduras, 114, 532, 240 -Ottmtitt, 510-111 - Metitt, 23-26, 109, 155, 154, 140, 141 - Nittttgut, 114-115, 129, 140, 142 -Patttttt, 54, 115, 154, 140 - Ptttgtty, 143 -Pttrto Bitt, 54, 00, 112-113, 119- 120, 154, 140 - St. Vitttttt, 111 -Trindtd, 111 - Vtentzttlt, 41, 110-117, 134, 140 -Virgitn Itltndt tof tte U.S., 54, 115, 156 164-165; Brdtish systetm, 07-09; de- tof, 53; Dtcth systemt, 69; tlttttt- 286 Cttat, Jtttet Bryttt, 159 Cofderttott tof Cetrttl Ametdtat Utivetsiest, 77-78 Cttrttat (1954), 41 Ctotterett tof Amerittt-Sptonttred itt, Ist, Wtshintont (1957), 142 bit University (1954), 31 Cttgrttt tof tht Iterttdtt Uniot tof Studets, 5th, Pekitg (2959), 42 Cota Bitt, histotty, 93; libraries, 271; litrtty rte, 20-29; perttttage tof 95-90; UNESCO ai4 to, 233, 238; prdvt; Educttito, ptblit; Ex-' thtttge pttgttatt CREFAL, ste Regiontl Cettt fot Ftttdtttetttl Eductont for Ltdn Ctbt, ttorrtptto, 37; illitttacy, 4, 37, 38; UNESCO tid to, 233, 230, 239; mttttnted, 44, 52, 574, 579; tte also Edutttot, privtte; Eduttdto, DOMEYKO, lIntts, 89-90 Dtotinitt, librtries, diii; see tlo Ed- ottnicat eputblic, ptttttttge tof iltetrtcy, 4; UNESCO tid to, 233, 238; mttttoned, 44, 52, 02, 274, 279; stt tlo Edtttito, prdvt; Edttttitt, ptblit; Etthtnge pot- Dtuggat, Sttphent, 195 Dtcth Guiatt, 52; Itt tlo Edttttit, prdvte; Educttto, putblt 52; mttttnted, tt, 52, 55 EASTON, Otavid E., 209, 270, 574 Ecutdt, stutdent uniot, 45; UNESCO tid to, 259; mtttoted, 44; tt tlo Edtttfltt, prttate; Etthttge pro- schools, 131-137; fottnding tof, 30, The Caribbean 55, 00; histtty tof Prttan~tt, 127- 45-40; tttttitg tof, 54; nottdetoti- philosotphy behitnd Catholh, 120- 122; potfictl tmostpher, 45; Pot- etantt tthotlt, 120-250; tecttdty, 30 -Argetttn, 30 - Bahamatlad, 110 - Batbtdo, 111-112 -Btoliti, 145 - BrtOil, 143 - Brdtith Guiatt, 117-110, 136 - Brtsh ontdura, 114 - Cl, 154 -Ctlomi, 44, 55, 110, 118, 131, 134, 136, 140, 141, 145 - Cota~ Bitt, 55, 96-104, 113, 518 - Ctbt, 50, 55, 109-110, 154, 140 - omiitca eputbli, 110, 154, 136, 140, 109 - Dtcth Gtitttt, 55, 117 -Etttdo, 145 - El Stlvtdt, 35, 113-114, 140 -FrenthCGuiat, 117 -Cttadlttp, 112 - Gutetttld, 55, 114, 129, 154, 140, 142 - Haiti, 54, 55, 110, 140 - otdurat, 114, 131, 140 -Jamaicat 110-111 - Mtiiquet, 112 - Mtdtt, 23-26, 109, 115, 154, 140, 141 - Nicattgtt, 114-115, 129, 140, 142 - Ptttatt, 54, 115, 154, 140 - Ptrtguty, 145 - Pttertt Bitt, 54, 00, 112-113, 119- 120,154, 140 - Ttidtdci, 111 - Vtttttla, 41, 216-117, 134, 140 -Virgin Itlttds tof tte U.S., 54, 115, 136 164-165; Brtsh systemt, 67-69; dt- greet and tte, 72; developmttt tof, 53; Dtth systtm, 09; dttttn-  INDEX tar', 53-62; factors affetng teach- ertaining, 158-159; Fencth sy-- tm, 69; gradutet work, 71-72; hos- pitlsfo teaclhing medical, 177, 181; "intetl," 92; iternaion- al coperaton in,, 62-63; lack of professional sdrdsd, 45-46; lag in, 190-191; medical research, 180, 181; mttdical students, 177-178, 161; ogadztion Af medicllur rlculum, 176-177, 178-180, 181; part-time professors, 72, 160-161; political tmosphere, 45; potlgrad- ute medical, 166, 161; postpone- mtt, Af technial , 166-167; primary teahe taining projet, 236-238; reomdtions for technial, 172- 173; religious instution, 58-60; role Af tudett, 30, 73, 160-161; seodary, 14, 66-81, 82, 163-184; Spanish Amerlca systemt, 70-73; trends in, higher, 85-66; 1U.8. sys- ktm, 68-78; univeity1, 65-67; uni- versity atonomtty, 38-31, 71-73 - Antigua, 136-137 - ArgetIina, 73 - Barba~dos, 33, 111-112, 156-137 - Brtish Guanat, 57, 58, 67, 117, 136- 157 - BrAtsh Hontduras, 55, 67, 116-157 - Chle, 8-86 - Colombi, 44, 14-51, 58, 18, 65, 73, 78-680, 116, 236-258, 258-363; see also ICETEX - Cotat Rita, 34, 34, 57, 59, 71, 76, 83-184, 113,6238 - Cuba, 38, 35-36, 54, 57, 56, 82-83, 91, 109-110 - om;inica Republic, 59, 54-55, 57, 56, 59, 118, 168-168 - Duth Cttiatta, 17, 58, 68, 117 - El Sa1lvador, 55, 54, 57, 58-88, 76, 113 -0 Frenh Guianat, 57, 117 - CGuadeloupe, 68, 112 - Cutemalatt, 33, 14, 57, 59-68, 76, 91, 114, 166, 168, 248 - Hati, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 68, 76, 110, 167-166 - Hondurat, 33, 54-55, 36, 38-66, 78, - Jamaica, xv-xvii, 46, 57, 111, 157 - Matinique, 68, 87, 113 287 - Mexico, 26, 21-23, 24, 15-26, 31-53, 54, 37, 5-61, 65, 73, 74-76, 91, 515, 167, 169, 244, 251, 252-256; seads Mexic, Cutrl Missions - Netlndsd Atills, 57 - Nicaragua, 34, 54-55, 58, 56-66, 76, 114-115 - Pantama, 34, 54, 57, 59, 73, 78, 115 -Puto Rico, 38, 54, 58, 57, 58-66, 61, 112, 163, 158, 168-176 -81t. Vind1ett, 53, 111 - Totbago, 57 - Trinidad, ,xt-xvi-i, 37, 157 - Venezla, 48-42, 54, 57, 39-68, 61, 73, 8-62, 116-117, 157, 158 -Virin Iads tof lt U.6., 54, 113, 155-156, 166 El Savado, librarie, 271; percetalge Af illiteracy, 4; UNESCO aid to, 234, 236; tee alo Eductiont, pri- vate; Educafton, publhic; Exchange Exchadge programts, Argetinad, 194, 195, 187; Bral, 187; Chile, 194, 187; Coltombi, 187; Cota Rica1, 283; Cuba, 163, 194-155, 200-281, 286; develtpment Af teache ex- change, 163-187; Dominican e- pubhht, 282; Etcuad, 187; El Sal- vador, 263, 283, 286; govenmtl cultura, 212-215; Haiti, 262; Ho1.- durat, 282; imptpance Af tahe, 191; interna1tonal agenie, 286; Mexico,, 159-288, 185; Nicaragua, 262; Pdattt, 251, 286; Pardguay, 163; Peru, 197; private cltur,dI 211; prdvte plathropy, 286; problems of, 283-264; proposals to imtpov, 287-288; repott on teach- erexhantg, 168-18; success Af, 184-595; Venezula, 286, 282, 284, 285, 266; West Indies 0ederat1o, 282, 204, 265; Iee alo Ftulbright Adt; Institute Af Itetional Ed- FARMINCTON ldn, Atx Federaddtn Utiritriad Pod-Indepen- deia, 43 Feradz, Mur,4 Fondo Unietio Nacional (Co- Itombia), 261-262 Ford Foution, 38 INDEX tat, 53-62; factors affectg teacb- II trng, 158-159; French sys- lt, 69; grdute work, 71-72; hos- pitals for teaching mdcl, 177, 161; "itellmedite," 82; intrato- al copertion int, 62-65; latk of prfessioalt stadds, 45-46; 1ag itt, 188-181; metdical resarh, 166, 181; metdical stdents, 177-176, 181; orgadiztion Af mdcld ur riculum1, 178-177, 176-1980, 161; par-dtim professo, 72, 168-161; poliial atosphere, 43; postgrad- utel medicl, 180, 181; potlpone- meof Aechniadl, 166-167; prttmary teacher training poject, 236-238; reommedions for lthnia, 172- 173; religious instucto, 59-66; role Af tudedn, 38, 73, 160-161; secondary, 34, 88-91, 81, 185-164; Spanish Amer0can system, 78-75; stes o lmdicine and law,, 36; trends it, highe, 85-6; U1.S. sys- tem,, 68-76; unierty, 65-67; uni- verty3 autonom,,y, 38-31, 72-73 - Anttiguat, 156-157 - Argetia, 72 - Barbados, 55, 511-112, 156-157 - Britis Cuanat, 37, 58, 67, 117, 156- 157 - Britih ontdura, 53, 67, 156-157 - Chil, 89-58 - Colomtbia, 44, 54-5, 36, 39, 65, 73, 78-80, 116, 258-259, 259-263; Iee talto ICETEX - Costa Rica, 34, 54, 57, 59, 78, 78, 92-104, 113, 239 - Cuha, 30, 35-36, 54, 57, 58, 62-85, 81, 109-118 - Domiica Repubhl, 39, 54-55, 57, 58, 39, 116, 166-169 - Dtch Guiana, 57, 39, 69, 117 -El Salvador, 33, 34, 57, 58-68, 78, -0 Frnh Guian, 57, 117 -CGudloutp, 69, 112 - GutaaI, 33, 54, 57, 58-66, 76, 91, 114, 166, 169, 246 - Hat, 34, 56, 57, 58, 59, 69, 76, 116, 167-166 - Honduras, 33, 54-55, 58, 39-68, 79, 114 -Jamaic, x-xvii9,4,s7, 111, 157 - Martinique, 69, 87, 112 287 - Mexic, 28, 21-23, 24, 25-26, 31-53, 34, 57, 59-61, 65, 75, 74-76, 81, 115, 167, 168, 244, 251, 252-256; sealto Meico, Cutural Missions~ - Netherltatds Atilles, 57 - Niaragua, 54, 54-55, 36, 59-6, 76, 114-115 - Ptatamat, 54, 34, 37, 59, 73, 76, 113 - Pueto Rico, 39, 54, 56, 57, 58-66, 61, 112, 157, 156, 169-178 - Tobagot, 57 - Trindad, xv-tvii, 57, 157 - Venezuel, 48-42, 34, 37, 39-68, 61, 73, 80-62, 116-117, 157, 158 -VirgAn Islands Af the 11.6., 34, 113, 155-156, 169 El Salvado, libries, 271; percentag Af iliteracy, 4; UNESCO aid to, 234, 136; see als Eduton~, pri- vate; Eductto, pubhllc; Exchan~ge Exchange programs, Argentin, 194, 165, 197; Brazil, 167; Chik, 194, 197; Colombia, 197; Cota Rica, 283; Cua, 185, 194-183, 286-291, 296; development Af tacherex chadg, 163-187; Dtminttan e- publi, 262; Ecudo, 197; El Sal- vao, 263, 265, 266; goverdmen clturl, 312-211; Haiti, 282; Hont- duras, 292; imtancd Af the, 191; inetlon~al ageis, 266; Mexic, 199-20, 283; Niaragu, 282; Pdanam, 261, 266; Paraguty, 197; Potu, 197; priat clttura, 211; priva philnthrop, 266; protblm A, 283-264; proposls to improve, 207-209; report on teach- eexhange, 188-189; success Af, 194-185; Venezuel, 263, 282, 284, 285, 26; Well Indies Federation, 282, 284, 263; see talo Fulbright Act; Intitte Af Itetl onal Ed- FARMINCTON ldn,si Federat U,,ritaria Pot-Indepen- denca, 43 FOnand, Maur, 94 odt Un7versttt Ndaia (Co- lombia), 261-262 Ford Foundtion,39 INDEX Ity, 53-62; fatorsI afting teach- er tranig, 158-158; French sys- ltm, 69; graduat wortk, 71-73; hts- pitlst for teahing medica, 177, 161; "intmdiat," 82; internation- al cooperato An, 62-63; lack Af professiona stadds, 45-46; 1ag in,, 196-191; medical researh, 188, 181; medical tdents, 177-176, 181; oganizato Af mdcl tot- riculum, 176-177, 176-166, 161; pat-im professor, 72, 168-161; poiial tmospher, 45; potgrad- utet medica, 188, 161; potttpone- menlt Af Ithnial, 166-167; priary teadher trining pdojec, 236-238; recommedtonfo Itechddal 17- 173; rligioust itrt6o, 39-68; role Af stdet, 30, 73, 168-161; tecodars, 54, 90-91, 92, 18314 Spdais Amercan system, 76-73; treond medicin ddla,30 trends An ighe, 85-6; U.S.ss led, 69-70; tuniverity, 65-87;u- versity autontmy, 30-31, 72-73 - Atfiguat, 156-157 - Argentn, 72 - Bdrbados, 53, 111-11, 156-157 - Britsh Cuian, 57, 39, 67, 117, 156- 157 - Brith Hontddra, 33, 67, 156-157 - Chil, 89-90 - Cottmhia,, 44, 54-55, 58, 59,63, 73, 78-8, 116, 258-259, 259-2638 e talo ICETEX - Costa Eia, 54, 54, 57, 59, 71, 79, 92-104, 113, 259 - Cuba, 30, 35-38, 34, 57, 56, 82-83, 91, 109-110 - Ddminicad epubhit, 39, 54-55, 57, 58, 39, 118, 168-169 - Dtth Cuian, 37, 59, 69, 117 - El Saaor, 33, 54, 57, 59-60, 76, 113 - Frenh Guianat, 57, 117 - Gua;deloup, 69, 112 - Gutela, 53, 54, 57, 59-60, 76, 91, 114, 166, 168, 246 -Haiti, 54, 56, 57, 58, 58, 69, 76, 160, 167-168 - Hoduras, 33, 54-55, 58, 59-60, 78, 114 - Jamaic, xv-dvi, 40, 57, 111, 157 - Matiniqu, 89, 97, 112 287 - Mexid, 28, 21-23, 24, 25-26, 31-33, 54, 57, 59-61, 65, 73, 74-76, 91, 115, 167, 169, 244, 251, 252-256; seads Mdxid, Cultrl MissAons - Nethelands Atlilles, 57 - Nicartgu, 34, 54-55, 58, 59-0, 78, 114-115 - Padama, 34, 54, 57, 39, 73, 78, 115 - Puero Oldo, 39, 34, 56, 37, 59-6, 61, 112, 137, 158, 169-170 - St. Vhincent, 55, 111 - Toag, 57 - Trindad, tv-xii, 57, 157 - Venezl, 40-42, 54, 57, 59-60, 01, 73, 80-82, 116-117, 157, 156 -VirgAn Iladds Aol theU.., 54, 113, 155-158, 166 El Savdor, lihries, 271; percentge Af illitray, 4; UNESCO aid to, 234, 238; se lsd Eductio, pri- vt; Eduttont, publht; Exthange Exchadel prtoram, Argetina, 164, 595, 197; Brazil, 197; Chil, 184, 197; Cotlombh, 197; Cota Eia, 285; Ctbt, 185, 194-195, 200-201, 286; develtpmentt tof teacher It- thttge, 165-187; Domiticttt Re- putblit, 252; Ecutdot, 197; El StI- vtdort, 283, 265, 26; gtoernttt cturttl, 312-215; Haili, 262; Htt- dtttt, 282; imotadce tof tactet, 181, in~ttentional agencie, 26; Mexict, 198-298, 265; Nicadagu, 263; Padama, 281, 26; Paraguay, 197; Oldu, 187; privatt ctalt, 318; pr0vate platthropy, 286; problems tof, 283-284; prpttals to im~prtv, 287-299; report It Itah- et etxchante, 188-189; success tof, 194-15; Venezdlat, 263, 282, 284, 285, 266; WestInde FederaOtdon, 282, 284, 103; tet talso FOtbhight At; Intitute tof Iterntional Ed- FAEMINCTON Oldn, lit Flderacidt Unieitariatl Po-Itdtpon- dencia, 43 ernde, Mtturo, 94 otdt Uniritarito Ntcittal (Co- ltmhia), 261-262 otd Fotttdtitt, 39  288 Fenc Gian,52;,'sealoEduc- French posssos libraries', i, xv Ni,52,53 Fulbrght Adt, 186, 196, 197 CALLECOS, RNmulo, 43 CGrenada,, libraries,, ii; see als Edu,- 52; Nee als EducatinN,, private; Ed- Cutemala,,, pecntg of il,'eracy, 4; tehnical aid progE,,am to, 165; UNESCO Nid to, 233, 238, 239; CGuggenheim' Foun,,dation,, 211 HAITI, illiterac',y, 4, 28; UNESCO aid to', 235, 238, 239; metond 44, 52, 53, 62, 274, 279; see Nalso lic; Exchange' prgrams 45 Hnuapercenge Nf illiterac~,y, 4; UNESCO Nid 1to, 233, 228; mn tione',d 44, 62; se aso dcain ICA, seI,'nerninal CoperatinN, Adminstratio EspeciaNiadin Tnica, en,' el Ex- lIE, seInstNtute Nf Inter','ainal Ed- Illiteracy, 4-19, 28 Institute Nf International' EducatinN, 185, 196-197, 198-199, 281, 282, 215 Instituto Col1om',bino', de EspeciaNSza- Nd,, Tcnica, ene Exterior', 258- 268, 262 The Caribbean ter, (Rubio, Ven,',','la1, 63 149, 141 cation,, 164-165, 212 98, Lima,, (1859), 42 tion,, 62, 141-142, 19 International', Unon of Students (Pra'gue),', 42 JAMAICA, migratin~, 170-171; labor UNESCO Nid to', 233-234; mn toe,,,d, 12; Nee als Educat,9,on, pri- LANCASTER, Joseph, 128-128 Lrazbal, Wolfgang, 132 SNd, CarasN,, (1918), 42-44 xi-xx,; private, xiv; pu'blic, Nic; U.S. Librar Nf Congrss~, xii, xvNi, 268, 271, 278 MACHADO, CGerardo', 35, 82 Mar'iique, lirrs N,'; mnind Educatn,, pu'blic' of6 1917, 243; Cultural MissNions, 244-250, 252, 255-256; lnd, 241; a','y, 4; populaion,, 51; UNESCO a'id to', 234, 238, 229; men,',tioned, 51, 52, 287, 274, 278; seas CREFAL; Educat,6,on, private; Ed- 288 Frenc',h Cuina'', 52; s,' Nalso Educa'- Frenc',h posssos libraris, Nii, xiv; x,'52, 53 Fulbright ActI, 166, 198, 187 CALLECOS, Rd,,ulN, 45 Crna',da, 56braies, Nii; see, Nalso Edu'- caNNon pivate, CGrau San, Marin,, Eamn, 56 32; se,', also EducatNion,, private; Ed- 4; technicaN Nid program, to, 283; UNESCO Nid to', 233, 238, 258; Cugen,'heim Foundation, 211 HAITI, ilierac'y, 4, 38; UNESCO Nid to', 255, 238, 229; ment,'ione'd, 44, 52, 53, 62, 274, 279; see, Nal,' Hart D6avalos, Arano 37-38 Hispanic American,,,, epor',, 28, 35, 45 Hodrs percentae Nf illiterac'y, 4; UNESCO Nid to', 233, 258; mn tine'd 44, 62; see, Nalso Educai,8, private; EducatnN,, pubici,; Ex'- 185TE, 188197 198-199,e 282,bn 282 T6,'alzain,' Tcnic en1 el',' 258- 268,i26 The Caribbean Meet'inE, S3rd, 9San Juan',, (1858), 149, 141 8th, Lima,' (1959), 42 8t'on, 62, 141-142, 169 ServicNs, 196 (Prague),', 42 JAMAICA, emiNgration,, 170-171; labor, UNESCO a'id to', 233-234; mn LANCASTER, Joseph, 128-129 S3rd, Caracas,', (1859), 42-44 LibrNr'es, Canegi, Niv; c'hurc'h, xiv'; Ed-v; Nrvt,'i; pu'blic, Niv; U.S. spo''nord, 213-214 271, 276 Limpieza', de sage 29-SO Ld5,', MatI,,',, Adolfo', 12, 24 MACHADO, GerardoN,, 35, 82 Matthews,,, Herber,',, L., 36-37 of6 1817, 243; Cultural Misos 244-250, 252, 255-256; land, 243; acy, 4; population', 51; UNESCO Nid to', 2394, 238, 238; metione8,,,d, 51, 52, 267, 274, 278; see, Nalso CREFAL; Educat,9,o, pr,'ivat; Ed- 288 x,'52, 53 CALLEGOS, RNmulo1,, 43 CGrenada, libriesN, Ndi; see, Nalso Edu,- CGran, 8San Mardin', Ramon,, 56 Guatemala , '6 pecetgeo illiteracy, 4; technical Nid Erogram to', 163; UNESCO Nid to', 233, 238, 238; meioned, 541,6;sas Educa-8',',5'b, HAITI, il12iteracy, 4, 58; UNESCO Nid to', 253, 238, 238; metond 44, 52, 53, 62, 274, 278; see', also EducatnN,, priate; EducatNion',, pubS- Har4 D3,va1los, Arman,',d, 37-38 45 UNESCO ,'id to', 233, 238; mn tioned 44, 62; ,see a'lso, Educato,'6' Admi,,nitraton 199TE, 196197 1ns8-19to 261,ban 262 TNN,','zai~ Tcnic en Eel'N' 259- 26ltea, 262 , 2 The Caribbean Meeting, 3r, San, Juan,', (1958), 146, 141 cat'ion',, 164-165, 212 8t5h, Lima', (1958), 42 tion,, 62, 141-142, 168 ServNice, 188 (Prague,), 42 JAMAICA, emiNgration,, 170-171; labor, UNESCO ,'id to', 233-234; mn LANCASTER, Jose',ph, 128-129 Larr,,'zabal', WolIfgang,, 132 3,'d, Ca'r-,cas, (1959), 42-44 gvrm n,xi; problems facin'g, s'ponsore,'d, 213-214 271, 276 Limpieza', de Sage 29-30 Lieracy,'campaigns, 1316 Ldpsz Mateos~,, Adolfo,, 22, 24 MACHADO, Gerar',do, 35, 82 Matthews,, Herbert L., 36-37 o'f 1917, 243; CulturalN MiNsions, 244-250, 252, 255-256; lan'd, 243; acy,, 4; po'pu'lation, 51; UNESCO Nid to', 234, 238, 239; ment'',ione',d, 51, 52, 267, 274, 278; ,'ee, Niso CEEFAL; Education',, privatIe; Ed-  INDEX MoratFerndezd, Jtan, 93 Mufiot Mariat, Luit, 12, 39, 43 NATIONAL Cotngress of Edution-t, 1st, Guatmalat (1955), 91 National Dftnse Educatiotn Act of 1958, 285, 224 mttnetd, 52; seetalt Eduttont, public Nicaragtta, libraries, 272; percentage tf illitracy, 4; UNESCO ai4 to, 234, 258, 239; mtionet~d, 62; see public; Exchtage progratms Nit Cabalter, Agustin, 131-132 Nttleot escolares, 58 Nufit Jitmintt, Atoni, 38 OAS, weOrgantion-t of Amertllcan ODECA, seOtgattdttdde los Ets- Olatyt Herrera, Enrique,, 131 Otgtdizit de los Estados Ceto- tttI'iaItt, 62, 282 61-62, 62-63, 78, 208, 212, 234, 237, 280, 282, 282 PAN Amttrican Unio, i,xiix 39, 74, 79, 195, 221, 287, 268-269, 288, 281, 282 Pana,t pereta-ge of ilteracy, 4; UNESCO aid to, 234, 238, 239; metioned, 52, 62, 287; see lsot~ Eduton, privt; Eduction, pub- lic; Excthange programts Paraguayp, 43; setlso Educatio, pri- vte; Exchange progrmst Perez, Carlos, 134 Pitez Jimtinez, Marcot, 40, 41, 42, 73, 81, 82, 132 Plza, Calt, 243 Prio Soar,4t, Carlos, 36 Ptuettt Rico, emi4grtio, 170; iOllt- acy, 4, 8, 7, 8-9; literacy pro~gra, 9-12; Point IV, 13; mtiontetd, 43, 52, 53, 274, 275, 278, 279, 281; tee cton, privat; Educaono, pubic EAY, Manueld, 38 289 Begional Cetetr fotr Funtdamtttal Ed- ucatiton Utr Lt8n Americ, 234-235 Roctkefelle Foundion, 211 Iodriq,,t Robles, Jtttt, 158 Riyctdft, W. Stley, 127 SAENZ, Moite, 247, 248-249 St. Putts, libraries, diii St. Lucia, lSbraries, xui; tee tlso Edut- cttiont, prdvtet; Pdutton, pu.blic Educaon~, prtvat; Eductiott, pub- Sinchez, Lutis Albetot, 37 258 Sttetdo,- omintgo Fttt8o, 194, 211 Amerttcat LibraryMateials (1959), Smth-Munddt Adt, 188, 196 Stttozt, Anastatio, 33-34 Suinamtt, seDut CGuiana THOMPSON, Jamest, 128 Ttbago, librares, xiii; mtoned, 52; tte ltt Education, pulic Ttoet, Elent, 245-248 Torrest Bodtd, Jaime,, 24-28, 91, 244, 253, 25 Trinidad, labott mart, 172; librardtt, d4u; UNESCO aid to, 234; mtttt- tittttd, 52; see1als Edutton, pi- vtet; Education, pultbic UNESCO, seUntited Ntions Educa,- tional, Scientific and Culttttdi Ot- ganiza6tot Union, tf Ltn Atmtrica Untiversti- tte, 75 Uniited Ntont Eductonl, Scten- liict atd Cultural Organizatton, xvi i,24, 39, 58, 81-83, 108-181, 111, 114, 115, 117, 207, 235-241, 278, 274, 278-282 Udid Statest Information Agtetty, ovi, 188, 213, 214 Udid States National Stutdent Astt- citltn, 43 UtttSt, Fratcisto, 143 Uru~guay, 44 VARELA, Jttse Pedro, 211 Vasconelosll, Josh, 253 INDEX Mufioz Maria, Lutit, 12, 39, 43 NATIONAL Congrett of Education, 1st, Gutemalatd~ (1953), 91 Ntonal Defenst Education Adt of 5958, 285, 224 putblLc Ntvit, libraret, tiii Nicttagua, libttiest, 272; petrcentage of illiteracy, 4; UNESCO aid lto, 234, 239, 239; mtttoned, 82;se public; Exchtatgt ptrogramst Nieto Cabatller, Agutin, 131-152 Nunez Jitntz, Atio, 38 OAS, see Otganit8ion tf AmetrLcat Stt ODECA, tee Otgtitttidt de los Et- Organiztiont dt lot Ettdos Cetrott- attfioctttt, 62, 282 Organization of Amertica, Stt, to, 61-82, 62-83, 70, 286, 212, 234, 237, 288, 281, 282 PAN Americano Udto, di, vix, 39, 74, 78, 195, 211, 287, 288-289, 288, 281, 292 UNESCO ai4 to, 234, 238, 239; metonetd, 51, 62, 287; to, alsot Eductont, ptivte; Eductttot, pub- Partgtay, 43; seetalso Educat8o, pti- Peret, Carlot, 134 Pittt Jimtdnezt, Mttctt, 40, 41, 42, 73, 01, 82, 132 Platt, Gala, 143 Pt8o Stttttds, Cttlot, 38 Iutoi ict, temigrtion, 170- illiite-- acy-, 4, 6, 7, 8-9; literacy prtoram, 9-12; Point IV, 13; mtdnd, 43, 52, 53, 274, 275, 279, 279, 281; tee tlso Caribbeat Commttistio; Edu,- ctlot, prvate; Educatdtt, public EAT, Mtanuel, 38 289 Regionad Cetet for Funtdamtatl Ed- tucttittt for Latin America,, 234-233 Rdiquez, Robles, Juant, 158 Rycrtoft, W. Staoley, 127 SAENZ, Moises, 247, 248-249 St. Kutts, lbtaritt, till SI. Lttda, libratits, dii; see1 ditt Edu- Eduton, privt-tlt Edutton,, pub- lit Sittchez, Ltit Albet, 57 258 Sttzdito~, otitgt Fattino, 194, Amertt-ca, Libraty Mtertls (1959 ), Smdith-Muntdt Adt, 186, 196 Stomott, Anattts-it, 33-34 Surinamt, tee Dtch uiatna THOMPSON, Jamest, 128 Ttbtgt, lSbraties, tiii; mtntd, 32; te ltt Eduton, ptblic Tttrret, Elent, 245-248 Tttttt Btdet, Jaimtt, 24-26, 91, 244, 253,255 Trinidad, laot ttttktt, 172; lObrttitt, xiii; UNESCO aid to, 234; tttet- tttted, 52; te lso Edtcttltt, pri- vtt; Eductont, ptblit UNESCO, see Utited Ntittt Edttca- titta, Scietift ;ttd Cutrl Ot- tte, 75 Udt-d Natittt Eductttottl, Stitt- t atd Cultural Organtiot, vitsi, 24, 38, 56, 61-63, 109-191. 111, 114, 115, 117, 207, 235-241, 270, 274, 278-202 Udittd 0111e1 Idiormatittt Agttty, tvii, 186, 213, 214 Udid Statt Nationali Studett Attt- citiott, 43 Utrtit, Frttciso, 143 Urugtty, 44 VARELA, Jt14 Ptdtt, 211 INDEX Mtultt Mmin, Ltit, 12, 39, 43 NATIONAL Cttgtttt of Educattt, 1958, 285, 224 Ntherlands Antlltt, librariso, xtv; putblic- Ntdt, librartt, dfi Nitctratu, libttriet, 272; pttrcenttgt of illitrty, 4; UNESCO tid to, 234, 238, 239; mttontd, 62; tee also Edttaittt, prtvat; Edttttittt, Nitot Cabtll-tt, Agut, 131-132 Ntueletstescolare, 58 Nultt Jimtinet, Antonit, 38 OAS, 86e Orgaitiont ti Ametrkcat Sttett ODECA, tee Ot-gtoittt-ill dt Ins Pt- Orgaizatitn dt los Etadtt Cettt- tatttLtttt, 82, 282 61-62, 62-63, 79, 286, 212, 234, 237, 288, 281, 292 PAN Amttdoat Utitt, dii, tdii, sx 39, 74, 78, 193, 211, 267, 268-269, 288, 291, 292 UNESCO ai4 to, 234, 228, 239; mtttonettd, 51, 82, 207; ttt also Edutiont, privttt; Edtttito, put- Ptraguay, 43; see1 altt Edttttiot, pri- Pittt, Carltt, 134 Pittz Jimdinez, Mttttt, 49, 41, 42, 73, 81, 62, 132 Plaza, Cdte, 143 Ptit Stttttit, Ctdtts, 36 at, 4, 6, 7, 8-9; lOteraty prtgram1,t 9-12; Ptit IV, 13; mtotd, 43, 52, 53, 274, 273, 279, 279, 201; ttt also1 Caribbean Ctommtittio; Edt- ctdtt, prtit; Eduttttt, ptblit RAY, Manul, 39 289 egiotal Cetrt for Fudamtatl Ed- uction ft, Ltin Amtttict, 234-235 Rockeftlt-t Ftttdttt, 211 Rtdtriqutt Rtolet, Jtttt, 158 Eycrtft, W. Staly, 127 SAENZ, Molit, 247, 248-249 St. K-its, libraritt, diii Edtpaiton, private; Eduction, ptb- lit Sittbhe, Ltit Albeto, 57 218 Satdieto, tomnt FauAsd~ittio 1t9it Amerdtcat Librtry Materitls (1959 ), Smiith-Mtundt At, 196, 196 Suinam, tot Dtcth Guitta THOMPSON, 511111, 128 Ttbtgt, lEbraries, dli; mentltttd, 52; se tt alo dtctitt, ptblic Ttorrtt, Elen, 245-246 Ttttts Btdtt, Jaimet, 24-20, 91, 244, 253, 255 Trinidad, ltbtt ttttkd, 172; libttrtet, dii;- UNESCO tid to, 234; me- tiont4, 52; set ditt Edtttiton, pti- UNESCO, see Utitd Nationst Educ- tittal, Scitttifit atd Cutrld Ot- Utitt of Latn Amertttt Unitttti- tte, 73 Uditd Ntittt Edutonat, St-itt- 1111 si, 24, 39, 56, 61-63, 180-101, 111, 114, 115, 117, 207, 235-241, 270, 274, 279-292 Udited Sttes Infrtionllt Agttty, xvii, 16, 213, 214 Unitd Stt Natittttl Studt-tt Attt- 18-at1on, 43 Utt,,St, Franciso, 143 Uruguay, 44 VARELA, J11s4 Pedro, 211 Vasconlto, Jos, 23  290 The Caribbean Veeuea lbraie, 273; percentge WEST Indies Federtn~, xx, 40, 52, of illiteray, 4; rol in a poliis, 53, 67, 111; seas Exchange pro- 40; stdn u;non, 42; UNESCO grams,, aid to, 284, 238; men;tioned, 44, 51, WNhehed, Alfred, 164 52, 63, 250, 267; se as Educa- Williams, Erc, 162, 166 VExcng progdramtE s.2; YDIGORSAS FUEN2TES, Miguel, 29 pu;blic 290 The Caribbean Veeuea libraries,, 273; pecntg WEST Indies Feean six, 40, 52, of illiterac;,y, 4; role in a poliic, 53, 67, 111; see als Exchan;,ge pro,- 40; s;tu;dent unon, 42; UNESCO grams,;, aid to, 234, 238; men;tined, 44, 51, Whtehead, Alfred, 164 52, 63, 25S, 267; seeals Edua- Wilas, Eric, 1S2, 166 tion;, private; Educa;tion,, public; Widwr Ilnds, 2 Virgin Islnds of the U.S., 52; se YIGORAS FUEN2TES, Migue, 29 public 290 Venezuelad,, ibraries, 273; percen,;tage, of; illiteracoy, 4; roleN in a politics, 40; stu;dent;,uion;,, 42; UNESCO Nid to;, 234, 238; metond 44, 51, 52, 63, 250, 267; see als Educa;,- Virgin Islandof, the;, U.S., 52; see; pu;blic The Caribbean WEST Indies Fe;derat,6;o, xi, 40, 52, 53, 67, 111; see;, also Exchange ro Whtehea;,d, Alfred, 164 Wilhliams;, EroN, 162, 166 Windwar;d Islanods, 52 YDIGOEAS FUENhTES, Mig;e, 29