ILLINOI

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

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I I L ~IPI

..,. __r

THE IUNIVERSITY

OF ILLINOIS

LIBRARY

946
F66

HISTORY

OF THE

MOOR S OF SPAIN

TRANSLATED

FROM THE

FLO

FRENCH ORIGINAL OF

R I A N.

TO WHICH IS ADDED,

A BRIEF NOTICE OF I SLA 1 I SM

NEW YORK:

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
329 & 331 PEARL STREET,
FRANKLIN SQUARE.

186 8.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840 by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
In the Clerk's Office of tne Southern District of NewYork

PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT.

WE are accustomed to look upon the'follow-
ers of the Arabian Prophet as little better than
barbarians, remarkable chiefly for ignorance,
cruelty, and a blind and persecuting spirit of
fanaticism. As it regards the character of the
Mohammedans at the present day, and, indeed,
their moral and intellectual condition for the
last two centuries, there is no great error in this
opinion. But they are a degenerated race.
There has been a period of great brilliancy in
their history, when they were distinguished for
their love of knowledge, and the successful
cultivation of science and the arts; nor is it
too much to say, that to them Christian Europe
is indebted for the generous impulse which led
to the revival of learning in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. Of the various nations of
the great Moslem family, none were more re-

V1 ADVERTISEME NT.
nowned in arts, as well as arms, than the Moor-
ish conquerors of Spain, whose history is con-
tained in the following pa;ge. The French
original of this work has long enjoyed a de-
servedly high reputation; and the translation
here offered is by an American lady, whose
literary taste and acquirements well qualified
her for the task.
A sketch of Mohammedan history, &c., from
Rev. S. Greene's Life of Mohammed, has been
appended at the close of the volume, to present
to the reader a comprehensive view of that
very remarkable people, of whom the Moors of
Spain formed so distinguished a branch.
H. & B.
New-York, October, 1840.

CONTENTS.

FIRST EPOCH.
Page
The Origin of the Moors . .......19
The Arabs ......... . 21
The Birth of Mohammed .......23
Religion of Mohammed ...... . 23
The Progress of Islamism . ..... . 25
Victories of the Mussulmans . . . . . . 26
New Conquests of the Mohammedans . 29
The Moors become Mussulmans . .... . 32
Conditioz of Spain under the Goths ..... 33
Conquest of Spain by the Moors ..... 35
Sthe Viceroys of Spain ...... . 36
Insurrection of Prince Pelagius . . . . . . 36
Abderamus attempts the Conquest of France 39
He penetrates as far as the Loire ..... 41
The Battle of Tours . . . .... . 42
Civil Wars distract Spain ..... . 43

SECOND EPOCH.
The Kings of Cordova become the Caliphs of the West . 45
The Asiatic Mussulmans divide . . 46
The Dynasty of the Ommiades lose the Caliphate . 48
Horrible Massacre of the Ommiades . ... . 52
An Ommiade Prince repairs to Spain . . . . . 53
Abderamus, the first Caliph of the West . . . . 53

VIII CONTENTS.

Reign of Abderamus I. . . . 54
Religion and Fetes of the Moors of Spain . . . 55
Civil Wars arise among the Moors . . . . . 57
The Reigns of Hacchem I. and of Abdelazis 58
Reign of Abderamus II. . ....... . 59
Condition of the Fine Arts at Cordova 60
Anecdote of Abderamus . ...... 61
Reigns of Mohammed, Almouzir, and Abdalla . . 62
Reign of Abderamus III. . ...... . 62
Embassy from a Greek Emperor . . . . . 64
Magnificence and Gallantry of the Moors .. 64
Description of the City and Palace of Zahra . 65
Wealth of the Caliphs of Cordova 68
The Fine Arts cultivated at Cordova . . . . . 71
Reign of El Hacchem . . . . ...... 74
Laws of the Moors, and their Mode of administering Justice 75
Authority possessed by Fathers and old Men . . 77
An Illustration of the Magnanimity of E1 Hakkam . . 78
Reign of Hacchem III. . ..... ... 80
Successful Rule of Mohammed Almonzir as Hadjeb under
the imbecile Hacchem . ..... . 80
Disorders at Cordova .. ..... . 82
End of the Caliphate . ...... . 83

THIRD EPOCH.
The principal Kingdoms erected from the Ruins of the
Caliphate of the West . ..... . 85
Condition of Christian Spain at this Juncture . . 80
The Kingdom of Toledo; its Termination 87, 88
Success of the Christians . ..... . 89
The Cid .. . . . . . 89
The Kingdom of Seville . . . . . . 91
The Dynasty of the Almoravides hold Supremacy in Africa 92

CONTENTS IX
Page
Conquests of the Almoravides in Spain . 93
French Princes repair to Spain ..... . 94
Extinction of the Kingdom of Saragossa . . 95
Foundation of the Kingdom of Portugal . . 95
State of the Fine Arts among the Moors at this Period . 97
Abenzoar and Averroes . . . . . . 97
Dissensions between the Moors and Christians . . 98
The Africans, under Mohammed the Green, land in Spail . 100
Battle of Toloza . ...... . 102-104
Tactics of the Moors . ...... . 105
The discomfited Mohammed returns to Africa . . . 109
Extent of the Territories still retained by the Moors in
Spain ... . . . . . . .110
St. Ferdinand and Jaques I. . . . . . . 111
Valencia is attacked by the Aragonians .. 113
Siege of Cordova . .. 114
Surrender of Valencia . . . . . . 116

FOURTH EPOCH.
Page
The Kings of Grenada . . .. ... 118
The Condition of the Moors; their Despondency . . 118
Mohammed Alhamar; his Character and Influence with his
Countrymen ......... 119
He founds the Kingdom of Grenada . 120
Description of the City of Grenada and its Vega . 121
Extent and Resources of this Kingdom . 123
Reign of Mohammed Alhamar I. ..... . 124
The Moorish Sovereign becomes the Vassal of the King of
Castile ......... . 124
Ferdinand Ill. besieges Seville . . 125
The Taking of Seville . . 126
Revenues of the Kings of Grenada . .. 127
Military Forces ........ . 129
Cavalry of the Moors . . 129
B

X CONTENTS.

Disturbances in Castile . . . . 133
Reign of Mohammed II. El Fakik . . 133
He forms a League with the King of Morocco . . 134
Misfortunes of Alphonso of Castile . . . . . 134
Interview between Alphonso and the Sovereign of Morocco 134
State of Learning and the Fine Arts under Mohammed al
Mumenim . . . . . . . . . 136
Description of the Alhambra ..... . 137
The Court of Lions . ...... . 140
The Generalif . . . . . . . . . 145
Mohammed III. El ltama, or the Blind, ascends the Throne
of Grenada ........ . 147
T'roubles in Grenada . . . ... . 149
iReign of Mohammed IV. Abenazar . . . . . 149
Reign of Ismael .. ...... . 149
Reign of Mohammed V. and of Joseph I . ... . 152
The Battle of Salado . . . . . . . 152
Successive Reigns of Mohammed VI. and Mohammed VII. 154
Horrible Crime of Peter the Cruel of Castile . . . 156
Condition of Spain-of Europe in general . . 156, 157
Moahammed VI..reassumes the Crown . . . 158
Reign of Mohammed VIII. Abouhadjad . . . . 158
Favourite Literary and Scientific Pursuits of the Moors
under the munificent Rule of Abouhadjad . . . 160
Universal prevalence of a Taste for Fiction among the Arabs 161
Music and Gallantry of the Moors . . . . . 162
The mixture of Refinement and Ferocity in the Character
of the Moors . ....... . 166
Description of the Women of Grenada . . . . 169
The national Costume of both Sexes . . . . . 170
Moorish Customs . . . . . . . . . 171
Folly of the Grand-master of Alcantara . 172
'he Result of his Expedition . . . . . . 174
Dreadful Death of Joseph II. . ..... . 175
Mohammed IX. usurps the Throne . . . . . 175
Singular Escape of a condemned Prince . 17F

CONTENTS.

Generous Disposition of Joseph III. ..... . 176
Disturbed Condition of the Kingdom after his Death . 177
A rapid Succession of Rulers . . . . . 177, 178
Reign of Ismael II. . ....... . 178
The Miseries of War most severely felt by the Cultivator of
the Soil ... . . . . . . .179
Mulei-Hasseni succeeds Ismael II. . 179
Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella . . . . . 180
The respective Characters of these Sovereigns . . 181
They declare War against the Grenadians . . . 182
Statesmen and Soldiers of the Spanish Court . 182
Stern Reply of the Grenadian King . . . . . 183
Alhama is Surprised . . . . . . . . 184
Civl War is kindled in Grenada by the Feuds of the Roy-
al Family . . . . . . . . . .184
Boabdil is proclaimed King ...... . 185
Cause of the ambitious hopes of Zagal . . . 185
Boabdil is taken Prisoner by the Spaniards . . . . 186
The politic Spanish Rulers restore Boabdil to Liberty . 187
The Moors become their own Destroyers . . . 187
Death of Mulei-Hassem . . . . . . . 187
Boabdil and his Uncle divide the Relics of Grenada be-
tween them ......... 188
Baseness of Zagal . ...... . 188
Boabdil reigns alone at Grenada . . . . . 188
Ferdinand lays Siege to the City of Grenada . 189
Condition of the City .. ..... . 189
The Spanish Camp . ...... . 191
Isabella repairs to the Camp . . . . . 191
She builds a City . ...... . 192
Surrender of Grenada .. ..... . 194
Departure of Boabdil from the City . . . . . 194
The entrance of the Spanish Conquerors into the City . 195
Summary of the Causes of the Ruin of the Moors . . 196
Characteristics of the Moors . . 197

Xii CONTENTS.

Anecdote illustrative of their Observance of the Laws of
Hospitality . 198
Christian Persecution of the Moors . . . . 199
Revolts of the Moors, and their Results . 199
Final Expulsion of the Moors from Spain . . . 201
Notee . . . . ......... . 203

INTRODUCTION.

THE name of the Moors of Spain recalls recol-
lections of gallantry and refinement, and of the
triumphs of arts and arms. But, though thus cel-
ebrated, not much is generally known of the his-
tory of that remarkable people.
The fragments of their annals, scattered among
the writings of the Spanish and Arabian authors,
furnish little else than accounts of murdered kings,
national dissensions, civil wars, and unceasing
contests with their neighbours. Yet, mingled
with these melancholy recitals, individual in-
stances of goodness, justice, and magnanimity
occasionally present themselves. These traits,
too, strike us more forcibly than those of a simi-
lar description with which we meet in perusing
the histories of other nations; perhaps in conse-

INTRODUCTION.

quence of the peculiar colouring of originality
lent them by their Oriental characteristics; or
perhaps because, in contrast with numerous ex-
amples of barbarity, a noble action, an eloquent
discourse, or a touching expression, acquire an
unusual charm.
It is not my intention to write the history of
the Moors in minute detail, but merely to retrace
their principal revolutions, and attempt a faith-
ful sketch of their national character and man-
ners.
The Spanish historians, whom I have carefully
consulted in aid of this design, have been of but
little assistance to me in my efforts. Careful to
give a very prominent place in their extremely
complicated narratives to the various sovereigns
of Asturia, Navarre, Aragon, and Castile, they
advert to the Moors only when their wars with
the Christians inseparably mingle the interests
of the two nations; but they never allude to the
government, customs, or laws of the enemies of
their faith.

xiv

INTRODUCTION.

The translations from the Arabian writers to
which I have had recourse, throw little more
light upon the subject of my researches than the
productions of Spanish authors. Blinded by fa-
naticism and national pride, they expatiate with
complacency on the warlike achievements of
their countrymen, without even adverting to the
reverses that attended their arms, and pass over
whole dynasties without the slightest notice or
comment.
Some of our savans have, in several very esti-
mable works, united the information to be col-
lected from these Spanish and Arabian histories,
with such additional particulars as they were
able to derive from their own personal observa-
tions.
I have drawn materials from all these sources,
and have, in addition, sought for descriptions of
the manners of the Moors in the Spanish and
ancient Castilian romances, and in manuscripts
and memoirs obtained from Madrid.
It is after these long and laborious researches

IN TRODUCTION.

that I venture to offer a brief history of a people
who bore so little resemblance to any other;
who had their national vices and virtues, as well
as their characteristic physiognomy; and who so
long united the bravery, generosity, and chivalry
of the Europeans, with the excitable tempera-
ment and strong passions of the Orientals.
To render the order of time more intelligible,
and the more clearly to elucidate facts, this his-
torical sketch will be divided in four principal
Epochs.
The first will extend from the commencement
of the Conquests of the Arabs to the Establish-
ment of the Dynasty of the Ommiade princes at
Cordova: the second will include the reigns of
the Caliphs of the West: in the third will be
related all that can now be ascertained concern-
ing the various small kingdoms erected from the
ruins of the Caliphate of Cordova: and the
fourth will comprehend a narration of the prom-
inent events in the lives of the successive sover-
eigns of the Kingdom of Grenada, until the peri-

xvi

INTRODUCTION. XVii
od of the final expulsion of the Mussulmans
from that country.
Care has been taken to compare the dates ac-
cording to the Mohammedan method of compu-
ting time, with the periods fixed by the ordinary
mode of arrangement. Some of the Spanish
historians, Garabai for instance, do not agree
with the Arabian chronologists in relation to the
years of the Hegira. I have thought proper to
follow the Arabian authorities, and have adopt-
ed, with occasional corrections, the chronological
arrangements of M. Cardonne, whose personal
assurance I possess, that he attaches high impor-
tance to his calculations on this subject. I have
thus reason to hope that this little work will
serve to elucidate many points hitherto doubt-
ful in relation to this matter.
The proper names of the Moors vary even
more in the different authorities than their state-
ments respecting the date of events, either in
consequence of the difficulty of pronouncing
them, or from ignorance of their proper nrthog-

xvll INTRODUCTION.
raphy. In instances of this character I have al-
ways given the preference to such as appeared
to be most generally adopted, and were, at the
same time, most harmonious in sound.

A HISTORY

OF THE

MOORS OF SPAIN.

FIRST EPOCH.

THE CONQUESTS OF THE ARABS OR MOORS.

Extending from the end of the Sixth Century to the
middle of the Eighth.
TH primitive Moors were the inhabitants of
the vast portion of Africa bounded on the east
by Egypt, on the north by the Mediterranean,
on the west by the Atlantic, and on the south by
the deserts of Barbary.
The origin of the Moors, or Mauritanians, is,
like that of most other ancient nations, obscure,
and the information we possess concerning their
early history confusedly mingled with fables.
The fact, however, appears to be established,
that Asiatic emigrations were, from the earliest
times, made into Africa. In addition to this, the

20 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

historians of remote ages speak of a certain Me-
leck Yarfrick, king of Arabia Felix, who con-
ducted a people called Sabei* into Libya, made
himself master of that country, established his
followers there, and gave it the name of Africa.
It is from these Sabians or Sabei that the prin-
cipal Moorish tribes pretend to trace their de-
scent. The derivation of the name Moors- is
also supposed, in some degree, to confirm the
impression that they came originally from Asia.
But, without enlarging upon these ancient
statements, let it suffice to say, that nearly cer-
tain ground exists for the belief that the original
Moors were Arabians. In confirmation of this
impression, we find that, during every period of
the existence of their race, the descendants of
the primitive inhabitants of Mauritania have,
like the Arabs, been divided into distinct tribes,
and, like them, have pursued a wild and wander-
ing mode of existence.
Thle Moors of Africa are known in ancient

* The Sabai, according to the best ancient authorities,
were the inhabitants of the extensive Arabian kingdom of
Saba.-Translator.
t The term Moors, according to Bochart, comes from a
Hebrew word, Mahuran, which signifies Western.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

history under the name of Nomades, Numide or
Numidians, Getule, and Massyli. They were
by turns the subjects, the enemies, or the allies
of the Carthaginians, and with them they fell
under the dominion of the Romans.
After several unsuccessful revolts, to which
they were instigated by their fiery, restless, and
inconstant temper, the Moors were at length
subjugated by the Vandals, A.D. 427.
A century afterward these people were con-
quered by Belisarius: but the Greeks were in
their turn subdued by the Arabs, who then pro-
ceeded to achieve the conquest of Mauritania.
As, from the period when that event occurred,
the Mauritanians or Moors, who were thus sud-
denly converted to Mohammedanism, have fre-
quently been confounded with the native ./ran
bians, it will be proper to say a few words con-
cerning that extraordinary people: a people
who, after occupying for so many centuries an
insignificant place among the nations of the
earth, rapidly rendered themselves masters of the
greater part of the known world.
The Arabs are, beyond question, one of the
most ancient races of men in existence ;* and
* It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that these

22 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

have, of all others, perhaps, best preserved their
national independence, and their distinctive char-
acter and manners. Divided from the most re-
mote times into tribes that either wandered in
the desert or were collected together in cities,
and obedient to chiefs who in the same per-
son united the warrior and the magistrate, they
have never been subjected to foreign domina-
tion. The Persians, the Romans, and the Ma-
cedonians *vainly attempted to subdue them:
they only shattered their weapons in fragments
against the rocks of the Nabatheans.* Proud
if an origin which he traced back even to the
patriarchs of olden time, exulting in his suc-
cessful defence of his liberty and his rights, the
Arab, from the midst of his deserts, regarded
the rest of mankind as consisting of mere bands
of slaves, changing masters as chance or conve-

Children of the Desert are supposed to be the lineal descend-
ants of Ishmael, the wandering, outcast son of the patriarch
Abraham and the much-abused Hagar.--Translator.
* The primitive name of the Arabs, from Nabathaa, an ap-
pellation for their country which is probably derived from Na-
bath, the son of Ishmael. The capital city of Nabathaea was
that Petra, of whose present appearance and condition our
eminent countryman, Stephens, has given his readers so graph-
ic a sketch in his "Travels," &c.-Translator.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN

nience directed. Brave, temperate, and indefat-
igable, inured from infancy to the severest toil,
fearing neither thirst, hunger, nor death itself--
these were a people by whose assistance a lead-
er suitably endowed could render himself mas-
ter of the world. Mohammed appeared:* to
him nature had accorded the requisite qualifica-
tions for executing such a design. Courageous,
sagacious, eloquent, polished, possessed in an em-
inent degree of the powers which both awe and
delight mankind, Mohammed would have been
a great man had he belonged to the most en-
lightened age-among an ignorant and fanati-
cal people he became a prophet.
Until Mohammed arose among them, the
Arab tribes, surrounded by Jews, Christians, and
idolators, had entertained a superstitious faith,
compounded of the religious belief of their vari-
ous neighbours and that of the ancient Sabmei
They fully credited the existence of genii, de-
mons, and witchcraft, adored the stars, and of-
fered idolatrous sacrifices. But Mohammed-
after having devoted many years to profound and
solitary meditation upon the new dogmas he de-
signed to establish; after having either convinced
* A.D. 569.

24 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

or won to his interests the principal individuals
of his own family,* possessing pre-eminent con-
sequence among their countrymen-suddenly be-
gan to preach a new religion, opposed to all
those with which the Arabs were hitherto famil-
iar, and whose principles were well-adapted to
inflame the ardent temper of that excitable
people.
Children of Ishmael, said the Prophet to them,
I bring you the faith that was professed by your
father Abraham, by Noah, and by all the patri-
archs. There is but one God, the Sovereign
Ruler of all worlds: he is called THE MERCIFUL ;
worship Him alone. Be beneficent towards or-
phans, slaves, captives, and the poor: be just to
all men--justice is the sister of piety. Pray and
bestow alms. You will be rewarded in Heaven,
by being permitted to dwell perpetually in de-
licious gardens, where limpid waters will for ever
flow, and where each one of you will eternally
enjoy the companionship of women who will be
ever beautiful, ever youthful, ever devoted to you
alone. Courageously combat both the unbeliev-
ing and the impious. Oppose them until they
* The Coheshirites, the guardians of the Temple of the
Caaba at Mecca.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

embrace Islamism* or render you tribute: Eve-
ry soldier who dies in battle will share the treas-
ures of God; nor can the coward prolong his
life; for the moment when he is destined to be
smitten by the angel of death is written in the
Book of the Eternal.
Such precepts, announced in majestic and
highly figurative language, embellished with the
charms of verse, and presented by a warrior,
prophet, poet, and legislator, professing to be
the representative of an angel, to the most sus-
ceptible people in the world-to a people pos-
sessing a passion alike for the .marvellous and
the voluptuous, for heroism and for poetry-could
scarcely fail to find disciples. Converts rapidly
crowded around Mohammed, and their numbers
were soon augmented by persecution His en-
emies obliged the Prophet to fly from his native
Mecca and take refuge in Medina. This flight
was the epoch of his glory and of the Hegira of
the Mussulmans. It occurred A.D. 622.
From this moment Islamism spread like a tor-
rent over the Arabias and Ethiopia. In vain
did the Jewish and idolatrous tribes attempt to
maintain their ancient faith; in vain did Mecca
' See Note A, page 203.
C

26 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
arm heir soldiers against the destroyers of her
gods; Mohammed, sword in hand, dispersed
their armies, seized upon their cities, and won
the affections of the people whom he subdued,
by his clemency, his genius, and his fascinating
address.
A legislator, a pontiff, the chief of all the
Arab tribes, the commander of an invincible ar-
my, respected by the Asiatic sovereigns, adored
by a powerful nation, and surrounded by cap-
tains who had become heroes in serving under
him, Mohammed was on the point of marching
against Heraclius, when his designs were for ever
interrupted by the termination of his existence.
This event took place at Medina, A.D. 632,
Hegira 2, and was the effect of poison, which
had, some time before, been administered to this
extraordinary man by a Jewess of Rhaibar.
The death of the Prophet arrested neither the
progress of his religion nor the triumphs of the
Moslem arms.
Abubeker, the father-in-law of Mohammed,
became his successor, and assumed the title of
Caliph, which simply signifies vicar. During
his reign the Saracens penetrated into Syria,
dispersed the armies of Heraclius, and took the

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

city of Damascus, the siege of which will be.
for ever celebrated in consequence of the almost
superhuman exploits of the famous Kaled, sur-
named the Sword of God.*
Notwithstanding these successive victories, and
the enormous amount of booty thus taken from
the enemy and committed to his keeping, Abu-
beker appropriated to his own particular use a
sum scarcely equivalent to forty cents a day.
Omar, the successor of Abubeker, commanded
Kaled to march against Jerusalem. That city
soon became the prize of the Arabs; Syria and
Palestine were subdued; the Turks and the
Persians demanded peace; Heraclius fled from
Antioch; and all Asia trembled before Omar
and the terrible Mussulmans.
Modest, in spite of the triumphs that every-
where attended them, and attributing their success
to God alone, these Moslems preserved unaltered
their austere manners, their frugality, their severe
discipline, and their reverence for poverty, though
surrounded by the most corrupt of the nations of
the earth, and exposed to the seductive influen-
ces of the delicious climates and the luxurious
pleasures of some of the richest and most beau-
* See Note B, page 206.

28 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

tiful countries in the world. During the sacking
of a city, the most eager and impetuous soldier
would be instantly arrested in the work of pil-
lage by the word of his chief, and would, with
the strictest fidelity, deliver up the booty he had
obtained, that it might be deposited in the gen-
eral treasury. Even the most independent and
magnificent of the heroic chiefs would hasten, in
accordance with the directions of the caliph, to
take the command of an army, and would be-
come successively generals, private soldiers, or
ambassadors, in obedience to his slightest wish
In fine, Omar himself-Omar, the richest, the
greatest, the most puissant of the monarchs of
Asia, set forward upon a journey to Jerusalem,
mounted upon a red camel, which bore a sack of
barley, one of rice, a well-filled water-skin, and
a wooden vase. . Thus equipped, the caliph
travelled through the midst of conquered na-
tions, who crowded around his path at every
step, entreating his blessing and praying him to
adjudge their quarrels. At last he joined his
army, and, inculcating precepts of simplicity,
valour, and humility upon the soldiers, he made
his entrance into the Holy City, liberated such
of its former Christian possessors as had become

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

the captives of his people, and commanded the
preservation of the churches. Then remount-
ing his camel, the representative of the Prophet
returned to Medina, to perform the duties of the
high-priest of his religion.
The Mussulmans now advanced towards
Egypt. That country was soon subdued. Al-
exandrea was taken by Amrou, one of the most
distinguished generals of Omar. It was then
that the famous library was destroyed, whose
loss still excites the profound regrets of the
learned. The Arabians, though such enthusias-
tic admirers of their national poetry, despised the
literature of all the rest of the world. Amrou
caused the library of the Ptolemies to be burn-
ed, yet this same Amrou was nevertheless cel-
ebrated for his poetical effusions. He entertain-
ed the sincerest affection and respect for the cel-
ebrated John the Grammarian, to whom, but
for the opposing order of the caliph, he would
have given this valuable collection of books. It
was Amrou, too, who caused the execution of a
design worthy of the best age of Rome, that of
connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean
by means of a navigable canal, at a point where
the waters of the Nile nicht be diverted from

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

their course for its supply. This canal, so useful
to Egypt, and so important to the commerce of
both Europe and Asia, was accomplished in a
few months. The Turks, in more modern times,
have suffered it to be destroyed.
Amrou continued to advance into Africa,
while the other Arablian commanders passed the
Euphrates and conquered the Persians. But
Omar was already no more, and Othman occu-
pied his place.
It was during the reign of this caliph that the
Saracens, banishing for ever its enfeebled Greek
masters, conquered Mauritania, or the country
of the Moors of Africa, A.D. 647, Heg. 27.
The invaders met with serious resistance only
from the warlike tribes of the Bereberes.* That
bold and pastoral people, the descendants of the
ancient inhabitants of Numidia, and preserving,
even to this day, a species of independence, in-
trenched as they are in the Atlas Mountains,
long and successfully resisted the conquerors of
'the Moors. A Moslem general named Akba
finally succeeded in subjugating them, and in
compelling them to adopt the laws and faith of
his country.
* See note C, page 207.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

After that achievement Akba carried his
arms to the extreme western point of Africa,
the ocean alone resisting him in his progress.
There, inspired by courage and devotion with
feelings of the highest enthusiasm, he forced his
horse into the waves, and, drawing his sabre,
cried, " God of Mohammed, thou beholdest that,
but for the element which arrests me, I would
have proceeded in search of unknown nations,
whom I would have forced to adore thy name !"
Until this epoch, the Moors, under the success-
ive dominion of the Carthaginians, the Romans,
the Vandals, and the Greeks, had taken but lit-
tle interest in the affairs of their different mas-
ters.
Wandering in the deserts, they occupied them-
selves chiefly with the care of their flocks; paid
the arbitrary imposts levied upon them, some-
times passively enduring the oppression of their
rulers, and sometimes essaying to break their
chains; taking refuge, after each defeat of their
efforts, in the Atlas Mountains, or in the interior
of their country.
Their religion was a mixture of Christianity
and idolatry; their manners those of the ensla-
ved Nomades: rude, ignorant, and wretched,

TIHE MOORS OF SPAIN.

their condition was the prototype of what it
now is under the tyrants of Morocco.
But the presence of the Arabs rapidly produ-
ced a great change among these people. A
common origin with that of their new masters,
together with similarity of language and temper-
ament, contributed to bind the conquered to
their conquerors.
The announcement of a religion which had
been preached by a descendant of Ishmael,
whom the Moors regarded as their father; the
rapid conquests of the Mussulmans, who were
already masters of half of Asia and a large
portion of Africa, and who threatened to enslave
the world, aroused the excitable imaginations of
the Moors, and restored to their national char-
acter all its passionate energy. They embraced
the dogmas of Mohammed with transport; they
united with the Arabs, volunteered to serve un-
der the Moslem banners, and suddenly became
simultaneously enamoured with Islamism and
with glory.
This reunion; which doubled the military
strength of the two united nations, was disturb-
ed for some time by the revolt of the Bereberes,
who never yielded their liberty under any cir*
cumstances.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

The reigning caliph, Valid the First, despatch-
ed into Egypt Moussa-ben-Nazir, a judicious and
valiant commander, at the head of a hundred
thousand men, A.D. 708, Heg. 89.
Moussa defeated the Bereberes, restored quiet
in Mauritania, and seized upon Tangier, which
belonged to the Goths of Spain.
Master of an immense region of country, of a
redoubtable army, and of a people who consid-
ered his supremacy as essential to their well-
being, the Saracen general from this period con-
templated carrying his arms into Spain.
That beautiful kingdom, after having been
successively under the yoke of the Carthagin-
ians and the Romans, had finally become the
prey of the Barbarians. The Alains, the Suevi,
and the Vandals had divided its provinces among
them; but Euric, one of the Visigoths, who en-
tered the country from the south of Gaul, had,
towards the end of the fifth century, gained pos-
session of the whole of Spain, and transmitted
it to his descendants.
The softness of the climate, together with the
effects of wealth and luxury, gradually enfee-
bled these conquerors, creating vices from which
they had been previously free, and depriving

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

them of the warlike qualities to which alone
they had been indebted for their success. Of
the kings who succeeded Euric, some were Ari
ans and others Catholics, who abandoned their
authority to the control of bishops, and occu-
pied a throne shaken to its centre by internal
disturbances. Roderick, the last of these Gothic
sovereigns, polluted the throne by his vices ; and
both history and tradition accuse him of the ba-
sest crimes. Indeed, in the instance of nearly
all these tyrants, their vices either directly occa-
sioned, or were made the pretext of their final
ruin.
The fact is well established, that Count Ju-
lian and his brother Oppas, archbishop of Tole-
do, both of them distinguished and influential
men, favoured the irruption of the Moors into
Spain.
Tarik, one of the most renowned captains of
his time,* was sent into Spain by Moussa. He
had at firs'but few troops; but he was not by
this prevented from defeating the large army
that, by command of Roderick, the last Gothic
king, opposed his course.
Subsequently, having received re-enforcements
* See note D, page 208.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

from Africa, Tarik vanquished Roderick himself
at the battle of Xeres, where that unfortunate
monarch perished during the general flight in
which the conflict terminated, A.D. 714, Heg.
96.
After this battle, the Mohammedan general,
profiting by his victory, penetrated into Estre-
madura, Andalusia, and the two Castiles, and
took possession of the city of Toledo. Being
soon after joined by Moussa, whose jealousy of
the glory his lieutenant was so rapidly acqui-
ring prompted him to hasten to his side, these
two remarkable commanders, dividing their
troops into several corps, achieved, in a few
months, the conquest of the whole of Spain.
It should be observed, that these Moors, whom
several historians have represented as blood-
thirsty barbarians, did not deprive the people
whom they had subjugated either of their faith,
their churches, or the administrators of their
laws. They exacted from the Spaniards only
the tribute they had been accustomed to pay
their kings. One cannot but question the exist-
ence of the ferocity that is ascribed to them,
when it is remembered that the greater part of
the Spanish cities submitted to the invaders

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

without making the least attempt at resistance;
that the Christians readily united themselves
with the Moors; that the inhabitants of Toledo
desired to assume the name of .Musarabs; and
that Queen Egilona, the widow of Roderick, the
last of the Gothic sovereigns, publicly espoused,
with the united consent of the two nations, Ab-
delazis the son of Moussa.
Moussa, whom the success of Tarik had great-
ly exasperated, wishing to remove a lieutenant
whose achievements eclipsed his own, preferred
an accusation against him to the caliph. Valid
recalled them both, but refused to adjudge their
difference, and suffered them to die at court from
chagrin at seeing themselves forgotten.
Abdelazis, the husband of Egilona, became
governor of Spain A.D. 718, Heg. 100, but did
not long survive his elevation. Alahor, who
succeeded him, carried his arms into Gaul, sub-
dued the Warbonnais, and was preparing to
push his conquests still farther, when he learned
that Pelagius, a prince of the blood-royal of the
Visigoths, had taken refuge in the mountains of
Asturia with a handful of devoted followers;
that with them he dared to brave the conquer-
ors of Spain, and had formed the bold design of

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

attempting to rid himself of their yoke. Alahor
sent some troops against him. Pelagius, in-
trenched with his little army in the mountain
gorges, twice gave battle to the Mussulmans,
seized upon several castles, and, reanimating the
spirits of the Christians, whose courage had been
almost extinguished by so long a succession of.
reverses, taught the astonished Spaniards that
the Moors were not invincible.
The insurrection of Pelagius occasioned the
recall of Alahor by the Caliph Omar II. El-
zemah, his successor, was of opinion that the
most certain means of repressing revolts among
a people is to render them prosperous and con-
tented. He therefore devoted himself to the
wise and humane government of Spain; to the
regulation of imposts, until then quite arbitrary;
and to quieting the discontents of the soldiery,
and establishing their pay at a fixed rate. A
lover of the fine arts, which the Arabs began
from that time to cultivate, Elzemah embellish-
ed Cordova, which was his capital, and attract-
ed thither the savans of the age. He was him-
self the author of a book containing a descrip-
tion of the cities, rivers, provinces, and ports of
Spain; of the metals, mines, and quarries it pos.

38 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

sesses; and, in short, of almost every object of
interest either in science or government.
But little disturbed by the insurrectionary
movements of Pelagius, whose power was con-
fined to the possession of some inaccessible
mountain fortresses, Elzemah did not attempt to
force him from his strongholds, but, impelled by
the ardent desire of extending the Moorish con-
quests into France, with which the governors of
Spain were ever inflamed, he passed the Pyre-
nees, and perished in a battle fought against
Eudes, duke of Aquitania, A.D. 722, Heg. 104.
During the remainder of the Caliphate of Ye-
zid II.,* several governors followed each other
in rapid succession after the death of Elzemah.-t
None of their actions merit recital; but, during
this period, the brave Pelagius aggrandized his
petty state, advancing into the mountains of
Leon, and, in addition, making himself master
of several towns.
This hero, whose invincible daring roused the
Asturians and Cantabrians to struggle for liberty,
laid the foundations of that powerful monarchy
* See Note E, page 208.
t Ambeza, Azra, Jahiah, Osman, Hazifa, Hacchem, and
Mohammed.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN. S.
whose warriors afterward pursued the Moors
even to the rocks of the Atlas.
The Moslems, who dreamed only of new con-
quests, made no considerable efforts against Pe-
lagius: they were confident of checking his re-
bellion with the utmost ease when they should
have accomplished the subjugation of the French
dominions; and that desire alone fired the ardent
soul of the new governor Abdalrahman, or, as
he is commonly called, Abderamus.
His love of glory, his valour, his genius, and,
above all, his immeasurable ambition, made the
Mussulman governor regard this conquest as one
that could be easily effected; but he himself was
destined to be the vanquished.
Charles Martel, the son of Pepin d'Heristel,
and the grandfather of Charlemagne, whose ex-
ploits effaced the recollection of those of his fa-
ther, and whose fame was not eclipsed by that
of his grandson, was at this time mayor of the
palace, under the last princes of the first race;
or, rather, Charles was the real monarch of the
French and German nations.
Eudes, duke of Aquitania, the possessor of
Gascony and Guienne, had long maintained a
quarrel with the French hero. Unable longer,

40 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
without assistance, to resist his foe, he sought an
alliance with a Moor named Munuza, who was
the governor of Catalonia and the secret enemy
of Abderamus. These two powerful vassals,
both discontented with their respective sover-
eigns, and inspired as much by fear as dislike,
united themselves in the closest bonds, in despite
of the difference in their religious faith. The
Christian duke did not hesitate to give his
daughter in marriage to his Mohammedan ally,
and the Princess Numerance espoused the Moor-
ish Munuza, as Queen Egilona had espoused the
Moorish Abdelazis.
Abderamus, when informed of this alliance.
immediately divined the motives which had in-
duced it. He soon assembled an army, pene-
trated with rapidity into Catalonia, and attack-
ed Munuza, who was wounded in a fruitless
endeavour to fly, and afterward perished by his
own hand. His captive wife was conducted
into the presence of the victorious governor
Abderamus, struck with her beauty, sent the fair
Numerance as a present to the Caliph Hac-
cham, whose regard she elicited; and thus, by a
singular chance, a princess of Gascony became
an inmate of the seraglio of a sovereign of Da-
n ascus.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Not content with having so signally punished
Munuza, Abderamus crossed the Pyrenees, trav-
ersed Navarre, entered Guienne, and besieged
and took the City of Bordeaux. Eudes attempt-
ed, at the head of an army, to arrest his progress,
but was repelled in a decisive engagement. Ev-
erything yielded to the Mussulman arms: Ab-
deramus pursued his route, ravaged Perigord,
Saintonge, and Poitou, appeared in triumph in
Touraine, and paused only when within view of
the streaming ensigns of Charles Martel.
Charles came to this rencounter followed by
the forces of France, Asturia, and Bourgogne,
and attended by the veteran warriors whom he
was accustomed to lead to victory. The Duke
of Aquitania was also in the camp. Charles
forgot his private injuries in the contemplation
of the common danger: this danger was press-
ing: the fate of France and Germany-indeed,
of the whole of Christendom, depended on the
event of the approaching conflict.
Abderamnus was a rival worthy of the son of
Pepin. Flushed, like him, with the proud rec-
ollection of numerous victories; at the head of
an innumerable army; surrounded by experien-
ced captains, who had been the frequent witness-
D

42 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

es of his martial triumphs; and long inspired
with the warmest hopes of finally adding to the
dominion of Islamism the only country belonging
to the ancient Roman empire that still remained
unsubdued by the Saracens, the Moorish leader
met his brave foe, upon equal terms, on the bat-
tle-field of Tours, A.D. 733, Heg. 114.
The action was long and bloody. Abdel a-
mus was slain; and this dispiriting loss, without
doubt, decided the defeat of his army.* Histo-
rians assert that more than three hundred thou-
sand men perished. This statement is probably
exaggerated; but it is certainly true, that the
Moors, who had thus penetrated into the midst
of France, were relentlessly pursued after their
defeat, and were many of them unable to es-
cape from the arms of the victors and the ven-
geance of the people.
This memorable battle, of which we possess
no details, saved France from the yoke of the
Arabs, and effectually arrested their spreading
dominion.
Once again, subsequent to this reverse, the
Moors attempted to penetrate into France, and
* It was in this battle that Charles acquired the title of
Martel, or the Hammer.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

succeeded in seizing upon Avignon; but Charles
Martel defeated them anew, retook the captured
city, drove them from Narbonne, and deprived
them forever of the hope with which they had
so often flattered themselves.
After the death of Abderamus, Spain was
torn by dissensions between the two governors*
named successively by the Caliph. A third pre-
tender arrived from Africa. A fourth added
himself to the list ;t factions multiplied; the
different parties often had recourse to arms;
chiefs were assassinated, cities taken, and prov-
inces ravaged.
The details of these events are variously rela-
ted by different historians, but possess little inter-
est in the narrations of any.
These civil wars lasted nearly twenty years.
The Christians, who had retired into Asturia,
profited by them to the utmost. Alphonso I.,
the son-in-law and successor of Pelagius, imitated
the career of that hero. Hie seized upon a part
of Galicia and Leon, repulsed the Mussulmall
troops who were sent to oppose him, and render-
ed himself master of several towns.
The Moors, occupied by their domestic quar-
* Abdoulmelek and Akbe. t Aboulattar and Tevaba.

44 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
rels, neglected to arrest the progress of Alphon-
so, and from that time the growth of a minia-
ture kingdom commenced, whose interests were
inimical to those of the Saracens in Spain.
After many crimes and combats, a certain Jo-
seph had succeeded in triumphing over his differ-
ent rivals, and was at last reigning supreme in
Cordova, when there occurred a memorable
event in the East, which was destined greatly to
affect the condition of Spain.
From that period, A.D. 749, Heg. 134, com-
mences the second epoch of the empire of the
Moors of Spain, which makes it necessary to re-
vert briefly to the history of the Eastern caliphs

SECOND EPOCH.

THE KINGS OF CORDOVA BECOME THE CALIPHS OF
THE WEST.

Extending from the middle of the Eighth to the com-
mencement of the Eleventh Century.
WE have seen that, under their first three ca-
liphs, Abubeker, Omar, and Othman, the Arabian
conquerors of Syria, Persia, and Africa preserved
their ancient manners, their simplicity of char-
acter, their obedience to the successors of the
Prophet, and their contempt for luxury and
wealth: but what people could continue to
withstand the influence of such an accumulation
of prosperity ? These resistless conquerors turn-
ed their weapons against each other: they for-
got the virtues which had rendered them invinci-
ble, and assisted by their dissensions in dismem-
bering the empire that their valour had created.
The disastrous effects of the baneful spirit that
had thus insidiously supplanted the original prin-
ciples of union, moderation, and prudence, by
which, as a nation, the Moslems had been ac-

46 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

thated, were first manifested in the assassination
of the Caliph Othman.
Ali, the friend, companion, and adopted son
of the Prophet, whose courage, achievements,
and relationship to Mohammed, as the husband
of his only daughter, had rendered him so dear
to the Mussulmans, was announced as the suc-
cessor of Othman.
But Moavias, the governor of Syria, refused
to recognise the authority of Ali, and, under the
guidance of the sagacious Amrou, the conqueror
of Egypt, caused himself to be proclaimed Ca-
liph of Damascus. Upon this, the Arabians di-
vided: those of Medina sustaining Ali, and those
of Syria Moavias. The first took the name of
.glides, the others styled themselves Ommiades,
deriving their denomination from the grandfather
of Moavias. Such was the origin of the famous
schism which still separates the Turks and Per-
sians.
Though Ali succeeded in vanquishing Moavias
in the field, he did not avail himself judiciously
of the advantage afforded him by his victory.
He was soon after assassinated,* and the spirit
and courage of his party vanished with the oc-
* See Note A, page 208.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

currence of that event. The sons of Ali made
efforts to reanimate the ardour of his partisans,
but in vain.
Thus, in the midst of broils, revolts, and civil
wars, the Ommiades still remained in possession
of the Caliphate of Damascus.* It was during
the reign of one of these princes, Valid the First,
that the Arabian conquests extended in the East
to the banks of the Ganges, and in the West to
the shores of the Atlantic. The Ommiades,
however, were for the most part feeble, but they
were sustained by able commanders, and the an-

* The dynasty of the Ommiades, whose capital, as M. Flo-
rian informs us, was Damascus, is most familiarly known in
history as that of the Caliphs of Syria; and the Abbassides,
who succeeded them upon the throne of Islam, are usually
designated as the Caliphs of Bagdad, which city they built,
and there established the seat of their regal power and mag-
nificence. It may be observed, in connexion with this sub-
lect, that though the authority of the Caliphs of Damascus
continued to be disputed and resisted after the death of Ali,
yet with that event terminated the temporary division of the
civil and sacerdotal power which had been at first occasioned
by their usurpation of sovereignty. The political supremacy
of the party of Ali ceased with his existence, and the authority
that had belonged to the immediate successors of Moham-
med long continued to centre in the family of the Ommiade
princes.- Trans.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

cient valour of the Moslem soldiers was not yet
degenerated.
After the Ommiades had maintained their em-
pire for the space of ninety-three years, Mervan
II.,* the last caliph of the race, was deprived of
his throne and his lifet through the instrumen-
tality of Abdalla, a chief of the tribe of the Ab-
bassides, who were, like the Ommiades, near rel-
atives of Mohammed.
Aboul-Abbas, the nephew of Abdalla, sup-
planted the former caliph. With him com-
menced the dynasty of the Abbassides, so cele-
brated in the East for their love of science and
their connexion with the names of Haroun Al
Raschid, Almamon, and the Bermasides.t
The Abbassides retained the caliphate during
five successive centuries.� At the termination of
* See Note B, page 209.
t A.D. 752, Heg. 134.
t See Note C, page 209.
( It was under the government of the Abbassides that the
empire of the East possessed that superiority in wealth, mag-
nificence, and learning for which it was once so celebrated.
Under the sway of the Caliphs of Bagdad, the Mohammedans
became as much renowned for their attainments in the higher
branches of science as in the elegant and useful arts. To
them the civilized world is indebted for the revival of the ex-
act and physical sciences, and the discovery or restoration

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

that period, they were despoiled of their power
by the Tartar posterity of Gengis Khan, after

of most of the arts that afterward lent such beneficial aid to
the progress of European literature and refinement. The
far-famed capital of the Abbassides was adorned with every
attraction that the most unbounded wealth could secure, or
the most consummate art perfect. There taste and power
had combined exquisite luxury with unparalleled splendour,
and there all that imagination could suggest to fascinate the
senses or enrapture the mind, was realized. These princes
of Islam, by their unbounded liberality, attracted the learning
and genius of other countries to their brilliant court; several
of them were the ardent lovers of science as well as the mu-
nificent patrons of its devotees. Thus Bagdad became the
favoured and genial home of letters and the arts; and luxury
and the pursuit of pleasure were ennobled by a graceful union
with the more elevated enjoyments of cultivated intellect and
refined taste. Nor were these beneficent influences confined
to the Mohammedan court, or to the period of time when they
were so powerfully exercised. The Moslem sovereigns gave
laws to a wide realm in arts as well as arms; and if the whole
of Europe did not acknowledge their political superiority, in
the world of science their supremacy was everywhere undis-
puted. That, like the gradually enlarging circles made by a
pebble thrown into calm water, continued to spread farther and
farther, until it reached the most distant shores, and communi-
cated a generous impulse to nations long sunk in intellectual
night.

Such was the celebrated empire of the Abbassides in its hal-
cyon days of undiminished power-such the beautiful City of
E

50 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

having witnessed the establishment of a race of
Egyptian caliphs named Fatimites, the pretend-
ed descendants of Fatima, the daughter of Mo-
hammed.
Thus was the Eastern empire of the Arabs
eventually destroyed: the descendants of Ish-
mael returned to the country from which they
had originally sprung, and gradually reverted to
nearly the same condition as that in which they
existed when the Prophet arose among them.

Peace, the favoured home of imperial magnificence, ere the
despoiling Tartar had profaned its loveliness and destroyed
:ts grandeur. Yet, when we look beneath the brilliant exte-
rior of these Oriental scenes and characters, we discover, un-
der the splendour and elegance by which the eyes of the world
were so long dazzled, the corruption and licentiousness of a
government containing within itself the seeds of its own inse-
curity and ultimate destruction. Wo behold the absence of
all fixed principles of legislation; we frequently find absolute
monarchs guided solely by passion or caprice in the adminis-
tration of arbitrary laws, and swaying the destinies of a people
who, as a whole, were far from deriving any substantial ad-
vantage from the wealth and greatness of their despotic rulers.
We are thus led to observe the evils that necessarily result
from a want of those principles of vital religion, without which
mere human learning is so inadequate to discipline the pas-
sions or direct the reason, and of those just and equal laws.
the supremacy of which can alone secure the happiness of a
people or the permanency of political institutions.--Trans.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

rhese events, from the founding of the dynas-
ty of the Abbassides, have been anticipated in
point of time in the relation, because henceforth
the history of Spain is no longer intermingled
with that of the East.
After having dwelt briefly upon an event inti-
mately connected as well with the establishment
of the Abbassides upon the Moslem throne as
with the history of Spain, we will enter contin
uously upon the main subject of our work.
To return, then, for a moment, to the downfall
of the Ommiade caliphs.
When the cruel Abdalla had placed his neph-
ew, Aboul-Abbas, on the throne of the Caliphs
of Damascus, he formed the horrible design of
exterminating the Ommiades. These princes
were very numerous. With the Arabs, among
whom polygamy is permitted, and where numer-
ous offspring are regarded as the peculiar gift of
Heaven, it is not unusual to find several thousand
individuals belonging to the same family.
Abdalla, despairing of effecting the destruc-
tion of the race of his enemies, dispersed as they
were by terror, published a general amnesty to
all the Ommiades who should present themselves
before him on a certain day. Those ill-fated

52 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

people, confiding in the fulfilment of his solemn
promises, hastened to seek safety at the feet of
Abdalla. The monster, when they were all as-
sembled, caused his soldiers to surround them,
and then commanded them all to be butchered
in his presence. After this frightful massacre,
Abdalla ordered the bloody bodies to be ranged
side by side in close order, and then to be cov-
ered with boards spread with Persian car-
pets. Upon this horrible table he caused a
magnificent feast to be served to his officers.
One shudders at the perusal of such details, but
they serve to portray the character of this Ori-
ental conqueror.
A solitary Ommiade escaped the miserable
fate of his brethren; a prince named Abdera-
mus. A fugitive wanderer, he reached Egypt,
and concealed himself in the solitary recesses of
its inhospitable deserts.
The Moors of Spain, faithful to the Ommiades,
though their governor Joseph had recognised the
authority of the Abbassides, had no sooner learn-
ed that there existed in Egypt a scion of the il-
lustrious family to which they still retained their
attachment, than they secretly sent deputies to
offer him their crown. Abderamus foresaw the

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

obstacles with which he would be compelled to
struggle, but, guided by the impulses of a soul
whose native greatness had been strengthened
and purified by adversity, he did not hesitate to
accept the proposal of the Moors.
The Ommiade prince arrived in the Peninsu-
la A.D. 755, Heg. 138. He speedily gained
the hearts of his new subjects, assembled an
army, took possession of Seville, and, soon after,
marched towards Cordova, the capital of Mus-
sulman Spain. Joseph, in the name of the Ab-
bassides, vainly attempted to oppose his prog-
ress. The governor was vanquished and Cor-
dova taken, together with several other cities.
Abderamus was now not only the acknowl-
edged king of Spain, but was proclaimed Caliph
of the West A.D. 759, Heg. 142.
During the supremacy of the Ommiades in the
empire of the East, Spain had continued to be
ruled by governors sent thither from Asia by
those sovereigns; but it was now permanently
separated from the great Arabian empire, and
elevated into a powerful and independent state,
acknowledging no farther allegiance to the Asi-
atic caliphs either in civil or religious matters.
Thus was the control hitherto exerAsed over the

THE MOORS OF SPAxs

affairs of Spain by the Oriental r,aliph foi ~vei
wrested from them by the last fsurviving individ-
ual of that royal race whom Abdalla had en-
deavoured to exterminate.
Abderamus the First established the seat of
his new greatness at Cordova. He was not
long allowed peacefully to enjoy it, however.
Revolts instigated by the Abbassides, incursions
into Catalonia by the French, and wars with the
kings of Leon,* incessantly demanded his at-
tention; but his courage and activity gained the
ascendency even over such numerous enemies.
He maintained his throne with honour, and mer-
ited his beautiful surname of The Just.
Abderamus cultivated and cherished the fine
arts, even in the nmidst of the difficulties and dan-
gers by which he was surrounded. It was he
who first established schools at Cordova for the
study of astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and
grammar. IIe was also a poet, and was consid-
ered the most eloquent man of his age.
This first Caliph of the West adorned and for-
tified his capital, erected a superb palace, which
he surrounded by beautiful gardens, and com-
menced the construction of a grand mosque, the
* See note D, page 212.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN. OhJ

remains of which continue even at this day to
excite the admiration of the traveller. This
monument of magnificence was completed du-
ring the reign of Hacchem, the son and success-
or of Abderamus. It is thought that the Span-
iards have not preserved more than one half of
the original structure, yet it is now six hundred
feet long and two hundred wide, and is support-
ed by more than three hundred columns of ala-
baster, jasper, and marble. Formerly there
were twenty-four doors of entrance, composed
of bronze covered with sculptures of gold; and
nearly five thousand lamps nightly served to illu-
minate this magnificent edifice.
In this mosque the caliphs of Cordova each
Friday conducted the worship of the people,
that being the day consecrated to religion by the
precepts of Mohammed. Thither all the Mus-
sulmans of Spain made pilgrimages, as those of
the East resorted to the temple at Mecca. There
they celebrated, with great solemnity, the fite of
the great and the lesser Beiram, which corre-
sponds with the Passover of the Jews; that of the
Newyear, and that of Miloud, or the anniversa-
ry of the birth of Mohammed. Each of these
festivals lasted for eight days. During that time

56 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

all labour ceased, the people sent presents to
each other, exchanged visits, and offered sacri-
fices. Disunited families, forgetting their dif-
ferences, pledged themselves to future concord,
and consummated their renewed amity by deliv-
ering themselves up to the enjoyment of every
pleasure permitted by the laws of the Koran.
At night the city was illuminated, the streets
were festooned with flowers, and the promenades
and public places resounded with the melody of
various musical instruments.
The more worthily to celebrate the occasion,
alms were lavishly distributed by the wealthy,
and the benedictions of the poor mingled with
the songs of rejoicing that everywhere ascended
around them.
Abderamus, having imbibed with his Oriental
education a fondness for these splendid f"tes,
first introduced a taste for them into Spain.
Uniting, in his character of caliph, the civil and
the sacerdotal authority in his own person, he
regulated the religious ceremonies on such occa-
sions, and caused them to be celebrated with all
the pomp and magnificence displayed under simi-
lar circumstances by the sovereigns of Damascus.
Though the caliph of Cordova was the enemy

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

of the Christians, and numbered many of them
among his subjects, he refrained from persecu-
ting them, but deprived the bishoprics of their re-
ligious heads and the churches of their priests,
and encouraged marriages between the Moors
and Spaniards. By these means the sagacious
Moslem inflicted more injury upon the true reli-
gion than could have been effected by the most
rigorous severity.
Under the reign of Abderamus, the successors
of Pelagius, still retaining possession of Asturia,
though weakened by the internal dissensions that
already began to prevail among them, were for-
ced to submit to the payment of the humiliating
tribute -of a hundred young females, Abdera-
mus refusing to grant them peace except at this
price.
Master of entire Spain, from Catalonia to the
two seas, the first caliph died A.D. 788, Heg.
172, after a glorious reign of thirty years, leav-
ing the crown to his son Hacchem, the third of
his eleven sons.
After the death of Abderamus the empire was
disturbed by revolts, and by wars between the
new caliph and his brothers, his uncles, or other
princes of the royal blood. These civil wars

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

were inevitable under a despotic government,
where not even the order of succession to the
throne was regulated by law. To be an aspi-
rant to the supreme authority of the state, it was
sufficient to belong to the royal race; and as
each of the caliphs, almost without exception,
left numerous sons, all these princes became the
head of a faction, every one of them established
himself in some city, and, declaring himself its
sovereign, took up arms in opposition to the au-
thority of the caliph. From this arose the innu-
merable petty states that were created, annihila-
ted, and raised again with each change of sover-
eigns. Thus also originated the many instances
of conquered, deposed, or murdered kings, that
make the history of the Moors of Spain so dif-
ficult of methodical arrangement and so monot-
onous in the perusal.
Hacchem, and, after him, his son Abdelazis-el-
Hacchem retained possession of the caliphate not-
withstanding these unceasing dissensions. The
former finished the beautiful mosque commenced
by his father, and carried his arms into France,
in which kingdom his generals penetrated as far
as Narbonne. The latter, Abdelazis-el-Hacchem
less fortunate than his predecessor, did not suc-

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

ceed in opposing the Spaniards and his refracto-
ry subjects with unvarying success. His exist-
ence terminated in the midst of national difficul-
ties, and his son Abderamus became his successor
Abderamus II. was a great monarch, notwith-
standing the fact that, during his reign, the
power of the Christians began to balance that
of the Moors.
The Christians liad taken advantage of the
continual divisions which prevailed among their
former conquerors. Alphonso the Chaste, king of
Asturia, a valiant and politic monarch, had ex-
tended his dominions and refused to pay the trib-
ute of the hundred young maidens. Ramir, the
successor of Alphonso, maintained this independ-
ence, and several times defeated the Mussul-
mans. Navarre became a kingdom, and Ara-
gon had its independent sovereigns, and was so
fortunate as to possess a government that prop-
erly respected the rights of the people.* The
governors of Catalonia, until then subjected to
the kings of France, took advantage of the fee-
bleness of Louis le Debonnaire to render them-
selves independent. In fine, all the north of
Spain declared itself in opposition to the Moors,
* See note E, page 212.

60 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

and the south became a prey to the irruptions of
the Normans.
Abderamus defended himself against all these
adversaries, and obtained, by his warlike talents,
the surname of Elrmonzaffer, which signifies the
Victorious. And, though constantly occupied by
the cares of government and of successive wars,
this monarch afforded encouragement to the fine
arts, embellished his capital' by a new mosque,
and caused to be erected a superb aqueduct,
from which water was carried in leaden pipes
throughout the city in the utmost abundance.
Abderamus possessed a soul capable of enjoy-
ing the most refined and elevated pleasures. He
attracted to his court poets and philosophers, with
whose society he frequently delighted himself;
thus cultivating in his own person the talents he
encouraged in others. He invited from the East
the famous musician Ali-Zeriab, who established
himself in Spain through the beneficence of the
caliph, and originated the celebrated school*
whose pupils afterward afforded such delight to
the Oriental world.
The natural ferocity of the Moslems yielded
to the influence of the chivalrous example of
* See note F, page 212.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

the caliph, and Cordova became, under the do-
minion of Abderamus, the home of taste and
pleasure, as well as the chosen abode of science
and the arts.
A single anecdote will serve to illustrate the
tenderness and generosity that so strongly char-
acterized this illustrious descendant of the Om-
miades.
One day a favourite female slave left her mas-
ter's presence in high displeasure, and, retiring
to her apartment, vowed that, sooner than open
the door for the admittance of Abderamus, she
would suffer it to be walled up. The chief eu-
nuch, alarmed at this discourse, which he regard-
ed as almost blasphemous, hastened to prostrate
himself before the Prince of Believers, and to
communicate to him the horrible purpose of the
rebellious slave. Abderamus smiled at the res-
olution of the offended beauty, and commanded
the eunuch to cause a wall composed of pieces
of coin to be erected before the door of her re-
treat, and avowed his intention not to pass this
barrier until the fair slave should have volunta-
rily demolished it, by possessing herself of the
materials of which it was formed. The listo-

62 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
rian* adds, that the same evening the caliph en-
tered the apartments of the appeased favourite
without opposition.
This prince left forty-five sons and nearly as
many daughters. Mohammed, the eldest of his
sons, succeeded him, A.D. 852, Heg. 238. The
reigns of Mohammed and his successors, Alman-
zor and Abdalla, offer to the historian nothing for
a period of fifty years but details of an uninter-
rupted continuation of troubles, civil wars, and
revolts, by which the governors of the principal
cities sought to render themselves independent.
Alphonso the Great, king of Asturia, profited
by these dissensions the more effectually to con-
firm his own power. The Normans, from an-
other side, ravaged Andalusia anew. Toledo,
frequently punished, but ever rebellious, often
possessed local sovereigns. Saragossa imitated
the example of Toledo. The authority of the
caliphs was weakened, and their empire, convul-
sed in every part, seemed on the point of disso-
lution, when Abderamus III., the nephew of Ab-
dalla, ascended the throne of Cordova, and
restored for some time its pristine splendour and
power, A.D 912, Heg. 300.
* Cardonne, in his History of Spain.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

This monarch, whose name, so dear to the
Moslems, seemed to be an auspicious omen, took
the title of Emir-al-.Mumenim, which signifies
Prince of true Believers.
Victory attended the commencement of his
reign; the rebels, whom his predecessors had
been unable to reduce to submission, were de-
feated; factions were dissipated, and peace and
order re-established.
Being attacked by the Christians soon after he
had assumed the crown, Abderamus applied for
assistance to the Moors of Africa. He maintain-
ed long wars against the kings of Leon and the
counts of Castile, who wrested Madrid, then a
place of comparative insignificance, from him,
A.D. 931, Heg. 319. Often attacked and some-
times overcome, but always great and redoubta-
ble notwithstanding occasional reverses, Abder-
amus knew how to repair his losses, and avail
himself to the utmost of his good fortune. A
profound statesman, and a brave and skilful com-
mander, he fomented divisions among the Span-
ish princes, carried his arms frequently into the
very centre of their states, and, having estab-
lished a navy, seized, in addition, upon Ceuta
and Seldjemessa on the African coast.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Notwithstanding the incessant wars which ,)c-
cupied him during the whole of his reign, the
enormous expense to which he was subjected by
the maintenance of his armies and his naval
force, and the purchase of military assistance
from Africa, Emir-al-Mumenim supported a lux-
ury and splendour at his court, the details of
which would seem to be the mere creations of
the imagination, were they not attested by every
historian of the time.
The contemporary Greek emperor, Constantine
XI., wishing to oppose an enemy capable of re-
sisting their power, to the Abbassides of Bagdad,
sent ambassadors to Cordova to form an alliance
with Abderamus.
The Caliph of the West, flattered that Chris-
tians should come from so distant a part of the
world to request his support, signalized the oc-
casion by the display of a gorgeous pomp which
rivalled that of the most splendid Asiatic courts.
He sent a suit of attendants to receive the am-
bassadors at Jean. Numerous corps of cavalry,
magnificently mounted and attired, awaited their
approach to Cordova, and a still more brilliant
display of infantry lined the avenues to the pal-
ace. The courts were covered with the most

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

superb Persian and Egyptian carpets, and the
walls hung with cloth of gold. The caliph,
blazing with brilliants, and seated on a dazzling
throne, surrounded by his family, his viziers, and
a numerous train of courtiers, received the Greek
envoys in a hall in which all his treasures were
displayed. The Hadjeb, a dignitary whose office
among the Moors corresponded to that of the
ancient French mayors of the palace, introduced
the ambassadors. They prostrated themselves
before Abderamus in amazement at the splen-
dour of this array, and presented to the Moorish
sovereign the letter of Constantine, written on
blue parchment and enclosed in a box of gold.
The caliph signed the treaty, loaded the imperi-
al messengers with presents, and ordered that a
numerous suite should accompany them even to
the walls of Constantinople.
Abderamus III., though unceasingly occupied
either by war or politics, was all his life enam-
oured of one of his wives named Zahra.* He
built a city for her two miles distant from Cor-
lova, which he named Zahra.
This place is now destroyed. It was situated
* This word signifies, in the Arabic, Flower, or OrnamenI
of the World.
F

66 TIIE MOORS OF SPAIN.

at the base of a high mountain, from which
flowed numerous perpetual streams, whose wa-
ters ran in all directions through the streets of
the city, diffusing health and coolness in their
course, and forming ever-flowing fountains in
the centre of the public places. The houses,
each built after the same model, were surmount-
ed by terraces and surrounded by gardens adorn-
ed with groves of orange, laurel, and lime, and
in which the myrtle, the rose, and the jasmine
mingled in pleasing confusion with all the varied
productions of that sunny and delicious clime.
The statue of the beautiful Zahra* was conspic-
uously placed over the principal gate of this
City of Love.
But the attractions of the city were totally
eclipsed by those of the fairy-like palace of the
favourite. Abderamus, as the ally of their Impe-
rial master, demanded the assistance of the most
accomplished of the Greek architects; and the
sovereign of Constantinople, which was at that
time the chosen home of the fine arts, eagerly
complied with his desires, and sent the caliph, in
addition, forty columns of granite of the rares1
and most beautiful workmanship. Independent
* See Note G, page 213.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

of these magnificent columns, there were em-
ployed in the construction of this palace more
than twelve hundred others, formed of Spanish
and Italian marble. The walls of the apart-
ment named the Saloon of the Caliphate, were
covered with ornaments of gold; and from the
mouths of several animals, composed of the same
metal, gushed jets of water that fell into an ala
baster fountain, above which was suspended the
famous pearl that the Emperor Leo had pre-
sented to the caliph as a treasure of inestimable
value. In the pavilion where the mistress of
this enchanting abode usually passed the even-
ing with the royal Moor, the ceiling was com-
posed of gold and burnished steel, incrusted with
precious stones. And in the resplendent light
reflected from these brilliant ornaments by a
hundred crystal lustres, flashed the waters of a
fountain, formed like a sheaf of grain, from pol-
ished silver, whose delicate spray was received
again by the alabaster basin from whose centre
it sprung.
The reader might hesitate to believe these re-
citals; might suppose himself perusing Oriental
tales, or that the author vwas indebted for his
history to the Thousand and One J'ights, were

68 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

not the facts here detailed attested by the Ara-
bian writers, and corroborated by foreign authors
of unquestionable veracity. It is true that the
architectural magnificence, the splendid pa-
geantry, the pomp of power that characterized
the reign of this illustrious Saracenic king, re-
sembled nothing with which we are now famil-
iar; but the incredulous questioners of their for-
mer existence might be asked whether, had the
pyramids of Egypt been destroyed by an earth-
quake, they would now credit historians who
should give us the exact dimensions of those
stupendous structures ?
The writers from whom are derived the de-
tails that have been given concerning the court
of the Spanish Mussulmans, mention also the
sums expended in the erection of the palace and
city of Zahra. The cost amounted annually to
three hundred thousand dinars of gold,* and
twenty-five years hardly sufficed for the comple-
tion of this princely monument of chivalrous de-
votion.
* The dinar is estimated by M. Florian to be equal to at
least ten livres. According to that computation, the aggre-
gate cost of the palace and city of Zahra would amount to
considerably more than $14,000,000. Trans.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

To these enormous expenditures should be
added the maintenance of a seraglio, in which
the women, the slaves, and the black and white
eunuchs arpounted to the number of six thousand
persons. The officers of the court, and the hor-
ses destined for their use, were in equally lavish
proportion. The royal guard alone was compo-
sed of twelve thousand cavaliers.
When it is remembered, that, from being con-
tinually at war with the Spanish princes, Abder-
amus was obliged to keep numerous armies
incessantly on foot, to support a naval force, fre-
quently to hire stipendiaries from Africa, and to
fortify and preserve in a state of defence the
ever-endangered fortresses on his frontiers, it is
hardly possible to comprehend how his revenues
sufficed for the supply of such immense and va-
ried demands. But his resources were equally
immense and varied; and the sovereign of Cor-
dova was perhaps the richest and most powerful
monarch then in Europe.*
He held possession of Portugal, Andalusia, the
kingdom of Grenada, Mercia, Valencia, and the
greater part of New-Castile, the most beautiful
and fertile countries of Spain.
* See note H, page 214.

70 THE MOORb OF SPAIN.

These provinces were at that time extremely
populous, and the Moors had attained the high-
est perfection in agriculture. Historians assure
us, that there existed on the shores of the Gua-
dalquiver twelve thousand villages; and that a
traveller could not proceed through the country
without encountering some hamlet every quar-
ter of an hour. There existed in the dominions
of the caliph eighty great cities, three hundred
of the second order, and an infinite number of
smaller towns. Cordova, the capital of the
kingdom, enclosed within its walls two hundred
thousand houses and nine hundred public baths.
All this prosperity was reversed by the expul-
sion of the Moors from the Peninsula. The
reason is apparent: the Moorish conquerors of
Spain did not persecute their vanquished foes;
the Spaniards, when they had subdued the Moors,
oppressed and banished them.
The revenues of the caliphs of Cordova are
represented to have amounted annually to twelve
millions and forty-five thousand dinars of gold.*
Independent of this income in money, many
imposts were paid in the products of the soil;
and among an industrious agricultural popula-
* About $22,500,000.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

tion, possessed of- the most fertile country in the
world, this rural wealth was incalculable. The
gold and silver mines, known in Spain from the
earliest times, were another source of wealth.
Commerce, too, enriched alike the sovereign and
the people. The commerce of the Moors was
carried on in many articles: silks, oils, sugar,
cochineal, iron, wool (which was at that time
extremely valuable), ambergris, yellow amber,
loadstone, antimony, isinglass, rock-crystal, sul-
phur, saffron, ginger, the product of the coral-
beds on the coast of Andalusia, of the pearl
fisheries on that of Catalonia, and rubies, of
which they had discovered two localities, one at
Malaga and another at Beja. These valuable
articles were, either before or after being wrought,
transported to Egypt or other parts of Africa, and
to the East. The emperors of Constantinople,
always allied from necessity to the caliphs of
Cordova, favoured these commercial enterprises,
and, by their countenance, assisted in enlarging,
to a vast extent, the field of their operations;
while the neighbourhood of Africa, Italy, and
France contributed also to their prosperity.
The arts, which are the children of commerce,
and support the existence of their parent, added

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

a new splendour to the brilliant reign of Abder-
amus. The superb palaces he erected, the deli-
cious gardens he created, and the magnificent
fetes he instituted, drew to his court from all
parts architects and artists of every description.
Cordova was the home of industry and the asy-
lum of the sciences. Celebrated schools of ge-
ometry, astronomy, chymistry, and medicine were
established there-schools which, a century af-
terward, produced such men as Averroes and
Abenzoar. So distinguished were the learned
Moorish poets, philosophers, and physicians, that
Alphonso the Great, king of Asturia, wishing to
confide the care of his son Ordogno to teachers
capable of conducting the education of a prince,
appointed him two Arabian preceptors, notwith-
standing the difference of religious faith, and the
hatred entertained by the Christians towards the
Mussulmans. And one of the successors of Al-
phonso, Sancho the Great, king of Leon, being
attacked by a disease which it was supposed
would prove fatal in its effects, went unhesita-
tingly to Cordova, claimed the hospitality of his
national enemy, and placed himself under the
care of the Mohammedan physicians, who event-
ually succeeded in curing the malady of the
Christian king.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

This singular fact does as much honour to the
skill of the learned Saracens as to the magna-
nimity of the caliph and the trusting confidence
of Sancho.
Such was the condition of the caliphate of
Cordova under the dominion of Abderamus III.
He occupied the throne fifty years, and we have'
seen with what degree of honour to himself and
benefit to his people. Perhaps nothing will
better illustrate the superiority of this prince to
monarchs generally than the following fragment,
which was found, traced by his own hand, among
his papers after his death.
" Fifty years have passed away since I became
caliph. Riches, honours, pleasures, I have en-
joyed them all: I am satiated with them all.
Rival kings respect me, fear, and envy me. All
that the heart of man can desire, Heaven has
lavishly bestowed on me. In this long period
of seeming felicity I have estimated the number
of days during which I have enjoyed perfect
happiness: they amount to fourteen! Mortals,
learn to appreciate greatness, the world, and hu-
man life!"
The successor of this monarch was his eldest

THE MOORS OF SP AIN.

son, Aboul-Abbas El Hakkam, who assumed,
like his father, the title of Emir-al-Mlumenim.
The coronation of El Hakkam was celebrated
with great pomp in the city of Zahra. The new
caliph there received the oath of fidelity from
the chiefs of the scythe guard, a numerous and
redoubtable corps, composed of strangers, which
Abderamus III. had formed. The brothers and
relations of El Hakkam, the viziers and their
chief, the Hadjeb, the white and black eunuchs,
the archers and cuirassiers of the guard, all
swore obedience to the monarch. These cere-
monies were followed by the funeral honours of
Abderamus, whose body was carried to Cordova,
and there deposited in the tomb of his ancestors.
Aboul-Abbas El Hakkam, equally wise with
his father, but less warlike than he, enjoyed
greater tranquillity during his reign. His was
the dominion of justice and peace. The success
and vigilance of Abderamus had extinguished,
for a time, the spirit of revolt, and prepared the
way for the continued possession of these great
national blessings.
Divided among themselves, the Christian
kings entertained no desig is of disturbing their
infidel neighbours.

THE MOORS Of' SPAIN.

The truce that existed between the Mussul-
mans and Castile and Leon was broken but
once during the life of El Hacchem. The caliph
then commanded his army in person, and com-
pleted a glorious campaign, taking several cities
from the Spaniards, and convincing them, by his
achievements, of the policy of future adherence
to the terms of their treaty with their Saracen
opponents.
During the remainder of his reign the Moorish
sovereign applied himself wholly to promoting
the happiness of his subjects, to the cultivation
of science, to the collection of an extensive li-
brary, and, above all, to en orcing a strict ob-
servance of the laws.
The laws of the Moors were few and simple.
It does not appear that there existed among
them any civil laws apart from those incorpora-
ted with their religious code. Jurisprudence
was reduced to the application of the principles
contained in the Koran. The caliph, as the su-
preme head of their religion, possessed the pow-
er of interpreting these principles; but even he
would not have ventured to violate them. At
least as often as once a week, he publicly gave
audience to his subjects, listened to their com-

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

plaints, examined the guilty, and, without quit.
ting the tribunal, caused punishment to be im-
mediately inflicted. The governors placed by
the sovereign over the different cities and provin-
ces, commanded the military force belonging to
each, collected the public revenues, superintend-
ed the administration of the police, and adjudg-
ed the offences committed within their respective
governments. Public officers well versed in the
laws discharged the functions of notaries, and
gave a juridical form to records relating to the
possession of property. When any lawsuits
arose, magistrates called cadis, whose authority
was respected both by the king and the people,
could alone decide them. These suits were
speedily determined; lawyers and attorneys
were unknown, and there was no expense nor
_hicanery connected with them. Each party
pleaded his cause in person, and the decrees of
the cadi were immediately executed.
Criminal jurisprudence was scarcely more
complicated. The Moors almost invariably re-
sorted to the punishment of retaliation prescri-
bed by the founder of their religion. In truth,
the wealthy were permitted to exonerate them-
selves from the charge of bloodshed by the aid

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

of money; but it was necessary that the rela-
tions of the deceased should consent to this: the
caliph himself would not have ventured to with-
hold the head of one of his own sons who had
been guilty of homicide, if its delivery had been
inexorably insisted upon.
This simple code would not have sufficed had
not the unlimited authority exercised by fathers
over their children, and husbands over their
wives, supplied the deficiencies of the laws.
With regard to this implicit obedience on the
part of a family to the will of its chief, the
Moors preserved the ancient patriarchal customs
of their ancestors. Every father possessed, un-
der his own roof, rights nearly equal to those of
the caliph. He decided, without appeal, the
quarrels of his wives and those of his sons: he
punished with severity the slightest faults, and
even possessed the power of punishing certain
crimes with death. Age alone conferred this su-
premacy. An old man was always an object of
reverence. His presence arrested disorders: the
most haughty young man cast down his eyes at
meeting him, and listened patiently to his re-
proofs. In short, he possessor of a white beard

78 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

was everywhere invest.ed with the authority of a
magistrate.
This authority, which was more powerful
among the Moors than that of their laws, long
subsisted unimpaired at Cordova. That the wise
Hacchem did nothing to enfeeble it, may be judg-
ed from the following illustration.
A poor woman of Zahra possessed a small
field contiguous to the gardens of the caliph.
El Hacchem, wishing to erect a pavilion there,
directed that the owner should be requested to
dispose of it to him. But the woman refused
every remuneration that was offered her, and de
clared that she would never sell the heritage of
her ancestry. The king was, doubtless, not in-
formed of the obstinacy of this woman; but the
superintendent of the palace gardens, a minister
worthy of a despotic sovereign, forcibly seized
upon the field, and the pavilion was built. The
poor woman hastened in despair to Cordova, to
relate the story of her misfortune to the Cadi
Bechir, and to consult him respecting the course
she should pursue. The cadi thought that the
Prince of true Believers had no more right than
any other man to possess himself by violence of
the property of another; and he endeavoured to

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

discover some means of recalling to his recollec-
tion a truth which the best of rulers will some-
times forget.
One day, as the Moorish sovereign was sur-
rounded by his court in the beautiful pavilion
built on the ground belonging to the poor wom-
an, the Cadi Bechir presented himself before
him, seated on an ass, and carrying in his hand
a large sack. The astonished caliph demanded
his errand. " Prince of the Faithful !" replied
Bechir, "I come to ask permission of thee to fill
this sack with the earth upon which thou stand-
est." The caliph cheerfully consented to this
desire, and the cadi filled his sack with the
earth. He then left it standing, and, approach-
ing his sovereign, entreated him to crown his
goodness by aiding him in loading his ass with
its burden. El Hacchem, amused by the request,
yielded to it, and attempted to raise the sack.
Scarcely able to move it, he let it fall again, and,
laughing, complained of its enormous weight.
"Prince of Believers !" said Bechir then, with
impressive gravity, " this sack, which thou find-
est so heavy, contains, nevertheless, but a small
portion of the field thou hast usurped from one
of thy subjects; how wilt thou sustain the weight

80 THE MOORS OF SPA IN.

of this entire field .when thou shalt appear in the
presence of the Great Judge charged with this
iniquity ?" The caliph, struck with this address,
embraced the cadi, thanked him, acknowledged
his fault, and immediately restored to the poor
woman the field of which she had been despoil-
ed, together with the pavilion and everything it
contained.
The praise due to a despotic sovereign capable
of such an action, is inferior only to that which
should be accorded to the cadi who induced him
to perform it.
After reigning twelve years, El Hakkam died,
A.D. 976, Heg. 366. His son Hacchem suc-
ceeded him.
This prince was an infant when he ascended
the throne, and his intellectual immaturity con-
tinued through life. During and after his mi-
nority, a celebrated Moor named Mohammed Al-
manzor, being invested with the important office
of Hadjeb, governed the state with wisdom and
success.
Almanzor united to the talents of a statesman
the genius of a great commander. He was the
most formidable and fatal enemy with whom the
Christians had yet been obliged to contend. He

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

ruled the Moorish empire twenty-six years under
the name of the indolent Hacchem. More than
fifty different times he carried the terrors of war
into Castile or Asturia: he took and sacked the
cities of Barcelona and Leon, and advanced
even to Compostella, destroying its fam9us
church and carrying the spoils to Cordova.
The genius and influence of Mohammed tempo-
rarily restored the Moors to their ancient strength
and energy, and forced the whole Peninsula to
respect the rights of his feeble master, who, like
another Sardanapalus, dreamed away his life in
the enjoyment of effeminate and debasing pleas-
ures.*
But this was the last ray of unclouded splen-
dour that shone upon the empire of the Ommi-
ades in Spain. The kings of Leon and Navarre,
and the Count of Castile, united their forces for
the purpose of opposing the redoubtable Alman-
zor.
The opposing armies met near Medina-Celi.
The conflict was long and sanguinary, and the
victory doubtful. The Moors, after the termi-
nation of the combat, took to flight, terrified by
the fearful loss they had sustained; and Alman-
* See Note I, page 214.
G

82 TIfr MOORS OF SPAIN.

zor, whom fifty years of uninterrupted military
success had persuaded that he was invincible,
died of grief at this first mortifying reverse.
With this great man expired the good fortune
of the Saracens of Spain. From the period of
his death, the Spaniards continued to ipcrease
their own prosperity by the gradual ruin of the
Moors.
The sons of the hadjeb Almanzor successively
replaced their illustrious father; but, in inherit-
ing his power, they did not inherit his talents.
Factions were again created. One of the rela-
tions of the caliph took up arms against him,
and possessed himself of the person of the mon-
arch, A.D. 1005, Heg. 596; and, though the
rebellious prince dared not sacrifice the life of
Hacchem, he imprisoned him, and spread a re-
port of his death.
This news reaching Africa, an Ommiade prince
hastened thence to Spain with an army, under
pretext of avenging the death of Hacchem. The
Count of Castile formed an alliance with this
stranger, and civil war was kindled in Cordova.
It soon spread throughout Spain, and the Chris-
tian princes availed themselves of its disastrous
effects to repossess themselves of the cities of

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

which they had been deprived during the su-
premacy of Almanzor.
The imbecile Hacchem, negotiating and tri-
fling alike with all parties, was finally replaced
on the throne, but was soon after forced again
to renounce it to save his life.
After this event a multitude of conspirators*
were in turn proclaimed caliph, and in turn depo-
sed, poisoned, or otherwise murdered. Almun-
dir, the last lingering branch of the race of the
Ommiades, was bold enough to claim the restora-
tion of the rights of his family, even amid the
tumult of conflicting parties. His friends repre-
sented to him the dangers he was about to en-
counter. " Should I reign but one day," replied
he, "and expire on the next, I would not mur-
mur at my fate !" But the desire of the prince,
even to this extent, was not gratified; he was
assassinated without obtaining possession of the
caliphate.
Usurpers of momentary authority followed.
Jalmar-ben-Mohammed was the last in order.
His death terminated the empire of the Caliphs
* Mahadi, Suleiman, All, Abderamus IV., Casim, Jahiah,
Hacchem III., Mohammed, A'oderamus V., Jahiah IIL, IIac-
chem IV., and Jalmar-ben-Mohammed.

84 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
of the West, which had been possessed by the
dynasty of the Ommiades for the period of three
centuries, A.D. 1027, Heg. 416.
With the extinction of this line of princes van-
ished the power and the glory of Cordova.
The governors of the different cities, who had
hitherto been the vassals of the court of Cordo-
va, profiting by the anarchy that prevailed, erect-
ed themselves into independent sovereigns.-
That city was therefore no longer the capital of
a kingdom, though it still retained the religious
supremacy which it derived from its mosque.
Enfeebled by divisions and subjected to such
diversity of rule, the Mussulmans were no longer
able successfully to resist the encroachments of
the Spaniards. The Third Epoch of their histo-
tory, therefore, will present nothing but a narra-
tive of their rapid decline.

THIRD EPOCH.

co7NTAINING AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL KING-
DOMS THAT SPRANG FROM THE RUINS OF THE
CALIPHATE.

Extending from the Commencement of the Eleventh to
the Middle of the Thirteenth Century.
AT the commencement of the eleventh centu-
ry, when the throne of Cordova was daily stain-
ed by the blood of some new usurper, the gov-
ernors of the different cities, as has been already
remarked, had assumed the title of kings. To-
ledo, Saragossa, Seville, Valencia, Lisbon, Hu-
esca, and several other places of inferior impor-
tance, each possessed independent sovereigns.
The history of these numerous kingdoms would
be nearly as fatiguing to the reader as to the
writer. It presents, for the space of two hun-
dred years, nothing but accounts of repeated
massacres, of fortresses taken and retaken, of
pillages and seditions, of occasional instances of
heroic conduct, but far more numerous crimes.
Passing rapidly over two centuries of misfor-

86 TUE MOORS OF SPAIN.
tunes, let it suffice to contemplate the termination
of these petty Moorish sovereignties.
Christian Spain, in the mean time, presented
nearly the same picture as that exhibited by the
portion of the Peninsula still in possession of the
Mohammedans. The kings of Leon, Navarre,
Castile, and Aragon were almost always rela-
tives, and sometimes brothers ; but they were not,
for that reason, the less sanguinary in their designs
towards each other. Difference of religion did
not prevent them from uniting with the Moors,
the more effectually to oppress other Christians,
or other Moors with whom they chanced to be
at enmity. Thus, in a battle which occurred
A.D. 1010 between two Mussulman leaders,
there were found among the slain a count of
Urgel and three bishops of Catalonia.* And
the King of Leon, Alphonso V., gave his sister
Theresa in marriage to Abdalla, the Moorish
king of Toledo, to convert him into an ally
against Castile.
Among the Christians, as among the Moors,
crimes were multiplied; civil wars of both a lo-
cal and general nature at the same time distract-
ed Spain, and the unhappy people expiated with
* See note A, page 216

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

their property and their lives the iniquities of
their rulers.
While thus regarding a long succession of
melancholy events, it is agreeable to find a king
of Toledo called Almamon, and Benabad, the
Mussulman king of Seville, affording an asylum
at their courts, the one to Alphonso, the young
king of Leon, and the other to the unfortunate
Garcias, king of Galicia, both of whom had
been driven from their kingdoms by their broth-
er Sancho, of Castile, A.D. 1071 Heg. 465.
Sancho pursued his brothers as though they had
been his most implacable enemies; and the
Moorish monarchs, the natural enemies of all the
Christians, received these two fugitive princes as
brothers. Almamon, especially, lavished the
most affectionate attention upon the unfortunate
Alphonso: he endeavoured to entertain him at
Toledo with such varied pleasures as should ban-
ish regret for the loss of a throne: he gave him
an income, and, in short, treated the prince as
though he had been a near and beloved relative.
When the death of the cruel Sancho (A.D. 1072,
Heg. 466) had rendered Alphonso king of Leon
and Castile, the generous Almamon, who now had
the person of the king of his enemies in his pow.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

er, accompanied the prince to the frontiers of his
kingdom, loaded him with presents and caresses,
and, at parting, offered the free use of his troops
and treasures to his late guest.
While Almamon lived, Alphonso IV. never
forgot his obligations to his benefactor. He
maintained peace with him, aided him in his
campaigns against the King of Seville, and even
entered into a treaty with Hacchem, the son and
successor of his ally. But, after a brief reign,
Hacchem left the throne of Toledo to his youth-
ful brother Jahiah. That prince oppressed the
Christians, who were very numerous in his city;
and they secretly implored Alphonso to make
war upon Jahiah. The memory of Almamon
long caused the Spanish monarch to hesitate in
relation to this subject. Gratitude impelled him
not to listen to the suggestions of ambition and
the prayers of his countrymen; but the argu-
ments of gratitude proved the least strong, and
Alphonso encamped before Toledo.
After a long and celebrated siege, to which
several French and other foreign warriors eager.
ly hastened, Toledo finally capitulated, A.D
1085, Heg. 478.
The conqueror allowed the sons of Almamon

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

to go and reign at Valencia, and engaged by an
oath to preserve the mosques from destruction.
He could not, however, prevent the Christians
from speedily violating this promise.
Such was the end of the Moorish kingdom of
Toledo. This ancient capital of the Goths had
belonged to the Arabs three hundred and eighty
two years.
Several other less important cities now submit-
ted to the Christian yoke. The kings of Ara-
gon and Navarre, and the Count of Barcelona,
incessantly harassed and besieged the petty Mus-
sulman princes who still remained in the north
of Spain. The attacks of the kings of Castile
and Leon afforded sufficient occupation for those
of the south, effectually to prevent their render-
ing any assistance to their brethren. Above all,
the Cid, the famous Cid, flew from one part of
Spain to another, at the head of the invincible
band with whom his fame had surrounded him,
everywhere achieving victories for the Christians,
and even lending the aid of his arms to the
Moors when they were internally divided, but
always securing success to the party he favoured.
This hero, one of the most truly admirable of
those whom history has celebrated, since in his

90 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
character were united the most exalted virtue
and the highest qualities of the soldier; this sim-
ple Castilian cavalier, upon whom his reputation
alone bestowed the control of armies, became
master of several cities, assisted the King of Ara-
gon to seize upon Huesca, and conquered the
kingdom of Valencia without any other assistance
than that of his men-at-arms. Equal in power
with his sovereign, of whose treatment he fre-
quently had reason to complain, and envied and
persecuted by the jealous courtiers, the Cid never
forgot for a moment that he was the subject of
the King of Castile. Banished from court, and
even exiled from his estates, he hastened, with
his brave companions, to attack and conquer the
Moors, and to send those of them whom he van-
quished to render homage to the king who had
deprived him of his rights.
Being soon recalled to the presence of Alphon-
so, in consequence of the king's needing his mil-
itary aid, the Cid left the scenes of his martial
triumphs, and, without demanding reparation for
the injuries he had sustained, returned to defend
his persecutors; ever ready, while in disgrace,
to forget everything in the performance of his
duty to his king, and equally ready, when enjoy-

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

ing the favour of the sovereign, to displease him,
if it should be necessary to-do so, by advocating
the cause of truth and justice.*
While the prowess of the Cid maintained the
contest, the Christians had the advantage; but a
few years after his death, which occurred in the
year 1099 and the 492d of the Hegira, the Moors
of Andalusia changed masters, and became, for
a time, more formidable than ever to their Span-
ish foes.
After the fall of Toledo, Seville had increased
in power. The sovereigns of that city were also
masters of ancient Cordova, and possessed, in
addition, Estremadura and a part of Portugal.
Benabad, king of Seville, one of the most esti-
mable princes of his age, was now the only one
of its enemies capable of disturbing the safety
of Castile. Alphonso IV., desirous of allying
himself with this powerful Moor, demanded his
daughter in marriage. His proposal was acce-
ded to, and the Castilian monarch received sev-
eral towns as the dowry of the Moorish princess;
but this extraordinary union, which seemed to
ensure peace between the two nations, neverthe-
less soon became either the cause or the pretext
of renewed contests.
* See note B, page 216.

92 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Africa, after having been separated from the
vast empire of the Caliphs of the East by the
Fatimite caliphs, and being, during three centu-
ries of civil war, the prey of a succession of con-
querors more ferocious and sanguinary than the
lions of their deserts,* was now subjected to the
family of the ./ilmoravides, a powerful tribe of
Egyptian origin. Joseph-ben-Tessefin, the sec-
ond prince of this dynasty, founded the kingdom
and city of Morocco.
Endowed with some warlike talents, proud of
his power, and burning to augment it, Joseph
regarded with a covetous eye the beautiful Eu-
ropean provinces which had formerly been con-
quered by the Mussulmans of Africa.
Some historians assert that the King of Cas-
tile, Alphonso IV., and his father-in-law Bena-
bad, king of Seville, having formed the project
of dividing Spain between them, committed the
capital error of summoning the Moors of Africa
to their assistance in this grand design. But
others, founding their assertions upon more plau-
sible reasoning, say that the petty Mussulman
kings, who were the neighbours or tributaries of
Benabad, justly alarmed at his alliance with a
* See note C, page 218.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Christian king, solicited the support of the Al-
moravide.
But, be that as it may, the ambitious Joseph
eagerly availed himself of the fortunate pretext
presented by the invitation he had received, and
crossed the Mediterranean at the head of an
army. He hastened to attack Alphonso, and
succeeded in overcoming him in a battle that
took place between them, A.D. 1097, Heg. 490.
Then turning his arms against Benabad, Joseph
took Cordova, besieged Seville, and was pre-
paring for the assault of that city, when the vir-
tuous Benabad, sacrificing his crown and even
his liberty to save his subjects from the horrors
that threatened them, delivered himself up, to-
gether with his family of a hundred children,
to the disposal of the Almoravide.
The barbarous African, dreading the influence
of a monarch whose virtues had rendered him so
justly dear to his people, sent him to end his
days in an African prison, where his daughters
were obliged to support their father and brothers
by the labour of their hands.
The unfortunate Benabad lived six years after
the commencement of his imprisonment, regret-
ting his lost throne only for the sake of his peo-

94 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

pie, and beguiling the period of his protracted
leisure by the composition of several poems
which are still in existence. In them he at-
tempts to console his daughters under their
heavy afflictions, recalls the remembrance of his
vanished greatness, and offers himself as a warn-
ing and example to kings who shall presume to
trust too confidently to the unchanging contin-
uance of the favours of fortune.
Joseph-ben-Tessefin, after he had thus become
master of Seville and Cordova, soon succeeded
in subjugating the other petty Mussulman states;
and the Moors, united under a single monarch
as powerful as Joseph, threatened again to oc-
cupy the important position they had sustained
during the supremacy of their caliphs. The
Spanish princes, alarmed at this prospect, sus-
pended their individual quarrels, and joined Al-
phonso in resisting the Africans.
At this particular juncture, a fanatical love of
religion and glory induced" many European war-
riors to take up arms against the infidels. Ray-
mond of Bourgogne, and his kinsman Henry,
both French princes of the blood, Raymond of
Saint-Gilles, count of Toulouse, with some other
cavaliers from among their vassals, crossed the

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Pyrenees with their retainers, and fought under
the banners of the King of Castile. Thus as-
sisted, that sovereign put the Egyptian com-
mander to flight, and compelled him, soon after-
ward, to recross the Mediterranean.
The grateful Alphonso gave his daughters as
a recompense to the distinguished Frenchmen
who had lent him the aid of their arms. The
eldest, Urraca, espoused Raymond of Bourgogne,
and their son afterward inherited the kingdom
of Castile. Theresa became the wife of Henry,
and brought him as a dowry all the land he
had thus far conquered or should hereafter con-
quer in Portugal: from thence originated that
kingdom. Elvira was given to Raymond, count
of Toulouse, who carried her with him to the
Holy Land, where he gained some possessions by
his valour.
Excited by these illustrious examples, other
French cavaliers resorted soon after to the stand-
ard of the King of .dragon, Alphonso I., who
made himself master of Saragossa, and for ever
destroyed that ancient kingdom of the Moors,
A.D. 1118, Heg. 512.
The son of Henry of Bourgogne, Alphonso 1.
king of Portugal, a prince renowned for his

96 THE.MOORS OF SPAIN.
bravery, availed himself of the presence of a
combined fleet of English, Flemings, and Ger-
mans, who had anchored in the harbour of that
city on their way to the Holy Land, to lay siege
to Lisbon. He carried that place by assault,
in spite of its great strength, and made it the
capital of his kingdom, A.D. 1147, Heg. 541.
During this period the kings of Castile and
Navarre were extending their conquests in An-
dalusia.
The Moors were attacked on all sides, and
their cities were everywhere compelled to sur-
render, now that they were no longer materially
aided by the Almoravides. Those African prin-
ces were at this time sufficiently occupied at
home in opposing some new sectaries, the prin-
cipal of whom, under pretext of reinitiating the
people in a knowledge of the pure doctrines of
Mohammed, opened for themselves a path to the
throne, and, after many struggles, ended by ef-
fectually driving the family of the Almoravides
from its possession. The new conquerors, be-
coming by these means masters of Morocco and
Fez, destroyed, according to the African custom,
every individual of the supplanted race, and
founded a new dynasty, which is known under

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

the name of the .211mohades, A.D. 1149, Heg.
543.
In the midst of these divisions, these wars and
combats, the fine arts still continued to be culti-
vated at Cordova. And though they were no
longer in the flourishing condition in which they
were maintained during the reigns of the several
caliphs who bore the cherished name of Abder-
amus, yet the schools of philosophy, poetry, and
medicine had continued to exist. These schools
produced, in the twelfth century, several distin-
guished men, among the most celebrated of
whom were the learned Abenzoar and the fa-
mous Averroes. The former, equally profound
in medicine, pharmacy, and surgery, lived, it is
said, to the age of one hundred and thirty-five
years. Some estimable works which he pro-
duced are still extant. Averroes was also a
physician, but he was more of a philosopher,
poet, lawyer, and commentator. He acquired a
reputation so profound, that passing centuries
have only served more firmly to establish it.
The disposition made by this remarkable man
of his time during the different periods of his
existence, will illustrate his mental character.
In his youth he was the passionate votary of

98 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

pleasure and poetry: in more mature age he
burned the verses he had previously composed,
studied the principles of legislation, and dis-
charged the duties of a judicial officer: having
advanced still farther in life, he abandoned
these occupations for the pursuit of medicine, in
which he attained very great eminence: at last
philosophy alone supplied the place of every
earlier taste, and wholly engrossed his attention
for the remainder of his life. It was Averroes
who first created among the Moors a taste for
Greek literature. He translated the works of
Aristotle into Arabic, and wrote commentaries
upon them. He also published several other
works upon philosophy and medicine, and pos-
sessed the united glory of having both enlight-
ened and benefited mankind.*
As Africa, distracted by the long war of the
Almoravides and the Almohades, was unable to
offer any opposition to the progress of the Chris-
tians in Spain, these last, availing themselves c
this condition of affairs, continued to extend their
conquests in Andalusia. If the Spanish princes
had been less disunited, and had acted in concert
against the infidels, they would have been able
* See Note D, page 220.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

at this period to deprive the Mussulmans of their
entire dominions in the Peninsula. But these
ever-contending princes had no sooner taken a
Moorish city than they began to dispute among
themselves about its possession.
The newly-created kingdom of Portugal, es-
tablished by the military powers of Alphonso,
was soon at war with that of Leon.* Aragon
and Castile, after many bloody quarrels, united
in a league against Navarre. Sancho VIII., the
sovereign of that little state, was forced to re-
sort to Africa for assistance, and implore the
aid of the Almohades. But they, being but re-
cently established on the throne of Morocco,
were still employed in exterminating the dis-
membered fragments of the party of the Almo-
ravides, and could not, in spite of their eager de-
sire to do so, establish any claim to their assumed
rights in Spain. Nevertheless, two kings of the
race of the Almohades, both named Joseph, pass-
ed the Mediterranean more than once with nu-
merous armies. The one was successfully op-
posed by the Portuguese, and did not survive
his final defeat; the other was more fortunate,
and succeeddl in vanquishing the Castilians, but
* A.D. 1178.

100 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

was soon after obliged to accept a truce and
return in haste to Morocco, to which new dis-
turbances recalled him, A.D. 1195, Heg. 591.
But these useless victories, these ill-sustained
efforts, did not permanently disable either the
Mussulmans or the Christians. On both sides,
the vanquished parties soon re-entered the field,
in utter neglect of the treaties into which they
might ever so recently have entered. The sov-
ereigns of Morocco, though regarded as the
kings of Andalusia, nevertheless possessed only
a precarious authority in that country, which
was always disputed when they were absent,
and acknowledged only when necessity forced
the Mussulman inhabitants to have recourse to
their protection.
At last Mohammed El .Nazir, the fourth
prince of the dynasty of the Almohades, to
whom the Spaniards gave the name of the
Green, from the colour of his turban, finding
himself in quiet possession of the Moorish em-
pire of Africa, resolved to assemble all his for-
ces, to lead them into Spain, and to renew in
that country the ancient conquests of Tarik and
Moussa. A holy war was proclaimed, A.D.
1211, Heg 608, and an innumerable army

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

crowded around the ensigns of Mohammed, left
the snores of Africa under the guidance of that
monaich, and safely arrived in Andalusia.
There their numbers were nearly doubled by
the Spanish Moors, whom hatred to the very
name of Christian, arising from the vivid re-
membrance of accumulated injuries, induced to
join the bands of El Nazir.
The sanguine Mohammed promised an easy
triumph to his followers, together with the cer-
tainty of rendering themselves masters of all
that their ancestors had formerly possessed;
and, burning to commence the contest, he im-
mediately advanced towards Castile at the head
of his formidable army, which, according to the
reports of historians, amounted to more than six
hundred thousand men.
The king of Castile, Alphonso the Noble, in-
formed of the warlike preparations of the King
of Morocco, implored the assistance of the Chris-
tian princes of Europe. Pope Innocent III. pro-
claimed a crusade and granted indulgences most
lavishly. Rodrique, archbishop of Toledo, made
in person a voyage to Rome, to solicit the aid
of the sovereign pontiff; and, returning home-
ward through France, preached to the people

101

102 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

on his route, and induced many cavaliers to pro-
ceed at the head of bands of recruits to Spain,
and join the opponents of the Mussulmans.
The general rendezvous was at Toledo, at
which point there were soon collected more
than sixty thousand crusaders from Italy and
France, who united themselves with the soldiers
of Castile. The King of Aragon, Peter II., the
same who afterward perished in the war of the
Albigense, led his valiant army to the place of
meeting, and Sancho VIII., king of Navarre, was
not backward in presenting himself at the head
of his brave subjects. The Portuguese had re-
cently lost their king, but they despatched their
best warriors to Toledo. In short, all Spain
flew to arms. There was general union for the
promotion of mutual safety; for never, since the
time of King Rodrique, had the Christians been
placed in such imminent danger.
It was at the foot of the Sierra Morena, at a
place named Las .N'avas de Toloza, that the three
Spanish princes encountered the Moors, A.D.
1212, Heg. 609.
Mohammed El Nazir had taken possession
of the mountain gorges through which it had
been the intention of the Christians to approach

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

his camp. The adroit African thus designed,
either to force his opponents to turn back, which
would expose them to the danger of a failure of
provisions, or to overwhelm them in the pass if
they should attempt to enter it. Upon discov-
ering this circumstance, a council was called by
the embarrassed Christian leaders. Alphonso
was desirous of attempting the passage, but the
kings of Navarre and Aragon advised a retreat.
In the midst of this dilemma, a shepherd pre-
sented himself before them, and offered to co-
duct them through a defile of the mountain, with
which he was familiar. This proposal, which
was the salvation of their army, was eagerly
accepted, and the shepherd guided the Catholic
sovereigns through difficult paths and across
rocks and torrents, until, with their followers,
they finally succeeded in attaining the summit
of the mountain.
There, suddenly presenting themselves before
the eyes of the astonished Moors, they were en-
gaged for the space of two days in preparing
themselves for the conflict, by prayer, confession,
and the solemn reception of the holy sacrament.
Their leaders set an example to the soldiers in
this zealous devotion; and the prelates and ec-

103

104 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
clesiastics, of whom there were a great number
in the camp, after having absolved these devout
warriors, prepared to accompany them into the
midst of the conflict.
Upon the third day, the sixteenth of July, in
the year twelve hundred and twelve, the Chris-
tian army was drawn up in battle array. The
troops were formed into three divisions, each
commanded by a king. Alphonso was in the
centre, at the head of his Castilians and the
Chevaliers of the newly-instituted orders of Saint
James and Calatrava; Rodrique, archbishop of
Toledo, the eyewitness and historian of this
great battle, advanced by the side of Alphonso,
preceded by a large cross, the principal ensign
of the army; Sancho and his Navarrois formed
the right, while Peter and his subjects occupied
the left. The French crusaders, now reduced
to a small number by the desertion of many of
their companions, who had been unable to en-
dure the scorching heat of the climate, marched
in the van of the other troops, under the com-
mand of Arnault, archbishop of Narbonne.
Thus disposed, the Christians descended to-
wards the valley which separated them from
their enemies.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

The Moors, according to their ancient custom,
everywhere displayed their innumerable soldiers,
without order or arrangement. An admirable
cavalry, to the number of a hundred thousand
men, composed their principal strength: the
rest of their army was made up of a crowd of
ill-armed and imperfectly trained foot-soldiers.
Mohammed, stationed on a height, from which
he could command a view of his whole army,
was encompassed by a defence made of chains
of iron, guarded by the choicest of his cavaliers
on foot. Standing in the midst of this enclo-
sure, with the Koran in one hand and an un-
sheathed sabre in the other, the Saracen com-
mander was visible to all his troops, of whom
the bravest squadrons occupied the four sides of
the hill.
The Castilians directed their first efforts to-
wards this elevation. At first they drove back
the Moors, but, repulsed in their turn, they re-
coiled in disorder and began to retreat. Al-
phonso flew here and there, attempting to rally
their broken ranks. " Archbishop," said he to
the prelate who everywhere accompanied him,
preceded by the grand standard of the Cross,
"Archbishop, here are we destined to die !"
I

105

106 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

"Not so, sire," replied the ecclesiastic; " we are
destined here to live and conquer !" At that
moment the brave canon who carried the chief
ensign threw himself with it into the midst of
the infidels; the prelate and the king followed
him, and the Castilian soldiers rushed forward
to protect their sovereign and their sacred stand-
ard. The already victorious kings of Aragon
and Navarre now advanced at the head of their
wings to unite in the attack upon the height.
The Moors were assaulted at all points: they
bravely resisted their opponents; but the Chris-
tians crowded upon them-the Aragonais, the
Navarrois, and the Castilians endeavouring mu-
tually to surpass each other in courage and da-
ring. The brave King of Navarre, making a
path for himself through the midst of its de-
fenders, reached the enclosure, and struck and
broke the chains by which the Moorish com-
mander was surrounded.* Mohammed took
to flight on beholding this catastrophe; and
L:is soldiers, no longer beholding their king,
lost both hope and courage. They gave way
in all directions, and fled before the Christians.
Thousands of the Mussulmans fell beneath the
* See Note E, page 221.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

weapons of their pursuers, while the *Archbishop
of Toledo, with the other ecclesiastics, surround-
ing the victorious sovereigns, chanted a Te Deum
on the field of battle.
Thus was gained the famous battle of Toloza,
of which some details have been given in con-
sequence of its great importance, and in illustra-
tion of the military tactics of the Moors. With
them the arts of war consisted solely in min-
gling with the enemy, and fighting, each one for
himself, until either the strongest or the bravest
of the two parties remained masters of the field.
The Spaniards possessed but little more mili-
tary skill than their Moslem neighbours; but
their infantry, at least, could attack and resist in
mass, while the discipline of that of the Saracens
amounted to scarcely anything. On the other
hand, again, the cavalry of the Moors was ad-
mirably trained. The cavaliers who composed
it belonged to the principal families in the king-
dom, and possessed excellent horses, in the art
of managing which they had been trained from
childhood. Their mode of combat was to rash
forward with the rapidity of light, strike with
the sabre or the lance, fly away as quickly, and
then wheel suddenly and return again to the en

107

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

counter. Thus they often succeeded in recalling
victory to their standard when she seemed just
about to desert them. The Christians, covered
as they were with iron, had in some respects the
advantage of these knights, whose persons were
protected only by a breastplate and headpiece
of steel. The Moorish foot-soldiers were nearly
naked, and armed only with a wretched pike
It is easy to perceive that, when involved in the
melee, and, above all, during a route, vast num-
bers of them must have perished. This, too,
renders less incredible the seemingly extravagant
accounts given by historians of their losses in the
field. They assert, for example, that, at the bat-
tle of Toloza, the Christians killed two hundred
thousand Moors, while they lost themselves but
fifteen hundred soldiers. Even when these as-
sertions are estimated at their true value, it re-
mains certain that the infidels sustained an im-
mense loss; and this important defeat, which is
still celebrated yearly at Toledo by a solemn
fete, long deprived the kings of Morocco of all
hope of subjugating the Spaniards.
The victory of Toloza was followed by more
fatal consequences to the unfortunate Moham-
med than to the Moors of Andalusia; for the

108

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

latter retired to their cities, defended them by
means of the remains of the African army, and
successfully resisted the Spanish princes, who
succeeded in taking but few of their strong
places, and, speedily dissolving their league,
separated for their respective kingdoms. But
Mohammed, despised by his subjects after his
defeat, and assailed by the treachery of his near-
est relations, lost all authority in Spain, and be-
held the principal Moors, whom he had now no
power to control, again forming little states, the
independence of which they were prepared to
assert by force of arms.* The discomfited El
Nazir consequently returned to Africa, where he
soon after died of chagrin.
With Mohammed the Green vanished the
good fortune of the Almohades. The princes of
that house, who followed El Nazir in rapid suc-
cession, purchased their royal prerogatives at the
expense of continual unhappiness and danger,
and were finally driven from the throne. The
empire of Morocco was then divided, and three
new dynasties were established; that of Fez, of
Tunis, and of Tremecen. These three powerful
and rival sovereignties greatly multiplied the
* A.D. 1213, Heg. 610.

109

110 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

conflicts, crimes, and atrocities, the narration
of which alone constitutes the history of Africa.
About this period some dissensions arose in
Castile, which, together with the part assumed
by the King of Aragon in the war of the Albi-
gense in France, allowed the Moors time to
breathe. The Moslems were still masters of the
kingdoms of Valencia, Murcia, Grenada, and
Andalusia, with part of Algarva and the Ba-
learic Isles, which last, until that time, had con-
tinued to be but little known to the Christians
of the Continent.
These states were divided between several
sovereigns, the principal of whom was Benhoud,
a descendant of the ancient kings of Saragossa,
a sagacious monarch and a great commander,
who by his genius and courage had obtained
dominion over all the southeastern part of
Spain. Next to Benhoud in rank, the most
important of these Mohammedan princes were
the kings of Seville and Valentia. The barba-
rian who reigned at Majorca was a mere pirati-
cal chief, whose enmity was formidable only to
the inhabitants of the neighbouring coast of
Catalonia.
Such was the condition of Moorish Spain,

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

when two young heroes seated themselves,
nearly at the same time, on the thrones of the
two principal Christian states; and, after having
allayed the commotions created during the pe-
riod of their minority, directed their concentra-
ted efforts against the Mussulmans, A.D. 1224,
Heg. 621.
These princes, who were niutually desirous to
emulate each other in fame, but were never ri-
vals in interest, both consecrated their lives to
the extirpation of the inflexible enemies of
their native land. One of these sovereigns was
Jacques I., king of Aragon (a son of the Peter of
Aragon who distinguished himself on the field
of Toloza), who united to the courage, grace,
and energy of his father, a greater degree of
genius and success than fell to the lot of that
sovereign. The other was Ferdinand III., king
of Castile and Leon, a discerning, courageous,
and enterprising monarch, whom the Romish
Church has numbered with its saints, and histo-
ry ranks among its great men.
This prince was the nephew of Blanche of
Castile, queen of France, and cousin-german of
St. Lewis,* whom he nearly resembled in his
* See Note F, page 221.

111

112 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

piety, his bravery, and the wise laws he framed
for the benefit of his subjects.
Ferdinand carried his arms first into Andalu-
sia. When he entered the territories of the in-
fidels, he received the homage of several Moor-
ish princes, who came to acknowledge them-
selves his vassals. As he proceeded, he seized
upon a great number of places, and, among oth-
ers, the town of Alhambra, whose frightened
inhabitants retired to Grenada, and established
themselves in a portion of that city, which thus
obtained the name by which it was afterward so
much celebrated.
Jacques of Aragon, on his part, set sail with
an army for the Balearic Isles. Though im-
peded in his progress by contrary winds, he
succeeded at last in reaching Majorca, on the
shore of which island he defeated the Moorish
force that attempted to oppose his landing, and
then marched towards their capital and laid
siege to it.
The chivalrous Jacques, who, when danger
was to be encountered, always took precedence
of even his bravest officers and most daring sol-
diers, was, as usual, the first to mount the walls
in the assault upon this city. It was carried,

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

notwithstanding its great strength, the Mussul-
man king driven from the throne, and this new
crown permanently incorporated with that of
Aragon, A.D. 1229, Heg. 627.
Jacques had long been meditating a most im-
portant conquest. Valencia, after the death of
the Cid, had again fallen into the hands of the
Moors. This beautiful and fertile province,
where nature seemed to delight herself by cov-
ering anew with fruit and flowers the soil that
man had so often deluged with blood, was now
under the dominion of Zeith, a brother of Mo-
hammed El Nazir, the African king who was
vanquished at Toloza by the Christians. A
powerful faction, inimical to the power of Zeith,
wished to place upon the throne a prince named
Zean. The two competitors appealed to arms
to decide their respective claims. The King of
.Aragon espoused the cause of Zeith, and, under
pretext of marching to his assistance, advanced
into the kingdom of Valencia, several times de-
feated Zean, seized upon his strong places, and,
with the active intrepidity that rendered him so
formidable a foe, invested the capital of his
enemy, A.D. 1234, Heg. 632.
Thus pressed by the sovereign of Aragon,

113

114 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Zean implored the aid of Benhoud, the most
puissant of the kings of Andalusia. But Ben-
houd was at this time occupied in resisting the
encroachments of Ferdinand. The Castilians,
under the conduct of that valiant prince, had
made new progress against the Moors. After
possessing themselves of a great number of oth-
er cities, they had now laid siege to ancient
Cordova.
Benhoud had been often vanquished, but al-
ways retained the affections of a people who
regarded him as their last support. He had
again collected an army, and, though possessed
with an equally earnest desire to relieve both
Cordova and Valencia, was about to march to-
wards the latter, from a belief that he was most
likely to be there successful, when his life was
treacherously terminated by one of his lieuten-
ants.
The Catholic kings were by this means de-
livered from the opposition of the only man who
was capable of impeding the accomplishment
of their wishes.
The death of Benhoud deprived the inhabi-
tants of Cordova of all courage and hope. Un-
til then they had defended themselves with

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

equal courage and constancy; but they offered
to capitulate upon receiving intelligence of this
disastrous event.*
The Christians made the most rigorous use of
their victory, granting only life and liberty of
departure to the unfortunate disciples of the
Prophet. An innumerable host of these wretch-
ed people came forth from their former homes,
weeping, and despoiled of all their possessions.
Slowly they left the superb city which had been
for more than five hundred and twenty years
the principal seat of their national greatness,
their luxurious magnificence, their cherished re-
ligion, and their favourite literature and fine
arts.
Often did these desolate exiles pause on their
way, and turn their despairing eyes once again
towards the towering palaces, the splendid tem-
ples, the beautiful gardens, that five centuries of
lavish expense and toilsome effort had served to
adorn and perfect, only to become the spoil of
the enemies of their faith and their race.
The Catholic soldiers who were now the oc-
cupants of these enchanting abodes, were so far
from appreciating their loveliness and value,
SA.D. 1236, Heg. 634.

115

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

that they preferred rather to destroy than in-
habit them; and Ferdinand soon found himself
the possessor of a deserted city. He was there-
fore compelled to attract inhabitants to Cordo-
va from other parts of his dominions, by the of-
fer of extraordinary immunities. But, notwith-
standing the privileges thus accorded them, the
Spaniards murmured at leaving their arid rocks
and barren fields, to dwell in the palaces of ca-
liphs and amid nature's most luxuriant scenes.
The grand mosque of Abderamus was con-
verted into a cathedral, and Cordova became
the residence of a bishop and canons, but it was
never restored to the faintest shadow of its for-
mer splendour.
Not long after the fall of Cordova, Valencia
also submitted to the Christian yoke. Zean,
besides being assailed externally by the force
of the intrepid Jacques, had, in addition, to op-
pose within his walls the faction of Zeith,
whom he had dethroned. The king of Tunis,
too, had been unsuccessful in an attempt to send
a fleet to the relief of Valencia: it at once took
to flight on the appearance of the vessels of
Jacques. Abandoned by the whole world, dis-
heartened by the fate of Cordova, and betrayed

116

THE MOORS OF SPAIN

by the party of his competitor, Zean offered to
become the vassal of the crown of Aragon, and
to pay a tribute in acknowledgment of his vas-
salage; but the Christian monarch was inflexi-
ble, and would accede to no terms that did not
include a stipulation to surrender the city.
Fifty thousand Moors, bearing their treasures
with them, accompanied the departure of their
sovereign from Valencia. Jacques had pledged
his royal word to protect the rich booty which
they so highly valued from the cupidity of his
soldiers, and he faithfully performed his prom-
ise.
After the destruction of the two powerful
kingdoms of Andalusia and Valencia, there
seemed to exist no Moorish power capable of
arresting the progress of the Spanish arms.
That of Seville, which alone remained, was al-
ready menaced by the victorious Ferdinand.
But, just at this period, a, new state rose sud-
denly into importance, which maintained a high
degree of celebrity for two hundred years, and
long prevented the final ruin of the Moors.

117

FOURTH EPOCH.

THE KINGS OF GRENADA.

Extending from the middle of the Thirteenth Century
to the period of the Total Expulsion of the Moors
from Spain, A.D. 1492.
THE unprecedented success of the Spaniards,
and, above all, the loss of Cordova, spread con-
sternation among the Moors. That ardent and
superstitious people, who were ever equally
ready to cherish delusive hopes, and to yield
to despondency when those anticipations were
disappointed, looked upon their empire as ruin-
ed the moment the Christian cross surmounted
the pinnacle of their grand mosque, and the ban-
ner of Castile waved over the walls of their an-
cient capital-those walls on which the stand-
ards of the Caliphs of the West and of their
Prophet had for centuries floated in triumph.
Notwithstanding this national dejection, how-
ever, Seville, Grenada, Murcia, and the king-
dom of Algarva still belonged to the Mussul-
mans. They possessed all the seaports, and the

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

whole maritime coast of the south of Spain.
Their enormous popiulation, and great national
wealth and industry, also secured to them im-
mense resources; but Cordova, the holy city,
the rival of Mecca in the West-Cordova was in
the possession of the Christians, and the Moors
believed that all was lost.
But the hopes of these despairing followers of
Islam were rekindled by the almost magical in-
fluence of a single individual, a scion of the tribe
of the .llhamars, named Mohammed Aboussaid,
who came originally from the celebrated Ara-
bian city of Couffa.
Several historians, who speak of Mohammed
under the title of .Mohammed .A/lhamar, assure
us that he commenced his career as a simple
shepherd, and that, having afterward borne
arms, he aspired to the attainment of royal
power in consequence of his martial exploits.
Such an incident is not extraordinary among
the Arabs, where all whlo are not descended
either from the family of the Prophet or from
the royal race, possessing none of the privileges
of birth, are esteemed solely according to their
personal merits.
But, be that as it may, Mohammed Aboussaid

119

120 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

possessed sufficient intellectual povwers to reani-
mate the expiring courage of the vanquished
Moslems. He assembled an army in the city
of Arjona, and, well knowing the peculiar char-
acter of the nation that he wished to control,
proceeded to gain over to his interests a santon,
a species of religious character highly venerated
among the Moors. This oracular individual
publicly predicted to the people of Algarva that
Mohammed Alhamar was destined speedily to
become their king. Accordingly, he was soon
proclaimed by the inhabitants, and several other
cities followed the example thus set them.
Mohammed now filled the place of Benhoud,
to whom he possessed similar talents for gov-
ernment; and, feeling the necessity of selecting
a city to replace Cordova in the affections of the
Moors, to become the sacred asylum of their re-
ligion, and the centring point for their military
strength, he founded a new kingdom, and made
the city of Grenada its capital, A.D. 1236, Heg
634.
This city, powerful from the remotest times,
and supposed to be the ancient Illiberis of the
Romans, was built upon two hills, not far dis-
tant from the Sierra Nevada, a chain of mount-

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

ains whose summits are covered with perpetual
snow. The town was traversed by the river
Darra, and the waters of the Xenil bathed its
walls. Each of the two hills was crowned by a
fortress: on the one was that of the Alhambra,
and on the other that of the Albayzin. These
strongholds were either of them sufficient in ex-
tent to accommodate forty thousand men within
their walls. The fugitives from the city of Al-
hambra, as has already been stated, had given
the name of their former home to the new quar-
ter that they peopled; and the Moors who had
been driven from Baeca when Ferdinand III.
became master of that place, had established
themselves, in a similar manner, in the quarter
of the Albayzin.
This city had also received many exiles from
Valencia, Cordova, and other places which the
Mussulnans had deserted.
With a population whose numbers were daily
augmented, Grenada, at the period of which we
now speak, was more than three leagues in cir-
cuit, surrounded by impregnable ramparts, de-
fended by many strong towers, and by a" brave
and numerous people, whose military prowess
seemed to ensure their safety and independence.
K

123

122 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Various were the advantages that combined
in giving to Grenada the supremacy she had
assumed. Her location was one of the most
agreeable and beautiful in the world, and ren-
dered her mistress of a country on which nature
had lavished her choicest gifts. The famous
vega, or plain, by which the city was surround-
ed, was thirty leagues in length and eight in
breadth. It was terminated on the north by
the mountains of Elvira and the Sierra Nevada,
and enclosed on the remaining sides. by hills
clothed with the verdure of the olive, the mul-
berry, the lemon, and the vine.
This enchanting plain was watered by five
small rivers* and an infinite number of gushing
springs, whose streams wandered in graceful
meanderings through meadows of perpetual ver-
dure, through forests of oak and plantations of
grain, flax, and sugar-cane, or burst forth in
the midst of gardens, and orchards, and orange-
groves.
All the rich, and beautiful, and varied pro-
ductions of the soil required but little attention
in their culture. The earth was continually
* The Darra, Xenil, Dilar, Vagro, and Monachil.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

covered with vegetation, in myriads of changing
forms, and never knew the repose of winter.
During the heat of summer, the mountain
breezes spread a refreshing coolness through the
air of this lovely vega, and preserved the early
brilliancy and beauty of the flowers, that were
ever mingled in delightful confusion with the
varied fruits of a tropical region.
On this celebrated plain, whose charms no
description can embellish; on this enchanting
vega, where nature seemed to have exhausted
her efforts in lavishing all that the heart of man
could desire or his imagination conceive, more
blood has been shed than on any other spot in
the world. There-where, during two centuries
of unceasing warfare, whose baleful effects ex-
tended from generation to generation, from city
to city, and from man to man-there does not
exist a single isolated portion of earth where the
trees have not been wantonly destroyed, the vil-
lages reduced to ashes, and the desolated fields
strewn with the 'mingled corses of slaughtered
Moors and Christians.
Independent of this vega, which was of such
inestimable value to Grenada, fourteen great
cities and more than one hundred of smaller

123

124 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

size, together with a prodigious number of towns,
were embraced within the boundaries of this fine
kingdom.
The extent of Grenada, from Gibraltar (which
was not taken by the Christians until long after
this period) to the city of Lorca, was more than
eighty leagues. It was thirty leagues in breadth
from Cambril to the Mediterranean.
The mountains by which the kingdom of
Grenada was intersected, produced gold, silver,
granite, amethysts, and various kinds of marble.
Among these mountains, those of the Alpuxa-
ries alone formed a province, and yielded the
monarch of Grenada more precious' treasures
than their mines could furnish-active and ath-
letic men, who became either hardy and indus-
trious husbandmen, or faithful and indefatigable
soldiers.
In addition to all this, the ports of Almeria,
Malaga, and Algeziras received into their har-
bours the vessels of both Europe and Africa,
and became places of deposite for the commerce
of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.
Such, at its birth, was the kingdom of Grena-
da, and such it long continued. Mohammed
Alhamar, from the period of its establishment,

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

made useless efforts to unite all the remaining
dominions of the Mussulmans of Spain under
one sceptre, as the only means of successfully
resisting the encroachments of the Christians.
But the little kingdom of Murcia and that of
Algarva were each governed by separate prin-
ces, who persisted in maintaining their inde-
pendence. This was the cause of their ruin, for
they thus became more readily the prey of the
Spaniards.
Alhamar signalized the commencement of his
reign by military achievements. In the year
1242, Heg. 640, he gained some important ad-
vantages over the troops of Ferdinand. But re-
peated revolts in the capital and disturbances in
other parts of his new empire, eventually com-
pelled Mohammed to conclude a dishonourable
peace with the King of Castile. He agreed to
do homage for his crown to the Castilian sov-
ereign, to put the strong place of Jaen into his
hands, to pay him a tribute, and to furnish him
with auxiliary troops for any wars in which he
should engage. On these conditions Ferdinand
acknowledged him King of Grenada, and even
aided him in subduing his rebellious subjects.
The sagacious Ferdinand thus established a

1.25

126 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

truce with Grenada, that he might the more
effectually concentrate his forces against Seville,
which he had long entertained hopes of con-
quering.
The important city of Seville was no longer
under the dominion of a king, but formed a kind
of republic, governed by military magistrates.
Its situation at no great distance from the mouth
of the Guadalquivir, its commerce, its popula-
tion, the mildness of the climate, and the fertility
of the environs, rendered Seville one of the
most flourishing cities of Spain.
Ferdinand, foreseeing a long resistance, com-
menced the campaign by seizing upon all the
neighbouring towns.
Finally, he laid siege to Seville itself, and his
fleet, stationed at the mouth of the Guadal-
quivir, closed the door to any assistance which
might be sent from Africa in aid of the belea-
guered city.
The siege was long and bloody. The Sevil-
lians were numerous and well skilled in the arts
of war, and their ally, the King of Algarva,
harassed the besiegers unceasingly. Notwith-
standing the extreme bravery displayed by the
Christians in their assaults, and the scarcity of

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

provisions which began to be felt within the
walls, the city, after an investment of a whole
year, still refused to surrender.
Ferdinand then summoned the King of Gre-
nada to come, in accordance with their treaty,
and serve under his banners. Alhamar was
forced to obey, and soon presented himself in
the Christian camp at the head of a brilliant
army. The inhabitants of Seville lost all hope
after this occurrence, and surrendered to the
Castilian monarch. The King of Grenada re-
turned to his own dominions with the humiliating
glory of having contributed, by his assistance, to
the ruin of his countrymen.
Ferdinand, with more piety than policy, ban-
ished the infidels from Seville. One hundred
thousand of that unfortunate people left the city,
to seek an exile's home in Africa or in the
provinces of Grenada.
The kingdom of Grenada now became the
sole and last asylum of the Spanish Moslems.
The little kingdom of Algarva was soon obliged
to receive the yoke of Portugal, and Murcia, in
consequence of its separation from Grenada, be-
came the prey of the Castilians.

127

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

During the life of Ferdinand III., nothing oc-
curred to interrupt the good understanding that
existed between that monarch and Mohammed
Alhamar.
The King of Grenada wisely took advantagt
of this peaceful period more effectually to con-
firm himself in the possession of his crown, and
to make preparations for a renewal of hostilities
against the Christians, who would not, he fore-
saw, long remain his friends.
Mohammed, by this means, ultimately found
himself in a condition that would enable him
long to defend his power and dominions. He
was master of a country of great extent, and he
possessed considerable revenues, the amount of
which it is now difficult correctly to estimate, in
consequence of the ignorance which prevails on
the subject of the peculiar financial system of the
Moors, and the different sources from which the
public treasury was supplied. Every husband-
man, for example, paid the seventh part of the
produce of his fields to his sovereign; his flocks
even were not exempted from this exaction.
The royal domain comprised numerous valuable
farms; and, as agriculture was carried to the
highest degree of perfection, the revenues from

128

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

these, in so luxuriant a country, must have
amounted to a very large sum. The annual in-
come of the sovereign was augmented by vari-
ous taxes levied on the sale, marking, and pas-
sage from one point to another of all kinds of
cattle. The laws bestowed on the king the ins-
heritance of such of his subjects as died childless,
and gave him, in addition, a portion in the es-
tates of other deceased persons. He also pos-
sessed, as has been already shown, mines of
gold, silver, and precious stones; and though
the Moors were but little skilled in the art of
mining, still there was no country in Europe in
which gold and silver were more common than
among them.
The commerce carried on in their beautiful
silks, and in a great variety of other produc-
tions; their contiguity to the Mediterranean and
Atlantic; their activity, industry, and astonish-
ing population; their superior knowledge of the
science of agriculture; the sobriety natural to
all the inhabitants of Spain; and that peculiar
property of a southern climate, by which much
is produced from the soil, while very little suf-
fices for the maintenance of its possessor; all
these, united with their other national advanta.
L

199

130 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

ges, will furnish some idea of the great power
and resources of this singular people.
Their standing military force-it can scarcely
be said in times of peace, for they rarely knew
the blessings of that state-amounted to nearly a
hundred thousand men; and this army, in case
of necessity, could easily be increased to double
that number. The single city of Grenada could
furnish fifty thousand soldiers. Indeed, every
Moor would readily become a soldier to oppose
the Christians. The difference of faith rendered
these wars sacred in their eyes; and the mutual
hatred entertained by these two almost equally
superstitious nations never failed to arm, when
necessary, every individual of both sides, even
from children to old men.
Independent of the numerous and brave, but
ill-disciplined troops, who would assemble for a
campaign, and afterward return to their homes
without occasioning any expense to the state,
the Moorish monarch maintained a considerable
corps of cavaliers, who were dispersed along the
frontiers, particularly in the directions of Murcia
and Jaen, those parts of the country being most
exposed to the repeated incursions of the Span-
iards. Upon each of these cavaliers the king

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

bestowed for life a small habitation, with suf-
ficient adjoining ground for his own mainte-
nance, and that of his family and horse. This
method of keeping soldiers in service, while it
occasioned no expense to the public treasury,
served to attach them more firmly to their coun-
try, by identifying their interests with hers; and
it held out to them the strongest motives faith-
fully to defend their charge, inasmuch as their
patrimony was always first exposed to the rava-
ges of the enemy.
At a time when the art of war had not reach-
ed the perfection it has now attained, and when
large bodies of troops were not kept continually
assembled and exercised, the system of station-
ing this peculiar guard along the frontiers was
of admirable effect.
The knights who composed this unrivalled
cavalry were mounted on African or Andalusian
chargers, whose merits in the field are so well-
known, and were accustomed from infancy to
their management; treating them with the ten-
derest care, and regarding them as their insep-
arable companions: by these means they acqui-
red that remarkable superiority for which the
Moorish cavalry is still so celebrated.

131

132 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
These redoubtable squadrons, whose velocity
of movement was unequalled; who would, almost
at the same moment, charge in mass, break into
detached troops, scatter, rally, fly off, and again
form in line; these cavaliers, whose voice,
whose slightest gesture, whose very thoughts, so
to speak, were intelligible to their docile and
sagacious steeds, and who were able to recover
a lance or sabre that had fallen to the earth
while in full gallop, constituted the principal
military force of the Moors. Their infantry was
of little value; and their ill-fortified towns, sur-
rounded only by walls and moats, and defended
by this worthless infantry, could offer but an im-
perfect resistance to that of the Spaniards, which
began already to deserve the reputation it after-
ward so well sustained in Italy, under Gonzalvo,
the Great Captain.
After the death of St. Ferdinand, his son Al-
phonso the Sage* mounted the throne, A.D.
1252, Heg. 650. The first care of Mohammed
Alhamar after this event was to go in person
to Toledo, followed by a brilliant retinue, to re-
new the treaty of alliance, or, rather, of depend-
ance, by which he was united to Ferdinand
* See note A, page 222

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

The new king of Castile remitted on this occa-
sion a part of the tribute to which the Moors
had been subjected.
But this peace was not of long continuance;
and the two contending nations now recom-
menced the war with nearly equal advantages.
An incident is related as having occurred du-
ring this war, which reflects equal honour on the
humanity of the Moors and the courage of the
Spaniards. It refers to Garcias Gomes, gov-
ernor of the city of Xeres. He was besieged by
the Grenadians, and his garrison nearly destroy-
ed, but still he refused to surrender; and, stand-
ing on the ramparts covered with blood, and lit-
erally bristling with arrows, he sustained alone
the onset of the assailants. The Moors, on see-
ing him in this situation, agreed, with one ac-
cord, to spare the life of so brave a man. Gar-
cias then threw himself from the walls upon some
iron hooks; but he was rescued alive in spite of
his efforts to prevent it, treated with respect by
his captors, and, after his wounds were healed,
dismissed with presents.
Alhamar could not prevent Alphonso from
adding the kingdom of Murcia to his dominions;
and the fortunes of war com pelled him to obtain

133

134 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

peace by submitting anew to the payment of
tribute to the Catholic sovereign, A.D. 1266,
Heg. 665.
But some dissensions which soon after arose
between the Castilian monarch and some of the
grandees of his kingdom, inspired the Grenadian
king with the hope of repairing the loss he had
sustained. The brother of Alphonso, together
with several noblemen belonging to the princi-
pal Castilian families, retired to Grenada in open
defiance of the authority of the Spanish monarch,
and materially aided Mohammed Alhamar in
repressing the insurrectionary movements of two
of his rebellious subjects, who were countenanced
in their attempts by the Christians.
But, just at this juncture, the wise and politic
King of Grenada died, leaving the throne that
he had acquired and preserved by his talents to
his son Mohammed II., El Fakik, A.D. 1273,
Heg. 672.
The new Mussulman king, who took the title
of Emir al .Mumenim, adopted in all respects
the policy of his father. He took every advan-
tage in his power of the discord which reigned
at the Castilian court, and of the ineffectual voy-
ages undertaken by Alphonso in the hope of

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

being elected emperor.* Finally, during the
absence of his enemy, Mohammed formed an
offensive league with Jacob, the king of Moroc-
co, a prince of the race of the .Merines, the con-
querors and successors of the Almohades. The
Grenadian sovereign ceded to his African ally
the two important places of Tariffe and Alge-
ziras, on condition of his crossing the Mediter-
ranean to the Peninsula.
Jacob, in accordance with this agreement, ar-
rived in Spain, at the head of an army, in the
year 1275 (the 675th of the Hegira); and the
two Moorish leaders, by acting in concert, gain-
ed some important advantages.
But the criminal revolt of Sancho, the Infant
of Castile, against his father Alphonso the Sage,
soon afterward divided these Mussulman mon-
archs. The King of Grenada took the part of
the rebellious son, while Alphonso, reduced to
extremity by the abandonment of his subjects,
implored the assistance of the King of Morocco.
Jacob recrossed the sea with his troops, and met
Alphonso at Zara. At that celebrated interview,
the unfortunate Castilian wished to concede the
place of honour to the king, who was there as
* See note B, page 222.

135

136 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
his defender. "It belongs to you," said Jacob
to him, "because you are unfortunate ! I came
here to avenge a cause which should be that of
every father. I came here to aid you in punish-
ing an ingrate, who, though he received life from
you, would still deprive you of your crown.
When I shall have fulfilled this duty, and you
are again prosperous and happy, I will once
more become your enemy, and contest every
point of precedence with you."
The soul of the Christian prince was not suf-
ficiently noble, however, to prompt him to con-
fide himself to the monarch who had uttered
these sentiments, and he escaped from the camp.
Alphonso died soon after this event, disinheriting
his guilty son before he expired, A.D. 1284,
Heg. 683.
Sancho* reigned in his father's stead, how-
ever, notwithstanding this prohibition, and inter-
national troubles convulsed Castile anew.
Mohammed seized this moment to enter An-
dalusia. He gained several battles, and took
some important places in that kingdom, and
thus victoriously terminated a long and glorious
reign, A.D. 1302, Heg. 703.
* See note C, page 222.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

This. Mohammed Emir al .Jlumenim, the
principal political events of whose life have
now been briefly narrated, was a munificent pa-
tron of the fine arts. He added their charms to
the attractions of a court which poets, philoso-
phers, and astronomers alike contributed to ren-
der celebrated.
As an illustration of the scientific superiority
that the Moors still maintained over the Span-
iards, the fact may be mentioned that Alphonso
the Sage, king of Castile, availed himself, in the
arrangement of his astronomical tables (still
known as the ./Jlphonsine Tables), of the assist-
ance of some contemporary Moslem savans.
Grenada began by this time to replace Cor-
dova. Architecture, above all, made great ad-
vances. It was during the reign of Mohammed
II. that the famous palace of the Alhambra was
commenced, a part of which still remains to as-
tonish travellers, whom its name alone suffices
to attract to Grenada.
To prove to what a height of perfection the
Moors had succeeded in carrying the art, then
so little known to Europeans, of uniting the
magnificent and the luxurious, a few details
may perhaps be pardoned concerning this sin-

137

138 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
gular edifice, and as an illustration, also, of the
particular manners and customs of the Moors.
The Alhambra, as has been said, was at first
only a vast fortress, standing upon one of the
two hills enclosed within the city of Grenada.
This hill, though environed on every side by the
waters either of the Darra or the Xenil, was de-
fended, in addition, by a double enclosure of
walls. It was on the summit of this elevation,
which overlooked the whole city, and from
which one might behold the most beautiful
prospect in the world, in the midst of an espla-
nade covered with trees and fountains, that Mo-
hammed selected the site of his palace.
Nothing with which we are familiar in archi-
tecture can give us a correct idea of that of the
Moors. They piled up buildings without order,
symmetry, or any attention to the external ap-
pearance they would present. All their cares
were bestowed upon the interior of their struc-
tures. There they exhausted all the resources
of taste and magnificence, to combine in their
apartments the requisites for luxurious indul-
gence with the charms of nature in her most en-
chanting forms. There, in saloons adorned with
the most beautiful marble, and paved with a

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

brilliant imitation of porcelain, couches, covered
with stuffs of gold or silver, were arranged near
jets d'eau, whose waters glanced upward to-
wards the vaulted roof, and spread a delicious
coolness through an atmosphere embalmed by
the delicate odours arising from exquisite vases
of precious perfumes, mingled with the fragrant
breath of the myrtle, jasmine, orange, and other
sweet-scented flowers that adorned the apart-
ments.
The beautiful palace of the Alhambra, as it
now exists at Grenada,* presents no facade. It
is approached through a charming avenue,
which is constantly intersected by rivulets, whose
streams wander in graceful curves amid groups
of trees. The entrance is through a large square
tower, which formerly bore the name of the Hall
of Judgment. A religious inscription announ-
ces that it was there that the king administered
justice after the ancient manner of the Hebrew
and other Oriental nations. Several buildings,
* It should be borne in mind, that the description given by
M. Florian of the remains of the once gorgeous splendours of
this palace was written nearly half a century ago ; and that
time, and the yet more ruthless destroyer man, may have
wrought great changes since that period air xl e ruins of
the Alhambra.- Trans.

139

140 THE MOCRS OF SPAIN.

which once adjoined this tower were destroyed
in more recent times, to give place to a magnifi-
cent palace erected by Charles V., a description
of which is not necessary to our subject. Upon
penetrating on the northern side into the an-
cient palace of the Moorish kings, one feels as
if suddenly transported to the regions of fairy-
land. The first court is an oblong square, sur-
rounded on each side by a gallery in the form of
an arcade, the walls and ceiling of which are
covered with Mosaic work, festoons, arabesque
paintings, gilding, and carving in stucco, of the
most admirable workmanship. All the plain
spaces between these various ornaments are
filled with passages transcribed from the Alko-
ran, or by inscriptions of a similar character to
the following, which will suffice to create some
idea of the figurative style of Moorish composi-
tion.
" Oh Nazir ! thou wert born the master of a
throne, and, like the star that announces the
approach of day, thou art refulgent with a brill-
iancy that belongs to thee alone! Thine arm
is the rampart of a nation; thy justice an all-
pervading luminary. Thou canst, by thy valour,
subdue those who have given companions to

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

God! Thy numerous people are thy children,
and thou renderest them all happy by thy good-
ness. The bright stars of the firmament shine
lovingly upon thee, and the glorious light of
the sun beams upon thee with affection. The
stately cedar, the proud monarch of the forest,
bows his lofty head at thy approach, and is
again uplifted by thy puissant hand !"
In the midst of this court, which is paved with
white marble, is a long basin always filled with
running water of sufficient depth for bathing.
It is bordered on each side by beds of flowers,
and surrounded by walks lined with orange-
trees. The place wgs called the J.Mesuar, and
served as the common bathing-place .of those
who were attached to the service of the palace.
From thence one passes into the celebrated
Court of Lions. It is a hundred feet in length
and fifty in breadTh. A colonnade of white
marble supports tle gallery that runs around
the whole. These columns, standing sometimes
two and sometimes three together, are of slender
proportions and fantastic design; but their light-
ness and grace afford pleasure to the eye of the
wondering beholder. The walls, and, above all,
the ceiling of the circular gallery, are covered

141

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

with embellishments of gold, azure, and stucco,
wrought into arabesques, with an exquisite deli-
cacy of execution that the most skilful modern
workmen would find it difficult to rival. In the
midst of these ornaments of ever-changing varie-
ty and beauty are inscribed passages from the
Koran, such as the following, which all good
Mussulmans are required frequently to repeat:
God is great : God alone is supreme : There is
no god but God: Celestial enjoyment, gratifica-
tions of the heart, delights of the soul to all those
who believe.
At either extremity of the Court of Lions are
placed, within the interior space enclosed by the
gallery, and, like it, supported by marble col-
umns, two elegant cupolas of fifteen or sixteen
feet in circumference. These graceful domes
form a covering for beautiful jets d'eau. In the
centre of the lengthened square, a superb alabas-
ter vase, six feet in diameter, is supported in an
elevated position in the midst of a vast basin by
the forms of twelve lions sculptured from white
marble. This vessel, which is believed to have
been modelled after the design of the " molten
sea" of the Temple of Solomon, is again sur-
mounted by a smaller vase, from which shoot

142

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

forth innumerable tiny cascades, which together
present the form of a great sheaf; and, falling
again from one vase into another, and from these
into the large basin beneath, create a perpetual
flow, whose volume is increased by the floods of
limpid water which gush in a continual stream
from the mouth of each of the marble lions.
This fountain, like each of the others, is adorn-
ed with inscriptions; for the Moors ever took
pleasure in mingling the eloquence of poetry
with the graces of sculpture. To us their con-
ceptions appear singular and their expressions
exaggerated; but our manners are so opposite to
theirs; the period of .their existence as a nation
is so far removed, and we know so little of the
genius of their language, that we have, perhaps,
no right to judge the literature of the Moors by
the severe rules of modern criticism. And, in-
deed, the specimens we possess of the French
and Spanish poetry of the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries are, many of them, little supe-
rior to the verses engraven on the Fountain of
Lions, of which the following is a translation.*
* The translator has adopted the literal French version of
this inscription, given in a note by M. Florian, from the im-
pression that the spirit of the original would thus be better

143

144 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
" Oh thou who beholdest these lions ! dost thou
not perceive that they need only to breathe to
possess the perfection of nature ? Oh Moham-
med! Oh potent sovereign! God originated and
prolonged thy existence, that thou mightest be
inspired with the genius to conceive and accom-
plish these novel and beautiful embellishments!
Thy soul is adorned by the most ennobling qual-
ities of humanity. This enchanting spot pictures
thy admirable virtues. Like the lion, thou art
terrible in combat; and nothing can be more
justly compared to the bountiful and unceasing
profusion of the limpid waters which gush from
the bosom of this fountain, and fill the air with
glittering and brilliant particles, than the liberal
hand of Mohammed."
We will not attempt a description in detail of
such other portions of the palace of the Alham-
bra as still exist. Some of these served as halls
of audience or of justice; others enclosed the
baths of the king, the queen, and their children
Sleeping apartments still remain, where the
couches were disposed either in alcoves, or upon
platforms covered with the peculiar pavement
preserved than by attempting to render into rhyme his poet
ical interpretation.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

already alluded to; but always near a fountain,
the unceasing murmur of whose dreamy voice
might sooth the occupants to repose.
In the music saloon of this once luxurious
royal abode are four elevated galleries, which,
ere the glory of the Alhambra had passed away,
were often filled by Moorish musicians, the de-
lightful strains of whose varied instruments en-
chanited the court of Grenada. Then the fair
and the brave reclined in graceful groups in
the centre of the apartment, upon rich Oriental
carpets, surrounding the alabaster fountain, whose
balmy breath diffused refreshing coolness, and
whose softly gurgling sounds mingled with the
gentle music which was ever the accompani-
ment of repose and enjoyment.
In an apartment which was at the same time
the oratory and dressing-room of the queen of
this magnificent residence, there still exists a
slab of marble, pierced with an infinite number
of small apertures, to admit the exhalations of
the perfumes that were incessantly burning be-
neath the lofty ceiling. From this part of the
palace, too, the views are exquisitely beautiful.
The windows and doors opening from it are so
arranged, that the most agreeable prospects, the
M

145

146 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
mellowest and most pleasing effects of light, per-
petually fall upon the delighted eyes of those
within, while balmy breezes constantly renew
the delicious coolness of the air that breathes
through this enchanting retreat.
Upon leaving the marble halls and lofty tow-
ers of the Alhambra, one discerns, on the side of
a neighbouring mountain, the famous garden of
the Generalif, which signifies, in the Moorish
tongue, the Home of Love. In this garden was
the palace to which the kings of Grenada re-
paired to pass the season of spring. It was
built in a style similar to that of the Alhambra:
the same gorgeous splendour, the same costly
magnificence reigned there. The edifice is now
destroyed; but the picturesque situation, the
ever-varied and ever-charming landscape, the
limpid fountains, the sparkling jets d'eau, and
tumbling wvaterfalls of the Generalif, are still
left to excite admiration.
The terraces of this garden are in the form of
an amphitheatre, and the lingering remains of
their once beautiful Mosaic pavements are still
to be seen. The walks are now darkly umbra-
geous, from the interwoven branches of gigantic
cypresses and aged myrtles, beneath whose grate.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

fu shades the kings and queens of Grenada have
so often wandered. Then blooming groves and
forests of fruit-trees were agreeably intermingled
with graceful domes and marble pavilions: then
the sweet perfume of the countless flowers that
mingled their varied dyes in delightful confusion,
floated in the soft air. Then the delicate ten-
drils of the vine clasped the supporting branches
of the orange, and both together hung the min-
gled gold and purple of their clustering fruits
over the bright waters that from marble founts
"Gushed up to sun and air !"

Then valour and beauty strayed side by side,
beneath embowering branches, the fire of the
one attempered to gentleness by the softer graces
of the other, and the souls of both elevated and
purified by nature's holy and resistless influences.
But now the luxuriant vine lies prostrate, its
climbing trunk and clinging tendrils rudely torn
from their once firm support: even the voice of
the fountain no longer warbles in the same glad-
some tone as of yore; the mouldering fragments
of the polished column and sculptured dome are
now strewed on the earth; the sighing of the
gentle breeze no longer awakens the soit breath

147

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

of responding flowers; the loveliness and the
glory of the Home of Love are vanished away
for ever; and the crumbling stones of the tesse-
lated pavements echo naught but the lingering
footfall of the solitary stranger, who wanders
thither to enjoy those mournful charms of which
the destroyer cannot divest a spot that must ever
appeal so strongly to the vision and the heart,
to the memory and the imagination.
It is painful to quit the Alhambra and the
Generalif, to return to the ravages, incursions,
and sanguinary quarrels of the Moors and Chris-

"t was the fate of Mohammed III. (surnamed
*0 Blind) to be obliged at the same time to re-
press the rebellious movements of his own sub-
jects and repel the invasions of his Catholic
neighbours. Compelled by the infirmity from
which he derived his appellation to choose a
prime minister, he bestowed that important post
upon Farady, the husband of his sister, a judi-
cious statesman and a brave soldier, who for some
time prosperously continued the war against the
Castilians, and finally concluded it by an hon
ourable peace.
But the courtiers, jealous of the glory and en-

148

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

vious of the good-fortune of the favourite, form-
ed a conspiracy against his master, and instiga-
ted revolts among the people. To complete his
calamities, foreign war again broke forth; the
King of Castile, Ferdinand .IV., surnamed the
Summoned,# united with the King of Aragon
in attacking the Grenadians.t-
Gibraltar was taken by the Castilians, and the
conqueror expelled its Moorish inhabitants from
its walls. Among the unfortunate exiles who
departed from the city was an old man, who,
perceiving Ferdinand, approached him, leaning
on his staff: " King of Castile," he said to him,
" what injury have I done to thee or thine ?
Thy great-grandfather Ferdinand drove me from
my native Seville: I sought an asylum at Xeres;
thy grandfather Alphonso banished me from
thence: retiring within the walls of Tariffe,t thy
father Sancho exiled me from that city. At
last I came to find a grave at the extremity of
Spain, on the shore of Gibraltar; but thy hatred
hath pursued me even here: tell me now of
one place on earth where I can die unmolested
by the Christians !''
* See Note D, page 223. t A.D. 1302,.Heg. 703.
$ See note E, page 224

149

150 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
" Cross the sea !" replied the Spanish prince;
and he caused the aged petiioner to be convey
ed to Africa.
Vanquished by the Aragonians, harassed by
the Castilians, and alarmed by the seditious pro-
ceedings which the grandees of his court were
encouraging among his own subjects, the King
of Grenada and his prime minister were forced
to conclude a shameful peace.
The intestine storm, whose gathering had long
disturbed the domestic security of the kingdom,
soon after burst forth. Mohammed Abenazar,
brother to Mohammed the Blind, and the head
of the conspiracy, seized the unfortunate mon-
arch, put him to death, and assumed his place,
A.D. 1310, Heg. 710.
But the usurper himself was soon driven from
his throne by Farady, the ancient minister, who,
not daring to appropriate the crown to himself,
placed it on the head of his son Ismael, the
nephew of Mohammed the Blind, through his
mother, the sister of that monarch.
This event took place A.D. 1313, Heg. 713.
From that period the royal family of Grenada
was divided into two branches, which were ever
after at enmity with each other; the one, called

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

the Aqlhamar, included the descendants of the
first king through the males of the line, and the
other, named Farady, was that of such of his off-
spring as were the children of the female branch-
es of the royal race.
The Castilians, whose interests were always
promoted by cherishing dissensions among their
Moorish neighbours, lent their countenance to
Abenazar, who had taken refuge in the city of
Grenada. The Infant Don Pedro, uncle to the
youthful King of Castile, Alphonso the ./lvenger,
as he was surnamed, took the field against Is-
mael, and several times gave battle to the fol-
lowers of the Crescent. Then joining his forces
to those of another Infant named Don Juan, the
two friends carried fire and sword to the very
ramparts of Grenada. The infidel warriors did
not venture to sally from their walls to repel the
invaders; but when, loaded with booty, the
Christians had commenced their return to Cas-
tile, Ismael followed on their route with his ar-
my, and, soon overtaking his ruthless foes, fell
suddenly upon their rear. It was now the 26th
of June,* and the time chosen by the Mussul-
mans for the attack was the hottest hour of a
* A.D. 1319, Heg. 719.

151

152 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

burning day. The two Spanish princes made
such violent efforts to reorganize their scattered
bands and to recover their lost authority, that,
exhausted at last by thirst and fatigue, they both
fell dead without having received a wound.
The dismayed and exhausted Spaniards could
now no longer offer any resistance to their furi-
ous enemies. They betook themselves to flight,
leaving their baggage, with the bodies of the two
unfortunate Infants, on the field of battle. Ismael
caused the remains of these princes to be con-
veyed to Grenada and deposited in coffins cov-
ered with cloth of gold: he then restored them
to the Castilians, after having bestowed on them
the most distinguished funeral honours.*
This victory was rapidly followed by the con-
quest of several cities and the establishment of
an honourable truce. But Ismael did not live
to enjoy the fruits of his success: being enam-
oured of a young Spanish captive, who had fall-
en, in the division of the spoils, to the share of
one of his officers, the king so far forgot the
laws of justice and honour as to possess himself
* The mountains of Grenada, in the neighbourhood of
which this action took place, have, ever since that event,
borne the name of LA SIERRA DE LOS INFANTES.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

by force of the beautiful slave. Such an insult
among the followers of Islam can only be expi-
ated by blood: the monarch was assassinated
by his exasperated officer. His son Mohammed
V. mounted the throne in his stead, A.D. 1322,
Heg. 722.
The reign of Mohammed V. and that of his
successor Joseph I., both of whom perished in
the same manner (being murdered in their pal-
ace), present nothing during thirty years but an
unbroken series of ravages, seditions, and com-
bats.
At the request of the Grenadians, Abil-Has-
san, king of Morocco, of the dynasty of the .Me-
rinis, landed in Spain at the head of innumera-
ble troops, with whom he joined the army of
Joseph. The kings of Castile and Portugal uni-
tedly gave battle to this immense army on the
shores of Salado, not far from the city of Tariffe.
This encounter, equally celebrated with the vic-
tory of Toloza in the history of Spain, termina-
ted in the defeat of the Moors. Abil-Hassan
returned hastily to Morocco, to conceal within
his own dominions his chagrin at its unexpected
and disastrous issue.
The strong place of Algeziras, the bulwark of

153

154 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Grenada, and the magazine in which was de-
posited the necessary supplies received by that
kingdom from Africa, was besieged by the Cas-
tilians A.D. 1342, Heg. 742. Several French,
English, and- Navarrois cavaliers resorted on
this occasion to the camp of the beleaguering
army. The Mussulmans availed themselves of
the use of cannon in the defence of their city;
and this is the first time that the employment of
that description of ordnance is spoken of in his-
tory. We are told that it was used at the bat-
tle of Cressy by the English; but that event
did not take place until four years after the date
of the present siege. It is, then, to the Spanish
Moors that we owe, not the discovery of gun-
powder (for that is attributed by some to the
Chinese, by others to a German monk named
Schwartz, and by others again to Roger Bacon,
an Englishman), but the terrible invention of
artillery. It is at least certain, that the Moors
planted the first cannon of which we have any
account. But, in spite of the advantages it thus
possessed, Algeziras was taken by the Chris-
tians, A.D. 1344, Heg. 745.
About ten years after this event, the unfortu.
nate Joseph, who had been so often attacked b3

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

foreign enemies, met his death from the hands
of his own subjects.
It may have been remarked by the reader,
that no established law regulated the regal suc-
cession among the Moors. Yet, notwithstanding
the perpetual conspiracies and intrigues which
rendered the possession of the crown so insecure
and of such uncertain duration, a prince of the
royal race always occupied the throne. We
have seen Grenada divided, since the violent
termination of the reign of Ismael, between the
factions of the ./llhamar and the Farady, and
the former deposed by the latter, who always
regarded the Alhamars as usurpers. This un-
happy contest was the source of numberless dis-
orders, conspiracies, and assassinations.
The monarch next in order to Joseph I. on
the throne of Grenada was his uncle, a Farady
prince named Mohammed VI., and called the
Old, in consequence of his succeeding at a some-
what advanced period of life.
Mohammed the Red, a scion of the Alhamar
race, drove his cousin, Mohammed the Old, from
the throne, A.D. 1360, Heg. 762, and retained
it for some years, through the protection of the
King of Aragon.

155

156 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Peter the Cruel, then king of Castile, espoused
the cause of the banished Farady, supported his
claims by warlike arguments, and so closely
pressed Mohammed the Alhamar, that he adopt-
ed the resolution of repairing to Seville, and
abandoning himself to the magnanimity of his
royal foe.
Mohammed arrived at the court of Seville
accompanied by a suite composed of his most
faithful friends, and bearing with him vast treas-
ures. He presented himself with noble confi-
dence in the presence of the monarch. " King
of Castile !" said he to Peter, " the blood alike
of Christian and Moor has too long flowed in
my contest with the Farady. You protect my
rival; yet it is you whom I select to adjudge
our quarrel. Examine my claims and those of
my enemy, and pronounce who shall be the
sovereign of Grenada. If you decide in favour
of the Farady, I demand only to be conducted
to Africa; if you accord the preference to me,
receive the homage that I have come to render
you for my crown !"
The astonished Peter lavished honours upon
the Mussulman king, and caused him to be seat-
ed at his side during the magnificent feast by

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

which he signalized the occasion. But, when
the Alhamar retired from the entertainment, he
was seized and thrown into prison. From
thence he was afterward conducted through the
streets of the city, seated, half naked, upon an
ass and led to a field termed the Tablada, where
thirty-seven of his devoted followers were de-
prived of their heads in his presence. The ex-
ecrable Peter, envying the executioner the pleas-
ure of shedding his blood, then thrust through
the unfortunate King of Grenada with his own
lance. The dying sovereign uttered only these
words as he expired, " Oh Peter, Peter, what a
deed for a cavalier !"
By a very extraordinary fatality, every throne
in Spain was at this period occupied by prin-
ces whose characters were blackened by the
most atrocious crimes. Peter the Cr'uel, the
Nero of Castile, assassinated the kings who con-
fided themselves to his protection, put to death
his wile Blanche of Bourbon, and, in short, daily
imbrued his hands in the blood of his relatives
or friends. Peter IV. of Aragon, less violent
than the Castilian, but equally unfeeling and
even more perfidious, despoiled one of his broth-
ers of his kingdom, commanded another to be

157

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

put to death, and delivered his ancient preceptor
to the executioners. Peter I., king of Portu-
gal, the lover of the celebrated Inez de Castro,*
whose ferocity was doubtless excited and in-
creased by the cruelty that had been exercised
against his mistress, tore out the hearts of the
murderers of Inez, and poisoned a sister with
whom he was displeased. Finally, the contem-
porary King of Navarre was that Charles the
Bad, whose name alone is sufficient still to cause
a shudder. All Spain groaned beneath the iron
rule of these monsters of cruelty, and was inun-
dated by the blood of their victims. If it be re-
membered that, at the same time, France had
become a prey to the horrors which followed
the imprisonment of King John; that England
witnessed the commencement of the troubled
reign of Richard II.; that Italy was delivered
up to the contentions of the rival factions of the
Guelfs and Ghibelines, and beheld two occu-
pants at the same time upon the papal throne;
that two emperors disputed the right to the im-
perial crown of Germany; and that Timurlane
ravaged Asia from the territories of the Usbeks
to the borders of India, it will not be disputed
* See Note F, page 224.

158

THE .MOORS OF SPAIN.

that the history of the world records the annals
ot no more unhappy epoch in its affairs.
Grenada was at last tranquil after the crime
of Peter the Cruel. Mohammed the Old, or the
Farady, being now freed from the rival claims
of his competitor, remounted the throne without
opposition.
Mohammed was the only ally of the King of
Castile who remained faithful to that inhuman
monster up to the period of his death. Peter
was at last the victim of a crime similar to those
of which he had so often himself been guilty:
his illegitimate brother, Henry de Transtamare,
deprived him of his crown and his life, A.D.
1369, Heg: 771.
The King of Grenada made peace with the
new sovereign of Castile, maintained it for sev-
eral years, and finally left his kingdom in a
flourishing condition to his son Mohammed VIII.,
Abouhadjad, called by the Spanish historians
Mohammed Gaudix.
This prince commenced his reign A.D. 1379,
Heg. 782. He was the best and wisest of the
Spanish Mohammedan kings. Intent only upon
promoting the happiness of his people, he was
desirous of securing to them the enjoyment of

159

THE MOORS OF STAIN.

that foreign and domestic peace to which they
had so long been almost utter strangers. The
more effectually to ensure this, Abouhadjad com-
menced his reign with fortifying his towns, rais-
ing a strong army, and allying himself with the
King of Tunis, whose daughter Cadiga he es-
poused. When well prepared for war, the
Moorish sovereign sent ambassadors to the King
of Castile, to solicit his friendship. Don Juan,
the son and successor of Henry de Transtamare,
being sufficiently occupied by his quarrels with.
Portugal and England, readily signed a treaty
with the royal follower of the Crescent; and
Abouhadjad, on his part, kept it unbroken. Se-
cured from the inroads of the Christians, this
wise monarch now occupied himself in promo-
ting the increase of agriculture and commerce:
he likewise diminished the rates of imposts, and
soon found his income increased in consequence
of this judicious measure. Beloved by a people
whom he rendered happy, respected by foreign
neighbours whom he had no reason to fear,
and possessed of an amiable wife, who alone
engaged his affections, this excellent Mussulman
prince spent the wealth and leisure that he could
with propriety devote to such objects, in adorn-

160

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

ing his capital, in cherishing the fine arts, and
in cultivating architecture and poetry. Several
monuments of his munificence existed at Grena-
da, and at Gaudix, a city in favour of which lie
entertained strong predilections. His court was
the favoured abode of genius and elegance.
The Moors of Spain still possessed poets, phy-
sicians, painters, sculptors, academies, and uni-
versities. And these were all liberally encoura-
ged and endowed by Mohammed Gaudix.
Most of the productions of the Grenadian au-
thors of this period perished at the final conquest
of their country ;* but some of them have been
preserved, and still exist in the library of the
Escurial. They chiefly treat of grammar, as-
trology (then greatly esteemed), and, above all,
of theology, a study in which the Moors excell-
ed. That people, naturally gifted with discrim-
inating minds and ardent imaginations, pro-
duced many distinguished theologians, who may
easily be supposed to have introduced into Eu-
rope the unfortunate scholastic taste for subtle
questions and disputes, which once rendered so
celebrated, men whose names and achievements
have since sunk for ever into oblivion. The pre-
* See Note G, page 225.
N

161

162 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
tended secrets of the cabal, of alchymy, of judi.
cial astronomy, of the divining rod, and all the
accounts, formerly so common, of sorcerers, ma-
gicians, and enchanters, are derived from these
descendants of the Arabs. They were a super-
stitious race from the remotest times; and it is
probable that to their residence in Spain, and
their long intercourse with the Spaniards, is ow-
ing that love for the marvellous, and that well-
deserved reputation for superstitious credulity,
with which philosophy still reproaches a spright-
ly and intellectual nation, upon whom nature has
bestowed the germes of the best qualities that
adorn humanity.
A kind of literature which was common
among these Saracens, and for which the Span-
iards were indebted to them, was that of novels
or romances. The Arabs were ever, as they
still are, passionate lovers of story-telling. As
well in the tents of the wild Bedouin as in the
palaces of the East, alike under the gilded
domes and peasant roofs of Grenada, this taste
prevailed. Everywhere they assembled nightly
to listen to romantic narratives of love and val-
our. Everywhere they listened in silent atten-
tion, or wept from sympathetic interest in the fate

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

of those whose adventures formed the subject of
the tale. The Grenadians joined with this pas-
sion for exciting incident, a taste for music and
singing. Their poets imbodied in verse these fa-
vourite recitals of love and war. .Musicians were
employed in composing suitable airs for them,
and they were thus sung by the youthful Moors
with all the enthusiasm that passion, poetry, and
dulcet harmony can unitedly inspire. From this
national custom are derived the multitude of
Spanish romances, translated or imitated from
the Arabic, which, in a simple and sometimes
touching style, recount the fierce combats of the
Moors and Christians, the fatal quarrels of jeal-
ous and haughty rivals, or the tender conversa-
tion of lovers. They describe with great exact-
ness everything relating to the peculiar man-
ners and amusements of this interesting and ex-
tinguished nation: their fetes, their games of
the ring and of canes, and their bull-fights, the
latter of which they adopted from the Spaniards,
are all portrayed. Thus we learn that their war-
like equipments consisted of a large cimeter, a
slender lance, a short coat of mail, and a light
leathern buckler. We have descriptions of su-
perb horses, with their richly-jewelled and erm-

163

164 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
broidered housings sweeping the earth in am-
ple folds, and of the devises emblazoned on the
arms of the graceful Moorish cavaliers. These
last consisted frequently of a heart pierced by an
arrow, or perhaps of a star guiding a vessel, or
of the first letter of the name of the fair recipi-
ents of their vows of love. We learn, too, thai
their colours each bore a peculiar signification:
yellow and black expressed grief; green, hope.;
blue, jealousy ; violet and flame colour, passion-
ate love.
The following abridged translation of one of
these little compositions will produce a more
correct idea of them in the mind of the reader
than any description could convey.
GONZULO AND ZELINDA.
A MOORISH ROMANCE.
In a transport of jealousy and pride,
Zelinda spurned her lover from her side !

* The translator ventures to offer an imitation of M. Flo-
rian's French version of this Moorish ballad, and appends the
Spanish original with which he presents his readers.
GANZUL Y ZELINDA.
ROMANCE MORO.
En el tiempo que Zelinda
Cerro ayrada la ventana

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

His cruel doom Gonzulo heard
With bosom wrung; and disappeared !
But the fair maid soon deeply felt
The torturing wound herself had dealt;
As glides the snow from mountain crest,
So fled resentment from her breast.
They tell her that the Moor's proud heart
Is pierced by grief's most poisoned dart,
And that he'd doffed, when flying from her side,
The tender colours that were once his pride;
That green, of hope the cherished emblem gay,
To sorrow's mournful hues had given way.
A badge of crape his lance's point now wears,
A blackened crown his shield as emblem bears!

A la disculpa a los zelos
Que el Moro Ganzul le daya,
Confusa y arrepentida
De averse fingido ayrada,
Por verle y desagravialle,
El corazon se le abraza;
Que en el villano de amor
Es mui cierta la mudanza, etc.
Y como supo que el Moro
Rompio furioso la lanca, etc
Y que la librea verde
Avia trocado en leonada;
Saco luego una marlota
De tufetan roxo y plata,
Un bizarro capellar
De tela de oro morada, etc.

165

166 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

To proffer gifts with different meaning fraught,
Zelinda now her errant lover sought:
The blue of jealousy she had united
With all the hues most dear to lovers plighted ;
A violet gem, entwined with gold,
Gleamed mid a broidered turban's fold;
And every silken riband that she bore,
Of lovely innocence the symbol wore.
Zelinda reached the soft retreat
Where Gonzulo his fate must meet !
O'erwhelmed with doubt, the dark-eyed maid
Reclined beneath a myrtle shade,
And sent a faithful page to guide
Her banished lover to her side.
Gonzulo scarce the message would receive,
For wo had taught his heart to disbelieve!

Con une bonete cubierto
De zaphires y esparaldas,
Que publican zelos muertos,
Y vivas las esperancos,
Con una nevada toga;
Que el color de la veleta
Tambien publica bononga
Informandose primero.

A donde Ganzul estava,
A una caza de plazer
Aquella tarde le liama;
Y diziendole a Ganzul
Que Zelinda le aguardava,
Al page le pregunto

THE MOORS OF SPAIN

But soon he flew, on wing of love,
To seek Zelinda's chosen grove.
Then tearful glances of regret
By words of tenderness were met ;
And ne'er did guardian nymphs record
More ardent vows than there were poured !
'Twas-thus triumphant love repaired
The cruel wrongs that each had shared!

The delicate and peculiar gallantry, which
rendered the Moors of Grenada famous through-
out Europe, formed a singular contrast to the
ferocity that is so natural to all nations of Afri-
can origin. These Islamites, whose chief glory
it was dexterously to deprive their enemies of
their heads, attach them to their saddle-bows,
and afterward display them as trophies on the

Tres vezes si se burlava;
Que son malaas de creer
Las nuevas mui desseadas, etc.
Hollola en un jardin,
Entre mosquetta y jasmine, etc.
Viendose Moro con ella,
A penas los ojos alga;
Zelinda le asio la mano,
Un poco roxa y turbada;
Y al fin de infinitas guexas
Que en tales passos se passan,
Vistio se las ricas presas
Con las manos de su dama, etc.

167

168 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
battlements of their towers or at the entrance of
their palaces; these restless and ungovernable
warriors, who were ever ready to revolt against
their rulers, to depose or to murder them, were
the most tender, the most devoted, the most ar-
dent of lovers. Their wives, though their do-
mestic position was little superior to that of
slaves, became, when they were beloved, the
absolute sovereigns, the supreme divinities of
those whose hearts they possessed. It was to
please these idolized beings that the Moorish
cavaliers sought distinction in the field; it was
to shine in their eyes that they lavished their
treasures and their lives--that they mutually en-
deavoured to eclipse each other in deeds of
arms, in the splendour of their warlike exploits,
and the Oriental magnificence of their fetes.
It cannot now be determined whether the
Moors derived this extraordinary union of soft-
ness and cruelty, of delicacy and barbarity-this
generous rivalry in courage and in constancy
from the Spaniards, or whether the Spaniards
acquired these characteristics from the Moors.
But when it is remembered that they do not be-
long to the Asiatic Arabs, from whom these gal-
lant knights originally sprang; that they are

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

14 mand, even in a less degree, if possible, among
th ese followers of Mohammed in that portion of
Africa where their conquests have naturalized
them; and, that after their departure from Spain,
the Grenadians lost every trace of the peculiarly
interesting and chivalrous qualities by which
they had previously been so remarkably distin-
guished, there is some ground for the opinion
'that it was to the Spaniards that their Moslem
neighbours were indebted for the existence of
these national attributes. In truth, before the
invasion of Spain by the Arabs, the courts of the
Gothic kings had already offered knightly ex-
amples of a similar spirit. And after that event
we find the cavaliers of Leon, Navarre, and Cas-
tile equally renowned for their achievements in
war and their romantic devotion to the fair sex.
The mere name of the Cid awakens in the mind
recollections alike of tenderness and bravery.
It should be remembered, too, that, long after
the expulsion of the Moors from the Peninsula,
the Spaniards maintained a reputation for gal-
lantry far superior to that of the French, some
portion of the spirit of which, though extinct
among every other European nation, still lingers
in Spain.
O

169

170 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

But, be this point decided as it may, it is not
to be disputed that the daughters of Grenada
merited the devotion which they inspired: they
were perhaps the most fascinating women in the
world. We find in the narrative of a Moorish
historian, who wrote at Grenada during the reign
of Mohammed the Old, the following description
of his countrywomen:
" Their beauty is remarkable; but the loveli-
ness which strikes the beholder at first sight af-
terward receives its principal charm from the
grace and gentleness of their manners. In stat-
ure they are above the middle height, and of
delicate and slender proportions. Their long
black hair descends to the earth. Their teeth
embellish with the whiteness of alabaster, ver-
million lips, which perpetually smile with a be-
witching air. The constant use which they
make of the most exquisite perfumes, gives a
freshness and brilliancy to their complexions
possessed by no other Mohammedan women.
Their walking, their dancing, their every move-
ment, is distinguished by a graceful softness,
an ease, a lightness, which surpasses all their
other charms. Their conversation is lively and
sensible, and their fine intellects are constant-

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

ly displayed in brilliant wit or judicious senti-
ments."
The dress of these elegant females was com-
posed, as that of the Turkish women still is, of a
long tunic of linen confined by a cincture, of a
doliman or Turkish dress with close sleeves, of
wide trousers and Morocco slippers. The ma-
terials of their clothing were of the finest fabric,
and were usually woven in stripes: they were
embroidered with gold and silver, and profusely
spangled with jewels. Their waving tresses
floated over their shoulders; and a small cap,
adorned with the richest gems, supported an
embroidered veil, which fell nearly to the feet.
The men were clothed in a similar manner:
with them were carried in the girdle the purse,
the handkerchief, and the poniard: a white, and
sometimes a coloured, turban covered the head;
and over the Turkish doliman they wore in sum-
mer a wide and flowing white robe, and in win-
ter the albornos or African mantle. The only
change made in their dress by the Moorish cav
aliers when preparing for battle was the addi-
tion of a coat of mail, and an iron lining within
their turbans.
It was the custom of the Grenadians to repair

171

172 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

every year, during the autumn, to the charming
villas by which the city was surrounded. There
they yielded themselves up to the pursuit of
pleasure. The chase and the dance, music and
feasting, occupied every hour.
The manners of those who participated in
these national dances were in a high degree
unreserved, as was the language of the songs
and ballads in which they joined. Were it not
for the contradictions in the human character,
one might be surprised at this want of delicacy in
a people who were capable of so much refine-
ment of feeling. But, in general, nations of Ori-
ental origin possess but little reserve in their
manners: they have more of passion than senti-
ment, more of jealousy than delicacy in their
haughty and excitable natures.
In giving these details, we have perhaps tres-
passed too long on the period of calm repose en-
joyed by the kingdom of Grenada during the
reign of Abouhadjad. That excellent sovereign,
after having filled the throne for thirteen years,
left his flourishing dominions to his son Joseph,
who succeeded him without opposition, A.D
1392, Heg. 795.
Joseph II. was desirous, in imitation of the

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

course pursued by his father, of maintaining the
truce with the Christians. It was, however,
soon disturbed by a fanatical hermit, who per-
suaded the Grand-master of Alcantara, Martin
de Barbuda, a Portuguese, that he had been se-
lected by Heaven as the chosen instrument for
expelling the infidels from Spain. He promised
the credulous Martin, in the name of God, that
he should succeed in conquering the enemies of
the Cross, and in carrying the city of Grenada
by assault, without the loss of a single soldier.
The infatuated grand-master, convinced of the
certainty of the fulfilment of this promise, im-
mediately sent ambassadors to Joseph, with or-
ders to- declare to that sovereign, in his name,
that, since the religion of Mohammed was false
and detestable, and that of Jesus Christ the only
true and saving faith, he, Martin de Barbuda,
defied the King of Grenada to a combat of two
hundred Mussulmans against one hundred Chris-
tians, upon condition that the vanquished nation
should instantly adopt the faith of the conquer-
ors.
The reception these ambassadors met with
may be easily imagined. Joseph could scarcely
restrain the indignation of his people. The en.

173

174 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
voys, driven contemptuously away, returned to
the presence of the grand-master, who, surpri-
sed at receiving no response to his proposal, soon
assembled a thousand foot-soldiers and three
hundred cavaliers, and hastened to the conquest
of Grenada under the guidance of the prophetic
hermit.
The King of Castile, Henry III., who desired to
preserve peace with the followers of the Proph-
et at the commencement of a reign during which
his own dominions were but ill at rest, was no
sooner informed of the enterprise of Barbuda,
than he sent him positive orders not to cross the
frontiers; but that dignitary replying that he
ought to obey the commands of Jehovah rather
than those of any earthly master, proceeded on
his way. The governors of the different cities
through which he passed on his route endeav-
oured, though vainly, to arrest his progress; but
the people overwhelmed him with homage, and
everywhere added to the number of his forces.
The army of the grand-master amounted to
six thousand men, when, in A.D. 1394, Heg.
798, he entered the country which his folly
taught him to regard as already in his posses-
sion. In attacking the first castle at which he

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

arrived, three soldiers were killed and their fa-
natical commander himself wounded. Surpri-
sed beyond measure at beholding his own blood
flow and three soldiers fall, he summoned the
anchorite into his presence, and sedately de-
manded what this mneant, after his express prom-
ise that not a single champion of the true faith
should perish. The fanatic replied, that the
word he had pledged extended only to regu-
lar battles. Barbuda complained no more, and
presently perceived the approach of a Moorish
army composed of fifty thousand mren. The con-
flict soon commenced: the grand-master and his
three hundred mounted followers perished in the
field, after having performed prodigies of valour.
The remainder of the Spanish army were either
taken prisoners or put to flight; and the silence
of historians respecting the hermit, leads to the
opinion that he was not among the last to seek
safety at a distance from the scene of action.
This foolish enterprise did not interrupt the
good understanding subsisting between the two
nations. The King of Castile disavowed all ap-
proval of the conduct of Martin de Barbuda,
and Joseph long continued to reign with honour
and tranquillity. But he was at last poisoned,

175

176 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
it is said, by a magnificei..t robe which he re
ceived from his secret enemy, the King of F'ez
through the ambassadors of that sovereign. His-
torians assert that this garment was impreg-
nated with a terrible poison, which caused the
death of the unfortunate Joseph by the most
horrible torments. The peculiar effects it pro-
duced was that of detaching the flesh from the
bones, the misery of the wretched sufferer en-
during for the protracted period of thirty days.
Mohammed IX., the second son of this hap-
less monarch, wiho, even during the lifetime of
his father, had excited commotions in the realm,
usurped the crown that of right belonged to his
elder brother Joseph, whom he caused to be
confined in prison.
Mohammed was courageous, and possessed
some talents for war. Allied with the King of
Tunis, who joined his fleet with that of Grena-
da, he broke the truce maintained with Castile
during the two preceding reigns, and at first
gained some advantages over his adversaries;
but the Infant Don Ferdinand, the uncle and tu-
tor of the young king John II., was not long ii
avenging the cause of Spain.
Mohammed IX. died in the year 1408, Heg

TRE MOORS OF SPAIN.

811. When the expiring monarch became con-
scious that his end was rapidly approaching, de-
sirous of securing the crown to his son, he sent
one of his principal officers to the prison of his
brother Joseph, with orders to cut off the head
of the royal occupant. The officer found Joseph
engaged in a game of chess with an iman :* he
sorrowfully announced the mournful commission
with which tbe was charged. The prince, with-
out manifesting any emotion at the communica-
tion, only demanded time to conclude his game;
and the officer could not refuse this slight favour.
While the philosophical Mussulman continued
to play, a second messenger arrived, bearing the
news of the death of the usurper, and of the
proclamation of Joseph as his successor to the
throne.
The people of Grenada were happy under the
rule of the good King Joseph III. So far was
he from avenging himself upon those who had
aided his brother in depriving him of his rights
that he lavished favours and offices on them,
and educated the son of Mohammed in the same
manner as his own children. When his coun-
cillors blamed him for a degree of indulgence
* Mohammedan priest.

177

178 THE MOORS OF SP1iN.
which they regarded as hazardous, "Allow me,"
replied the sovereign, " to deprive my enemies of
all excuse for having preferred my younger
brother to me !"
This excellent prince was often obliged to
take arms against the Christians. He was so
unfortunate as to lose some cities, but he pre-
served the respect and affection of his subjects,
and died lamented by the whole kingdom, after
a reign of fifteen years, A.D. 1423, Heg. 927.
After the death of Joseph the state was dis-
tracted by civil wars. Mohammed X. Abena-
zar, or the Left-handed, the son and successor
of that benevolent king, was banished from the
throne by Mohammed XI. El Zugair, or the Lit-
tle, who preserved his ill-gotten power but two
years. The Abencerrages, a powerful tribe* at
Grenada, re-established Mohammed the Left-
handed in his former place, and his competitor
perished on the scaffold.
About four years after the death of Joseph,
the Spaniards renewed their inroads into Grena-
da, and carried fire and sword to the very gates
of the capital. All the neighbouring fields were
devastated; the crops were burned and the vil-
' See Note H, page 225.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

lages destroyed. John II., who then reigned in
Castile, wishing to add to the miseries he had
already occasioned these unhappy people the
still greater misfortune of civil war, instigated
the proclamation at Grenada of a certain Joseph
Alhamar, a grandson of that IMShammed the
Red so basely assassinated at Seville by Peter
the Cruel.
All the discontented spirits in the kingdom
joined the faction of Joseph Alhamar; and the
Zegris, a powerful tribe, who were at enmi-
ty with the Abencerrages, lent their aid to the
usurper. Mohammed Abenazar was again driv-
en from the capital, A.D. 1432, Heg. 836, and
Joseph IV. Alhamar possessed his dominions six
months. At the termination of that time he ex-
pired.
Mohammed the Left-handed once more re-
sumed his royal seat; but, after thirteen years
of misfortune, this unhappy prince was again
deposed for the third time, and imprisoned by
one of his nephews, named Mohammed XII. the
Osmin, who was himself afterward dethroned*
by his own brother Ismael, and ended his days
* A.D. 1453, Heg. 857.

179

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

in the same dungeon in which his uncle Mo-
hammed Abenazar had languished.
All these revolutions did not prevent the
Christian and Moorish governors who command-
ed on their respective frontiers from making
incessant irrtiitions into the enemy's country.
Sometimes a little troop of cavalry or infantry
surprised a village, massacred the inhabitants,
pillaged their houses, and carried away their
flocks. Sometimes an army suddenly appeared
in a fertile plain, devastated the fields, uprooted
the vines, felled the trees, besieged and took
some town or fortress, and retired with their
booty. This kind of warfare was ruinous, most
of all, to the unfortunate cultivator of the soil.
The Grenadian dominions suffered so much du-
ring the reign of Ismael II., that the king was
compelled to cause immense forests to be cleared
for the support of his capital, which then drew
scarcely any supplies from the vast and fertile
vega which had been so often desolated by the
Spaniards.
Ismael II. left the crown to his son M alei=
Hassem, a young and highly courageous prince,
who, profiting by the disastrous condition of Cas-
tile under the deplorable reign of Henry IV. the

180

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

Impotent, carried his arms into the centre of
Andalusia. The success that marked the com-
mencement of the reign of this sovereign, to-
gether with his talents and warlike ardour,
tempted the Moors to believe that they might
yet recover their former greatness. But the oc-
currence at this juncture of a great and unlook-
ed-for event, arrested the victorious progress of
Mulei-Hassam, and prepared the way for the
total ruin of his kingdom.
Isabella of Castile, the sister of Henry the Im-
potent, notwithstanding the opposition of her
brother and the intervention of almost insur-
mountable obstacles, espoused Ferdinand the
Catholic, the king of Sicily, and heir presump-
tive of the kingdom of Aragon.* This marriage,
by uniting the two most powerful monarchs of
Spain, gave a fatal blow to the prosperity of the
Moors, which they had been able to maintain,
even in the degree in which it now existed, only
through the divisions which had hitherto per-
petually prevailed among their Christian oppo-
nents.
Either of the two enemies, now unitedly ar-
rayed against them, had been singly sufficient
* A.D. 1469, Heg 874.

181

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

to overwhelm the Mussulmans. Ferdinand was
alike politic, able, and adroit. He was pliant,
and, at the same time, firm; cautious to a degree
sometimes amounting to pusillanimity; cunning
even to falsehood, and endowed in an extraordi-
nary degree with the power of discerning at a
single glance all the various means of attaining
a particular end. Isabella was of a prouder and
more noble nature; endowed with heroic cour-
age and the most unyielding constancy of pur-
pose, she was admirably qualified for the pursuit
and accomplishment of any enterprise to which
she might direct the energies of her powerful
mind. The exalted endowments of one of these
royal personages have been employed to enno-
ble the character of the other. Ferdinand often
played the part of a weak, perfidious woman,
negotiating only to deceive; whereas Isabella
was always the high-souled sovereign, advan-
cing openly to her purposes, and marching di-
rectly to honourable conflict and generous tri-
umph.
No sooner had these distinguished individuals
secured possession of their respective kingdoms,
suppressed all domestic disturbances, and effect-
ed peaceful arrangements with foreign powers,

182

THE MOORS OF SPA N.

than they mutually resolved to concentrate all
their efforts for the annihilation of the Moham-
medan dominion in Spain.
This century seemed destined to be marked
by the glory of the Spaniards. In addition to
the immense advantages afforded them by the
union of their forces, Ferdinand and Isabella
were surrounded by the wisest and most experi-
enced advisers. The celebrated Cardinal Xime-
nes, at one time a simple monk, was now at the
head of their councils; and that able minister
" led," as he himself averred, " all Spain by his
girdle !" The civil wars with which the Penin-
sula had been so long disturbed, had created
among the Christian powers a host of brave
soldiers and excellent commanders. Among the
latter were particularly distinguished the Count
de Cabra, the Marquis of Cadiz, and the famous
Gonzalvo of Cordova, whose just claim to the
surname of the Great Captain, given him by his
countrymen, the lapse of time has only served
to confirm. The public treasury, which had
been exhausted by the lavish prodigality of
Henry, was soon replenished by the rigid econ-
omy of Isabella, aided by a bull from the pope,
permitting the royal appropriation of the eccle-

183

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

siastical revenues. The troops were numerous
and admirably disciplined, and the emulation
which existed between the Castilians and Ara-
gonians redoubled the valour of both. Every-
thing, in short, prognosticated the downfall of
the last remaining throne of the Moors.
Its royal champion, Mulei-Hassem, was not
dismayed, however, even by such an accumula-
tion of danger. He was the first to break the
truce, by taking forcible possession of the city of
Zahra, A.D. 1481, Heg. 886. Ferdinand de-
spatched ambassadors to the Moslem court to
complain of this breach of faith; with orders, at
the same time, to demand the ancient tribute
which had been paid by the kings of Grenada
to the sovereigns of Castile.
" I know," replied Mulei-Hassem, when the
envoys of the Spanish prince had delivered their
message, " I know that some of my predecessors
rendered you tribute in pieces of gold; but this
is the only metal now coined in the national mint
of Grenada !" And, as he spoke, the stern and
haughty monarch presented the head of his lance
to the Spanish ambassadors.
The army of Ferdinand first marched upon
Alhamar, a very strong fortress iri the neigh-

184

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

1iS

bourhood of Grenada, and particularly famous
for the magnificent baths with which it had been
embellished by the Moorish kings. The place
was taken by surprise, and thus a war was light-
ed up that was destined to be extinguished only
with the last expiring sigh of Grenada.
Victory seemed at first to be equally poised
between the two contending powers. The
King of Grenada possessed ample resources in
troops, artillery, and treasure. He might have
long maintained the contest, but for an act of
imprudence which precipitated him into an abyss
of misfortune from which he was never afterward
able to extricate himself.
The wife of Mulei-Hassem, named Aixa, be-
longed, before her marriage with the king, to
one of the most important of the Grenadian
tribes. The offspring of this marriage was a
son named Boabdil, whose right 1 was to suo-
ceed to his fither's throne. But the reckless
Mulei repudiated his wife at the instance of a
Christian slave, of whom he became enamoured,
and who governed the doting monarch at will.
This act of cruelty and injustice was the signal
for civil war. The injured Aixa, in concert
with her son, excited her relatives and friends,
P

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

and a large number of the inhabitants of the
capital, to throw off their allegiance to their
sovereign.
Mulei-Hassem was eventually driven from
the city, and Boabdil assumed the title of king.
Thus father and son were involved in a contest
for the possession of a crown, of which Ferdi-
nand was seeking to deprive them both.
To add to the misfortunes which were already
fast crushing this distracted and miserable coun-
try beneath their weight, another aspirant to the
throne presented himself, in the person of a
brother of Mulei-Hassem named Zagel. This
prince, at the head of a band of Moorish adven-
turers, had succeeded in obtaining some impor-
tant advantages over the Spaniards in the de-
files of Malaga, A.D. 1483, Heg. 888.
His achievements having won for him the
hearts of his countrymen, Zagel now conceived
the design of dethroning his brother and neph-
ew, and of appropriating the dominions of both
to himself. Thus a third faction arose to in-
crease the dissensions of the state.
Boabdil still held insecure possession of the
capital; and, desirous of attempting some action,
the brilliancy of which would reanimate the

186

THIE MOORS OF SPAIN.

hopes and confidence of a party that was ready
to abandon him, he sallied forth at the head of
a small force, with the intention of surprising
Lucena, a city belonging to the Castilians.
But the ill-fated Boabdil was made a prisoner
in this expedition.
He was the first Moorish king who had ever
been a captive to the Spaniards. Ferdinand
lavished on him the attentions due to misfor-
tune, and caused him to be conducted to Cor-
dova, attended by an escort.
The old king, Mulei-Hassem, seized this op-
portunity to repossess himself of the crown of
which his rebellious son had deprived him, and,
in spite of the party of Zagel, he again became
master of his capital. But the restored monarch
could oppose but a feeble resistance to the
progress of the Spaniards, who were rapidly re-
ducing his cities and advancing nearer to his
devoted capital. Within the walls of that city
the wretched inhabitants were madly warring
against one another, as if unconscious of the
destruction that was fast approaching them
from without. To increase the sanguinary feuds
which already so surely presaged their destruc
tion, the Catholic sovereigns had become the al

187

188 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
lies of the captive Boabdil, engaging to assist
him in his efforts against his father on condi-
tion that he should pay them a tribute of twelve
thousand crowns of gold, acknowledge himself
their vassal, and deliver certain strong places into
their hands. The base Boabdil acceded to eve-
rything; and, aided by the politic Spanish prin-
ces, hastened again to take arms against his
father.
The kingdom of Grenada was now converted
into one wide field of carnage, where Mulei-
Hassem, Boabdil, and Zagel were furiously con-
tending for the mournful relics of their country.
The Spaniards, in the mean time, marched
rapidly from one conquest to another, sometimes
under pretext of sustaining their ally Boabdil,
and often in open defiance of the treaty they
had formed with that prince; but always care-
fully feeding the fire of discord, while they were
despoiling each of the three rival parties, and
leaving to the vanquished inhabitants their laws,
their customs, and the free exercise of their reli-
gion
In the midst of these frightful scenes of ca-
lamity and crime, old Mulei-Hassem died, either
worn out by grief and misfortune, or through

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

the agency of his ambitious brother. This event
occurred A.D. 1485, Heg. 890.
Ferdinand had now rendered himself master
of all the western part of the kingdom of Gre-
nada, and Boabdil agreed to divide with Zagel
the remnant of this desolated state. The city of
Grenada was retained by Boabdil, while Gau-
dix and Almeria fell to the share of Zagel.
The war was not the less vigorously prosecuted
in consequence of this arrangement; and the
unprincipled Zagel, doubting his ability long to
fetain the cities in his possession, sold them to
King Ferdinand in consideration of an annual
pension.
By virtue of this treaty, the Catholic sover-
eigns took possession of the purchased cities;
and the traitor Zagel even lent the aid of his
arms to the Christian army, the more speedily
to overthrow the royal power of his nephew,
and thereby terminate the existence of his ex-
piring country.
All that now remained to the Mussulmans
was the single city of Grenada. There Boabdil
still reigned; and, exasperated by misfortune, he
vented his rage and despair in acts of barbarous
cruity towards its wretched inhabitants.

189

190 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
Ferdinand and Isabella, disregarding the con
ditions of their pretended alliance with this now
powerless prince, summoned him to surrender
his capital, in compliance, as they said, with the
terms of a secret treaty, which they affirmed
had been concluded between them. Boabdil
protested against this perfidious conduct. But
there was no time allowed for complaint: he
must successfully defend himself, or cease to
reign. The Moorish prince adopted, therefore,
to say the least, the most heroic alternative;
and resolved to defend to the last what remain-
ed to him of his once beautiful and flourishing
country.
The Spanish sovereign, at the head of an army
of sixty thousand men, the flower and chivalry
of the united kingdoms of Castile and Aragon,
laid siege to Grenada on the 9th of May, 1491,
and in the 897th year of the HIegira.
This great citT, as has been already mention-
ed, was defended by strong ramparts, flanked
by a multitude of towers, and by numerous other
fortifications, built one above the other. Not-
withstanding the civil wars which had inunda-
ted it with blood, Grenada still enclosed within
its walls more than two hundred thousand in.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

habitants. Every brave Moorish cavalier who
still remained true to his country, its religion,
and its laws, had here taken refuge. Despair
redoubled their strength in this last desperate
struggle; and had these fierce and intrepid war-
riors been guided by a more worthy chief than
Boabdil, their noble constancy might+ still have
saved them; but this weak and ferocious mon-
arch hesitated not, on the slightest suspicion, to
consign his most faithful defenders to the axe of
the executioner. Thus he became daily more
and more an object of hatred and contempt to
the Grenadians, by whom he was surnamed
Zogoybi, that is to say, the Little King. The
different tribes now grew dissatisfied and dispir-
ited, especially the numerous and powerful tribe
of the Abencerrages. The alfaquis and the
imans, also, loudly predicted the approaching
downfall of the Moorish empire; and nothing
upheld the sinking courage of the people against
the pressure of a foreign foe and the tyranny of
their own rulers but their unconquerable horror
of the Spanish yoke.
The Catholic soldiers, on the other hand, ela-
ted by their past success, regarded themselves as
invincible, and never for a moment doubted the

191

192 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

certainty of their triumph. They were com-
manded, also, by leaders to whom they were
devotedly attached: Ponce de Leon, marquis of
Cadiz, Henry de Guzman, duke of Medina,
Mendoza, Aguillar, Villena, and Gonzalvo of
Cordova, together with many other famous cap-
tains, accompanied their victorious king. Isa-
bella, too, whose virtues excited the highest re-
spect, and whose affability and grace won for
her the affectionate regard of all, had repaired
to the camp of her husband with the Infant and
the Infantas, and attended by the most brilliant
court in Europe. This politic princess, though
naturally grave and serious, wisely accommoda-
ted herself to the existing circumstances. She
mingled fetes and amusements with warlike
toil: jousts and tournaments delighted at inter-
vals the war-worn soldiery; and dances, games,
and illuminations filled up the delicious sum-
mer evenings.
Queen Isabella was the animating genius that
directed everything; a gracious word from her
was a sufficient recompense for the most gallant
achievement; and her look alone had power to
transform the meanest soldier into a hero.
Abundance reigned in the Christian camp;

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

while joy and hope animated every heart. But
within the beleaguered city, mutual distrust, uni-
versal consternation, and the prospect of inevita-
ble destruction, had damped the courage and al-
most annihilated the hopes of the wretched in-
habitants.
The siege, nevertheless, lasted for nine months.
The cautious commander of the Christian army
did not attempt to carry by assault a place so
admiratbly fortified. After having laid waste
the environs, therefore, he waited patiently un-
til famine should deliver the city into his hands.
Satisfied with battering the ramparts and repell-
ing the frequent sorties of the Moors, he never
engaged in any decisive action, but daily hem-
med in more closely the chafed lion that could
not now escape his toils.
Accident one night set fire to the pavilion of
Isabella, and the spreading conflagration con-
sumed every tent in the camp. But Boabdil
derived no advantage from this disaster. The
queen directed that a city should supply the
place of the ruined camp, to convince the ene-
mies of the cross that the siege would never be
raised until Grenada should come into possession
of the conquering Spaniards. This great and

193

194 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

extraordinary design, so worthy the genius of
Isabella, was executed in eighty days. The
Christian camp thus became a walled city; and
Santa Fe still exists as a monument of the piety
and perseverance of the heroic Queen of Castile.
At last, oppressed by famine, less frequently
successful than at first in the partial engage-
ments that were constantly taking place under
the walls, and abandoned by Africa, from which
there were no attempts made to relieve them,
the Moors now felt the necessity of a surrender.
Gonzalvo of Cordova was empowered by the
conquerors to arrange the articles of capitula-
tion. These provided that the people of Grena-
da should recognise Ferdinand and Isabella, and
their royal successors, as their rightful sover-
eigns; that all their Christian captives should
be released without ransom; that the Moors
should continue to be governed by their own
laws; should retain their national customs, their
judges, half the number of their mosques, and
the free exercise of their faith; that they should
be permitted either to keep or sell their proper-
ty, and to retire to Africa, or to any other coun-
try they might choose, while, at the same time,
they should not be compelled to leave their na-

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

five land. It was also agreed that Boabdil
should have assigned to him a rich and ample
domain in the Alpuxares, of which he should
possess the entire command.
Such were the terms of capitulation, and but
ill were they observed by the Spaniards. Boab-
dil fulfilled his part of the stipulations some days
before the time specified, in consequence of be-
ing informed that his people, roused by the rep-
resentations of the imans, wished to break off
the negotiations, and to bury themselves beneath
the ruins of the city rather than suffer their des-
olate and deserted homes to be profaned by the
intruding foot of the spoiler.
The wretched Moslem prince hastened there-
fore to deliver the keys of the city, and of the
fortresses of the Albazin and the Alhambra, into
the hands of Ferdinand.
Entering no more, after this mournful cere-
mony, within the walls where he no longer re-
tained any authority, Boabdil took his melan-
choly journey, accompanied by his family and a
small number of followers, to the petty domin-
Ions which were now all that remained to him
of the once powerful and extensive empire of
his ancestors.

195

196 THE OORS OF SPAIN.
When the cavalcade reached an eminence
from which the towers of Grenada might still be
discerned, the wretched exile turned his last sad
regards upon the distant city, amid ill-suppress-
ed tears and groans. " You do well," said
Aixa, his mother, "to weep like a woman fo
the throne you could not defend like a man !"
But the now powerless Boabdil could not
long endure existence as a subject in a country
where he had reigned as a sovereign: he cross-
ed the Mediterranean to Africa, and there he
ended his days on the battle-field.
Ferdinand and Isabella made their public en-
trance into Grenada on the 1st of January, 1492,
through double ranks of soldiers, and amid the
thunder of artillery. The city seemed deserted;
the inhabitants fled from the presence of the
conquerors, and concealed their tears and their
despair within the innermost recesses of their
habitations.
The royal victors repaired first to the grand
mosque, which was consecrated as a Christian
church, and where they rendered thanks to God
for the brilliant success that had crowned their
arms. While the sovereigns fulfilled this pious
duty, the Count de Tendilla, the new governor

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

of Grenada, elevated the triumphant cross, and
the standards of Castile and St. James, on the
highest towers of the Alhambra.
Thus fell this famous city, and thus perished
the power of the Moors of Spain, after an exist-
ence of seven hundred and eighty-two years
from the first conquest of the country by Tarik.
It may now be proper briefly to remark upon
the principal causes of the extinction of the na-
tional independence of the kingdom of Grenada.
The first of these arose from the peculiar
character of the Moors: from that spirit of in-
constancy, that love of novelty, and that n-
ceasing inquietude, which prompted them to
such frequent change of their rulers; which
multiplied factions among them, and constantly
convulsed the empire with internal discords, ex-
pending its strength and power in dissensions at
home, and thus leaving it defenceless against
foreign enemies. The Moors may also be re-
proached with an extravagant fondness for ar-
chitectural magnificence, splendid fetes, and
other expensive entertainments, which aided in
exhausting the national treasury at times when
protracted warfare scarcely ever permitted this
most fertile region of the earth to reproduce the

197

198 THE MOORS OF SPAIN.
crops the Spaniards had destroyed. But, more
than all, they were a people without an estab-
lished code of laws, that only permanent basis
of the prosperity of nations. And then, too, a
despotic form of government, which deprives
men of patriotism, induced each individual to
regard his virtues and attainments merely as
affording the means of personal consideration,
and not, as they should be considered, the prop-
erty of his country.
These grave defects in the national character
of the Moors were redeemed by many excellent
qualities, which even the Spaniards admitted
them to possess. In battle they were no less
brave and prudent than their Christian antago-
nists, though inferior in skill and discipline.
They excelled them, however, in the art of at-
tack. Adversity never long overwhelmed them;
they saw in misfortune the will of Heaven, and
without a murmur submitted to it. Their fa-
vourite dogma of fatalism doubtless contributed
to this result. Fervently devoted to the laws oi
Mohammed, they obeyed with great exactness
his humane injunctions respecting almsgiving :*
they bestowed on the poor not only food and
* See Note I, page 226.

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

money, but a portion of their grain, fruit, and
flocks, and of every kind of merchandise. In
the towns and throughout the country, the indi-
gent sick were collected, attended, and nursed
with the most assiduous care. Hospitality, so
sacred from the remotest time among the Arabs,
was not less carefully observed among the peo-
ple of Grenada, who seemed to take peculiar
pleasure in its exercise. The following touch-
ing anecdote is told in illustration of the pow-
erful influence of this principle. A stranger,
bathed in blood, sought refuge from the officers
of justice under the roof of an aged Moor. The
old man concealed him in his house. But he
had scarcely done so before a guard arrived to
demand possession of the murderer, and, at the
same time, to deliver to the horror-stricken Mus-
sulman the dead body of his son, whom the
stranger had just assassinated. Still the aged
father would not give up his guest. When the
guard, however, were gone, he entreated the as-
sassin to leave him. "Depart from me," he
cried, " that I may be at liberty to pursue thee !"
These Moslems were but little known to the
historians by whom they have been so often ca-
lumniated. Polished, enthusiastic, hospitable,

199

200 THE MOORS OF SPAN.
brave, and chivalrous, but haughty, passionate,
inconstant, and vindictive, their unfortunate fate
entitles them, at least, to compassion and sym-
pathy, while their virtues may well excite re-
spect and interest.
After their final defeat, many of the followers
of the Prophet retired to Africa. Those who
remained in Grenada suffered greatly from the
persecution and oppression to which they were
subjected by their new masters. The article in
their last treaty with the Spaniards, which for-
mally ensured their religious freedom, was gross-
ly violated by the Catholics, who compelled the
Mussulmans to abjure their national faith by
force, terror, and every other unworthy means.
At last, outraged beyond endurance by this
want of good faith, and wrought to desperation
by the cruelties they were compelled to endure,
in the year 1500 the Moors attempted to revolt
against their oppressors. Their efforts were,
however, unavailing: Ferdinand marched in
person against them, repressed by force of arms
the struggles of a people whom he designated
as rebels, and, sword in hand, administered the
rite of baptism to more than fifty thousand cap-
tive Moslems

THE MOORS OF SPAIN.

The successors of Ferdinand, Charles V. and
especially Philip II., continued to harass the
Moors.* The Inquisition was established in
the city of Grenada, and all the terrors of that
dreaded institution were added to gentler means
for the conversion of the infidels to Christianity.
Their children were taken from them to be edu-
cated in accordance with the precepts of that re-
ligion whose Adorable Founder enjoined peace,
mercy, and forbearance upon his followers, and
forbade the practice of injustice and cruelty in
every form.
Yielding to the promptings of despair, this
:rushed and wretched remnant of a once pow-
erful and glorious nation again flew to arms in
the year 1569, and executed the most terrible
vengeance upon the Catholic priesthood. Mo-
hammed-ben-Ommah, the new king whom they
chose to direct their destinies, and who was
* The edicts of Charles V., which were renewed and ren-
dered more severe by Philip II., directed an entire change in
:he peculiar domestic habits and manners of the Moors, pre-
scribed their adoption of the Spanish costume and language,
forbade their women to wear veils, interdicted the use of the
bath and the celebration of their national dances, and ordered
that all their children from the age of five to fifteen should be
registered, that they might be sent to Catholic schools.
Q

201

202 THE MOORS OF SPAIN

said to have sprung from the cherished race of
the Ommiades, several times gave battle to his
opponents in the mountains of the Alpuxares,
where he sustained the cause of his injured
countrymen for the space of two years. At the
end of that time he was assassinated by his
own people. His successor shared the same
fate, and the Mussulmans were again compelled
to submit to a yoke their revolt had rendered
even more intolerable than before.
Finally, King Philip III. totally banished the
Moors from Spain. The depopulation thus pro-
duced inflicted a wound upon that kingdom,
from. the effects of which it has never since re-
covered.
More than one hundred and fifty thousand
of this persecuted race took refuge in France,
where Henry IV. received them with great hu-
manity. A small number also concealed them-
selves in the recess a of the Alpuxares; but the
greatest part of the expatriated Islamites sought
a home in Africa. There their descendants still
drag out a miserable existence under the despot
ic rule of the sovereigns of Morocco, and unceas-
ingly pray that they may be restored to their
beloved Grenada.

NOTE S.

FIRST EPOCH.

A, page 25.
Until they embrace Islamism, &c
The word Islamism is derived from islam, which signifies
consecration to God.
The brief synopsis given in the text of the principles of
the Mohammedan religion, is literally rendered by the author
from several different chapters of the Koran. These precepts
are there to be found almost lost amid a mass of absurdities,
repetitions, and incoherent rhapsodies. Yet, throughout the
entire work, there are occasionally bright gleams of fervid elo-
quence or pure morality. Mohammed never speaks on his
own authority; he pretends always to be prompted by the
angel Gabriel, who repeats to him the commands.of the Most
High: the Prophet does but listen and repeat them. The
angelic messenger has taken care to enter into a multitude of
details, not only in relation to religion, but also to legislation
and government. And thus it happens that the Koran is re-
garded by the Mussulmans as their standard, no less for c'vil
than for moral law. One half of this book is written in verse,
and the remainder in poetical prose. Mohammed possessed
great poetical talent; an endowment so highly esteemed by
his countrymen. that they were mn the habit of assembling at
Mecca to pronounce judgment on the different poems affixed

by their respective authors to the walls of the temple of the
Caaba; and the individual in whose favour the popular voice
decided was crowned with great solemnity. When the sec-
ond chapter of the Koran, Labia ebn rabia, appeared on the
walls, the most famous poet of the time, who had previously
posted up a rival production of his own, tore it down, and ac-
knowledged himself conquered by the Prophet.
Mohammed was not altogether the monster of cruelty so
many authors represent him to have been. He often dis-
played much humanity towards offenders who were in his
power, and even forgave personal injuries. One of the most
unrelenting of his enemies, named Caab, on whose head a
price had been set, had the audacity suddenly to appear in
the mosque at Medina while Mohammed was preaching to
the multitude. Caab recited some verses which he had com-
posed in honour of the Prophet. Mohammed listened to
them with pleasure, embraced the poet, and invested him
with his own mantle. This precious garment was afterward
bought by one of the caliphs of the East, from the family of
Caab, for the sum of twenty thousand drachms, and became
the pride of those Asiatic sovereigns, who wore it only on the
occasion of.some solemn festival.
The last moments of Mohammed would seem to prove that
he was far from possessing an ignoble mind. Feeling his
end approaching, he repaired to the mosque, supported by his
friend Ali. Mounting the tribune, he made a prayer, and
then, turning to the assembly, uttered these words: " Mus.
gulmans, I am about to die. No one, therefore, need any
longer fear me ; if I have struck any one among you, here is
my breast, let him strike me in return: if I have wrongfully
taken the property of any one, here is my purse, let him re-
munerate himself: if I have humbled any one, let him now

204

NOTES.

spurn me: I surrender myself to the justice of my country-
men !" The people sobbed aloud: one individual alone de-
manded three drachms of the dying Prophet, who instantly
discharged the debt with interest. After this he took an affec-
tionate leave of the brave Medinians who had so faithfully
defended him, gave liberty to his slaves, and ordered the ar-
rangements for his funeral. His last interview with his wife
and daughter, and Omar and Ali, his friends and disciples,
was marked by much tenderness. Sorrow and lamentation
were universal throughout Arabia on this occasion; and his
daughter Fatima died of grief for his loss.
The respect and veneration entertained by his followers for
Mohammed is almost inconceivable. Their doctors have
gravely asserted in their writings that the world was created
for him; that the first thing made was light, and that that
light bedame the substance of the soul of Mohammed, etc.
Some of them have maintained that the Alcoran was un-
created, while others have adopted a contrary opinion; and
out of these discordant views have arisen numerous sects,
and even wars that have deluged Asia with blood.
The life of Mohammed was terminated by poison, which
had been administered to him some years before by a Jewess
named Zainab, whose brother had been slain by Ali. This
woman, to avenge the death of her brother, poisoned some
roasted lamb which she served up for the Prophet. Scarcely
had he put a morsel of it into his mouth, when, instantly re-
jecting it, he exclaimed that the meat was poisoned. Not-
withstanding the prompt use of antidotes, the injurious con-
sequences were so severe, that he suffered from them during
the remainder of his life, and died four years after, in the sixty-
third year of his age.

205

NOTES.

B, page 27.
Kaled, surnamed the Sword of God, &c.
The feats of arms ascribed by historians to Kaled resemble
those of a hero of romance. He was at first the enemy of
the great Arabian leader, and vanquished that commander in
the conflict of Aheh, the only battle which Mohammed ever
lost. Having afterward become a zealous Mussulman, he
subjugated such parts of the Mohammedan dominions as had
revolted after the death of the Prophet, opposed the armies
of Heraclius, conquered Syria, Palestine, and a part of Per-
sia, and came off victor in numerous single combats in which
he was at different times engaged: always challenging to an
encounter of this kind the general of the hostile army. The
following anecdote will illustrate his character. Kaled be-
sieged the city of Bostra. The Greek governor, named Ro-
main, under pretence of making a sortie, passed the walls
with his troops, and arranged them in order of battle in front
of the Mussulman army. At the moment when he should
have given the signal for the onset, the valiant Greek de-
manded an interview with Kaled. The two commanders,
therefore, advanced into the centre of the space which separ-
ated the opposing armies. Romain declared to the Saracen
general that he had determined not only to deliver the city to
him, but to embrace the religion of the crescent : he at the
same time expressed a fear that his soldiers, among whom he
was by no means popular, intended to take his life, and in-
treated Kaled to protect him against their vengeance.
" The best thing you can do," replied the Moslem leader,
" is immediately to accept a challenge to a single combat with
me. Such an exhibition of courage will gain for you the re-
spect of your troops, and we can treat together afterward !"

206

NOTES. 207

At these words, without waiting for a reply from the gov-
ernor, the champion of Islamism drew his cimeter and at-
tacked the unfortunate Romain, who defended himself with a
trembling hand. At each blow inflicted by the redoubtable
follower of the Prophet, Romain cried out, " Do you then wish
to kill me " "No," replied the Mussulman; "my only ob-
ject is, to load you with honour; the more you are beaten,
the more esteem you will acquire !" At last, when he had
nearly deprived the poor Greek of life, Kaled gave up the
contest, and shortly after took possession of the city : when
he next saw the pusillanimous governor, he politely inquired
after his health.
C, page 30.
The warlike tribes of the Bereberes, &c.
The name of the portion of Africa called Barbary is de
rived from the Bereberes. This people regarded themselves,
with much appearance of truth, as the descendants of those
Arabs who originally came into the country with Malek Yar-
fric, and who are often confounded with the ancient Numidi-
ans. Their language, which differs from that of every other
people, is, in the opinion of some authors, a corruption of the
Punic or Carthaginian. Divided into tribes and wandering
among the mountains, this peculiar race still exists in the king-
dom of Morocco. The Bereberes were never allied with the
Moors, for whom they always entertained a feeling of enmity.
Though at present under the dominion of the kings of Mo-
recco as their religious head, they brave his displeasure and
authority at will. They are formidable in consequence of
their numbers, courage, and indomitable spirit of independ-
ence; and still preserve unimpaired the peculiar simplicity of
their ancient manners and habits.

NOTES.

D, page 34.
Tarik, one of the most renowned captains of his time, &c.
Tarik landed at the foot of the Calpe Mountain, and took
the city of Herculia, to which the Arabs gave the name of
Djebel Tarik, of which we have made Gibraltar.

E, page 38.
During the remainder of the Caliphate of Yezid II., &c.
This caliph, the ninth of the Ommiades, ended his exist-
ence in a manner that at least merits pity. He was amusing
himself one day with throwing grapes at his favourite female
slave, who caught them in her mouth. This fruit, it must be
remembered, is much larger in Syria than in Europe. Unfor-
tunately, one of the grapes passed into the throat of the slave
and instantly suffocated her. The despairing Yezid would
not permit the interment of this dearest object of his affec-
tions, and watched incessantly beside the corpse for eight
successive days. Being compelled at last, by the condition of
the body, to separate himself from it, he died of grief, entreat-
ing, as he expired, that his remains might be interred in the
same tomb with his beloved Hubabah.

SECOND EPOCH.

A, page 46.
He was soon after assassinated, &c.
Three Karagites (a name applied to a pre-eminently fanati-
cal sect of Mussulmans), beholding the disorders created in
the Arabian empire by the contentions of Ali, Moavias, and

208

NOTE S.

209

Amrou, believed that they should perform a service that would
be acceptable to God, and restore peace to their country, by
simultaneously assassinating the three rivals. One of them
repaired to Damascus, and wounded the usurper Moavias in
the back; but the wound did not prove mortal. The con-
federate charged with the murder of Amrou, stabbed, by mis.
take, one of the friends of that rebel. The third, who had
undertaken to despatch Ali, struck him as he was about to
enter the mosque, and the virtuous caliph was the only one
who fell a victim to the design of the assassins.

B, page 48.
Mervan II, the last caliph of the race, &c.
This Ommiade was surnamed Alkemar, that is to say,
The Ass : an appellation which, in the East, is considered
highly honourable, from the singular regard there entertained
for that patient and indefatigable animal. Ariosto derived
his touching episode of Isabella of Gallicia from the history
of this prince. Mervan, being at one time in Egypt, became
enamoured of a religious recluse whom he chanced to see
there, and endeavoured to persuade her to break her monastic
vows. Effectually to relieve herself from his persecutions,
the young devotee promised him an ointment which woula
render him invulnerable, and volunteered to prove its efficacy
6n her own person. After having anointed her neck with the
mixture, she requested the caliph to test the keenness of his
cimeter on it, which the barbarian did; and the result may bb
easily imagined.
C, page 48.
The names of Haroun al Raschid, &c.
Haroun al Raschid (which signifies Haroun the Just) was
R

greatly renowned in the East. He undoubtedly, in part, owed
his fame, as well ahis surname, to the protection he afforded
to men of letters. His military exploits and his love of sci-
ence prove this caliph to have been no ordinary man; but
then the glory of his achievements was tarnished by his cru-
elty to the Bermacides. These were a distinguished tribe
or family, descended from the ancient kings of Persia. They
had rendered the most signal services to the successive ca-
liphs, and won the respect and affection of the whole empire.
Giaffar Barmacide, who was considered the most virtuous of
Mussulmans and the most eminent author of the age, was
the vizier of Haroun. He entertained a passionate regard for
Abassa, the beautiful and accomplished sister of the caliph,
and the princess reciprocated his affection; but the sovereign
made the most unreasonable opposition to the celebration
of their nuptials. This they effected, however, without his
knowledge; and for some time Haroun remainred ignorant
of the union of the lovers. But, at the end of some years,
the caliph made a pilgrimage to Mecca, to which city, the
more effectually to secure the inviolability of his secret, the
Bermacide had sent his infant son to be reared. There the
representative of the Prophet, through the instrumentality of
a perfidious slave, became acquainted with all the circum-
stances of the deception that had been practised on him. It
would be difficult to believe the account of what followed,
but that the facts were so well authenticated throughout Asia.
Haroun caused his sister to be thrown into a well, commanded
that Giaffar should lose his head, and ordered every relative
of the unfortunate Bermacide to be put to death. The father
of the vizier, a venerable old man, respected throughout the
empire, which he had long governed, met his fate with the
most heroic firmness. Before he expired, he wrote these

210

NOTES.

NOTES. 211

words to the sanguinary despot: " The accused departs first ;
the accuser will shortly follow. Both will appear in the pres-
ence of a Judge whom no arguments can deceive !"
The implacable Haroun carried his vengeance so far as to
forbid that any one should mention the names of his hapless
victims. One of his subjects, named Mundir, had the cour-
age to brave this edict, and publicly to pronounce the eulogy
of the beloved Bermacides.
The tyrant commanded that the offending Mussulman
should appear before him, and threatened him with punish-
ment for what he had done.
" You can silence me only by inflicting death upon me !"
replied Mundir: " that you have the power of doing; but
you cannot extinguish the gratitude entertained by the whole
empire for those virtuous ministers : even the ruins you have
made of the monuments which they erected, speak of their
fame in spite of you !" It is said that the monarch was
touched by the words of this fearless defender of the dead,
and that he commanded a golden plate to be presented to
him.
Such was the famous caliph who bore the name of the
Just. Almamon, his son, received no surname; but he de-
served to be ranked with the wisest and the most virtuous of
men. Some idea of his character may be formed from the
fo.lowing anecdote. It is recorded of him, that his viziers
urged him to punish with death one of his relations who had
taken arms against him, and caused himself to be proclaimed
caliph. Almamon, however, rejected this sanguinary counsel,
saying at the same time, "Alas ! if they who have injured
me, knew how much pleasure I experience in forgiving my
enemies, they would hasten to appear before me to confess
their faults !" This excellent prince was the munificent pa-

tron of science and the arts, and his reign formed the most
brilliant epoch of the glorious days of the Arabs.

D, page 54.
Wars with the kings of Leon, and incursions into Catalonia,
&c.
Historians do not agree concerning the precise period when
Charlemagne entered Spain. It would appear, however, that
it was during the reign of Abderamus that the emperor
crossed the Pyrenees, took Pampeluna and Saragossa, and
was attacked, during his retreat, in the defiles of Roncevaux,
a place rendered famous in romantic literature by the death
of Roland.

E, page 59.
A government that properly respected the rights of the peo-
ple, &c.
The ancient laws of Aragon, known under the name of
Fore de Sobarbe, limited the power of the sovereign by cre-
ating a balance for it in that of the ricos Hombres, and of a
magistrate who bore the name of Justice.

F, page 60.
The celebrated school, &c.
The musical school, founded at Cordova by Ali-Zeriab,
produced the famous Moussali, who was regarded by the Ori-
entals as the greatest musician of his time. The music of
the Moors did not consist, like ours, in the concord of differ-
ent instruments, but simply in soft and tender airs, which the
musicians sung to the accompaniment of the lute. Some-
times several voices and lutes executed the same air in uni-
son. This simple style of music satisfied a people who.were

212

NOTES.

NOTES. 213

such passionate lovers of poetry, that their first desire, when
listening to a singer, was to hear the words he uttered.
Moussali, who was the pupil of Ali-Zeriab at Cordova, be-
came afterward, in consequence of his musical talents, the
favourite of Haroun al Raschid, the celebrated caliph of the
East. It is related that this prince, in consequence of a mis-
understanding with one of his favourite wives, fell into such a
state of melancholy that fears were entertained for his life
Giaffar, the Bermacide, at that time the principal vizier of the
caliph, entreated the poet Abbas-ben-Ahnaf to compose some
verses on the subject of this quarrel. He did so, and they
were sung in the presence of the prince by Moussali; and the
royal lover was so softened by the sentiments of the poet and
the melody of the musician, that he immediately flew to the
feet of his fair enslaver, and a reconciliation took place be-
tween the disconsolate monarch and the offended beauty.
The grateful slave sent twenty thousand drachms of gold to
the poet and Moussali, and Haroun added forty thousand
more to her gift.
G, page 66.
The statue of the beautiful Zahra, &c.
Mohammed, to discourage idolatry, forbade his followers,
in the Koran, to make images in any form; but this injunc-
tion was very imperfectly observed. The Oriental caliphs
adopted the custom of stamping their coins with an impres-
sion of their own features, as is proved by specimens still ex-
isting in the collections of the curious. On one side of these
was represented the head of the reigning caliph, and on the
other appeared his name, with some passages from the Alco-
ran. In the palaces of Bagdad, Cordova, and Grenada, fig-
ures of animals, and sculpture of various kinds, both in gold
and aarble, abounded.

NOTES.

H, page 69.
The richest and most powerful, &c.
Some conception of the opulence of the caliphs of the West,
during the palmy days of their prosperity, may be formed
from the value of the gifts presented to Abderamus III. by
one of his subjects, Abdoumalek-ben-Chien, on the occasion
of his being appointed to the dignity of chief vizier. The ar-
ticles composing this present are thus enumerated : Four hun-
dred pounds of virgin gold; four hundred and twenty thou-
sand sequins, in the form of ingots of silver; four hundred
and twenty pounds of the wood of aloes ; five hundred ounces
of ambergris ; three hundred ounces of camphor ; thirty
pieces of silk and cloth of gold ; ten robes of the sable fur
of Korassan ; one hundred others, of less valuable fur; forty-
eight flowing housings for steeds, a thousand bucklers; a
hundred thousand arrows; gold tissues, from Bagdad; four
thousand pounds of silk; thirty Persian carpets; eight hun-
dred suits of armour for war horses ; fifteen Arabian coursers
for the caliph ; a hundred for the use of his officers; twenty
mules, saddled and caparisoned; forty youths and twenty
young maidens, of rare beauty.

I, page 81.
About this time occurred the famous adventure of the seven
sons of Lara, so celebrated in Spanish history and romance,
and of which, as in some degree connected with Moorish his-
tory, we may briefly narrate the particulars.
These young warriors were brothers, the sons of Gonzalvo
Gustos, a near relative of the first counts of Castile, and
lords of Salas de Lara. Ruy Velasquez, brother-in-law of
Gonzalvo Gustos, instigated by his wife, who pretended to

214

have some ca ase of offence against the youngest of the seven
brothers, meditated the execution of a horrible scheme for
their destruction. He commenced by sending their father
Gonzalvo on an embassy to the court of Cordova, making him,
at the same time, the bearer of letters, in which he prayed the
caliph to put the envoy to death, as the enemy of the crescent
and its followers. The Mussulman sovereign, being unwill-
ing to commit so barbarous an act, contented himself with
retaining Gonzalvo as a prisoner. In the mean time, the
perfidious Velasquez, under pretence of conducting an attack
against the Moors, led his nephews into the midst of an am-
buscade, where, overpowered by numbers, they all perished,
after a most heroic defence, accompanied by circumstances
which render their end truly affecting. The barbarous uncle
sent the gory heads of the murdered youths to the royal
palace of Cordova, and caused them to be presented to the
unhappy father, in a golden dish covered with a veil. No
sooner did Gonzalvo behold the ghastly contents of the dish,
than he fell to the earth, deprived of sense. The Caliph of
the West, filled with indignation at the demoniac cruelty of
Velasquez, restored his captive to liberty. But the foe of his
race was too powerful to permit the childless Gonzalvo to
avenge the murder of his offspring. He attempted, indeed,
to do so ; but old age had deprived him of his former strength
and vigour. With his wife, therefore, he mourned in solitude
over the untimely fate of his sons, and entreated Heaven to
permit him to follow them to the tomb : but a champion of
his cause unexpectedly arose in the person of an illegitimate
son of Gonzalvo's at the Moorish court. When this boy had
attained the age of twelve years, he was informed of his pa-
rentage by his mother, who was the sister of the sovereign of
Cordova, and of the wrongs which his father had suffered.

215

NOTE S.

The heroic youth, who bore the name of Mendarra Gonza'-
vo, resolved to become the avenger of his brothers. Hasten-
mg to execute his purpose, he left Cordova, challenged Va-
lasquez, and slew him. Cutting off the head of his father's
foe, he sought with his burden the presence of the old man,
demanded to be acknowledged as his son, and admitted into
the Christian church. The wife of Gonzalvo joyfully con-
sented to receive the brave Mendarra as her son, and he was
solemnly adopted by the venerable pair. The wife of Velas-
quez, who, it will be remembered, had instigated the ferocious
uncle to his murderous deed, was stoned to death and after-
ward burned. It is from this valiant Mendarra Gonzalvo
that the Mauriques de Lara, one of the most important Span-
ish families, seek to trace their descent.

THIRD EPOCH.

A, page 86.
Three bishops of Catalonia, &c.
These three bishops of Catalonia, who died fighting for the
Mussulmans at the battle of Albakara, which took place in the
year 1010, were Arnaulpha, bishop of Vic ; Accia, bishop of
Barcelona; and Othon, bishop of Girona.

B, page 91.
And equally ready, when enjoying the favour of the sovereign,
to displease him, if it should be necessary to do so, &c.
RoDRIUE DIAs DE BIVAR, surnamed the Cid, so well
known by his affection for Chimena and his duel with the
Count Gormas, has been the subject of many poems, novels,

216

NOTES.

and romances in the Spanish tongue. Without crediting all
the extraordinary adventures ascribed to this hero by his coun-
trymen, it is proved by the testimony of reputable historians,
that the Cid was not only the bravest and most dreaded war-
rior of his time, but one of the most virtuous and generous
of men. De Bivar was already famed for his exploits while
Castile was still under the dominion of Ferdinand I. When
the successor of that monarch, Sancho II., endeavoured to
despoil his sister Uraque of the city of Zamora, this cham-
pion of the oppressed, with noble firmness, represented to the
king that he was about being guilty of an act of injustice, by
which he would violate, at the same time, the laws of honour
and the ties of blood. The offended Sancho exiled the Cid,
but was soon after obliged by necessity to recall'him. When
the treacherous assassination of Sancho, while encamped be-
fore Zamora, entitled his brother Alphonso to the throne, the
Castilians were anxious that their new sovereign should disa-
vow, by a solemn oath, having had any agency in the murder
of his brother. No one dared demand of the king to take this
oath except the Cid, who constrained him to pronounce it
aloud at the same altar where his coronation was celebrated;
adding, at the same time, the most fearful maledictions against
perjury. Alphonso never forgave the liberty thus taken with
him, and soon after banished the Spanish hero from court,
under pretence of his having trespassed on the territories .of
an ally of Castile, the King of Toledo, into whose dominions
the Cid had inadvertently pursued some fugitives from justice.
The period of his exile became the most glorious epock i
the history of the Chevalier de Bivar: it was then that he
achieved so many triumphs over the Moors, aided solely by the
brave companions in arms whom his reputation drew to his
standard. After a time AlDhonso recalled the Cid, anid re

217

NOTES..

ceived him into apparent favour; but liodrigue was too can-
did long to enjoy the royal smiles. Banished from court
anew, he hastened to accomplish the conquest of Valencia;
and master of that strong city, with many others, and of a
territory of great extent, to make the Cid a monarch it was
only necessary that he himself should desire it. But the no-
ble Spaniard never for a moment indulged the wish, and ever
continued the faithful subject of the ungrateful and often-
offending Alphonso.
This celebrated hero died at Valencia A.D. 1099, crowned
with years and honours. He had but one son, and of him he
was early deprived by death. The two daughters of the Cid
espoused princes of the house of Navarre ; and, through a
long succession of alliances, formed at length the root whence
is derived the present royal race of Bourbons.

C, page 92.
More ferocious and sanguinary than the lions of their deserts,
&c.
The history of Africa, during the period referred to in the
text, is but a narrative of one continued succession of the
most atrocious murders. Were we to judge of humanity by
these sanguinary annals, we should be tempted to believe,
that, of all ferocious animals, man is the most bloodthirsty
and cruel.
Amid the multitude of these African tyrants, there was
one, of the race of the Aglhebites, named Abon Ishak, who
was particularly distinguished for the demoniac barbarity of
nis character. Having butchered eight of his brothers, he next
indulged his horrid thirst for blood in the sacrifice of his own
offspring. The mother of this monster succeeded with diffi-
eulty in preserving from his fury a part of his family. One

218

NOTES.

day, while dining with Ishak, upon his expressing some feel-
ing of momentary regret that he had no more children, his
mother tremblingly ventured to confess that she had preserved
the lives of six of his daughters. The sanguinary wretch ap.
peared softened, and expressed a desire to see' them. When
they were summoned to his presence, their youth and love-
liness touched the ferocious father ; and while Isbhk lavished
caresses upon his innocent children, his mother retired, with
tears of joy, to render thanks to Heaven for this. apparent
change in the temper of her son. Ar hour afterward, a eu
nuch brought her, by order of the emperor, the heads of the
young princesses.
It would be easy to cite other parallel deeds, attested by
historians, which were perpetrated by this execrable n.;onster.
Suffice it to say, he escaped the violent death: due to uch a
life, and long maintained his hateful rule.
Time has not softened the sanguinary ferocity, which seems
like an inherent vice produced by the climate of Africa. Iu-
Iei-Abdalla, the father of Sidi Mohammed, the recent Iking .f
Morocco, renewed these scenes of horror. One day, while
crossing a river, he was on the point of drowning, when one
of his negroes succeeded in rescuing him from the waves.
The slave expressed his delight at having had the good fortune
to serve his master. His words were heard by Abdalla, who,
drawing his cimeter, and crying, " Behold an infidel, who sup-
poses that God required his assistance in preserving the life
of an emperor," instantly struck off the head of his preserver.
This same monarch had a confidential domestic who had
been long in his service, and for whom the savage Abdallo
appeared to entertain some affection. In a moment of good-
nature he entreated this aged servant to accept two thousand
ducats at his hand and leave his service, lest he should be

219

NOTES.

seized with an irrepressible desire to kill him, as he had so
many others. The old man clang to the feet of the king, ie.
fused the two thousand ducats, and assured him that he pre.
ferred perishing by his hand rather than abandon so beloved a
master. Mule, with some hesitation, consented to retain his
aged servant. Some days afterward, impelled by that thirst
for blood whosf, impulses were sometimes uncontrollable, and
without the slightest provocation to the deed, the fiendish des-
pot struck the unfortunate man dead at his feet, saying, at the
same moment, that he had been a fool not to accept his per-
mission to leave him.
It is painful to relate these shocking details; but they pre-
sent a true picture of the character of these African sover-
eigns, while they inspire us with a horror of tyranny, and a
veneration for the restraints of civilization and law, so indis-
pensr.ble to the well-being of every community.

D, page 98.
And possessed the united glory of having both enlightened,
&e
Averroes belonged to one of the first families in Cordova.
His version of the writings of Aristotle was translated into
Latin, and was for a long time the only translation of the
works of that author. The other productions of Averroes
are still esteemed by the learned. He is justly regarded as
the chief of the Arabic philosophers : a class of men not nu-
merous in a nation abounding in prophets and conquerors.
The principles he entertained exposed him to much persecu-
tion. His indifference to the religious creed of his country-
men excited the enmity of the imans or priests against him,
and afforded a pretext for the animosity of all whom his geriua
inspired with envy. lie was accused of heresy before the Em-

220O

NOTE S.

peror of Morocco; and the punishment decreed against him
was, that he should do homage at the door of the mosque,
while every true Mussulman who came thither to pray for his
conversion should spit in his face. He submitted patiently
to the humiliating infliction, merely repeating the words
Moriatur anima mea morle philosophorum (Let me die the
death of a philosopher).

E, page 106.
And broke the chains, &c.
This King of Navarre was Sancho VIII., surnamed the
Strong. It was in commemoration of the chains broken by
him at the battle of Toloza that Sancho added the chains of
gold to the arms of Navarre, which are still to be seen on the
field of gules.
F, page 111.
Cousin-german of St. Lewis, &c.
Blanche, the mother of St. Lewis, was the daughter of Al-
phonso the Noble of Castile. She had a sister named Be-
ringira, who became the wife of the King of Leon, and the
mother of Ferdinand III. Several historians, among others
Mariana and Garibai, maintain that Blanche was older than
Beringira. If it were so, St. Lewis was the rightful heir to
the throne of Castile. France long asserted the pretensions
thus created. It is surprising that historians have not settled
this disputed point. One thing, however, is certain: the
claims of Ferdinand, sustained as they were by the partiality
of the Castilians, prevailed over those of his cousin.

221

NOTES.

FOURTH EPOCH.

A, page 132.
Alphonso the Sage, &c.
Alphonso the Sage was a great astronomer: his Alphion
sine Tables prove that the happiness of his people occupied his
attention as much, .at least, as his literary pursuits. It is in
this collection that this remarkable sentence occurs-remark-
able when it is considered that it expresses the sentiments of
a monarch of the thirteenth century : " The despot uproots the
tree : the wise sovereign prunes it."

B, page 135.
In the hope of being elected emperor, &c.
ALPHONSO THE SAGE was elected Emperor of Germany in
the year twelve hundred and fifty-seven : but he was at too
great a distance from that country, and too much occupied at
home, to be able to support his claims to the imperial throne.
Sixteen years afterward, however, he made a voyage to Ly-
ons, where Pope Gregory X. then was, to advocate his rights
before that dignitary. But the sovereign pontiff decided in
favour of Rodolph of Hapsburg, a scion of the house of Aus-
tria.
C, page 136.
Sancho reigned in his father's stead, &c.
s Sancho, surnamed the Brave, who took up arma
against his father and afterward obtained his throne, was the
second son of Alphonso the Sage. His elder brother, Ferdi-
nand de la Cerda, a mild and virtuous prince, died in the

222

flower of his age, leaving two infant sons, the offspring of his
marriage with Blanche, the daughter of St. Lewis of France.
It was to deprive these children of their reversionary right to
the crown of Castile that the ambitious Sancho made war
upon his father. He succeeded in his criminal designs; but
;he princes of La Cerda, protected by France and Aragon,
rallied around them all the malecontents of Castile, and the
claims they were thus enabled to support long formed a pre-
text or occasion for the most bloody dissensions.

D, page 149.
Ferdinand IV., surnamed the Summoned, &c.
Ferdinand IV., the son and successor of Sancho the Brave,
was still in his infancy when he succeeded to the throne.
His minority was overshadowed by impending clouds; but
the power and influence of Queen Mary, his mother, enabled
her eventually to dissipate the dangers which threatened the
safety of her son. This prince obtained his appellation of
the Summoned from the following circumstance. Actuated
by feelings of strong indignation, Ferdinand commanded that
two brothers, named Carvajal, who had been accused, but not
convicted, of the crime of assassination, should be precipi-
tated from a rocky precipice. Both the supposed criminals,
in their last moments, asserted their innocence of the crime
alleged against them, appealed to Heaven and the laws to
verify the truth of their protestations, and summoned the pas-
sionate Ferdinand to appear before the Great Judge of all
men at the end of thirty days. At the precise time thus in-
dicated, the Castilian king, wlho was marching against the
Moors, retired for repose after dinner, and was found dead
upon his couch. The Spaniards attributed this sudden death
to the effects of Divine justice. It had been well if the mon-

223

NOTES.

archs who succeeded Ferdinand, Peter the Cruel in particu-
lar, had been convinced of the truth of this sentiment.

E, page 149.
Retiring within the walls of Tariffe, &c.
After Sancho the Brave became master of Tariffe, it was
besieged by the Africans. It was during this siege that Al-
phonso de Guzman, the Spanish governor of the city, exhib-
ited an example of invincible firmness and self-command, of
which none but parents can form a just estimate. The son
of De Guzman was taken prisoner during a sortie. The Af.
ricans conducted their captive to the walls, and threatened
the governor with his immolation unless the city should be
immediately surrendered. The undaunted Spaniard replied
only by hurling a poniard at his enemies, and retired from the
battlements. In a moment loud cries burst from the garrison.
Hastily demanding the cause of this alarm, the unhappy father
was told that the Africans had put to death his son. " God
be praised," said he, " I thought that the city had been taken !"

F, page 158.
The celebrated Inez de Castro, &c.
The passion of Peter the Cruel for Inez de Castro was
carried to such excess as, perhaps, in some degree, to ac-
count for the atrocity of his revenge upon her murderers.
These were three distinguished Portuguese lords, who them-
selves stabbed the unfortunate Inez in the arms of her wom-
en. Peter, who, at the time this barbarous deed was com-
mitted, had not yet attained regal power, seemed from that
period to lose all command of himself : from being gentle and
virtuous, he became ferocious and almost insane. He openly
rebelled against his father, carried fire and sword into those

224

NOTES.

parts of the kingdom in which the domains of the assassins
of Inez were situated, and, when he afterward came into pos-
session of the crown, insisted that the King of Castile should
deliver up Gonzales arad Coello, two of the guilty noblemen,
who had taken refuge at his court. Thus master of the per-
sons of two of his victims (the third had fled into France,
where he died), Peter subjected them to the most dreadful
tortures. He caused their hearts to be torn out while they
were yet living, and assisted himself at this horrible sagrifice.
After thus glutting his vengeance, the inconsolable lover ex-
humed the body of his murdered mistress, clothed it in mag-
nificent habiliments, and, placing his crown upon the livid and
revolting brow, proclaimed Inez de Castro queen of Portugal;
compelling, at the same time, the grandees of his court to do
homage to the insensible remains which he had invested with
the attributes of royalty.

G, page 161.
Most of the productions of the Grenadian authors, &c.
After the surrender of Grenada, Cardinal Ximenes caused
every copy of the Koran of which he could obtain possession
to be burned. The ignorant and superstitious soldiery mis-
took for that work everything written in the Arabic language,
and committed to the flames a multitude of compositions both
in prose and verse.
H, page 178.
The Abencerrages, &c.
The inhabitants of Grenada, and, indeed, the whole Moorish
people, were divided into tribes, composed of the different
branches of the same family. Some of these tribes were
more numerous and important than others: but two distinct
S

NOTES.

225

races were never united together, nor was one of them ever
divided. At the head of each of these tribes was a chief
who was descended in a direct male line from the original
founder of the family. In the city of Grenada there existed
thirty-two considerable tribes. The most important of these
were the Abencerrages, the Zegris, the Alcenabez, the Al-
morades, the Vanegas, the Gomeles, the Abidbars, the Gau-
zuls, the Abenamars, the Aliatars, the Reduans, the Aldo-
radins, etc. These separate races were, many of them, at
enmity with each other; and their animosity being perpet-
uated from one generation to another, gave rise to the fre-
quent civil wars which were attended with such disastrous
consequences to the nation at large.

I, page 198
His humane injunctions respecting almsgiving, &c.
Almsgiving is one of the leading principles of the Mo.
hammedan religion. It was enjoined upon the followers of
the Prophet by a variety of allegories, among which is the
following : " The sovereign Judge shall, at the last great day,
entwine him who has not bestowed alms with a frightful ser-
pent, whose envenomed sting shall for ever pierce the avari-
cious hand that never opened for the relief of the unfortunate !"

226

NOTE S.

A BRIEF ACCOUNT

OF THE

IRISE AND DECLINE

OF THE

MOHAMMEDAN EMPIRE;

THE LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND RELIGION OF THF
ARAB~' AND THE PRESENT CO'IDITION OF
MOHAMMEDANISM.

BRIEF ACCOUNT

OF THE

MIOHAMMEDAN EMPIRE.

CHAPTER I.

Extent of the Arabian Empire.-Causes which led to that ex-
tent.-Continuance of Mohammedanism.-Decay of the Em.
pire.-What led to it.-Spain revolts and sets up a separate
Caliph.-Africa.-Egypt.-Bagdad.-Fall of the House of the
Abbassides.

THE first battle in which the Arabs tried their
power against the disciplined forces of the Romar.
empire was the battle of Muta. Though on that
occasion they were successful, the most sanguine
could not have ventured to predict that, before the
close of a 'century, their empire would become
more extensive than any that had ever before ex-
isted. Yet such was the fact. It overthrew the
power of the Romans, and rendered the successors
of the Prophet the mightiest and most absolute sov-
ereigns on earth.
Under the last monarch of the Ommiade race,

230 EXTENT OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE.

the Arabian empire, excepting only an obscure
part of Africa, of little account, embraced a com-
pact territory equal to six months' march of a car-
avan in length and four in breadth, with innu-
merable tributary and dependant states. In the
exercise of their power, the caliphs were fettered
neither by popular rights, the votes of a senate,
nor constitutional laws: the Koran was, indeed,
their professed rule of action; but, inasmuch as
they alone were its interpreters, their will was in
all cases law. The loss of Spain to the empire
was more than made up by conquests in India,
Tartary, and European Turkey. Samarcand and
Timbuctoo studied with equal devotion the lan.
guage and religion of the Koran, and at the temple
of Mecca the Moor and the Indian met as brother
pilgrims. Throughout the countries west of the
Tigris, the language of Arabia became the vehicle
of popular intercourse; and, although in Persia,
Tartary, and Hindostan the native dialects con-
tinued in common use, the Arabic was also there
the sacred tongue.
We will advert to some of the causes which led
to this astonishing success. The leading article
of the Mohammedan faith, the unity of God, har-
monized with what Jews and Christians univer.
sally believed. Mohammed propounded this doc-
trine, by excluding the Deity of Jesus Christ, so as

CAUSE OF MOHAMMED'S SUCCESS. 231

to fall in with the views of the greater number
of the Christian sectaries. He moreover enjoined
practices which, in the then corrupt state of reli.
gion, were beginning widely to prevail. To the
untutored mind of the desert wanderer, his doc.
trine would thus possess all the attractiveness he
might have heard ascribed to Christianity, while
his being of the same country would secure for
him the greater attention. Systems in which truth
and error have been combined are by no means
unwillingly received, especially by those who are
already superstitious and fanatical, and such was
pre-eminently the character of the Arabians. Mo-
hammed's religious, moral, and juridical system
was in general accordance with Asiatic opinions;
it provided a paradise exactly suited to the imagi.
nation and taste of the Orientals; and, as the su.
perstitious are always more powerfully influenced
by that which awakens apprehension and appeals
to fear than by what enkindles hope, his hell con.
tributed even more than his heaven to multiply
disciples.
Still, had no resort been had to arms, the Mo.
hammedan faith would in all probability have
been confined to the deserts of Arabia. The whole
of Asia was at that time in a state of unprecedented
military inactivity, and opportunity was thus af.
forded for the success of his enterprise. Empires

232 WARLIKE CHARACTER OF THE ARABS.

were tottering and powerless; political wisdom
had almost disappeared ; and to military talents and
courage the Arabs alone could make any preten.
sions. Previous contentions between the Persian
and Byzantine empires had entirely destroyed
what little remains of internal vigour those govern-
ments might otherwise have possessed. Civil re.
volts, tyranny, extortion, sensuality, and sloth, had
annihilated the ambition of universal rule which
the Greek and Roman governments had once cher.
ished; and their provinces, neglected or oppressed,
became an easy prey to the Moslem power.
The nations were the more rapidly subdued,
since to the indomitable ferocity of the desert wan.
derer the Saracens added those other features
which complete a warlike character. They de-
spised death, and were self-denying and energetic
to a degree far beyond the soldiers of civilized
countries, while they were scarcely less familiar
with the military art. The lieutenants of the ca-
liphs soon vied with the Roman generals in skill;
and it is by no means difficult to explain their al-
most uniform superiority, when we bear in mind
the character of the armies they respectively com.
manded. Terror, moreover, is epidemic; and a
force already successful commonly finds its vic-
torious progress greatly aided by the prevailing
notion of its crowess. Thus we have witnessed,

FANATICISM OF THE ARABS.

in the wars of more disciplined troops, the tre-
mendous effect of a name alone.
It may be added, also, that the Saracen success
is greatly attributable to that ardent and impetuous
spirit of religious enthusiasm with which they
fought. They deemed their cause the cause of
God; heav: p, they were persuaded, was engaged
in their behalf; every one who fell in their wars
was a martyr; and cowardice was tantamount to
apostacy.
The religious ardour of the Crusaders, in the
eleventh and twelfth centuries, to exterminate Mo-
hammedanism, did not exceed, if it even equalled,
that of the Arab soldiers by whom that system
had been originally propagated. Whatever secu.
lar principles and ambition influenced them, they
took credit for fighting in the support of truth and
virtue. The sword and the Koran were equally
the companions and the instruments of their wars.
" The circumstance," says Paley, in his admirable
exhibition of the Evidences of Christianity,* "that
Mohammed's conquests should carry his religion
along with them, will excite little surprise when
we know the conditions which he proposed to
the vanquished: death or conversion was the only
choice offered to idolators. To the Jews and
Christians was left the somewhat milder alterna.
* Yol. ii., 4 3.

233

234 SUPERSTITION OF THE GREEKS.

tive of subjection and tribute if they persisted in
their own religion, or of an equal participation of
the rights and liberties, the honours and privileges
of the faithful if they embraced the religion of
their conquerors."
Literature, in the days of Mohammed, was as
little regarded as was pure and practical Chris.
tianity. His followers everywhere met with an
ignorant and easilydeluded people. Both the
monuments of science and the means of freedom
had been abolished by the barbarians of the North
Philosophy and the liberal arts found no patrons
among indolent and luxurious emperors and no.
bles. Superstition, therefore, naturally took pos.
session of the minds of men, and, as neither fears
nor hopes were moderated by knowledge, idle, pre-
posterous, and unnecessary ceremonies easily ob.
tained currency. Mohammed merely changed one
set of ceremonies for another; and in this there
was little difficulty, since, in the almost universal
darkness of mankind, terror and credulity every.
where prevailed.
The continuance of the religion of Mohammed
in countries after the Arab dominion over theml
had ceased, may be also easily accounted for.
" Everything in Asia is a matter of regulation ; and
freedom of opinion being but little permitted or
encouraged in the despotic governments of the

PERMANENCY OF THE MOSLEM FAITH. 235

East, 1Vohammedanism, when once received, be-
came stationary. The hurhan code is mingled
with the divine, and the ideas of change and prof-
anation are inseparable. As the unsettling of the
political and social fabric might ensue from a
change of modes of faith, all classes of men are in-
terested in preserving the national religion."* Be-
sides this, in their own nature religious doctrines
are more permanent in their hold than forms of
civil government: it may be questioned, for in-
stance, whether, whatever civil changes Scotland
might undergo, Presbyterianism would ever cease
to be the prevalent faith of its inhabitants. A peo-
ple may, with the overthrow of usurped civil pow-
er, return to their ancient religion, whatever it is:
but when once a religion has become, so to speak,
indigenous, it is likely to be permanent. Such is
the religion of the Koran both in Asia and Africa.
The elements of political weakness and decay
soon began to be developed in the chief seat of the
Saracen empire. In the earliest days of the ca-
liphate, after the accession of the Ommiade dynas-
ty, the princes of Damascus were regarded as the
heads of the Moslem faith; while the governors of
Arabia successively obtained, as to civil rule, their
independence. 'To this the widely-extended wars
in which the caliphs were engaged no doubt coum
* Mills, p. 179.

236 DECLINE OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE

tributed. Other provinces followed the example:
and, as the empire enlarged, the remoteness and
degeneracy of the Syrian court encouraged the
governors to assume to themselves everything ex.
cept the name of king, and to render their digni-
ties hereditary. All the provinces were nominally
connected with the empire by the payment of trib-
ute; but means were easily devised to withhold
this, under pretence of prosecuting the wars of the
caliph, though really to strengthen his rebellious
deputies against him. If in this we discover a
want of efficiency in the government, we need not
be surprised: the systems of the Macedonian hero
and of the Roman conquerors were equally defect-
ive; and perhaps we should attribute such defi-
ciency to a wise and beneficent arrangement of
Providence, which, that oppression may never be-
come permanent and universal, permits not any
empire for a very long time to hold dominion over
countries dissimilar in their habits and character,
and independent of each other.
To the establishment of these separate states, the
luxury and effeminacy of the court at Damascus in
no small degree contributed. In the, early periods
of the caliphate, simplicity and charity chiefly dis.
tinguished their rulers ; but, as the wealth and power
of the Saracens increased, they imitated the splen-
dour and magnificence of the monarchs of Persia

MAGNIFICENCE OF THE CALIPHS. 237
and (reece. Abulfeda says of the coulrt in the
year 917: "The Caliph Moctadi's whole army,
both horse and foot, were under arms, which to-
gether made a body of one hundred and sixty thou.
sand men. His state officers stood near him in
the most splendid apparel, their belts shining with
gold and gems. Near them were seven thousand
black and white eunuchs. The porters or door.
keepers were in number seven hundred. Barges
and boats, with the most superb decorations, were
swimming on the Tigris. Nor was the palace it.
self less splendid, in which were hung thirty-eight
thousand pieces of tapestry, twelve thousand five
hundred of which were of silk embroidered with
gold. The carpets on the floor were twenty-two
thousand. A hundred lions were brought out,
with a keeper to each lion. Among the other
spectacles of rare and stupendous luxury was a
tree of gold and silver, which opened itself into
eighteen larger branches, upon which and the
other smaller branches sat birds of every sort,
made also of gold and silver. The tree glittered
with leaves of the same metals; and while its
branches, through machinery, appeared to move of
themselves, the several birds upon them warbled
their natural notes."
When, moreover, decline had once commenced,
its progress was accelerated by the means taken

238 INDEPENDENT CALIPHATE OF SPAIN.

to arrest it. After the regular troops had been
corrupted by faction, the caliphs, for the defence of
their person and government, formed a militia;
but the soldiers composing this force, not unfre.
quently foreigners, soon governed with a military
despotism similar to that of the janizaries of Tur.
key, the Mamelukes of Egypt, or the praetorian
guards of Rome ; and, in addition to these causes
of decay, a furious spirit of sectarianism tore asun.
der the very strength and heart of the empire.
The colossal power of the successors of Moham.
med, suddenly towering to its awful height, almost
as suddenly fell, as if to yield more perfect confir.
mation of the truth, that all earthly things are des.
tined to pass away, while the word of the living
God abideth for ever.
Spain, as has been seen, was the first distant
province of the Arabian empire which succeeded
in separating itself and setting up an independent
caliph. *As this country had been brought under
the Moslem yoke by means chiefly furnished from
the northern states of Africa, its independence was
likely to produce a corresponding effect upon those
states. They were governed in the name of the
Bagdad caliphs; but for nearly a century they had
been growing into independence, under rulers usu.
ally known, from the name of their progenitor, as
the Aglabite dynasty. Early in the ninth century,

THE AFRICAN PROVINCES REVOLT. 239

the throne of Mauritania, Massilia, and Carthage
was seized by Obeidollah, whose successors as.
sumed the title of Mihidi, or directors of the faith-
ful. The districts of Fez and Tangiers, which had
been already wrested from the princes of Bagdad
by the real or pretended posterity of Ali, were
soon brought under his dominion; and, before the
end of the tenth century, all acknowledgment of
the Abbassidan rule was obliterated by the sup.
pression of public prayers for the princes of that
race. A succession of changes distracted the
country for some five centuries afterward; but,
about the year 1516, the descendants of Moham.
med were raised to the throne of Morocco, which
has been transmitted, without interruption, in the
same line, to its present possessors. Moez, the
last of the African princes of the house of Obeidol.
lah, who seems to have depended for his dominion
more on his prowess than on his supposed descent
from Mohammed,* transferred his court to Grand
Cairo, a city which he had built in Egypt after his
conquest of that country. Africa was to be held
as' a fief of this new empire. Large tracts of
Syria and the whole of Palestine acknowledged the

* When it was demanded of Moez from what branch of Mo-
hammed's family he drew his title, "This," said he, showing
his cimeter, " is my pedigree ; and these," throwing gold among
his soldiers, "are my children."

supremacy of his descendants, commonly known
as Fatimitgs, from their supposed relationship to
Ali, and to Fatima, the Prophet's daughter. They
possessed also the sovereignty of the Holy Land:
against them, therefore, the crusades of Europe
were chiefly directed. During these formidable
wars the caliphs of Egypt sought assistance from
those of Bagdad; and Noureddin, a prince of that
empire, protected them against their Western as.
sailants. The weakness of Egypt, however, came
thus to be known to the crafty and powerful ca-
liphs of Bagdad, and in a short time its Asiatic
dominions were seized upon by Noureddin and
Saladin: As Adhed, the last caliph of Egypt, was
dying in the mosque of Cairo, these generals pro.
claimed Morthadi, the thirty-third caliph of Bag.
dad, as his successor. Saladin, whose name, from
his activity, courage, and success against the cru.
saders, is better known to the readers 'of European
history than that of almost any other Mohammedan
prince, soon made himself master of Egypt; but
his successors could not maintain the power he
had acquired. The country is now governed by
the celebrated Mohammed Ali, nominally as vice.
roy of the Turkish emperor, though he is in reali.
ty a sovereign and independent prince.
The caliphs of the house of Abbas, having built
the city of Bagdad soon after their accession to the

240

SALADIG.

FIRST DYNASTY OF THE ABBASSIDES. 241

throne, transferred thither their court and the seat
of power. For five centuries they reigned there
with various degrees of authority; but foreign
wars and domestic revolts gradually dissolved the
empire,- and their dominion at length passed away.
Radhi, the twentieth caliph of the race, was " the
last," says Abulfeda, " who harangued the people
from the pulpit; who passed the cheerful hour of
leisure with men of learning and taste; whose ex-
penses, resources, and treasures, whose table and
magnificence, had any resemblance to those of the
ancient caliphs." "During the next three centu-
ries," says a modern historian of the Arabian em.
pire, "the successors of Mohammed swayed a fee-
ble sceptre. Sometimes their state was so de.
graded that they were confined in their palaces
like prisoners, and occasionally were almost re-
duced to the want of corporeal subsistence. The
tragic scenes of fallen royalty at length were
closed ; for, towards the middle of the seventh cen.
tury of the Hegira, the metropolis of Islamism fell
into the hands of Houlagou Khan, the grandson of
Zenghis Khan, and emperor of the Moguls and Tar
tars, who reigned at that period with absolute and
unmixed despotism over every nation of the East.
The caliph Mostasem, the thirty.seventh of his
house, was murdered under circumstances of pe.
culiar barbarity, and the caliphate of Bagdad ex.
T

242 SECOND DYNASTY OF THE ABBASSIDES.

pired. Though the 1dignity and sovereignty of the
caliphs were lost by this fatal event, and the soul
which animated the form had fled, yet the name
existed for three centuries longer in the eighteen
descendants of Mostanser Billah, a son, or pretend.
ed son, of Daker, the last but one of this race of
princes.
" Mostanser Billah and his successors, to the num.
ber of eighteen, were called the second dynasty of
the Abbassides, and were spiritual chiefs of the Mo.
hammedan religion, but without the slightest ves.
tige of temporal authority. When Selim, emperor
of the Turks, conquered Egypt and destroyed the
power of the Mamelukes, he carried the caliph,
whom he found there a prisoner, to Constantinople,
and accepted from him a renunciation of his eccle.
siastical supremacy. On the death of the caliph,
the family of the Abbassides, once so illustrious,
and which had borne the title of caliph for almost
eight hundred years, sunk with him from obscurity
into oblivion."*
* Mill's History, 10.

EARLY BARBARISM OF THE ARABS. 243

CHAPTER II.

Laterature and Science of the Arabs.-Their Facilities for Lit.
erary and Scientific Pursuits.-Patronage of Literature by
the Princes of the House of Abbas.--Almamoun.-Arabian
Schools.--Eloquence.---Poetry.-The Arabian Tales.-Histo-
ry.-Geography.-Speculative Sciences.-Astrology.--Math-
ematical Knowledge of the Arabs.-Astronomy.-Architec-
ture.-The Fine Arts.-Agriculture.-Medicine.-Chymistry.
--Our obligations to Arab Literature.

THE early followers of the Arabian prophet were
only enthusiastic military adventurers, subduing in
their wide and rapid progress most of the nations
of the then known world. The lust of power, and
successful military enterprise, are commonly un.
favourable to the cultivation of the liberal arts, so
that a conquering people usually exhibit but little
taste for science or literature. The Goths and
the Huns, for instance, were among the most im-
placable foes of knowledge. Nor did the early
Arabs regard it with more favour. Mohammed
found his countrymen sunk in the deepest barba.
rism : he was incapable of any direct effort to raise
them; and, from the 'ruthless destruction of the
Alexandrean library by Omar, one of his earliest
successors, they appear not to have been in a much

244 TASTE FOR LITERATURE EXCITED.

better condition after the close than at the com.
mencement of his eventful career.
Their settlement in the count:ies they had sub.
dued, the unlimited resources which their wide.
spread conquests placed within their reach, and
probably the leisure which their almost universal
dominion afforded, speedily led to a change in their
character in relation to literary pursuits, of which
the more enlightened nations of the West are still
reaping the advantage. It was about the ~middle
of the seventh century that Omar committed the
famous library of Alexandrea to the flames: be-
fore the end of the eighth, literature began to en-
joy the munificent patronage of the caliphs of the
Abbassidan race, who superinduced upon the stern
fanaticismn of the followers of the Prophet the soft-
ening influences of learning; and, by an anomaly
in the history of mankind, the most valuable les.
sons in science and the arts have been received
from a people who pursued with relentless hostil-
ity the religion and liberties of every other nation.
The Greeks were the most distinguished pa-
trons of literature and science. Among them phi.
losophy found its earliest home, and the arts are
commonly supposed to have sprung up chiefly un-
der their fostering care, though modern researches
have shown that much of their knowledge was de-
rived from still more ancient sources. Their phi-

PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS.

losophy, though greatly improved by them, was
borrowed from the mysteries of the Egyptian
priests and the Persian magi. Their system of
the universe, which made the nearest approach to
the more correct discoveries of modern times, was
previously known to the learned Hindus; and it
may admit of question whether their whole my.
thology, allowing for the additions which a chas.
tened and vivid imagination would make to it, had
not its prototype in some Asiatic religio-philosoph.
ical system. A learned writer on the erudition of
the Asiatics says, that the whole of the theology
of the Greeks, and part of the philosophy of mod.
ern scientific research, may be found in the Hindu
Vedas. He adds, " That most subtile spirit which
Newton suspected to pervade natural bodies, and
to lie concealed in them so as to cause attraction
and repulsion, the emission, reflection, and refrac.
tion of light, electrictiy, calefaction, sensation, and
muscular motion, is described by the Hindus as a
fifth element, endued with those very powers; and
the Vedas abound with allusions to a force univer-
sally attractive, which they chiefly attribute to the
sun." The extension, therefore, of the Arabian
victories over the Eastern world, and their entire
command, after the overthrow of the Greek em.
pire, of the resources possessed by that people,

245

246 MOHAMMED ENCOURAGES LEARNING.

gave them access to all the literary stores then in
existence.
It has been said, and probably not without good
reason, that Mohammed himself saw and felt the
importance of literary distinction. Among the
sayings attributed to him, the following has been
considered as evincing his sense of the value of
learning : "A mind without erudition is like a
body without a soul. Glory consists not in wealth,
but in knowledge;" and, as the Koran affords
abundant proof, he was by no means unmindful of
that mental cultivation, of which the means were
within his reach. His immediate followers, occu.
pied only with the ideas of conquest and conver.
sion, despised equally the religion and learning of
the nations they subdued; but when the age of
rapine and violence yielded at length to compara.
tive security and quiet, and the fair and splendid
city of the Oriental caliphs arose, the Muses were
courted from their ancient temples, and by the
milder and more graceful achievements of litera.
ture and science, efforts were made to expiate the
guilt of former conquest, and to shed a purer lustre
over the Mohammedan name.
Almansor; the second of the dynasty of the Ab.
bassides, whose reign commenced A.D. 754, and
lasted twenty-one years, was among the first of the
Arab princes to foster learning and the arts. Ju.

HAROUN AL RASCIIID.

risprudence and astronomy were the principal sub.
jects of his study, which, however, through the in.
struction of a Greek physician in his court, he ex-
tended to the art of healing, and probably to those
kindred arts with which, in all ages and countries,
medical science has been connected. What prog.
ress was made by himself or his subjects, we can.
not now ascertain. His two immediate successors
seem not to have trodden in his steps, though it is
probable they did not undo what he had done; for
the next caliph, Haroun al Raschid, is renowned
as one of the most munificent patrons that litera-
ture ever enjoyed. He was fond of poetry and
music: he is said to have constantly surrounded
himself with a great number of learned men; and
t6 him the Arabs were deeply indebted for the
progress in knowledge which they were enabled to
make. Every mosque in his dominions had a
school attached to it by his order; and, as if his
love of learning were superior even to his heredi-
tary faith, he readily tolerated men of science who
refused to yield to the bold pretensions of the
Prophet. A Nestorian Christian presided over his
schools, and directed the academical studies of his
subjects. His successor imitated his wise and gen.
erous course; and thus knowledge extended from
the capital to the most distant extremities of the
empire.

247

But it was during the reign of Almamoun, the
seventh of the Abbassidan princes, A.D. 813-833,
that literature flourished most among the Arabs.
Learned men, professors of the Christian faith, had
multiplied at Bagdad under the tolerant reigns of
his predecessors, and they were now liberally en.
couraged to unfold their ample stores of knowledge.
The copious language of Arabia was employed to
communicate whatever that of the- Greeks had
hitherto concealed, though, with a barbarism for
which it is difficult to account, many of the origi.
nal works were destroyed as soon as translations
of them were made. Almamoun in his youth had
associated with the most eminent scholars of
Greece, Persia, and Chaldea; and he now invi.
ted them to his court. Bagdad was resorted to
by poets, philosophers, and mathematicians, from
every country and of every creed. Armenia,
Syria, and Egypt were explored by his agents for
literary treasures, which were amassed with infi.
nite care, and presented at the foot of the throne
as the richest and most acceptable tribute that con.
quered provinces could render. Camels, hitherto
employed exclusively in traffic, were seen entering
the royal city laden with Hebrew, Persian, and
Grecian manuscripts. The court assumed the ap.
pearance rather of an academy than of a council
guiding the affairs of a luxurious and warlike gov.

248

ALMAIMOUIN.

SCHOOLS OF THE ARABS.

ernment, and all classes were encouraged to apply
themselves to the acquisition of knowledge with a
seal commensurate to the advantages thus afforded.
"I chose," said Almamoun, when remonstrated
with for appointing a learned Christian to an office
of no small influence over the intellectual pursuits
of his people, " I chose this learned man, not to be
my guide in religious affairs, but to be my teacher
Df science; and it is well known that the wisest
men are to be found among the Jews and Chris.
tians."*
Under such favourable auspices, it is not to be
wondered at that the Saracens became a literary
people. The caliphs of the West and of Africa
imitated their brethren of the East. " At one pe.
riod, six thousand professors and pupils cultivated
liberal studies in the college of Bagdad. Twenty
schools made Grand Cairo a chief seat of letters;
and the talents of the students were exercised in
the perusal of the royal library, which consisted of
one hundred thousand manuscripts. The African
writers dwell with pride and satisfaction on the lit.
erary institutions which adorned the towns on the
northern coast of their sandy plain. The sun of
science arose even in Africa, and the manners of
the Moorish savage were softened by philosophy.

* Abulferage, p. 160.
U

249

250 TWO CLASSES OF SCHOOLS.

Their brethren in Europe amassed numerous and
magnificent collections; two hundred and eighty
thousand volumes were in Cordova, and more than
seventy libraries were open to public curiosity in
the kingdom of Andalusia."
We know but little of the internal government
of the Arabian schools, or of the studies actually
pursued. Aristotle, no doubt, was the great mas-
ter to whom, in philosophy, all deference was paid.
The Prophet had prescribed their religion. Their
schools were of two kinds, or rather classes; the
one comprehending the inferior institutions, in
which elementary branches of instruction, such
as reading, writing, and religious doctrine were
chiefly attended to ; the other, called Madras, most-
ly connected with the mosques, as were all the
schools of the former class, included those institu-
tions in which the higher departments of knowl-
edge were explored. Here grammar, logic, the-
ology, and jurisprudence were studied. The man-
agement of each school was confided to a princi.
pal of known ability, and not always a Mohamme-
dan. The professors lectured on the several sci-
ences; and the pupils, if not in every department,
of which there is some doubt, certainly in that of
medicine, were publicly examined, and diplomas
were given under the hand of the chief physician.
Of elegant composition, the Koran was univer.

ELOQUENCE AND POETRY OF THE ARABS. 251

sally esteemed the model. Hence it was studied
with the most diligent care by all who sought to
distinguish themselves in the art of eloquence, one
of the leading acquirements of Arab scholars.
Subordinate to this pre-eminent composition, their
schools of oratory boasted of models scarcely infe-
rior to the celebrated orators of antiquity. Malek
and Shai-aif, the one for pathos, the other for brill.
iancy, are the chief of these. Horaiai was es.
teemed as the compeer of Demosthenes and Cicero.
Bedreddin, of Grenada, was their "torch of elo.
quence ;" and Sekaki obtained the honourable des-
ignation of the Arabian Quinctilian.
The ancient Arabs were much inclined to poe-
try. The wild, romantic scenery of the land they
inhabited, the sacred recollections of their earliest
history, the life they led, everything around them,
contributed to poetic inspiration. After the revi-
val of letters, this art was cultivated with enthusi.
asm. The heroic measures of Ferdousi, the didac-
tic verses of Sadi, and the lyric strains of Hafiz, even
through the medium of imperfect translations, dis.
cover animated descriptions, bold metaphors, and
striking expressions, that at once delight and sur-
prise us. In splendour, if not in strength, the po.
ets of the courts of Haroun and Almamoun, or
those of the Ommiades of Spain, have, perhaps, in
no age been excelled. In this art, as among other

252 CHARACTER OF ARAB POETRY.

people, so among the Arabs, the fair sex have dis.
tinguished themselves. Valadata, Aysha, Labana,
Safia, and others, have obtained the highest enco.
miums.
So great is the number of Arabian poets, that
Abul Abbas, a son of Motassem, who wrote an
abridgment of their lives in the ninth century, num-
bers one hundred and thirty. Other authors have
occupied twenty-four, thirty, and one no less than
fifty volumes, in recording their history.
The Arabs, hovver, are entirely without epic
poetry, so important a department of the art; nor
have they anything that may be properly ranked
as dramatic composition. Sophocles, Euripides,
Terence, and Seneca, the classic models of Greece
and Rome, they despised as timid, constrained, and
cold; and under whatever obligation to these an-
cient nations the Arabs may have been in other
departments of literature, they owe them nothing,
or next to nothing, in this. Their poetry was
original and local; their figures and comparisons
were strictly their own. To understand and prop.
erly appreciate them, we must have a knowledge
of the productions of their country, and of the char.
acter, institutions, and manners of its inhabitants.
The muse delights in illustrations and figures bor.
rowed from pastoral life; that of Judea revels
among the roses of Sharon, the verdant slopes of

ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENT. 253

Carmel, and the glory of Lebanon; while the
Arab muse selects for her ornaments the pearls of
Omar, the musk of Hadramaut, the groves and
nightingales of Aden, and the spicy odours of Ye.
men. If these appear to us fantastic, it must be
remembered they are borrowed from objects and
scenes to which we are almost utter strangers.
Who is not familiar with the Alif lita wa lilin,
or the thousand and one tales, commonly known
as the Arabian Nights' Entertainment ? Some
have questioned whether they are an original
work, or a translation from the Indian or Persian,
made in the Augustan age of Arab literature : a
doubt certainly not warranted by any want of ex-
actness in their description of Arabian life and
manners. They seem to have been originally the
legends, of itinerant story-tellers, a class of persons
still very numerous in every part of the Moham-
medan world. The scenes they unfold, true to na.
ture; the simplicity displayed in their characters,
their beauty and their moral instruction, appeal ir.
resistibly to the hearts of all; while the learned
concede to them the merit of more perfectly descri-
bing the manners of the singular people from whom
they sprung, than the works of any traveller, how.
ever accomplished and indefatigable.
Of history the ancient Arabs were strangely
negligent; but, by the more modern, this depart.

254 HISTORICAL WORKS OF THE ARAB.

ment of knowledge has been cultivated with greater
care and success. Annals, chronicles, and me.
moirs, almost numberless, are extant among them:
kingdoms, provinces, and towns are described, and
their history is narrated in volumes, a bare cat.
alogue of which would extend to a wearisome
length. They abound, however, more in the fan.
ciful than in the substantial and correct. Of this,
the titles of some of the most approved works of
this kind may be taken as specimens: A Chro-
nology of the Caliphs of Spain and Africa is de.
nominated " A Silken Vest, embroidered with the
Needle ;" a History of Grenada, "A Specimen of
the Full Moon ;" Ibu Abbas and Abu Bakri are
authors of historical collections, entitled respect.
ively, "Mines of Silver," and " Pearls and picked.
up Flowers." Yet some of their writers, as Ibn
Katibi, are chiefly remarkable for the extent and
accuracy of their historical knowledge; and some
of their works are exceedingly voluminous. A
full history of Spain occupied six authors in suc-
cession, and cost the labour of one hundred and
fifteen years to complete. Their biography was
not confined to men. Ibn Zaid and Abul Mon.
dar wrote a genealogical history of distinguished
horses; and Alasucco and Abdolmalec performed
the same service for camels worthy of being had
in remembrance. Encyclopaedias and gazetteers,

KNOWLEDGE OF GEOGRAPIHY.

with dictionaries of the sciences and other similar
works, occupied Arabian pens long before they
came into vogue among more modern literati.
Every species of composition, indeed, and almost
every subject, in one age or another, have engaged
the attention of learned Mohammedans.
Geography they did not so well understand,
their means of acquiring knowledge on this sub-
ject being exceedingly limited. Yet their public
libraries could boast of globes, voyages, and itin
eraries, the productions of men who travelled to
acquire geographical information. With statistics
and political economy they had but an imperfect
acquaintance; yet so early as the reign of Omar
II. we find a work devoted to these subjects, giv-
ing an account of the provinces and cities of Spain,
with its rivers, ports, and harbours; of the cli-
mate, soil, mountains, plants, and minerals of that
country; with its imports, and the manner in which
its several productions, natural and artificial, might
be manufactured and applied to the best advantage.
Money, weights, and measures, with whatever else
political economy may be understood to include,
were also subjects which employed their ingenious
speculations, and, in some cases, their laborious re.
search.
The speculative sciences, scarcely less than po.
!ite literature, flourished among the Arabs. In.

255

STUDY OF ASTROLOGY.

deed, what superstitious, enthusiastic people has
ever neglected these ? Their ardour in the more
dignified of these pursuits was badly regulated;
subtleties were preferred to important practical
truths; and, frequently, the more ingenious the
sophism, constructed after the rules of Aristotle,
the more welcome was it to men who rendered to
that philosopher a homage almost idolatrous. The
later Arabs, and the Turks of the present day, pay
no little attention to astrology, though it is strong
ly prohibited by their Prophet. This science was
universally employed by the idolaters, against whom
his denunciations are scarcely less inveterate than
are those of the inspired volume; and doubtless
he apprehended that its prevalence would hazard
the integrity, if not the very existence, of his own
system of religion. For many ages, therefore, it
was discountenanced; but, at length, the habit of
consulting the stars on important public occasions
became frequent, and was attended with as much
anxiety and as many absurd ceremonies as dis.
graced the nations of antiquity. Among the mod.
ern Mohammedans, no dignity of state is con-
ferred; no public edifice is founded, except at a
time recommended by astrologers. These pre-
tenders to knowledge are supported by persons of
rank; and in vain do the more enlightened part of
the community exclaim that astrology is a false

256

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYS1CAL SCIENCE. 25

science. " Do not think," said a prime minister,
who had been consulting a soothsayer as to the
time of putting on a new dress, " that I am such a
fool as to put faith in all this nonsense; but I must
not make my family unhappy by refusing to com-
ply with forms which some of them deem of con.
sequence."
After these references to the polite literature of
the Arabs, it will be expected that they should
have paid attention to the natural sciences. They
were not, indeed, discoverers and inventors, but
they considerably improved upon what they ac-
quired in their extensive intercourse with other na-
tions; and, as forming the link which unites an-
cient and modern letters, they are entitled to our
respect and gratitude. We derive our mathemat-
ics from them; and to them, also, we owe much
of our astronomical knowledge. Almamoun, by
a liberal reward, sought to engage in his service a
famous mathematician of Constantinople ; and Ibn
Korrah enriched the stores of his country in this
department with translations of Archimedes and
the conics of Apollonius. Some have said that,
on the revival of European literature in the fif-
teenth century, mathematical science was found
nearly in the state in which it had been left by Eu.
clid; and the justly celebrated Briicker contends,
that the Arabs made no progress whatever in this

258 TRIGONOMETRY AND ALGEBRA.

most important branch of knowledge: later wri
ters, however, and particularly Montucla, the au.
thor of the HI-istoire des Mathematiques, have done
ample justice to their researches. Numerical char-
acters, without which our study of the exact sci.
ences were almost in vain, beyond all doubt came
to us from the Arabs: not that they invented them
--it is probable they were originally words, per.
haps Hindu words, expressing the quantities they
respectively represent, but abbreviated and brought
to their present convenient form by the followers
of the Prophet. Trigonometry and algebra are
both indebted to their genius. The sines of the
one of these sciences instead of the more ancient
chord, and the representatives of quantities in the
other, descend through the Arabs to us, if they did
not at first invent them. Original works on spher-
ical trigonometry are among the productions of Ibn
Musa and Geber, the former of whom is accounted
the inventor of the solution of equations of the sec-
ond degree. The University of Leyden still re-
tains a manuscript treatise on the algebra of cubic
equations, by Omar ibn Ibrahim; and Casiri, who
preserved and classed 1851 manuscripts, even after
a fire had destroyed the magnificent collection of
the Escurial, informs us, that the principles and
praises of algebraic science were sung in an elab.
orate poem by Alcassem, a native of Grenada,

ASTRONOMY OF THE ARABS.

These departments of knowledge were studied by
the Arabs as early as the eighth and ninth cen.
turies.
Astronomy, the science of a pastoral people, and
eminently so. in regions with an almost cloudless
sky, like the East, was studied with great eager-
ness by Arabian philosophers. Almamoun, who
has been before mentioned, was ardently devoted
to it: at his cost the necessary instruments of ob.
servation were provided, and a complete digest of
the science was made. The land where, many
ages before, this science had been successfully
studied by the Chaldeans, was in his power, and
upon its ample plains a degree of the earth's circle
was repeatedly measured, so as to determine the
whole circumference of the globe to be twenty-
four thousand miles. The obliquity of the ecliptic
they settled at twenty-three degrees and a half:
the annual movement of the equinoxes and the du.
ration of the tropical year were brought to within
a very little of the exact observations of modern
times, the slight error they admitted resulting from
the preference they gave to the system of Ptolemy.
Albathani, or, as his name has been Latinized, Al-
batenius, in the ninth century, after contnuing his
observations for forty years, drew up tables, known
as the Sabean tables, which, though not now in very
high repute because of more accurate calculations,

259

260 ARCHITECTURE OF THE ARABS.

were for a long time justly esteemed. Other Ara.
bian astronomers have rendered considerable ser-
vice to this science. Mohammedanism did not,
like ancient paganism, adore the stars; but its dis.
ciples studied them with a diligence, without which,
perhaps, Newton, Flamstead, and Halley had ob-
served and calculated almost in vain.
Architecture was an art in which the Arabs
greatly excelled; their wide extension gave them
command of whatever was worthy of observation,
and their vast revenues afforded the most abun-
dant means of indulging a taste thus called into
exercise. The history of Arabian architecture
comprises a period of about eight centuries, in.
eluding its rise, progress, and decay : their building
materials were mostly obtained from the ruined
structures and cities that fell into their hands; and
if no one particular style was followed by them, it
was because they successfully studied most of the
styles then known. On their buildings but little
external art was bestowed; all their pains were
exhausted on the interior, where no expense was
spared that could promote luxurious ease and per.
sonal comfort. Their walls and ceilings were
highly embellished, and the light was mostly ad.
mitted in such manner as, by excluding all exter-
ial objects, to confine the admiration of the specta.
tor to tho beauties produced within. With the at

THE FINE ARTS AMONG THE ARABS. 261
of preserving their structures from decay they must
have had an adequate acquaintance. Their stucco
composition may still be found as hard as stone,
without a crack or flaw : the floors and ceilings of
the Alhambra, the ancient palace of Grenada, have
been comparatively uninjured by the neglect and
dilapidation of nearly seven centuries; while their
paint retains its colour so bright and rich as to be
occasionally mistaken for mother-of-pearl. Sir
Christopher Wren derives the Gothic architec-
ture from the Mohammedans; and the crescent
arch, a symbol of one of the deities anciently wor.
shipped throughout the heathen world, was first
adopted by the Arabs of Syria, and invariably used
in all the edifices erected during the supremacy of
the Ommiades. The succeeding dynasty declined
following this model; but, during the reign of the
house of Moawiyah, in Spain, it was imitated from
the Atlantic to the Pyrenees.
The fine arts, painting, and sculpture, were not
so much cultivated among the early Mohamme-
dans: they were thought to involve a breach of the
divine law. In this particular they agreed with
the Jews. Subsequently, however, these scruples
were, by degrees, overcome; that style of embel-
lishment denominated Arabesque, which rejects
figures of men and animals, being first adopted,
and afterward sculpture, more nearly resembling

MUSIC OF THE ARABS.

that of modern times. The Alhambra, or palace of
that suburb, had its lions, its ornamented tiles, and
its paintings. Abdalrahman III. placed a statue
of his favourite mistress over the palace he erected
for her abode. Music was ardently cultivated.
At first, in the desert, its strains were rude and
simple; subsequently, the professors of the art were
as much cherished, honoured, and rewarded, as
were the poets in the courts of the Arab sover.
eigns. Many were celebrated for their skill in
this art, especially Isaac Almouseli. Al Farabi
has been denominated the Arabian Orpheus: by
his astonishing command of the lute, he could pro.
duce laughter, or tears, or sleep in his auditors at
pleasure. He wrote a considerable work on mu.
sic, which is preserved in the Escurial. Abul Fa-
ragi is also a famous writer among the Moham.
medans on this subject. To them we are indebted
for the invention of the lute, which they accounted
more perfect than any other instrument; the use,
also, of many of our modern instruments, as the
organ, flute, harp, tabor, and mandoline, was com.
mon among them. Some say that the national in-
strument of the Scottish highlander is taken from
them.
In many of the useful arts of modern days the
Arabs were proficients ; as agriculture, gardening,
metallurgy, and the preparing of leather. The

262

MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ARABS. 2b3

names Morocco and Cordovan are still applied, in
this latter art, to leather prepared after the Ara.
bian method. They manufactured and dyed silk
and cotton, made paper, were acquainted with the
use of gunpowder, and have claims to the honour
of inventing the mariner's compass. But perhaps
there is no art in which their knowledge is so much
a subject of curious inquiry as medicine. Their
country was salubrious, their habits simple, and
their indulgences few; so that large opportunities
of practically studying the art, at least among the
Arabs of earlier date, would not occur. Anatomy,
except that of the brute creation, was shut up from
their study by the prejudices of their creed; yet
they excelled in medical skill. Hareth ibn Kaldar,
an eminent practitioner settled at Mecca, was hon.
oured with the conversation and applause of Mo.
hammed. Honain was an eminent Arab physi.
cian in the middle of the sixth century; Messue,
the celebrated preceptor of Almamoun, belonged
to this profession; and a host of others adorn the
early annals of the Saracens. Al Rhagi, or Rha.
ges, as commonly called, and Abdallah ibn Sina,
or Avicenna, are names to which, for centuries,
deference was paid by professors of the healing art
throughout Europe, though it would not be difficult
to show that their doctrines and practice must
have been beyond measure absurd. They admin.

264 CHYMISTRY AMONG THE ARABS.

istered gold, and silver, and precious stones to
purify the blood.
Of chymistry, so far as it relates to medicine,
the Arabs may be considered as the inventors;
and bottny, in the same c nnexion, they cultivated
with great success. Geber, in the eighth century,
is known as their principal chymical writer; he is
said to have composed five hundred volumes, a.
most every one of which is lost. The early nom.
enclature of the science indicates how much it owes
to this people. Alcohol, alembic, alkali, aludel,
and other similar terms, are evidently of Arabic
origin; nor should it be forgotten that the charac-
ters used for drugs, essences, extracts, and medi.
cines, the import of which is now almost entirely
unknown (and which are consequently invested,
in vulgar estimation, with occult powers), are all to
be traced to the same source.
It may be impossible now to estimate accurately
the extent of our obligations to Arabian literature.
An empire so widely spread, by the encourage-
ment it gave to letters, must have had a beneficial
influence on almost every country. Europeans,
whether subject to its sway or only contemplating
it from a distance, copied or emulated the exam-
ple. Gerbert, who subsequently occupied the pa.
pal chair as Silvester II., acquired the Arabic
method of computation during his travels in Spain,

OBLIGATIONS OF SCIENCE TO THIE ARABS. 265

previously to his elevation. Leonardo, a Pisan
merchant, obtained a knowledge of the same art in
his intercourse with the Mohammedans on the
coast of Africa; and by him it was introduced into
his own native republic, from whence it was soon
communicated to the Western World. In the city
of Salernum, a port of Italy, Mussulmans and Chris.
tians so intermixed as to communicate insensibly
the literature of the Saracens to the Italians, and
in the schools of that city students were collected
from every quarter of Europe. Arabic books, by
command of Charlemagne, were translated into
Latin for the use of learned men throughout his
vast empire; and, without exaggerating the merits
of the followers of the Prophet, it may be admitted
that we are indebted to them for the revival of the
exact and physical sciences, and for many of those
useful arts and inventions that have totally changed
the aspect of European literature, and are still
contributing to the civilization, freedom, and best
interests of man.
x

266 PRESENT CONDITION OF MOHAMMEDANISM.

CHAPTER III.
The present Condition of Mohammedanism.--In Turkey.--The
Doctrines believed there.-Their Forms of Devotion.-Lus-
trations.-Prayer.-Mohammedan Sabbath.--Fast of Rama-
dan.-Meccan Pilgrimage.--Proselytism.-Mohammedan Hi-
erarchy.-Islamism in Tartary.-In Hindustan.-In China.-
In Persia.--In Africa. -In the Indian Archipelago.--The
Sooffees.-The Wahabees.

THE present condition of the Mohammedan faith,
with some account of the standing it maintains in
the world, will not be deemed an inappropriate sub.
ject for the closing pages of this volume. Its vo.
taries have long ceased to spread alarm through
the nations by their victorious and devastating prog.
ress; the fire of its fanaticism is almost extinct;
nevertheless, its doctrines prevail over a larger
number of mankind than any other system of false
religion: they are professed in nations and coun.
tries remote from each other, and having no other
mutual resemblance than that involved in their
common superstition. In Spain, indeed, Christi.
anity has triumphed over Islamism; and in the in-
hospitable regions of Siberia, a part of the ancient
Tartary, its advance has been somewhat checked;
but in middle and lower Asia, and in Africa, the

TURKISH EMPIRE.

number of Mohammed's followers has increased.
We cannot state with accuracy the number either
of Mohammedan or of nominal Christians; but,
looking at religion geographically, while Christi.
anity has almost entire dominion in Europe, in
Asia Islamism is the dominant faith: in America
the cross is rapidly becoming the symbol of faith
throughout both its vast continents; but in Africa
the crescent waves to tlhe almost entire exclusion
of every other emblem.
It is in Turkey that Mohammedanism exists at
the present day in its most perfect form. To this
country, therefore, our attention shall be first di-
rected.
Constantinople, anciently called Byzantium, and
the countries over which the Greek emperors re-
siding in that city reigned, were subdued by the
powerful caliphs of Bagdad, while those of Spain
and the West were endeavouring to push their con-
quests over the fairest portions of Europe. The
situation of Constantinople and the surrounding
empire lay especially open to the Eastern Moham.
medans, whose warlike incursions were incessant.
Tartars from Asia overran the empire. Othman,
in the early part of the thirteenth century, laid the
foundation of Turkish greatness. Orchan, Amu-
rath, and Bajazet, his successors, amid both for.
eign and domestic wars, greatly contributed to its

267

TURKISH EMPIRE.

establishment and increase. The children of the
last of these conquerors threw the empire into a
frightful state of distraction by their unnatural
quarrels, till, at last, the youngest of them, named
after the Prophet, restored its integrity, and es.
tablished something like domestic tranquillity. Un.
der a grandson of his, Mohammed II., whom Bayle
describes as one of the greatest men recorded in
history, the Morea was subjugated, and the Greek
empire, so long shaken by internal dissensions, and
tottering to dissolution by its luxury, was trampled
in the dust by the Moslem conquerors. Constan.
tinople at last yielded to their power, and a palace
for the victor was erected on the very spot which
Constantine had chosen for his magnificent abode.
From this time to that of Solyman the Magnifi.
cent, to whom the Turks owe their laws and po.
lice, the empire continued to prosper, but immedi.
ately afterward its decline commenced. Letters
and science have made but little progress among
that people, and their sultans have possessed none
of the martial enterprise and energy of their early
predecessors; still the faith of Mohammed has
maintained, and down to this day continues to main-
tain, a hold which it enjoys in almost no other
country.
The Turks generally repose the most implicit
faith in the two leading articles of the Mohamme-

268

RELIGIOUS CREED OF THE TURKS 269

dan creed, that there is but one God, and that Mo.
hammed is his Prophet; and since, in the opinion
of the Moslems, a simple assent to these doctrines
comprises all that is valuable in religion, and wil
be surely followed by the possession of heaven,
either immediately or remotely, it is readily con.
ceivable that infidelity will be exceedingly rare.
In religious matters, the heart opposes not so much
what is to be believed as what is to be done.
Minor points of their theology have been from
time to time disputed, but these may be regarded
as generally settled. Predestination is one of the
chief dogmas on which the faith of the Turk is
as firmly fixed as on the most momentous article
in his creed. Fatalism was the great engine em.
ployed by Mohammed in establishing his religion;
and among the Tlrks this doctrine is received as
regulating their destiny, controlling all events, and
determining the results of every individual's ac-
tions; thus unnerving the soul fqr generous and
manly enterprise, and casting a lethargy on the
whole nation. In everything the operations of rea-
son are checked, and even made to wait for the
imagined manifestations of Deity. According to
the creed of the Turks, not only is everything
foreknown to God, but everything is predetermined,
and brought about by his direct and immediate
agency.

DOCTRINE OF FATALISM.

The Turk is keen and wise in his ordinary
transactions: in promoting his own interests, he
knows how to exercise the powers of his mind;
but, when difficulty or doubt overtakes him, he
makes no effort. Tile thick cloud of his misfor-
tunes is suffered to remain; his troubles are yield.
ed to with sullen indifference ; he considers it im-
pious to oppose the determinations of the Most
High. To all improvement, such a doctrine is a
decided and invincible foe ; in some circumstances,
however, it appears to have its advantages. Does
a Mohammedan suffer by calamity? Is he plun-
dered or ruined? He does not fruitlessly bewail
his lot. His answer to all murmuring suggestions
is, " It was written ;" and to the most unexpected
transition from opulence to poverty, he submits
without a sigh. The approach of death does not
disturb his tranrquillity; he makes his ablution, re-
peats his prayers, professes his belief in God and
his Prophet, and in a last appeal to the aid of affec.
tion, he says to his child, " turn my head towards
Mecca," and calmly expires.
A people's religion is traced in their established
and common forms of devotion, and none are more
attentive to these than the Turks. To neglect
any ceremony which their religion prescribes, is
deemed a mark either of inferior understanding or
of depraved character. Public decorum is every.

2'70

PURIFICATIONS AMONG TIlE TURKS. 271

where observed; and though both moral and reli-
gious precepts are violated with impunity and
without remorse, they are always spoken of with
great respect. A Mohammedan is never ashamed
to defend his faith; and of his sincerity and firm-
ness, the earnestness of his vindication may be ta.
ken as sufficient proof: he not unfrequently inter-
rupts the progress of conversation by repeating his
religious formula. In the Turkish towns, travel-
lers are incessantly met with the cry of Allah Ack-
bar; and by Mussulmans, who would be esteemed
pious, the divine name is as frequently repeated as
if reverent and devout thoughts were habitually up-
permost in their minds.
Purifications are constantly, and with great strict.
ness, performed by the Mussulmans of every coun-
try, but especially by those of Turkey. Their
professed object is to render the body fit for the
decorous performance of religious duties; no act
being praiseworthy or acceptable; in their estima-
tion, unless the person of the performer be in a
condition of purity. Some have thought, but with-
out sufficient grounds, that these external purifica-
tions are believed to supersede an inward cleans-
ing of the heart. Fountains placed round their
mosques, and numerous baths in every city, ena-
ble the devout to perform their five prayers daily,
during which, if they chance to receive pollution

FREQUENT PRAYERS.

from anything accidentally coming in contact with
them, their devotions are suspended till the offen-
sive. inconvenience is removed by water or other
means.
At the appointed hour, the Maazeens or criers,
with their faces towards Mecca, their eyes closed,
and their hands upraised, pace the little galleries
of the minarets or towers of the mosques, and
proclaim in Arabic, the Moslem language of devo.
tion, that the season of prayer has arrived. In-
stantly, every one, whatever may be his rank or
employment, gives himself up to it. Ministers of
state suspend the most important affairs, and pros.
trate themselves on the floor; the tradesman for-
gets his dealings, and transforms his shop into a
place of devotion; and the student lays aside his
books, to go through his accustomed supplications.
"Never to fail in his prayers" is the highest com-
mendation a Turk can receive; and so prejudicial
is the suspicion 'of irreligion, that even libertines
dare not disregard the notices of the Maazeen.
The mosques, like chapels in Catholic countries,
are always open, and two or three times every day
prayers are offered within their walls. It has often
been remarked, that the devotions of Christians
might acquire something valuable from the gravity,
the decorum, and the apparently intense occupa-
tion of mind in Turkish worship. The Jews trod

272

SABBATH OF THE TURKS.

their holy place barefoot: the Turks, on the con-
trary, keep on their boots and shoes. Christians
uncover their heads in prayer; the Moslems sel.
dom lay aside their turbans; but for hours they
will remain prostrate, or standing in one position,
as if absorbed in the most intense abstraction.
They have neither altars, pictures, nor statues in
their places of worship. Verses of the Koran, the
names and personal descriptions of their Prophet,
of Ali and his two sons, Hassan and Hosein, with
other Moslem saints, are sometimes inscribed in
letters of gold on their walls. All distinctions of
rank and profession are forgotten when they pray.
Persons of every class, on the first sound of the ac.
customed cry, cast themselves on the ground, and
thus declare their belief in the equality of mankind,
in the sight of the great Father of all.
The Mohammedans of Turkey have a Sabbath,
for which the Jewish or Christian may be supposed
to have furnished the model. Friday is their day
of rest, which commences on the preceding even.
ing, when the illuminated- minarets and colon-
nades of the mosques give to their cities the ap-
pearance of a festival. At noon, on Friday, all
business is suspended, the mosques are filled, and
prayers are read by the appointed officers, accom-
panied by the prostrations of the people. Dis-
courses are likewise frequently delivered on prac-

273

274 NATURE OF THEIR PRAYERS.

tical points in their theology; and sometimes, in
the ardour of excitement, political corruption and
courtly depravity are fiercely assailed. A volup.
tuous sultan has been known, under the effect of
these discourses, to tear himself from the soft in-
dulgences of his harem and court, to lead his mar.
tial subjects to war and victory on the plains of
their enemies. As soon as the public religious ser-
vices are concluded, all return to their ordinary
pursuits; the day, however, is strictly observed by
all blasses in the manner prescribed by law, it be-
ing a received maxim that he who, without legiti-
mate cause, absents himself from public devotion
on three successive Fridays, abjures his religion.
It is worthy of observation, that the prayers of the
Turks consist chiefly of adoration, of confessions
of the Divine attributes and the nothingness of
man, and of homage and gratitude to the Supreme
Being. A Turk must not pray for the frail and
perishable blessings of this life; the health of the
sultan, the prosperity of his country, and divisions
and wars among the Christians alone excepted.
The legitimate object of prayer they hold to be
spiritual gifts, and happiness in a future state of
being.
No one of their religious institutions is more
strictly observed by the Turks than the fast of
Ramadan. He who violates it is reckoned either

FAST OF RAMADAN.

an infidel or an apostate; and if two witnesses es-
tablish his offence, he is deemed to have incurred
the severest penalty of the law. Abstinence from
food, and even from the use of perfumes, from sun-
rise to sunset, is enjoined. The rich pass the
hours in meditation and prayer, the grandees sleep
away their time, but the labouring man, pursuing
his daily toil, most heavily feels its rigour. "When
the month of Ramadan happens in the extremities
of the seasons, the prescribed abstinence is almost
intolerable, and is more severe than the practice of
any moral duty, even to the most vicious and de.
praved of mankind." During the day all traffic
is suspended; but in the evening, and till late at
night, it is actively carried on in the streets, shops,
and bazars, most splendidly illuminated. From
sunset to sunrise, revelry and excess are indulged
in. Every night there is a feast among the great
officers of the court: the reserve of the Turkish
character is laid aside, and friends and relations
cement their union by mutual intercourse. Sump-
tuous banquets and convivial hilarity are universal;
and, were not women everywhere excluded from
the tables of the men, the pleasure of the festivals
would amply compensate the rigorous self-denial
of their fasts.
The pilgrimage to Mecca is with the Turks
more a matter of form than of reality. Its im-

275

PILGRIMAGE TC MECCA.

portance as a part of the Moslem ritual is admittea,
and apparently felt, but the number of pilgrims an.
nually decreases. " The sultan, having dominion
over the country through which the pilgrims must
pass, preserves the public ways leading to the ven-
erated city; the best soldiers of his empire are
charged with the protection of the caravans, which
are sometimes numer0us; but of his own subjects,
properly so called, few comparatively accompany
them ; they are made up of devotees from a greater
distance. The sultan, no doubt, encourages the
pilgrimage as much on commercial as on reli-
gious grounds. The Koran has determined it to
be very proper to intermingle commerce and reli-
gion: "It shall be no crime in you," it says, "if
ye seek an increase from your Lord by trading
during the pilgrimage." Accordingly, articles of
easy carriage and ready sale are brought by the
pilgrims from every country. The productions
and manufactures of India thus find their way into
other parts of Asia and throughout Africa. The
muslins and chintses of Bengal and the Deccan,
the shawls of Cashmere, the pepper of Malabar,
the diamonds of Golconda, the peaIr s of Kilkau,
the cinnamon of Ceylon, and the spices of the Mo.
luccas, are made to yield advantage to the Otto-
man empire, and the luxury of its subjects is sus-
tained by contributions from the most distant na-
tions.

276

PROSELYTISM AMONG THE TURKS. 277

Mohammedans of the present day, at least those
of Turkey, are less anxious to make proselytes
than were those of a former age. Those of India
and Africa may, to some extent, still retain the
sentiment, that to convert infidels is an ordinance
of God, and must be observed by the faithful in all
ages; but in Turkey little desire of this kind is
felt, chiefly because, by a refinement of uncharita-
bleness, the conversion of the world is deemed un-
worthy of their endeavours. Now and then a de-
vout Moslem, instigated by zeal or personal attach-
ment, may offer up this prayer for a Jew or a
Christian: " Great God, enlighten this infidel; and-
graciously dispose his heart to embrace thy holy
religion;" and perhaps to a youth, esteemed for
his talents or knowledge, the language of persua.
sion may occasionally be addressed with an air of
gentleness and urbanity; but the zeal of the mis-
sionary is in such cases commonly subject to what
are conceived to be the rules of good breeding, and
a vague reply or silence is regarded as an indica.
tion that the subject is disagreeable, and should
not be continued. A Mussulman may pray for the
conversion of infidels, but, till they are converted,
no blessing may be supplicated in their behalf.
"Their death is eternal, why pray for them ?" is
the language of the Mohammedan creed: do not

THE OULEMA.

"defile your feet by passing over the graves of
men who are enemies of God and of his Prophet."
Of the Mohammedan hierarchy, some idea may
be obtained from the form it assumes in Turkey.
The Koran is considered the treasure of all laws,
divine and human, and the caliphs as the deposita-
ries of this treasure; so that they are at once the
pontiffs, legislators, and judges of the people, and
their office combines all authority, whether sacer.
dotal, regal, or judicial. To the grand sultan titles
are given, styling him the vicar, or the shadow of
God. The several powers which pertain-to him
in this august capacity are delegated to a body of
learned men, called the Oulema. In this body
three descriptions of officers are included: the
ministers of religion, called the Imams; the ex.
pounders of the law, called the Muftis; and the
ministers of justice, called the Cadis. The minis.
ters of religion are divided into chief and inferior,
the former of whom only belong to the Oulema.
Both classes are made up of Sheiks, or ordinary
preachers; the Khatibs, readers or deacons; the
Imams, a title comprising those who perform the
service of the mosque on ordinary days, and those
to whom pertain the ceremonies of circumcision,
marriage, and burial; the Maazeens, or criers,
who announce the hours of prayer; and the Cay-
uns, or common attendants of the mosque. The

278

MINISTERS OF RELIGION

idea of this classification was, perhaps, taken from
the Mosaic priesthood; the Khatib being the Aa-
ron, and the next four the several orders of the
. Levites, with thleir servants or helpers. The inm.
perial temples have one Sheik, one Khatib, from
two to four Imams, twelve Maazeens, and twenty
Cayuns, among whom, except in a few of the chief
mosques of Constantinople, the Khatibs have the
pre-eminence. All these ministers are subject to
the civil magistrate, who is looked upon as a sort
of diocesan, and who may perform at any time all
the sacerdotal functions. The ministers of religion
are not distinguishable from other people; they mix
in the same society, engage in similar pursuits, and
affect no greater austerity than marks the behaviour
of Mussulmans generally. Their influence depends
entirely on their reputation for learning and tal-
ents, for gravity and correct moral conduct; their
employment is, for the most part, very simple, as
chanting aloud the public service, and performing
such offices as every master of a family may dis.
charge. As Mohammedanism acknowledges no
sacrifices, it appoints no priests; the duties per.
formed by the ministers of religion being seeming.
ly devolved on them more as a matter of conve-
nience than on account of any sacredness attaching
to their order.
The vast country to which the general name of

279

280 EXTENT OF TIE MOHAMMEDA FAITH.

Tartary has been given, is that fromn whence Mo.
hammedanism has gone forth to the East, the West,.
and the South. In Thibet, the Grand Lama and
various national idols hold divided empire with the
Prophet; and in the inhospitable regions of Siberia,
the churches of Greece and Russia have success.
fully promulgated the Christian doctrines; while
the Circassians, with some other Tartar races, are
almost without religion. In the Crimea, the peo-
ple are Mussulmans, as rigid and devoted as the
Turks; and over the vast tract called by modern
geographers Independent Tartary, the crescent tri-
umphantly waves. From these regions sprung, in
the earlier ages of Mohammedan conquest, those
vast empires which, in the East, comprise so large
a number of the professors of the faith of Islam.
The first sovereign of this country, to whom the
title of sultan was awarded early in the tenth cen.
tury, conducged several expeditions into Hindustan,
and secured the homage of many of the cities.
The ancient Indian superstition was in a great
measure overturned by his victorious arms. Long
and fierce contests ensued: the princes of the sub.
dued provinces, often throwing off their forced al.
legiance, endeavoured to regain their independ.
ence and re.establish their ancient faith, till, at
length, the great Timurlane, having overrun the
country with his legions, received at Agra the title

MOHAMMEDANISM AMONG THE HINDUS. 281

of Emperor of Hindustan. Scarcely, however, had
two centuries and a half rolled away, when his
successors fell in their turn under the Persian
power; and the empire he established was weak-
ened, and ultimately destroyed. As the result of
these conquests, Mohammedanism prevailed to a
great extent, but rather nominally than really,
among the millions of India : it was the religion of
the court and government; but, either from indif-
ference or timidity in the Moslem conquerors, the
ancient idols still held extensive influence, and were
at length gradually restored. In the twelfth cen-
tury, Benares, the ancient seat of Brahminical
learning and of Hindu idolatry, fell into the hands
of the conqueror, who destroyed its numerous ob-
jects of popular adoration. Yet, soon afterward,
the religious character of the place was restored,
and the demolished idols were replaced by others,
that were as eagerly resorted to as had been their
predecessors. To this consecrated metropolis, &a
pilgrimage was regarded by the millions of India
as imperatively commanded, and as necessary as
was a visit to Mecca by the Mohammedans; and
the weakness or the policy of its Moslem conquer-
ors did not long withhold from them this valued
privilege; the government of the city was com.
mitted to the Hindus, and their conquerors, in the
plenitude of their bigotry, pride, and power, never
Y

282 TARTARS, PERSIANS, ETC., IN HINDUSTAN.

thought of suffering their own magistrates to exer-
cise authority within its walls. Thus Mohamme.
danism is the religion, not of the ancient inhabi-
tants of India, but of the descendants of the mill.
ions of Tartars, Persians, and Arabians who, at
various periods, have left their native seats to par-
ticipate in the riches of these far-famed plains.
The north and northwestern parts are filled with
them, and from thence they have wandered over
the whole of that vast country. Perhaps their
numbers may now amount to nearly twenty mill.
ions, among whom, however, though they are
mostly of foreign extraction, are many converts
from Hinduism. They form separate communi-
ties, amalgamating in some parts of the country,
and living as sociably with Hindus as the differ.
ences in their respective faiths will permit. Hin.
du princes have at times paid their devotions at
Mohammedan shrines, and observed their feasts;
while Mohammedans have relaxed somewhat the
strictness of their observances, and manifested an
inclination to conform, as far as possible, to their
Hindu neighbours. Some five centuries ago, the
Borahs, a people who once occupied the kingdom
of Guzerat, were converted en masse to Islamism.
The Arab traders to the coasts of Malabar have
always been exceedingly earnest in their endeavr-
ours to convert the natives, in which they have

THE SIKHS OF INDIA.

been greatly aided by the facility with which they
have been allowed to purchase the children of the
poorer classes, to educate them in the principles of
their faith, and also by the frequency with which
the inhabitants of those districts lose caste. This
badge of the Hindu faith is often forfeited by the
people mixing with those of other countries, and
when it is lost they easily become Moslems.
It has been maintained that the native inhabi-
tants of India are absolutely unchangeable in their
sacred, domestic, and political institutions, and, at
first sight, there would appear to be much to war.
rant such an opinion; but the history of many of
them, and especially of the Sikhs, who inhabit the
provinces of the Panjab, between the rivers Jumna
and Indus, may be alleged as proofs to the con-
trary. Still, in the religion of the Sikhs, Moham-
medan fable and Hindu absurdity are mixed; its
founder wishing to unite both these prevalent sys-
tems in one. He had been educated in a part of
the country where these two religions appeared to
touch each other, if not commingle, and he was no
stranger to the violent animosity existing between
their respective professors ; he sought, therefore, to
blend the jarring elements of both in peaceful
union. The Hindu was required to abandon his
idols, and to worship the one Supreme Deity whom
his religion acknowledged; while the Mohammedan

283

284 MOHAMMEDANISM IN CHINA.

was to abstain from such practices (especially the
killing of cows) as were offensive to the supersti.
tion of the Hindus. This plan so far prevailed, that,
without acknowledging the Prophet, the Sikhs be-
came more Mohammedans than Hindus ; and though
the institutions of Brahma are not admitted among
them, they insult and persecute true Moslems more
fiercely and cruelly than any other people. They
compel them to eat that which is forbidden by their
law; animals which they account unclean are fre-
quently thrown into their places of public assembly,
and they are prohibited from proclaiming the hour
of prayer to the faithful.
China is one of those countries to which Mo.
hammedanism was carried by the hordes of Tar-
tary. From the scrupulous jealousy with which
this vast empire is guarded from observation, it is
difficult to say to what extent the Mohammedan
faith, or, indeed, any other, prevails among its num.
berless inhabitants; but, beyond question, it is tol.
erated.
The irruption of the Saracens into China under
Walid can scarcely be termed a conquest. Sub.
sequently, the successors of Zenghis Khan seated
themselves on the throne of Pekin, and opened the
country to an intercourse with all nations. The
commercial Arabs had visited the ports and cities
in the south of China; and, now that access to the

MOHAMMEDANISM N PERSIA. 2

apital was unrestrained, multitudes of them re-
paired thither. They acquired the language, and
adopted the dress and manners of the people, to
whom also they rendered valuable aid in adjusting
their chronology, and making the necessary calcu-
lations for their calendar. Intercourse with the
Chinese made the Mohammedans desirous of effect-
ing their conversion, the means adopted for which
were both wise and humane. Deserted children
were taken under their protection, and educated in
Islamism; while in other ways they sought to com-
mend themselves to confidence, and their religion
to respect, by alleviating the wretchedness induced
by a cruel superstition. The Mohammedans of
China seem to partake of the mild and quiet char-
acter of the inhabitants generally, and are there.
fore tolerated; though there have been some ex-
ceptions to this encomium. About sixty years
ago they were instrumental in promoting an un-
successful rebellion, and the Emperor Kien Long,
after suppressing it, ordered one hundred thousand
of them to be put to death.
Persia, from an early period, has been almost
entirely a Mohammedan country. On its conquest
)y the Saracens, the religion of Zoroaster, which
lad till then prevailed, was nearly abolished.
those who persevered in retaining it were obliged
o flee to the mountains or to the western parts

285

286 MOHAMMEDANISM IN AFRICA.

of India, where their old forms of worship still lin.
ger. In the disputes which ensued on the death of
Mohanmmed concerning the caliphate, the Persians
espoused the cause of Ali, the Prophet's son-in-law,
and to his memory they are still attached. "May
this arrow go to the heart of Omar," is a frequent
expression among them in drawing a bow; and
not long since, when Mr. Malcolm, during his tray.
els in Persia, was praising Omar, the antagonist
of Ali, as the greatest of the caliphs, a Persian,
overcome by the justice of his observations, yet still
adhering to his rooted prejudices, replied, "This
is all very true, but he was a dog after all."
here Mohammedanism exists in a less rigorous
form than in Turkey. Its ceremonies are observed
by those who are little disposed to practice its
moral code : they say their prayers at the appointed
season, and make a show of devotion to prevent
their being suspected of irreligion; but the people
generally are little concerned about the pilgrimage
to Mecca, and other matters on which, in the Ko.
ran, much stress is laid. They choose rather to
resort to the tomb of Ali, and to that of his son
Hosein, whose name is reverenced among them
with a feeling approaching to adoration.
In Africa, Mohammedanism has very widely pre.
vailed. Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, all the northern
parts of this continent, acknowledge its sway.

-VMOHAMMEDANISM IN AFRICA.

From Arabia and Egypt it spread west and south
nearly to the great rivers. It is the established
religion of Morocco ; and in Western Barbary and
several kingdoms of the interior the Arabic lan.
guage is spoken, the Koran believed, and the Proph.
et almost worshipped. The Senegal, up to the
small Moorish state of Gedumah, is the line of di.
vision between the Mohammedans and the Negroes:
from thence the line passes eastward of north,
through Nigritia and Nubia to the Nile. As yet,
however, it is but indistinctly marked, it being
doubtful whether Timbuctoo is a Mohammedan or
Negro town. The courts of Bornou and Cassina
are Mohammedan, but a majority of their subjects
are pagans. Islamism in these vast territories is
in an exceedingly degenerate state when compared
with either its first development in the Arabian
desert, or with what now obtains in Turkey. It
is said that but little more than its exclusive per.
secuting spirit remains: the Oriental lustrations are
almost unknown, Mohammedan temperance is neg.
lected, and the great doctrine of the unity of God
is confounded with, or supplanted by, the polythe.
ism of the native inhabitants. The Mussulman is
more depraved than the pagan; so that, while tray-
ellers frequently mention the hospitality they re.
ceived from the latter, by the former they were
constantly insulted and annoyed on account of

287

288 MOHAM IMEDANISM IN ARABIA.

their religion. In no quarter of the world does
the faith of the Prophet wear so frightful an as-
pect as in Africa.
The region from which Mohammedanism first
sprung has not remained in all respects faithful to
the precepts of the Prophet. In Mecca and Medi.
na, indeed, his name and system are held in the
profoundest veneration; and no wonder, since both
these cities are mainly supported by the supersti-
tious observances enjoined in the Koran; but the
Bedouins are as licentious in their religion as in
heir policy and habits. On the Turkish frontiers
they keep up an appearance of respect for the
name of the Prophet and his doctrines ; but, in an-
swer to all reproaches for their unfaithfulness, they
say in words worthy a better taught and more civ-
ilized race, "The religion of Mohammed could
never have been intended for us. We have no
water in the desert. How, then, can we make the
prescribed ablutions ? We have no money. How,
then, can we give alms ? The fast of Ramadan is
a useless command to persons who fast all the year
round ; and, if God be everywhere, why should we
go to Mecca to adore him ?"
From the southernmost part of Hindustan, Mo.
hammedanism made its way to the Malayan penin.
sula; to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Manillas, and
the Celebes: Goram, one of the Spice Islands, is

SOOFFEES AND WAHABEES.

its eastern boundary. In the interior of these isl.
ands it prevails less than on the shores. To
these remote regions islamism has been carried
more by the commercial than the military enter.
prise of its votaries. What is its present condition
there, it is difficult, perhaps impossible, accurately
to ascertain. In Java it was the established reli.
gion; but, when the Dutch settled that island early
in the seventeenth century, many of the natives
were converted. Little respect is paid by the Ja-
vans of the present day either to their ancient
paganism, or to Mohammedanism which took its
place; though some of the forms of the latter are
still in force, and its institutions are said to be gain-
ing ground.
The reader of Mohammedan history will meet
with the terms Sooffee and Wahabee, as designa-
ting certain divisions of the disciples of the religion
of the Prophet. It will not, therefore, be inappro-
priate to close with a brief account of these re.
spective sects.
Sooffee is a term originating in Persia, meaning
enthusiasts or mystics, or persons 'distinguished by.
extraordinary sanctity. The object of the Sooffee
is to attain a divine beatitude, which he dPscribes
as consisting in absorption into the essence of De-
ity. The soul, according to his doctrine, is an
emanation from God, partaking of his nature; just

289

SOOFFEES OF PERSIA.

as the rays of light are emanations from the sun,
and of the same nature with the source from
whence they are derived. The creature and the
Creator are of one substance. No one can be.
come a Sooffee without strictly conforming to the
established religion, and practising every social vir.
tue; and when, by this means, he has gained a
habit of devotion, he may exchange what they style
practical for spiritual worship, and abandon the
observance of all religious forms and ceremonies.
He at length becomes inspired, arrives at truth,
drops his corporeal veil, and mixes again with that
glorious essence from which he has been partially
and for a time separated. The life of the Sooffees
of Persia, though generally austere, is not rendered
miserable, like that of the visionary devotees of
Hinduism, by the practice of dreadful scverities,
their most celebrated teachers have been famed
for knowledge and devotion. The Persians are
a poetic people, and the very genius of Sooffeeism
is poetry. Its raptures are the raptures of inspi.
ration; its hopes are those of a highly sensitive
and excited imagination; its writers in the sweet.
est strains celebrate the Divine love, which per.
vades all nature: everything, from the very high.
est to the lowest, seeking and tending towards
union with Deity as its object of supreme desire.
They inculcate forbearance, abstemiousness, and

290

SOOFFEEISM.

universal benevolence. They are unqualified pre.
destinarians. The emanating principle, or the soul,
proceeding from God, can do nothing, they say,
without his will, nor refuse to do anything which he
i'stigates. Some of them, consequently, deny the
existence of evil; and the doctrine of rewards and
punishments is superseded by their idea of re-ab-
sorption into the Divine essence. The free opinions
of. this class of enthusiasts subvert the doctrines of
Islamism, yet they pay an outward respect to them ;
they unsettle the existing belief, without providing
an intelligible substitute ; they admit the divine mis.
sion of the Prophet, but explain away the dogmas
he uttered and while they affect to yield him
honour as a person raised up by God, to induce
moral order in the world, they boast their own di.
rect and familiar intercourse with Deity, and claim,
on that account, unqualified obedience in all that
relates to spiritual interests.
The similarity of Sooffeeism to the ancient Py.
thagorean and Platonic doctrines will occur to
every one at all acquainted with the religion and
philosophy of antiquity. It as closely resembles
some of the distinguishing tenets of the Brahmini.
cal faith. In fact, it seems as if designed, in con.
junction with the refined theology of ancient, and
the sublime visions of modern idolators, to teach us
that, without Divine guidance, the loftiest human

291

292 WAHABEES, ABDOL WAHAB.

conceptions on subjects connected with God and
religion invariably err; the ignorant and the in.
structed are equally wrong; " the world by wis.
dom knows not God."
The Wahabees are a modern sect of Mohamme-
dan reformers,. whose efforts have considerably
changed the aspect of the religion of the Prophet.
Perhaps to them may be owing much of that rigid
adherence to Mohammedan doctrine and practice
which prevails in those parts where their influence
has been felt. They are the followers of Abdol
Wahab, who commenced his career in the region
where, during the lifetime of the Prophet, Mosei-
lama had threatened a considerable division among
his followers. Wahab was an ambitious fanatic,
who aimed, nevertheless, at reforming the national
religion. He was aided by powerful princes of the
province of Nejed; and, within a short time, the ten-
ets he maintained spread throughout the peninsula.
His fundamental principle, like that of Mohammed,
was the unity of God. The Koran he regarded as
divine, rejecting all the glosses which ignorance and
infatuation had put upon it, and holding in utter con-
tempt all the traditions and tales concerning its au.
thor, which the devout of every generation had ea.
gerly received. The reverence, approaching to ad-
oration, which the Arabs were wont to pay to the
name of Mohammed, all visits to his tomb, and all

DOCTRINES OF TIE WAHABEES. 293

regard to the tombs and relics of Arab saints, he de.
nounced; and the costly ornaments with which a
mistaken piety had enriched these sacred spots, he
thought might be appropriated to ordinary purpo-
ses. Wahab would not suffer the common oath of,
by Mohammed, or by Ali, to be used among his fol.
lowers, on the very rational ground that an oath is
an appeal to a witness of our secret thoughts, and
who can know these but God ? The title of Lord,
generally given to the Prophet by his followers, Wa.
hab rejected as impious. He was commonly men.
tioned by this zealous reformer and his adherents
by his simple name, without the addition of "our
Lord, the Prophet of God." All who deviated in
any degree from the plain sense of the Koran, ei-
ther in belief or practice, were infidels in their es-
teem; upon whom, therefore, according to its di-
rections, war might be made. Thus was the mar-
tial spirit of the early Saracens again called into ex-
ercise ; and with the ardour that characterized the
days of the immediate successors of the Prophet,
they were prepared at once to assail the conscien-
ces and the property of men not exactly of their
own faith.
At the call of their leader, they assembled first in
the plain of Draaiya, some 400 miles east of Medi-
na, armed and provided aleheir own expense for
war. Bagdad and Mecca in vain attempted to sup.

294 MILITARY SUCCESS OF TIIE WAHABEES.

press them ; the seraglio itself was filled with theii
formidable war.cry; the sultan trembled on his
throne; and the caravans from Syria suspended
their usual journeys. The imperial city suffered
'rom their ravages in its usual supplies of coffee;
and the terror of their name was widely spreading
among devout Mohammedans of every country, for
they had violated the shrines of saints, and levelled
to the ground the chapels at Mecca, which devotion
had consecrated to the memory of the Prophet and
his family. At the commencement of the present
century, however, Mecca was recovered from them
by the Turkish arms, and the plague, with the small-
pox, breaking out just at this time among the follow-
ers of Wahab, probably saved the mighty fabric of
Islamism. These reverses did not quench, howev-
er, the ardour of the Wahabees. Their leader had
been assassinated, but his son, already distinguish-
ed for his prudence and valour, succeeded him in
the command. Medina fell beneath his power, and
from thence to the Persian Gulf he seemed likely
to reign lord paramount. In 1805 he was able to
impose a heavy tax on the caravan of pilgrims from
Damascus to the Holy City, and declared that
thenceforth it should consist of pilgrims alone,
without the pride and pomp of a religious proces.
sion. Soon afterward they again entered Mecca,
and immediately threatened with destruction every

INTOLERANCE OF THE WAHABEES. 295
sacred relic; but they did not put their threats into
execution. Various conflicts between them and
the orthodox Mohammedans have since ensued, the
general result of which has been to break the mar.
tial and fanatical spirit of the Wahabees, and to re-
establish the power of the grand sultan in cities and
districts where it had been placed in jeopardy.
They are still, indeed, dreaded as plunderers, but
no great national convulsion has resulted from their
efforts.
Some writers regret the suppression of this once
powerful sect of Mohammedans, believing that, if
continued, they would have been instrumental in
overthrowing the Moslem faith, and making way
for a purer religion; but for ourselves, we see lit-
tle occasion for these regrets. The Wahabees
must not be supposed more favourable to a pure
faith than are those by whom they have been over.
thrown. If they must be regarded as reformers,
they only attempted to correct a few absurd arrd
scandalous practices : the impious and abominable
dogmas of the Koran they left untouched; or, if
they touched them, it was only to enforce their ob-
servance with greater rigour. Their creed was
even more sanguinary and intolerant than that of
the ancient Mohammedans, and probably the con
tinuance of their power would have been nothing
more than the continuance of injustice, cruelty. and

RELIGION CI THE BIBLE.

persecution. We do not look for the overthrow of
Mohammedanism by such means. One system of
error may sometimes destroy another, but the pure
faith, which blesses a miserable world by directing
men in the path of safety, knowledge, and happi.
ness, will extend only as the sacred volume is dl'.
fused, and as that holy influence from God accom-
panies it by which the understanding is illumin-
ted and the heart renewed. Fanaticism is no aux-
iliary of the religion of the Bible; it neither pre-
pares its way nor accelerates its progress. Vioe.
lence and war are utterly rejected by this divine
system, as alien from its spirit and character.
"My kingdom," says its founder, " is not of this
world: if my kingdom were of this world, then
would my servants fight; but now is my kingdom
Bot from hence."

THE END.

296

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