1216
GRASSHOPPER
Grasse was not returned to his command ;
after being released by the English, he
spent his remaining years in Paris.
Grasshopper, a name applied to a
number of species of two different fami-
lies in the order Orthoptera. It is not
definitely distinguished from the term
locust in the United States, but is per-
haps a little broader in its usage. It
ordinarily refers to members of the Lo-
custid Family, which, strangely enough,
does not include the true locusts; the
Acridiid, or True Locust, Family is the
other group, having members spoken of
as grasshoppers (See Locust). This dis-
cussion will concern itself only with
members of the Locustid Family.
GRASSHOPPER
There are three well-known species,
the sword bearer, the common meadow
grasshopper and the lance-tailed grass-
hopper. All may be recognized by their
short, peaked heads, long, slender anten-
ne reaching backward, as long as or
longer than the body, and their delicate
build. The meadow grasshopper is the one
which leaps from the path before one on
dusty midsummer days, startling one by
its high leap and its sudden rasping call,
or jumping from the uncut grass of the’
pasture, where its green color had ef-
fectually concealed it from view. Their
music, without which the meadow and
_ the roadside would be silent places, is
produced by rasping together roughened
portions of the forewings. The stridulat-
ing apparatus, as the roughened patches
are called, is possessed only by the males,
and in grasshoppers makes but a faint,
soft sound heard by day as well as by
night. This note has been likened to a
prolonged z r r r, terminated by the re-
peated syllable jip, jip, jip.
GRAVITY, CENTER OF
The wings of all three species are long,
but are not often used. The long, stout
hind legs, whose knee joints are high
above the back, are its chief aid in loco-
motion. The grasshopper deposits its
eggs in the stems or leaves of grasses
or in the pith of trees. Ordinarily grass-
hoppers are not serious pests because
they are kept down by the numerous
birds which prey upon them. When they
do overrun the countryside, artificial
means of destroying them must be re-
sorted to. Some of these are discussed
under the article on locusts.
Grav” ita’tion, the force which, act-
ing at appreciable distances, attracts
bodies toward each other. A small body
and a large one exert this force toward
each other equally, since each particle of
one attracts each particle of the other.
The nature of gravitation is unknown,
but its force holds the planets in their
orbits about the sun and causes bodies to
fall toward the earth. Newton, who
first studied gravitation, established the
two facts concerning it: that at equal
distances its force varies as the product
of the masses of the attracting bodies ;
and that at unequal distances its force
varies inversely as the square of the dis-
tance between the attracting bodies, cen-
ter to center. For this reason, eliminat-
ing centrifugal force, which acts most
strongly at the equator, the same body |
would weigh less at the equator than at
the poles, which are nearer the center
of the earth than the equator is. The
constant of gravitation is the force with
which two spherical bodies, each of unit
mass whose centers are unit distance
apart, attract’ each other. The force is
0000000666 dyne for two bodies of
one gram each, whose centers are one
centimeter apart. The laws of gravita-
tion of the earth, or gravity, are dis-
cussed under the title FALLING Bopies.
Grav’ity, Center of, a point upon
which a body may be balanced. It is
the point through which passes, whatever
the position of the body, the resultant
of the parallel forces of gravity acting
upon all particles of the body. In regu-
lar plane and solid figures the center of
1217
GRAVITY, SPECIFIC
yravity is the same as the center of the
figure. The center of gravity of an
irregular plane figure may be found by
suspending it first from one corner and
then from another and in each case drop-
ping a plumb line from the vertex used ;
if lines are drawn in the position taken
by the plumb line in its successive posi-
tions, the center of gravity will lie at
the intersection of these lines. If pinned
to the wall at that point, the figures will
remain at rest in any position. The
center of gravity of a solid can be found
in the same manner as that of a plane
figure, by suspending the solid from each
of two different points in turn and noting
the intersection of the plumb lines from
the two points respectively. For some
bodies the center of gravity lies wholly
outside the body.
Gravity, Specific, the density of a
substance compared with that of a fixed
standard. For solids and liquids the
standard is water; for gases it may be
either water or air. The terms density
and specific gravity should be carefully
distinguished. The density of a sub-
stance is its weight (more properly, its
mass) per unit volume; the density of
cast iron is 462.5 lb. per cubic foot, while
the density of water is 62.5 lb. per cubic
foot. The specific gravity of iron is the
ratio of these two densities, ==, which
equals 7.4. “In the metric system the
density of iron is 7.4 grams per cubic
centimeter, while that of water is one
gram per cubic centimeter. In the metric
system the numerical values of the den-
sity and the specific gravity of a sub-
stance are the same, since the density of
water is one gram per cubic centimeter
at the temperature of 4° C.; the density
of water is slightly less at lower tempera-
tures and decreases with rise in tempera-
ture, being only .9586 gram per cubic
gentinetér at. 100° Gu
The fundamental method of determin-
ing the specific gravity of a substance is
to find the weight of the substance and
the weight of an equal volume of water ;
then divide the first weight by the second.
When a solid is placed in a liquid, the
solid loses in weight an amount. equal to
1218
GRAVITY, SPECIFIC
the weight of the liquid displaced by the
solid; that is, its loss in weight is the
weight of an equal volume of the liquid.
Because of this, to find the specific grav-
ity of a solid heavier than water, the
solid is weighed first in air and then in
water, and the weight in air is divided by
the difference between the two weights.
If a solid is lighter than water, a sinker
can be used. The solid and the sinker
are weighed separately in air, the sinker
is weighed alone in water, and then the
sinker and the solid are weighed in water.
If from the loss of weight of both, the
loss of weight of the sinker is subtracted,
the result will be the loss of weight of
the solid alone. Then the weight of the
solid in air divided by its loss of weight
in water gives its specific gravity.
The specific gravity of a liquid is usu-
ally found by means of a “specific grav-
ity bottle,” a light glass bottle with a
glass stopper, so arranged that the bottle
can be easily filled just to the top of a
small hole in the stopper. The bottle is
weighed first empty, then when filled with
water. The difference in weight of the
bottle full of the liquid and empty di-
vided by the difference in weight of the
bottle full of water and empty gives the
specific gravity of the liquid. The spe-
cific gravity of liquids is very conveni-
ently found directly by means of a varia-
ble immersion hydrometer. See Hy-
DROMETER.
In all the above work corrections
should be made for the density of the
water used, if it is not distilled water at
4° C., when very accurate results are re-
quired.
The specific gravity of gas is found by
weighing a light glass bulb filled with the
gas and then exhausting the bulb with
an air pump and weighing again; _the
difference is the weight of this volume
of gas. The weight of the gas divided
by the weight of the same volume of air
obtained in like manner gives the specific
gravity of the gas. Since the specific
gravity of a gas depends upon its tem-
perature and pressure, it is necessary to
see that the gas and the air are at the
same temperature and pressure in carry-
GRAY
ing out the above determination. If
they are not used under the same condi-
tions, corrections must be applied ac-
cording to the laws of gases; air at 0° C.
and under a pressure of 76 centimeters
of mercury is taken as a standard, its
density then being .001293 gram per
cubic centimeter. See Gases, LAwS OF.
Gray, Asa (1810-1888), an eminent
American scientist, whose works on bot-
any are authority in the United States.
He was a graduate of Fairfield Medical
College, but owing to his love for botan-
ical study gave up the practice of medi-
cine for work in natural history. He be-
came professor of’natural history in Har-
vard University and was there a volumi-
nous writer on botanical subjects. Liv-
ing as he did, at a time when botanical
classifications were undergoing a change
from the artificial to the natural system,
and when the newer portions of his
country were being explored and settled,
Gray found wide field for his labor in
the study and classification of American
flora. His investigations and their results
are recorded in his many books and
papers; his School and Field Botany was
long a popular school text and his Flora
is still widely used.
Gray, Elisha (1835-1901), an Amer-
ican inventor, born in Barnesville, Ohio.
He took up "special studies in physical
science at Oberlin, and in 1867 in-
vented a self-adjusting telegraph relay.
In 1872 he organized the Western Elec-
tric Manufacturing Company, and four
years later claimed to have invented the
speaking telephone. After a memorable
litigation, however, this honor was
awarded Alexander Graham Bell. Later
Gray perfected and patented various tel-
egraph instruments and details of tele-
graphic construction, including a system
of multiplex telegraphy, a type-printing
telegraph and in 1893 the telautograph,
which transmits the handwriting of mes-
sages.
Gray, George (1840- ), ary Amer-
ican jurist, born in New Castle, Del., and
educated at Princeton and Harvard. Ad-
mitted to the bar, he practiced at New
Castle and Wilmington, being attorney-
See TELEGRAPH ; TELAUTOGRAPH..
GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT
general of Delaware and, from 1885 to
1899, serving as a Democratic United
States senator. Meanwhile, he was ap-
pointed to the Anglo-American Commis-
sion, the Spanish-American Peace Com-
mission and the Joint High Commission
between Canada and the United States.
In 1900 he belonged to the Hague Arbi-
tration Commission, and in 1902 to the
anthracite coal strike commission. In
1899 he became judge of the United
States Circuit Court.
Gray, Thomas (1716-1771), an Eng-
lish poet, born in London. He studied
at Eton and Cambridge, but before tak-
ing his degree in civil law accompanied |
Herace Walpole on a tour through
France and Italy. He declined the honor
of being poet laureate of England and in
1768 became professor of modern his-
tory in Cambridge. His fame rests
‘chiefly on the Elegy Written in a Coun-
try Churchyard, a marvel of simplicity
and classical finish. His theme, the com-
pensations of lowly life, was compara-
tively new, and reveals his sympathy
with the early beginnings of Romanti-
cism. His interest in Norse mythology
and literature likewise indicates his re-
volt from Classicism and gave rise to the
odes, The Fatal Sisters, The Descent of
Odin and The Triumphs of Owen. Other
poems were Ode on a Distant Prospect
of Eton College, The Progress of Poesy
and The Bard. See RoMANTICISM.
Gray’ling, an exceedingly active fish
of the Salmon Family, found in cool
streams of temperate regions or colder
Arctic zones. Its body is long and only
slightly elevated at the back, but a high
dorsal fin gives it the appearance of
width. The head of the grayling is short,
the mouth small and the eyes very prom-
inent. The Michigan, Montana and
Arctic graylings are all good game fishes,
much sought by American fishermen and
propagated at many government fish
hatcheries. They are about 18 inches in
length and of blue-gray color.
Great Australian Bight, Bite, a great
bay at the south of Australia made by a
broad indentation of the shore and form-
ing an arm of the Antarctic Ocean. Its
1219
GREAT BEAR
shores are irregular, with smaller bays
and numerous capes and peninsulas pro-
jecting into its waters. The Murray and
the Darling rivers flow into this great
bay, but no large cities are upon its
banks. See AUSTRALIA, subhead Coast
Waters.
Great Bear (Ursa Major), one of the
constellations about the North Star. It
contains 138 stars visible to the naked
eye, but is- popularly known by seven
stars and called the Big Dipper. The
two stars of the second magnitude form-
ing the outer end of the bowl of the Dip-
per are very nearly in line with the North
Star, and for this reason are called the
pointers. In England this constellation
is called Charles’s Wain (wagon). See
STARS; CONSTELLATIONS.
Great Bear Lake, a lake situated in
northwestern North West Territories,
Canada, 250 m. from the Rocky Moun-
tains and just beneath the Arctic Circle
and the constellation of Ursa Major,
from which it derives its name. It is
about 150 m. long and from 25 m. to 45
m. wide, but its coast line is very irreg-
ular. The lake receives the drainage
from a large area and is fed by the Dease
and other rivers; the Great Bear River
is the outlet. The surface is frozen over
nine months of the year.
Great Britain, the largest island of
Europe, comprising England, Scotland
and Wales. The name British Isles ap-
plies to this same territory with the ad-
dition of Ireland, the Hebrides, the Ork-
neys, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey
and other groups of islands lying near.
The official title is the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland, while the
British Empire refers to all of the terri-
tory under the authority of the British
Crown. The numerous possessions in-
cluded in this great empire, embracing all
climes and containing one-fourth of the
population of the world, are listed at the
close of this article. For detailed de-
scriptions, see ENGLAND; SCOTLAND;
IRELAND; WALES.
The Island of Britain, or Great Brit-
ain, has an irregular coast line indented
by many bays, estuaries and firths. Its
1220
GREAT BRITAIN
principal boundaries are: on,the n., the
Atlantic Ocean; on the e., the North
Sea and the Straits of Dover; on the s.,
the English Channel, separating England
from «France; and on the “wast,
George’s Channel and the Irish Sea, sep-
arating England from Ireland, and the
Atlantic Ocean at the extreme northwest.
Its area is 88,729 sq. m., or slightly
greater than the State of Utah. Its
greatest length is 608 m. and its greatest
width is 320 m., the latter being from
Land’s End in the southwestern part to
Kent in the southeastern. Its latitude is
the same as that of North America from
the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the southern
extremity of Greenland, though its tem-
perature generally corresponds to that of
the United States.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. At the
west and northwest a series of irregular
mountain systems reach almost-to the
coast and spread to the east in some-
what disconnected groups. The Cam-
brian Mountains of Wales, the Cheviots,
forming a part of the boundary of Eng-
land and Scotland, and the Grampians in
Scotland are among the best known. The
highest point of the island is Ben Nevis
(4406 ft.), a peak of the Grampians
near the western coast of Scotland. The
loftiest elevation in Wales is Mt. Snow-
don (3560 ft.), and in England, Mt.
Scafell (3210 ft.), not far from the
Scottish border. The central and south-
ern part of Great Britain is a region of
rounding hills clothed with verdure and
intersected by many rivers; at the west
these hills rise to the mountains; at the
east they slope to an alluvial plain. The
rivers, lakes and other physiographic
features are described in greater detail
under the titles of the separate political
divisions.
CLIMATE, PropucTIoNns, INDUSTRIES,
Etc. The climate is variable but health-
ful. The Gulf Stream, washing the
western shores, moderates the tempera-
ture, making the winters less rigorous
than in European countries of the same
latitude. The island has supported so
large a population that agriculture has
become highly developed. Fruits, grains
—_—S ie
7
GREAT BRITAIN
and vegetables of temperate climates are
produced, and cattle of all kinds are ex-
tensively raised. The native wild ani-
mals are the fox, badger, wildcat, marten,
rabbit, hare, otter and deer; these take
the place of the bear, boar, wolf and
beaver, once common but now almost
wholly exterminated. The mineral pro-
ductions, especially tin, iron, copper, sil-
ver, gold and coal, are valuable; of the
latter, England mines annually fully 153,-
000,000 tons; Scotland, 32,800,000 tons ;
and Wales, 32,600,000 tons. Manufac-
turing is among the important industries
because of the excellent water power and
the wealth of iron and coal. Of these
the manufacture of textiles is first in
rank, and its exports constitute more than
one“third of the exports of the United
Kingdom. |
GOVERNMENT. Politically Great Brit-
ain is a limited monarchy whose great
possessions are united under the name of
British Empire, consisting of two parts:
the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland; and India, the colonies, the
protectorates and the dependencies. The
constitution is not one written instru-
ment but is a vast collection of acts,
some unwritten, which have grown with
the years and form the great body of
English laws. It consists of ten kinds of
documents: the laws of Parliament, royal
decrees, agreements, treaties, legal de-
cisions, the Magna Charta, granted by.
King John in 1215, the Declaration of
Rights of 1689, the Act of Settlement of
1701 and the two Acts of Union, one
with Scotland in 1707 and one with Ire-
land in 1800.
The central government is made up of
three departments. The executive is a
king whose office comes to him through
descent. Although the king is the nom-
inal executive, the cabinet, a commit-
tee of ministers, is the real authority;
the ministry, however, depends for its
existence upon the possession of a ma-
jority of the House of Commons. The
first lord of the treasury is generally the
head of the cabinet and is then known as
the prime minister. The other members
of the cabinet, 18 or 20 in number, are
GREAT BRITAIN
appointed by the Crown upon the advice
of the prime minister, who has been
previously chosen by the Crown from the
majority of the House. The legislative
department consists of a House of Lords
and a House of Commons. Members of
the former are peers of the realm who
hold their places by hereditary right; by
creation of the king; by virtue of office,
as bishop; by election for life, as the
Irish peers; by election during Parlia-
ment, as Scottish peers. The full house
is about 630. The members of the
House of Commons are representatives
of the counties, boroughs, and university
constituencies. Clergymen are disquali-
fied from holding seats, and sheriffs and
government contractors can neither hold
seats nor vote. The annual session of
Parliament extends from the middle of
February to about the middle of August
and is summoned by writ of the sover-
eign issued 35 days before the date of
assembling. It is closed by prorogation,
and all bills which have not passed dur-
ing the session lapse. The longest Par-
liament of recent years was the sixth of
Victoria’s reign; it lasted for six years
and one month. The limit of existence
of Parliament now is five years.
The local governments differ in the
different large divisions. In each county
of England and Wales a lord lieutenant
represents the Crown. Scotland has a
local government board whose president
is called the secretary of Scotland. The
county authority of Ireland is a council
elected by popular vote. The other de-
pendencies are of three principal kinds:
crown colonies, wholly controlled by the
home government, as India, «Gibraltar,
the Straits Settlements, etc.; those pos-
sessing responsible governments in which
the sovereign appoints the governor and
has the right of veto on legislation, but
otherwise has no control on any public
officer, represented by Canada, Austra-
lia, South Africa and New Zealand; and ©
those possessing representative institu-
tions in which the Crown may veto legis-
lation and in which the home govern-
ment controls public officers, represented
by Malta, Ceylon, Cyprus, Jamaica, etc.
1221
GREAT BRITAIN
Aside from these may be mentioned the
protectorates, which are governed by na-
tive agencies, and the old trading com-
panies, whose rights were granted by
_ charter.
' History. After the accession of James
I in 1603 (See ENGLAND, subhead His-
~ tory). England and Scotland had the
same sovereigns, but the legislatures
were not joined until the Act of Union
(1707) was passed during the reign of
Queen Anne. Although the union was
not unanimously approved, it seemed the
only certain way of preserving peace be-
tween the two countries. Peace at home
and abroad became the desire of the
Tory Party, which was then in ascend-
ancy. In literature this age ranks as the
age of prose writers, among whom may
be mentioned Addison, Swift, Steele,
Berkeley and Locke. Anne was suc-
‘ceeded by George I (1714-1727), the
first of the Hanover line, during whose
reign the peculiar and efficient cabinet
government of England began. Robert
Walpole, whose aid had kept the coun-
try from bankruptcy upon the bursting
of the South Sea Bubble, was the first
prime minister (See SouTH SEA Com-
PANY). Through his skill and the effi-
ciency of the ministers which he chose,
England enjoyed great prosperity
through the last years of the reign of
this ruler who was himself unable to
speak a word of English.
George II (1727-1760) succeeded his
father and followed his policy of nonin-
terference and indifference in English
affairs. Walpole, who continued prime
minister, was unwillingly drawn into a
war with Spain in 1739, and later, in
1742, resigned rather than assume the
responsibility of the War of the Aus-
trian Succession, in which, under the
ministry of Lord Carteret, England won
a fruitless victory. A rising in Scotland
under Charles Edward, the Young Pre-
tender, was crushed at Culloden, and
the leader was compelled to flee (See
CuHarLes Epwarp). William Pitt, who
had been a young statesman of oratorical
fame in the days of Walpole, became
head of the cabinet and, during ab-
GREAT BRITAIN
sences of the king, the virtual ruler of
Great Britain; he prosecuted the war
with France with great vigor and
through his plans England gained impor-
tant victories in America and India. See
Pitt, WILLIAM ; CLIVE, ROBERT; WOLFE,
JAMES, “¢
George III (1760-1820) was English
in training, upright, conscientious ‘and
ambitious, and he determined to regain
the royal powers lost by his father and
grandfather. But he was also narrow
and bigoted. Pitt resigned in 1761 and
was followed by the King’s favorite,
Bute, and, later still, by North. Under
North the dissatisfaction of the Ameri-
can colonies reached a crisis and their
independence from Great Britain. was
declared and won (See REVOLUTIONARY
WAR IN AMERICA). This forced North’s
resignation, and his place as prime min-
ister was taken by the younger Pitt, who
remained in office until his death in
1806; he maintained a constant opposi-
tion to the French Revolution and to
Napoleon. Nelson’s great naval victory
over the French at Trafalgar and Well-
ington’s defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo
made England dominant upon the sea
and led to favorable terms for England
at the subsequent Congress of Vienna.
See NeEtson, HorAtTi0; WELLINGTON,
ARTHUR WELLESLEY.
The French wars, an insurrection in
Ireland and a second war with the
United States (See War or 1812) had
piled up an enormous national debt.
When George IV (1820-1830) became
king the discontent and distress led to de-
mands for reform, which were begun
under Canning, and under Wellington,
who succeeded him, were still further
carried out. The Test Act against the
Catholics was repealed in 1828, and
Catholics were henceforth admitted to
municipal privileges, to corporate offices
and even to Parliament. William IV
(1830-1837) created the requisite num-
ber of peers to pass the Reform Bill of
1832, which completely reorganized the
representation in Parliament, and in 1833
slavery was abolished in the colonies.
Queen Victoria (1837-1901) ruled the
1222
GREAT BRITAIN
empire for nearly 64 years, making her
reign the longest in history, with oné ex-
ception. She greatly endeared the mon-
archy to the people, and during her long
reign strengthened the relations of the
colonies to the central government. Brit-
ish power was extended and strength-
ened in India, the Confederation of Ca-
nadian Provinces was formed in 1867
and the Commonwealth of Australia in
1900. These were among the most im-
portant civic events of the century. The
Crimean War occurred in 1853-6, and
the Boer War in 1899-1902, which re-
sulted in adding the Orange River Re-
public of Transvaal to the British Em-
pire. The most important measures with-
in the United Kingdom were the repeal
of the Corn Laws, the extension of the
franchise.
THE War oF 1914. Signs of a coming
struggle were apparent before the close
of Victoria’s long reign. When the dev-
astating war broke out, George V, son
and successor of Edward VII, and grand-
son of Victoria, was on the throne. For
years, it had been an open secret that
Germany planned a crushing blow at
Great Britain and it was generally held
that the Bagdad Railway project was a
great step in preparation for that result.
A treaty between Great Britain and Ger-
many in 1914 (but not signed) would .
have prevented the World War.
England was one of the powers gtar-
‘anteeing the independence of Belgium
and could not stand idly by when Ger-
many invaded Belgium in August, 1914.
England was not bound by treaty to come
to the assistance of France, but every
consideration of national honor and na-
tional safety impelled to such a course.
In the fierce furnace fires of the con-
flict the old British Empire and the old
order of life in England disappears and
a new empire emerges.
.The great self-governing colonies of °
the empire are bound together by new
ties of loyalty and devotion to new demo-
cratic ideals of government. Changes
going to the warp and woof of English
GREAT FALLS
political life have been effected, and a
new England will result.
BRITISH EMPIRE
United Kingdom, Great Britain, Ire-
land.
Europe, Gibraltar, Malta.
Asia, Aden, India, Straits Settlements,
Malay States, Hongkong, Wei-hai-wei,
Cyprus, Perim, Sokotra, British Borneo,
Sarawak.
Pacific, Australian Commonwealth,
Papua, New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga Is-
lands, Solomon Islands, Gilbert Islands.
Africa, Egypt and Lybian Desert,
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Uganda, East
Africa “Protectorate, Union of South
Africa, Nigeria; (Gold: Coast, %Sierra
Leone, and Gambia; Ascension, St.
Helena, Zanzibar, Seychelles, Mauritius.
Under Mandate Rule, Former Ger-
man Island in the Pacific south of the
equator, German East Africa, German/
Southwest Africa, and Turkish Prov-:
inces in Mesopotamia.
America, Canada, Newfoundland and
Labrador, British Honduras, British
Guiana, Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks and
Caicos Islands, Jamaica, Windward Is-
lands, Leeward Islands, Trinidad and
Tobago, Falkland Islands.
Great Falls, Mont., the second city
of the state and the county seat of Cas-
cade Co., situated in the north-central
part of the State, on the Missouri River
and on the Great Northern, the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St. Paul and other rail-
roads. It lies in a level valley surrounded
by. the foothills of the Rockies, whose
snow-capped peaks are visible to the
west, and is ten miles above the Great
Falls of the river, from which the city
derives its name. : ;
STREETS, BOULEVARDS AND PARKS.
Great Falls has been well laid out, for
the streets, with the exception of two
which follow the course of the river,
cross each other at right angles. A strip
of lawn ten feet wide on each side of
the walk lines all of the streets and is set
out to trees; thus, though the region was
originally treeless, Great Falls is a well-
shaded city. The most of the streets are
paved, and a broad boulevard, Valeria
1223
GREAT FALLS
Way, encircling the city, furnishes an
attractive drive and automobile speed-
way. The extensive park system includes
Black Eagle Park, Gibson Park and
Whittier Park, aside from large park
reservations to be used as the growth of
the city demands. The city maintains a
nursery, which keeps the parks and bou-
levards supplied with trees and shrubs.
Pusitic Buitpines. The well-kept
public grounds of the city have inspired
the people to give especial attention to
their private grounds and homes, and
Great Falls is thus an unusually attrac-
tive home city. Aside from its pleasant
residences, there are many public build-
ings of importance, including a modern
courthouse, the Federal Building, a Car-
negie library, several beautiful churches
and the Rainbow Hotel, one of the finest
of the Middle West.
EpucaTIONAL Institutions. The
school system maintains grade schools
and a high school in modern, well-
equipped buildings. St. Ursula’s Acad-
emy for girls is a recently-established
higher institution.
INDUSTRIES. Great Falls is in the midst
of a great mining region, and its great
copper smelter, one of the largest in the
world and having the highest stack, is
the center of the industrial activity of
the city. Next to Anaconda the product
of the Great Falls smelter is the largest
in the state. Coal and silver mining are
carried on in the vicinity, and the fine
grazing lands in the valley about the city
render it an important shipping point for
live stock. The water power from the
river is unsurpassed and is sufficient, it is
estimated, to furnish power to every city
of Montana. Power generated by Rain-
bow Falls, with the Great Rainbow Dam,
is used to run the city’s electric railway
and lighting plant, as well as those of
Butte and Cascade. This power is also
used for other manufacturing plants,
which, though important, are largely,
overshadowed by the city’s one great in-
dustry. Black Eagle Falls above Rain-
bow Falls, and Great Falls below them,
both furnish immense possibilities for
water power.
GREAT LAKES
History. Great Falls was settled in
1884 and owes its location to the indus-
trial value of the situation. Its growth
was rapid and it became a city in 1888.
Population in 1910, 13,948; in 1920,
U. S. Census, 24,121. '
Great Falls of the Yellowstone. See
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK,
Great Kanawha, Ka naw’ wah, a river
of eastern United States. It rises in the
Blue Ridge Mountains in North Caro-
lina and first flows northeast through
Virgina, then turns to the northwest and
crosses the west-central counties of West
Virginia. It enters the Ohio, of which
it is an important tributary, near the city
of Point Pleasant. Its entire length is
about 450 m., but it is navigable for only
a little more than 100 m., because of the
Kanawha Falls not far from its junc-
ture with the Gauley. The cities of
Charleston, Montgomery and Hinton lie
upon its banks.
Great Lakes, the name givén to the
five large lakes that lie in northern
United States and form a part of the
boundary between it and Canada.
Through the St. Lawrence River their
waters reach the Atlantic, and thus with
their connecting rivers, straits and small-
er lakes they are a part of the great St.
Lawrence basin. Together these lakes
have an area of 94,650 sq. m., practically
the same as that of Oregon and greater
than the combined areas of New York
and Pennsylvania. They cover a greater
area than the Island of Great Britain
and are about one-half as large as
France.
Lake Superior, the largest, is also the
farthest north. It is 390 m. long and 160
m. wide and alone is larger than the en-
tire State of South Carolina. By means
of St. Mary’s River it connects with
Lake Huron, the second of the lakes in
size. This lake is a little smaller than
West Virginia and has a large arm
known as Georgian Bay. Through the
Straits of Mackinaw the waters of Lake
Michigan join those of Lake Huron at
the northwest. Lake Michigan has about
the same area as Vermont, Massachu-
setts, Connecticut and Rhode Island.
1224
GREAT LAKES
South from Lake Huron the waters flow
through the St. Clair River, beautiful
Lake St. Clair and the broad Detroit
River into Lake Erie. This lake is shal-
low and subject to sudden storms. It is
slightly larger than Vermont. The Niag-
ara River, with its famous falls and rap-
ids, carries the great stream on to Lake
Ontario, the smallest lake of the five.
Its area is greater than that of Connect-
icut and Rhode Island, and at its eastern
extremity it narrows to the bed of the
St. Lawrence.
The great traffic in grain, lumber, iron
ore, coal, copper, flour and other freight
carried on by means of these lakes ren-
ders this one of the greatest waterways
of the world. Lighthouses mark the dan-
— i — — a — ——
L.Michigan L.. Huron
—J81-FET, 581 FIT
GREAT SALT LAKE
of freight. See Superior, LAKE; Micu-
IGAN, LAKE; Huron, LAKE; ERIE,
LAKE; ONTARIO, LAKE; SAULT STE.
MarigE CANALS; WELLAND CANAL.
Great Northern Diver. See Loon.
Great Salt Lake, a lake of Utah, lying
in the northeast part of the Great Basin.
It is now 75 m. long and from 20 to 35
m. in breadth, but is the remains of a far
larger lake, called by geologists Lake
Bonneville, the surface of which was
fully 1000 ft. above that of the present
lake. It has an average depth of 60 ft.,
and upon its surface lie two islands,
Fremont and Antelope, and a long pen-
insula, called the Promontory, entering
it from the north. The lake is crossed
from east to west by the “Lucin Cut-off”
ALTITUDE AND DEPTH OF THE GREAT LAKES
gercus reefs and rocky coasts, and chan-
nels have been widened and deepened to
make passageway for the largest boats.
The great locks at the “Soo,” the ship
canal across Keweenaw Peninsula in
northern Michigan, and the Welland Ca-
nal around Niagara Falls are among the
engineering feats that have rendered this
highway complete.
The first vessel other than a canoe to
be sailed upon the Great Lakes was the
Griffon, constructed by La Salle in 1679.
Later, in 1818, the first steamer, Walk-
m-the-Water, was launched on Lake
Erie. The first steamer reached the Soo
in 1827, and the first came to Chicago in
1832. Today the great passenger and
freight boats are as well equipped and
as convenient as ocean-going boats, and
carry an average of 16,000,000 passen-
gers annually and fully 83,000,000 tons
of the Southern Pacific Railway. The
lake has no outlet and is fed chiefly by
three rivers, the Bear, the Jordan and
the Weber, all of which enter from the
east. The water is so heavy with solid
matter, principally salt, that a person
bathing cannot sink, being lighter than
the water. The amount of salt in the
water varies as the lake rises and falls
with the change of seasons.
The lake is of interest because of its
picturesque surroundings, its popularity
as a bathing resort and its geological and
commercial importance. Garfield and
Saltair lie upon its southern shore and
have excellent pavilions and bathhouses.
Commercially, the lake is an important
source of salt. The brine is pumped
through long conduits to ponds, where
it is evaporated by the sun. The salt is
then purified. Great Salt Lake was not
1225
GREAT SLAVE LAKE P
much known until the Mormon settle-
ment was made near it in 1847. Since
then extensive geological surveys have
been made of the lake and its vicinity.
Great Slave Lake, a lake situated in
North West Territories, Canada, s.e. of
Great Bear Lake, is about 300 m. long
and about 50 m. wide, but the shores are
very irregular and deeply indented with
large bays. It is fed by the Slave, Hay,
Yellow Knife and smaller rivers and the
Mackenzie River forms the outlet into
the Arctic Ocean. The shores are steep
and rugged and the lake contains several
islands. The water is very clear but is
frozen over six months of the year and
is open to navigation only from July to
October.
Great Wall of China, an extensive
wall or fortification of China originally
built to bar out the invading tribes of
the north. Its eastern extremity was
probably at Shanhaikwan on the Gulf of
Liaotung, although much of the eastern
portion has been destroyed. From here
it extended west and southwest to Pe-
king and along the northern boundaries
of the Chinese provinces. Two branches
of the wall extend south, affording double
protection. With its windings the extent
of the wall is 1500 m., making it the
longest artificial structure in the world.
It is built generally of boulders and
earth, although in the valleys brickwork
and hewn stone show traces of better
masonry. At the base the wall is from
20 to 25 ft. wide; at the summit it is
about 12 ft.; its height-is from 20 to 30
ft.; and every two hundred yards there
are square towers 40 ft. in height. In
many places in the mountains the wall is
4000 ft. above sea level.
The wall was begun probably about
the third century B. C. and was repaired
in the 15th century A. D.; a year later
it was extended 300 m. Although much
of the wall has been destroyed or buried,
military posts are still maintained at
many of the city gates. The labor ex-
pended in building the wall was prob-
ably much less than was formerly sup-
posed, since little of the work was that
of skilled masons.
1226
GREECE
Grebe, or Diver, a diving bird re-
lated to the loons and auks. They have
heavy bodies, short legs, the toes only
partly webbed, and short wings. Like
the loons, the grebes are almost helpless
on land.
FEARED GREBE. This is one of the»best-
known grebes of western North Amer-
ica. It is about 14
inches long; the back
is blackish; the sides,
brown; head, chest and
neck,! b Parieaad
breast, silvery white.
Each side of the head
is provided with a long
tuft of yellow, silky
feathers. Like some
other grebes, the nest
of the eared grebe is
made of rushes, floats
on the water and con-
tains from four to six
dirty-white eggs. The
young are downy and black. This beau-
tiful bird is being rapidly exterminated.
Its silvery breast and brown flanks are
highly prized by fashion’s devotees, and
whole colonies are destroyed in the
breeding season when the parents are
caring for the young; for, when the
parents are killed, the helpless offspring
are allowed to die of starvation and ex-
posure.
Greece, a kingdom of Europe oc~-
cupying the southern extremity of the
Balkan Peninsula. It is bounded on the n.
by Albania, Servia and Bulgaria, on
the e. by the AXgean Sea, on the s. by
the Mediterranean, which separates it
from Africa, and on the w. by the Ionian
Sea. The numerous islands that lie in
the Ionian and A*gean seas belong to
the Kingdom of Greece and are insep-
arably connected with it through histor-
ical association. The continental por-
tion is made of two parts—Hellas, at the
north, and Morea, formerly called Pelo-
ponnesus, at the south; these divisions
are almost wholly separated by the great
gulfs of Patras and Lepanto, or Corinth,
that deeply indent the country on the
west, and by the broad Gulf of A¢gina,
FOOT OF GREBE
ATHENS. (1) Capital of modern Greece, center of Athens. The square is adorned with
orange trees, oleanders and lofty cypress. (2) Shoe Street, Athens. (3) Ancient Greek baths.
(4) Stadium at Athens, scene of the Pan-Athenic games in the glorious days of Ancient
Greece. Olympic games are now held here.
THE GLORY THAT WAS GREEGE,
1. The Acropolis, (See Pages 182, 183, 184). 2. The Erectheum, (Pages 182, 183).
3. Temple of Theseus, (Page 2875). 4. Theater of Dionysius, (Pages 183, 2869, 2870).
). East Front Parthenon, (See Pages 182, 183).
GREECE
indenting it on the east. The narrow
Isthmus of Corinth connecting the two is
barely four miles across and is traversed
by a ship canal completed in 1893. The
area of Greece and her islands is 46,000
*~
sq. m., about the same as that of Mis-
sissippi.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Greece
is a mountainous country. The western
portion of Hellas is traversed by the Di-
naric Alps, isolated peaks of which form
the Ionian Islands; the range continues
through Morea, where it rises in many
lofty summits. The Pindus Range en-
ters from Turkey and, running north
and south, divides Morea into two nearly
equal parts. One branch of the Pindus
forms the southern boundary of Thes-
saly, and another, farther south, culmi-
nates in Mt. Parnassus (8070 ft.), now
known as Mt. Liakoura, once dedicated
to Bacchus and to the Muses. The rocky
character of the country has given Greece
an extended coast line, greater in propor-
tion to its size than that of any other
country, and the same physical features
appear in its isolated islands. The rivers
are rapid mountain torrents of great
beauty, but generally of little use for
navigation. The climate is ordinarily
healthful, although in the lower sections
the summers are hot and dry and vege- .
tation can seldom resist the drought of
the warm months.
Propucts, INDUSTRIES, Etc. Greece is
a land of fruits and vines. Along the
coast great vineyards climb the slopes
and, wherever the elevation permits,
groves of olives, figs, oranges, citrons
and pomegranates are cultivated even to
the very limits of the cities. Melons, rice,
wheat, barley, rye and cotton also form
important crops, but agriculture is not a
profitable occupation, and only about 14
per cent of the land is under cultivation.
Currants, fruit whose name is derived
from the word Corinth, are exported in
large quantities, and acorns used in tan-
ning are picked up and shipped by the
thousands of tons annually.
Minerals, though undoubtedly existing
in abundance, are not extensively mined,
yet many of the mines have been worked
GREECE
since earliest times. Silver, manganese,
cadmium, iron and lead are known to
exist and are mined to some extent. Sul-
phur is taken from many of the volcanic
islands and the marbles of Naxos and
Paphos have long been famed. The man-
ufactured articles are made chiefly for
home consumption and consist of silks,
cottons, woolens, pottery, sugar, soaps,
leather and paper. Maritime commerce
has always been one of the great indus-
tries; Athens with Pirzus, Patras, Hy-
dra, Nauplia, Hermoupolis and Kala-
mata are the chief ports.
ANCIENT GREECE. The ancient Greeks
called their country Hellas and they
spoke of themselves as Hellenes. In the
beginning the more important centers of
Greek civilization were not alone in the
peninsula but in the islands and coasts
of the A“gean Sea, while Greek colo-
nies were planted on the shores of the
Black Sea, in Sicily and in Italy and
other parts of the Mediterranean region.
Greece proper was favored by nature in
respect to position, physical characteris-
tics and climate. Its separation from the
east by the narrow Hellespont and the
“fégean Sea saved it from falling under
the numbing despotism of the older
countries, while its proximity to these
older civilizations enabled it to profit by
their progress. The islands scattered
over the A°gean early led to commerce,
and through commerce to the learning
of the East. Moreover, nearly all of the
people shared in the civilizing influence
of the sea, for only two states, unpro-
gressive and unimportant, were without
coast line. Thus early in their history
we find the Greeks having the progres-
sive and venturesome cast natural to a
nation of traders and sailors.
Religion. The religion of the Greeks
was based on ancestor worship, the wor-
ship of a local deity, and upon a nature
worship. Like the Oriental, the Greek
believed that the world was peopled by
spirits who interested themselves in his
daily life and influenced it. All the
forces of nature revealed the presence
of these beings, from the sprouting of
the spear of wheat to the voice of thun-
1227
GREECE
der in the sky. These spirits had the de-
sires and passions of human beings, but
on a larger scale. They represented their
gods under the forms of the highest hu-
man beauty and thus escaped the debas-
ing tendency of the animal form of wor-
ship of the people of the East. More-
over, they systematized or organized
their gods into a family of whom the
chief dwelt upon the top of cloud-capped
Olympus. This religion was, however,
largely for the present life. The dead
dwelt- in a dark underground region
called Hades, so gloomy that Achilles
expressed the national belief when he
said, “Rather would I live upon the earth
as the hireling of another, with a land-
less man who had no great livelihood,
than bear sway among the dead that be
departed.”
Olympian Games. These games were
held at Olympia, Elis, every four years
in honor of Zeus; they constituted the
most largely attended festival, and men
from all parts of Hellas flocked thither.
At first the contests consisted of foot
and chariot. racing, wrestling and box-
ing. The highest honor open to any
Greek was to receive the olive wreath as
victor at Olympia. See OLYMPIAN
GAMES.
Oracles. An oracle among the ancients
was the seat of worship of some god
where he announced his prophecies to
those consulting him. Sometimes the
prophecies were made known through
priests and priestesses and sometimes
they were intimated by signs. People
came from near and far to consult these
oracles in regard to matters of public
and private interest, from the conclusion
of a treaty to a new venture in business.
The most famous Greek oracle was that
of Apollo at Delphi, a town in Phocis.
Here a priestess named Pythia, after the
Python slain by Apollo, sat on a tripod
and delivered the message of the god.
To the uninitiated the utterings of the
priestess were unintelligible, but these
were interpreted to the inquirer by the
priests of Apollo. In historical times the
Delphic oracle often gave evasive an-
swers and also seemed to be swayed by
GREECE
party faction. The Greeks had 22 ora-
cles for the consultation of Apollo. Zeus
was also considered a god of prophecy
and he was consulted in the shade of
Dodona in Epirus, where the divine will
was revealed by the rustling of the oak
leaves of the forest. These oracles, were
consulted until the time of Theodosius
(379-395), who closed the temples.
Amphictyonic Council. This was a
league of ancient Greek cities centering
in a shrine. Among the most famous
was the association formed to protect the
temple at Delphi. Later smaller leagues
arose for the protection of other temples
in Greece. They were the earliest sug-
gestion of a sense of unity among the
Greek states. The name Amphictyonic
signifies “dwellers-round-about.”
Literature. See LiTERATURE, subhead
Greek Literature.
History. Mycenean Age. (? -1000
B. C.). The beginnings of Greece are
lost in obscurity, and the first period,
called the Mycenzan Age, reaches from
this obscure past to about 1000 B. C.
We dimly see by the ruins, for they left
no written records, the outlines of states
on the coasts of the 7“gean, with kings,
rich and powerful, ruling over wide ter-
ritories and making alliances with the
people about them. That they had com-
mercial relations with distant nations is
proved by the Mycenzan pottery found
in\ Egypt, while Mycenzan soldiers are
pictured on the walls of Egyptian tem-
ples built in the 19th and 20th dynasties.
In the Odyssey the extent of sea known
by them is revealed, for this poem,
though it was written in the age that fol-
lowed, depicts the glory and tells the tra-
ditions of the Mycenzan Age.
Middle: Age (1000-500 B. C.). The
Mycenzan period was brought to a close
by the invading Dorians, a rude people
who poured into Greece from the north-
west. In the process of the next 300
years a new political and social life was
built up. By 700 B. C. commerce had
again been established, city states had
arisen with the aristocracy as the pre-
vailing type of government, while the de-
mocracy had already begun the struggle
1228
¢
GREECE. (1) Piraeus, principal port of Athens. (2) Marathon, where one of the world’s
great battles was fought. (3) Lantern of Diogenes. (4) In the Acropolis, (5) Delphi, where
the oracle proclaimed wisdom.
GREECE. (1) Entrance to Acropolis. (2) The modern Academy at Athens. (3) Greek
troops enjoying view of Athens. (4) Market place at Argos. (5) At Sparta.
GREECE
for a share of the government. During
the next two centuries Greece came into
contact with the East and became a more
powerful factor in the world politics
than she had ever been before.
In order to understand the sudden de-
velopment of the Greek genius after 500
B. C. it is well to realize what had actu-
ally been accomplished between 1000 and
500 B. C. By this time the Greeks had
risen in.race consciousness to the belief
that they were one in origin and culture;
colonies had been planted all over the
Mediterranean coasts; nearly every city
_ had passed through various revolutions
leading either to democracy or aristoc-
racy; Sparta already ruled in military
affairs; Athens led in the democratic
movements; while Ionia held first place
in affairs intellectual and artistic.
Period of State Supremacy (500-331
B. C.). From 492 to 480 B. C. came the
inevitable conflict with Persia, and this
period was followed by successive at-
tempts at empire by Athens, Sparta and
Thebes, and closed with the subjection
of Greece by Macedonia in 338 B. C.
During this time came the marvelous
flowering of the Greek genius in liter-
ature, philosophy, science, sculpture,
painting and architecture, while the best
that was said and done in these lines was
said and done at Athens. This city, ri-
diculously small when compared with
any large city of the present day, pro-
duced more famous men in the age of
Pericles (463-431) than any other coun-
try has produced in a century, while
these intellectual giants lived among a
people more keenly appreciative of things
intellectual and artistic, and of more gen-
eral culture, than any other body of men
who have ever lived.
Following this period came the. Pelo-
ponnesian War (431-404 B. C.), which
involved the entire peninsula and re-
sulted in the downfall of Athens and the
rise of Sparta as a political power (See
ATHENS, subhead Peloponnesian War).
For 33 years after the Peloponnesian
War, Sparta was supreme in Greece, a
period marked by tyranny and oppres-
sion. At length the other states of
GREECE
Greece, under the leadership of Thebes,
rose against Sparta. Led by the Theban
generals, Epaminondas and _ Pelopidas,.
the allies won a decisive victory over the
Spartans at Leuctra, 371 B. C. During
the period of Theban supremacy democ-
racy was the principal form of govern-
ment in Greece. The leadership of
Thebes, however, rested on the genius
of her great statesman and general, Epa-
minondas, and it ended with his death,
which occurred at the Battle of Manti-
nea, 362 B. C. There was no state left
in Greece to assume the leadership, and
she soon sank to a position of depend-
ence. See THEBES; SPARTA; ALEXAN-
DER THE GREAT.
Period of Foreign Rule. After the
Battle of Mantinea came a period of
anarchy, lasting over 20 years. In 338
B. C. Philip of Macedon became master
of Greece, decisively overcoming Athens
and Thebes at the Battle of Chzronea.
Then a congress of Greek states ac-
knowledged Macedonia as the head of
Greece. Under Philip’s strong rule re-
bellious outbreaks were quelled. At his
death in 336 B. C., his son Alexander
the Great succeeded to the throne. Al-
exander quickly subdued those states of
Greece that rose in rebellion, and, when
he had firmly established his authority
there, proceeded against Persia. By his
conquests Greek learning and culture
were spread over the vast Persian Em-
pire. Following the death of Alexander
his kingdom was divided into three
smaller kingdoms, and Greece was left a
vassal of Macedonia. During the next
two centuries there was continued inter:
nal dissension, and in 279 B. C. the
Gauls invaded the country. In 146 B. C,,
when Corinth was burned and captured,
Greece and Macedonia fell under the
power of Rome, and Greece became a
Roman province under the name of
Achaia. After the division of the Ro-
man Empire into the Eastern and West-
ern empires, in 395, Greece became a
part of the Eastern Empire, remaining
under its control until the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453.
After the fall of Constantinople Greece
1229
GREECE
became a part of the Turkish Empire.
The country lapsed into poverty and an-
archy under Ottoman tyranny, but the
more independent and energetic of the
people kept alive that spirit of independ-
ence which was to win them freedom.
Modern Greece. At the beginning of
‘the 19th century the Greek people began
a movement for a national revival, and
in 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti headed a
revolt and proclaimed the independence
of Greece. From 1821 to 1828; under
the leadership of Ypsilanti and with the
. help of Russia, France and England, she
fought for freedom. In 1830 a congress
of the European powers declared Greece
an independent nation and forced Tur-
key to agree to this declaration. In 1832
Otho, second son of King Louis I of
Bavaria, was made king by the powers,
and three years later Athens was made
the capital of the kingdom. In 1843 a
bloodless revolution forced the King to
grant a constitution, but the people still
remained dissatisfied, and in 1862 Otho
was deposed. In 1863 the second son of
the King of Denmark became ruler as
George I. He was succeeded in 1913 by
his son Constantine.
In 1878, a boundary dispute between
Turkey and Greece was settled in favor
of the latter nation by a conference of
ambassadors which met at Berlin. A
war, disastrous for Greece, broke out be-
tween the two countries in 1897; the
cause this time was the cruel treatment
of the Cretans by the Turks. As the
result of this war Greece had to pay an
indemnity of $18,000,000, while a slight
change, favorable to Turkey, was made
in the frontier. Later (1898) the pow-
ers of Europe forced Turkey to with-
draw from Crete, and the island was
placed under the protection of Greece.
The Greek Christians, the Serbs, Monte-
negrins and Bulgarians living within
Turkish boundaries have always been
subject to the cruelties of their Moham-
medan rulers and recent massacres led
to the declaration of war against Tur-
key in 1912, made by Montenegro and
joined later by Greece, Bulgaria and
Servia. See BaLKAN War,
GREEK CHURCH
In spite of their unsettled political af-
fairs the Greeks have continued to be a
poetical people, patriotic and proud of
the historic importance of their country
as well as of its recent advancement.
Education, especially in literature and the
arts, has been widespread, and the leg-
ends and history of ancient Greece are
unconsciously learned by the youths.
Schools are established in all of the
towns and cities, and formal education,
though not at present compulsory, is
everywhere encouraged. The University
of Athens is the principal higher institu-
tion. Aside from the native Greeks,
Greece contains many Albanians, Turks
and Europeans. Strangely, too, only
about one-third of the Greek people live
in Greece, the rest having emigrated tem-
porarily to European Turkey, Bulgaria,
the United States and other countries.
The Greek Church, with the king as its
head, is the established Church and in-
cludes fully nine-tenths of the people.
The government is a constitutional
monarchy. The present constitution was
adopted in 1864 and vests the legislative
authority in a single house, called the
Boule. Since 1911 a Council of State,
somewhat answering the purpose of a
second chamber of the legislative assem-
bly, has been added as a department of
government. Population, 4,600,000.
Greek Church, a religious organiza-
tion calling itself the Holy Orthodox
Catholic and Apostolic Church, in a wide
sense including those Christians who
accept the Greek rite. There are three
important branches: the Church within
the Ottoman Empire; the Church in the
Kingdom of Greece; and the Russo-
Greek Church in the Russian Empire.
These agree in receiving the first seven
general councils of the Catholic Church ;
and in refusing to accept the supremacy
of the pope or any of the later councils
of the Western Church. There is a close
connection between the separation of the
Greek and Roman churches and that of
the Eastern and Western branches of
the Roman Empire. The increasing im-
portance of Constantinople and the ri-
valry between Church and State contrib-
1230
CORFU. Top: Corfu from the sea. Bottom: The old fortress of Corfu.
“
a
GREEK CHURCH
uted to the growing spirit of independ-
ence on the part of the East, while the
insertion of filioque (and from the Son)
in the Nicene Creed and the question
of papal supremacy were a continual
source of discord. Doctrinal differences
and the war of the Iconoclasts (See
IcONOcLASTS) were additional elements
in the movement which culminated in a
formal division in 1054. The Greek
Church admits the seven rites of the Ro-
man Church—baptism, confirmation,
communion, penance, extreme unction,
holy orders and matrimony, though dif-
fering somewhat in their observance.
Baptism consists of triple immersion,
confirmation immediately following. In
the Lord’s Supper the Greeks admit the
real ‘presence of Christ in the elements,
and both adults and children receive the
sacrament. Confession and: absolution
by priests are recognized; honor is paid
to relics; but the only graven image per-
mitted is the cross. Among the fast pe-
riods kept are Pentecost and Lent; all
Wednesdays and Fridays are observed.
The Virgin Mary is especially revered.
The public service is formal and im-
pressive, the singing being performed by
male voices alone. Priests and deacons
marry, but bishops may not. Monas-
teries and convents are maintained. The
chief difference between the Greek and
Roman churches is the rejection, by the
former, of the papal supremacy, and the
refusal to permit filioque in the creed.
In regard to government, the Turk-
ish Church is subject to the Patriarch
of Constantinople, who may be appointed
and deposed at the will of the Sultan
of Turkey. The Russian Church is un-
der the Holy Synod at St. Petersburg ;
the Czar of Russia is the recognized tem-
poral head of the whole Greek Church.
The National Church of Greece was es-
tablished under a Holy Synod in 1833.
Besides, there is a United Greek Church,
which acknowledges the supremacy of
the pope at Rome. This Church exists
in Austria-Hungary, southern Italy, Po-
land and parts of Russia. The total
membership of the Greek Church is
98,016,000. :
GREELEY
Greek Fire, a name applied to sev
eral inflammable and destructive com-
pounds used in the Middle Ages for pur-
poses of warfare. The use of these com-
bustibles by the Greeks for centuries
gave them superior advantages, and they
jealously guarded the secret of their
composition. Greek fire appears to have
been made principally of naphtha, sul-
phur and niter. |
Greek Language. See LANGuaGE,
subhead Greek and Latin.
Greeley, Colo., a city and the county
seat of Weld Co., about 50 m. me. of »
Denver, on the Cache la Poudre River
and on the Union Pacific, the Colorado
& Southern and other railroads. It is
the center of one of the most productive
of the irrigated farming districts, the
principal crops being alfalfa, potatoes,
sugar beets, peas, onions and cabbages.
Some wheat is grown, and the raising
of sheep and cattle is an important in-
dustry. The leading industrial planits
are lumber yards, a large beet-sugar fac-
tory, a flour mill, an elevator and vege-
table canning factories. Near the city
are rich coal fields. Greeley is the seat
of the Colorado State Teachers College
and has a public library and municipal
parks. The place was founded in 1870
by a colony from New England and
New York State, which, acting under
the guidance of Nathan Cook Meeker,
an agricultural journalist of New York,
bought a large tract of land; and the
whole colony was administered under
laws arising from idealistic ideas of
community life. The scheme received
the moral support of Horace Greeley (in
whose honor the settlement was named).
A town was laid out in 1871. and the
place\was chartered as a city in 1886.
Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 13,958.
Greeley, Horace (1811-1872), an
American journalist and author, born
in Amherst, N. H. After receiving a
common school education, he entered
upon an apprenticeship in a newspaper
office in Vermont, and became an expert
compositor. In 1831 he removed to New
York City, working for some time as a
journeyman printer, and later as a job
1231
GREELEY
printer. In 1834 he undertook the estab-
lishment of a literary weekly, the New
Yorker, and in conducting this period-
ical Greeley became so widely known
and respected that he was-selected by
the Whigs to edit their campaign paper,
the Jeffersonian; he continued in this
work during 1838-39. In 1840 he started
the Log Cabin, to further the campaign
of William H. Harrison, and in a short
time this paper had a weekly issue of
from 80,000 to 90,000 copies. When
the famous campaign was over Greeley
founded the Daily Tribune (1841),
which he edited until his death. The
New Yorker and Log Cabin were
merged into the Weekly Tribune, which
eventually had a wide circulation
throughout the Northern and Western
states and exerted great influence.
In December, 1848, Greeley entered
Congress to fill a vacancy, serving until
the following March. He was an oppo-
nent of slavery and especially zealous in
opposing its extension to the territory
acquired from Mexico. Through the
Tribune he furthered the anti-slavery
movement until the struggle was over,
and was influential, as a delegate to the
Republican National Convention of 1860,
in securing the nomination of Lincoln.
While he favored the vigorous prosecu-
tion of the war, he was willing to have
it ended by compromise, and in 1864
went to Canada to hold a fruitless peace
conference with the Confederate agents.
After the war he declared for universal
amnesty and suffrage, and joined with
others in signing the bail bond of Jef-
ferson Davis.
From now on Greeley was prominent
in the politics of his state, and in 1872
joined the body of Liberal Republicans
who held a convention in Cincinnati pre-
vious to the regular convention, the lat-
ter of which renominated Grant (See
PoLiTicAL ParTIES IN THE UNITED
StaTES). Greeley was nominated not
only by the Liberal Republicans, but by
the Democrats. The campaign was both
bitter and strenuous, completely ex-
hausting him, and he died shortly after
the election, in which he was defeated.
GREEN
He was a man whom neither praise
we. S
nor blame could swerve from what he
considered a right decision, and through-
out his journalistic career he set an ex-
ample of moderation, fairness and truth-
fulness that has never been surpassed.
His writings include Hints Toward
‘Reforms, History of the Struggle for
Slavery Extension or Restriction in the
United States, The American Conflict
and What I Know of Farming.
Greely, Adolphus Washington
(1844-
plorer, born in Newburyport, Mass. At
the outbreak of the Civil War he joined
the volunteers, was finally brevetted ma-
jor of volunteers and in 1868 was as-
signed to signal service. From 1876
to 1879 he constructed 2000 miles of
military telegraph in the West. In 1881
he commanded an expedition to the Arc-
‘
), an American soldier and ex- ©
tic regions, to establish a series of cir- —
cumpolar stations for scientific observa-
tions, and penetrated to latitude 83° 24,
the highest northerly point reached up —
to that time. He made many valuable
geographical discoveries, but of the 25
men who landed at Discovery Harbor in
August, 1881, all but six, besides Greely,
died of starvation at their permanent
camp at Cape Sabine, where they were
found by Capt. Winfield S. Schley in ©
June, 1884.
eral, Greely became chief of the signal
service, and between 1898 and 1905 many -
thousand miles of wire and wireless tele-
graph were erected under his supervi-
sion in China, Cuba, Porto Rico and
the Philippines. The following year, in
command of the Pacific Division, he had
charge of the relief of San Francisco.
He wrote Three Years of Arctic Serv-
ice, American Weather and American
Explorers and Travellers.
EXPLORATIONS.
Green, John Richard (1837-1883), an
English historian, educated at Magda-
len College and at Jesus College. He
took orders in 1860, became vicar of
St. Stephen’s, Stepney, i in 1866, and was
made librarian at Lambeth in 1869.
Thereafter he devoted himself to
history and politics. A Short History
1232
In 1887, as brigadier-gen- ~
See POLAR
GREENBACK LABOR PARTY
of the English People was rewritten
twice before Green published it in 1874.
It was subsequently expanded into a
four-volume History of the English Peo-
ple, which in 1882 was followed by his
scholarly The Making of England. Fol-
lowing his death, his wife published his
Conquest of England.
Greenback Labor Party. See Porirt-
ICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES,
subhead Greenback Labor Party.
Greenback Party. See POoriTicaL
PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES, sub-
head Greenback Party.
Greenbacks. See MOoNEy, subhead
Paper Money. |
Green Bay, Wis., a city, port of entry
and county seat of Brown Co., 114 m.
n. of Milwaukee and 198 m. n. of Chi-
cago, on the southern extremity of
Green Bay at the mouth of the Fox
River, and on the Chicago & North
Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St.
Paul, the Green Bay & Western and
other railroads. There is steamboat serv-
ice to points on Green Bay, Mackinac
Island, Milwaukee and other ports on
the Great Lakes. The city has 12 m. of
water front and a fine harbor accom-
modates considerable lake commerce.
There is a complete electric railway sys-
tem, and interurban lines up the Fox
River Valley connect the city with Apple-
ton, Neenah, Fond du Lac, Oshkosh
and other towns and cities. Green Bay
has an area of 13 sq. m. and is situated
on high, level ground on both sides of
the river, which is here spanned by a
number of bridges. The city is an ad-
vantageous distributing point for north-
eastern Wisconsin and upper peninsula.
Parks AND Boutevarps. The city
contains a number of parks with an area
of 32 ‘acres, Hagemeister and Union
parks being the largest. Bay Beach is a
noted resort and there are many sum-
mer houses located around the bay.
Green Bay has beautifully shaded and
paved streets, picturesque drives and
many elegant residences.
Pusiic Burtpincs. Among the note-
worthy buildings are the Federal Build-
ing, courthouse, Masonic Temple, Na-
GREEN BAY
tional Fraternal League Building, Y. M.
C. A., custom-house and Green Bay,
Catholic Woman’s Club, city hall, a num-
ber of banks, Elks’ Clubhouse and good
municipal buildings. There are about 27
churches, including a Catholic cathedral.
The city is also the seat of a Catholic
see, being the earliest bishopric estab-
lished in this portion of the country.
Instirutions. The educational insti-
tutions include several high schools, pub-
lic and parish schools, St. Joseph’s Acad-
emy, academy for young ladies, the Kel-
logg Library and a business college.
Among the benevolent and charitable in-
stitutions are a number of hospitals, in-
cluding an isolation hospital, almshouse
and an orphans’ home. The city is the
seat of the Wisconsin State Odd Fel-
lows’ Home. The state reformatory is
located about five miles southwest of the
Citys
INDustTRIES. Green Bay is an impor-.
tant industrial and manufacturing cen-
ter. The industries comprise flour, saw,
paper and sulphite mills, furniture and
woodenware, canning, shoe, glove, con-
fectionery biscuit factories and automo-
bile trucks, pickle factory, farm imple-
ments, brick and tile works, soap fac-.
tories, woodworking machinery plants,
and meat packing plants, boiler and ma-
chine shops, casket works and cornice
works. There are also lumber yards and
railroad repair shops, dry docks and
grain elevators. A large fish-shipping
business is carried on and there is an
_ extensive coal import trade. Many acres
of Oneida Indian Reservation lands ad-
join the city.
History. The first visit to what is
now Green Bay was made by Jean Nicol-
let in 1634, and a Jesuit mission was
later established by Allouez. The place
was settled by the French, but fell into
the hands of the English at the close of
the French and Indian War. The Amer-
icans established a fort on the opposite
side of the river in 1816 known as Ft.
Howard, which grew to be the center
of a prosperous town and was annexed
te Green Bay in 1895. Population in
1920, U. S. Census, 31,017.
1233
GREENE
Greene, Nathanael (1742-1786), an
American general of the Revolutionary
War, born at Patowomut, R. I. In 1770
he entered the Rhode Island Legislature,
where he became such a belligerent ad-
vocate of freedom that he was excom-
municated by the Society of Friends, to
which he had belonged. Four years later
he enrolled as a private in the Kentish
Guards, which he himself had organized,
and in 1775, as brigadier-general, he
marched to Cambridge, Mass., with an
almost model brigade. Greene soon won
the esteem of Washington, who often
consulted him in times of perplexity, and
on Aug. 9, 1776, he became major-gen-
eral with command of the forces on Long
Island. He distinguished himself there
save at Ft. Washington, Nov. 16, 1776,
when a prompt and decisive move on his
part might have averted one of the most
crushing blows that overtook the Ameri-
cans during the entire struggle. Later
Greene led divisions at Trenton, Prince-
ton and Brandywine. His skill at Ger-
mantown received the unqualified praise
of Washington. Subsequently. he took
part in the Battle of Monmouth and
before Newport, R. I. In 1780, accom-
panied by Morgan, he went to assume
command of the Southern army.
Greene’s strategy found victory even in
defeat, and he succeeded in gaining
Georgia and the Carolinas for the Amer-
icans. . After: the Battle:tof “Eutaw
Springs, Sept. 8, 1781, Congress pre-
sented him with a British standard and
a gold medal. With the close of the
war he returned to Rhode Island; but
in 1785 he moved to a valuable estate
near Savannah, of which the State of
Georgia had made him a present. He
sold the land given to him by South
Carolina to pay debts, which he had
assumed to secure supplies for his sol-
diers. June 12, 1786, he suffered a sun-
stroke and a week later he died. Of
the American Revolutionary generals,
Greene ranked next to Washington as a
strategist and as an example of consum-
mate generalship.
Greenfield, Mass., county seat of
Franklin Co., 36 m. n. of Springfield,
GREENLAND
the capital of the state, and 56 m. w. of
Fitchburg, on the Connecticut River, 2
m. above the mouth of the Deerfield
River, and on the Boston & Maine Rail-
road. The chief manufactures include
machinists’ tools, silverware, agricultural
implements, paper boxes, woodenware,
children’s carriages, toys, cement build-
ing blocks and boots and shoes. Green-
field is a popular summer resort. It
was settled in 1686, but remained a part
of Deerfield until 1753. Population in
1920, Uas. Census, 15 AGe.
Green Fly. See A’PHID.
Green Heron. See HERON.
Greenhouse, a structure designed to
furnish protection to plants. It may be
also a hothouse for the forcing of the
growth of plants, or a conservatory for
the care and exhibition of flowers, or an
orchard house for the protection of fruit
trees. Greenhouses are provided with
glass roofs and sides to let in the sun’s —
heat, and are generally furnished with
some system of heating. Hothouses now
produce a large amount of early vege-
tables and fruits which bring high prices.
See HorBep AND CoLD FRAME.
Greenland, the largest island in the
world. Baffin Bay, Davis Strait and
Smith Sound separate it from the Con-
tinent of North America. Its area is
estimated at 512,000 sq. m., and the
maximum height of its mountainous sur-
face is about 8000 ft. above sea level.
Petermann Peak is 11,000 ft. high.
Characteristic features of its surface are
deep and somber fiords between the
high mountains, and a great number of
glaciers.
abundant, consisting of berries, lichens,
mosses, shrubs, herbs, saxifrage and
poppies. Vegetables are cultivated
under glass. The fauna consists princi-
pally of the Eskimo dog, musk ox, Are-
tic fox, hare, ermine, lemming and rein-
deer. The surrounding waters are the
hunting grounds for the whale. The
seal and walrus have supplied the bulk
of the native food. Many necessaries
are imported from Denmark. Green-
land is supposed to have been visited by
Eric the Red, a Norseman, in 985, and
1234
In summer the vegetation is
GREEN MOUNTAINS
a settlement made under his leadership.
Population in 1901, 11,893. See PoLar
EXPLORATIONS.
Green Mountains, a range of the Ap-
palachian system, extending from Can-
ada through Vermont, Massachusetts,
and Connecticut to Long Island Sound.
In Massachusetts they are known as the
Berkshire Hills, and in Connecticut as
the Taconic Mountains. The Green
Mountains are among the oldest moun-
tain ranges in North America. They
are low mountains with rounded sum-
mits and forest-covered slopes. Much
of the timber consists of spruce, fir and
hemlock—all evergreens—and from this
characteristic the mountains take their
name. Mt. Mansfield, the highest peak,
has an altitude of 4364 ft. Killington,
Camel’s Hump, Equinox and Jay are
other important peaks. The Green
Mountain region is a favorite summer
resort.
Greensboro,’ N. C., a city and the
county seat of Guilford Co., 81 m. n.w.
of Raleigh, on several lines of the
Southern Railway. The city lies in a
section rich in mineral resources; and
gold, copper and iron are mined. Chief
among the farm crops of the surround-
ing section are tobacco, cotton, fruit and
Indian corn; and a large trade in to-
Meco iron -and~ coal’ is: carried: “on.
Among the industrial plants are cotton
mills, blast furnaces for the manufac-
ture of Bessemer steel, sawmills, foun-
dries, flour mills, terra-cotta works,
cigar factories, brick and tile works and
manufactories of cotton goods, machin-
ery, lumber, sashes, doors, blinds, flan-
nel, carpets, spokes, handles, bent rims,
bobbins and cotton-mill supplies. The
city is a focus for a large insurance
business.
The educational institutions include
Greensboro Female College (Methodist
Episcopal, South), opened in 1846; a
state normal school; Guilford College
(coeducational), maintained by the
Society of Friends; and three institu-
tions for negroes—the North Carolina
State Agricultural and Mechanical
College, Immanuel Lutheran College
GREENVILLE
(Evangelical Lutheran) and Bennett
College (Methodist Episcopal). Other
features’ of the city” are a Carnegie
library, an auditorium and St. Leo Hos-
pital. About six miles northwest of the
city is Battle-Ground Park, a 100-acre
tract on the site of the Battle of Guil-
ford Courthouse, fought in March,1781,
by Lord Cornwallis and Gen. Nathanael
Greene; and it is in honor of the latter
that Greensboro is named. Greensboro
was founded in 1808, organized as a
town in 1829 and chartered as a city
in 1870. Population in 1920, 19,861.
Greensburg, Pa. county seat of
Westmoreland Co., 31 m. s.e. of Pitts-
burgh, on the Pennsylvania Railroad.
Several private institutions for second-
ary education are located here, among
them Seton Hill College. The bor-
ough has an extensive trade in coal,
which is mined in the vicinity, and
manufactories of glass, iron, nuts,
bolts, lumber, brick-heating apparatus,
etc. Population, 1920, U.S. Census, 15,033.
Greenville, Miss., a city and the
county seat of Washington Co., about
137 m. s.w. of Memphis, Tenn., on the
Mississippi River and on the Southern,
the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley and
other railroads. Steamboats connect it
with other ports on the Mississippi.
The city is the center of a productive
cotton section and carries on a large
trade. It has cotton mills, compresses,
cottonseed-oil mills and saw and planing
mills. There are beautiful streets, lawns,
parks and playgrounds. Population in
1920, U. S. Census, 11,560.
Greenville, S. C., a city and the
county seat of Greenville Co., 110 m.
n.w. of Columbia and 160 m. n.e. of At-
lanta, Ga., on the Southern, the C. & W.
C. and the P. & N. (electric) railroads.
The city is situated in an undulating
country near the outlying spurs of the
Blue Ridge Mountains and has a delight-
ful climate. Among the industrial plants
are cotton mills, ironworks and foun-
dries. Greenville is known as the textile
center Of the south. The important ed-
ucational institutions are Furman Uni-
versity (Baptist) ; Greenville College for
1235
.GREENVILLE
Women; a business College and an excel-
lent system of Public Schools (in south-
ern accredited class). Greenville was
settled in 1784 and incorporated in 1831.
Population in 1920, United States Cen-
Briss wos Z/.
Greenville, Tex., a city and the
county seat of Hunt Co., about 54 m.
n.e. of Dallas and 235 m. n. of Houston,
on the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the
St. Louis Southwestern, the Texas. Mid-
land and other railroads. Among the
industrial plants are cotton compresses,
cotton-seed-oil mills, flour mills, machine
shops, brickyards and stockyards. The
distinguishing features are Burleson and
Wesley colleges and many beautiful pub-
lic parks and excellent schools. Settled
in 1844, Greenville was incorporated a
city in 1875. The population in 1920,
United States Census, was 12,384.
Green Vitriol, Vit’ riul. See Copr-
PERAS.
Greenwich, Grin'1j, a borough of
London, England, in Kent, formerly a
town, 5m. s.e. of St. Paul’s Cathedral
and on the right bank of the River
Thames. Objects of interest in the city
are the Greenwich Royal Observatory,
established in 1675 (from which point
longitude in calculated and used by
British astronomers and geographers,
and also by most of the geographers of
the world, and which establishes the
time for all parts of the United King-
dom), the Royal Naval College and the
Greenwich Observatory. From the 13th
to the 17th century it was a royal resi-
dence, and marks the birthplace of
Henry VIII, Queen Mary and Queen
Elizabeth. Population about 185,000.
Greenwich, Conn., a town and popu-
lar summer resort of Fairfield Co., 28 m.
n.e. of New York City, on Long Island
Sound and on the New York, New
Haven & Hartford Railroad. The town
is attractively situated and is a suburban
resort \for many New York people.
There are many handsome residences.
The Greenwich Academy, Rosemary
Hall and the Brunswick School’ are lo-
cated here. Greenwich was settled in
1640 and was a part of the Dutch
GREGORY VII
Province of New York from 1642 until
1650, when by a Dutch and English
commission agreement it became part of
Connecticut ; it marks the line of bound-
ary. Population in 1920, 22,123. |
Greenwood, James M. (1836-1914),
an American educator, born -near
Springfield, Ill. He studied in the pub-
lic schools, and moved with his parents
in 1852 to Adair County, Mo. Here he
pursued his studies by himself while
working on a farm. Later, he spent a
year in Canton Seminary. From 1867-
1874 he taught mathematics, astronomy
and logic in the normal schoot at Kirks-
ville, Mo. In 1874 he became superin-
tendent of schools at Kansas City, Mo.
He has published Principles of Educa-
tion Practically Applied.
Greg’ory, the name of 16 popes and
one anti-pope.
SAINT GREGORY (avout 540-609),
pope from 590 until his death, was born
at Rome and educated for a public ca-
reer. He turned early to the Church,
however, and became abbot of St. An-
drew’s, where he wax »vopular in spite
of his severity. Gregor, determined to
undertake personally the conversion of
Britain, but before hix ‘ask was well
begun he was recalled to Decome pope.
He ruled wisely and zealously and is
known as a great organizer of mission-
ary enterprise.
Grecory XIII (1502-1585) was pope
from 1572 until his death, He gave
great aid to the Jesuits, but is remem-
bered chiefly for his great public works
and for his reform of the calendar (See
CALENDAR).
Gregory VII (about 1015-1085), the
Great Hildebrand, one of the greatest
ecclesiastical geniuses of history. He
became pope in 1073. In his Paschal
Synod (Rome, 1074), he threatened
with excommunication all who received
sacred ministrations from the so-called
married clergy. Blood was shed, espe-
cially in Germany, France and Italy, be-
fore the clergy submitted to this de-
cree. Gregory’s law against investi-
tures, propagated in 1075, precipitated
one of the greatest religious struggles
1236 |
Fee
ae
- war followed.
GREGORY
of all ages. It was aimed especially at
Henry IV of Germany, who openly sold
high Church offices to the notoriously
immoral. But Henry was undaunted,
even when Gregory excommunicated
five of his advisers. Consequently
Gregory summoned him to Rome.
Instead of obeying, Henry undertook
to depose Gregory at the Council of
Worms on Jan. 24, 1076. This so in-
censed the. Pope that he immediately
absolvéd all Christians from allegiance
to Henry, with the result that the Ger-
mans proceeded to select a new king.
Brought to terms, Henry now asked and
obtained reconciliation with Gregory,
but before long proceeded to act as im-
piously as before. His subjects, thor-
oughly aroused, hereupon elected Ru-
dolph of Swabia as king in 1077. Civil
Gregory again excom-
municated Henry in 1080; but Henry
in retaliation set Guibert of Ravenna on
the papal throne, holding Gregory a
prisoner, during three years, in the Cas-
tle of St. Angelo. Saddened and worn,
Pope Gregory died in seclusion at Sa-
lérno. See HENry IV.
Gregory, Lady Isabella Augusta
Persse, a British woman of letters, one
of the group of modern writers who
have found their inspiration in the peo-
ple and soil of Ireland. She was born
(Persse) in Roxborough, County Gal-
way, Ireland, and grew up with a ro-
mantic love for Ireland that later found
definite literary expression. When, in
1893, Dr. Douglas Hyde founded the
Gaelic League, the object of which was
the preservation of the Irish spoken
language and the Irish nationality, Lady
Gregory entered into the movement with
enthusiasm. She learned the Irish
language, made translations of Irish
songs and ballads, edited and made re-
visions, and became a prominent figure
in the production and presentation of a
group of Irish plays. Associated with
her were Dr. Hyde, William B. Yeats
and John M. Synge. In her two books,
Cuchulain of Muirthemne and Gods and
Fighting Men, she gathered together
and retold in the Elizabethan English
GRESHAM’S LAW
of her neighborhood, the great legends
of Ireland. Among other writings are
Poets and Dreamers, The Kiltartan
Wonder Book and the plays—Spreading
the News, The Rising of the Moon and
The Workhouse Ward. See Irisu
PLAYS:
Grenadier, Gren’a deer’, the name
once applied to a soldier who threw
hand grenades, which were small metal
or glass bullets filled with powder and
fired by a fuse. Companies of grena-
diers formed a part of the troops of both
English and French armies up to the
time of the invention and use of the
musket. The grenadiers were usually
soldiers above ordinary height and were
distinguished by special uniform.
Grenfell, Wilfred Thomason (1865-
), a British medical missionary,
author and lecturer, a graduate of Ox-
ford. Shortly after completing his
medical education at London Hospital,
he entered the service of the Royal Na-
tional Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen.
Fitting out the first hospital ship for the
North Sea fisheries, he cruised with the
fishermen from the Bay of Biscay to
Iceland, establishing homes for them on
land and arranging mission vessels for
their use at sea. In 1892 he went to
Labrador. There he established several
hospitals, an orphanage and a series of
cooperative stores, and started many
small industrial schemes for the allevia-
tion of the poor. Dr. Grenfell has lec-
tured extensively in the United States.
Among his publications are Adrift on an
Ice-pan, A Man’s Faith, The Harvest
of the Sea, Off the Rocks, Labrador and
Down to the Sea.
Gresham’s Law, a term used to des-
ignate the economic principle, first pro-
pounded by Sir Thomas Gresham, that
when good and bad money are both in
use the bad will tend to drive out the
good; because the money having the
greater intrinsic value will be used in the
foreign trade, where only the bullion
value is recognized. The money of less
intrinsic value will thus be left for do-
mestic circulation. See Money, subhead
Varieties.
1237
GRETNA GREEN
Gret’na Green, or Graitney, Scotland,
a village on the Solway Firth, 8 m. n.
of Carlisle. According to an old Scot-
tish law, the statement before witnesses
of an unmarried couple that they were
man and wife, constituted a legal mar-
riage. Gretna Green became notorious
as a wedding place of runaway couples
from England, who availed themselves
of this peculiar marriage law. The term
“Gretna Green marriage” is now used
to designate a runaway marriage.
Grévy, Gra’ve’, Francois Paul Jules
(1807-1891), a French statesman, born
at Mont-sous-Vaudrey. He studied law
in Paris, while a student participating in
the Revolution of 1830. In 1848 he was
elected to the Constituent Assembly, dis-
tinguishing himself as an orator. Re-
tiring from politics after the coup d’
état of Louis Napoleon, he devoted him-
self to his profession and rose to emi-
nence. In 1869 he again entered the
National Assembly, and two years later
he was there chosen president, holding
this position until 1879, when, Marshal
MacMahon having resigned as president
of the republic, he was elected his suc-
cessor. He won the election to a second
term as president in 1885, but, hampered
by ministerial complications, he was
forced to resign in 1887.
Grey, Lady Jane (about 1537-1554),
the daughter of Henry Grey, afterward
Duke of Suffolk, and the grandniece of
Henry VIII. Edward VI settled on her
the succession to the crown, :but nine
days after the proclamation of her ac-
cession, Mary’s claims were recognized
and Lady Jane was sent to the Tower.
Four months later she and her husband,
Lord Guilford Dudley, were beheaded.
Grey, Sir Albert Henry, Fourtu
EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND (1851- i
an English statesman, educated at Har-
row and at Trinity College, Cambridge.
When he was 26 he married Alice Hol-
ford, sister of Lord Minto, and three
years later entered the British House of
Commons, where he remained for six
years. He then succeeded Cecil Rhodes
in representing the British South Africa
Company. From 1904 to 1911 he was
GRIFFIN
governor-general and commander-in-
chief of Canada, his term of office being
extended for 12 months at the instance
of Edward VII. While filling this post,
Earl Grey closely identified himself with
every movement calculated to advance
Canadian interest. He was also.Jlord
lieutenant of Northumberland and dis-
tinguished himself in the Boer War.
Greyhound, a tall, aristocratic dog,
noted for its speed and its keen sight,
two qualities which make it particularly
valuable as a hunting dog. The coat of
the common English greyhound is
smooth and generally gray in color; its
name, however, does not refer to its
color, but to the Irish word grey, meaning
dog. Built for speed, its entire frame—
the body, the strong legs, the pointed
nose and the tail—is slender and elon-
gated. The ears are long and pointed,
sometimes held erect and sometimes
drooping. The sense of smell is defec-
tive in all greyhounds, but a remarkable
vision more than makes up for the loss.
The general class of greyhounds in-
cludes the deerhound, which has a
shaggy coat and is of heavier build; the
Irish wolfhound; the Italian greyhound ;
and the hairless dogs of Central Amer-
ica. Lurchers and whippets are a cross
between greyhounds and other species.
Grieg, Greeg, Edvard Hagerup (1843-
1907), the most celebrated of Nor-
wegian composers, was born at Bergen,
He was educated at Leipsic. His great-
est achievement was in the field of com:
position. He wrote for violin, piano and -
for orchestra, besides a large number of
songs. His music has a marked national
character, much of it being based upon
Scandinavian legends and folk tales.
His most famous orchestral work is the
Peer Gynt suite, founded upon the
drama of the same name by Ibsen.
Griffin, Ga., a city and the county
seat of Spaulding Co., 43 m. s. of At-
lanta, on the Central of Georgia, the
Southern and other railroads. The in-
dustrial interests of the town are cen-
tered in cotton mills, gins and bleacheries,
machine shops, foundries and vehicle
and a large pimento canning factory.
{238
GRIMM
Griffin is an attractive resort. In the
vicinity is the Georgia State Agricul-
tural Experiment Station. Population
in 1920, 8,240.
Grimm, Jacob Ludwig Karl (1785-
1863), and Wilhelm Karl (1786-1859),
two German philologists, brothers, born
in Hanau. They formulated what is
popularly known as Grimm’s Law, one
of the most important of phonetic laws.
They compiled the great Dictionary of
the German Language, and Jacob Lud-
wig Grimm wrote a History of the Ger-
man Language, a German Grammar,
German Mythology and Origin of Lan-
guage. They founded the science of
folklore by collecting from manuscripts
and books and by word of mouth the
popular legends and fairy tales of their
country; and because of the Nursery
and Fireside Stories “Brothers Grimm”
have become known the world over.
Grind’stone”, a flat, circular stone
held in a frame by a horizontal axis
upon which it is made to revolve. It
is cut from blocks of sandstone of vary-
ing degrees of coarseness. The larger
stones used in factories sometifnes weigh
several tons, and are operated by ma-
shinery; the smaller ones are revolved
by hand or foot power. Artificial grind-
stones of fine texture are made from
emery and are used for grinding metal.
Those made from carborundum are
much used for grinding precious stones.
Grippe. See INFLUEN’ZA.
Grosbeak, Grose’ beek”, a bird of the
Finch Family.. The rose-breasted gros-
beak is a little smaller than a robin
(eight inches in length). The male may
_ be known by its black head, throat and
back, white-spotted wings and tail, and
particularly by the brilliant rose-colored
spot on the breast. The female has a
buff-colored back and breast streaked
with brown. The grosbeak is a song-
ster of the highest order, its notes
somewhat resembling those of the oriole.
Unlike most birds, it sings at night. The
mest is very loosely constructed and is
built in alow bush or vine and contains
two to four brown-spotted eggs, which
both sexes incubate. The young leave
GROUCHY
the nest when about 11 days old and
begin to sing when ten weeks old. These
birds are largely insect feeders, eating
by preference the potato beetle, and for
this reason they are called by the farm-
ers of Pennsylvania “potato-bug birds.”
Grote, George (1794-1871), an Eng-
lish historian, born in Kent. His princi-
pal literary work was his History of
Greece, to which he gave the latter years
of his life. This work is in 12 volumes,
and is considered the most complete his-
tory of Greece published. Grote went
to Parliament in 1832 on the Liberal
ticket and was twice reelected. Up to
p ee
it
PO with
ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK
the time of his death he was president
of University College and vice-chancel-
lor of London University.
Grotius, Gro’ shius, or De Groot,
Hugo (1583-1645), a Dutch scholar
born at Delft, Netherlands, and educated
at the University of Leyden. He is
noted for his great work On the Law of
War and Peace, which gave a clear ex-
position of the fundamental purposes of
international law, and is still considered
a standard authority on the subject.
Grouchy, Groo” she’, Emmanuel, MaAr-
QUIS DE (1766-1847), a French marshal,
born in Paris, France. He joined the
Royal Life Guards at the age of 14
years, on the side of the Revolutionists.
He served in the Prussian War in 1806;
and the following year was in the war
with Russia, where he distinguished
1220
GROUND HOG
himself and was made a marshal of
France. In 1815 when Blucher was de-
feated at Ligny, Grouchy was ordered
to push the Russian retreat. Upon
Napoleon’s second abdication and the
second restoration, Grouchy was ban-
ished and lived for some time in Phila-
delphia, Pa. Returning to his native
land in 1821, he was again made a mar-
shal of France.
Ground Hog. See WoopcHUCK.
Ground Ivy, Gill-over-the-Ground or
Creeping Charley, a low, spreading
GROUND IVY
herb of the Mint Family, common in
“waste or shaded grounds which have
plenty of moisture. It is often found
growing thickly in. the grass of door-
yards, where it creeps so closely along
the ground that it is hardly noticeable.
The leaves are rounding, with wavy
margins, much like those of the catnip,
to which it is closely related. The stems
are square and slightly hairy. The
flowers are small, two-lipped and light
blue in color. The stems, leaves and
flowers all have a slightly pungent taste
GUADALAJARA
and odor, common to members of this
family. Ground ivy is commonly called
a weed, because it spreads so rapidly,
but its delicate flowers and _ beautiful
dark green leaves make it really an orna-
mental herb.
Ground Pine. See Ciup Moss...
Ground Robin. See TOWHEE.
Ground Squirrel, a name applied to
a Class of Rodents of the Squirrel Fam-
ily, whose technical name means food-
storers. They are small, active animals
with sharp-toed feet, lengthened cra-
niums and large cheek pouches. Their
homes are burrows where they store,
during the summer and autumn, the nuts
and dried roots which are to be their
food during the winter. There are
many varieties, the most common Amer-
ican species being generally spoken of as
the chipmunk. See CHIPMUNK.
Grouse, a family of rough-footed,
gallinaceous birds found generally in
temperate or colder regions of Europe,
Asia and North America. The family
includes such birds as the quail, par-
tridge, blackcock, ptarmigan, prairie hen
and ruffed grouse. The nests are made
on the ground, generally hidden by tall
grass or sheltering shrubs, and contain
from 10 to 14 greenish-tan or brown-
speckled eggs. The young feed upon
insects, but the older birds prefer grain
and are destructive of the farmer’s
fields.. See QUAIL; PARTRIDGE; RUFFED
GROUSE; CAPERCAILLIE,
Grow, Galusha Aaron (1823-1907),
an American lawyer and statesman, born
in Ashford, Conn. He entered Congress
from Pennsylvania in 1851 as its young-
est member, and served for 12 years,
first as a Democrat, then as Republican.
He was speaker of the House from 1861
to 1863. For ten years he introduced at
the beginning of each Congress a free-
homestead bill, until it became a law in
1862. After an interval of 30 years he
served again in Congress from 1894 to
1903. as congressman-at-large from
Pennsylvania. |
Guadalajara, Gwah"thah lah hah' rah,
‘a city in Mexico and the capital of the
State of Jalisco. It is situated on the
1240
_ sive granite blocks.
GUADALQUIVIR
Santiago River 125 m. from the Pacific
Ocean and 275 m. n.w. of the City of
Mexico. Guadalajara is among the
most pleasant of Mexican cities. Among
the most beautiful drives is that of the
Paseo, along one of the branches of the
river and terminating in the famous
Alameda, or public garden. The most
interesting building is the great cathe-
dral in Plaza Mayor. The government
palace in the same square, is in Spanish
style and is a stately building of pleas-
ing appearance. Other interesting edi-
fices are the mint, the library, the Acad-
emy of Fine Arts, the Teatro Degollado
and the large penitentiary built of mas-
Among the educa-
tional institutions are the university, the
national college, an Episcopal seminary
and fine public schools. There are many
charitable institutions. The chief indus-
tries of the city are those connected with
the iron and steel works, and with the
manufacture of glass and artistic pot-
tery. Other manufactures are those of
textiles, leather, furniture, hats and
candies. Population, 101,208.
Guadalquivir, God" al kwiv’ er, a river
of southern Spain, rising in the moun-
tains of the Province of Jaen and flowing
in a southwesterly direction to the At-
lantic. Its length is 360 m. It has many
large tributaries, and in one part of its
course. it separates into three channels,
forming the two islands known as Isla
Mayor and Isla Menor. The cities of
Seville and Cordova lie upon its banks
and large boats can ascend the river to
the former city.
Guadalupe Hidalgo, God"a loop’ Hi-
dal’ go, Treaty of, the treaty made Feb.
2, 1848, between the United States and
Mexico, which ended the Mexican War.
By this treaty the Mexican Government
ceded to the United States the territory
of Texas, New Mexico and a part of
California and agreed upon the Rio
Grande River as the boundary between
Mexico and Texas. The United States
agreed to pay Mexico $15,000,000 and
to assume all claims of its citizens
against Mexico arising before the
treaty. It also reserved to Mexicans in
GUARDIAN
the ceded territory the right to remove
or remain and assured protection of
their rights of property. See MEXICAN
War.
Guam, Gwam, an island of the La-
drone group, acquired by the United
States from Spain in 1898. It has an
area of only 200 sq. m. and is low in
the north, but rises to a moderate eleva-
tion in the south. Guam is of coral
formation, has a-~fertile, well-drained
surface and is covered with forests.
Coconut, breadfruit, rice, sugar and in-
digo are cultivated. Agafia, the capital,
has San Luis de Apra as its port. The
island is of especial importance to the
United States since it has been made a
landing place of the Pacific cable, and
will be even more useful after the open-
ing of the Panama Canal. The execu-
tive officer is a governor appointed by
the president. Population, 12,240.
Guano, Gwah'no, the excrement of
sea birds, once found in large quantities
upon the islands of the coast of Peru
and, because of its rich nitrogen and
phosphorus content, used extensively as
a fertilizer. The largest deposits of
guano having been exhausted, that upon
the market at the present time is com-.
monly a manufactured product obtained
from the refuse at fish canneries and
known as fish guano. Another variety,
made at slaughter pens, is known as
blood guano. At present the menhaden,
a fish caught in large quantities upon
the New England coast, is used almost
entirely for the production of this fer-
tilizer. See MENHADEN; FERTILIZER.
Guaranty, Gar’ an ty, or Guarantee,
a warrant or contract by which one be-
comes responsible for the debts, defalca-
tion or miscarriage of another. At com-
mon law a guaranty is considered bind-
ing, whether written cr oral. Many so-
called guaranties, however, such as the
guaranty of a salesman of the quality
of his goods or of a certain per cent
profit on an investment, do not fall with-
in the legal requirements and are, there-
fore, worthless. |
Guardian, Gar’ de an, one having th
lawful control of the person or property,
s 1241
GUATEMALA
or both, of a person under legal age to
care for himself, or of a feeble-minded
or insane person. In the United States
the term without qualification means one
who has control of the person and prop-
erty of an infant; that is, a person under
21 years of age if a man, and under 18
years of age if a woman, though these
limitations may vary in different states.
Guardians are usually appointed by par-
ents or courts, and in most states they
are strictly accountable to the probate
court of their district or county. The
authority of a guardian is similar to
that of a parent.
Guatemala, Gwah” te mah’ lah.
CENTRAL AMERICA, \
Guava, Gwah’' vah, a low tree of the
Myrtle Family growing in both the East
and the West Indies, but probably a na-
tive of the latter. The tree grows to a
height of about 20 ft. and has many
branches, which are thickly covered with
long, smooth leaves. The flower of the
white, or lemon, guava is a long white
blossom having a pleasing fragrance.
The fruit, which is yellow when ripe,
has a brittle rind, within which is a flesh-
colored pulp used in making jellies, pre-
serves and marmalade. The seeds are
numerous and extremely hard. Other
varieties of the guava are the strawberry
guava and the red guava. The fruit of
the latter is a beautiful wine color, but
less pleasant to the taste than that of
the lemon guava.
Guayaquil, Gwi’ah keel’, or Santiago
de Guayaquil, a city and the chief sea-
port of Ecuador, capital of the Province
of Guayas, situated on the Guayas
River, 33 m. above its mouth, The un-
satisfactory drainage system of the
streets, the surrounding marshes and the
floods in rainy seasons make the city
unhealthful. Recent improvements in
lighting, tramway and telephone service
have been made, and several fine build-
ings added. The exports are cocoa,
ivory, gold, silver, Panama hats, cotton,
hides and cinchona bark. Population
estimated at 51,000.
Guayule, Gwah yoo’ la, a gum pro-
duced by a Mexican and Texan plant of
See
GUELPH
the Thistle Family and used there, and
to a slight extent elsewhere, as a substi-
tute for India rubber. The plant from
which the gum is produced is also fre-
quently called guayule, having no other ~
common name. .
Gudgeon, Guj’ un, a European food
fish of the Carp Family found in large
schools upon gravelly beaches. It is a
trim, plump fish, with a broad body and
fleshy tail. It is probably among the
most common fish taken by young Eng- ~
lish fishermen. The Niagara gudgeon,
probably introduced from England, is
smaller, and though of excellent flavor
is not commonly considered a food fish.
Guelder-Rose, Gel' der-Roze, or Snow-
ball Tree, an ornamental, flowering
shrub of the Honeysuckle Family, gen-
erally known here under the latter name.
It is a cultivated shrub, erect in form
and growing to a height of from seven
to ten feet; the bark is somewhat rough
below but smooth on the finer branches.
The leaves are generally three-lobed
with finely-cut margins. The flowers,
which give the plant its popularity, are
big balls of blossoms, which when ma-
ture are pure white, but when opening
change from leaf-green to white. The
single blossoms may be either sterile,
that is, not for fruit production, or fer-
tile. The outer ones are sterile and are
much larger than the inner ones; all
have short tubes and _ evenly-divided,
five-lobed corollas. The fruit is a sour,
red berry which is often substituted for
cranberries, and thus the plant derives
its name of highbush cranberry. The
English name comes from the plant’s
being a native of the Dutch Gerderland.
Guelph, Gwelf, a city of Canada in
the Province of Ontario, situated on the
Speed River, in a fine agricultural dis-
trict. In addition to the municipal and
county buildings is found the Ontario
Agricultural College, which is one of the
best agricultural colleges in America. A
waterfall of 30 ft. in the river furnishes
power for numerous mills and factories.
The leading manufactures are agricul-
tural implements, musical instruments,
sewing machines, furniture and woolen
1242
GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES
goods.
tant occupation, and fruit, grain and live
stock are the principal exports. The
first settlement was made in 1827, and
the town became a city in 1877. Popu-
lation in 1911, 15,175.
Guelphs and Ghibellines, Gib’ el ing,
names probably corrupted by the Italians
from the German Welf and Waiblinger.
The most popular version is that the
names were used as battle cries between
the soldiers of Welf VI of Bavaria afid
Conrad of Hohenstaufen, who owned
the estate of Waiblinger. The members
of the Lombard League became known
as Guelphs in Italy in their struggle
against Frederick II, and his followers
were called Ghibellines. The story of
the fierce struggle of these two parties
is the story of Italy in the Middle Ages.
In general, the Guelphs were opposed to
the rule of the German emperor in Italy
and allied themselves with the pope,
while the Ghibellines wished for a
strong central government and favored
the rule of the emperor.
Guernsey, Gurn’ zy, an island of the
British Channel belonging to the group
called the Channel Islands. It is the
second of the group in size and has an
area of 2414 sq. m., most of which is
rocky and picturesque. On the south of
the island are many resorts attractive to
summer visitors. Gardening, floricul-
ture and horticulture, the quarrying of
granite and fishing are the chief indus-
tries. Port St. Peter is the capital and
chief city. Population of the island,
40,500.
Guiana, Ge ah’ na, a region of South
America, bounded upon the n. by the
Caribbean Sea, on the e. and s. by Brazil
and upon the w. by Venezuela. It lies
between the basins of the Orinoco and
the Amazon and rises from a swampy
coastal plain, rich in tropical vegetation,
to low mountain ranges containing gold,
iron, mercury and precious stones.
Guiana is drained by many rivers, the
most of which flow toward the north.
Much of the interior is unexplored but is
known to contain forests of valuable
wood. Politically, Guiana is divided into
Stock raising is also an impor-
GUIANA
three parts: British, Dutch and French
Guiana.
BritisH GuiANA. This is the largest
and the westernmost of the three. It
has an area of 90,277 sq. m. The prin-
cipal crops are rice, sugar cane, maize,
wheat, cocoa, vanilla, tobacco and cin-
namon. The exports are sugar, mo-
lasses, rum, lumber, gold and diamonds.
The government is vested in a governor
and a government secretary, assisted by
a Court of Policy. Georgetown is the
capital city and New Amsterdam is the
only other city of importance. The
population is about 296,000, not includ-
ing the aborigines occupying the unex-
plored depths of the forest.
DutcH GUIANA, or SURINAM. This
is the middle region of Guiana and is a
possession of the Dutch. It is separated
from Brazil by impassable forests and
from British Guiana by the Corentyn
River. Much of Surinam is unsettled,
for where the forests do not cover the
land there are swampy districts and
sandy tracts. The language, laws and
coinage are all Dutch. The products are
practically the same as those of British
Guiana. The government is adminis-
tered by a governor, a vice-president and
a council of three members, all appoint-
ed by the Dutch Crown. The capital is
Paramaribo. Its area is 46,060 sq. m.,
and its population, exclusive of the na-
tives in the forests, is 85,100.
FRENCH GuIANA. This is the small-
est of the three divisions, having an area
of but 34,060 sq. m. It_is separated
from Dutch Guiana by the Maroni River
vand from Brazil by the Oyapok. In its
products, its low swampy coast and its
rolling mountains, it resembles the other
two divisions, although less of its terri-
tory is given over to agriculture. Gold
washing is the most profitable pursuit.
The colony includes the Island of Cay-
enne, upon which Cayenne, the capital,
is situated. The first French settlement
here was in the Island of Cayenne in
1664, but at present it is used chiefly as
a place of banishment for criminals and
political offenders. The population of
French Guiana is 27,000.
1243
GUIDO RENI
Guido Reni, Gwe'do Ra'ne, (1575-
1642), an Italian painter of the School
of Bologna, born at Calvenzano near
Bologna. He studied with Calvart and
Caracci, but early left to study at Rome,
where he remained for 20 years. There
in the garden house of the Rospigliosi
Palace he painted his famous picture
which he ysalled Phebus and the Hours
Preceded by Aurora; it is now generally
spoken of as merely the Aurora. This
is his masterpiece and gives a good idea
of his later style. Guido spent a part
of his time in Naples, but being driven
out by the enmity of fellow artists he
returned to Bologna, where he estab-
lished a large school with more than 200
students. (Guido’s pictures are generally
well knowr and are admired for their
softness of coloring and the beauty of
form in th figures. He painted chiefly
from Biblical subjects, but also painted
a few pleasing portraits. Among his
best works are The Crucifixion of St.
Peter in the Vatican, the Pieta in the
Church of the Mendicanti, Fortune in
the capitol at Berlin, and Samson Drink-
ing from the Jawbone of an Ass. Many
of his pictures are in the Louvre and
seven are in the National Gallery of
London.
Guild, Gild, a society for carrying on
some particular line of work, such as
handcraft or commerce. Guilds are of
ancient origin and were very influential
in Europe during the Middle Ages. In
Germany in the 13th century they ob-
tained the right of bearing arms for the
defense of their own interests, and in
time they became so powerful that they
resisted and overcame the nobility. The
by-laws of the German guilds regulated
the learning of apprentices, the practice
of one’s trade as a journeyman and the
requirements of a master. Finally their
political influence became so strong that
in the 18th century edicts were issued
against them, and in the 19th century in
most of the German states freedom was
granted to all to engage in any occupa-
tion without joining the guild. In Eng-
land their influence was largely political,
since one gained the right to vote by
GUILLOTINE
joining a guild and because they were
in sympathy with the democratic ele-
ment of the constitution. In the city of
London there are several guilds which
are important corporations. Their chief
functions consist in managing large
funds left in trust for benevolent pur-
poses and relieving poor and disabled |
members. In recent times the guilds
have been merged with or changed into
trade unions, both in Europe and the
United States.
Guilford, Gil’ ferd, or Guilford Court-
house, Battle of, one of the most stub-
born battles of the Revolutionary War,
fought 30 m. from the Virginia border,
March 15, 1781. The Americans were
under Greene, whom Morgan’s forces
had joined, and the British were com-
manded by Cornwallis. From the first
the British had the advantage and a rout
of the Americans was with difficulty
prevented. The English lost 600 men,
the Americans about 400. Greene’s gen-
eralship turned into a strategic triumph
what military critics declare was an
American defeat. His heavy losses
made Cornwallis retreat to Wilmington,
abandoning the interior of the state,
which he had been struggling for
months to possess.
Guillemot, Gil’ e mot, or Sea Pigeon,
birds related to the auks and puffins,
having a short, slender, straight bill and
webbed feet. These birds are 12 to 15
inches in length and the plumage is usu-
ally black with some white markings, in
the spring, and variegated black and
white in the fall. The feet are bright
red in the summer and pink in the win-
ter. The nest is made in a depression
in the rocks near the water and two eggs
are laid by some species. The common
guillemot is found on both sides of the
Atlantic Ocean, while the pigeon guille-
mot is abundant on the Pacific coast of
America and in northern Japan.
Guillotine, Gil’ o teen, an instrument
for beheading persons. It was invent-
ed in the Middle Ages, and when Dr.
Guillotine, for whom it was named, pro-
posed its adoption in France during the
French Revolution, the National Assem-
1244 ‘
a tae
GUILMANT
bly voted in favor of it. It has a steel
blade loaded with lead, which slides up
and down the inner grooves of two per-
pendicular posts. The prisoner’s neck
is held below in a round hole between
two planks and is severed by one blow.
Guilmant, Geel” mahng', Félix Alex-
andre (1837-1911), an eminent French
composer and organist, born at Bou-
logne. After holding several important
positions as organist he was appointed
chief organist at La Trinité, Paris, re-
maining in this position nearly 30 years.
As a virtuoso and composer he held first
rank among organists of his generation.
His compositions include organ sonatas,
Christmas carols and many books or
shorter organ compositions.
Guinea, Gin’ y, an English gold coin
in use between 1663 and 1813. It de-
rived its name from the fact that it was
first made from gold mined in Guinea.
It was designed to be worth 20 shillings,
but was never worth less than 21 shil-
lings and was finally made legally to
equal the latter. Its value is $5.11 in
currency of the United States.
Guinea Fowl, a bird related to the
pheasants and native in West Africa and
the Cape Verde Islands. It is about the
size of a small domestic fowl, and is
usually bluish-gray, spotted or speckled
with white. The neck is purplish and
the head is yellow and red. There is a
hard protuberance, or casque, on top of
the head. The nest is made on the ground
and upwards of 17 eggs are laid. In
Africa these birds live in flocks of con-
siderable size, and roost upon trees at
night, at which time their noise is al-
most deafening. The guinea fowl has
been domesticated and thrives well un-
der these conditions.
Guinea, Gulf of, a body of water on
the western coast of Africa, a portion
of the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between
capes Lopez and Palmas, along the
shores of Upper Guinea. The bights of
Biafra and Benin are here, and also
Prince’s, Po and St. Thomas islands.
Guinea Pig, an interesting South
American member of the Cavy Family,
first domesticated by the Peruvians and
GUIZOT
now known throughout the United
States. It has a plump, short-haired
body, short legs and an inquisitive face.
Many varieties are reared, mostly black,
white or tawny in color. They are ex-
tensively used in bacteriological experi-
ments.
Guise, Gu ees’, a ducal house of
France, and a branch of the Lorraine
family. The Guises became politically
important under Francis II, as his wife,
Mary, Queen of Scots, was the niece of
the Duke of Guise. The most important
was Francois of Lorraine, Duke of
Guise, who defended Metz successfully
against Charles V and was the real ruler
of France under Henry II and Francis
II. Henry, his son, succeeded Francois
as leader of the Catholic Party. He de
feated the allies of the Huguenots, but
his popularity aroused the fear of Henry
III, who forbade him to enter Paris.
After the Duke had entered, Henry III
invited him to'a conference and had him
assassinated.
Guitar, Git ar’, a box-shaped musical
instrument, made of wood, with a neck
arrangement similar to that of the violin.
Of its six strings, three are treble and
made of catgut, and three are bass and
are made of silk wound with wire. The
instrument is played upon by plucking
the strings with the fingers, the pitch
being regulated by placing the fingers
of the left hand on a series of metal
frets along the neck. See VIOLIN.
Guizot, Ge”’zo’, Francois Pierre Guil-
laume (1787-1874), a French historian
and statesman, born at Nimes, France,
and educated at Geneva. In 1809 he
wrote a review of Chateaubriand’s Mar-
tyrs, which was well received, and in
1812 he became professor of modern
history at Sorbonne College, University
of France. In 1814 Guizot was made
secretary-general of two ministries; in
1819, director-general of commons and
departments of the ministry of the in-
terior. In 1820 he lost his offices be-
cause of his political opinions, but he
was restored to his chair and to the
council of state in 1828. In 1840 he was
sent as ambassador to London and the
1245
GULF STREAM
same year became minister of foreign
affairs. In 1847 he became official head
of the cabinet. On the fall of Louis
Philippe in 1848 Guizot escaped to Lon-
don, but returned to Paris in 1849.
Among his writings are History of Civ-
‘tlization in France, General History of
Civilization in Europe, History of the
English Revolution and a life of Wash-
ington.
Gulf Stream, the principal current of
the Atlantic Ocean. It takes its name
from the Gulf of Mexico, from which
it flows northward, passing between
Florida and the Bahama Islands. The
stream has its origin in deep currents
far to the east of the Windward and
Leeward islands. At its narrowest part
it is about 50 m. in width. Its depth is
about 2000 ft., and it flows at an aver-
age rate of about 2 or 3 m. an hour, in
some localities reaching a velocity of 5
or 6 m. an hour. It moves in a north-
eastwardly direction along the coast of
North America, and, between 30° and
35° north, separates into several small
streams about 600 ft. in depth. North
of this the stream is further broken up
by the westerly winds and becomes a
mere drift flowing in a northeasterly di-
rection toward northern Europe. The
current is several degrees warmer than
the remainder of the ocean through
which it flows, in the same latitude, and
in consequence the climate of the Brit-
ish Isles is greatly tempered by the drifts
which flow past their shores.
The Gulf Stream is generally sup-
posed to be the result of the general
vertical circulation of the ocean started
by the creeping of the polar waters
along the ocean bed toward the equa-
tor. The equatorial waters are forced
upward by this deep-sea current and
move northward to replace the perpet-
ually sinking waters at the poles. De-
viation to the east in the flow of the
current is due to the rotating movement
of the earth. See CurRRENTS, MARINE.
Gulf’port”, Miss., a city and port of
entry of Harrison Co., 13 m. s.w. of Bi-
loxi, on the Gulf. of Mexico and on the
Louisville & Nashville and the Gulf &
nes GULL
Ship Island railroads. The city has
the best harbors on the entire Gulf
coast, and is the port of entry for the
Pearl River customs district. In 1901
the Federal Government and the Gulf &
Ship Island Railroad Company dredged
a navigable channel for coasting vessels
which greatly promoted the trade of
f
j
\ Vs =
1 7A f
WE Zo 3 a | |
WCU ES
Nt
GULL
Gulfport. During the last decade the
town has grown from a small seacoast
village to a thriving city, and contains
canning industries, lumber and cotton
mills, machine shops, woodworking
plants, foundries and manufactories of
cotton-seed oil, fertilizers and other di-
versified products. Prominent among
the public buildings are the courthouse,
post office, banks and Great Southern
Hotel, one of the finest in the South.
Population in 1920, 8,157.
Gulla
name applied
to many sea
and lake birds
with heavy
bodies, short
legs, partly-
webbed feet
and a more or
less hooked
bill. They have long, pointed wings and
are birds of powerful flight. A number
of different species are known.
HERRING GULL, perhaps the most
common and best-known species.. This
bird is over two feet in length, with
pearl-gray back and white under parts,
the five outer primary feathers of the
GULL’S HEAD AND FOOT
1246
GUM
wing being black with white tips. The
bill is yellow with a red spot near the
end of the lower mandible. In winter
the plumage of the head and neck is
streaked with gray. The nest is placed
on the ground, on rocks or in trees, and
is made of grass, earth, seaweed, etc. It
contains three eggs spotted with brown
or lilac. The herring gulls live on both
sides of the American continent and on
the Great Lakes. On the ocean they
follow the schools of herring and other
small fish, upon which they feed. On
the Great Lakes they follow steamers to
feed upon the refuse thrown overboard.
Gum, a compound of carbon, hydro-
gen, and oxygen which occurs in nearly
all plants and oozes from their stems or
fruit. Gums differ from resins in being
capable of being dissolved in water but
not in alcohol. They are generally odor-
less and tasteless. Our commonest va-
rieties are cherry-gum and gum mes-
quite. Other familiar gums are: gum
arabic, which is used in the manufacture
of medicines, candy and paste and also
to give finish to silk and other cloth
fabrics; gum tragacanth, used in medi-
cines and glue; and gum acacia, also used
in medicines.
Gum Arabic, Ar’ a bik, a reddish,
sometimes yellowish, gum obtained from
acacia trees that grow in Asia and north-
ern Africa. It is used for a large variety
of purposes, principally in making muci-
lage and pastes. See Acacia; Muci-
LAGE,
Gum Resin, a name given to the
thickened, milky juices of plants, made
up of gum, which is soluble in water;
resin, which is soluble in alcohol; and
some mineral and vegetable substances.
Gum resins are prepared as powders or
dissolved in diluted alcohol and used
medicinally. The best-known gum res-
ins are gamboge, myrrh, asafetida and
scammony.
Gunboat, a small war vessel armed
generally with one large gun. This gun
is sometimes mounted on a pivot on the
deck of the vessel, and can be turned
in any direction; and sometimes it is
mounted on a platform that is raised
GUNPOWDER
and lowered from hold to deck and back
by machinery. The gunboat is used
chiefly for coast and river defense. In
1860 the United States had about 250
of these vessels, and they rendered good
service during the Civil War; but their
use has been practically discontinued.
Guncotton, or Pyrox’ylin, a highly
explosive compound prepared by the ac-
tion of nitric acid on the fibers of cot-
ton. It is used in the making of collo-
dion, varnishes and celluloid. Military
guncotton is very explosive and is used
by the United States navy in torpedoes.
It is compressed into blocks of about
three inches in diameter and two inches
high, with half-inch holes in them. A
form of guncotton called pyrocellulose
is employed in making smokeless pow-
der. See CoLLopION ; CELLULOID; VAR-
NISH ; SMOKELESS POWDER; TORPEDO.
Gunpowder, a well-known explosive
mixture consisting of saltpeter, charcoal
and sulphur. The proportions of these
materials vary according to the kind of
powder desired. -The origin and early
history of gunpowder is obscure, but its
invention is generally attributed to the
Chinese, who used it before the Chris-
tian Era. It was known in Europe in
the 13th century, but it did not come
into general use for warfare until the
16th century. The materials used in
making gunpowder are first relined and
purified and then ground very fine, and
for the most common grades are mixed
in revolving cylinders in the following
proportions: 75 per cent of saltpeter, 15
per cent of charcoal and 10 per cent of
sulphur. They are mixed wet and worked
into a cake called a mill cake, which is
afterwards crushed into meal. This meal
is then pressed into cakes by hydraulic
pressure, the degree of which depends
upon the strength of the powder desired.
These cakes are again crushed by means
of a machine having toothed rollers,
which break up the mass and reduce it
to grains of various sizes, which are
sorted by screens. Afterwards, the pow-
der is put through a revolving, wooden
barrel, whereby it is polished, graphite
being added for the purpose of produc-
1247
GUNPOWDER PLOT
ing the glaze so commonly seen on that
used in firearms. Finally it is conveyed
to drying rooms preparatory to being
packed in kegs for shipment. See GREEK
FIRE; GUNCOTTON; SMOKELESS Pow-
DER.
Gunpowder Plot, a plan for destroy-
ing King James I and the members of
Parliament on Nov. 5, 1605. The King
had disappointed the ‘Catholics because.
of his severity in enforcing the penal
laws, and a few of the most desperate
banded together to overthrow the gov-
ernment. They secured the cooperation
of a fearless soldier, Guy Fawkes, and
a Thomas Percy. They discovered a
cellar beneath the House of Lords, and
stored in it several barrels of gunpow-
der. Several other plotters were added
to their band, and Fawkes was selected
to set fire to the gunpowder on the as-
sembling of Parliament, Nov. 5. Be-
trayed by the indiscretion of one of the
band, Fawkes was arrested early in the
morning of the fifth, as he was emerg-
ing from the cellar. Many of the con-
spirators were killed on being taken and
several died with Fawkes on the scaf-
fold.
Gunsaul’us, Frank Wakeley (1856-
1921), a distinguished American cler-
gyman, born at Chesterville, Ohio. He
was educated at Ohio Wesleyan Uni-
versity and at Beloit College, Wiscon-
sin. Beginning as a Methodist minister
in 1875, he entered the Congregational
ministry four years later. Since 1899 he
has been pastor of the Central Church,
Chicago, an independent organization,
and in this capacity has attained a wide
following. His lectures upon Savona-
rola, John Hampden and other subjects
have added to his popularity. Dr. Gun-
saulus became president of Armour In-
stitute (Chicago) in 1893, and is the
author of several publications. Among
his works are Monk and Knight, Phid-
ias, Gladstone and Paths to Power.
Gusta’vus I, or Gustavus Vasa
(1496-1560), King of Sweden from 1523
until his death, was born at Lindholm.
At this time the three Scandinavian
kingdoms, Denmark, Norway and Swe-
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS
den, were united, and the Swedish
people were divided in their allegiance,
some favoring more national power for
Sweden and others upholding the Dan-
ish authority. Sten Sture, the cousin of
Gustavus, was one of the former, and
through his executive ability had been
proclaimed administrator of Sweden.
To his court the youthful. Gustavus was
sent. He took part in the Battle of
Brannkyrka, in which the Swedish
forces defeated Christian II of Den-
mark, and later was sent with five other
youths of the court as hostage to the
Danish court. Here he was treacher-
ously kept prisoner by the King, who
said, “There is many a Sten Sture in
the lad.” |
Escaping from his imprisonment,
Gustavus wandered as an outcast until
the news of the Swedish massacre, in
which his father and uncle lost. their
lives, and of the price set upon his own
head determined him to strike a final
blow for the freedom of Sweden. By
his own efforts and with courage that
faced disappointment, privation and
treachery, he aroused the hardy Dale-
carlian peasants to a revolt which re-
leased the country from Danish tyranny
and placed Gustavus himself upon the
throne of Sweden. He was crowned in
1523, and during a long reign of 37
years was untiring in his efforts to de-
velop the nationalism of his country.
His son Eric succeeded him on the
Swedish throne.
Gustavus V_ (1858- ), Baines cor
Sweden, successor of King Oscar II.
He studied at the University of Upsala -—
and in 1875 he entered the army, where
he attained the rank of general in 1898.
From 1884 to 1891 he was Vice-King
of Norway, and his efforts to maintain
the union of Norway and Sweden made
him greatly disliked by the Norwegian
Radicals. In 1881 he married Princess
Victoria, the daughter of the Grand
Duke of Bavaria. He succeeded his
father.as King of Sweden in 1907.
Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632),
King of Sweden and successor of Charles
IX. He conciliated the nobles who had
1248
a. «© t
way tid
oF
rh
>
GUTENBERG
deen alienated by his father’s harsh-
ness, protected the lower classes from
the oppression of the landowners and
reorganized the government. He also
built new towns and encouraged com-
merce. He terminated his war with the
Danes with honor in 1613, and in 1617
by the Treaty of Stolbova gained Carelia
and Ingria. From Poland he won Li-
vonia, Esthonia and Courland in 1629.
In 1630, during the Thirty Years’ War,
he went to the relief of the Protestants
in Germany. In 1631 Gustavus defeated
the Germans at the Battle of Breitenfeld.
The next year he defeated them again
under Wallenstein at Ltitzen, but fell on
the battlefield. His conquests had a last-
ing influence. See THirTY YEARS’ War.
Gutenberg, Goo’ ten berk, Johannes
(about 1398-1468), the inventor of print-
ing with movable type, born in Mainz,
Germany. The documents referring to
his early life are obscure and tell very
little that may be accepted as authentic.
His name Gutenberg was assumed from
*he name of his mother’s birthplace, the
sity of Gutenberg. His first inventions
were along a variety of lines, including
a method of polishing stones and a new
way of making mirrors. Both business
ventures connected with these inventions
turned out disastrously, and Gutenberg
next appears about 1450 in partnership
with Johann Fust, a wealthy goldsmith;
Fust was to furnish the money and
Gutenberg the “‘tools” for a new printing
device. The types were cast, the office
opened and the first book, a large Latin
Bible, printed, when the partners dis-
agreed. The printing of the Bible had
taken five years and Fust saw no re-
turns for his investment, so he brought
suit against Gutenberg, secured control
of the plant and carried on the business
with a new partner. Gutenberg, how-
ever, was aided to secure another press
and continued his work until his death.
Books believed to have been printed by
him are now very costly, but Gutenberg
died poor and friendless and almost un-
known. A fine bronze monument has
been erected to his memory in Mainz.
See PRINTING.
GUTTA-PERCHA
Guth’rie, Okla., the county seat of
Logan Co., located in the central part of
the state, on Cottonwood Creek not far
from its juncture with the Cimarron
River. It is 32 m.n. of Oklahoma City
and 450 m. s.w. of St. Louis, on the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chi-
cago, Rock Island & Pacific, Fort Smith
& Western and other railroads. It is a
city that has grown rapidly, but has been
well planned. Its most interesting public
buildings are the old capitol, city hall, the
Federal Building, a Masonic Temple and
a Methodist hospital. Guthrie is one of
the seats of the Federal courts, and its
cotton gins, foundries and machine shops
attract trade from the surrounding coun-
try. Cottonseed oil, lumber, brooms,
flour, cigars and overalls are manufac-
tured. The city has a St. Joseph’s Col-
lege and a business college. Population
in 1920, according to the United States
Census, 11,757.
Gut’ta-Per’cha, a substance found in
the so-called milk sap of various trees
of the Nettle, Spurge and Sapodilla fam-
ilies. It occurs in the form of tiny,
translucent globules suspended in the wa-
tery sap, and gives to the sap its milky
appearance. It is supposed to assist in
protecting plants against wounds. At
ordinary temperatures gutta-percha is
hard and resembles India rubber, though
it is not elastic.
Gutta-percha is obtained by cutting
down the trees, stripping the bark and
allowing the white, thick sap to run into
troughs. . After exposure to the air a
light, thick cream +vises and the entire
liquid darkens. The cream is made into
cakes which are merely boiled in water
before being ready for shipment. It is
shipped in blocks of from five to ten
pounds each and is put to innumerable
uses, stich as the making of flexible
hose, bottles, surgeons’ splints, temporary
filling for teeth, molds, golf balls, in-
sulating material, etc. Gutta-percha and
India rubber are often confused through
the similarity of their uses, but they dif-
fer mainly in the fact that India rubber
is very elastic, while gutta-percha,
_ though extensible, is inelastic.
1249
GUYOT
Guyot, Ge’ yo, Arnold (1807-1884), a
Swiss-American geologist and physicist,
born near Neuchatel, Switzerland. He
became professor of history and phys-
ical geography at Neuchatel in 1839. In
1848 he came to the United States, where
he lectured in Boston, his lectures later
appearing as Earth and Man, a text-
book on physical geography. In 1855
he became professor of geology and
physical geography at Princeton, where
he established the museum. For pre-
paring a series of geographies and wall
maps, he was honored by the Vienna
Exposition of 1873. His publications
include, besides biographies of Carl Rit-
ter, James H. Coffin and Louis Agassiz,
A Treatise on Physical Geography and
Creation, or the Bible Cosmogony in the
Light of Modern Science.
Gymnas’tics, exercises by which the
physical, and particularly the muscular,
powers are developed, usually indoors
and by the use of various machines and —
appliances, each of which has been scien-
tifically designed to strengthen a particu-
lar muscle or set of muscles. These are
of special value in making it possible
for one to overcome physical defects, so
that an inherited weakness, or one de-
veloped during childhood, shall not con-
tinue into maturity and prevent the maxi-
mum of physical efficiency.
Gymnastic exercises are of most value
between the ages of 12 and 35. But
they should be taken under expert direc-
tion; and, in no case, can the undue
development of any portion of the body
or the use of very heavy weights, or
exhausting exercises, be considered ad-
visable. Too often these result in the
straining of some muscle or ligament,
or in injury to the heart action. Be-
cause the gymnasium is seldom a well-
ventilated building, out-of-door exercises
are usually preferable; while the zest
which is found in clean, wholesome
sports is of greater recreative value than
any mechanical exercise can be. The
gymnasium, however, has its function,
and the value of properly directed gym-
nastic exercise should not be ignored nor
underestimated.
-are also always
GYPSY
Gymnosperm, Jim’ no sperm, the
smaller of the two great divisions of
seed-producing plants, whose members
are distinguished as not having their un-
developed seeds enclosed in a case.. The
flowers are always imperfect,’ that is,
lacking one of the essential parts neces-
sary to the production of the seeds, and
without calyx and
corolla. Gymnosperms are always trees
or shrubs with needle-shaped, or, at least,
very narrow, leaves. Members of the
Pine Family are typical of this class.
See ANGIOSPERM.
Gypsum, J7p’ sum, a calcium sulphate
which occurs in great abundance in vari-
ous parts of the earth. It is colorless
and white; and forms in prismatic or
tubular crystals. When it occurs in the
form of transparent crystals it is termed
selenite; when the formation is fibrous,
with fibers extending parallel to one an-
other and at right angles to the direc-
tion of the vein, and the polished sur-
face presents a pearly appearance, it is
called satin spar. Alabaster is a form of
translucent gypsum, granular like mar-
ble and colored pink, gray or yellow.
Rock gypsum, the ordinary gypsum of
commerce, occurs in large beds of mas-
sive rock, frequently mixed with clay,
calcium carbonate and other impurities.
It is often accompanied by rock salt.
Gypsum when heated to a high tem-
perature is reduced to powder. From
this powder plaster of Paris is made. It
takes its name from Paris, France, near
which large quantities of gypsum are
found. Aside from its use in the manu-
facture of plaster, gypsum is employed
for, cementing purposes, in the manu-
facture of stucco work and imitation
marble, porcelain and glass, as a filler
for paper, a basis for paints and a fer-
tilizer of soils. It is found in Canada,
the United States, Austria, Germaay,
France and Arabia. See ALABASTER.
Gypsy, Jip’ sy, a nation of wandering
people supposed to have come originally
from India. Their language, customs
and physical characteristics distinguish
them from all other nationalities, al-
though their nomadic, unsettled life has
1250
GYPSY MOTH
brought them into contact with all races
of people. They are a finely-built race,
with clear olive skins, glossy black hair,
bright black eyes, red lips and white,
regular teeth. Probably less than 500,000
now remain.
Gypsy Moth, a moth of the Tussock
Moth Family, whose caterpillar is ex-
<=
—S=—> 8 =
=
a
\ Ne
GYPSY MOTH
tremely destructive to trees. The male
moth is bluish-yellow in color and very
active; the female is white, with dark
irregular spots, and is rarely on the wing.
The eggs are laid in masses upon the
limbs and trunks of trees, the sides of
houses and on fences. These hatch into
long, blue-gray caterpillars, which, when
mature, are about three inches in length
and are marked with two rows of black
and two rows of red spots. In the illus-
tration A represents the caterpillar, and
B the moth. This moth migrates only
during the caterpillar stage and is then
carried on passing wagons, carriages and
trains; thus it is not readily spread, but
tends to infest thickly certain neighbor-
hoods. The eggs may be destroyed by
touching with a mixture of creosote oil,
50 per cent; carbolic acid, 20 per cent;
turpentine, 20 per cent; coal tar, 10 per
cent. The caterpillars may be killed with
the usual poison sprays, which must be
used in stronger solutions for the old
than for the young. Strips of burlap
tied about the tree are effective, for the
caterpillars feed only by night, and by
day will crawl beneath the burlap; from
GYROSCOPE
thence they may be easily collected and
disposed of. See INSECTICIDE.
Gyrfalcon, Jur' fo k’n, or Gerfalcon,
a bird of the Hawk and Eagle Family,
about two feet in length. The plumage
is barred and streaked white and gray;
the under parts are marked with slate;
the tail is banded. The nest is made on
high, rocky cliffs, is composed of sticks
and is usually lined with seaweed and sea
moss. The eggs are spotted with brown.
The gyrfalcons are rapid flyers and tire-
less hunters, fiercely pursuing sea birds
on the coast or land birds in the fields.
Gyroscope, Ji’ ro skope, an instru-
ment used to illustrate the motions of
rotating bodies. It consists of a wheel,
accurately balanced, freely rotating and
fixed upon an axis which in turn is
mounted in a ring. One point of this
ring has a small socket, into which the
point of the supporting standard is in-
serted. When the wheel is set in rapid
motion by means of a string wound
about the axis, the instrument balances.
and moves in apparent defiance of the
laws of gravitation. These motions are
ry
ao ee
d
y
4
’
4
/
GYROSCOPE
due to resistance to the change of direc-
tion of the axis of the rotating wheel.
The gyroscope is used as a balancing or
steadying device in certain models of
aeroplanes and in a monorail transporta-
tion system. Children’s tops are one
form of gyroscope. See Top.
1251
H
The earliest of them, Haakon
the Good, spent his youth in
the court of King Athelstan of England,
who brought him up according to Chris-
tian beliefs. At his father’s death in
933, he wrested the throne from his
brother, Eric, and unsuccessfully tried to
introduce Christianity into Norway. Haa-
kon IV, surnamed the Old, ruled from
1217 to 1263, and added Iceland and
Greenland to the Norwegian realm.
Haakon VI came to the throne while a
child, in 1343, his father having been
compelled to resign and serve as regent
during his minority. See Haakon VII.
Haakon VII (1872- \indsino: ‘of
Norway and second son of King Fred-
erick of Denmark. He entered the Nor-
wegian navy in 1886 and became familiar
with all kinds of vessels. In 1896 he
married Princess Maud, the youngest
daughter of Edward VII, and in 1905,
when Norway and Sweden were sepa-
rated and the Government of Norway
offered him the crown, he accepted on
condition that the choice be approved by
the people. In November, 1905, the peo-
ple expressed their approval by a large
majority, and a few days later he became
king.
Habak’kuk, a book of the Old Testa-
ment, the author of which, Habakkuk,
flourished about 600 B. C., during the
reign of Jehoiakim, King of Judah.
Habakkuk was the eighth of the minor
Hebrew prophets and belonged to the
tribe of Levi. - The book of Habakkuk
consists of two parts. The first part con-
tains a dialogue between the prophet and
God, in which is foretold the destruc-
tion of the Babylonian Empire; the sec-
ond part is a majestic song of prayer
and praise, expressing the prophet’s con-
fidence in the justice and mercy of Jeho-
vah,
AAKON, Haw’ kon, the name
of several kings of Norway.
Habeas Corpus, Ha’ be as Kor’pus,
an ancient English writ addressed to
him who has another in custody, and
commanding him to produce the body of
the person named at a certain timé and
place. In other words, it is a “writ of
right” brought into use for better secur-
ing the liberty of British subjects. This
act, passed in 1679, and next in impor-
tance in England to the Magna Charta,
provided that if any person were impris-
oned by order of any court or of the
king, he might demand a writ to bring
him before the King’s Bench, which
should determine whether the commit-
ment was just.
In the United States Constitution
there is a provision that “the privilege
of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be
suspended, unless when in cases of re-
bellion or invasion the public safety de-
mands it.” Congress may, by majority
vote, suspend the writ and the same ac-
tion may be taken by a state Legislature.
Either the person in custody, or an-
other acting for him, may demand the
writ, which must be accompanied by an
affidavit declaring that the detention is,
in the opinion of the applicant, contrary
to law, and also clearly setting forth all
the facts as they have been established.
Hab’it, an act of mind or body which
is performed automatically, and, on some
occasions at least, unconsciously. Habits
are acquired, supposedly, because it is
always easier for the nervous system to
act as it has once acted than in an en-
tirely different manner; and easiest for
it to act as it has on many occasions,
This is explained upon the theory that
when a current of nerve force passes
along a nerve tract it “blazes a trail”
which similar currents may thus more
easily follow; and that, the more fre-
quently such a current travels a par-
ticular route, the easier this route be-
comes; unt, ultimately. one performs
1252
ae
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Ls
.
. “i
»
HAMILTON
village that sprang up about it was in-
corporated as a town in 1810. In 1854
Rossville, on the opposite side of the
river, was annexed, and in 1857 a city
charter was cranted. Population in
1920, U. S. Census, 39,675.
Hamilton, Sir William (1788-1856),
a Scottish theologian and philosopher,
born in Glasgow. After gaining dis-
tinction as a student at Glasgow he went
to Oxford, where he took first honors.
In 1813 he was admitted to the Scottish
bar. Turning his attention to literature
and philosophy, he was appointed pro-
fessor of history at the University of
Edinburgh in 1821, and in 1836 became
professor of logic and metaphysics in
the same institution. In 1844 he was
stricken with paralysis, but continued to
do his work, with the aid of an assist-
ant, until his death.
Hamilton was an exponent of the
“common sense” school of Scottish phi-
losophy. He accepted a natural realism,
maintaining that we are directly con-
scious of external objects. In his doc-
trine that the unconditioned cannot be
known and that God is an object of
faith, not of knowledge, he closely ap-
proached the position of Kant. He was
for many years a regular contributor to
the Edinburgh Review. In 1852 he
edited these contributions with. addi-
tions, under the title Discussions in Phi-
losophy and Literature, Education, and
University Reform. After his death
was published his Lectures on Meta-
physics and Logic.
Ham/ites, a race in northern Africa,
the supposed descendants of Ham. The
Copts, Somalis, Nubians, Berbers, Abys-
sinians and Guanches belong to the
class. The dialects are, the Libyan
(known as Berber), the Cushitic, or
Ethiopian, and the ancient Egyptian. The
northern Hamites reached a compara-
tively high state of civilization. The east-
ern Hamites -are pastoral and nomadic
tribes.
Ham/lin, Hannibal (1809-1891),
vice-president of the United States, born
in Paris Hill, Me. He was admitted to
the bar in 1833. He served in the State
HAMPDEN
Legislature in 1836-40 and in 1847; in
the lower branch of Congress in 1843-
47; and in the Senate in 1848-56, the
latter year being elected governor of
Maine. He joined the Republican
Party, which he had helped to organize.
In 1860 he was elected vice-president of
the United States on the ticket with
Lincoln. He was again United States
senator from 1869 to 1881, when he be-
came minister to Spain, serving for two:
years.
Ham/’/mond, Ind., a city of Lake Co.,
18 m. s.e. of Chicago’s business center,
on the Grand Calumet River and on the
Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Michi-
gan Central, the Pennsylvania, the Wa-
bash and other railroads. As far as its
industries are concerned Hammond is
a part of Chicago. It has> extensive
slaughtering and packing houses, iron
and steel works, a piano factory, wagon
and carriage factories, printing plants,
flour and starch mills, book binderies,
glue. works, _brickyards, _ tanner-
ies, foundries, chemical works, a_ nail
plant and steel-spring works. Ham-
mond was settled in 1868 and named in
honor of Abram A. Hammond, acting
governor of Indiana in 1860-61. It re-
ceived a city charter in 1883. Popula-
tion in 1920, U. S. Census, 36,004.
Hampden, Ham'den, John (1594-
1643), an English stateman famous for
his refusal to be taxed by royal prerog-
ative. He was educated at Oxford and
Aeshusat in -Parhament) ini l6Zie wile
drew the attention of the whole nation
upon him when he refused to pay the
demand of Charles I for ship money.
This was a tax originally limited to
London and the maritime towns, but
which in 1635 was extended to the in-
land counties by Charles. In 1637
Hampden was prosecuted for nonpay-
ment. Although seven of the twelve
judges voted against him, the people
had formed their own opinion in his
favor. He sat in the Short and Long
Parliaments, and was one of the five
-members sought by Charles when he
tried to intimidate Parliament. After
the Civil War began he was placed in
1265
HAMPTON
command of a Parliamentary regiment.
He was wounded on Chalgrove Field
in 1643 and died a few days later.
Hamp’ton, Wade (1818-1902), an
American soldier and statesman, born
at Columbia, S. C. He graduated from
the University of South Carolina, stud-
ied law, and then gave his attention to
his great estates. He served for a time
in both branches of the South Carolina
Legislature. When the Civil War broke
out he enlisted in the Confederate
army, raising and equipping the famous
“Hampton’s Legion.” During the war
Hampton rose to the rank of lieutenant-
general, serving with Lee and Johnston,
and becoming commander-in-chief of
the Confederate cavalry. After the war
he exerted his influence to secure loyalty
te the Union. In 1876 he was elected
governor of his state; in 1879 he entered
the United States Senate, where he
served with great ability until 1891; and
two years later he was appointed United
States commissioner of railroads.
Hampton Normal and Agricultural
Institute, Hampton, Va. (18608). This
is a coeducational school, established
under the auspices of the American
Missionary Association, by Gen. S. C.
Armstrong, who became its first super-
intendent. The General Assembly
granted a charter in 1870, and five years
later gave the school one-third of Vir-
ginia’s share in the Federal land grant
for the support of agricultural and
mechanical instruction. Many Indian
pupils, chiefly from the Sioux tribe,
have also been enrolled here since 1878.
The most eminent of its many gradu-
ates is Booker T. Washington, the
founder of Tuskegee Institute. The
institution has 1160 acres in its farm,
27,000 volumes in its library, a faculty
of 54 men and 58 women, about 1400
students, and assets amounting to over
$3,470,300. See WASHINGTON, BOOKER
TALIAFERRO; TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND
INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE.
Hampton Roads, Battle of, a naval
battle between the Federal ironclad war-
ship Monitor and the Confederate iron-
clad Merrimac, fought in Hampton
HAMPTON ROADS CONFERENCE
Roads March 9, 1862. On the previous
day the Federal frigate Congress, the
sloop Cumberland, the frigates Minne-
sota and Roanoke, with the ship St.
Lawrence, were attacked by the Confed-
erate ironclad Virginia, but more popu-
larly known as the Merrimac, whose
armor rendered it invulnerable to the
shot from the Federal ships. Within a
short time after beginning the attack the
Merrimac had sunk the Cumberland and
disabled the Congress. During the night
the Momitor, an ironclad ship constructed
on an entirely different pattern, arrived,
and on the morning of the ninth the
contest began and lasted several hours.
While to outward appearances neither
ZN Norlalk.
Gf
Portsmouth
ae Yardy
ys
NS
HAMPTON ROADS
ship was seriously injured, the Merri-
mac withdrew, and some days later was
sunk by the Confederate naval authori-
ties. This was one of the most spectac-
ular conflicts of the war, and also one
of the most far-reaching in its influence,
since it revolutionized naval construc-
tion; all nations began to build ironclad
warships. See Monitor, THE.
Hampton Roads Conference, an in-
formal conference held Feb. 3, 1865,
with reference to the arrangement of a
peace between the North and South.
The meeting, which lasted four hours,
took place on board the River Queen
near Fortress Monroe, toward the close
of the Civil War. President Lincoln
and Secretary of State Seward repre:
1266
HANCOCK
sented the United States Government,
and Vice-President Stephens, Senator
R. M. T. Hunter and Assistant Secre-
tary of War John A. Campbell, the Con-
federate States. The originator of this
conference was Francis P. Blair. The
representatives failed to agree on the
most important points at issue and the
conference failed of accomplishing its
purpose.
Han’cock, John (1737-1793), an
American Revolutionary statesman,
born in Braintree, Mass. He inherited
a large fortune from his uncle. From
1766 to 1772 he serve@iin the Massachu-
setts Legislature, where he advocated
the cause of the colonists. After the
Boston Massacre he was one of the com-
missioners who demanded the with-
drawal of the British troops from the
city. He was elected to the Provincial
Congress in 1774. It was his arrest and
that of Samuel Adams that the British
were attempting in their expedition to
Concord in April (1775), which resulted
im the Battle of Lexington.
From 1775 to 1780 Hancock repre-
sented Massachusetts in the Continental
Congress, being president of that body
from 1775 to 1777; and in that capacity
he was the first signer of the Declara-
tion of Independence. He served as
major-general in the Revolutionary
War, and was most liberal in the use of
his fortune for the patriot cause. He
was the first governor of Massachusetts
as a state, which office he held from
1780 until his death, except in 1785-86,
when he was again a member of the
Continental Congress. Hancock was a
man of pleasing address, excellent edu-
cation, firmness of character and unques-
tioned patriotism. )
Hancock, Mich., a city in Houghton
Co., opposite Houghton on Lake Por-
tage, and on the Duluth, South Shore &
Atiantic and other railroads; and on a
ship canal communicating with Lake
Superior. Hancock is situated in the
Lake Superior copper belt and has valu-
able copper mines, smelting works, ma-
chine shops, foundries, stamp mills,
lumber mills and brickyards. Notable
- HAND BALL
features of the town are a Finnish col-
lege and a public park. Settled in 1859,
Hancock was incorporated in 1863 and
ig governed under a charter of 1895.
Population in 1920, 7,527.
Hancock, Winfield Scott (1824-1886),
an American soldier, born in Pennsyl-
vania and educated at West Point. He
participated in the war with Mexico,
and became quartermaster of his regi-
ment. In 1861 he was made brigadier-
general of volunteers, with command of
a brigade in the Army of the Potomac.
He distinguished himself at Williams-
burg, Antietam, Fredericksburg and
Gettysburg, where he was_ severely
wounded, and was prominent in the
campaign of the Army of the Potomac
of 1864-65. In 1866 he was appointed
major-general in the regular army, and
in 1867 superintended reconstruction in
Louisiana and Texas. In 1880 he was
Democratic candidate for presidency.
Grant considered Hancock the most
conspicuous general officer who did not
hold a separate command in the Civil
art
Hand Ball, an Irish and an Amer-
ican sport similar to the English game
of Fives. It is played indoors by two
or four persons on a well-floored court
measuring about 60 by 24% ft., and en-
closed, save at one end, by walls ap-
proximately 35 ft. high., The floor
should be of wood and the front wall
of brick, faced with marble, while the
side walls may be of cement. A service
line is drawn parallel to the front wall
through the middle of the court. A
single rubber ball is used, which in Ire-
land is called a red ace or a black ace,
according to its color. The striker,
standing in front of the service line,
bounces the ball upon the floor and then
with his hand endeavors to strike it
against the front wall. If it strikes
either side wall before hitting the front,
or rebounds either within the service
line or behind the court, he tries a sec-
ond time.. If he again fails to put it
into the player’s territory, that is, be-
tween the 30- and the 60-foot lines, it
is a hand-out and the players change
1267
HANDEL
places. If the ball is properly served
by the striker, and his opponent, the
player, fails to strike it before it hits
the floor or on the first bound, back
against the front wall, the striker scores
one point. The game is usually for 21
points, but rules vary somewhat. Hand
ball is one of the favorite games of
those who are training for contests re-
quiring great endurance and agility.
See Spalding Athletic Library.
Han’del, George Frederick (1685-
1759), a German musician and com-
poser, born at Halle. He early showed
a love and appreciation for music. At
the age of 12 Handel could play “he
violin, oboe, organ and several other
instruments, and through the interces-
sion of his teacher, Zachau, he was sent
to Berlin for further study. When but
17, he was appointed organist at the
cathedral of his native town. After oc-
cupying that post for one year, Handel
played in the orchestra at Hamburg,
where in 1705 his first opera, Almira,
was performed with great success. This
was followed after a few weeks by
Nero. From 1706 to 1709 he studied
in London and there produced the
opera Roderigo. Upon his return to
Germany he was appointed chapelmas-
ter to the Elector of Hanover, but he
returned to England, and while there
produced many operas and _ oratorios
and was director of the Haymarket
Theater. Ill health put an end to his
public activities, and in 1752 he became
blind; but he continued to write and to
play upon the piano, deriving much
solace from both. Handel holds an ex-
alted place among the greatest of the
world’s composers and his music reaches
to sublime heights. His greatest and
best-known work is the oratorio The
Messiah, Others of his orchestral com-
positions are Israel in Egypt, Saul, Es-
ther, Samson, Alexander's Feast, Deb-
orah and L’ Allegro.
Hangbird. See OrIoLe, subhead Bal-
timore Oriole,
Hangchow, Hahng’ chou’, a city of
China, capital of the Province of Che-
kiang, situated near the Tsientang
; aa
i ae
ae
HANNIBAL
River, about 100 m, s.w. of Shanghai.
Canals connect it with Shanghai and
Suchow, these waterways forming the
highway of commerce through the rich-
est district of China. Features of inter-
est are the Nestorian Church, several
Protestant and Catholic missions, col-
leges, hospitals, temples, arches, monu-
ments, bridges and baths. The city is
recognized as the center of Chinese lit-
erary and ecclesiastic life. In commerce
it is important because of its silk manu-
factures, tinsel paper, gold and silver
work, fans and lacquered ware. In 1896
it was declared Open to foreign trade.
Population, estimated at from 400,000
to 800,000.
Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a
structure of ancient Babylon; referred
to as one of the wonders of the ancient
world. It is supposed to have been a
tower, or pyramid, constructed by Neb-
uchadnezzar to satisfy the longings of
his Median Queen for sights other than
the dreary stretches of the Babylonian
plain. In construction, it rose in ter-
races which were planted in trees,
shrubs and flowers; and a large force
of men were employed in irrigating its
gardens by water pumped from the
Euphrates.
Hankow, Hahn' kou’, a river port and
commercial city of China, situated in
the center of the country on the left
bank of the Yangtse River. The native
city has narrow, dirty and crooked
streets, but the foreign settlement to the
east has excellent streets and substan-
tial buildings and is kept in spendid con-
dition. Commercially, the city is of the
first importance. The industrial estab-
lishments comprise hemp, flour and
cotton mills, iron and steel works, a
mint and a tannery. The exports are
tea, tobacco, silk, hemp, vegetable wax,
medicines and coal. Population, includ-
ing the surrounding concessions and de-
partmental cities, about 1,500,000; of
Hankow alone, approximately 870,000.
Han/’nibal (about 247-about 183 B.
C.), a Carthaginian general and states-
man. He was devoted from youth to
the overthrow of Rome. At 26 he was
1268
L
HANNIBAL
commander of the Carthaginian army
in Spain, and gained the southern half
as a province for Carthage, then took
Saguntum, an ally of Rome, after a long
siege. Hannibal’s services in Spain led
to’ war between Rome and Carthage.
During this war Hannibal led his army
over the Alps, a feat supposed impossi-
ble, and defeated the Romans in several
engagements on their own ground. The
most noted of these was the Battle of
Canne (216 B. C.), in which the Ro-
mans lost over 80,000 men. The success
of Scipio in Africa caused Hannibal’s
recall to defend Carthage, and he was
defeated by Scipio near Zama in 202
B. C. After peace was restored he was
made chief magistrate, in which position
he proved himself as great a statesman
as he was general. In time, Roman
jealousy compelled him to retire, and
soon afterwards he ended his life by
taking poison. See Punic Wars.
Hannibal, Mo., a city of Marion Co.,
about 20 m. s. of Quincy, Ill., and about
120 m. n.w. of St. Louis, on the Missis-
sippi River and on the Wabash, the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the St.
Louis & Hannibal railroads. It has
steamboat communication with other
points along the river and carries on
a considerable trade in agricultural
produce, flour, lumber and tobacco. The
principal manufactures are shoes, stoves,
cigars, car wheels, lime, cement, furni-
ture, and foundry and machine-shop
products. The residential part of Hanni-
bal is built upon elevated ground above
the river and commands fine views. There
is a bridge across the river connecting
with East Hannibal, Ill. The important
buildings include a United States Gov-
ernment Building, municipal buildings,
a high school building, grade school
buildings, a public library and several
churches. There are also two hospitals
and a public park. Mark Twain spent
his boyhood at Hannibal, which was
the scene of parts of his Tom Sawyer,
Huckleberry Finn and Life on the Miss-
issippi. Mark Twain Cave is near the
town. Hannibal was platted in 1819 and
HANSEATIC LEAGUE
chartered as a city in 1839. Population
in 1920, U. S. Census, 10,392.
Han/over, a province of northwest
Prussia, formerly a kingdom of Ger-
many. It is bounded on the n. by the .
North Sea, on the e. by Saxony and
Brunswick, on the s. by Hesse-Nassau
and Westphalia and on the w. by Hol-
land. It includes the old Brunswick-
Luneburg possessions, and also Hilde-
sheim, East Friesland, Osnabrtick, Got-
tingen and other districts. In the region
of the Harz Mountains are valuable
mineral deposits and dense woods, and
the valleys are fertile. The coast, like
that of Holland, is low and frequently
subject to overflow. The manufactures
include cotton and woolen textiles,
leather, machinery, wagons, paper,
chemicals, glassware, etc. The early
history of Hanover is identical with that
of Brunswick. In 1692 it became an
electorate; in 1714 George Louis, Elec-
tor of Hanover, became King of Eng-
land (as George I), and as a result of
this, Hanover grew rapidly in impor-
tance. A century later it was established
as a kingdom by the Congress of Vien-
na. It was annexed to Prussia by the
Peace of Prague in 1866. Population,
about 2,760,000.
Hanover, a city of Prussia, the cap-
ital of the Prussian Province of Han-
overt. The city is divided into the old
and new towns, and in the newer part
are many handsome edifices, including |
the new municipal buildings. The
Royal Palace, the old Marktkirche, the
old Gothic Rathaus and the Royal
Theater are other prominent buildings.
The manufactures are important. Han-
over was originally a fishing village, and
in 1241 it received a municipal charter,
two centuries later joining the Hansea-
tic League. Since 1866, when the King-
dom of Hanover was annexed to Prus-
sia, it has been the capital of the Prov-
ince of Hanover. Population, about
303,000.
Hanseatic, Han’se at’ ik, League, or
The Hansa, a union established in the
13th century by various cities of northern
Germany for the purpose of protecting
1269
HAPSBURG, HOUSE OF
their trade. Between 1241 and 1255
Lubeck and Hamburg entered into a
compact whereby the control of the Bal-
tic and North seas was put into the
hands of the merchants of those cities.
In 1259 Lubeck, Rostock and Wismar
formed an alliance against pirates and
land robbers, and in 1284-85 Lubeck,
Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund and Greifs-
wald, by waging war, secured from Eric
of Denmark certain privileges. Vari-
ous other groups of allied cities found
it advisable to join the Lubeck union,
which in 1343 was officially named The
Hansa. The league at one period in-
cluded every important city between
Netherlands and Livonia, and for years
it was the mistress of the Baltic and the
German Ocean. Its services to trade,
agriculture and the industrial arts were
notable, but after the 15th century its
power rapidly declined.
Hapsburg, House of, the most cele-
brated dynastic house in the history of
Europe. For two centuries they were
scarcely noticeable among the confused
lists of petty German chieftains. In
1273, Rudolph I was elected Emperor of
the Holy Roman Empire. From that
date until the close of the World War
they played a leading part in the history
of Europe. With the exception of the
century following 1332, they furnished
the emperors of the Roman empire until
that empire ceased to exist in 1740. From
the time of Rudolph IJ, the Hapsburg
furnished the rulers of Austria until the
downfall of that empire in 1918. By
reason of a succession of fortunate mar-
riages the Hapsburg exercised rule over
Austria, Germany, the Netherlands,
Spain; and a large part of what is now
the United States, Mexico, Central
America, the Spanish states of South
America, the West India Islands, and the
Philippines. The ill-fated Maximilian,
Emperor of Mexico was a Hapsburg.
Harbin, Har been’, or Kharbin, a
town of Manchuria, situated on the right
bank of the Sungari River. The town
was founded in 1896 as a center for the
surveys of the Chinese Eastern Railway
Company, and soon became the junction
HARBOR
of the Manchurian main line and the
branch line extending south to Port Ar-
thur. During the Russo-Japanese War
it was an important Russian military
station. Population, estimated at 20,000.
Harbor, an outlet on the shore of a
sea or lake forming a roadstead, or port,
for ships, being either a natural con-
formation for protecting them against
wind and waves or having an artificial
system of walls or breakwaters. A har-
bor includes all the structures and ap-
purtenances to facilitate the safe anchor-
age, loading, unloading and repairs of
vessels, such as quays, docks, break-
waters, jetties, piers and wharves. The
value of a harbor depends largely upon
the depth of its water, its freedom from
breakers and its natural protection
against sea storms. Harbors are main-
tained usually by national governments,
and liberal appropriations are made to
dredge and otherwise improve them in
order to make a safe entrance for ships.
The United States spends nearly $20,-
000,000 annually in keeping in condition
its various harbors, not including the
expenses of quarantine stations or the
removal of wrecks,
Harsor CoNnstTRUCTION. The open-
coast harbor, consisting of a quay wall
or bulkhead wall open to the sea, is
the simplest form, but it serves only to
tie up ships alongside the shore, to dis-
charge and receive cargoes, and affords
no protection from winds, tides or cur-
rents. A straight pier, extending out
from the shore, affords no shelter from
waves coming inshore, but in case of
winds and waves alongshore, it gives
some protection on the lee side. When
the pier is curved with its convex side
to the sea, there is better protection,
but it is best to build two curved piers,
converging toward each other, so as to
include a harbor basin. A breakwater
wall built offshore to break the force
of the waves is sometimes employed, and
a harbor may contain a combination of
all these structures. Jetties are also em-
ployed for protecting harbors, as well as
to maintain their depth (See Jerry).
The harbor of New York is so enclosed
1270
29
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The Growth of Cities—-Continued
THe Tuirp Estate, or BurcHEerR Crass. In the cities a rich burgher class developed. The
burghers compelled the lords to grant charters to cities, defining the powers and privileges of
the citizens. The town hall and the cathedral came to be the two greatest buildings in every
city. Schools were organized and gradually culture was introduced.
INDEPENDENT Cities AND City Lracuges. Many cities became independent and were organ-
}1zed into city republics. Cities combined into leagues for protection against feudal barons,
robbers and pirates and to secure better trade conditions. The Hanseatic League comprised }|
50 of the cities in Germany.
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1485-150S—-Henry VII, the First Tudor King
Henry VII created an absolute monarchy. There was no one to
oppose him, for many of the nobles were killed in the Wars of the
1 Roses and the people of the middle classes were not in the habit of
acting independently of the nobles. Most of the people were tired
| of the long wars and were satisfied to have a ruler who could intro-
duce peace and order. By means of old sources of income the King
made himself quite independent of Parliament. When Parliament
1 did meet, it was usually subservient ‘to the King. During Henry’s
reign representative government received a check from which it did
| not recover for two centuries. On the other hand, agriculture and
| manufacturing increased, trade flourished and great interest was taken
iin the reading of Greek and Roman books. /
1509-1547—Henry VIII
| CarpinaL Wotsey. During the early part of Henry’s reign Cardi-
inal Wolsey had the management of the affairs of State. “Wolsey
| dreamed of the popedom, while his master dreamed of the universal
| empire.” Because Wolsey failed in getting the Pope to divorce
| Henry from Catherine, Henry turned Wolsey out of office, seized
his immense properties and charged him with high treason. Wolsey
i died before he could be brought to trial.
Tue Rerormation. Henry induced Parliament to pass laws ac-
cording to which all matters relating to the Church were to be settled
in England. His marriage to Catherine was declared illegal and he
'married Anne Boleyn. In 1535 Parliament passed an act making
Henry “Supreme Head of the Church of England.” Henry sup-
pressed the monasteries and used the property thus obtained for
himself. Upon Henry’s orders the Bible was translated into English.
The religion in England was now Catholicism without the pope.
ABSOLUTE POWER. Henry VIII exercised absolute power. Any man
| who opposed him was likely to be charged with treason and executed.
Neither the courts nor Parliament resisted him.
1547—1553—-Edward V
| tant in doctrine, and all people who refused to conform to the change
were persecuted.
| 1553-1558—Mary
| Mary was as absolute a ruler as her father. She induced Parlia-
ment to undo the work of Edward and Henry in regard to religion,
and the authority of the pope again became supreme. Under Henry
VIII both Catholics and Protestants were persecuted. Under Mary
1 all who did not profess the Catholic belief were liable to be punished
as heretics.
| 1558-1603—Elizabeth
| Tue RerorMation. During Elizabeth’s reign Protestantism was
| again established in England. The Catholics opposed this action, as
' did also the Puritans. Catholics and Puritans alike were persecuted.
Mary, QuEEN oF Scots. Mary, Queen of Scotland and cousin of
Elizabeth, was expelled from Scotland because of her private behavior
and crimes. She fled to England for protection. The government,
fearing an uprising in favor of Mary, kept her a prisoner for 19
iyears. Finally Mary plotted against the life of Elizabeth and in
| 1587 she was tried and executed.
1588—Tue Armapa. Philip II, King of Spain, sent a great fleet
of war vessels, carrying a large army, to conquer England for himself
and the Pope. But the “Invincible Armada” was defeated by the
English fleet and England was saved. During the war Catholics and
Protestants vied with each other in fighting for their countyy.
ENGLAND AT THE CLOSE OF ELIZABETH’S REIGN. Many skilled work-
; nen left the Continent during the religious troubles and settled in
England. Manufacturing increased rapidly and manufactured goods
| were carried by English vessels to all parts of the world. Wealth
{was rapidly increasing. It was an age, also, that produced many
j writers. Shakespeare brought the drama to its highest stage of
§ perfection and national life took on its modern form.
I
In 1553 under Edward VI the Church of England was made Protes-
pee
1562-1595—Civil Wars
1498-1515—Louis XII
Louis XII conquered .
Milan and in 1500 sold
to Ferdinand of Ara-
gon his share of the
Kingdom of Naples.
In 1512 the French lost }
Milan and were ex-
pelled from Italy.
1515-1547—Francis I
Francis carried on
many wars with his
great rival, Charles V
of Spain, in which he jf
wasted the resources }j ©
and strength of his jj
country. He was no
match for the Spanish
monarch, the ablest
statesman of his age.
But though the reign
of Francis was a great
misfortune to France,
the people adored him }
in spite of his defeats
in war and his moral
weaknesses, and were
content to live under a
master who allowed
them no constitutional
rights.
From 1562 to 1595
France was rent by ||
religious wars between
the Catholics’ and the
Protestants. The
French Protestants be-
came known as Hugue-
nots. Francis I and
Henry II had perse-
cuted them. Catherine
de Medici, the mother
of the three successors
of Henry II, induced
the King to sign an or-
der according to which
2000 Huguenots were
put to death in Paris
on St. Bartholomew’s
Day in 1572.
CO Oe SESS ek eRe Re ea eT we Tee Pe he ar ene ee
GERMANY
ees
The House of Hapsburg
In Germany the Miatie of Hapsburg, which
controlled the Duchy of Austria, steadily grew
in power. In 1438 the imperial title was made
hereditary in the Hapsburg line. By marriage,
Maximilian, Emperor of Germany from 1493
ta 1519, joined Netherlands to lis-possessions
in southern Germany. Maximilian tried to_or-
|ganize a strong central government in Ger-
imany but he failed because of the opposition
of selfish nobles.
1517-1555—The Protestant Reformation
Martin LutHer, Luther was a monk who
adopted the doctrine of “justification by faith.”
This led him to oppose the abuse of indul-
gences issued by the Church. In 1517 he
nailed on the door of the church in Witten-
berg his 95 theses in which he attacked the
sale of indulgences.
At tHE Diet oF Worms. In 1521 Charles V
!summoned him to appear before the Diet of
Worms. Here he reafirmed his doctrines. The
Diet placed him under the ban of the empire
‘and ordered his books to be burned. Safely
hidden in the Wartburg castle Luther trans-
lated the Bible into German.
| LutTHeran Docrrines Spreap. The many
|wars of Charles, in which he needed the sup-
port of his German subjects, prevented him
from taking steps to stamp out the growing
heresy, and thus the new teachings spread.
| Protestants. Because the Lutheran princes
iprotested against the action of the Diet of
Speyer, which declared that the Edict of
;Worms should be enforced at once, Luther’s
supporters were called Protestants.
|} 1555. Peace or AucssurG. In 1555 the Prot-
estant princes of Germany compelled Charles
to accept the Peace of Augsburg, which au-
thorized each prince and each city to choose
between Lutheranism and Catholicism.
1556-1564—Ferdinand
In 1556 Charles V bequeathed the Archduke-
dom of Austria to his brother Ferdinand.
There were now two branches of the House
of Hapsburg, that of Spain and that of Aus-
tria. Ferdinand added Bohemia and Hungary
to his dominions.
The Counter Reformation .
Soon after the Protestant Reformation be-
gan many practices of the Church which had
jirritated the people were abolished by the
Church, and only leaders of religious thought
could hope to bécome cardinals. Ignatius
Loyola in 1540 founded the Order of Jesuits,
{the members of which pledged themselves to
lead pure, upright lives, to be devoted to the
cause of the Church. These movements in-
fused a new life into the Church,
the Gulf of Lepanto off the coast of Greece.
SPAIN
Rise of Spain—Continued
the Christians had established several small}
states which held out against the Saracens. |
In 1469 Castile and Aragon, which had grown}
into strong states, were united under Ferdinand
and Isabella. The union of these two states |
created the Kingdom of Spain.
In 1482 Ferdinand and Isabella began the}
conquest of Granada, the last and most power-
ful of the Mohammedan states. One city after |
another was captured by the Christians, and
finally in 1492 Granada, the capital, was forced
to surrender, and the Mohammedan power in|
Spain came to an end.
1516-1556—Charles V
Charles V inherited an enormous amount of
territory. From his father he received Nether-
lands, from his grandfather Ferdinand, Spain}
and Naples, and from his grandfather Maxi-
milian, Austria. This great inheritance was}
increased by Cortez, who conquered Mexico, }
and by Pizarro, who conquered Peru. In 1519
Charles was elected Emperor of Germany.
During his reign Spain was the greatest power
in Europe. He had several wars with his |
rival, Francis I of France, in most of which}
he was successful. In 1532 he led the united
forces of his empire against the Turks, who}
threatened Germany, and compelled them to
withdraw. In 1539 he chastised the city of}
Ghent, where he was born, because it had}
refused to pay the exorbitant taxes he hadj
levied. He was unable to put down the Ref-}
ormation in Germany, and in 1555 he entered
into the Peace of Augsburg. In 1556 he abdi-
cated in favor of his son Philip. In his will}
he urged Philip to root out heresy in his}
dominions.
1556-1598—Philip II
Philip II introduced the most crushing des-
potism in Spain, using the Inquisition for both]
religious and secular purposes.
NETHERLANDS. Before the time of Charles
V the people of Netherlands, through ingenuity
and hard work, had reached the highest state |
"of industrial development attained by any peo- |
ple in Europe. Protestantism had been intro- |
duced into the northern provinces and Philip
was determined to stamp it out. He used the}
Spanish Inquisition in a merciless way, but a
national hero arose, William, Prince of Orange, f
who freed the northern provinces from Spain.
Spain, however, was too proud to acknowledge
the independence of Holland until 1648.
1571. Lepanto. In 1571 Philip rendered a
service to the civilized world by totally de-|
stroying the great Turkish fleet in a fight in|
Fae ARSE ee Nt
ENGLAND
1603-1625—James I
JAMES AND THE CATHOoLICS—1604. Under James I the crowns of
England and Scotland were united. The King at first treated the
Catholics with less severity than they had been treated in the previous
reigns, but soon reimposed the severe penalties. This resulted in
the Gunpowder Plot, which was a conspiracy to blow up the Houses
of Parliament. After the failure of the plot the persecutions were
carried on sharper than ever.
1604—JAMES AND THE Puritans, The Puritans presented to the
King a great petition favoring certain changes in religion which were
discussed at the Hampden Court Conference, but the King opposed
every change. In 1611 a new translation of the Bible was completed.
JAMES AND PARLIAMENT. The absolute rule introduced by Henry
VII and exercised by all the Tudors became more autocratic under
James. The House of Commons favored leniency toward the Puri-
tans but James was obdurate. The King imposed duties on imports
and exports without the consent of Parliament, which resulted in a
quarrel in which Parliament more than held its own. i
1607-1620. CoLtonization. In 1607 the first permanent English
settlement in America was made at Jamestown. In 1620 a group of
English Separatists, who had left England and had lived in Holland
for a time, made a settlement at Plymouth. The Separatists be-
| lieved that every church should be allowed religious independence.
| 1625-1649—Charles I
| 1625. Tue Petition or Ricut. Charles I quarreled constantly
| with his Parliaments over money matters. Finally Parliament de-
clared that before voting him money he would have to accept the
| “Petition of Right,’ which called for a redress of their grievances.
| Charles yielded and the Petition of Right became a law. Then
| Charles decided to rule without Parliament.
1629-1640. Cartes Rutes WitHout ParLIAMENT. Charles used
the Court of the Star Chamber to punish all who dared find fault
with his autocratic government. He levied duties on goods without
the consent of Parliament, and ordered the counties to pay ship
| money in place of furnishing him ships. John Hampden resisted
but the judges decided he had to pay the tax.
1640-1649. THe Long PARLIAMENT AND THE CiviL War. Charles
interfered with the Scotch Church and led an army into Scotland,
but a Scotch army soon forced him to retreat. In his extremity
Charles called another Parliament in 1640, which restricted his powers
and declared that it could not be dissolved without its consent.
| Crivir War. Then the King and Parliament each raised an army
|} and civil war began. Charles was finally defeated by Cromwell.
| Cromwell belonged to the Independents, who believed that every
i man should be allowed to worship God as he liked. Most of the
Parliamentary army was made up of these religious enthusiasts.
Charles was imprisoned, and, after Cromwell had driven many of
the Presbyterian members out of Parliament, the “Rump” Parlia-
ment brought the King to trial and he was beheaded.
1649-1653—The Commonwealth and the Protectorate
The government was now administered by a council appointed by
Parliament. Cromwell suppressed a rebellion in Ireland with great
cruelty, and conquered Scotland. The government by the council
proved a failure. Cromwell expelled the 80 members of Parliament,
and the Long Parliament, which had kept the government in its own
hands for 13 years, came to an end.
1653-1658—Cromwell
Cromwell was now dictator. He entered into treaties with Nether-
lands, Sweden, Denmark and France. He preserved peace at home
and sustained the power of England abroad. He failed to establish a
constitutional government because his government rested on the army.
| In 1660 a new Parliament asked the son of Charles I to rule as
Charles IT.
FRANCE
1589-1610—Henry IV
Henry of Navarre,
leader of the Hugue-
nots, became king in
1589. In 1593 he turned
Catholic, and in-»1598
he issued his famous
Edict of Nantes, which
granted freedom of
worship to the Hugue-
nots. Trade and indus-
tries revived during his
reign. In 1610, in the
midst of preparations
to assist the Protestant
princes in a war against
Austria, he was assas-
sinated,
1610-1643—Louis
XIII
Louis XIII was ten
years old when he be-
came king. Anarchy
again threatened
France, but this was
averted by the strong
and wise rule of Rich-
elieu, the famous min-
ister of the King. He
madethe King supreme
in France by crushing
the power of the no-
bles, and by destroying
the political power of
the Huguenots. He sup-
ported the Protestant
princes of Germany in
their struggle for re-
ligious freedom because
the success of the
princes meant the hu-
miliation of Austria.
1645-1715—Louis XIV
During the first part
of the reign of Louis
XIV Cardinal Mazarin
continued the policy of
Richelieu, France hum-
bled both branches of
the House of Austria
and became a great
power in foreign af-
fairs. France continued
to be a pronounced des-
notism, the people hav-
ing virtually no politi- |
cal rights.
1648. PrAcEor WEST-
PHALIA. The interfer-
ence of France brought
the Thirty Years’ War
to a close. The Peace
of Westphalia recog-
nized France as st-
preme in Europe.
ior Protestant.
GERMANY
1618-1648—The Thirty Years’ War
In 1618 a terrible and devastating religious civil war began in
Germany, which exceeded in brutality the civil wars of Rome. The
Treaty of Augsburg, 1555, declared that each potentate and city
should decide whether the religion of the people should be Catholic
Quarrels naturally arose. The Protestant states
formed a union under the Elector of the Palatinate and the Catholics
| formed “The League,” with Maximilian of Bavaria at the head. The
war was carried on in Germany, but most of the nations of Europe
took part in it at various times.
Tue DanisH Periop. Tilly and Wallenstein, the famous gen-
erals of the Emperor, defeated the Protestant princes in several
battles. Then Christian, King of Denmark, came to their assistance.
But he was defeated and the cause of the Protestant princes seemed
THE SwepisH Periop. In 1630 Gustavus Adolphus, King of
Sweden, came to the rescue. In 1632 he defeated the imperial army
at the Battle of Liitzen, but Gustavus was killed.
THe Frencu Periop. France, under Cardinal Richelieu, had helped
Gustavus Adolphus with money. .In 1634 a French army was sent
into Germany. The war now became one for aggrandizement. Rich-
elieu died but Mazarin continued his policy.
1648. Tur Peace oF WEsTPHALIA. According to the Peace of
Westphalia, the most important event in history since the Treaty of
I lost. -
| Verdun, the Catholics and the Protestants were put upon the same
footing. Alsace was given to France, parts of northern Germany
to Sweden, and the Hanseatic League was broken up. National
feeling in Germany seemed extinct. At the beginning of the war the
| population of Germany was 30,000,000; at its close it was 12,000,000.
PRAGUE ’
INDEPENDENT-1648
BOHEMIA SWITZERLAND
AUSTRIAN :
BRANDENBURG
PRUSSIA [
bMUNICH
yeNNe BR ANDENBURG wo
DOMINIONS FRENCH GAINS [TTI
SPAIN
Expulsion of the
Moors
In 1492, upon the fall
of Granada, a compact
was made with the
Moors according to |
which these people were
allowed to retain their |
own laws, customs and |
language, and they were
permitted to keep their
religion. But soon
after this, measures
were taken by Spain to
bring about the con-
version of the Moham-
medans. In 1500 the
Moors revolted, After
the revolt had been
suppressed with charac-
teristic Spanish cruelty,
the Moors were forced }}
to choose between con- |j
version or banishment,
Though most of the
Moors chose the first
alternative, it did not
save them from con-
tinued acts of oppres-
sion. Charles V_ be-
came incensed at them
when he discovered that
many of them while
professing Christianity
in public secretly clung
to the faith of their |
fathers. Philip II is-
sued an edict forbid-
ding the Moors to
speak or write in Ara-
bic. As a consequence
many uprisings of]
Moors took place. Fi-
nally in 1609 Philip gave
these unfortunate peo-
ple but three days in
which to leave Spain.
The loss of these
progressive people who
had established systems
of irrigation in Spain,
who had developed
manufactures and com-
merce, who had intro-
duced the cultivation of
silk, rice and_ sugar,
who, ‘in brief, consti-
tuted the backbone of
the industrial life of
Spain, was a fatal blow
to the country. Spain |
now rapidly sank to the }
position of a second-
rate power.
ENGLAND
1660-1685—-Charles II
PARLIAMENT AND RE iIcIon. Farliament hated the is -
{Isenters and was afraid of the Catholics, When the King
jsuspended the penal laws against the Catholics and the Dis-
senters, Parliament objected, and the King gave way. The
1] Prayer Book of the Church of England was the only form |
\fof public prayer allowed in the land.
PARLIAMENT AND TAXATION. Parliament opened a new era
in the financial history of England and representative gov-
ernment by gaining control of taxation. Charles made him-
self partly independent of Parliament by. accepting large
bribes from Louis XIV of France for his neutrality in the
Continental wars. But when Parliament did vote him money,
it controlled the expenditure of the money.
1679. Tue Haseas Corpus: Act. The King reluctantly
gave his consent to the Habeas Corpus Act, which provided
for a speedy and public trial of a person charged with a
‘| crime.
1685-1688—James II
James II tried to reestablish Catholicism. In 1688, when a
child was born to his Catholic wife, a group of prominent
men invited William of Orange to come to England and take
possession of the government. William landed in England
with a small army and James fled to the Continent. The
crown was offered by Parliament to William and Mary
funder certain conditions. They accepted the conditions and
thus after 200 years of absolute rule the peaceful Revolution
lof 1688 made Parliament supreme in the government of
England.
1689-1702—William and Mary
| The Declaration of Rights passed by Parliament in 168
again stated the fundamental rights of the English nation.
PARLIAMENT AND Retricion. The Toleration Act allowed
the Dissenters to worship in their own churches. After a
time the Catholics were allowed to worship in their own way.
But neither Dissenters nor Catholics could hold office.
WitittAm’s Wars. William had to fight for his crown.
Many battles were fought before the Irish and Scotch High-
landers accepted him as king. Each year, also, William went
to Netherlands to fight the armies of Louis XIV of France.
| Tue KING AND PARLIAMENT. Parliament was supreme and
passed acts restricting the power of the sovereign. William
did a great thing for England by abiding by the regulations
of Parliament, and ruling strictly according to law. War
clouds again gathered during the last few years of his life.
| He died in 1702, eight years after the death of his wife Mary.
1702-1714—-Queen Anne
Act oF SETTLEMENT. In 1701 Parliament had passed the
Act of Settlement which provided that the crown, upon
William’s death, should go to Anne, the sister of his wife,
and daughter of James II.
favored an Austrian prince for the throne of Spain, but when the prince became Emperor
Charles VI they were satisfied to have Philip V-keep the Spanish throne on condition that he
! would renounce his claim upon the French throne.
Peace oF Utrecut. According to the treaty Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Sardinia and_|
Milan were given to Austria; Gibraltar and the Island of Minorca and a large part of the
French possessions in the New World were given to England. From this time on Eng-]}
land and France were destined to be on opposite sides in the long Continental wars.
Postrion or France. For half a century the history of France had been the history of
{western Europe. The long wars and the despotic rule of the kings had weakened France
and left her people a heritage of misery and discontent, which in the latter part of the}
century were again to make her the center of European history.
wf
‘Louis XIV—Continued
States-General, and made France
{ sessed great power.
FRANCE
War AcGatnst NETHERLANDS.
In 1661 Louis XIV took the gov-
ernment into his own hands. His
favorite saying was, “I am the
state.” He never convened the
a stronger absolute monarchy |}
than ever. He advanced his}i |
power in Europe by carrying on
many successful wars, the most
important of which was the one
against Netherlands and the
United Provinces. In 1679 a
peace was made, according to
which Louis kept Spanish Neth-
erlands. During this war Charies,
King of England, had been in
the pay of Louis.
REVOCATION OF THE EniIcT OF
Nantes, 1685. In 1685 Louis
revoked the Edict of Nantes.
Persecutions of the Protestants }}
followed, which caused many of
the most skillful and industrious }j
of the French people to leave
France for England and other
countries.
War of the Spanish Succession
In 1700 the King of Spain]
died, after bequeathing all his]
dominions to Philip V, grand-
son of Louis XIV.
In 1701 William, King of Eng-
land, made a treaty known asf]!
the ‘Grand Alliance,” according
to which England, Holland,
Austria and Prussia agreed to
act together in preventing the
union of the French and Spanish
dominions. William had placed
Marlborough at the head of the
English and Dutch forces, and
after William’s death Marl-
borough, whose wife and the
Queen were good friends, pos-
Marlborough and Prince
Eugene, the two generals of the]
allies, won the famous battles
of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oude-
narde and Malplaquet. The allies
GERMANY
Rise of Prussia
During the 15th cen-
tury, Emperor Sigis-
mund granted to Fred-
erick, Count of Hohen-
zollern, the March of
Brandenburg. In the
lihands of the Hohen-
Hizollerns Brandenburg
was to grow into one
of the, greatest king-
doms of Europe.
In 1611 Prussia, a
small German state on
the Baltic Sea, a fief of
the King of Poland,
was united with Brand-
enburg. Frederick Wil-
liam, the.Great Elector,
secured the independ-
ence of Prussia and or-
ganized a strongly cen-
tralized government.
He became the cham-
pion of Protestantism
land acquired additional
lterritory by the Peace
oft Westphalia in 1648.
In 1701 his son Fred-
erick was crowned
{King of Prussia.
fs }
(inal
D NY aM
aN
{PPS
) BE
}
POLAND
Poland
In 1386 Poland and
Lithuania were united.
In 1466 Poland an-
nexed a part of Prus-
sia. Poland then com-
prised the large part
of central Europe, ex-
tending from the Bal-
tic almost to the Black
Sea. It was one of
the greatest states of
Europe. During the
Thirty Years’ War
Poland placed a fleet
at the disposal of the
Emperor.
RUSSIA
Rise of Russia
About the middle of the ninth century
Rurik, a Norseman, conquered the Slavs and
Finns near the Baltic and thus laid the found-
ation of Russia. In the middle of the 13th
century, Russia became subject to Genghis
Khan, the great Tartar, or Mogul, King of |
Asia. In 1462 Ivan the Great began the reor-
ganization of the country and freed his king-
dom from the Tartars. The Russians at this
time were a semibarbarous people. Ivan the
Terrible crushed the power of the Tartars and
extended his dominions to the Caspian Sea.
In 1547 he assumed the title of Czar. The
conquest of Siberia was begun by Ivan, and
gradually the dominions of Russia were ex-
tended until in 1639 they reached to the Pacific
Ocean.
1674-1696—John III
In 1674 Sobieski, a gallant gen-
eral, was chosen king as John III.
In 1683 an army of 250,000 Turks
laid waste the plains of Hungary
and appeared before Vienna. The
Emperor of Germany appealed to
the Polish ruler for help. Sobie-
ski, at the head of a Polish and
German army, totally destroyed the
Turkish power. During divine
service held in the Cathedral of
Vienna after the victory, a priest
suddenly exclaimed, “There was a
man sent from God, and his name
1682-1725—Peter the Great
Peter wrested from Poland a
part of her territory and con-
quered Azov from the Turks.
Twice he visited Holland, Ger- }}
many and England, to study
navigation and to learn other
things that might be useful to
his people. He introduced re-
forms of various kinds. He is-
sued a new coinage, encouraged
learning, built roads and canals,
and invited artisans, merchants
and artists to live in Russia. He
was John.”
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builtanavy. He built St. Peters-
burg and made it the capital of
Russia,
Russia AND SWEDEN. In 1700}
Russia joined the kings of Den-
mark and Poland and the Elec-
tor of Saxony in appropriating
iparts of Sweden, but Charles
XII of Sweden defeated the
Russians at Narva. In 1709,
however, his army was annihi- |}
lated by Peter at Poltava. In
1721 the Swedish war ended with
parts of the Baltic lands in the
possession of Peter.
His Work. Peter was a des-
potic and at times a cruel ruler,
ibut he raised his country to a
position of great importance in
Europe. Russia no longer faced
Asia, but western Europe.
ENGLAND
eee
1714-1727—George I
In 1721 George I appointed Robert Walpole
chancellor. The King could not speak Eng-
lish and so delegated much power to the cabi-
net, and especially to Walpole, who received
the title of prime minister. There was much
political corruption in England during the
reigns of George I and George II, but during
it all England was growing in wealth and
power.
The Silesian War
England helped Austria against Prussia and
France in the Silesian War, or the War of
the Austrian Succession.
FRANGE
1715-1774—Louis XV
Louis XV was five years old when his grand-
father Louis XIV died. The Duke of Or-
leans made himself regent. He tried to intro-
duce some reforms of government but failed.
The government issued a great amount of
paper money and floated it by means of the
Mississippi Company, but this ended disas-
trously to the nation. In 1723 the majority
of Louis XV was proclaimed.
In the Silesian War France supported Prus-
sia against Austria and England. The peace
of 1748, however, discredited France. During
the reigns of Louis XIV and Louis XV the
great French debt kept increasing steadily.
The morals of the nobles at court were scan-
dalous. Madame de Pompadour, the King’s
mistress, for 20 years made and unmade minis-
ters at will. The nation lay dormant, but soon
France was to awake.
1756-1763—The Seven Years’ War
In 1754 Maria Theresa, to win back Silesia, entered into an alliance with France, Russia,
Sweden and Saxony. It soon became apparent that these powers had decided on the dismem-
berment of Prussia.
the Seven Years’ War.
A Wor.tp-Wip—E War. The Seven Years’ War became a_ world-wide struggle.
carried on at the same time in Europe, America and India. Four large armies coming from
four different directions invaded Prussia, but the military genius of Frederick was a match
for them all and saved Prussia from destruction. _ In 1757 he defeated and captured a French
army at Rossbach. He defeated another army at Leuthen, and, though defeated at times,
held his enemies at bay until peace was made.
In America the war was known as the French and Indian War. The English aided by
the colonists attacked the French all along the line.
Quebec, which brought the war to a close. In India Clive defeated a native army at Plassey.
The naval victories of England established her supremacy on the sea.
PEACE WAS SIGNED IN 1763. The treaty of peace made no change in territory in Europe.
In America, France ceded Canada and all her territory east of the Mississippi to England, and
the territory west of the Mississippi to Spain, and Spain ceded Florida to England.
1776-1783—The American Revolution
The French and Indian War gave rise to the problem of how the
expense of the war should be divided between England and the
colonies. England determined to tax the colonies, but the colonies
objected to being taxed by a Parliament in which they were not
represented. This led to a war between the Mother Country and
the colonies.
In 1776 the colonies declared their independence and chose George
Washington commander-in-chief. Washington was a great leader in
a great cause. Early in the war the Americans lost New York, and
for a time Boston and Philadelphia, but in 1777 they captured the
British army under Burgoyne at Saratoga. In 1778 France came to
the assistance of the colonies, and soon after Spain and Holland
also joined in the war against England. Besides carrying on the
war against the colonies England was compelled to defend India,
Gibraltar and her other possessions in different parts of the world.
In 1781 the Americans, aided by the: French, forced Cornwallis to
surrender at Yorktown. This ended the war.
In 1783 a treaty of peace was made. According to this treaty
England recognized the independence of the colonies, ceded Florida
to Spain, and a few islands in the West Indies to France. Thus the
colonies won their independence and France and Spain had their
revenge, for they had helped the colonies to break away from
England.
In 1755 Frederick made an alliance with England and in 1756 he began}
It was!
In 1759 Wolfe defeated Montcalm at
GERMANY
1730-1740—Frederick William I
Frederick William was a good ruler. Under him the Government
of Prussia reached a high point of efficiency. He built up a large
and well-trained army, and by rigid economy left a large sum of
money to his son Frederick, who succeeded him in 1740,
1740-1786—Frederick the Great
Frederick, ignoring the ,.Pragmatic Sanction, entered Silesia with
an army and seized that province. In the war that followed France
joined Prussia. Maria Theresa fled to Hungary, where the nobles
rallied to her support. England joined Austria against Prussia and
France. Peace was made in 1748, but Austria did not regain Silesia.
In America an expedition of New Englanders captured the French
fortress of Louisburg. In India the French captured Madras. At
the close of the war England returned Louisburg to France in
exchange for Madras.
Effect of the Seven Years’ War on Germany
At the end of the Seven Years’ War Prussia was considered one
of the leading European powers, and the conflict between Austria
and Prussia was foreshadowed. The German people no longer con-
sidered France the leader in thought and manners. National life
and patriotism sprang up in north Germany. Intellectual independ-
ence found expression in the philosophy of Kant and in the poetry
of Goethe, Lessing and Schiller. :
FREDERICK THE GREAT. Frederick the Great was not only one of
the greatest military leaders the world has produced but he was
great also in his work of peace. While a most pronounced despot
he considered himself simply “the first servant of the state.” He
was compelled to keep up a large army, but he kept the taxes down
by a system of rigid economy and strict supervision of public officials.
He built canals, encouraged manufactures and commerce, laid the
foundations of the present school system of Germany and encouraged
art and literature.
TREATY OF 1763
@ ENGUSH GAINS FS
SPANISH GAINS [7
RUSSIA
1762-1796—Catherine
the Great
Catherine deposed her
husband, Peter III of
Russia, and became
Catherine IJ. She was
a great ruler but a most
profligate woman.
1772 — ParTITION OF
PoLAND. Catherine en-
tered into an agree-
ment with Frederick
the Great and Maria
Theresa to dismember
Poland. Three succes-
sive divisions were
made, one in 1772, an-
other in 1793 and the
last in 1795. The terri-
tory gained by disre-
garding the law of na-
tions brought Russia
into the heart of the
European Continent.
1774 — CoNQUEST OF
THE CRIMEA. In 1767
Turkey declared war
against Russia. The vic-
torious Russian armies
soon reached the Dan-
ube, and a Russian fleet,
after sailing around
Europe and through
the Straits of Gibral-
tar, suddenly appeared
in the Black Sea and
destroyed the Turkish
fleet. Peace was made
in 1774 and Russia
gained control of the
Crimea.
ENGLAND
Inventions
In 1776 Arkwright in-
vented an improved
spinning machine. Soon
after this a power loom
was invented. James
Watt in 1781 built
steam engines for man-
ufacturing purposes.
These inventions revo-
lutionized manufactures
and led to the intro-
duction of the factory
system.
War Between Eng-
land and France
For a time after the
French Revolution had
begun, the English
sympathized with the
French people in their
efforts to reform their
government. But when
the Reign of Terror
set in and the King
land Queen of France
were executed, the
English people were
horrified. In 1793 the
French minister was
ordered to leave Eng-
land. France then de-
clared war against
England. The struggle
lasted until 1815. -
The war with France
had the effect of not
only checking reform
movements in England
but causing a loss in
political and social
conditions. Ireland, af-
ter enjoying a brief
period of Home Rule,
was joined to England
in 1789, being allowed
100 members in Parlia-
ment. The colonial ac-
quisitions and the in-
creased trade which
icame to England dur-
ing this period were
offset by burdensome
taxes and dissatisfac-
tion of the people.
War of 1812
In 1812 war broke
out between England
and the United States,
because of the restric-
tions England placed
oncommerce. The
treaty of peace did not
settle any of the dis-
puted questions.
FRANCE
The French Revolution
Wuat Ir Was. The French Revolution was an effort of the
French people to secure political and social freedom. The Revolu-
tion. was constructive in character, securing many lasting reforms
in France and paving the way for many political changes in other
European countries. an
Asuses UNDER THE RULE oF Kincs. For centuries France was goy-
erned by kings who exercised absolute power. The nobles and the
clergy enjoyed unjust privileges. They paid no land tax and they
were exempt from military service. The salt tax and the many
other indirect taxes’ were levied in such a way that they bore most |
heavily on the poor. Nearly all of the taxes were paid by the poor
peasant class, who could ill afford it, while the wealthy privileged
classes paid only a small fraction of them.
THE WorkK oF MEN or Letters. Abuses of government alone, how-
ever, could not account for the Revolution. There must be active
discontent. This was furnished by the men of ideas. Many able
writers during the middle of the 18th century, influenced by the re-
forms in England, espoused the cause of the people. Voltaire stood
for religious freedom and Rousseau stood for political freedom.
ATTITUDE OF KiNG AND Court. The long wars of Louis XIV and
Louis XV, and the lavish court expenditures had brought France
close to bankruptcy. Louis XVI felt the need of reforms but he
was weak and unequal to the task of inaugurating them. His con-
troller-general, the able Turgot, curtailéd the expenditures of the gov-
ernment and court, and abolished many privileges of the nobles and
the clergy, but the Queen and the court secured his dismissal. Necker,
his successor, also tried to introduce necessary reforms but the nobles
and the clergy forced his retirement. Then came Calonne, who tried
to improve matters by dazzling expenditures of money for court and
other purposes, but before long he was compelled to inform the
King that France was bankrupt, and that only radical reforms could
save the government from destruction.
Tue Notastes ArE SUMMONED. In 1787 the King summoned the
leading nobles and clergy for a conference, but they were selfish
and opposed the reforms suggested by Calonne.
THE STATES-GENERAL CALLED, In 1788 the King authorized the elec-
tion of members of the States-General, which had not met for 175
years. There were 557 members of the Third Estate and about that
number of nobles and clergy. The deputies to this body met in 1789.
THE STATES-GENERAL CHANGED TO NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. Soon af-
ter the assembling of the States-General the members of the Third
Estate, the representatives of the people, organized themselves into
the National Assembly, representing the nation as a whole. Most
of the nobles and clergy reluctantly joined them.
THE WorK OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. August 4, 1789, the As-
sembly swept away the numerous special privileges enjoyed by the
nobles, clergy, and middle class in the cities, thus putting an end to
feudalism in France. In 1791 the Assembly completed the written
constitution which provided for a limited monarchy. Thus great
power was given to the people who were not prepared to exercise
such power.
Tue LecisiativeE Assempty. In October, 1791, the regular Legis-
lative Assembly provided for by the constitution began its session.
The kings of Europe, fearing their people might imitate the French
in demanding reforms, determined to restore the old regime. In 1792
100,000 Austrians and Prussians invaded France, but they were de-
feated. The Legislative Assembly was replaced by the National Con-
vention.
THE NATIONAL CoNVENTION, 1792-1795. In 1792 monarchy was
abolished and France became a republic. In 1793 the King was be-
headed. Patriotism and enthusiasm again defeated the allies, and
civil and political liberty was kindled over Europe. The Belgium
Republic was formed. But in France itself came the Reign of Ter-
ror, with Robespierre at the head. The radical party was in con-
trol during this time of disorder and bloodshed, and many changes
ai te
pts ee
Pe ee aT eR RT See ae eel
=
a eT ee eee ee ee, nn
é
9 5
FRANCE
were made in the government, in education and religion. The good
and bad seemed to be swept away together but out of it all a new
French nation was born. Finally Robespierre was beheaded and the
early history of the Revolution came to an end.
‘Tue Directory, 1795-1799. A new constitution went into effect un-
der which the Directory assumed control of affairs. In 1795 the army
under Napoleon crushed the Royalists and saved the Convention.
iIn 1796 the Directory made Napoleon commander of the army in
Italy. Napoleon now became the central figure in Europe. After
defeating the Austrians in Italy he advanced on Vienna, and in 1797
Austria ceded to France Austrian Netherlands. In 1798 Napoleon
planned the expedition against Egypt to cripple the commerce of
England. But Nelson annihilated the French fleet at Alexandria, and
Napoleon returned secretly to France, leaving his army in Egypt. A
second coalition was organized against France. In 1799 Napoleon
made himself first consul and later emperor. Thus the Revolution
produced its military despot.
THE CONSULATE AND THE First Emprre, 1799-1815. For 15 years
Napoleon kept Europe in a turmoil of confusion. He set up kings
at pleasure. He was at war with most of the powers of Europe. He
defeated the Austrians at Marengo and Hohenlinden. England alone
held out against him. In 1802 treaties were made with all the coun-
tries with which France had been at war. Napoleon now restored
order in France. He again established the Christian religion and thus
won the support of the Pope. A commissioner codified the laws of
France, and the Code Napoleon later became the basis of civil law in
many countries of Europe.
IMPERIALISM AND FALL oF. NApoLeon. In 1804 Napoleon became
emperor. The many republics that had sprung up were changed to
kingdoms, only Switzerland remaining free. Europe dreaded Na-
poleon, and coalition after coalition was formed against him. From
1804 to 1815 the struggle went on. The battles of Austerlitz and
Jena made Napoleon supreme and left Prussia prostrate. The Em-
peror of Austria was forced to surrender the crown of the Holy
Roman Empire. Some of the German states then formed the Con-
federation of the Rhine under Napoleon’s protection. By 1811 Na-
poleon had created a world empire. Only Russia remained to op-
pose him. In 1812 he invaded that country to capture Moscow and
dictate an European peace, but the Russians, aided by the climate,
defeated him. Russia, Prussia, England and Sweden now put an
army in the field and in 1813 the world Battle of Leipsic made Ger-
many free. Wellington defeated the French in Spain, and in 1814
the allies entered France. Napoleon abdicated and was banished to
the Island of Elba. The throne of France was given to the late
King’s brother, who ruled as Louis XVIII. The boundaries of
France were restricted to those of 1791. In 1815 Napoleon returned
to France, but was defeated by the English and Prussians at Wa-
terloo. He was sent as a prisoner to St. Helena, where he died in 1821.
RUSSIA
1801-1825—Alexander |
During the Napole-
onic wars Alexander
entered into several co-
alitions with other
European powers
against France, and in|
1812 Napoleon invaded
Russia with a superb
army of 400,000 men.
He defeated the Rus-
sians in several battles
and then entered Mos-
cow, which the Rus-
sians had abandoned.
Soon after his entry a]
fire broke out which
destroyed the city. In
the latter part of Oc- |}
tober Napoleon began
his retreat. The wea-
ther was severe, and
cold and hunger and
the attacks of the Cos-
sacks thinned the ranks ]]
of the French army.
Only 80,000 of the en-
tire army returned. In
1813 the Russians aid- |
ed the coalition in the
Battle of Leipsic, and
in 1814 they entered
France with the allies.
TERRITORIAL GAINS,
During the reign of
Alexander I Russia}
added Finland, Poland, |
Bessarabia and a part
of the Caucasus to her
dominions.
The Congress of Vienna obi
In 1814 a congress of the powers of Europe met at Vienna to reconstruct the map of Europe. |
Their labors were for a time interrupted by Napoleon’s return to France from Elba. The
following were the most important political and territorial readjustments made by the Congress:
Switzerland was guaranteed its independence.
Denmark was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden.
CON DUB ON Es
of Saxony and other German districts.
Holland with the addition of Belgium became the Kingdom of Netherlands,
The independent German states were united in a loose federal union.
Poland was reconstructed and united in a personal union with Russia.
Austria lost territory in central Europe, but received Venice in exchange for Belgium. }|
The Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and Genoa was added to it.
Prussia lost the Duchy of Warsaw, Slav territory difficult to organize, but gained half
Interest was to center in the last three arrangements, for by them Austria’s despotic power
was weakened, Sardinia was to become a nucleus for the union of Italy, and Prussia, now
extending down into the heart of Germany, was to make possible the organization of the}|
‘1German Empire.
ENGLAND
Growth of Democracy
CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION
Act. This enabled Catholics
to hold any office to which
they were elected.
Only one out of every ten
adult males in England, Scot-
land and Ireland could vote.
Many cities had no representa-
tion in Parliament.
THE Rerorm Bit oF 1832.
This abolished 56 “rotten bor-
oughs”’ and created 43 new
boroughs to include the large
manufacturing cities, and ex-
tended suffrage rights to all
|who owned or rented a house
worth $50 in rent a year.
OTHER Acts. An act of 1833
ifreed all slaves in British do-
minions. A factory act reg-
mated the labor of children in
tactories. The Municipal Re-
form Act put the control of
the government in each city
land borough in the hands of
the people.
THe Corn Laws. In 1848
the tariff on wheat was re-
moved; by 1852 all protective
tariffs had been removed, and
‘England has since that time
been a free-trade country.
THE CrimMEAN War. Russia
declared war against Turkey in
} 1853, In 1854 England, fear-
ing that Russia’s success might
endanger her route to India,
joined France in a war against
Russia, It virtually became a
war to preserve the integrity
FRANCE
1814-1830—Louis XVIII and
Charles X
The King issued a charter
which gave France a fair de-
gree of self-government. Louis’
brother became king in 1824
as Charles X. He joined the
Holy Alliance and introduced
many reactionary measures.
REVOLUTION oF 1830. In 1830
Paris broke out in open re-
volt against the government.
A provisional government was
formed with the aged Lafay-
ette at the head, and Louis
Philippe became king.
1830-1848—Louis Philippe
Louis Philippe agreed to
abide by the new constitution
and thus the Divine Right of
Kings came to an end. The
right of franchise was given
to every one who paid $40 in
taxes.
REVOLUTION oF 1848. Louis
Philippe opposed the reforms
of the liberal party. An up-
rising in Paris in 1848 re-
sulted in the abdication of the
King, The provisional gov-
ernment declared France to be
a republic and it established
manhood suffrage. Under the
new constitution Louis Napo-
leon was chosen president.
1852-1870—Louis Napoleon
By a coup d Etat Louis in
1851 proposed a new govern-
ment and was elected president
for ten years. Then by an al-
most unanimous vote he was
chosen “Emperor of the French
by the Grace of God and the
Will of the People.”
He joined England and Tur-
key in a war against Russia in
of Turkey. At Balaklava the] 1954
English “Light Brigade’ made
their memorable charge, Rus-
sia was defeated in the war.
In 1859 Napoleon began a
war against Austria to free
Italy, but an unexpected peace,
after several French victories,
left Italy at the mercy of Aus-
tria.
The Emperor favored the
cause of the Southern Confed-
eracy in the United States, and
in 1863, despite the Monroe
Doctrine, made Maximilian
Emperor of Mexico.
Louis Napoleon, though he
suppressed liberty, encouraged
popular education. During his
reign the industries of France
flourished and wealth accumu-
lated.
ITALY
The Kingdom of Italy
The Congress of Vi-
enna left Italy “merely a
geographical expression.”
After the flight of Met-
ternich Venice and Mi-
lan set up republics and
drove the Austrian
troops out of northern
Italy. The other Austri-
an states were granted
constitutions. The _ re-
publics in northern Italy
appealed to Charles Al-
bert, King of Sardinia,
for aid. Charles Albert
responded, but in his ef-
forts to free Italy he
found himself unsup-
ported by any states ex-
cept Milan and Venice.
He was defeated and ab-
dicated in favor of his
son.
re So EE ay
VicToR EMMANUEL AND CA-
vour. Victor Emmanuel, the
soldier, and Cavour, the states-
man, were to find means for
unifying Italy. Cavour insti-
tuted many reforms in the
kingdom. In 1854 he sent a
small but well-organized army
to help the allies in the Crim-
ean War.
AUSTRO-SARDINIAN War. As
a result of this war Lombardy
was added to Sardinia.
THE Two SiciLies Join SArR-
DINIA, In 1860 Garibaldi freed
the two Sicilies, and the people
voted to join Sardinia.
EMMANUEL BECOMES KING
or Itaty, 1861. In 1861 the
first Italian Parliament met at
Turin and the Kingdom of
Italy was a reality. Cavour’s
Aiea ss proved success-
ul.
VENETIA ADDED TO THE KING-
pom, 1866. Italy joined Prus-
sia in the war against Austria
and added Venetia to the Ital-
ian Kingdom.
GERMANY AND AUSTRIA
The German Confederation
The Congress of Vienna recognized 38 independent German states.
To repel invasion these were organized into a very loose confed-
eracy. Austria and Prussia were the leading states, but Austria
exercised a sort of presidency over the league.
Poticy oF METTERNICH. Metternich, the Austrian statesman and
reactionist, was afraid that in a real German Empire Prussia might
take the lead. With the states practically independent Austria could
hope to ‘dominate affairs. By the aid of the Holy Alliance Metter-
nich stifled liberalism in Germany. The Revolution of 1830 sent a
chill throughout Europe. But demonstrations against the govern-
ments in the German Confederacy were promptly put down. France
however, was lost to the Holy Alliance. In 1833, Austria, Russia
and Prussia, under the direction of Metternich, again united to sup-
press revolutionary uprisings.
THE REVOLUTION oF 1848. As a result of the risings in March, 1848,
following the Revolution in France, the German states granted their
sebjects new constitutions, and old feudal privileges disappeared.
Metternich fled. Hungary and Austria were granted constitutional |
liberties. A national assembly met at Frankfort to draft a consti-
tution for United Germany. But reactionary forces were soon at
work, The Czar helped Francis Joseph put down the Hungarians,
who had proclaimed their independence under Kossuth. Charles
Albert, King of Sardinia, tried to free Italy, but he was crushed by
the Austrian armies. Frederick William IV lost faith in the liberal
cause, so nothing came of the Frankfort Assembly. A Prussian
league was formed and war with Austria seemed imminent. In 1850
King William submitted to Austria and the German Confederation
upon the basis of 1815. The King of Prussia, however, granted his
people a constitution and feudalism disappeared forever from Ger-
many.
1861—William I of Prussia
William I was a conservative but he favored German unity. Bis-
marck, his minister, governed in an arbitrary way and built up a
modern army. “Blood and iron,” he declared, would succeed in ex-
pelling Austria from the league. .
Tue DanisH War, 1864. Bismarck induced Austria to join Prus-
sia in a war against Denmark. After a gallant fight the Danes were
defeated and Denmark was compelled to cede Schleswig-Holstein to
Prussia and Austria.
Tue SEVEN Weeks’ War Wirt Austria, 1866. In June, 1866,
war was declared between Austria and Prussia. All the states in
the German Confederation except a few small ones in the north
sided with Austria. On July 4, 1866, the Austrian army was de-
feated at Sadowa. Prussia annexed several of the northern states,
including Schleswig-Holstein, and then organized the North German
Confederation.
RUSSIA
UR EGS pimp |
THE Hoty ALLIANCE.
In 1815 Alexander or-
ganized the Holy Alli-
ance, a league entered
into by Russia, Austria
and Prussia, to main-
tain religion, justice
and order in Europe,
but the Alliance was
soon used in crushing
uprisings for political
freedom.
1825-1855—Nicholas I
REVOLUTION IN Po-
LAND, 1830. In 1830 an
uprising in Poland was
crushed by Russia, and
Poland was made a
part of Russia,
THE SLAVOPHILS.
About 1840 the Slavo-
phil movement began.
It has continued to the
present time. This has
for its purpose the Rus-
sianizing of all prov-
inces and dependencies |
and the stamping out
of all liberal tendencies
in government and re- |
ligion.
THE CRIMEAN WaAR.
In 1854 France and]
England declared war
against Russia to pre-
vent the dismember-
ment of Turkey. Rus-
sia was defeated.
eo eo eee
EMANCIPATION OFTHE |}
Serrs. In 1861 Alex-
ander II issued the
edict of emancipation.
The landlords were
paid an indemnity to
release the serfs from
bondage.
ENGLAND
Growth of Democracy—Con-
tinued
Rerorm Bitits oF 1876 AND
1884. The passage of these
measures assured the right of
suffrage to all self-supporting
men, and England became a
true democracy.
Tue Home Rute Bits. In
1886 Gladstone introduced a
measure granting Home Rule
to Ireland, but it was defeated.
In 1893 he again introduced
such a bill. It passed the
House of Commons but it was
defeated in the House of
Lords.
Tue Lasortnc CLAssEs, La-
bor legislation has made rapid
progress since 1890, By means
of the various Allotment Acts
the land is gradually being re-
stored to the peasantry.
Tue Borer War. In 1899 in
a war with the Transvaal and
Orange Free State, the Boers,
after a gallant resistance, were
overthrown, and the two re-
publics became a part of the
English possessions in Africa.
CoLonies. England has over
1100 colonies and dependencies.
|Australia, New Zealand, In-
dia, South Africa, Newfound-
‘land and Canada are the most
important. Of these, India is
a royal colony; the others ex-
ercise the power of self-gov-
ernment, except in their rela-
tions with foreign nations. In
1867 the Canadian provinces
formed a confederation, and in
1901 the five Australian col-
onies and the Island of Tas-
mania formed the Common-
wealth of Australia. The con-
stitution of the Australian
Confederation is more demo-
cratic than that of the United
States. In May, 1910, the col-
onies of the Cape of Good
Hope, Natal, the Transvaal and
the Orange River formed the
Union of South Africa.
Woritp War. As a result of
the World War Great Britain
formally annexed Egypt and
the Anglo-Egypti 1 Sudan. Un-
der the guise of Mandate rule,
her territory has been vastly
increased since most of the
German colonies pass under
her control as well as the Turk-
ish provinces in Mesopotamia,
FRANCE
Louis Napoleon—Continued
FRANCO-GERMAN War. To
strengthen his government at
home Napoleon began the war
against Prussia which resulted
in the loss of Alsace and Lor-
raine,
The Third Republic
In 1871 the Paris mob set up
a second Reign of Terror.
Order was finally restored and
the Third Republic was estab--
lished. In 18 months France
paid $1,000,000,000 war indem-
nity and the Prussian army
left France.
FRENCH COLONIES, ALGIERS
AND TuNIs. Though both pos-
sessions have a good climate
and soil, and are in close prox-
imity to France, very few
French settle in these coun-
tries. France is not a coloni-
zing nation. Thisis largely due
to the fact that the birth rate
has. been steadily declining for
many years.
ALLIANCES. In 1882 Italy
joined Germany and Austria in
the Triple Alliance and thus
completely isolated France in
Europe. In 1891 France made
an alliance with Russia. In
1904 France entered into a
friendly agreement. with Eng-
land which is destined to keep
the countries on friendly terms.
STATE AND CuurcH. Nearly
80 per cent of the people are
Catholic. The differences be-
tween the State and Church
caused serious disturbances.
In 1905 the Separation Act
provided for complete separa-
tion of Church and State. It
guaranteed liberty of con-
science and freedom of public
worship.
Wortp War. France suffered
terribly in the World War of
1914, a large part of northeast-
ern France was devastated. Her
Cities ani towns were burned;
her mines and _ industries
wrecked, her fruitful fields
made a desert. She regained,
however, her for er provinces
of Alsace-Lorraine rich in iron
deposits which will soon make
her a gieat manufacturing na-
tion.
we ne
The Kingdom of Italy—Con.
tinued
Rome JoInep To THE KiNG-
pom. In 1870 the French troops
were withdrawn from Rome,
which became the capital of
United Italy.
ITALY AND THE CHURCH, In
1871 Parliament passed a bill
which provided for the separa-
tion of the Church and the
State, guaranteed the spiritual |
independence of the _ pontiff
and allowed him $600,000 a
year, which, however, has
never been claimed.
DEATH oF Victor EMMANUEL
AND Pius IX.. In 1878 Victor
Emmanuel, the heroic figure in}
the struggle for nationalism,
died. In the same year Pius
IX also passed away. ~The
Pope’s kindliness of heart and
his love for the people made
him popular with the masses
an his death was mourned by
all.
FRANCHISE Rerorm. In 1881
suffrage was extended to all
men able to read and write.
Tue Tripre ALLIANCE. In
1882 Italy entered into an al-
liance with Germany and Aus-]
tria.
Tue Finances, The financial
condition’ of Italy after 1860
was deplorable. Though the
ministers exercised “economy
to the bone” they were finally
compelled to resort to the ob-
noxious “grist tax,” a tax on
grinding wheat.
revenues of the government
for the first time equaled the)
expenditures and there was no
deficit. By 1884, due to the
removal of the grist’ tax com-
bined with increased govern-
mental expenditures for rail-]
road construction and public
works, the annual deficit again
set in. By 1900 the public
debt had reached the enormous
sum of $2,500,000,000.
Wortp War. As a result of
the World War “Italia Irre-
Sgt Pee,
In 1876 the}]
RPE REE RG SS
ite
ws
=
dentia” or the former provinces|}
of Italy under Austrian rule,—
Italian Tyrol, the area around
Triest and portions of the East]
Adriatic coast became a part
of Italy.
11King William of Prussia became Em-
AUSTRIA-
HUNGARY
Enfeebled by the
Seven Weeks’ War,
Austria was compelled
GERMANY
The German Empire
Franco-GERMAN War. The rivalry
between France and Germany culmi-|1, grart complete au-
nated in the war of 1870. Napoleon|tonomy to Hungary.
was doubtless influenced by dynastic] Austria-Hungary was
considerations, but the war was ex-loften called the poly-
ceedingly “welcome to Prussia, in fact,jglot nation because by
it might have been averted, had notjthe political develop-
Bismarck deliberately altered the sense/ment of previous cen-
of a friendly telegram from King Wil-|turies the original Aus-
liam to the French Ambassador so as|T!@ a heey had
to give offense to France, knowing this(Xtence¢ their sway
over the territory of
pear to war, a result he ardently neighboring Slavonic
esired.
people and held them
The result was a great defeat forjin an unwilling union.
France. In addition to paying a huge/The ruling people in
indemnity, the Rhine provinces of Al-|Austria, the Germans,
sace and Lorraine were wrested fromjmade every effort to
her. The enthusiastic heat of this|Germanize such o
great victory welded i.to one compact these people as formed
: ri ermanic states and|* Patt of Austria. They
empire the various G endeavored to make
wea them Austrian in lan-
peror William I of Germany. guage, culture and na-
Prrtop oF THE Empire. No nation ever|tional ideals, and for
4
made more rapid progress in the ele-|this purpose enacted
ments of national greatness than that ex-;|many oppressive laws.
perienced in Germany during the period|The ruling class in
Hungary, the Magyars,
were not behind Aus-
tria in this respect.
Thus the Dual Em-
pire was. structurally
weak. It was in un-
stable equilibrium. The
World War was the
of the empire, especially during the
thirty years’ reign of William II (1888-
1918). It was the Golden Age of Ger-
man industrial life. The Empire be-
came a great manufacturing nation. Her
foreign trade increased four fold. She
became a great colonial power. She was
second in rank among the naval powers]. ¢4. against which this
of the world, and her army was the most|inwieldy shin of state
powerful military machine ever organ-|dashed and the Dual
ized. Empire went to pieces.
Tue Repustic. But the principles of/Hungary resumed its
government on which the empire rested|independence; while the
were those of medieval times, not in|Subject Slavic people
tune with present day ideals, and the severed the political
government was essentially autocratic in ety that bound ‘yes a
form. It became a glaring example of ei eg tig rae
A A ; ae ve hand, and Hungary on
a nation in which militarism was Shela mera tnctead: of
ideal of the leaders. The military caste/ihe Dual Empire of
and the ruling house began to dream oflearlier years we have
world dominion and the virus of this|now a group of inde-
poison speedily. infected the fountains|pendent nations of
of national life. The result was the|which Austria and
World War, the downfall of the empire,|Hungary are minor
and the rise of a republic in its stead, representatives. The
former subject people
of the Dual Empire,
with the territory they
inhabited are divided
among Poland, Czecho-
Slovakia, Roumania,
Jugo-Slavia, and Italy.
RUSSIA
Pan StavisM. The activities
of Russia in Europe during re-
cent decades were due to the
strength of the Pan-Slavic
movement, that is to say, the
feeling of racial unity among
all the Slavic people of Central
and Southeastern Europe with
which of course Russia sym-
pathized and which impelled
her to come to the assistance
of other Slavic people. This
feeling was at the bottom of
the Russo-Turkish war of
1877-8, which resulted in the
Slavic nations of Roumania
and Bulgaria gaining their in-
dependence from Turkish mis-
rule, and increase of Russian
dominion in Asia. Finally it
was the strength of this move-
ment that impelled Russia to
enter the World War of 1914
as an ally of Serbia.
THE RusstAN REVOLUTION.
The one great outstanding fact
in Russian history during re-
cent years is the bloody tri-
umph of the Revolutionary
movement which like a smould-
ering fire had at uncertain in-
tervals blazed forth, then
thought to be extinguished, but
in secret burned on until the
political and social fabric of
government fe’ in ruins in the
spring of 1917. It was a
phase of development assum-
ing a bloody form in Russia,
as it had in France, but which
in one form or another every
European people known to his-
tory passed through, since it
was an inevitable accompani-
ment of the evolution from
tribal to political government,
a change never fully made in
Russia. Advantage was taken
of the deplorable conditions in
Russia resulting from _ the
World War to bring to a con-
clusion the revolutionary move-
ment, The Czar was deposed
March 17, 1917, and the most
revolutionary form of govern-
ment ever known came into
power, a process attended with
some disintegration of territory
in European Russia, resulting
in the independence of Finland
and the organization of border
states from the Gulf of Fin-
land south.
\
WORLD WAR
The World Wat of 1914 in which the majority of the nations of Europe were actively en-|
gaged was one of those great events in history, the full importance of which only the future
will disclose. It was not only the greatest of all wars, but the political changes it effected, the
far deeper and more significant social changes it seems destined to effect and which may extend .
to the warp and woof of organized society, render it the most important of all wars. --It was]}
an epoch-making war, but few, the equals of which, are known in history. From it we shall}}
date ‘a new age in the culture history of Europe, of the entire world.
CHANGES IN EurRoPEAN GOVERNMENTS. When the war began 63 per cent of Europe was in-
cluded in the governments of three autocratic nations, at the heads of which were three ruling
houses which for the thousand years preceding had swayed the destinies of Europe, each feeling }}
that it was Divinely commissioned to rule, each secretly despising whatever constitutional lim-
its had been placed on its personal rule. These three nations were Russia, Germany and Aus-
tria-Hungary; the ruling houses of which were (respectively) the Romanoff, the Hohenzollern
and the Hapsburg.
When the war ended, these empires had passed away, in their stead were a number of na-
tions of uncertain government,—Germany, Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, Austria, and Hungary.
Jugo-Slavia is a country, the government of which is hard to define since it is a confederation
THE HISTORY OF SOME SMALL STATES SINCE 1815
Sweden and Norway
SWEDEN AND Norway A DuaAt Monarcny IN 1814. In 1814 the Diet of Eidvold adopted a {j
constitution and elected a king. But Norway had been taken from Denmark by the Con-
gress of Vienna and given to Sweden because Denmark had aided Napoleon, and Sweden
resolved to enforce her claims. A compromise, however, was agreed upon by Norway and
Sweden. Sweden recognized the new and liberal constitution of Norway on condition that
the Norwegian Diet would ask for the abdication of the King of Norway, and elect, in his
place, the Swedish king, who was to rule jointly over Sweden and Norway. The dual monarchy
constituted a loose union, for Norway kept its constitution and its legislature, the Storthing.
In 1884 the Storthing, backed by a unanimous vote of the people, demanded of King Oscar
of Sweden the right to regulate all internal affairs of Norway and to appoint separate consuls.
The aristocracy of Sweden opposed these demands.
INDEPENDENCE OF Norway. Manhood suffrage had been introduced in Norway in 1898 and
soon after a political party sprang up urging complete separation of their country from Sweden.
In 1905 the Storthing passed an act dissolving the union and providing for an independent pro-
visional government. Both countries now prepared for war. But King Oscar was determined
that the two Scandinavian peoples should not go to war, and so, when by a referendum vote
the Norwegians declared unanimously in favor of independence, he urged a peaceful separa-
tion. In 1906 the people of Norway chose as their king, Charles, a Danish prince, who
assumed the name Haakon. In October, 1906, the coronation of Haakon VII and Queen Maud,
a daughter of Edward VII of England, took place. Norway was the first country of Europe
that gave women the right to vote for members of Parliament.
Holland and Belgium
Beteium. The Congress of Vienna joined Belgium to Holland. In 1830 Belgium, with the
assistance of France and England, gained its independence. In 1893 a suffrage act was passed
giving to each man from one to three votes, the number depending on his age, wealth and
whether he is at the head of a family. The public schools are under the control of the Church.
As in England, the ministers constitute the government, and the king can act only through his
ministers. In 1908 the Congo Free State in Africa, which King Leopold had by will bequeathed
to Belgium, was formally annexed by Belgium, and a new colonial law was passed intended
to remedy the deplorable conditions in regard to the government of the African state.
Hottanp. About two-thirds of the people of Holland are Protestants, the rest are Catholics.
In 1896 a suffrage law gave the right to vote to all Dutchmen over 25 years of age who paid
a small direct tax. It is virtually manhood suffrage. The country is in a prosperous condition.
iSpain and Portugal
SPAIN. Isabella II became queen in 1843. Her reign was characterized by many court scan-
dals in which the Queen was involved. After the revolution of 1868 Isabella fled to France,
and the crown was offered to several princes. At last a son of Victor Emmanuel accepted
the crown and tried honestly to improve conditions. In 1873 he voluntarily resigned,
Sat =< ie
After the resignation of the King a republic was established with Castelar as president,||
but the Spanish people could not appreciate republican institutions. Anarchy and crime be-
came so common that Castelar felt obliged to proclaim himself dictator during a recess of the
WORLD WAR
of a number of essentially republican states under the hegemony of Serbia, itself a constitutional
kingdom. Russia is still harder to define since it is an experiment,—the only one ever known—
of a Soviet republic. A confederacy of a number of republican states may succeed it; or pos-
sibly several of these potential republics may be entirely independent new comers among the
nations of the world.
But autocracy has definitely passed away. The dynasty of the Romanoffs has ended in blood, |
Ithe head of the House of Hohenzollern, and that of the Hapsburg are in exile. It does not
seem possible that scions of these ancient houses will ever again be called to rule in Europe,
but if they do they will be strictly constitutional rulers. "At present there is not a grand duke,
or duke or prince exercising authority in the former territory of these nations. Luxemburg is
the only duchy that has survived the storm.
Possible social and economic changes, affecting every strata of society, possibly organized gov-
ernment as well, loom portentously on the horizon of Europe, of our own country, of the civil-
ized world,—as a result of this war. But all should wait with confidence the future knowing
that evolution does not go backward and that out of seeming ills will come forth good. We
should see in the great unrest in Europe—in the world, the birth pangs of a new age.
THE HISTORY OF SOME SMALL STATES SINCE 1815
‘{|Cortes. He used the army in checking lawlessness and disorder. When the Cortes reassembled,
Castelar, disgusted with his office, promptly resigned.
In 1874 Spain offered the crown to Alfonso XII, the son of Isabella II, and monarchy was
again introduced. In 1876 Spain secured her first real constitution. Under Alfonso-local self- |
government was granted the people and many reforms were introduced.
THE CuBAN Question. The Cuban colonists revolted again and again. Finally Spain sent |
iGeneral Weyler to restore order. He was merciless in stamping out the rebellion. In 1898 the |
United States interfered in behalf of downtrodden Cuba and declared war against Spain. The
Spanish fleet in Manila Bay was destroyed by Admiral Dewey, and another fleet under Cervera
which had been sent to Cuba from Spain was utterly destroyed by admirals Sampson and |]
Schley at Santiago. Peace was then made. Spain declared Cuba free and ceded the Philippine
Islands to the United States upon the payment of $20,000,000.
In 1902 Alfonso XIII, son of Alfonso XII, was crowned king. Spain is now devoting her
energies in developing the resources of the land and in educating her people.
PortucaL. In 1807 the French seized Portugal and the King fled to Brazil, the greatest of ]|
the possessions of Portugal. England then came to the assistance of Portugal and the French
were driven from the country.
In 1901 manhood suffrage, with slight restrictions, was introduced, and the veto power of
the sovereign greatly reduced. King Carlos was a spendthrift and it was charged that he was
guilty of complicity in financial scandals. In February, 1908, he and the Crown Prince were
assassinated. Prince Manuel then ascended the throne as Manuel IJ, but in 1910 during an |
uprising against the government he fled to England. A republic was then proclaimed.
Switzerland
In 1815 the Swiss cantons were joined in a loose confederation. By the constitution of 1848
a federal government was organized with centralized power and Switzerland became a nation. |
Since 1848 all amendments to the constitution must be submitted to popular vote, and since 1874
all federal laws upon the petition of 30,000 voters must be submitted to popular vote. In 1891
the initiative was introduced, according to which any 50,000 citizens can frame a law which
the Federal Congress must then submit to the people. Thus the Swiss established the prin-
ciple of direct legislation. Switzerland has no illiterates. The people are very prosperous.
The Balkan States
In 1815 southeastern Europe was a part of the Turkish Empire. In 1828 Greece gained its |
independence. After many revolts of the Slavonic nations, most of which Turkey put_down }}
with incredible ferocity, Servia, Bulgaria, Roumania and Montenegro, with the aid of Russia, |
became independent. In 1912 Bulgaria, Servia, Greece and Montenegro began a _war to com-
plete the emancipation of their Christian brethren and to drive the Turk out of Europe, The
allies defeated the Turkish armies and were ready to attack Constantinople when the western
‘European powers intervened. An armistice resulted in failure. The war was renewed, and by
1913 the Turks were totally defeated. During the World War Turkey and Bulgaria, choos-
ing to aid Germany,- were defeated and lost much of their territory.
—_
—— 2 merengue oe aN
HITCHCOCK
Hitch’cock, Edward (1793-1864), an
American geologist, born in Massachu-
setts. He was chosen professor of chem-
istry and natural history in Amherst
College, where he afterwards became
president, with the chair of natural the-
ology and geology. One of the foremost
geologists of the United States, Hitch-
cock was first president of the American
Geological Society, which originated
from his suggestion. He wrote Geology
of Massachusetts, Religion of Geology
and its Connected Sciences, Religious
Truth, Illustrated from Science and Re-
ligious Lectures on Peculiar Phenomena
of the Four Seasons.
Hitchcock, Ethan Allen (1835-1909),
an American statesman, born in Mobile,
Ala. He was appointed minister to Rus-
sia in 1897, and the next year was made
secretary of the interior. During his
term of office Hitchcock won national
fame by his fearless exposure of the
frauds connected with securing public
lands and his successful prosecution of
the leading perpetrators of these frauds,
some of whom were public officials of
high standing. He resigned in 1907 and
died two years later.
Hitchcock, Frank Harris (1869- )>
an American lawyer and statesman, born
at Amherst, Ohio, and educated at Har-
vard and George Washington universi-
ties. He was admitted to the bar of the
District of Columbia in 1894 and ad-
mitted to practice in the United States
Supreme Court in 1897. He has held
many important public posts, among
which are assistant postmaster-general
under Roosevelt and postmaster-general
in Taft’s cabinet from 1909 to 1913, and
chairman of the Republican National
Committee. During his administration
as postmaster-general, postal savings
banks and the parcel-post service were
instituted.
Hit’tites, the name applied to a
group of nations of Old Testament his-
tory, and also found in Egyptian and
Assyrian inscriptions. The Hittites of
the Old Testament seem to be divided
into three groups: the children of Heth,
from whom Abraham purchased a bury-
HOANGHO
ing place (Gen. xxiti) ; the Hittites whe
inhabited Palestine previous to its oc-
cupation by the Israelites; and those
who dwelt in northeastern Syria, and
with whom Solomon formed marriage
alliances.
in some sort of an empire, and figure
more prominently in Egyptian and As-
syrian than in Bible records. Hiero-
glyphic inscriptions recount their vigor-
ous resistance to several Egyptian mon-
archs, while cuneiform inscriptions
mention a people called Hatti, who were
in frequent conflict with the Assyrians
from the time of Tiglath-Pileser I to
that of Sargon II (about 1100 By C.-
721 B. C.).. Many Hittite monuments
and inscriptions have been found in
Syria, at. Carchemish,’; Hamathwanam
neighboring places; and throughout
Asia Minor.
Hives, or Nettle Rash, a disease
which appears as an eruption on the
skin, usually in patches. It occurs first
in the form of small, white, rounded
elevations accompanied by an itching
sensation. Scratching acts as an irritant,
causing the parts affected to turn red.
The disturbance may be brought on by
contact with stinging nettles or by indi-
gestion caused by eating fresh pork, fish —
or certain fruits. Inflammation may be
reduced by a solution of baking soda
applied locally.
Hoangho, Hwahng' ho’, or Hwangho,
a river in China, next to the Yangtse-
kiang the largest in the country. It rises
in a marshy plain in Tibet and flows
eastward in an unusually winding course,
crosses the Great Wall into Mongolia,
continues east to the western boundary
of Shansi, a Chinese province, then
south, and, after winding eastward once
more, empties into the Gulf of Pechili.
The course undergoes frequent changes,
and inundations occur continually as a
result of the large amount of sediment
which it carries. Because of the disas-
ters caused by this overflowing, it has
been called “China’s sorrow.” Its total
length is over 2500 m. The principal
tributaries are the Taoho, the Tatungho
and the Weiho.
1356
The third group were united
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ge Ee SES
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R
=
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ee EE Se ES ST ae ee
a
HOAR
Hoar, George Frisbie (1826-1904),
an American statesman, born in Con-
cord, Mass. He graduated at Harvard
in 1846, was admitted to the bar and
began practice at Worcester, Mass. In
1852 he became a member of the State
Legislature, served in the lower branch
of Congress from 1869 to 1877, and in
the Senate from the latter year until his
death. He served on the electoral com-
mission in 1877, and on many impor-
tant committees in Congress, and exer-
cised great influence over national leg-
islation.
Ho’bart, the capital of Tasmania,
situated on the Derwent River, at the
foot of the lofty Mt. Wellington. The
prominent buildings include the St.
Mary’s Roman Catholic Cathedral, the
Baptist Tabernacle, the Government
House, the House of Parliament, the
University of Tasmania, the town hall,
the national art gallery and the museum.
It is a regular port of call for Austra-
lian lines and has a large export and im-
port trade. Fruit is exported to Sydney
and London. Other products include
grain, hops, timber and wool. Among
important industries are saw and flour
milling, brewing, tanning, iron founding
and the manufacture of soap, hats, bar-
rels, pottery and woolen goods. Hobart
has long been a favorite summer resort.
Population in 1901, including the sub-
urbs, 34,182. ©
Hobbema, Hob’ e mah, Meindert
(1638-1709), a Dutch landscape painter
of unknown origin. His subjects are
quiet and restful, being secluded wood-
lands, peaceful waysides, streams and
water mills. His pictures are flooded
with golden light; the atmosphere is
transparent, the color warm, the space
infinite; his trees are of special charm,
of great variety and individuality. The
largest and best collection of his works
is in the National Gallery, London,
which contains the well-known Avenue
Near Middelharnis, Holland. Famous
also are Ruins of Breberode Castle and
Landscape View in Holland, the latter
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York.
HOBOKEN
Hobbes, Hobz, Thomas (1588-1679),
an English philosopher, one of the first
great English writers on government.
His most remarkable work, Leviathan,
was published in 1651, and it advocated
pure and unrestrained monarchy as the
best form of government. Hobbes con-
tended that such a government was a
contract between the sovereign and the
people, who were moved by the desire
to escape from all the evils of a state of
nature, which is a state of war. This
has probably given more offense than
any other political theory ever pro-
pounded.
Hobkirk’s Hill, Battle of.
DEN, BATTLES OF.
Ho’boken, N. J., a city of Hudson
Co., opposite New York City, directly
north and east of Jersey City on the
west bank of the Hudson River, and
the eastern terminus of the West Shore,
the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
and other railroads. Hoboken is con-
nected with New York by steam ferries
and by two subway lines through tun-
nels under the river. Electric railways
also connect with the towns and cities
of northeastern New Jersey. The prin-
cipal streets of the city run nearly par-
allel with the river, and its miles of
water front give excellent shipping fa-
cilities. The piers of the North German
Lloyd, the Hamburg-American, the Hol-
land-American and the Scandinavian
steamship lines are located here. The
city, which covers ari area of about one
square mile, lies at the base of the Pali-
sades, which rise on the north and west
to a height of 200 ft.
Parks, BOULEVARDS AND BUILDINGS.
Hoboken contains 26 m. of well- -paved
streets and boulevards. Castle Point
See CAM-
‘in the northeast rises from the gener-
ally low level to about 100 ft. Hudson
Park contains a soldiers’ monument;
and Church Square Park, a firemen’s
monument. Palisades Park was laid out
in 1911 and will ultimately reach along
the west bank of the Hudson River for
50 m. Among the public buildings are
the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
Railroad Station, city hall, Federal
1357
HOCKEY
Building, banks, substantial business
blocks and many fine church edifices.
InstT1ITuTIONS. The educational insti-
tutions include the Stevens Institute of
Technology, the high school, Hoboken
Academy, Sacred Heart Academy, a
public library and nine public schools.
St. Mary’s Hospital is a well-equipped
institution.
InpustriEs. Hoboken has an exten-
sive trade in every known commodity,
especially in coal, and is one of the
principal points from which New York
and its shipping are supplied. The city
is an important industrial center and
contains automobile works, foundries
and machine shops, silk mills, wall-pa-
per mills, chemical works, lumber mills
and manufactories of lead pencils,
leather goods and caskets. There are
also large yards for shipbuilding and re-
pairing.
History. The land upon which Ho-
boken is located once formed a part
of the territory of New Netherland.
The place was early known as Hopog-
han Hackingh, “the land of the tobacco
pipe.” In 1711 title was acquired to the
place by Samuel Bayard, Jr., a New
York merchant. During the Revolution-
ary War his descendant, William Bay-
ard, was a Loyalist, and his home was
burned and estate confiscated. Col. John
Stevens purchased the property in 1784
and in 1804 laid it out as a town. Ho-
boken was incorporated as a town in
1849 and as a city in 1855. Population
in 1920, U. S. Census, 68,166.
Hock’ey, a game imperfectly organ-
ized except in England, its original
home, and there played under definite
rules only since 1883. In the United
States it is commonly called shinny. It
requires a space perhaps 200 ft. wide
and 300 or 400 ft. long; and is common-
ly played by any number of persons, di-
vided into approximately equal teams.
A single small ball is laid down in the
center of the field. Two players, one
from each side, stand facing each other
with their shinny sticks against oppo-
site sides of the ball. At a given signal
each raises his stick and endeavors to hit
HOFER
the ball so as to drive it toward his op-
ponent’s goal line, all other players of
each team having already formed in long
lines of defense. As soon as the ball is
in play, the teams scatter over the field
and a rough and tumble contest ensues,
which continues until the ball is driven
over one or the other of the goal lines.
Wherever and whenever there is good
skating, ice hockey is now almost cer-
tain to be in vogue. The Hockey Asso-
ciation of Canada organized this game
under definite rules about 1887; and it
has since become a favorite winter sport
for many college and local associations
both in the United States and Canada,
and intercollegiate contests are a feature
of the winter season.
Hodg’ins, John George (1821-1912),
a Canadian author and public official,
born in Dublin, Ireland, and educated
at Victoria and Toronto universities.
He served successively as chief clerk of
the department of education, Upper
Canada, secretary of the provincial
board of education, Ontario, deputy su-
perintendent of education, deputy min-
ister of education and librarian and his-
toriographer, all of Ontario. In 1904 he
became historiographer alone. He ed-
ited the Upper Canadian Journal of Ed-
ucation for 30 years and was a pioneer in
school-book literature in Canada.
Hoe, Richard March (1812-1886), an
American inventor and manufacturer,
born in New York City. He worked
with his father in the manufacture of
printing materials and in 1832 succeeded
to the management of the business, In
1837 a trip to England afforded him op-
portunity of observing advanced presses
and enabled him to make great improve-
ments in printing machines. Nine years
later, in 1846, he patented the rotary
printing press. With his brothers, Rob-
ert and Peter, he continued to manufac-
ture presses for many years, meanwhile,
with their aid, inventing the web-per-
fecting press, now generally used in the
printing of newspapers. See NEwspa-
PER; PRINTING PRESS.
Ho’fer, Andreas (1767-1810), a pa-
triotic leader of the Tyrolese. When 29
1358
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Zi
hyo
$a
HOFMANN
he led a body of his countrymen against
the French, and in 1809 headed an in-
surrection which temporarily liberated
his country from the yoke of Napoleon.
He acted as head of the government un-
til deserted by the Austrians, when the
French made a third invasion and the
Tyrol was conquered. Hofer was be-
trayed to the enemy, was condemned by
Napoleon and shot.
Hof’mann, Josef (1877- );-a Bok
ish pianist, born at Cracow. His father
was director of the Warsaw Opera and
a professor in the Warsaw Conserva-
tory, and the son was early given mu-
sical training. In his sixth year he be-
gan appearing in public at recitals and
was_immediately famous. After study-
ing for two years under Rubenstein,
Hofmann reappeared in public in 1894
and has since delighted audiences in all
countries. His visits to the United
States have been enthusiastically her-
alded and most favorably received. Hof-
mann has composed many selections for
the piano and a well-known concerto in
B flat.
Hog, the representative species of
the Swine Family, and known, through
domestication, in all but the coldest cli-
mates. The many breeds which are
raised upon the great stock farms of the
United States are all descendants of the
wild hog, or boar, and retain many of
the characteristics of the original spe-
cies. Like them they have large and
rounding heads,’ with long, flexible
snouts of soft cartilage, which end in a
fiattened disk, bearing the nostrils; with
this snout whole fields may be plowed
up as the animals search for truffles,
roots and buried nuts. The eyes and
ears of the hog are small, the body broad
but often long, the legs short and com-
pleted by four toes, upon the middle two
of which the animal walks. The tail is
short and thin and in many species is
tightly curled. The color of the hog is
creamy yellow, black or black-spotted ;
in wild hogs the young, called pigs, have
tawny spots which disappear as the ani-
mal grows older.
The occupation of hog raising is an
HOHENSTAUFEN
cMnOreine branch of agriculture in the
United States; the flesh of the hog is of
excellent flavor and, since it takes salt
readily, is one of the best packed meats.
The fat of the hog is manufactured into
lard, the bristles into brushes, and the
skin is of use in bookbinding. See MEAT
PACKING.
Contrary to common belief, hogs are |
intelligent animals, and are occasionally
trained for performances in the circus
ring. In European countries they are
used to locate truffles, which are com-
pletely buried underground, and in some
instances, to point game, a sport in which
some varieties are adept. See TRUFFLE.
Ho’garth, William (1697-1764), the
great English painter, was born in Lon-
don, the son of a schoolmaster. He he-
gan his artistic training as an apprentice
to a silver-plate engraver. Later he
opened a shop of his own, where he en-
graved coats of arms, bookplates and
other illustrations. The works of Ho-
garth are clever satires on society and
caricatures of prominent personages of
his day, and he executed with a brush
what Dickens and Thackeray depicted
with a pen. Hogarth was the earliest,
most original and one of the greatest of
the entire British School of Painting.
The most characteristic of his works
are The Enraged Musician, The Dis-
tressed Poet and Marnage a la Mode.
Hogg, James Stephens (1851-1906),
an American lawyer, born near Rusk,
Tex. His first public office was that of
justice of the peace in Wood County,
and he advanced through the successive
offices of county attorney (1878-1880),
district attorney (1880-1886) and attor-
ney-general (1886-1890) to that of gov-
ernor of the state (1890-1895). After
retiring from public office he continued
the practice of law, and was in demand
as a popular speaker until the time of his
death.
Hohenstaufen, Ho” en shtouw’ fen, a
German dynasty, which ruled the em-
pire from 1138 to 1254. The family de-
rived its name from a castle, the ruins
of which may still be seen on the left
bank of the Danube, a few miles below
1359
HOHENZOLLERN
Stuttgart. The first of the house to come
to the throne of Germany was Conrad
III, and the succeeding emperors were
Frederick I, who was known as Barba-
rossa, Henry VI, Philip 1, Frederick II
and Conrad IV.
Hohenzollern, Ho” entsol'ern, the
name of a dynastic House in Europe. Its
origin was not unlike that of the other
great house in German history, the
House of Hapsburg. They originated in
the same way—petty chieftains—in the
same section of Europe, only about one
hundred miles separated them. But the
House of Hapsburg had long been a
leading figure in German history before
the House of Hohenzollern became at
all prominent. It was a Hapsburg who
created a Hohenzollern Margrave of
Brandenburg in 1411. The considera-
tion was a sordid one,—the emperor
pawned the margravate as security for a
loan. See Prussia.
Hokusai, Ho’ koo sah” e, (1760-1849),
a Japanese artist, the son of a maker of
metal mirrors in Honjo. His life was
full of adventure, beginning when he left
home at the age of 13 to apprentice him-
self as an engraver. He worked at his
trade for five years and then became a
pupil of a famous designer, who soon
expelled him from his school for his
persistence in ignoring the standards of
art of the day. Hokusai was by turns a
peddler, illustrator and teacher. In the
latter profession, which he adopted in
1810, he was immediately successful,
and the number of his pupils became so
great that he was forced to learn wood
engraving to keep.them supplied with
models. From this arose his album en-
titled Ten Thousand Sketches and his A
Hundred Views of Fuyjisan.
Holbein, Hole’ bine, Hans, the Elder
(about 1460-1524), a German. painter,
born at Augsburg of a family of paint-
ers. The work of his earlier years is of
the Flemish School and is less pleasing
than his later pictures, which show the
influence of Italian art. Holbein’s ear-
lier portraits, although in ready demand,
are now less valued, but his drawings
show a pleasing lightness of touch and
2 Wore b2s | i ie
toad) RD ‘
-
‘ HOLDEN
delicacy of execution that is also marked
in the work of his son. Influenced by
Italian art, Holbein’s later pictures have
less artificiality, more attention to anat-
omy and a more pleasing display of
color, drapery and form. The last years
of the artist’s life were marked--with
financial difficulties. Holbein’s _ best-
known pictures are: those in the Cathe-
dral at Augsburg, portraying scenes
from the life of the Virgin; scenes from
the Passion in the Dominican Church at
Frankfort-on-the-Main; the Fount of
Life, now in the gallery at Lisbon; St.
Sebastian and St. Katharine in the gal-
lery at Augsburg; and scenes from the
Passion, in the Munich Gallery.
Holbein, Hans, the Younger (about
1497-1543), a German painter, the son
of Hans Holbein mentioned above. His
earliest training was received at the
hands of his father, but when 18 years
of age he went to Basel, where he
worked illustrating books. Here he also
began painting portraits, and his work
became sufficiently well known to cause
him to be called to Lucerne for two —
years’ work in designing and decorating.
After his return to Basel, where he re-
mained until 1526, he painted many no-
table pictures. From 1526 to 1528 he was
in England at the court of Henry VIII,
and there painted portraits of many dis-
tinguished persons. With the exception
of four years, 1528 to 1532, spent in
Basel, Holbein passed the remainder of
his life in England, where he became one
of the foremost of the world’s portrait
painters. Aside from portraits, his
Dance of Death and The Ambassadors
are his most celebrated works. Among
his portraits are those of Henry VIII,
Anne of Cleves, Erasmus, Thomas
More, Lady Jane Seymour and the
Duke of Norfolk. Holbein was also a
master of wood engraving and was
among the first to paint portraits in min-
iature.
Holden, Hole’ den, Edward Singleton
1846-1914), an American astronomer,
born in St. Louis, Mo., and educated at
Washington University and the United
States Military Academy, where from —
1360 ,
HOLIDAY .
1873 to 1881 he was professor of math-
ematics. For the next four years he was
director of the Washburn Observatory
at Madison, Wis. Later he became pres-
ident of the University of California
and director of the Lick Observatory.
Among his works are Index Catalogue
— of Nebule, Wntings of Sir William
, Herschel, Earth and S ky and Essays im
pS: Astronomy.
Holiday, originally, holy day. This
is a day set apart as an anniversary of
_ some religious event, or for commemo-
_ rating some national or state event of
f great importance. Religious holidays
m are fixed by the Church» and differ
among different denominations, though
all Christian denominations are prac-
_. tically uniform in celebrating Christmas
' and Easter. In the United States legal
e holidays are fixed by Congress if na-
_ tional, and by the Legislatures of the
4 different states if local. The national
' holidays in the United States are Labor
' Day, Thanksgiving, Christmas, New
-* Year’s and Fourth of July. On legal
holidays banks are closed because they
. cannot legally transact business.
: Holland. See NETHERLANDS.
; Hol’land, Josiah Gilbert (1819-1881),
: an American editor and author, born in
Belchertown, Mass. He studied medi-
cine at the Berkshire Medical College,
- but his first years of practice at Spring-
| field, Mass., were not successful. After
| teaching school for a short time he was
assistant editor of the Springfield Re-
publican. In 1870 he was one of the
_ founders of Scribner's Monihly and be-
came its editor, remaining in that posi-
_ tion when it was changed to the Cen-
tury and until his death. His early
__writings were published under the name
-* of Timothy Titcomb. He wrote moral
- verse, faithful descriptions of pictur-
esque village life in New York, novels,
essays, history and biography.
works include: the novels, Miss Gilbert's
Career and Arthur Bonnicastle; the po-
ems, Bittersweet, Kathrina and Gar-
nered Sheaves; and Letters to Young
People, Plain Talk on Famihar Subjects
and Life of Lincoln.
~
His
HOLLYHOCK
Holland, Mich., a city of Ottawa Co.,
26 m. s. w. of Grand Rapids and 80 m.
w. of Lansing, at the head of Black
Lake, an arm of Lake Michigan} and on
the Pere Marquette and M. Elec. rail-
roads. Holland has a good harbor, direct
communication by steamship with Chica-
go, Milwaukee and other ports, and is an
important trading and manufacturing
center. The industries include the manu-
facture of furniture, beet sugar, wood-
working machinery, tubs, baskets, flour,
pickles, electric launches and furnaces
and veneer ; there are also tanneries, plan-
ing mills, creameries and grain eleva-
tors. Holland is the seat of Hope Col-
lege, and of the Western Theological
Seminary, both controlled by the Re-
formed Church of America. It has sev-
eral fine buildings and a public library.
The city was settled in 1847 by a Dutch
colony. It was chartered as a city in
1867. Population in 1920, 12,183. ;
Hol’ly, a tree or shrub of the Holly
Family, having thick, stiff leaves whose
broad, concave scallops are separated
by sharp, rigid points. These leaves,
though not always evergreen, generally
retain their shining bright color through-
out the winter. The flowers appear early
in the summer and may be single or in
clusters but are always white in color.
The fruit is a bright red berry contain-
ing from two to six one-seeded nuts.
The European holly is one of the most
ornamental of European shrubs; the
American species has duller leaves and
less brilliant berries, but is also very dec-
orative. It grows from southern New
England south and is common in Ten-
nessee and Arkansas. .
On account of the great contrast of
the evergreen leaves and red berries in
the winter, the holly is sacred to winter
festivities and is the symbol of the
Christmas season. Its leaves are the em-
blem of forethought because of the pro-
tection given to the buds by the defen-
sive thorns.
Hol’lyhock, a tall garden plant of
the Mallow Family, brought from Syria.
The leaves are rough and deeply-veined
and have five or seven lobes. The flow-
1361
HOLMES
ers are attached by short stems to a tall
spike upon which the lower buds open
first. They are three to five inches
broad and of all shades of red, yellow,
blue and white; their time of blooming
is the late summer and autumn. Holly-
hocks are favorite old-fashioned flowers
and are cultivated in gardens in single
or double varieties.
Holmes, Homez, Oliver Wendell
(1809-1894), an American poet, essayist
and physician, born at Cambridge, Mass.
The year 1809 was lavish in its gifts, be-
stowing on the world not only Holmes,
but Gladstone, Tennyson, Darwin and
Abraham Lincoln. In later years Holmes
spoke with pride of his lineage. Abiel
Holmes, his father, a Calvinist minister,
graduate of Yale and author of a his-
tory, was descended from one of the
early inhabitants of Woodstock, Conn.
Through his mother, Sarah Wendell, he
could trace his descent from Anne Brad-
street and his relationship to the orator
Wendell Phillips, the poet Richard
Henry Dana and-the clergyman Dr.
Channing. His father had hopes of ed-
ucating young Oliver for the ministry,
but the stern theology preached by the
orthodox Abiel Holmes and his friends
was far from attractive to the lively
fun-loving boy, who wrote in after years
that some of his father’s clerical visit-
ors, with their sad looks and woebegone
ways, did more to wunchristianize him
than their sermons were apt to accom-
plish in the other direction. Of his early
schooling it is recorded that he behaved
himself and made good progress. At the
age of 15 he was sent to Phillips Acad-
emy at Andover, and in the following
year, 1825, entered Harvard College. The
famous “class of 729,” of which he was
a member, bore on its roll the names of
several illustrious men, and has received
further renown by the lyrics Holmes
wrote for the anniversary dinners held
in after years.
PHYSICIAN AND TEACHER. On leay-
ing college Holmes studied law for a
year. During this time he wrote his first
successful poem, Old Ironsides, which
_-was inspired by the order for the de-
HOLMES —
struction of the historic, old war frigate,
the Constitution. ‘The stirring lines of
this poem created such an outburst of
national indignation that the old boat
was saved, and may be seen today in the
Charlestown navy yard. Regarding the
law as merely an experiment, Holmes
next took up the study of mediciné at a
private school. The need of more thor-
ough instruction induced his parents to
send him to Paris in 1833 to study un-
der the famous French physicians and
surgeons. While in France he worked
with praiseworthy diligence, beginning
his practice in Boston in 1835. Holmes’s
brilliant social qualities proved a_ hin-
drance to his success as a physician, as
the Bostonians seemed to feel that so _
witty a doctor was not a trustworthy
person to care for their bodies. His
prospects were brightened, however, by
prizes awarded him for professional pa-
pers and his appointment as professor of
anatomy at Dartmouth College in 1838,
a position which he held for two years.
In 1840 he married Miss Amelia Lee
Jackson, a lady of charming character.
Their eldest son, Oliver Wendell Holmes,
Jr., was in 1902 appointed an associate
justice of the United States Supreme
Court. In 1847 Dr. Holmes became pro-
fessor of anatomy and physiology at the
Harvard University Medical School,
where his duties were so varied that he
made the statement that he occupied “not
a chair, but a settee in the school.” His
lectures were so witty and stimulating
that the last period of the day was al-
lotted to him, a tribute to his ability to
keep the students awake after a series
of difficult lectures. He held his Har-
vard position for 35 years, a source of
great pleasure and pride to him.
LiTERARY ACHIEVEMENT. Several vol-
umes of verse, published in 1836, 1846,
1849 and 1850, gave Holmes a reputa- ©
tion as a poet, but he did not produce —
the works by which he is best known |
until 1857, the year of the founding o
the famous Atlantic Monthly. Throu
the influence of his good friend’ Ja
Russell Lowell, Holmes was invited to
contribute to this magazine, and its first
1362
HOLMES
number contained the opening paper of
The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table
series. The success of these original and
witty essays was so decisive that their
author was launched on a new career
immediately. On the conclusion of the
Autocrat series the Professor took the
chair at the breakfast table (1859). In
these essays Holmes wrote as he talked
at the Saturday Club dinners, where he
was admitted to be the most entertain-
ing among a group of such charming
talkers as Emerson, Longfellow, Whit-
tier, Lowell, Sumner, Agassiz and Mot- |
ley. A third series of essays, The Poet
at the Breakfast Table, appeared in 1872.
Holmes wrote poetry from time to
time throughout his literary career, be-
ing unusually gifted as the poet of spe-
cial occasions. While much of his verse
was of merely temporary interest, he
wrote a few poems of enduring value,
among them The Chambered Nautilus,
The Living Temple, The Voiceless, The
Last Leaf and The Iron Gate. Such po-
ems as The One Hoss Shay and Parson
Turell’s Legacy take: high rank as ex-
amples of humorous verse. In 1861 he
wrote his first and best novel, Elsie
Venner, followed in 1867 by The Guar-
dian Angel, and in 1885 appeared a
third, A Mortal Antipathy. All of these
novels are studies in hereditary tenden-
cies. This versatile and cheery author
also attempted biography, producing in
1878 a life of his close friend, the histo-
rian Motley, and in 1884 a life of Em-
erson. In 1886 he made a trip to Eng-
land, where he was received with great
enthusiasm, becoming the recipient of
honorary degrees from the universities
of Cambridge, Oxford and Edinburgh.
His last important work, Over the Tea-
Cups, of the same character as the Break-
fast Table papers, appeared in 1890,
when he was 81 years of age.
PERSONAL AND LITERARY QUALITIES.
The writings of Holmes express most
clearly his genial and kindly nature. The
wit and humor that brighten his essays
and poems give his readers the same
sort of entertainment that was enjoyed
by those who listened to his brilliant con-
HOLY FAMILY
versation. Yet Holmes was more than an
apostle of good cheer. He was always
courageously outspoken against vice and
superstition, and his serious lyrics re-
veal the depth of his feeling for the true
and the beautiful in life. His achieve-
ments in poetry were less notable than
those of Longfellow, Lowell or Whit-
tier, but as the creator of a new type of
prose Holmes must take high rank in the
list of American men of letters.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr. (1841-
), an American jurist, born at Bos-
ton, Mass. His father was the distin-
guished author of the same name. Judge
Holmes studied at Harvard, graduating
from the law school there. He served
two years in the Civil War, then began
the practice of law in Boston. While
practicing law in Boston he edited the
American Law Review. Judge Holmes
accepted the chair of law in Harvard
Law School in 1882, in which year he
also became associate justice of the Mas-
sachusetts Supreme Court, being made
chief justice 17 years later. He was ap-
pointed associate justice of the Supreme
Court of the United States in 1902.
Holmgren Test for Color Blindness.
See CoLtor, THEORY OF.
Holy Alli’ance, a league between Al-
exander I of Russia, Francis II of Aus-
tria and Frederick William III of Prus-
sia, formed in September, 1815. It de-
clared that in accordance with the teach-
ings of Jesus Christ the principles of
justice, charity and peace should control
the domestic policy and international re-
lations of rulers, and that their great
object would be the religious welfare
and happiness of their subjects. How-
ever, the real object of the Alliance was
to maintain the power of the rulers of
Europe against the rising tide of democ-
racy. Metternich, the Austrian minis-
ter, was its chief supporter. The design
of the Alliance respecting Russian colo-
nization in North America in 1823 was
one of the causes for the promulgation
of the Monroe Doctrine by the Ameri-
can Government.
Holy Family, in art, the name given
to the group composed of the Virgin,
1363
HOLY GRAIL
the Infant Jesus and accompanying fig-
ures. The earliest representation of such
a group is in the Catacomb of St. Calix-
tus, Rome, representing the Virgin and
Child and the Prophet Isaiah. The tra-
ditional arrangement was the seated Ma-
donna, with the Child on her lap, both
figures gazing out at the spectator, the
Infant with hand upraised in an atti-
tude of blessing. Variations of this com-
position were introduced later; the Vir-
gin’s seat became a throne; angels were
grouped about; emblems of the Passion
were added. Late in the Middle Ages,
St. Anna, the mother of the Virgin, St.
Catharine, St. Joseph and St. John, and
sometimes the Twelve Apostles, found
place in the group. The Madonna and
the Child have been one of the favorite
themes of modern artists. Giovanni Bel-
lini, Filippo Lippi, Perugino, Raphael
and Andrea del Sarto are among those
who have treated the subject with great-
est skill.
Holy Grail, The.
Hoty,
Holyoke, Hole’ yoke, Mass., a city of
Hampden Co., 8 m. n. of Springfield
and 104 m. s.w. of Boston, on the Con-
necticut River and the -Boston & Maine
railroads. Interurban railways connect
it with the near-by town and cities. The
city contains many fine public buildings,
which include the City Hospital, Holyoke
Day Nursery, Library, Masonic Temple,
YeMo Ce AL Yow. GoAVandeNonatuck
Hotel, House of Providence Hospital,
two orphanages—St. Vincent’s for girls,
and Holy Family for boys. Within easy
reach of Holyoke are three of the most
famous colleges of the country—Am-
herst, Mt. Holyoke and Smith.
Extensive water power is furnished
by a dam across the Connecticut. For
many years Holyoke has been noted for
the number and magnitude of its paper
mills, which earned for it the title of
the “Paper City.” The paper industry is
one of the largest in the world. There
' are also extensive manufactories of cot-
ton, silk and woolen goods, cutlery, ma-
chinery, files, writing paper, blank books,
sash and blinds, tools, automobiles, bi-
See GRAIL, THE
- HOMEOPATHY
cycles, bits, thread, pumps, knit goods,
belting, screws, bricks, furniture and
school supplies.
Holyoke has many points of scenic in-
terest, notably Mt. Tom and Mt. Hol-
yoke, which are ascended by electric
railways. There is also an extensive
state reservation. Population in 1920,
60,203.
Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Ro-
man Empire dates from the crowning of
Charlemagne in 800 A. D. as the suc-
cessor of the Roman emperors. When
Otto the Great was crowned by the Pope
in 962, the name Roman was used for
the first time, and in 1152 Frederick
Barbarossa used the term Holy. From
his time the name Holy Roman Empire
was used to: designate all the lands un-
der the control of the German sover-
eigns, and at different times the empire
included Germany, Italy, Denmark, Hun-
gary, Poland, Cyprus and Jérusalem.
The Hohenstaufen line of emperors had
some claim to imperial control, but for
centuries the title was an empty name.
In 1806 Francis II gave up the title
of Holy Roman Emperor and the name
became extinct. See GERMANY, sub-
head History.
Holyrood, the royal palace of the |
Scottish sovereigns. It was originally
an abbey built by David I in 1128, on
the spot where his life was saved by a
miraculous rood or cross which came
between him and a pursuing stag. It
was rebuilt by Charles II between 1671
and 1679.
Homeopathy, Ho” me op’ a thy, a sys-
tem of medicine, opposed to allopathy
and founded upon the belief that the
chemical substance which causes a dis-
ease will cure it. The principles were
first formulated by Dr. Samuel Hahne-
mann of Leipsic, and consisted in “test-
ing” a drug by noting the symptoms
shown by healthy persons taking it, then
applying that drug to a diseased person
showing the same symptoms. At first
the system also included the treatment
by a single, very large dose, but this
Hahnemann soon changed, and advo- —
cated giving minimum doses and as often
1364 '
rae
HOMER
as required. The system from the first
has met strenuous opposition, but it has
a large following in the United States,
where there are at present about 15,000
homeopathic physicians and 18 colleges.
See MEDICINE,
Ho’mer, the great epic poet of
Greece. Because of the obscurity sur-
rounding his name and existence, the
word Homer has come to be applied to
the whole of the early epic poetry of
Greece, on the assumption that no single
individual bearing that name ever ex-
isted. He is, however, generally rec-
ognized as the poet who shaped the /liad
and the Odyssey, the two great epics of
Greek and world literature. According
to Herodotus he lived about 850 B. C.;
later authorities place him variously in
the tenth and the eleventh centuries.
There are eight extant lives of Homer,
and these present widely divergent facts
concerning his life. Some say his name
is derived from the Greek word for
hostage, and make him a hostage in
youth; others, that his name is a dia-
lectic word for blind, as he is said early
to have lost his sight. He is thought to
have wandered around from town to
town in Asia Minor, earning his bread
by reciting his poetry or by teaching.
Wr hermay have: been:a’ singer inva
royal house of the Homeric age. The
lines
“Seven cities claimed the mighty Homer
dead,
Where living Homer begged his daily
bread,”
have grown proverbial. Since there is
no authentic external testimony to prove
the time and place of Homer’s life or
of the writing of his verses, internal
evidence from the poems can alone be
resorted to, and even this yields only
meager definite results.
He represents the first name in Euro-
pean literature. It is unknown whether
or not the poems ascribed to him were
written during his lifetime, though a
few facts point weakly to the supposi-
tion that they were. The Jliad (See
Iu1ap) and the Odyssey, are masterly
products of a mind given to thinking
HOMER
in concrete terms and possessing to an
extraordinary degree the power of de-
tailed and vivid description. There is
nothing subjective about his work; his
accounts are a faithful mirror of the
external world. He presents detailed
descriptions of the most ordinary events
in the daily life of the Greek; hence
we come to know through him more in-
timately the life of the Homeric man
than that of any other primitive people.
Matthew Arnold in an illuminating com-
mentary on his style has once for all
pointed out the four qualities that make
for enduring recognition. He finds it
(1) rapid; (2) plain and direct in the
evolution of thought and in his expres-
sion of it; (3) plain and direct m the
substance of his thought, that is, in mat-
ter and ideas; and (4) eminently noble.
The nobility of his work rests on its
very simplicity. The feelings he describes
are primitive, and he never stops to ana-
lyze or refine. His interest is purely
dramatic. Witness his Odyssey, wherein
he describes, in 24 books, the extraor-
dinary experiences of Odysseus after the
ten years’ siege of Troy, who was con-
strained to wander ten solitary years
longer, patiently yearning to see the
rocky Isle of Ithaca. The poet’s inter-
est here is in a broad and sweeping pic-
ture of human action and feeling, that
may lack unity but never forceful direct-
ness or a marvelous power of picturing
a multitude of things. He cares little
for themes like political questions, race
antipathies or matters of religion, but
transcends them in his greater vision and
nobler purport. His influence on con-
temporary and subsequent literature was
extraordinary. To the Greeks he has
been the Bible itself. Men began te
copy his literary excellencies immediate-:
ly, and parallelisms to his style and
thought run through the centuries of lit-
erature that followed. Even today the
great gods which he celebrated are
known chiefly through the medium of:
his art, and as such continue to live in
the poetry and sculpture that are prod-
ucts of our own age. Consult Jebb, /n-
troduction to Homer.
1365
HOMER
Homer, Winslow (1836-1910), one
of the leading artists in America at the
beginning of the 20th century, born in
Boston, After working in a lithogra-
pher’s shop and contributing sketches to
magazines, he entered the National Acad-
emy of Design as a pupil. In 1859 he
removed to New York, and during the
Civil War was artist and correspondent
for Harpers Weekly. His first impor-
tant picture, Prisoners from the Front,
was exhibited in 1864. The Maine Coast
is probably his masterpiece.
Home Rule, a measure which passed
the British Parliament in 1914 providing
for the government of Ireland. This bill
was the result of nearly a half-century of
agitation by the Irish to secure the right
to legislate concerning affairs pertaining
only to Ireland. The measure was first
advocated by the Irish Nationalists in
1870. The first Irish home rule bill was
introduced into the House of Commons
by Gladstone in 1886 and was defeated.
The second bill, also introduced by Glad-
stone in 1893, was passed by the House
of Commons but defeated by the House
of Lords.
In 1909 the Irish Nationalists and the
Liberals formed an alliance, by which the
former agreed to support the budget and
other government measures on the un-
derstanding that a Home Rule bill was
to be passed.
In 1911 Parliament passed an act en-
abling a bill to become a law without
the consent of the House of Lords pro-
vided it passed the House of Commons
three times and was signed by the King.
The Home Rule bill passed in 1914 be-
came a law by virtue of this bill, having
been passed by the House of Commons
three times and defeated successively in
the House of Lords.
The measure grants and provides for
an Irish Parliament consisting of a Sen-
ate of 40 members and a House of Com-
mons of 164 members. The powers of
this body are restricted to legislation per-
taining to Ireland.
Strenuous opposition to Home Rule
developed in Ulster because the residents
of this province believed the measure to
HOMESTEAD
be unfavorable to their commercial and
religious interests. For a time Civil War
seemed imminent but Parliament made —
provision whereby each county might de-
cide by vote whether or not it would
come under the operation of the Home
Rule act for the first six years after it
went into force. Upon the breaking out
of the European War, however, the
operation of the bill was suspended for
one year.
Home’stead, in law an estate in land,
used as a home by the tenant or owner,
and to a greater or less extent protected
by law from the claims of creditors.
This exemption right is a modern privi-
lege created by statute and was unknown
to the common law. The homestead laws
are of two classes, those enacted by Con-
gress and those enacted by the state
Legislatures. The primary object of the
first class is to enable citizens without
capital to acquire homes. The object of
the second class is to secure homes, once
acquired, against the claims of creditors.
The Federal Homestead Laws begin
with the act passed in 1862, now a part
of the United States Revised Statutes.
Their policy is to give portions of the
public lands to those who will settle,
cultivate and make homes upon them.
Any person who is the head of a family
or who is 21 years of age and is a citizen
of the United States, or who has filed
his declaration to become such, may ac-
quire a tract of 160 acres of land, on
condition of settlement, cultivation and
continuous occupancy for five years and
of the payment of certain moderate fees.
Under the provisions of these laws more
than 85,000,000 acres of unoccupied pub-
lic lands have been transferred by the
United States to homestead settlers, and
most of the public land available has
been occupied.
State legislation provides three meth-
ods by which a homestead may be se-
cured against the debts of its owner.
The first is by prescribed form of public
notice; the second, by actual occupancy
and use; and the third, by a proceeding
in a court of justice. The amount of
land which may be exempted under the
1366
HOMESTEAD
_ Homestead Laws varies in the different
states. In some the limits are those
of acreage, in others those of cash value.
See LANnps, PUBLIC.
Homestead, Pa., a city of Allegheny
Co., 7 m. s.e. of Pittsburgh, of which
city it is a suburb, on the Monongahela
River and on the Pittsburgh & Lake
Erie and the Pennsylvania railroads.
Homestead has one of the largest steel
plants in the United States, employing
about 7000 men, and producing both
structural and nickel-steel armor plate.
The borough has also manufactories of
fire brick, glass, machinery and other
articles. It was settled in 1871 and in-
corporated in 1880. Population in 1920,
U. S. Census, 20,452.
Hondu’ras. See CENTRAL AMERICA.
Honey, Hun’ ny, a sweet, liquid, trans-
parent vegetable food product made by
bees from the nectar of flowers and
deposited by them in the cells of their
honeycomb as a food for themselves and
their young. When produced by young
bees, it is called virgin honey, and is
much whiter, purer and better than that
made by old bees. Honey derives its
flavor largely from the plants from
which the bees collect it. Honey forms
not only a valuable, healthful food, but
it is also used largely in medicine as a
laxative and as an expectorant in cough
remedies. Honey is generally sold as
_a liquid, after being extracted from the
honeycomb, although much of it is mar-
keted in the comb. Honey is adulterated
chiefly with glucose and cane sugar. See
BEE; GLUCOSE.
Honeybee. See BEE, subhead Honey-
bee. .
Honey Locust, a large tree of the
Pea, or Pulse, Family, found occasion-
ally in forests but attaining its greatest
growth when isolated. It then has a
broad, rounded top and drooping, lat-
eral branches, which make it easily rec-
ognized. The bark of the locust is made
up of thin scales closely pressed to the
trunk. The leaves have many tiny, oval
leaflets, and at the base of each leafstalk
is a long, shiny, brown thorn. The flow-
ers, which are green and rich in honey,
HONGKONG
produce long, curly pods that are so thin
as to disclose the position of every tiny
seed contained within. The honey locust
is found in central United States, and
its wood, which is strong and. durable,
is used in making posts and railway ties.
The mesquite is also called the honey
locust. See MESQUITE.
Honeysuckle, a name given to a num-
ber of shrubs and herbs of the Honey-
suckle Fam- .
ily. The true
honeysuckles
have twining,
woody stems
with leaves
cenenaliy
evergreen, the
upper pairs
being united
about the
stems. The
flower has a
long red or
yellow tube
with five
i | short lobes,
HONEYSUCKLE as: inset ie
trumpet hon-
eysuckle, or two white or purple lips, one
broad and one narrow, as in the Euro-
pean honeysuckle. Several wild species
are also found which have smooth leaves,
white, scentless flowers and more bushy
stems. The fruit is a red berry. The
fly honeysuckles are upright bushes, with
leaves never united and with a pair of
flowers on a stem. These flowers ripen
into two berries, which are often united.
The Tartarian fly honeysuckle is most
common. in cultivation, as its pinkish
flowers are profuse and showy in the
spring. There are wild species having
yellow flowers and round-lobed leaves.
These have red or purple berries. The
wild columbine is sometimes wrongly
called wild honeysuckle.
Hong’kong’, a British island posses-
sion, separated from the southeast coast
of China by the narrow channel known
as Ly-e-Mun (Carpfish Pass). It is
10% m. long and contains an area of
29 sq. m. The outline of the. island is
1367
HONOLULU
very irregular, and its surface consists
of bald ranges of irregular granite hills
between which wind bleak and dreary
valleys. Victoria Park, the highest point,
is 1825 ft. above sea level. Victoria, the
capital and largest city, is situated on a
beautiful bay along the north shore. It
contains the Anglican and Roman cathe-
drals, the city hall, Queen’s College, the
Government House, the Clock Tower,
the large business houses and ware-
houses. The products of the island are
oranges, pears, mangoes, lichens and
building stone.
merce are flour, ivory, mercury, opium,
betel, amber, wools, salt, cotton and su-
gar. Among the industries are granite
quarrying, sugar refining, tanning, cotton
spinning and weaving, ship and boat
building, rope making, wood and ivory
carving and gold beating
Hongkong is a free port.. It was
made a separate colony in 1843, and
since 1857 has no longer been under the
control of the minister-plenipotentiary
to China, but has had its own governor
and council., Population of the island
in 1906, 326,961.
Hon”olu’lu, the capital city of the
Hawaiian Islands, situated on the south
coast of Oahu and forming one of the
great ports of the Pacific. The pleasant
climate has always made Honolulu: an
attractive residence city, and as it was
originally well laid out, it has been easily
kept beautiful. Much attention has been
given streets, squares and public gardens,
and the favorable climate has made veg-
etation luxuriant. Among the interest-
ing buildings are the large government
buildings, the former royal palace, a
public library, a museum, schools and
several excellent hospitals. The numer-
ous schools and colleges make the city
an educational center for the islands.
The industries are represented by the
great warehouses, the wharves, with fa-
cilities for the largest vessels, the foun-
dries and the manufactories of iron and
ice. Steamship service unites the city with
San Francisco and other Pacific ports.
The newspapers of the city are published
in English, Hawaiian, Japanese and
The articles of com-_
HOOD
Chinese. Population in 1920, U. S. Cont
sus, 83,327.
Hood, John Bell (1831-1879), an
American soldier, born in Owingsville, ~
Ky., and educated at West Point.
1861 he entered the Confederate sery-
ice.
em
a
In
I
He commanded the largest division ©
of Longstreet’s corps at Gettysburg, and —
lost a leg at Chickamauga.
ant-general he served with Johnston in
the Atlanta campaign, superseding him
in command in July, 1864, and in ac-
cordance with his instructions to draw
Sherman out of Georgia, immediately
marched northward into Tennessee. His
army was almost annihilated at Frank-
lin and Nashville, and he was relieved
of command, at his own request, in Jan-
uary, 1865.
Hood, Robin, in English legends, a
hero outlaw, first mentioned in the sec-
ond edition of Piers the Plowman, about
1377. He was variously represented: as
the last of the Saxons, resisting Nor-
man encroachment; as a follower of
Simon de Montfort; as the insurgent
Earl of Lancaster; or as one Robert
Locksley, a manslayer. His comrades
were principally Lieutenant Little John,
Chaplain Friar Tuck, William Scathlock,
George-a-Green, Much and Maid Ma-
rian. With these he was supposed: to
dwell in Sherwood Forest, in Notting-
hamshire, and in woods of Barnsdale,
in West Riding. Robin Hood, as the
people’s ideal, was a yeoman, a brave,
jocular sportsman and an especially apt
As lieuten- —
archer, who gave to the poor what he
stole from the rich.
Hood, Thomas (1799-1845), an Eng-
lish poet and humorist, born in London.
In 1821 he became editor of the Lon-
don Magazine, and in 1830 began the
publication of the Comic Annual, in
which appeared some of his most hu- |
morous, whimsical productions. He lived —
in Coblenz, Germany, from 1835 to 1840.
After his return to London he was the —
editor of the New Monthly Magazine,
and later established Hood's Magazine.
His fondness for punning became a se- —
rious fault, but in his better moments —
his wit and intermingling of comedy
1368
3
HOODED SEAL
and pathos were admirable. On a bed
of sickness which became his deathbed,
he wrote the incomparable Bridge of
Sighs and Song of the Shirt. He touched
on the great human and social interests
of his time, his pictures of poverty and
toil emphasizing the need for immediate
relief. Other works are Hero and
Leander, Eugene Aram’s Dream and
Ode to Melancholy.
Hooded Seal.. See SEAL.
Hoog’ly River. See Hucri River.
Hooker, Joseph (1814-1879), an
American soldier, born in Hadley, Mass.,
and educated at West Point. He re-
signed from the army in 1858 and en-
gaged in private business in California
until May, 1861. He was then appointed
brigadier-general of volunteers and was
assigned to the Army of the Potomac,
in which he became popularly known as
“Fighting Joe’° Hooker. He _ distin-
guished “himself during the Peninsula
Campaign, at South Mountain and at
Antietam, where he was severely wound-
ed, and soon after was appointed briga-
dier-general in the regular army. Sub-
sequently he was division commander
at Fredericksburg, and in January, 1863,
succeeded General Burnside in command
of the Army of the Potomac. However,
after a crushing defeat at Chancellors-
ville (See CHANCELLORSVILLE, BATTLE
OF), he was superseded by General
Meade, at his own request. Then join-
ing Rosecrans, Hooker distinguished
himself in the “Battle Above the Clouds”
(Lookout Mountain), being thereupon
brevetted major-general in the regular
army, and with Sherman did efficient
work in the Atlanta campaign of 1864.
Hooker, Richard (about 1553-1600),
an illustrious English theologian, born
at Exeter. Through the influence of
Bishop Jewel of Salisbury, he was sent
to Oxford when about 15. In 1582 he
took holy orders, and soon plunged into
that controversy with Puritanism which
caused him to write his great work, The
Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. Four of
its eight books appeared in 1594 and
the last three after his death. It pre-
sents Hooker’s theory of the origin of
‘ HOOKWORM
government and its bearing on the
Church,
Church.
Hooker, Thomas (about 1586-1647),
an American colonist and clergyman,
born in Leicestershire, England. He was
educated at Cambridge, and entered the
ministry in London. In 1633 he came
to New England and settled in Cam-
bridge. In 1636 he and his congrega-
tion removed to the Connecticut Valley,
and established a settlement at Hartford.
In 1639 he had a conference with John
Winthrop regarding the formation of
the New England Confederation as a
means of defense against the French and
Indians. This conference resulted in the
adoption of the Fundamental Orders,
which became effective the same year
and formed the first of any kind of con-
stitution in this country. Hooker was
the author of An Exposition of the
Principles of Religion, The Soule’s In-
grafting Into Christ and The Saini’s
Guide. See CONNECTICUT, FUNDAMEN-
TAL ORDERS OF.
Hook’worm”, a microscopic, cylin-
drical worm so named because of the
sharp, strong hooks in the mouth. There
are several species, all of which are
parasites, some upon man and some upon
cattle. Those attacking man are the
cause of a serious disease variously
known as hookworm disease, miners’
anzmia, tunnel disease, brickmakers’
disease and Egyptian chlorosis. The
worms are small white objects from
one-half to three-fourths of an inch long
and having about the same circumfer-
ence as No. 8 cotton thread. They enter
the body upon unclean foods, such as
lettuce, celery, onions, strawberries, rad-
ishes, etc., that have been grown in pol-
luted soil or treated with infected fer-
tilizer, or they crawl through the skin
of the feet of a person walking bare-
foot or wearing leaky shoes on damp,
polluted ground. Drinking infected wa-
ter or wading in infected streams is
also a common means of allowing their
entrance. Through the blood the worms
reach the lungs and throat and from
there make their way to the small in-
and defends the Anglican
47 1369
HOOKWORM
testines, where they cling to the walls,
suck the blood and inject a poison into
the circulation. They multiply rapidly,
and though the adults are able to live
only in the intestines, the eggs pass out
in the discharges, and the hatching
worms live in water or the soil until they
can again find entrance into the human
body.
The disease which these parasites
cause manifests itself in impaired diges-
tion, pain in the stomach, headache,
shortness of breath, diarrhea or consti-
pation, sores, swelling of the limbs, diz-
ziness and stunted growth. In mild
cases only a few of these symptoms ap-
pear. Hookworm disease is a slowly-
developing disease and for that reason
is perhaps less regarded than a deadly
epidemic, which generally receives wide-
spread and speedy attention.
In southern United States, the Phil-
ippines, Porto Rico, Guam, Egypt and
southern Europe much attention is being
given to the extermination of the hook-
worm. Three suggestions are made by
the Arkansas Board of Health in regard
to stamping out the disease: (1) the
wearing of good shoes; (2) the curing
of all infected persons; and (3) the in-
stallation of sanitary sewage systems.
The presence of the hookworm in the
intestines may be discovered by medical
examination, and a treatment by means
of cathartics, especially Epsom salts, and
thymol being found effective in its cure.
Hoover, Herbert Clarke (1874—). A
celebrated mining engineer and man of
affairs, becoming prominent in the World
War as an organizer of government re-
lief work. He was born at West Branch,
Iowa, educated at the Leland Stanford
Junior University, graduating in 1895.
He was a member of the United States
Geological Survey for the Sierra Moun-
tains. Subsequently, he became widely
known as a mining expert and manager
of extensive mining properties in Aus-
tralia. He was chief engineer of the
Chinese Imperial Bureau of Mines and
made extensive exploration in the inte-
rior of China. Afterwards he was man-
ager and mining expert for many prop-
HOOSAC TUNNEL
erties in various countries in the Far
East. When the World War broke out, he ~
attracted attention by his management of ©
various relief organizations in Europe, —
especially the Belgian Relief Organiza-
tion. In 1917 he was appointed Food
Supervisor for the United States. After
the war he continued to act as chairman
of relief organizations, paying special at-
tention to famine stricken sections of
Europe. In 1921 President Harding ap- —
pointed him Secretary of Commerce.
Hoopoe, Hoo’ poo, a bird related to the
Hornbill Family, living in Europe, Asia
and Africa. The best-known species is
about a foot long, and is a brownish
or buff-colored bird with black wings
and tail, more or less barred with black
Ss
S S ww ~
KV a ]
HOOPOE
and white. The bill is long and slender
and slightly curved, and the head is sur-
mounted by a large, orange-brown crest,
extending from the bill to the back of —
the head, which may be raised and low-
ered at will. The nest is usually made ~
in hollow trees, but fissures in rocks, as
well as holes in banks, are used. Five
to seven greenish-blue eggs are laid. In-
cubation occupies 16 days. The hoopoe
feeds principally on insects. It has the
peculiar habit of rapping large objects
on the ground and tossing them in the
air before swallowing them.
Hoo’sac Tunnel, one of the longest
railway tunnels of the United States. It
passes over four miles through Hoosac
Mountain in northwestern Massachusetts,
1370
HOP
and was constructed for the Boston &
Albany Railroad at a cost of $11,000,000.
The tunnel was begun in 1856, but was
not completed until 1873. Near its cen-
ter a ventilating shaft 1028 ft. deep has
been sunk. Two tracks extend through
the tunnel, which is 24 ft. wide and 2234
ft. high.
Hop, an important, climbing plant oi
the Nettle Family used sparingly as a
medicine and in large quantities in the
manufacture of beer and other malt
liquors. The plant has long, twining
stems and broad, three- to seven-lobed
leaves, heart-shaped in form and notched
Vt
2771p ne
APS
snd
(a
U4
ee
HOPS
on the margins. The flowers upon one
plant are stamen-bearing, or staminate,
and those upon another fruit-producing,
or pistillate. The pistillate plants are
the only ones of importance, since their
flowers are the ones used commercially.
They are inconspicuous and grow in
scale-covered, conelike clusters, which
are yellowish-green in color and soft in
texture. Hops are grown in rows and
climbing upon poles, which arrangement
allows them to present a sufficient sur-
face to the sunlight and to hold the
blossoms up so that they may develop
well. The picking, which takes place
HOPKINS
when the flower cones become papery or
turn to a darker yellow, occupies about
two weeks and must be. done at the
proper time, as otherwise the flowers
are liable to lose their “hop meal,” a
yellowish dust, which is found at the
base of the flowers and which is an
important ingredient in beer making.
After being picked, the hops, as the
flower heads are called, are dried, either
artificially or by sun heat, and stored
until required for use.
There are many species, each of which
has its own claim to importance. The
chief hop-producing countries are the
United States, Germany, Great Britain
and Austria; in the United States, Ore-
gon, California and New York lead in
the amount and quality produced. Asa
medicine, hops are used to make a rem-
edy for dyspepsia, and hop pillows are
said to induce sleep.
Hopkins, John Castell (1864- Ne
a Canadian editor and author, born in
Iowa. In 1893 he resigned as associate
editor of the Toronto Daily Empire to
devote his entire attention to political
writings on phases of Canadian progress
and British imperialism and to compiling
and editing books of reference. He edi-
ted Canadian Encyclopedia of the Coun-
try and published: Toronto: An Histori-
cal Sketch, Life and Work of Mr. Glad-
stone, History of South Africa and Life
of King Edward VII. He has, more-
over, edited various Canadian annuals
and written innumerable pamphlets on
historical subjects.
Hopkins, Stephen (1707-1785), an
American statesman, signer of the Dec-
laration of Independence, born in Rhode
Island. Early a merchant and surveyor,
he became a member of the General
Assembly in 1732. In 1739 he became
chief justice of the Court of Common
Pleas and in 1751, of the Superior Court.
Three years later he was a delegate to
the Albany Convention, and, excepting
four years, was governor of Rhode Is-
land from 1754 to 1768. He was a mem-
ber of the First Continental Congress
from 1776 to 1778. Throughout the
Revolutionary period he published many
1371
HOPKINSON
pamphlets favoring the colonial cause.
For many years he was chancellor of
Brown University.
Hop’kinson, Joseph (1770-1842), an
American jurist and song writer, born
in Philadelphia, Pa. After graduating
at the University of Pennsylvania in
1786, he rose to high rank in the pro-
fession of law. From 1828 until his
death he served as district judge, -and
in 1837 was a member of the Penn-
sylvania Constitutional Convention. Hop-
kinson wrote legal essays, but is best re-
membered for the national song Hail
Columbia, which not only attained im-
mediate popularity, but is today a favor-
ite.
Hopkinsville, Ky., a city and the
county seat of Christian Co., 71 m. nw.
of Nashville, Tenn., on the Illinois Cen-
tral, the Louisville & Nashville and other
railroads. The principal industrial in-
terests are connected with the cultiva-
tion of tobacco and the preparing of this
product for the market. » The manufac-
tures include flour, lumber, wagons, car-
riages, lime and brick. There is con-
siderable trade in coal, live stock, hay,
wheat, corn and flour. Hopkinsville is
the seat of Bethel Female College, excel-
lent public school with modern courses
and equipment, and of the Western Ken-
tucky Asylum for the Insane. Hopkins-
ville was named in honor of Samuel
Hopkins, pioneer, soldier and congress-
man. The place was incorporated in
1798, and has the commission form of
government. Population in 1920, 9,690.
Hor’ace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus)
(65-8 B. C.), a Roman poet, born at
Venusia, a small town in Apulia. His
father left the farm and removed to
Rome, and the son, profiting by these
improved advantages for receiving an
education, soon became well versed in
Latin and Greek literature and philos-
ophy. Lack of money drove him to
writing verse, and friendship with Ver-
gil, Varius and Mecenas brought him
into the companionship of the best lit-
erary men of his age. His first book
of satires, called Sermones, was issued
in 35 B. C. Another volume followed
HOREHOUND
a few years later, a marked advance
on the first, which had received but
slight favorable comment. At the age
of 42 he published the first three books
of his Odes, and the excellence of this
work brought him immediately into the
front rank of poets. The Epistles tol-
lowed, the second volume of which was
devoted to literary criticism, and the
third probably containing his formal
essay, Art of Poeiry.
Next to Vergil, and possibly not ex-
cepting him, Horace has been the most
widely read of all the Roman writers.
He wrote a great deal about himself,
and one of the notes of originality in
his work is the intimate, personal re-
lationship that he establishes between
himself and the reader. A truthful and
accurate painter of the social life and
manners of the ancient world, he is
neither passionate nor ecstatic, nor mys-
tical, but for the inspiration of his odes
he drew freely upon the pleasures of a
life lived among the Sabine hills, and
from the leisure and peace of the open.
In his later writings there is a manly
Stoicism gradually replacing the passive
Epicureanism of his younger years, and
his philosophy is that of a genuine mor-
alist who makes the most of life, at the
same time reflecting without anxiety on a
certain departure from the world. He
was a master of simple and natural style,
of form, meter and rhythm, of stateli-
ness and dignity of expression.
Hore’hound”, or Hoar’hound”’, a
common, rough herb of the Mint Fam- —
ily whose leaves and tops are used me-
dicinally. The plant has a square, erect
stem, opposite, heart-shaped leaves with
wavy edges, and clusters of tiny, laven-
der flowers, growing around the stem
in the axils of each pair of leaves. The
entire plant has a pleasing, aromatic
odor. There are two distinct species,
the black and the white horehound, each
of which is valued medicinally. The
plant is native in Europe and Asia and
has been brought to the United States,
where it is produced in herb cardens
for the use of drug factories. As a
medicine horehound is chiefly used as a
1372
HORN
cough or throat remedy and is often put
up in candy form.
Horn, the name given in a general
sense to the hard, bonelike substance ©
growing from the heads of animals, such
as deer, cattle, sheep and goats. There
are two kinds of horn, one being a pro-
longation of growth of the actual bone
structure and the other being a hard-
ening of the epidermis, or outer layer
of the skin. Horn is a hard, tough,
flexible, translucent substance found in
its greatest development among animals
of the Ox Family and also in the shell
of the tortoise, and the nails, hoofs, bills
and quills of other creatures.
Horn can be softened by heat and
rendered flexible, as well as weldable,
and is easily stamped and otherwise fab-
ricated into various articles, such as han-
dles for knives, forks, canes and um-
brellas, for combs, buttons, drinking
cups and many varieties of boxes: At
one time thin plates of horn were used
for windowpanes, lanterns and book cov-
ers. See TorTOISE SHELL.
Horn, the name of a large class of
musical instruments, originally formed
from the horn of an animal. The horns
in most common use are in the form
of a twisted tube with a cup-shaped
mouthpiece and terminate in a spread-
ing bell. Horns are of two kinds—the
natural and the valve horn. The tone of
the natural horn is regulated by the force
of the performer’s breath, the pressure
of his lips, or by “stopping” the orifice
of the instrument by inserting his hand
in it. In the valve horns there are three
pistons, operated by the player’s fingers,
which give to the tube additional sec-
tions, in this way varying the pitch. By
using them separately, or in combina-
tion, the pitch may be lowered anywhere
from a semitone to three whole tones.
Horn’beam”, a _ substantial tree of
the Birch Family, one species of which
is native in North America. The tree
is often found in groves of maples or
elms or along banks of streams, where
its thick foliage gives a delightful shade.
The hornbeam has an irregular trunk
covered with.a tight, gray bark, much
HORNBLENDE
like that of the beech, and often shaded
with light or darker spots. The branches
are tough and marked by long, twisted
grooves. The leaves are long-oval,
pointed, and sharply-toothed; the veins
form prominent ridges on the underside
of the leaf. The flowers are inconspicu-
ous, but the fruit, which is a dry, winged
nut, is foliagelike and adds greatly to
the beauty of the tree. The wood is
hard and tough and light brown in color;
‘it is used for fuel or occasionally in the
manufacture of woodenware. Hornbeam
is is also called blue beech, water beech
and ironwood. It grows in North Amer-
ica from Quebec to Central America,
and in the Old World from Sweden
to southern Europe, in Asia Minor, in.
China and in Japan. See Ironwoop.
Horn’bill” Family, birds related to
the woodpeckers, easily recognized by
the long, pointed bill, the upper man-
dible of which is peculiarly modified,
being widened out or forming a great
hornylike projection. In size the spe-
cies vary from one and one-half to four
feet. A number of species nest in hol-
low trees, laying two to four eggs. While
the female is sitting upon the eggs the
male plasters up the opening with mud,
leaving a small aperture through which
she may be fed. When the young are
ready to fly, the male breaks down the
plaster and releases the family. The
hornbills, of which about 70 species are
known, are confined to the warmer re-
gions of India, Africa and Malaysia.
RHINOCEROS HorNBILL. ‘This is about
45 inches in length and is the best-known
species. The general color is black, with
steely reflections; the rump, tail coverts
and abdomen are white; the tail is white,
with a black band; the bill is yellowish;
and the horny appendage is black, red
and orange.
Hornblende, Horn’ blend”, one of the
most abundant and widely distributed
of minerals. It is an important constit-
uent of many different kinds of rock,
chiefly granites and basalts. It crystal-
lizes in a diversity of forms and dis-
plays a variety of colors. Hornblende
is brittle, has a glossy luster and is of
1373
HORNED TOAD
the hardness of feldspar. Some species
are opaque, others transparent. It forms
needlelike crystals, arranged in various
ways, and it may be green, pink, white
or black, forming beautiful cabinet spec-
imens,
Horned Toad, a desert lizard of the
Iguana Family represented by 15 species,
all of which might better be spoken of
as horned lizards. They inhabit the
United States, chiefly the southwestern
part, and are recognizable by their flat,
toadlike bodies with a fringe of mar-
ginal spines. The scales, with which
they are covered, are fine, but the head
has large, ferocious-looking spikes on
the chin, temples and back. These liz-
ards are remarkably swift and run about
in the sun on the hot desert sand after
their insect prey. The Texas horned toad,
which is the species generally brought
East by tourists, has the peculiar defen-
sive power of squirting, from a gland
beneath the eye, a fine stream of blood
calculated to blind its enemy. See
LIZARD.
Hornell’, N. Y., a) city of) Steuben
Co., 93 m. s.e. of Buffalo, on the Canis-
teo River and on the Erie and -the
Pittsburgh, Shawmut & Northern rail-
roads. It was known as Upper Canis-
teo until 1820, when it was incorporated
as a separate town. The city has sev-
eral public parks, and contains a free
library, St. Ann’s Academy: and St.
James Mercy Hospital. Its manufactures
include railway supplies, white goods,
electrical machinery, sash, doors, furni-
ture and other articles. Population in
1920; US) Censts)15,025, |
Hor’net, a family of large wasps of
the order Hymenoptera. In color, hor-
nets are brown or black and banded with
white or yellow lines. Their nests are
constructed in the eaves of buildings, in
hoilow tree trunks, the branches of trees
or even below ground, and are made of
the thin, gray wasp paper which they
manufacture from small pieces of wood
and leaves. These nests are often so
large that two or three branches are
necessary to support them, and there are
several enveloping layers of the paper.
ee GM
.) ae
hi? : 4
HORSE
Hornets are social wasps living in colo-—
nies and feeding upon insects, honey and
pollen.
can cause painful wounds. See Wasp.
Horse, a family belonging to the or-
der of solid-hoofed animals, or Ungu-
iata, and containing members that have
been of the greatest service to man in
the progress of civilization. The grace-
ful carriage horses and the heavy draft
horses of today are very different from
their common ancestor, which was of
small size and had five toes upon each —
foot. The modern horse is an importa-
tion of Asian descent, coming either
from hardy Northern stock or the fleet
Arabian steed. Careful breeding has de-
veloped two main classes from these, the
light and the heavy horses. The former
are those required for light work and
for speed; they are classed as running,
trotting, pacing, saddle, coach or express
horses. The draft horses are of three
classes: light draft, weighing from 1500
to 1600 lb. ; the medium draft, from 1600
to 1800 lb.; and the heavy draft, from
1800 up. t
The points by which a horse is judged
vary according to the purpose for which
it is desired. In general, a light horse
should be tall and have long limbs and
a greyhound build. The distance from
its chest to the ground should be more
than one-half the distance from the with-
ers to the ground, and its chest should
be narrow but deep. Draft horses, on
_ the contrary, should be of massive build,
broad and low set. At maturity they
should weigh from 1500 to 2400 Ib.
Breeps. Much attention has been
given to the breeding of horses for dif-
ferent purposes.
The Percheron, which was developed in
France, is a deep-bodied type, gener-
ally of gray color, and is popular in
the West; it is this type that was the
subject of Rosa Bonheur’s picture, The
fTorse Fair. The Belgian, developed in
Belgium, is more blocky than the Per-
cheron, and is generally roan, chestnut
or bay in color. The Clydesdale breed,
developed in Scotland, has longer legs
1374
They have long stings which ~
There are four prin-_
cipal breeds of draft horses in America.
‘
THE PRIDE OF THEIR OWNERS
JUPITER, LARGEST DRAFT HORSE IN AMERICA
His weight Is 2650 pounds.
RAW MATERIAL OF SUPERIOR
HAMPSHIRE DOWN LAMBS
HORSE-CHESTNUT
{
and lighter body; its colors are brown
or black, usually with white markings,
especially upon the feet. The Shire, de-
veloped in England, is much like the
Clydesdale, but is heavier.
There are seven principal breeds an
light horses, used chiefly as carriage or
running horses. Of these the German
coach and the French coach are the larg-
est, both being from 16 to 16% hands
high. The Hackney, an English breed,
is smaller, but is noted for its power
of endurance, splendid constitution and
good action. The Cleveland Bay, also a
coach horse, is large and strong, but
not of as pleasing build. Roadsters
are bred for speed and are slender in
body and have longer legs than the coach
horses. The thoroughbred is a cross be-
tween the light English horse and the
Arabian horse. It is of lithe form and
graceful build. A Kentucky horse of
this breed holds the world’s record of
one mile in one minute, 35% seconds.
The American trotter and the American,
or Kentucky, saddle horse differ chiefly
in pace; they were developed in the
United States, principally in Kentucky.
Ponies are small horses noted for their
speed and endurance (See Pony). The
ass is a domesticated member of the
Horse Family used as a beast of bur-
den, and the mule is a cross between
the horse and the ass (See Ass; MuLe).
For practical discussion of the horse, its
care, training and diseases, and of horse
breeding, consult Harper, The Training
and Breaking of Horses; Harper, Man-
wal of Farm Animals; Marshall, Breed-
ing of Farm Animals.
Horse-Chestnut, a popular shade
tree of the Horse-Chestnut Family, easily
recognized in summer by its large, star-
like clusters of leaves, and in winter, by
its large resin-covered buds. It is a
large tree, with a rounding top, which
is of sufficient size to shade a great area
O18 lawn) The © bark'is’. scaly; the
branches, dividing not far from the
ground, are completely covered by
spreading, blunt-topped leaflets, which
are arranged so as to present a wide
surface to the sunlight. In summer the
HORSE LATITUDES
stiff, full clusters of white or yellow,
red- spotted blossoms are very showy.
The fruit is globular and is covered by
a three-divided, prickly bur of yellow-
ish green color without, and having a
soft, white lining within. The nuts, of
which there may be one, two or even
three in a shell, have a leathery, shining
brown coat with a noticeable, tan-col-
ored base and two plump but bitter-
tasting seed leaves. The bark of the
Us N
HORSE-CHESTNUT
horse-chestnut is useful in medicine and
for tanning purposes; the wood is used
for the blind work of cabinetmaking and
for the manufacture of artificial limbs.
The tree grows commonly throughout
the United States and Europe. In the
accompanying cut A represents the prick-
ly, half-opened bur from which the nut
has fallen; B is a spike of the showy
blossoms with a single spreading leaf.
Horsefly. See GApFLy.
Horse Latitudes, belts of calms near
the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
These belts are not continuous, but with-
in them occur regions of calms. sepa-
rated by regions where winds are blow-
ing. Horse latitudes is the sailors’ name
1375
BE, ee “ ~_
HORSE MACKEREL
for these calms, because years ago, when
ships transporting horses were becalmed
for a long time along the Tropic of
Cancer, some of the horses were thrown
overboard.
Horse Mack’erel. See Tu’NA.
Horse’rad”ish, a coarse plant of the
Mustard Family whose tough, white roots
are ground or grated and used as a con-
diment with meats. The leaves are long
and rough and have somewhat the same
spicy flavor as the root; they are used
for greens. The branching stem grows
to a height of from two to four feet
in fence corners, vacant lots and along
the roadside, where it is looked upon
aS a common weed, except in the spring
when the gathering and preparing of its
roots gives profitable employment to the
small boy. The grated horseradish is
put up with vinegar, but, unless soon
eaten, loses its peppery flavor and be-
comes flat to the taste.
Horse’shoe”, a thin metal plate, usu-
ally of iron, designed to fit a horse’s
hoof and protect it from wear. It is
especially necessary when horses are
worked on hard roadways. The shoe is
bent and forged to a shape to fit the
bottom of the hoof, and held securely
in place by nails driven through holes
in the shoe and through the outer layer
of the hoof. This work is performed
by a horseshoer, who is usually a black-
smith and who has a forge, anvil and
the requisite tools. Shoes for horses
that work on icy roads are provided
with steel points or calks, one at each
heel of the shoe and one at the toe.
Those horses drawing loads on soft
roads have shoes with soft-iron calks,
while pleasure-driving horses are shod
with plain shoes. Race horses usually
have only a very thin plate instead of
the heavy shoe of draft horses. Horse-
shoes are made now principally by ma-
chines and of soft steel instead of iron.
Farm horses are generally unshod. Iron
horseshoes were introduced into Europe
about the ninth century, and taken to
England by the Normans. For centuries,
the shoemaker’s art had great honor in
_ France and England.
HORSETAIL
Horseshoe Crab, or King Crab, an ©
order of the group Arachnida whose
members are recognized by their ap- :
pendages as being closely related to scor-
pions, spiders and mites. They have
firm, polished shells, shaped like a horse- }
shoe, and long, pointed tails. They are
aquatic and frequent muddy shores or —
soft bottoms at a depth of from four
to six fathoms. The shells have a prom-
inent median ridge, on either side of ©
which, near the front, lies a small me-
dian eye; farther back and nearer the
outer edges of the shell are two large,
lateral eyes. The mouth is still farther
back and is large enough to be easily
reached by the appendages which assist
in the feeding. The food consists of
bivalves and Mollusks of all sorts. There
are four species of horseshoe crabs—one
found in the United States, one in China
and Japan and two in the East Indies.
-Horsetail, or Equisetum, Ek” wi se’
tum, one of the highest forms of spore-
producing plants and a member of the
Horsetail Family. Though these plants
are found all over the world, there is
but one genus known at present and
this is represented by only 25 species.
From what we are able to learn of these
plants in previous geological periods, we
are led to believe that the horsetails
were once an important family includ-
ing, not only small plants as at present,
but trees which grew to a height of
nearly 100 ft.
cies are low plants often found grow-
ing along railroad tracks or in dry waste
ground, but occasionally discovered in
swamps or deep woods; there is, how-
ever, one South American species that
attains a height of 40 ft. The horsetail
rises from a branching rootstock which
is apt to have tiny tubers for storing
nourishment for its period of hiberna-
tion. The stem is erect and hollow; those
which remaiz unbranched are fertile
plants and will bear spores, the tiny
bodies which take the place of seeds;
others branch and are commonly sterile
plants. The leaves are scalelike struc-
tures which unite into cups surround-
ing the stems at regular intervals. The
1376
Now, the commonest spe- —
HORTICULTURE
branches grow from the axils of. the
leaves, and encircle the stem in a spread-
ing whorl with the leaf cup at their
bases.
a pointed stem, but the fertile produce
a conelike cap which contains the spores.
The method of reproduction by means of
these spores is extremely complicated.
The horsetails are easily recognized by
their peculiar growth, lack of ordinary
green coloring matter and their conse-
quent yellowish-brown color. Moreover,
the stems of all horsetails contain a
great deal of silica, which makes their
fibers and cell walls so hard that they
are used in polishing wood and metal.
HORSETAIL
-Hor’ticul’ture, a branch of agricul-
ture which deals with the growing of
fruits, vegetables, ornamental shrubs and
flowering plants. It formerly referred
only to the care of the garden, but with
the increased study of agriculture in
schools and colleges, horticulture has de-
veloped into a profession which includes
many departments. The successful hor-
ticulturist must have a practical knowl-
edge of botany, especially with regard
to variations of species and the laws —
that govern them, plant diseases and
their treatment, soils, fruit development,
etc. The various departments of horti-
culture are commonly known as: truck
The unfertile horsetails end in.
Era:
HOSPITAL
farming, or market gardening, which is
the raising of vegetables for the market;
pomology, which is the study of fruits;
arboriculture, which is the cultivation of
trees; and floriculture, which is the cul-
tivation of shrubs, ornamental trees and
flowering plants. See AGRICULTURE;
ForESTRY ; GARDENING.
Hosea, Ho ze’ a, a book of the Old
Testament following Daniel and preced-
ing Joel; also the name of the author
of this book, one of the minor Hebrew
prophets. Hosea began to prophesy un-
der Uzziah, King of Judah, and Jero-
boam, King of Israel, continuing his
prophesying until the time of Hezekiah,
great-grandson of Uzziah. The book of
flosea contains: (1) a symbolical rep-
resentation of the adoption, rebellion and
rejection of the people, the conversion
of the Gentiles and the final restoration
of Israel; (2) prophetic discourses, il-
lustrated by vivid imagery. See BIBLE,
subhead The Old Testament.
Hosmer, Hoz’ mer, Harriet Goodhue
(1830-1908), an American sculptor. She
studied anatomy in the St.' Louis Med-
ical College and clay modeling at Bos-
ton, and at the age of 22 went to Rome.
The remainder of her life was spent in
Italy. She became known in 1856
through an exhibition of a. statuette,
called Puck. Among her most note-
worthy productions are Zenobia im
Chains, The Sleeping Faun, A Waking
Faun and Beatrice Cenci.
Hos’pital, an institution for giving
medical treatment to the sick or injured.
Hospitals were founded in India, Persia
and Arabia long before the Christian
The Greeks and Romans main-
tained shelter houses, with attendants,
for the sick. One of the earliest of
these institutions was. that founded by
Valens in 370. .In the time of the
Crusades numerous hospitals were built,
and knights called hospitalers were in
attendance.
All hospitals belong to one or the
other of two principal groups, the gen-
eral and the special. General hospitals
are of two kinds: (1) clinical and (2)
nonclinical. The clinical hospital is at-
1377
‘
HOSPITAL, MILITARY
tached to a medical school and usually
is situated in its immediate vicinity.
These institutions are intended primarily
for the care of the sick and wounded,
and secondarily to furnish means of in-
struction to students of medicine and of
nursing. The nurses in these hospitals
are under the immediate control of an
interne, or resident doctor, who has ob-
tained the position through competitive
examination. The interne is under su-
pervision of the school instructors, who
may be also practicing physicians and
who visit the hospital at specified times.
A nonclinical hospital is one that is not
connected with a medical school and to
which students of medicine are not ad-
mitted for observation.
Special hospitals are those which make
a specialty of treating one disease or
one class of persons to the exclusion of
all others. In the former: group are hos-
pitals for cancer, tuberculosis, paralysis,
erysipelas, skin diseases and for treat-
ment of diseases of the eye, ear, nose
and throat. To the latter group belong
women’s hospitals, children’s hospitals,
military and naval hospitals, and hos-
pitals for the insane.
The main principles of hospital con-
struction and operation are pretty gen-
erally followed in all medical practice.
The important feature of the hospital
is the ward, a large room intended to
accommodate several patients on single
beds. Wherever possible the wards
should be separated from the remainder
of the hospital and should be built as
pavilions of one or not more than
two stories. A representative institution
employing the pavilion plan in the Johns
Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Md.
Its pavilions are two stories high, and
each contains two wards which occupy
the entire upper and lower floors. These
buildings are arranged in rows and con-
nected by tunnels beneath the corridors.
A large number of city hospitals are
contained in a single building several
stories in height, and constructed to pro-
vide every facility for treatment.
Hospital, Military, a place for the
care and treatment of sick or wounded
HOT-AIR ENGINE
soldiers. Military hospitals are of twe
kinds, permanent and field hospitals.
Permanent hospitals are established in
convenient and sanitary places, and at
army.posts and forts. The General Med-
ical Hospital at Ft. Bayard, New Mexico,
is maintained for the treatment of con-
sumptives from the United States army
and navy. At Hot Springs, Ark., offi-
cers and men, whether active or retired,
are treated. Field hospitals are portable,
and can be very quickly put in readiness |
to receive those who may be wounded
in the field. From these field hospitals
the wounded are removed, as soon as
possible, to the station hospital, which
is placed between the field of action
and the base of supplies.
Hospital Ship, a ship accompanying
ali warlike expeditions, to care for the
sick and wounded. The hospital ships
of the United States navy are fitted to
serve either as stationary or movable
hospitals as occasion may require. They
are painted white, with green bands
along the sides, and fly the Red Cross
flag and the national flag. Hospital ships
are regarded by all civilized nations as
exempt from attack so long as they are
not armed, and give aid to only the sick
and wounded.
Hos’tage, a person given as a pledge
for the fulfillment of certain conditions.
Hostages were formerly exchanged be-
tween parties at war with each other,
as guaranty that prisoners would be
properly treated, or that a city captured
would not be destroyed. When the con-
ditions are fulfilled the hostages are re-
turned. If the conditions are not ful-
filled the hostage may be put to death
or otherwise punished.
Hot-Air Engine, an engine having
its piston propelled by the expansive
force of heated air. It differs from the
steam engine in design, principle and
construction, as it uses air at very low
pressures. It consists of a light, up-
right frame, with bearings at the top
carrying a crank shaft with pulleys and
flywheels-and a connecting rod. In the
bottom of the frame is hung a combus-
tion chamber arranged to burn gas, coal
1378
HOTBED AND COLD FRAME
or wood, and over it rests an upright
cylinder into which is fitted a piston.
When the air is heated, the piston moves
up and the air is exhausted at the end
of the stroke through valves, and when
the cylinder is cooled by water, the pis-
ton moves down or returns, and so on.
Hot-air engines are built in sizes of
from half-horse to 10-horsepower, and
are used chiefly for pumping water.
Hotbed and Cold Frame, common
terms used to express a seedbed and its
covering. A hotbed is a seedbed, made
by having a deep layer of fermenting
compost or horse manure mixed with a
few inches of fine, sifted loam, and a
cold frame is the wooden frame with
a glass or cloth cover placed around
and over the hotbed to protect the plants
growing in the beds from frost and
rain. It is employed in starting plants
before removal to a greenhouse. The
fermentation heats the soil, while the
cold frame prevents a too rapid radia-
tion and loss of heat. They are some-
‘times used separately, especially in warm
climates. Cold frames are frequently
used alone to force violets into bloom.
There is no heat except sunlight used
in hotbeds or under cold frames. The
cold frame should slope with its glass
roof towards the south, and should be
hinged and arranged so as to allow for
the ventilation of the hotbed. See
GREEN HOUSE.
Hotch’kiss, Benjamin Berkely (1826-
1885), an American inventor, born in
Watertown, Conn. A machinist, he in-
vented -the Hotchkiss magazine gun,
which was adopted by the government,
as was his system of rifle projectiles,
which was extensively used during the
Civil War. His revolving cannon was
introduced into Europe in 1867. Sub-
sequently he invented a magazine rifle.
Hot Springs. See THERMAL SPRINGS.
Hot Springs, Ark., a city and the
county seat of Garland Co., 54 m. s.w.
of Little Rock, on the Chicago, Rock
Island & Pacific, the St. Louis, Iron
Mountain & Southern, the Little Rock &
Hot Springs Western and other rail-
roads. It is built in several mountain
HOUDON
ravines and partly on a plateau, and is
one of the most beautiful towns in the
United States, being famed for its min-
eral waters and delightful climate. There
are 72 thermal springs rising within an
area of ten acres on the-side of Hot
Springs Mountain. The daily flow from
these springs is approximately 1,000,000
gallons. They vary in temperature from
76° to 157° F. and possess remarkable
curative properties. Since 1832 the land
containing the springs has been a na-
tional reservation, and large sums have
been expended by the United States
Government in improvements. An army
and navy hospital has been established
here and bathhouses free to the public
are maintained. There are numerous
other baths, hotels and other accommo-
dations for visitors, who number more
than 100,000 annually, and the chief busi-
ness interests of the town are centered
in the care of these transients. Besides
the springs, an important natural resource
of the city is novaculite rock of fine
quality found in the vicinity and from
which hones are made. The first per-
manent settlement on the site dates from
1828 ; the place was incorporated in 1876
and chartered‘as a city three years later.
Population in 1920, 11,695.
Hot’tentots, a peculiar race living in
western Province of Cape of Good Hope
and throughout the southern part of
Africa. They are of medium height;
their skin is an olive-brown; the cheek-
bones are prominent. The chin is
pointed, giving the face a strange, tri-
angular contour. They have been a
nomadic race, and ‘as cattle breeders
they were constantly moving from one
meadow ground to another. Their re-
ligion is chiefly ancestor worship. In
1904 the mixed Hottentot population
numbered over 85,000, but those of pure
blood represent only about one-fourth of
this number.
Houdon, Oo” don’, Jean Antoine
(1741-1828), a French sculptor, born at
Versailles. He made numerous portrait
busts of eminent men, among them
George Washington. In 1788 he became
a member of the French Institute, and
1379
HOUGH
was decorated with the insignia of the
Legion of Honor. His chief works are
busts of Gluck, Franklin, Mirabeau and
Rousseau, a Statue of Voltaire, Mor-
pheus and Diana the Huntress.
Hough, Huf, Emerson (1857-1923),
an American author, born in Newton,
Iowa, and educated at the State Uni-
versity of lowa. He has traveled ex-
tensively in the western part of the
United States, exploring, on.skis, Yel-
lowstone Park in the winter of 1895.
The outcome of this trip was an act of
Congress protecting the Yellowstone
buffalo.. Besides several short stories
for magazines, he has written The Story
of the Cowboy, The Gurl at the Half-
way House, The Mississippi Bubble,
Heart’s Desire, Fifty-four Forty or
Fight, The Purchase Price and Young
Alaskans on the Trail, and The Web.
Hound, a class of dogs which, be-
cause of their keen scent and their speed,
are used in the hunt. They have droop-
ing ears, large, rounding heads and,
generally, wrinkled faces. Their usual
color is black and tan. When the term
hound is used without a descriptive ad-
jective the foxhound is probably the dog
referred to. Other
hounds are the
‘bloodhound, stag-
hound, otter-
hound, harrier,
beagle, dachs-
hund, pointer and
Dalmatian coach
dog; most of
these are treated
under their re-
spective titles.
The greyhounds,
which have keen
sight, but prac-
tically no ability
to follow a scent,
belong to a group
by themselves.
Hourglass, a
device employed in ancient times to
measure an hour and its fractions. Its
use dates before sundials and clocks. It
consists of two glass bulbs connected by
HOURGLASS
HOUSELEEK
required to boil eggs, and is known as
an egg glass. .
Housatonic, Hoo” sa ton’ ik, a river —
of the United States, rising in the west-
ern part of Massachusetts amid the
Berkshire Hills.
across Connecticut and empties into
a contracted neck, the upper bulk having —
a sufficient amount of fine dry sand to ©
flow through the opening in the neck in~
one hour. The glass bulbs were mounted —
on a frame, so that one stood above ©
the other, and the sand flowed from the
upper to the lower bulb. A modifica- —
tion of it is employed now chiefly as a ©
convenient method of showing the time —
It flows southward
Lang Island Sound. The length is about —
150 m., and it is noted for its beautiful f
scenery.
Houseboat, a type of boat used com-
monly throughout the world by those
who, while enjoying outdoor life and an
occasional change of scene, prefer not
to abandon the comforts of home life.
Some of the older houseboats carry sails,
but many are towed from place to place
as desired. One steam craft, the Lon-
don, measures 130 ft. over all, and
makes 12 knots an hour under favor- ~
able conditions. Those equipped with
gasoline engines are now most popular.
On the Thames, houseboats became pop-
ular as early as 1870. They abound on
the Pacific coast, and on the Great Mis-—
sissippi system, on the St. Lawrence, on ~
many lakes, and especially on the exten-—
sive waterways of Florida, where some
of the largest and best are now found.
Houseleek, or Live-Forever, a pecu-
liar low plant of the Orpine Family, fre- —
quently found in the United States grow-
ing in dooryards or by roadsides, and in ©
England planted upon roofs or walls. —
The plants reproduce by means of leafy
shoots, or suckers, which, after growing —
out a short distance from the mother-
plant, put forth roots and become new —
households, circled so closely about the —
old that ‘children call them “old hen and ©
The stems and leaves of the -
houseleek are thick and fleshy, the lat-—
ter growing in circled clusters around the ©
stem ; they are oval in form with smooth —
1380
chickens.”’
‘Lebanon.
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
edges. The flowers are green or purple
with five, pointed, leaflike sepals, five
spreading petals and five or ten stamens
of unequal length. The undeveloped
fruits) heim
four erect lit-
tle pods which
are found in
the center of
7 the blossoms.
House of
Representa-
tives. See Con-
GRESS.
Houston, Hu’ stun, Sam (1793-1863),
soldier and president of Texas, born in
Rockbridge County, Va. On the death
of his father the family removed to Ten-
nessee where the lad lived much of the
time, with the Cherokee Indians, one of
whom adopted him as his son. In 1813
he enlisted in the United States army,
serving under Andrew Jackson. He re-
sisned from the army in 1818, studied
law in Nashville, and began practice at
From 1823 to 1827 he served
in Congress, and was in the latter year
elected governor of Tennessee. From
1829 to 1832 he lived again among the
Cherokee Indians, after which he went to
Washington in their interest. In 1832
he went to Texas, and in 1835 was made
commander-in-chief of the army of
Texas in its conflict with Mexico. He
was a member of the state convention
that declared the independence of Texas
in March, 1836, and by defeating Santa
Anna in the Battle of San Jacinto in
April of the same year made independ-
ence an actuality.
In September Houston was elected
president of the new republic. He was
largely instrumental in the admission of
Texas into the Union-in 1845, and at
that time became United: States sena-
tor from the new state, serving until
1859, when he was elected governor.
In 1861 he retired from public life and
went to-his home in Huntsville, where
he died two years later.
Houston, Tex., a port of entry, the
county seat of Harris Co., the third city
of the state in size and an important
HOUSELEEK
HOUSTON
railroad and commercial center. It is
located upon Buffalo Bayou, 48 m. n.w.
of Galveston and 145 m. s.e. of Austin,
on the Southern Pacific, the Gulf, Colo-
rado & Santa Fe, the Missouri, Kansas
& Texas, the International & Great
Northern, the St. Louis, Brownsville &
Mexico and several other railroads. The
great Ship Channel, with its turning ba-
sin, is 54 m. in length and permits the
passage of the largest ocean-going ves-
sels. This, with the numerous railroads,
makes Houston a notable shipping point
whose importance will increase with the
opening of the Panama Canal.
STREETS, BOULEVARDS AND PARKS.
Houston has broad, paved streets and is
approached by well-kept gravel and shell-
graded roads. ‘These are so beautified
by handsome magnolia trees that the
city is known as the “Magnolia City.”
Its suburbs are filled with pleasant homes
and surrounded by forests of pine, oak,
ash, elm and cottonwood. Its park sys-
tem is extensive and includes Sam Hous-
ton, Cleveland, Elizabeth Baldwin, High- |
land and Herman Settegast Parks
and’.a boulevard circling the eity
and at five points in its course broaden-
ing into parkways enhanced with gar-
dens and pagodas. Houston has many
near-by pleasure resorts, being but an
hour by train, interurban or motor from
surf bathing and deep-sea fishing.
Pustic Burtpines. Among the inter-
esting buildings of the city are the new
Auditorium, seating 7,000 persons, the
county courthouse, the Y. M. C. A.
Building, the city hall with its adjacent
covered market, the Federal Building, the
buildings of Rice Institute, the new ter-
minal station, the Carnegie Lyceum and
Library, several modern apartment
houses and many handsome office build-
ings. On the Channel or in various at-
tractive spots in and about the city are
the homes of the Houston Launch Club,
the Houston Club, the Country Club, the
Press Club, the Concordia Club, the Tha-
lian Club, the Turn Verein Club and
others. Its hotels are among the finest
in the state, and the many churches are
exceptionally attractive in appearance.
1384
HOWARD
Aside from the well-equipped schools
of the public school system, Houston has
Rice Institute of Literature, Art and
Science, the St. Agnes Academy and sev-
eral excellent private schools and busi-
ness colleges.
InpusTRIES. Houston’s industries are
varied in character. It lies in a farm-
ing district in the winter truck-growing
section of the South, and is a market
for corn, cotton, sugar cane, rice, alfalfa,
vegetables, fruits, cattle and dairy prod-
ucts. Its surrounding forests of yellow
pine and hard wood make it a notable
lumber market, and its red cedar is in
constant demand for pencils. There are
large coffee-roasting establishments,
charcoal kilns, iron foundries, railroad
shops, a meat-packing plant and, pecul-
iar to this city, great nurseries where
the beautiful Cape jessamine is culti-
vated for shipment both as a decorative
shrub and for its flowers. The manu-
factured products include hardware, car
wheels, elevators and escalators, organs,
pianos, cottonseed products, ice and fur-
niture.
History. Houston was platted and
settled in 1836 and was named in honor
of Gen. Sam Houston, an American sol-
dier, who helped Texas secure her in-
dependence. The city was the capital of
the Republic of Texas from 1837 to
1839, when the seat of government was
removed to Austin. Annually the city
devotes one week of November to a great
pageant, or carnival, known as the No-
Tsu-Oh Carnival, similar in character to
the Mardi Gras of New Orleans. Dur-
ing this period the city gives itself
up to gayety. and to a civic celebration
of extensive proportions enjoyed both
by citizens and by a large number of
guests. Houston has the commission
form of government. Population in 1920,
MeS. Censts 1 d8 276)
How’ard, Catharine (1520-1542), fifth
wife of Henry VIII, a granddaughter
of the second Duke of Norfolk. She
married Henry in 1540, within three
weeks after he had divorced Anne of
Cleves; but in a few months she was
accused of immoral conduct, and, follow-
1382
HOWE
ing a trial at which her guilt was appar-
ently established, she was beheaded.
Howard, John (1726-1790), an Eng-
lish philanthropist. He hastened to the
help of the survivors of the Lisbon earth-
quake in 1755, and was taken prisoner
by the French, but was soon released.
While high sheriff for Bedfordshire, he
became interested in jail reform and vis-
ited the prisons of England and Europe
to study how to secure better regula-
tions for prisoners. He died at Kher- —
son in Russia. He wrote State of the ~
Prisons in England and Wales and An
Account of the Principal Lazarettos m
Europe. )
Howard, Oliver Otis (1830-1909), an
American soldier, born in Leeds, Me.,
and educated at Bowdoin College and
at West Point. He served in the Sem- ©
inole War, for a time instructed in math-
ematics at West Point, and in June, 1861,
took command of the Third Maine Reg-
iment, commanding a brigade at Bull
Run.’ Three months later he became ©
brigadier-general of volunteers. At the
Battle of Fair Oaks he lost his right
arm, later did conspicuous work at An-
tietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville
and Gettysburg, was efficient in the cam-
paign about Chattanooga and com-
manded Sherman’s right wing in the
march to the sea and through the Caro- _
linas. In March, 1865, he was brevetted
major-general in the regular army. After
the war, General Howard was commis-
sioner of the Freedmen’s Bureau, until
July, 1874. In that year he was assigned
to the command of the Department of
the Columbia. From 1880 to 1882 he
was superintendent at West Point. In
1894 he resigned as major-general, and
the following year founded, at Cumber-
land Gap, Tenn., the Lincoln Memorial
University.
Howe, Elias (1819-1867), the in-
ventor of the sewing machine, born at
Spencer, Mass. After securing a com-
mon school education, he was employed
for some time’ at Lowell, Mass., in a
factory for the manufacture of machin-
ery for working cotton. He went from
there to Cambridge. While employed
HOWE
there Howe began to work upon a sew-
ing machine, which he completed and
patented after five years. Being with-
out sufficient means to manufacture the
machine, and failing to interest capital-
ists, he went to Europe, but with no bet-
ter success. Returning, he found others
infringing upon his patents and won a
suit against them in 1854. Thereatter
manufacturers paid him a royalty which
afforded him an ample income. He was
a private in the Civil War. Howe was
decorated with the cross of the Legion of
Honor, and received numerous medals.
Howe, Julia Ward (1819-1910), an
American author, born in New York
City. She married Dr. Samuel Gridley
Howe in 1843, assisted him in editing
the Commonwealth and worked zealous-
ly in favor of the abolition of slavery.
She was one of the organizers of the
American Woman Suffrage Association
and the Association for the Advance-
ment of Women, was president of the
New England Women’s Club = and
founded the Woman’s Peace Association
in London. The Battle Hymn of the
Republic was by far her most popular
poem, but all her verse is characterized
by a distinct lyric quality. Her works
include Passion Flowers, Modern Soci-
ety, A Memoir of Dr. Samuel G. Howe,
Life of Margaret Fuller and Reminis-
cences. Her verse is collected in From
Sunset Ridge, Poems, New and Old.
Howe, Richard, Eart (1726-1799), a
British admiral, born in London. When
14 years of age he entered the navy in
the Severn, which went into the South
Seas with Anson, and he next served
in the West Indies. Later, during the
Jacobite rising of 1745, he was severely
wounded in the head in an engagetnent
in the North Sea. As captain ‘of the
Cornwall he met the Spaniards off Ha-
vana, October, 1748, and in 1755 he
came to America with Boscawen, serv-
ing with distinction. Having been pro-
moted vice-admiral, Howe was put in
command of the North America station
in 1776 because of his leniency toward
the colonial cause. He had several en-
gagements with the French fleet under
HOWE
D’Estaing off Sandy Hook and New-
port. In 1782 he distinguished, himself
by carrying out the final relief of Gibral-
tar, when the combined fleets of France
and Spain refused to accept his offer
of battle. He became first lord of ad+
miralty in 1783 and five years later was
made an earl. But Howe was still to
see the most brilliant service of his ca-
reer; during the war with France, in
1793, he won the epoch-making victory
of the “Glorious First of June.”
Howe, Samuel Gridley (1801-1876),
“the Cadmus of the Blind,” in Whittier’s
The Hero, was born at Boston and edu-
cated at Brown University and the Har-
vard Medical School. Fired by the poems
of Byron, he served the Greeks for six
years in their struggle for independence.
During the succeeding three years he
raised more than $60,000 for the relief
of the Greek sufferers, wrote his His-
torical Sketch of the Greek Revolution,
and became surgeon-general of the Greek
fleet. After studying the methods of
European institutions for educating the
blind, he served from 1832 until his death
as superintendent of the first American
school for the blind. He was also the
founder of the first American school for
the feeble-minded. In 1851 he was one
of the founders and editor of the Bos-
ton Daily Commonwealth, an anti-slav-
ery paper, and in this work was assisted
by his wife, Julia Ward Howe. See
BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE; FEEBLE-
- Minvep, EDUCATION OF THE.
Howe, Sir William (1729-1814), a
British general, brother of Richard, Earl
Howe. He entered the cavalry in 1746
and by 1757 had become a lieutenant-
colonel, in which capacity he served with
distinction during the last French and
Indian War in America. At the out-
break of the Revolution he was sent,
though much against his preferences, to
Boston. He led in storming Bunker
Hill, was promoted lieutenant-general
and succeeded to the chief command of
the army. After two successful cam-
paigns and an inactive winter at Phila-
delphia, which caused an investigation in
which he was not censured, Howe re-
1383
HOWELLS
signed, May, 1778. In 1793 he became
general, two years later governed Ber-
wick-on-Tweed and in 1805 governed
Plymouth.
How’ells, William Dean (1837-1920),
an American novelist, born at Martin’s
Ferry, Ohio. In his father’s office he
learned the printer’s trade, and in 1859
was appointed news editor of the Olio
State Journal. After serving as consul
at Venice he became connected with the
New York papers, the Tribune, the
Times and the Nation. He was editor-
in-chief of the Atlantic Monthly from
1872 to 1881, conducted “The Editor’s
Study” and “The Easy Chair” for Har-
pers Magazine from 1886 to 1892, and
edited the Cosmopolitan for a short time.
In fiction he is the chief American rep-
resentative of the realistic school. He
has a sympathetic understanding of the
common people; a favorite and recur-
ring type in his novels is the self-made
man. His observations on social and
political conditions are keen; his work
is characterized by wit, saneness and
artistic excellence. He has written Their
Wedding Journey, A Foregone Conclu-
sion, The Rise of Silas Lapham, A Hasz-
ard of New Fortunes, A Modern In-
stance, Out of the Question, Modern
Italian Poets, Impressions and E-xperi-
ences and,A Boy's Town.
How’itzer, a cannon longer in pro-
portion to its caliber than a mortar and
shorter than a gun. The howitzer is
used in connection with infantry in field
and siege service. It throws a shell at
a high angle and with small muzzle ve-
locity. This enables it to fire over the
heads of the infantry and drop its shells
into the fort or intrenchments of the en-
emy, The largest howitzers throw a shell
16%% inches in diameter over five feet
long and weighing over 2100 pounds.
Their range is from seven to ten miles.
See CANNON; ARTILLERY; ARMY.
Howl’er, an American monkey of the
Marmoset Family. Members of the fam-
ily are easily recognized by the presence
of a merely rudimentary thumb upon
each “hand” and by the possession, by
the males of the species, of a greatly
- HUCKLEBERRY
enlarged throat, which gives them a bel. .
lowing voice audible for two miles or
They are large, powerful ani- .
more.
mals, but of low grade of reece
In color they are red-brown, brown or ~
black, but the sexes differ in color as ~
Howlers are ©
they do among the birds.
killed by the Mexicans and South Amer-
ican Indians for food, and their long ~
hair is used in making cordage. About
seven species are known.
Hub’bard, Elbert (1859-1915),
American author and lecturer, born in —
Bloomington, Ill. He established the
Roycroft Shop, in East Aurora,
for the purpose of reviving interest in
old handicrafts, and more especially in — ,
the artistic making of books. The Philis-
tine, a periodical containing an individ-
ual philosophy, was also founded by him.
He has published a series of biographies
under the title of Little Journeys, includ-
ing the lives of artists, musicians, ora-
tors, philosophers and authors. He also
wrote Old John Burroughs, Thomas
Jefferson and Man of Sorrows.
Huck’leberry, a shrub of the Heath
Family, bearing an edible fruit of the
same name. There are many species
known, several of which are confounded
with the blueberry, a member of an al-
lied genus. The common huckleberry of
the swamp is a high shrub having slen-
der, spreading stems, which often attain
a height of ten feet or more. The leaves
are small and oval or somewhat wedge-
shaped and, in the fall, take on beau- —
The flow-—
tiful red and orange shades.
ers are white and bell-shaped, often
tinged with pink or marked with pale ~
pink lines. The fruit is a sweet, juicy
berry containing a few small seeds; it
is blue-black in color, has no bloom and
bears upon its apex the remains of the
calyx. Low-bush huckleberries grow on
low or rocky ground and are only one
to three feet in height. The Northern
huckleberry is really a blueberry, and is —
distinguished by the soft, white bloom
upon the fruit. Huckleberries grow from ~
New England south and west in almost
all of the states Face those of the exe
treme south.
1384
N. Ya
to the Spice Islands.
HUDSON
Hudson, Henry (
is in 1607, when he set sail from Lon-
don to search for a northeast passage
He succeeded in
getting north beyond the 80th degree of
latitude. Ona second voyage in 1608 he
reached Nova Zembla. In a third voy-
age he sailed to the south and discov-
ered the Hudson River in 1609, sailing
up to about the point where Albany now
stands. In 1610 he made a last effort
to find the passage, and discovered the
strait and the bay now bearing his name.
Here he wintered, but hardship mad-
dened the crew, who, in 1611, set Hud-
son, his son John and seven faithful fol-
lowers adrift. Nothing was ever heard
of them.
Hudson, N. Y., county seat of Co-
lumbia Co., 28 m. s. of Albany on the
east bank of the Hudson River, and on
the New York Central & Hudson River
and the Boston & Albany railroads. A
steam ferry plies between this place and
Athens, on the west side of the river. It
is finely situated on Prospect Hill, which
commands a view of the Hudson Valley.
Among its noteworthy buildings are the
New York State Training School for
Girls, Hudson Orphan Asylum, State
Volunteer Firemen’s Home, state ar-
mory and St. Mary’s Academy. Hudson
was settled as Claverack Landing by
New Englanders in 1783. It has exten-
sive manufactories of car wheels, ale,
lumber, tobacco, machinery, Portland ce-
ment, white goods, etc. Population in
1920, 11,745.
Hudson Bay, a gulf in the northeast-
ern part of Canada. It connects with
the Atlantic Ocean through Hudson
Strait and with the Arctic Ocean through
Fox Channel. The total area is 400,000
sq. m.; its depth, about 70 fathoms. At
its north end is Southampton Island; to
the south it ends in a prolongation known
as James Bay. There are few storms
and fogs, and the waters are never en-
tirely ice-locked, but navigation is en-
dangered by floating icebergs and floes.
Seal, salmon, whale and walrus are
found. The winter months are long and
?-1611), English
explorer. His first appearance in history
HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY
severe. Henry Hudson discovered the
bay in 1610.
Hudson River, one of the most im-
portant commercial highways in the
United States and the largest river of
the State of New York, rising in the
small lake “Tear of the Clouds” near
Mt. Marcy in the Adirondack Moun-
tains. The river crosses the state in a
nearly north and south direction and
enters New York Bay at the city of New
York, separating Manhattan Island from
the State of New Jersey. The river at
this point is known as the North River
and is not a river, but an arm of the
sea. The Hudson has a total length
of about 350 m. and the tide ascends
150 m. to Troy, which is at the head
of navigation. Magnificent steamers ply
between Troy, Albany and New York.
The largest tributaries are the Mohawk,
Hoosic, Wallkill and Sacondaga rivers.
The Hudson River is unrivaled among
the rivers of America for picturesque
and beautiful scenery. In the first part
of its course the river has many rapids,
and at Glens Falls there is a fall of
about 50 ft. Between this city and Troy
the river furnishes vast power for man-
ufacturing purposes. Below Newburgh
the river passes through the beautiful
Highlands of the Hudson, whose peaks
rise abruptly to a height of 1000 to 1600
ft. Tappan and Haverstraw bays are
expanded parts of the river, the former
bay being about 4 m. wide and 13 m.
long. At Piermont, where the river
again contracts, the Palisades, 300 to 500
ft. in height, rise picturesquely on the
west bank and extend for 20 m., the
opposite bank being. dotted with towns
and cities. The river derives its name
from Henry Hudson, who sailed to the
mouth of the Mohawk, at Cohoes, in
September, 1609. The Indian name for
the river was Shatemuc. The Hudson
has always occupied an important posi-
tion in the historical as well as the com-
mercial life of the nation, and is fittingly
called the “Rhine of America.”
Hudson’s Bay Company, an English
trading company organized in 1670 for
the purpose of trading in furs in the
1385
HUERTA
region around Hudson Bay. For nearly
a century the company suffered from the
conflicts between the French and Eng-
lish and made little progress. When the
French relinquished their claims in North
America to the English, the company
began to prosper and to extend its influ-
ence. By 1856 it had over 3000 em-
ployees and was practically responsible
for the administration of law in all the
British Northwest. It exerted a power-
ful influence in the political affairs of
Canada. But when the Dominion was
formed in 1867, settlers began to invade
the company’s domain, and in 1869 it
sold its territory to the Dominion.
Huerta, Victoriano, Vic tor ri ahn' no
Whert' tah. See MExico,subhead History.
Hugh Capet, Hu Ka’ pet. See CAPE-
TIAN DyNasTy.
Hughes, Hewz, Charles Evans (1862-
), an American jurist and statesman,
born at Glens Falls, N. Y. He studied
at Brown and Colgate universities and
Columbia Law School. He became pro-
fessor of law in Cornell University in
1891, and afterwards lecturer in the New
York Law School. He first came into
public notice as counsel for the Legisla-
tive Committee of New York in their
investigation of certain gas, electric-light
and insurance companies.- He was gov-
ernor of New York State for four years,
beginning in 1907. In 1910 he was ap-
pointed associate justice of the United
States Supreme Court. Being nominated
for president by the Republican National
Convention in 1916, he resigned from the
bench, and when defeated in the elec-
tion he resumed the practice of his pro-
fession. He entered President Harding’s
cabinet as Secretary of State in 1921.
Hughes, James Laughlin (1846-
), a Canadian educator. He was
born near Bowmanville, Ontario, and
educated at the Toronto Normal School,
where he became an assistant in the
model school at the age of 20. He was
influential in the establishment of kin-
dergartens in Ontario, in 1893 was chair-
man of the elementary department in
the World’s Congress of Education at
ae > and is widely known as a lec-
HUGHES
turer on educational subjects. His works ;
include Dickens as an Educator, The ~
Practical Speller and a Topical History ~
of England.
Hughes, John (1797-1864), first
Archbishop of New York, born at Anna-
loghan, Ireland. His father emigrated ta
the United States in 1816 and settled
in Pennsylvania. After coming to Amer- ~
ica the son was placed in Mount St. ©
Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, Md., to ~
study for the priesthood. He was or-
dained in 1826, and his remarkable pow- ~
ers first attracted widespread attention
and admiration when he engaged in a
controversy with a distinguished Pres-
byterian clergyman, Rev. J. A. Breck-
enridge. In 1838 he was consecrated
Bishop of Basileopulis and coadjutor of
New York. He was raised to the dig-
nity of Archbishop of New York in July,
1850. Archbishop Hughes abolished trus-
teeism in the New York Diocese, in
1841 he brought about the overthrow
of the Public School Society which he
thought was undermining the religion of
the children, and later founded the Cath-
olic School system now existing in New
York.
was intrusted with an important mission
to the court of Napoleon III, and prob-
ably dissuaded him from recognizing the
Confederacy. He was a staunch sup-
porter of the Holy See in its trouble
with the Italian Government, raising a
fund of $53,000 as an offering from his
diocese to the Pope.
Hughes, Samuel (1853-1921), a Ca-
nadian legislator, born in Ontario and ~
At the outbreak of the Civil —
War, although not an Abolitionist, he —
‘boldly sustained the Union cause, and
educated at Toronto University and at
the Royal Military Schools.
tured for ten years in Toronto College
Institute, on English language, litera-
ture and history, and in 1885 turned his 4
attention entirely to journalism, being
He lec- —
editor and proprietor of the Lindsay ~
Warder from then until 1897. Having
entered the volunteer militia, he became
lieutenant-colonel by 1897, and, after
serving with distinction in the South ©
African War, 1899-1900, he was pro-
1386
~,
HUGHES
moted colonel, 1902. A Conservative, he
sat for North Victoria in the House of
Commons from 1892 to 1904, and after
that he represented Victoria. and Hali-
burton. In October, 1911, he entered
the Borden cabinet as minister of militia
and defense.
Hughes, Thomas. (1823-1896), an
English author, born in Uffington. He
studied at Rugby under Dr. Thomas Ar-
nold, graduated at Oxford in 1845, was
admitted to the bar three years later and
became queen’s counsel in 1869. In 1880
he established Rugby, a socialistic com-
munity in Tennessee. He became famous
as an author in 1856 with the appear-
ance of Tom Brown's School Days, a
truthful delineation of life in English
public schools. Among his other works
are Tom Brown at Oxford, The Scour-
ing of the White Horse, Life of Alfred
the Great and an edition of Lowell’s
Biglow Papers.
Hugli, Hoo’ gle, River, the principal
delta channel of the Ganges River,
formed by the junction of the three
offsets (known as the Nadiya rivers),
the Churni, the Jalangi and the Bhagi-
rathi. It is 125 m. long, with an addi-
tional estuary 35 m. in length, and is
available for navigation, though under
the influence of the southwest monsoon
and frequently encumbered at its en-
trance by large shoals.
Hu’go, Victor Marie (1802-1885), a
French dramatist, poet and novelist, born
at Besancon. He was brought up a
Royalist and a Catholic, and studied
at Paris and. Madrid. At 17 he had
competed for and won several prizes,
and at the age of 20 he published a
volume of odes, where he gave expres-
sion to his youthful religious and polit-
ical enthusiasm. In 1827 appeared the
dramatic poem Cromwell, with the pref-
ace in which he made his celebrated
defense of the theories of the Roman-
ticists. Three years later the drama Her-
nant was presented, and for nearly 100
nights the violent protests of the Classi-
cists vied with the stormy applause from
the enthusiastic supporters, of the new
school. There was a burst of such in-
HUGO
_tense emotion expressed in the play as
the theatergoers of the period had never
witnessed before. In the same vein of
spontaneity and freedom he produced the
daring dramas The King Amuses Him-
self, Lucréce Borgia, Marie Tudor and
Ruy Blas, the last a triumphant com-
bination of tragedy and high comedy,
written in noble verse. In 1843 when
The Burgraves was written, it became
apparent that the author had conceived
situations too grandiose for the limita-
tions of the drama, and he gave up the
work, turning his attention to politics.
In 1841 he became a member of the
French Academy and was made a peer
by Louis Philippe four years later. When
the Revolution of 1848 broke out, he
supported Louis Napoleon, until Napo-
leon no longer favored his advancement.
Then he withdrew, joined the Demo-
cratic Party, but was distrusted by his
fellow Republicans and forced to flee to
Brussels and England, where he remained
in exile for about 20 years. In the books
Napoleon the Little and History of a
Crime his indignation is at white heat
as he recalls how the Second Empire
was founded. In 1871 he became a
member of the National Assembly at
Bordeaux; resigning, he went to Brus-.
sels, where his defense of the Paris Com-
mune brought about threatened mobs,
and he was expelled from Belgium.
From 1853 Hugo wrote chiefly fic-
tion, only one of his larger novels,
Notre-Dame de Paris, having previously
appeared. Les Misérables, completed in
1862, was published in ten different lan-
guages on the same day. It is the great-
est epic and dramatic work of fiction
that has ever been produced. The story
of a soul ennobled and glorified by suf-
fering, it presents an alternating pano-
rama of .sunlight and gloom, and al-
though it had practically no influence on
the development of fiction as such, its
popularity remained unwaning for sey-
eral succeeding decades. Other novels,
revealing man in his blind struggle with
fate and environment, are The Man Who
Laughs, Toilers of the Sea and Ninety-
three.
1387
HUGUENOTS
Among his other works are The Chas-
tisements, a series of poems bearing on
the joys and sorrows of youth, the in-
expressible loss of a loved daughter and
the pains of exile, and The Legend of
the Centuries, an epic which in sublimity
and beauty rivals the splendor of even
Dante and Milton. In 1864 he pub-
lished William Shakespeare, in which
eloquence runs riot as he pays homage
to the bard of the 16th century. Hugo
was first and last a lyricist and ranks
as the greatest French poet of his cen-
tury, as well as one among the greatest
of all time.
Huguenots, Hw' ge nots, a name given
to the French Protestants during the
15th and 16th centuries. The name, said
to have been derived from that of King
Hugo, at whose gate the Protestants met
nightly, was applied to Protestants in
much the same way as the term papist
was given to the Catholics. The edict
aiming at the extermination of the her-
etics in 1535 had caused many Prot-
estants to emigrate, and in 1538 the first
French Protestant church was _ estab-
lished at Strassburg with the famous
John Calvin as its pastor (See CALVIN,
Joun). About this same time, in spite
of great opposition, the Church of Paris
was organized, and a union of all Prot-
estant churches in the kingdom was at-
tempted. In 1559 the Synod of Paris
was called to consider the constitution
of Calvin; this synod gave its form as
its name to like assemblies of the later-
organized Presbyterian Church. The
Huguenots had by this time attained con-
siderable strength in France and num-
bered- among their members such influ-
ential people as Coligny, the Estiennes
and Jeanne d’Albret, the mother of Henry
of Navarre. With such assistance the
Huguenots were enabled to form a po-
litical party, which was opposed by the
House of Guise, the leaders of the Cath-
olic Party. The contests between the
parties became as much political as they
were religious, from this time, and re-
sulted in a series of religious civil wars.
After the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s
Day (1572) the Protestants that re-
HULL
mained fled to their fortified towns,
where after sieges and determined oppo-
sition war was temporarily terminated,
The Huguenots, though accused of an
attempt to set up a government of their
own, were at heart Royalists, and the
little republic which they instituted’ was
rather religious than civil. Of this re-
public the Prince of Condé was the first
president, and later Henry of Navarre
headed it until he became King of
France. The accession of Henry IV to
the throne of France filled the Hugue-
nots with a hope which was temporarily
extinguished when Henry acknowledged
the Catholic faith (See Henry IV), but
was rewarded by the Edict of Nantes
(See NANTES, Epict oF) in 1598, allow-
ing religious liberty to Protestants.
During the following years in~ the
reign of Louis XIV the Edict was re-
voked, and such persecutions of Prot-
estants ensued that the Huguenots were
driven in numbers to the New World,
where their settlements in Nova Scotia,
along the St. Lawrence, in South Caro-
lina and along the Gulf hastened colo-
nization. The Code Napoleon enacted
in the 19th century placed Protestants
and Catholics upon an equality in France.
See Law, subhead Code Napoleon.
Hull, a city of Canada in the Prov-
ince of Quebec, on the Ottawa River
and the Canadian Pacific Railway, 2 m.
n. of Ottawa. It lies directly opposite
the latter city and is connected with it
‘by an electric tram and two large bridges.
The city contains saw and planing mills,
Portland cement works, a foundry, a
packing house and factories for the pro-
duction of paper, matches, sulphur, sul-
phite, woodenware, bricks, furniture and
axes. There are important mines of
phosphate rock, mica and iron in the
vicinity, and the falls in the Chaudiére
River opposite the city constitute one
of the finest cataracts in Canada. Popu-
lation in 1911, 18,222.
Hull, or Kingston-upon-Hull, a sea-
port, civic, county, Parliamentary and
municipal borough in East Riding, York-
shire, England. The town is about 40 -
m. by rail sie. of York and 20 m. from
1388
~ HULL
the North Sea. The surroundings are
uninteresting and far from picturesque,
and the old quarter of the town, form-
ing an irregular peninsula, is very
crowded. Among prominent buildings
are Trinity Church, the corn exchange,
the new exchange, the Hull and East
Riding College, the Royal Institution and
numerous other educational establish-
ments. It is the third port in importance
in the kingdom. The exports include
coal, machinery, oil, woolen and cotton
goods and mill work; the imports, tim-
ber, wool, flax, hemp, tallow, cattle and
grain. The docks, among the largest in
the world, cover 200 acres. After the
' Norman Conquest the town rapidly de-
veloped into a port of importance, and
in 1298 it received its charter from Ed-
ward I. Population, about 259,000. .
Hull, Isaac (1773-1843), an American
naval officer, born in Derby, Conn. He
was commissioned lieutenant in the
United States navy in 1798, commanded
the Argus in 1804, engaged in the Bar-
bary Wars and was given command of
the Constitution, with which he suc-
- cessfully evaded an attack by a supe-
rior British force at the outbreak of the
War of 1812. Off Newfoundland he
soon afterwards captured the British
frigate Guerriére, losing 14 men to the
enemy’s 72. This was the first and most
famous naval victory during the war.
See CONSTITUTION, THE,
Hull, William (1753-1825), an Amer-
‘ican soldier, born in Derby, Conn., and
educated at Yale. Becoming captain of
a Connecticut regiment at the outbreak
of the Revolution, he fought at White
Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Saratoga, Ft.
Stanwix, Monmouth and Stony Point.
After the war he became a state senator
and from 1805 to 1812 he was governor
of Michigan Territory. In the latter
year, when the second war with Eng-
land opened, as a brigadier-general he
was placed in command of the North-
western army, with headquarters at De-
troit. Hull exhibited inferior ability and
failed to inspire the confidence of his
troops, and finally surrendered Detroit—
and all Michigan Territory—to the Brit-
HUME >
ish on Aug. 16. He was court-mar-
tialed and sentenced to death for cow-
ardice; but he was pardoned by Madi-
son in consideration of his Revolution-
ary services.
Hull House.
MENTS.
Hum/bert I (1844-1900), King of
Italy and successor of Victor Emman-
uel II. In January, 1878, he succeeded
to the throne of Italy and ruled care-
fully according to constitutional law. In
his foreign policy he was anxious to take
an active part in European affairs, and
for this reason he entered into a Triple
Alliance with Germany and Austria. He
earned the title of “Humbert the Good”
by his lavish charity and his courage
in the rescue work after the earthquake
at Ischia in 1883 and during the cholera
epidemic of 1884. After two unsuccess-
ful attempts upon his life he was shot
and killed near Milan by an anarchist.
Hum/boldt, Alexander, BARON VON
(1769-1859), a German naturalist, born
at Berlin, and educated in the univer-
sities of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Ber-
lin and Gottingen, and at the academy
in Hamburg. He also studied in the
school of mining in Freiberg, and had
the oversight of the Franconian mines.
During his lifetime Humboldt visited
South “America, Mexico, the West Indies,
Siberia, central Asia and the countries
of southern Europe. He was the lead-
ing geographer of his time and his books
were widely read, especially Kosmos,
which is still regarded as a standard
work.
Hume, David (1711-1776), an Eng-
lish historian and philosopher, born in
Edinburgh, the youngest son of the laird
of Ninewells. His education consisted
chiefly in home reading, although he ap-
pears to have attended the University of
Edinburgh when 12 years old. He stud-
ied law and engaged in mercantile af-
fairs for a time, but soon abandoned
both for the “pursuits of philosophy and
learning,” to which he gave his life with
much devotion. He spent three years in
retirement in France (1734-1737), and
wrote his Treatise of Human Nature,
See SoctaAL SETTLE
1389
HUMIDITY
Now regarded as one of the three or four
most famous philosophical works of
England, it attracted almost no atten-
tion at the time of its publication. Turn-
ing then to political theory, Hume pub-
"ished Essays, Moral and Political (and
Literary, added later).
In 1748 he recast his earlier work in
the Enquiry Concerning Human Under-
standing; in 1751 he published Enquiry
Concerning the Principles of Morals;
and in 1752 appeared the Political Dis-
courses, which have been called the
“cradle of political economy.” At the
same time he also wrote Dialogues on
Natural Religion, published after his
death. From 1754 to 1762 he published
the various parts of his History of Eng-
land, which immediately became a classic.
When he went to France in 1763 as a
member of the English embassy, he
found himself famous there, and was
much lionized. After his return to Eng-
land four years later he became under-
secretary of state. In 1770 he retired to
Edinburgh, where he died in 1776.
Hume’s literary style is delightful, full
of sparkle and animation. His essays
are models of their-kind. His historical
writing is clear and forceful in narra-
tion, and philosophical in breadth and
judgment. As a philosopher he carried
the empirical school to its logical con-
clusion in universal skepticism, Locke
and Berkeley had both retained the con-
ception of a mental substance which re-
ceived impressions through the senses.
Hume drops this out, and identifies the
mind with the series of impressions it-
self. When the impressions cease, the
mind therefore ceases. This does away
with the permanent Ego, or self, and
with any possibility of immortality.
Hume therefore early gained a reputa-
tion for heresy, agnosticism and skep-
ticism. The conclusions of his philoso-
phy aroused Kant from his “dogmatic
slumber,” and opened the way for fur-
ther progress in philosophical thought.
Humid’ity, the water vapor in the
atmosphere. This vapor is an invisible
and light-weight gas, constituting five
per cent of the atmosphere of the earth.
HUMIDITY
It is not uniformly distributed, however,
and the amount in certain localities is
greatly in excess of that in others. The
“interchange of water between the ocean
and the land and between different parts
of the land and sea is constantly going
on; and when account is taken of the
large volumes of water which are con-
tinually being emptied into the sea by
rivers, and the large amount which ‘is ©
otherwise returned to its source, and it
is considered that the atmosphere is the
chief medium of exchange for all this
moisture, the amount of water which is
constantly in transit is almost incredible.
The chief means of- water circulation
are evaporation, diffusion and precipi-
tation. By evaporation liquid water is
changed to water vapor, in which form
it is carried upward by ascending warm
currents until it becomes chilled to the
dew point, at which it is condensed, or
changed back again to water, forming
clouds. The rate of evaporation is con-
ditioned by the amount of water vapor
already in the air, by the relative tem-
perature of the water and the overlying
air and by the strength of the wind.
The amount of water vapor in the atmos-
phere varies greatly with temperature
and with locality. When the air contains
the largest possible percentage of water
vapor, it is said to be saturated. The
amount of moisture which any given
mass of air contains is its absolute hu-
midity. Relative humidity is the ratio
of the absolute humidity and the quan-
tity of vapor the air could hold if satu-
rated. Thus if the air contains half
the moisture required to saturate it, its
relative humidity is 50; if three-fourths,
it is 75. The average relative humidity
over the land is about 60; over the ocean,
85. The higher the temperature the
more moisture is required to saturate the
air. That part of the. United States
where the land is agriculturally produc-
tive without irrigation is that portion
where the relative humidity is 65. The
United States is almost equally divided
into an eastern humid and a western dry
region, although there are limited areas
of great humidity along the Pacific coast.
1390
~
HUMMING BIRD
Hum/’ming Bird, a family of birds
found only in North and South America
and the islands near the coasts of these
continents. The name is given them
because of the sound produced by the
rapid vibration of their wings when in
flight or poised about flowers in search of
food. There are between 400 and 500
species, over 17 of which are found in
the United States.
Humming birds are the smallest and
most beautiful of all birds. They range
in size from nine inches in length to a
tiny creature less than two inches long,
which is often compared in size to a large
bumblebee. The bill is slender and usu-
ally straight. It varies in length from
one-fourth of an inch in the smallest spe-
cies to five inches in the largest.
In color humming birds are usually
brilliant, with metallic hues of green, red,
blue and crimson. The most conspicu-
ous color is on the throat, which is usu-
ally marked with green, gold, ruby or
some other bright color. In a number of
species the sexes are colored alike, but
in two-thirds of the species the males are
much more brightly colored, and in only
one species is the female brighter than
the male. The tail feathers are usually
brilliant and vary in length and form, be-
ing square, round, forked or having a
threadlike shaft with only a es athe
end.
The nest is a beautiful ee made
of fine plant down, lined with spiders’
webs and completely hidden by lichens
which have been cleverly attached to the
outside. The nest is usually saddled on
a limb, but it may be attached to sides of
rocks or to the tip end of leaves. Two
white eggs are laid. The food consists
largely of insects and, to a limited extent,
the nectar of flowers. The tongue of the
humming bird is divided nearly its en-
tire length so that it somewhat resembles
two fingers. When extended from the
bill, it can reach the nectar in the bottom
of the flower cup or seize upon insects
which may be captured within the flower
or taken upon the wing.
The young are fed by partially digested
HUNGARY
food which the mother raises from her
stomach and places in their bills.
Hundred Years’ War, is the name
of the long conflict between England and
France lasting with intermissions from
1337 to 1453, being an attempt on the
part of England to obtain rule over
France. Edward III of England claimed
the throne because his mother was sister
to Charles IV of France. During this
long conflict success veered back and
forth between the two countries. In
1420 England as the result of the great
victory at Agincourt (which see) seemed
to be successful in the conflict since their
king, Henry V was acknowledged as
heir to the French King, Charles VI.
Then came the strange episode of Joan
of Arc (which see), and England finally
relinquished her long-standing claim.
The battle of Creecy 1346 resulting in a
great English victory is regarded as one
of the great battles of history. (See
CREECY, BATTLE OF.)
The most important effect of this war
upon England was to increase the power
of the House of Commons. It also tended
to awaken a national spirit and to fuse
the Normans and Saxons into one people,
the English.
Hungary. An independent nation of
Europe bounded on the north by Slo-
vakia, on the east by Transylvania, on
the south by Jugo-Slavia, on the west by
Austria. Its estimated area is about
58,000 sq. mi. or about that of our state
of Florida. Its estimated population is
about 11,000,000. .The boundaries of
Hungary were arranged by the Treaty of
Paris at the conclusion of the World
War, subsequently slightly modified by a
separate treaty with Roumania. Present
Hungary includes those parts of the old
kingdom of Hungary that are distinctly
Magyar in ethnology. It lost its old
Slovak counties to the north of the Hun-
garian plains, Transylvania to the east,
strongly Roumanian ; and its Slavic prov-
inces (Croatia and Slovania) to the
southwest, and a large part of the Bairat
along the Danube.
The greater portion of Hungary con-
sists of two immense plains known re-
1391
HUNGARY
spectively as the Little and Great Hun-
_ garian Plains. The Little Plain lies along
both sides of the Danube from Pressburg
to Gran, where the river suddenly turns
south. There are large marshes along
the river. The average elevation is about
450 feet. The Great Plain of Hungary
in many respects reminds the traveler of
the Western Plains of the United States.
It sweeps from Slovakia on the north to
the Danube in the south. In area it is
about 45,000 sq. mi. The average eleva-
tion is 325 feet. The surface slopes
slightly to the south. Low hills with
swampy hollows are the, only variation.
Trees seldom break the surface line ex-
cept at villages. The Theiss River tak-
ing its rise in Slovakia, pursues its lazy
course across the plain, parallel to the
Danube, into which it empties when that
river resumes its eastern flow along the
southern boundary of Hungary.
AGRICULTURE. In general, those plains
are very fertile, and have been celebrated
in that respect since Roman times. It
was the lure of this fertile plain that de-
flected the Hunnish tribes, under the lead
of Attila and induced them to settle
there. Their example was followed in
after centuries by their Magyar kindred
coming up the Danube and thus explains
this strange ethnic island in the midst of
Slavic surroundings.
Of necessity agriculture is the main
industry of Hungary. The climate is
temperate, the rainfall in general suffi-
cient—though seasons of great drought
occur—and all the cereal crops of the
temperate zone flourish, Immense
herds of cattle, sheep and horses are to
be found. Reminiscent of tribal customs
is the immense number of small farms—
averaging about two and a half acres—
- with occasional vast estates. It is on the
Great Plain of Hungary with its level ex-
panse, its boundless fields and wide
spreading villages, and the picturesque
types of peasants, that one finds the real
Hungary and the real Hungarian people
rather than in its cosmopolitan capital of
Budapest.
History. (See Austria-HUuNGary.)
Huns, The. A Finno-Altaic people
and critic, born in Southgate.
others,
HUNT
originally located on the Trans-Caspian —
In the fourth century of ~
our era, they suddenly invaded Europe ~
as a resistless desolating barbaric host
overthrowing civilized people wherever ~
plains of Asia.
they passed, finally settling on the plains
of Hungary and founding Budas, their
capital, which city as Budapest, is”still
the capital of Hungary. This invasion ~
marks the beginning of the Dark Ages
in History. (See Attiza.) (Also Hun-
GARY. ) |
Hunt (James Henry) Leigh (1784-
1859), an English journalist, essayist
He stud-
ied at Christ’s Hospital, London, was
clerk in the war office and later became
editor of the newspaper, the Examiner.
His bold attacks on the policies of the
Tory government led to imprisonment,
but while serving his two years’ sentence
he continued to write political and lit-
erary essays. He met Shelley, Keats and
Byron, and was induced by the latter to
go to Italy and manage the Liberal, a.
political and literary journal; but he re-
turned to England in 1825. A long —
struggle with poverty and sickness fol-
lowed, until he was granted a civil pen-
sion in 1847, when his relief from care
and want was reflected in the charming
His po-—
volumes that soon appeared.
etry is bright and animated; his criti-
cism, appreciative and discriminating. A
lightness and sweetness about his essays ~
make them popular and widely read. He
wrote Imagination and Fancy, Stories
of the Itahan Poets, Table Talk, The
Story of Rimini, Wit and Humour,
Autobiography, Legend of Florence and
Stories in Verse. Of his shorter poems, —
Abou Ben Adhem is still a favorite.
Hunt, William Holman (1827-1910),
an English painter.
some skill in art during leisure hours,
he opened a studio at the age of 16.
Having acquired
A short time afterwards he entered the —
Royal Academy Schools, and exhibited
in the Academy in 1846. In the year
1848 Hunt and Millais, with a few ©
initaited the Pre-Raphaelite
movement. Hunt occupies a unique place
among English artists. His idealism is
1392
HUNTER
shown in such works as his Light of the
World and Isabella and the Pot of Basil;
others that have won wide recognition
are The Scapegoat, The Flight ito
Egypt and the portrait Dante Gabriel
Rossetti. See MILvats, Sir JoHN Ever-
ETT.
Hunter, David (1802-1886), an Amer-
ican soldier, born in Washington, D. C.,
and educated at West Point. He saw
service during the war with Mexico, and
was appointed colonel of cavalry: in May,
1861. He was seriously wounded at the
first Battle of Bull Run. As major-gen-
eral of volunteers he served in Missouri
under Fremont, whom he superseded,
and early in 1862 was placed in command
of the Department of the South. Heim-
mediately declared martial law in his de-
_ partment and began to organize regi-
ments of colored troops. He issued an
order in April, 1862, abolishing slavery
in Georgia, Florida and South Carolina.
But this step was too radical for,’ the
times, and Lincoln annulled the order.
Subsequently Hunter served in West Vir-
ginia and Virginia and was’ brevetted
major-general in the regular army, re-
tiring in 1866.
Huntington, Ind., a city and county
seat of Huntington Co., 24 m. s.w. of Ft.
Wayne and 70 m. s.e. of South Bend,
on the Little River, 1 m. from its en-
trance into the Wabash, and on the Erie,
the Wabash and other railroads. It has
an important trade in farm products and
in lime. The river affords some water
power for manufacturing purposes. The
city has manufactories of pianos, head-
ings and handles, boots and shoes, rubber
goods, cement, barrels and wood and
foundry products. Railroad repair shops
are located here. Huntington is the seat
of the United Brethren College. The H.
S. Building is one of the best in the state.
There is a public library. Population in
1920, 14,000. ;
Huntington, N. Y., a township of
Suffolk Co., Long Island, on Long Island
Sound and on the Long Island Railroad.
The villages of Huntington, Cold Spring
Harbor, Northport and Centreport, which
lie along the Sound, are favorite resi-
brary and several fine hotels.
HUNTINGTON
dential suburbs, and there are many fine
residences owned by New York City
business men. Northport, the most east-
erly of the villages, contains a popula-
tion (1910 census) of 2096. The village
contains shipbuilding yards, valuable oys-
ter fisheries and a large law publishing
house. The New York State Fish Hatch-
ery, the Biological Laboratory of the
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences,
and a laboratory of the Carnegie Insti-
tution are located in the village of Cold
Spring Harbor. Huntington has a large
summer colony and is a prominent re-
sort. The southern part of the town-
ship is largely given over to market gar-
dening, and the city manufactures in-
clude brick, pottery and dairy products.
The first settlement was made in 1653
and the early settlers were nearly all
Puritans from England. A huge boulder
on the shore of Huntington Bay, an in-
dentation of the Sound, marks the place
of capture of Nathan Hale by the Brit-
ish on Sept. 21, 1776. Walt Whitman
was born near Huntington. Population
of the township in 1920, 13,893.
Huntington, W. Va., the county seat
of Cabell Co., located on the Ohio River
just below the entrance of the Guyan-
dotte River and on the Baltimore &
Ohio, the Chesapeake & Ohio and other
railroads. Huntington is conveniently
situated in the center of a magnificent
lumber, coal and gas region. Hunting-
ton is built upon a broad plateau along
the Ohio, and its broad paved streets,
laid out in regular arrangement, are lined
with spacious residences or modern busi-
ness blocks. The city has two amuse-
ment parks, one of which, Camden Park,
lies four miles out and includes a large
lake and natural spots of great beauty.
Within. the city limits are several parks,
and space is reserved for a wider park
system as the growth of the city de-
Huntington has many handsome
churches, a large county courthouse, a
modern Federal Building, a Carnegie li-
Near the
city is the West Virginia Asylum, with
its spacious shaded grounds. Marshall
- mands it.
1393
HUNTSVILLE
College, which is a state normal and
an academic school, is located here, as
also are two Catholic schools, St. Ed-
ward’s Preparatory College and the
school of the Sisters of St. Joseph. The
public school system is an excellent one,
and the numerous school buildings are
well equipped. Aside from these there
are several private schools of high grade.
Among the manufactures are woolen
goods, cars, furniture, china, shoes, ag-
ricultural implements, woodenware, ce-
ment, leather goods, auto supplies, steam
boilers, blank: books, stoves, machinery
and glass. The city was settled and in-
corporated in 1871. It received its name
in honor of the late Collis P. Hunting-
ton, through whose influence the site was
selected. It has had a phenomenal
erowth, having become within a decade
the second city of the state in size and
commercial importance. It has the com-
mission form of government. Popula-
tion in 1920, 50,171.
Huntsville, Ala. a city and the
county seat of Madison Co., 111 m. n.
of Birmingham, on the Southern, the
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis and
other railroads. Huntsville is an impor-
tant market for agricultural produce, and
in the manufacture of cotton products it
leads all other cities in this section. Be-
sides the cotton industry there are nu-
merous other industries, in connection
with which are operated saw and plan-
ing mills, brick plants, machine shops,
foundries, spoke and handle factories,
hoop and heading factories, a fiber fac-
tory and other manufactories. The city
has an unrivaled water supply, derived
from a spring which has a flow of 2,500,-
000 gallons daily. The Central Alabama
Academy is located here, and at Normal,
three miles distant, is the Alabama State
Agricultural and Mechanical College for
negroes. Huntsville was settled in 1805
by John Hunt, a soldier of the Revolu-
tion. In 1819 the convention that framed
the first Alabama constitution met here.
It was the first capital of the state. The
place was chartered as a city in 1844,
revised in 1897. In the course of the
Civil War Huntsville was twice seized
1394
sure upon air valves or pipes.
HURON, LAKE
by Federal forces (1862-63). _Popula- ©
tion in 1920, 8,018. 7
Hur’dy-Gur’dy, a box-shaped mu- —
sical instrument of medieval origin. —
Within the box were four strings which —
were played upon by a: wheel covered
with resin, which, when turned from the
outside by a handle, acted upon the
strings like a bow; the pitch was regu- —
lated by a series of keys. The instru-
ment at present designated as a hurdy-
gurdy is so constructed that the hafdle —
is attached to a rotating cylinder, cov-—
ered with pegs, which strike the strings
or keys, or produce vibration by pres-
It is fre-
quently a combination of piano, hand
organ and drum.
Hu’ron. See Wy’ANDOT.
Huron, S. D., a city and county seat
of Beadle Co., 119 m. n.e. of Pierre and
115 m. n.w. of Yankton, on the Great
Northern and the Chicago & North
Western railroads. Huron is the seat of
Huron College (Presbyterian). There is —
also an excellent system of public schools.
There are manufactories of flour, brick,
wagons and carriages and dairy prod-
ucts. Large railroad repair shops, ma-
chine shops, packing plants and eleva-
tors are located here. The city has had
a rapid growth. Huron is operated un-
der the commission form of government.
Population in 1920, 8,302.
Huron, Lake, the third of the Great
Lakes in area. It separates the Provy-
ince of Ontario, Canada, from the Lower
Peninsula of Michigan, and connects
with Lake Michigan. by means of the
Straits of Mackinac, with Lake Superior —
by means of St. Mary’ s River and with ©
Lake Erie by means of the Detroit and
St. Clair rivers and Lake St. Clair. Geor-
gian Bay is a large arm of the lake at
the east and is separated from it by the
Manitoulin Islands and the Bruce Penin-
sula (See GEorGIAN Bay; MANITOULIN —
IsLANDS). On the western side, Sagi-
naw Bay forms an important arm 60 mi.
long and 20 m. broad, extending sonth-—
westward into Michigan. Lake Huron
is 270 m. Jong, 105 m. broad aiuaee
widest part, and its area is approximately —
HURRICANE
23,000 sq. m. It is deeper than Lake
Superior, but not so deep as Lake Michi-
gan; its greatest depth is 1000 ft.. It
lies 574 ft. above sea level and is, there-
fore, 26 ft. below Lake Superior and 4
ft. below Lake Michigan. The fall be-
tween it and Lake Erie is a gradual one
of 10 ft. The shores at the south are
low, but from Goderich north on the
Canadian shore the cliffs are high and
rugged. The water is clear and quanti-
ties of trout and pickerel are caught.
The principal American ports are Che-
boygan, Alpena and Port Huron; the
principal Canadian ports are Goderich,
Kincardine and Southampton. The im-
portant rivers entering the lake are: from
Michigan, the Saginaw, the Cheboygan
and the Au Sable; from Ontario, the
French and the Maganetawan. _
Hur’ricane, a violent windstorm
which usually is accompanied by electric
manifestations and by hail. Storms to
which this name is applied are of the
whirlwind type and generally occur in
tropical regions; those that occur in the
West Indies and the China Sea are often
- spoken of as typhoons and are most fre-
quent in the months of August, ‘Sep-
tember and October. The hurricane is
a windstorm of the strongest force. See
STORM ; CYCLONE.
Husband and Wife, a man and woman
married to each other. The law recog-
nizes the rights of married persons in
their relation to each other under per-
sonal rights and property rights. These
rights were first fixed by common law,
which in the United States was long since
recognized as being unjust to the wife.
The first modification of common-law
_ rights of the wife was made by the State
of New York, in 1848. Other states
immediately followed the example of
New York, and in most states the wife
now has equal rights with the husband.
PERSONAL Ricuts. The following per-
sonal rights are generally recognized:
1. The husband has the right to de-
termine the place of residence, and the
wife’s legal residence is identical with
his.
2. The husband ts bound to support
HUTCHINSON
the wife in circumstances conformable
to his income and social position.
3. The wife is bound to care for the
home, and in so far as services to this
end are required, they belong to the hus-
band.
4. Husband and wife cannot be wit-
ness in a case where the other is a
party, except in certain cases brought by
one against the other.
5. The husband is liable for civil of-
fenses committed by the wife after mar-
riage.
Property Ricuts. 1. At marriage
the wife secures a dower interest amount-
ing to one-third the husband’s estate.
2. In most states the wife may hold
and convey property in her own name,
but she cannot convey her husband’s es-
tate by will or otherwise. |
3. The wife cannot make contracts in
her husband’s name unless acting as his
authorized agent.
4. The husband cannot convey real
estate without the wife’s consent because
of her dowry in the same.
5. The wife can contract debts for
her necessary support, which the husband
must pay. See Divorce; MARRIAGE.
Huss, John (about 1370-1415), a Bo-
hemian reformer. While studying at the
University of Prague, he became con-
verted to the doctrines of Wiclif, and
in 1402, as rector of the university, he
began to spread these doctrines by
preaching in the Bohemian tongue. Six
years later he was forbidden to preach,
but he was supported by the King of
Bohemia, and the people regarded him
as a hero. He was excommunicated in
1410, and spent his retirement in writ-
ing his chief work, On the Church. In
1414 he was summoned to attend the
Council of Constance, where he was im-
prisoned and tried for heresy; upon his
refusal to recant, he was burned at the
stake in July, 1415.
Hutch’inson, Anne (about 1590-
1643), a religious enthusiast of colonial
times, born in Lincolnshire, England. She
married William Hutchinson, and in 1634
came to Boston, Mass., where she was
soon accused of teaching heresy. She
1395
HUTCHINSON
was publicly examined, excommunicated
and exiled. With followers she went to
Rhode Island and founded Portsmouth
and Newport. Later, Mrs. Hutchinson
went to Long Island, where she and
her family, excepting one daughter, were
massacred by Indians.
Hutchinson, Kan., a city and the
county seat of Reno Co., 40 m. w. of
Wichita, on the north side of the Ar-
kansas River and on the Missouri Pa-
cific, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific,
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and
other railroads. Indian corn, wheat and
other farm products are extensively
raised, and there is a large wholesale
trade. Large deposits of rock salt are
found in the vicinity and underlie the
city, and one of the largest salt plants
in the world is located here, having a
daily output of about 6000 barrels. Nat-
ural gas is largely used for fuel. Other
manufactures include soda ash, flour,
strawboard, butter and creamery prod-
ucts, sash, blinds and doors and plan-
ing-mill products. Among the noteworthy
buildings are a county courthouse, Fed-
eral Building, a public library, numer-
ous churches, banks and substantial busi-
ness houses. An industrial reformatory
is maintained here by the state. There
are several public parks. Settled in 1871,
Hutchinson was incorporated in 1872
and in the same year chartered as a
city. The commission form of govern-
ment has been adopted. Population in
1920, U. S. Census, 23,298,
Hutchinson, Thomas (1711-1780),
the last royal governor of Massachu-
setts, born in Boston, and educated at
Harvard. He early ‘became interested
in politics, served several terms in the
Colonial Assembly, became lieutenant-
governor of the colony in 1758, was made
chief justice of the state in 1760 and
was commissioned royal governor in
1770. A courageous and determined
Loyalist, he became very unpopular as
the independence sentiment grew. When
military law was declared in 1774 he
went to England to reside. His History
of Massachusetts Bay is a work of great
value.
1396
HUXLEY
Huxley, Thomas Henry (1825-1895), ©
a noted English scientist, born in Ealing, ©
a suburb of London. He studied in the ©
Medical School of Charing Cross Hos- ©
pital, and in 1845 graduated at the Uni- —
versity of London. Entering the medal
ical service of the navy, he was, ap-~
pointed in 1846 assistant surgeon of the —
Rattlesnake, which was to make surveys ~
to the east and north of Australia. The ©
voyage lasted four years, and during —
this time Huxley devoted himself with
great enthusiasm to the study of marine ~
animals, writing scientific articles home
to the Linnzan and Royal societies.
When he returned to London he found —
himself famous. He was given his time
with salary for three years to work up
the material which he had collected dur-
ing the voyage. The result was his
famous book, published in 1859, Oceanic
Hydrozoa.. .
Meantime he had been elected a fellow —
of the Royal Society in 1851, and in 1854
he was made professor of natural his- —
tory in the Royal School of Mines. His —
ability as an educator, coupled with his
success in original research, opened to —
him important positions and brought him
many honors. He served as Fullerian
professor of physiology to the Royal
Institution; was for seven years exam-
iner to the University of London; filled —
the Hunterian professorship in the Royal —
College of Surgeons; and in 1883 re-—
ceived the highest scientific recognition
possible by being elected president of —
the Royal Society. He was also an hon- —
ored member of other scientific socie-
ties, served on ten royal commissions, —
became lord rector of Aberdeen Uni-
versity, and in 1892 was made a mem-
ber of the Privy Council. Because of
ill health he retired from his various
positions in 1885 and spent the remain-
ing ten years of his life in writing.
While Huxley was an original inves- —
tigator of unusual ability, yet his serv-
ices were probably greatest in the direc-
tion of popularizing the results of sci-—
ence. He had remarkable facility of
expression, a style that was clear, force-
ful and interesting. His writings are
—s
HYACINTH
good science, but good literature also;
while as a public speaker he was able
to present scientific topics in a form that
was understood and appreciated by the
uneducated. Among his most impor-
tant writings, aside from his many mag-
azine contributions, are Oceanic Hydro-
zoa, Evidence as to Man’s Place in Na-
ture, Elementary Physiology, Elementary
Biology (with Martin), Anatomy of
Vertebrated Animals, Anatomy of In-
vertebrated Animals, Physiography and
The Crayfish.
Hyacinth, H7' a sinth, a cultivated
member of the Lily Family, which bears
a stalk of purple, pink or white flowers
early in spring. The leaves are stem-
less and rushlike, springing from a bulb;
the flowers are bell-shaped and heavily
scented. The grape hyacinth, cultivated
from Europe, is a small garden or door-
yard plant, with a closely crowded spike
of deep blue spherical flowers resembling
a bunch of grapes. These flowers are
scentless.
Hyacinthe, E” a” sant’, Pére. See
Loyson, CHARLES.
Hy’acin’thus, a Greek youth whom
Apollo passionately loved. While play-
ing quoits together, the discus thrown
by the god accidentally hit Hyacinthus
on the forehead. Apollo, grief stricken,
was unable to save the life of his friend;
but as the blood flowed from the dying
boy’s wound and stained the herbage, it
ceased to be blood and became a flower.
Apollo had changed it into the beautiful
purple hyacinth.
Hyde Park, Mass., a town of Norfolk
Co., 8 m. s.w. of Boston, on the Nepon-
set River and on the New York, New
Haven & Hartford Railroad. The vil-
lages included within the town limits
are Clarendon Hills, Fairmount, Read-
ville and Hazlewood. It is a residential
suburb for many business men of Bos-
ton. There are extensive manufactories
of rubber goods, looms, paper, dyestuffs,
morocco, cotton and woolen goods,
curled hair, machinery, tools and chem-
icals. Hyde Park contains a public li-
brary. The town was incorporated in
- 1868. Annexed to Boston in 1912.
HYDRANGEA
Hyderabad, Hi” der ah bahda', or Hai-
darabad, a city of India, capital of the
state of the same name, situated on the
Musi River. The chief buildings include
the Char Minar, or College with Four
Minarets, the Gosha Mahal Palace, the
hospital, the Mecca Mosque, the Brit-
ish residency and several fine palaces in
the suburbs. In addition to the Nizam
College are industrial and professional
schools. Silks, turbans, trinkets and cot-
ton are manufactured, and the city is
an important commercial center. Popu-
lation in 1901, 448,466.
Hy’dra, a fabulous monster ravag-
ing about the marsh of Lerna. Its cen-
tral head was immortal, but when any
of the other eight was stricken off, twa
sprang up in its place. The second labor
of Hercules was to slay this creature.
By the aid of his servant, Iolaus, he
seared the mortal heads, for this alone
checked their growth. The immortal
head he buried beneath a rock. See
HERCULES,
Hydra, Fresh-Water, a family of the
order Coelenterata, members of which are
found in ponds and_ slowly-flowing
streams. They are large enough to be
seen with the unaided eye and may be
found clinging to the under edges of
floating leaves or submerged sticks.
They are threadlike in form and have
numerous tiny tentacles, some of which
contain stiffened darts for wounding
their insect prey; the other tentacles aid
in grasping the wounded insect and in
bringing it to the central mouth cavity.
One of the peculiarities of the hydra
is its remarkable power of recovery from
injury. It has simple muscular and
nerve cells and reproduces by budding.
Hydrangea, Hi dran’ je a, a wild or
cultivated plant of the Saxifrage Fam-
ily, often planted for ornament on lawns
and in parks. The common hydrangea
was introduced from China or Japan
as a house plant. It is a low shrub, gen-
erally bushy, but by trimming, easily
made treelike. The bark is reddish-
brown and the slender branches bear
oval, light green leaves, coarse in tex-
ture and deeply-veined. From the joints
1397
HYDRAULIC LIMESTONE
proceed handsome clusters of white, pur-
ple or pink flowers. The blossoms of
each spray are of two kinds: sterile or
those unable to bear fruit, and fertile,
or fruit-producing: The sterile are al-
ways found around the border of the
cluster, enclosing the fertile, but in the
most highly cultivated hydrangeas few
of the flowers are fertile. The fruit,
when produced, is a little pod. The cul-
tivated hydrangea is rapidly becoming a
favorite ornamental shrub, for, though
its branches are delicate and easily
broken, the rich bloom well repays care.
The sprays of flowers are often a foot
long and form a thick cone whose base
is from six to eight inches in diameter.
These splendid sprays dry when picked,
but retain their color through the entire
winter- and are often used for decora-
tive purposes.
Wild hydrangeas, locally called oak
hydrangeas, are stout shrubs growing
along shady river banks from Pennsy]l-
vania south. These take readily to cul-
tivation and are easily improved.
Hydraul’ic Limestone. See LIME-
STONE. :
Hydraulic Press. See Hyprostatic
PRESS.
Hydraulic Ram, a device for using
the force of a stream of water to raise
a portion of the water to a higher level.
In the figure, 3 represents the reservoir,
or stream, and 2 the pipe through which
the water flows by gravity. The pipe
is turned upward at 1. The flow of wa-
ter through the opening, 6, is controlled
by a cone-shaped valve, 7, weighted and
opening inward. An air chamber, 4, is
connected to the pipe, 2, and is provided
with a valve opening outward. When
the water at first runs through the pipe,
the valve, 7, is open and allows the wa-
ter to flow out through the orifice, 6,
and this flow continues until the force
of the stream becomes sufficiently great
to raise the valve and close the orifice.
When this happens, the flow of water
in the pipe, 2, suddenly stops, and the
force of the current is such as to drive
a portion of the water into the air
chamber, 4, through the valve just above
HYDROGEN
2. As soon as the flow in 2 stops, the
valve, 7, falls and the flow is again.
started. Water is forced into the dis-
charge pipe, 5, and elevated by means”
of the elastic force of the air in 4.
As so little water can be elevated in ©
proportion to what is used, rams are not ‘
extensively employed.
Whex
lia EN
he
HYDRAULIC RAM
Hydraulics. See HyDROMECHANICS.
Hydrochloric, Hi” dro klo’ rik, Acid.
See Muriatic ACID.
Hy”drodynam/’ics. See HypRoME-
CHANICS, subhead Hydrodynamics.
Hydrofluoric, Hi” dro flu or’ tk, Acid,
a colorless, fuming liquid composed of
hydrogen and fluorine. It is highly poi-
sonous, and injurious effects result from
breathing even the diluted fumes. A drop
of it upon the skin causes very painful
burns and sores, which act with great
rapidity in poisoning the blood. Hydro-
fluoric acid is largely employed in etch-
ing upon glass, particularly in marking
;
c.
glass measures. The glass to be marked —
is covered with wax and the design is
traced deeply enough to remove the wax
from the portions to be etched. The
plate is then treated with hydrofluoric-
acid gas, which cuts the parts not cov-
ered by wax.
Hydrogen, Hi’ dro jen, one of the
most widely distributed elements, a con-
stituent of water. It was discovered by
Paracelsus in the beginning of the 16th
century and called inflammable air. In
1766 Cavendish ascertained by experi-—
ment many of its properties, and in
1783 Lavoisier found it to be one of
the constituents of water and named it
hydrogen, meaning water-producing.
Hydrogen is a colorless, tasteless, odor-
less gas, which burns with a pale blue
1398
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
flame and intense heat. It is a good
conductor of heat and electricity and has
been liquefied when subjected to a high
pressure at a temperature of —241° C.
The liquid is steel-blue in color and boils
at —253° C. It has also been solidified.
Hydrogen is rarely found free in na-
ture, that is, uncombined with other ele-
ments, but it does so occur in the craters
of volcanoes and in some gas wells.
Hydrogen is most easily prepared in
the laboratory by pouring dilute sul-
phuric acid upon zinc. The sulphuric
acid is composed of hydrogen, sulphur
and oxygen, and the zinc tends to re-
place the hydrogen, forming zinc sul-
phate and setting free the hydrogen.
Since hydrogen is lighter than air, it
must be collected in an inverted flask,
from which it soon diffuses if allowed
to stand. Hydrogen is a supporter of
neither respiration nor combustion;
hence an animal surrounded by an at-
mosphere of hydrogen soon dies, and
an ordinary flame inserted in a flask of
the gas is instantly extinguished.
Being the lightest of all gases, it has
been used as the standard by which the
relative weights of other gases were com-
puted. Hydrogen is a constituent of all
acids and is a little more than one-ninth,
by weight, of water, which it produces
when burned in the presence of oxygen.
See OxYGEN ; HyDROGEN ; PEROXIDE,
Hydrogen Perox’ide, a compound of
hydrogen and oxygen frequently used
as a bleaching agent.
’ of the same two elements as water, but
differs from it by containing 32 parts
of oxygen and two of hydrogen, while
water has two parts of hydrogen to 16
of oxygen. Hydrogen peroxide is very
unstable and easily gives up one-half
of its oxygen; thus it changes to water
and oxidizes whatever substance will take
up the oxygen. It occurs in small quan-
tities in the air and in rain water, to
which it gives its fresh, pungent odor.
- The hydrogen peroxide on the market
is very dilute, since in this condition it
is more stable. In a pure state it is a
colorless, sirupy liquid having a metallic
taste and slight odor. If used in small
It is composed —
HYDROMECHANICS
quantities it bleaches the skin, but if ap-.
plied too often or in too strong a form
it discolors it and produces an irritat-
ing burn. It is used to restore the col-
ors of oil paintings, to bleach feathers,
ivory and even the teeth, to liberate
iodine from potassium iodide and to ren-
der sores and wounds antiseptic. It is
sold under various trade names, as hy-
drogen dioxide, dioxide, dioxygen, etc.
Hydrography, Hi drog’ ra fy, that
branch of physical geography which
treats of the surface waters of the globe.
It is concerned chiefly with the surfaces
of oceans, lakes and rivers, particularly
with reference to their importance in
navigation. In practically every coun-
try of the world hydrographical depart-
ments are maintained by the central gov-
ernment for the purpose of making sur-
veys and preparing charts of its navi-
gable waters. These charts show the
configuration of the coast line, location
of channels, reefs, rocks and lighthouses
and indicate the depth of the water. The
work of the hydrographic offices of mari-
time countries is one of considerable
magnitude. That of the United States
is maintained at Washington, and it ren-
ders valuable service to navigation.
Hydromechanics, Hi” dro me kan’ tks,
the science of the mechanics of fluids
in general, including both gases and
liquids, especially water. It is usually
treated under the two heads, hydrostatics
and hydrodynamics. |
Hyprostatics. Hydrostatics treats of
the properties of fluids at rest, their
compressibility and elasticity, the pres-
sures exerted by them, their buoyant
effect on immersed bodies and all other
problems regarding fluids in equilibrium.
Some of the more important laws of
hydrostatics are here given. The force
exerted by a fluid at rest against any
surface is perpendicular to that surface,
and the force per unit surface is called
the pressure, measured in pounds per
square inch or in dynes per square cen-
timeter. At any point in a fluid at rest,
either a liquid or a gas, the pressure
is the same in every direction; and the
difference in pressure at different levels
1399
HYDROMECHANICS
is equal to the weight of a column of
the fluid of unit cross section extending
vertically from one level to the other.
For example, the water pressure at the
bottom of an open tank 20 ft. deep is
62.5x20, or 1250, number of lb. per
square ‘foot, which equals 8.7 Ib. per
square inch, the weight of one cubic
foot of water being 62.5 Ib.
Pascal's Principle. Pressure is trans-
mitted equally in all directions through-
out a fluid at rest, and if the pressure
at any point is increased, it is increased
by an equal amount everywhere through-
out the fluid. One of the most strik-
ing applications of this principle is found
in the hydrostatic press. See. Hypro-
STATIC PRESS,
Archimedes Principle. A body im-
mersed, partly or wholly, in a fluid, is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body. A
boat sinks in the water until it displaces
a weight of water equal to its own weight.
A balloon rises in the air until the weight
of the air it displaces is just equal to
its own weight (See GRAVITY, SPECIFIC).
For other laws of hydrostatics, see GAS;
Gases, LAWS OF; CAPILLARITY; BAROM-
ETER; and like topics.
Hypropynamics. Hydrodynamics
treats of the properties of fluids in mo-
tion; the practical application of the
principles of hydrodynamics to engineer-
ing problems constitutes the science of
hydraulics. Some of the fundamental
principles are stated below, together with
reference to practical applications.
Torricelli's Theorem. When a jet of
liquid escapes from a tank, the velocity
of the issuing jet is equal to the veloc-
ity which a body would acquire in fall-
ing from the level of the upper surface
to that of the opening. This velocity
is independent of the density of the
liquid and the direction of the jet, but
is lessened by any viscosity of the
liquid. If only the pressure is known,
then the velocity is given by the equa-
tion v equals \/ 22, where p is the pres-
sure in poundals per square foot, d
the density in pounds per cubic foot and
v the velocity of the jet in feet per sec-
HYDROMETER
ond. This expression holds for liquidsy a
and gases.
Energy Due to Pressure.
be at the expense of the other.
smaller part of the pipe, its speed must
necessarily be increased; hence the pres- —
sure behind it must be creater than that
ahead of it.
many other ways.
WHEEL;
topics.
HypRAULIC RAM;
Hydrom’eter, an apparatus for de-
termining the specific gravity of fluids,
Of the various —
constructions the best known is Nichol- —
especially that of water.
son’s hydrometer, which not only meas-
ures the specific gravities of fluids, but —
It consists of a hollow
The in-—
strument is weighted by a small cup
which hangs suspended at the bottom —
of the cylinder which is thus caused ~
to float upright in a cylindrical vessel —
containing the substance to be weighed. —
The tube is surmounted by a stem, bear- —
The weight of ©
the instrument having been ascertained —
and the additional weight required to —
of solids also.
brass tube with conical ends.
ing a graduated scale.
When a —
liquid is forced into a vessel against ~
pressure, the work done (in foot pound- —
als) is equal to the product of the pres-—
sure (in poundals per square foot) by ~
the volume (in cubic feet) of the liquid ©
introduced. The total energy of a liquid
flowing in a pipe is accordingly equal ©
to the sum of its energy due to pressure ~
and its kinetic energy due to motion. ©
This leads to the remarkable fact that ~
where a pipe is greatly contracted, the ©
pressure of the flowing liquid is less than ~
in the larger pipe on either side, since ~
the increase of one form of energy must —
This
fact seems more reasonable if we con-—
sider that as the liquid is entering the ©
In going from the smaller —
to the larger part of the pipe it is slowed —
down; hence the pressure ahead must be
greater than that behind. This princi- —
ple is made use of in ali aspirating
pumps, in steam-boiler injectors and in
For practical appli- —
cations to hydraulics, see PuMP; WATER —
and like
sink it in distilled water to a point’ in- —
dicated on the stem, the specific gravity —
of any fluid is easily determined by mul-
1400 ,
HYDROPHOBIA
tiplying the weight of a volume of wa-
ter equal to that contained in one sec-
tion of the graduated tube by the num-
ber of sections that the liquid allows the
hydrometer to sink in the tube; that is,
if the volume of one section weighs .05
grain and the hydrometer sinks to
20%2°, .05x20.5, equal to 1.025, is the
specific gravity of the liquid.
Hydrophobia, Hi” dro fo’ bia, or Ra-
bies, Ra’ bi eez, a disease which is com-
‘municated by the bite of a mad dog or
other rabid animal, the peculiar poison-
ous virus in the saliva of the animal’s
mouth entering the blood of the victim
through the wound. Treatment should
be immediate and should begin with ar-
resting the circulation in the region of
the wound to prevent the poison from
being taken up by the blood and car-
ried into the system. Persons having no
wounds or sores in the mouth may safely
suck the poison from the wound, tak-
ing care to sterilize the mouth after-
wards and to prevent the virus from
reaching the throat. Cauterizing with
an iron at white heat or with such cau-
terizing agencies as nitrate of silver, if
thorough, will destroy the germ and pre-
vent the disease. The Pasteur method
of treating hydrophobia, which is now
employed in most large cities, is an al-
most unfailing preventive. It consists
. in inoculating the patient with prepared
virus of successively, higher power until
all the poison has been absorbed. If
‘means employed to prevent hydrophobia
are unsuccessful, symptoms of the dis-.
ease May appear at any time from 6
weeks to 18 months after the bite is
inflicted. The peculiar symptoms are
nervousness, spasmodic muscular con-
tractions and difficulty in swallowing.
The progress of the disease is very rapid,
and death results about three days from
the appearance of the first symptoms.
Hy” drostat’ic Press, or Hydraulic
Press, a machine for using the power
of liquids to transmit pressure. It is of
special value where great force is re-
quired, and is in common use for press-
ing cotton into bales, testing cannon and
raising heavy weights. The press con-
HYENA
sists of two pistons, H and P, which
are fitted by means of water-tight col-
lars into their respective cylinders. The
first piston, H, and its cylinder com-
prise a force pump which pumps water
from the cistern, A, through the con-
necting pipe, C, into the cylinder, M.
The second piston, P, is capped by a
platform, G, on which the object to be
pressed, in this case a bale of cotton,
is placed. The piston, H, held in posi-
tion by passing through the frame, B,
i
ror it PPPs
CH ee
PTemn—-
cA
Ge aa mec
HYDROSTATIC PRESS
forces the water into M, and thus raises
the piston P. If the piston H has an
area of one square inch, and the piston
P, of 100 square inches, every pound of
force exerted upon H produces 100 Ib.
of force upon P and consequently upon
the object on the platform; but the dis-
tance P moves is only 1/100 as great
as the distance H is moved. In many
cases oil is used instead of water. This
press is an application of Pascal’s Prin-
ciple. See HypROMECHANICS,
Hydrostatics. See HyDROMECHANICS,
subhead Hydrostatics.
Hyena, Hie’ na, a group of Mam-
mals belonging to the Hyena Family
and known only in central Europe, south-
ern Asia and Africa. The hyena is an
awkward animal, with a long muzzle,
prominent, ferocious eyes and long, erect
ears. The forelegs are the longer and
give to the body a drooping, humpbacked
appearance, and to the animal a sham-
bling gait. The tail is somewhat bushy
and the coat is of coarse, tawny hair,
marked with darker stripes or spots. The
48 1401
HYGEIA
two mest marked attributes of the hyena
are its powerful jaws, which can crush
with ease the largest bones of the ox,
and its wild howl, which is frequently
likened to the laughing shriek of the
maniac. The home of the hyena is in
natural or manufactured caverns, whence
\ it issues, generally at night, to find for
its food, carrion refused by braver ani-
mals. The three species of hyena are
the brown, the striped and the spotted
hyena, the last of which is the largest,
the best known and the most courageous.
Hygeia, Hi je’ ya, Greek goddess of
health, daughter of /#sculapius, was
greatly revered among the ancients. She
was represented as carrying a snake and
a cup, from which the snake drank.
Hygiene, Hz’ ji en, the science or art
of preserving health by preventing dis-
ease. As the prevention of disease de-
pends upon a knowledge of the cause
of disease, hygiene may be regarded as
a branch of medical science. It may
be classified as personal, domestic and
public hygiene. Personal hygiene con-
sists in taking the proper ‘nourishment
in the form of digestible diet, sufficient
pure water and harmless beverages; in
wearing clothing which will provide the
proper protection; in taking the neces-
sary sleep, and sufficient exercise to in-
sure the normal action of the vital or-
gans; in keeping the body clean; and
in controlling vitiating habits which tend
to undermine health.
Domestic hygiene concerns the admin-
istration of the household. It deals with
the care of young children; the selec-
tion and combination, in a meal, of food-
stuffs which supply the needful elements,
and their preparation for the table; care
of the sick, and household sanitation in
general. Public hygiene implies the su-
pervision of streets, sewerage and build-
ings in cities, and the maintaining of
sanitary conditions. This embraces in-
spection of plumbing arrangements, such
as drains and closets; ventilation; pro-
hibition of promiscuous spitting ; disposal
of refuse in streets and buildings; regu-
lation of conditions on trains and street
cars tending to prevent overcrowding,
HYMENOPTERA
accumulation of filth, and uncomfortable
and injurious jarring; prevention of epi-
demics of infectious diseases by quaran-
tine and inoculation; and disposal of the
dead. See QUARANTINE; SANITARY
SCIENCE.
Hygrom’eter, an instrument for meas-
uring the absolute and relative amount
of moisture in the air. A simple hygrom-
eter, called the hydroscope, indicates but
qualitatively changes in the humidity of
the atmosphere. It can be made of any
substance which contracts with the in-
crease of humidity. Twisted cord, cat-
gut and hair are suitable materials. A
piece of twisted catgut stretched by a
light weight will twist and untwist with
a change in atmospheric humidity, and
a light pointer attached and moving over
a scale will indicate the change. The
wet and dry bulb hygrometer most com-
monly used in stations of the weather
bureau consists of two similar delicate
thermometers fastened side by side on
a stand. The bulb of one is covered
with muslin, which is kept wet by a
wick which extends into a cup of wa-
ter. If the air is not saturated, evapo-
ration occurs from the bulb, and this
reduces the temperature. The difference
in temperatures in the two thermome-
ters indicates the relative humidity of
the atmosphere.
Hyksos, Hik’ sose.
head History.
Hy’men, Greek god of marriage, son
of Apollo and a Muse, was invoked at
every nuptial festival.
sented as crowned with flowers of mar-
joram, carrying the wedding veil and
torch and wearing wings and sandals
of gold.
Hy”menop’tera, a group of interest-
ing and intelligent insects, including the
ants, bees and wasps. The name Hy-
menoptera means membrane wing and
is given to this group because the wings
of these insects have few veins. The
development from egg to adult embraces
the four stages of insect life, egg, larva,
pupa and adult; hence the Hymenop-
tera are said to undergo complete meta-
morphosis. In the larval and pupal stages
See Ecypt, sub-
1402
‘
9
4
,
He was repre- _
HYMN
they are helpless and are cared for in
cells skillfully constructed by the adults.
Their mouths are fitted for biting and
for sucking. In organization and divi-
sion of labor the colonies of ants, wasps
and bees show great advancement. This
eroup of insects is of great value to
man, not only in the production of honey
but in the even greater usefulness of
fertilizing many of the flowers, which,
without them, would never reproduce.
See Cross-FERTILIZATION; BEE; ANT;
Wasp; INSECTA,
Hymn, Him, a religious song. More
particularly, a hymn is a poetic com-
position, divided into stanzas and de-
signed for public worship. The hymn
has been used in some form or another:
for many centuries, for penitential
hymns have been found on Assyrian tab-
lets, and the sacred books of the an-
cient Persians and Hindus contained nu-
merous songs of this nature. In Greece
there was a song to celebrate every event,
and as early as 700 B. C. Archilochus
and Callinus wrote hymns. Before the
Christian Era the highest form of songs
used in worship were found among the
Hebrews, notably in the book of Psalms.
Various other songs of praise occur
in the Bible, such as that of Miriam in
Exodus xv and that of Deborah in
Judges v.
Hymns were used in the services of
the early Church, the oldest one extant, 4
Hymn to Christ the Savior, dating from
about 200. During the Middle Ages
many fine hymns were written in Greek
and Latin, among which are the great
judgment hymn Dies Ire (Day of
Wrath) and Stabat Mater (the Mother
stood). With the Reformation came the
introduction of hymns in the language
of the common people. Luther, the great
hymn writer of that period, left about
37 songs, best known of which is his
stirring battle hymn of the Reformation,
A Mighty Fortress Is Our God. In 1524
the first evangelical book of hymns was
issued. During Luther’s time and for
many years after, Germany produced a
large number of great hymns. In Eng-
land, we find such names as George
HYMNS, NATIONAL
Wither, John Milton, Henry Vaughan,
Jeremy Taylor and Robert Herrick in
the list of early hymn writers; later came
Isaac Watts, and, still later, Charles Wes-
ley, the author of 6000 hymns. Other
famous writers of religious songs were
Reginald Heber, John Keble, Frederick
W. Faber and John Henry Newman.
Among the great hymns of. England are
two by women—Mrs. Sarah Flower
Adams’ Nearer, My God, to Thee and
Miss Charlotte Elliot’s Just as I am with-
out One Plea,
America has also produced notable
hymn writers. Among the great hymns
by American authors the following are
representative of the best: One Sweeitly
Solemn Thought, by Phoebe Cary; My
Faith Looks Up to Thee, by Ray Pal-
mer; Battle Hymn of the Republic, by
Julia Ward Howe; Pass Me Not, O Gen-
tle Savior, by Fanny Crosby; My Coun-
try, “Tis of Thee, by Samuel Francis
Smith; Softly Now the Light of Day,
by George W. Doane; Ancient of Days,
by William C. Doane; O Little Town
of Bethlehem, by Phillips Brooks; I Love
to Steal Awhile Away, by Pheebe H.
Brown; Gently, Lord, Oh, Gently Lead
Us, by Thomas Hastings; J Love Thy
Kingdom, Lord, by Timothy Dwight.
Hymn Tunes. Music was composed
for hymns as early as the fourth cen-
tury A. D., but it was not until the time
of the Reformation that rhythmic music
was used in connection with hymns. Pre-
vious to this it had been of the nature
of chants or somewhat somber in char-
acter. It was Luther who aided most
in adopting popular airs to sacred words.
In England, the real history of hymn
tunes begins with the 18th century, which
reached their highest point in the music
written for the hymns of Charles Wes-
ley. The modern tendency, in America,
for some time has been to use “catchy”
music, especially in the Sunday school.
There is an undercurrent of revolt, how-
ever, against the cheapening of sacred
music, which will undoubtedly bear fruit
in time.
Hymns, National, the popular songs
which are expressive of the patriotic sen-
1403
HYMNS, NATIONAL
timents of a nation or people. The term
includes those songs which are used on
ceremonial occasions and have received
recognition ‘as national hymns by legis-
lative enactment or royal decree, as well
as songs which have won their way into
popular favor independent of such rec-
ognition. Folk songs are the basis of
national hymns, but differ from them in
being individualistic, rather than expres-
sive of the ideas and feelings of a whole
people. Among American national hymns
which have become favorites are Yan-
kee Doodle, The Star Spangled Ban-
ner, Hail Columbia, Columbia, the Gem
of the Ocean, Dixie, The Battle Hymn
of the Republic and My Country, ’Tis of
Thee.
YANKEE DoopLe. The tune of Yan-
kee Doodle was first heard in America
in 1755, in the camp of General Brad-
dock, at the beginning of the French
and Indian War. The miscellaneous as-
sortment of costumes worn by the colo-
nial troops assembling in camp was a
source of great amusement to the Brit-
ish troops, and one of their number, Dr.
Richard Shuckburg, remembered an old
song with which the Cavaliers had
taunted Cromwell when he rode into Ox-
ford. The words were:
“Yankee Doodle came to town,
Upon a Kentish pony ;
He stuck a feather in his cap,
Upon a macaroni.”
Dr. Shuckburg wrote down the notes
and words of the old doggerel and be-
fore long the whole camp was sounding
with the song, in ridicule of the colonial
troops. Later, the words which are now
generally used were written and adapted
to the tune, and were sung at the Battle
of Bunker Hill in 1775.. The origin of
the tune is uncertain. Several European
nations claim it, among them Hungary,
Holland, Spain, France and Italy.
THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER. The
author of this inspiring hymn was Fran-
cis Scott Key (1780-1843), of Baltimore.
In 1814 during the War of 1812, he
visited the British fleet under a flag of
truce, to obtain the release of a friend.
Compelled to remain on a British ship
HYMNS, NATIONAL
during the bombardment of Ft. Mc-
Henry, he remained on deck all night,
waiting in painful suspense for the out-
come of the battle. At dawn he turned
his glass toward the fort, rejoicing to
see that the Stars and Stripes still floated,
and while on his way to shore composed
the poem which is so well known. The
air is that of an old English song, Anac-
reon im Heaven.
Hatt CotumBia. This song was writ-
ten by Joseph Hopkinson (1770-1842),
lawyer, congressman and judge of the
United States District Court, in the sum-
mer of 1798. At this time America and
France were on the verge of war. A
friend of Hopkinson, a young singer,
desired a patriotic song for a benefit to
be tendered him at one of the Philadel-
phia theaters. In the state of public
excitement, some ringing words to the
tune of the then popular President’s
March would bring a full house. Hop- :
kinson produced the poem beginning
“Hail, Columbia! happy land.” It imme-
diately won popularity, especially as it
appealed to all loyal Americans, regard-
less of party or faction. The President’s
March, to which the poem was adapted,
was composed in honor of President
Washington. Some dispute exists as to
its composer.
CoLUMBIA, THE GEM OF THE OCEAN.
This popular song was written in 1843
by a young actor named Thomas a
Becket, at that time playing in Phila-
delphia. It was composed to be sung
on the benefit night of a fellow actor. ©
The melody was also composed by the
author of the poem. The song became
very popular in London, being there
printed under the title Britannia, the
Pride of the Ocean. |
Dix1E. Though a Southern song,
Dixie is a favorite throughout the North.
It was written in 1860, by Daniel C.
Emmett, an actor whose specialty was
negro impersonations. The idea for the
song was conceived by him several years
before, when he was traveling through
the North as a circus man. The expres-
sion “I wish I was in Dixie’s land” was
frequently heard on cold days when the
1404
HYMNS, NATIONAL
shivering circus men recalled the sunny
South. At the time Dixie was written,
Emmett was singing in a Broadway thea-
ter. He composed it for his own use,
and, to quote his own words, “It caught
on from the first and took the country
by storm.” The tune is said to have been
appropriated from an old negro air.
THE BatTLE HyMN OF THE REPUBLIC.
Julia Ward Howe, the author of this’
magnificent song, was traveling to Wash-
ington in December, 1861, in company
with her husband and a few friends.
They reached the city at night, and the
gleam of the camp fires and the sounds
of preparation for war greatly stirred
Mrs. Howe. During the next few days
her first impressions were intensified by
the military atmosphere in which she
lived and by the enthusiasm of the sol-
diers who sang, as they marched, John
Brown’s Body. The words of her fa-
mous hymn came to her one night after
she had gone to bed, and it is recorded
that she wrote them out at once, lest
she forget them by morning. Mr. James
T. Fields, editor of the Atlantic Monthly,
in which the poem was first published,
gave the song its title. Nearly a year
later the prisoners in Libby Prison were
led by Chaplain McCabe in singing this
splendid battle hymn.
My Country, ’Tis oF THEE, or AMER-
IcA. This song was written by Samuel
Francis Smith, a clergyman and hymn
writer, in 1832, and was first sung in
Boston, on July 4 of that year. It is
the most familiar of American national
songs. The air is that of the British
song God Save the King.
The following list gives the national
hymns of several important nations:
Austria, Gott erhalte unsern Kaiser
(God preserve our Emperor). Music by
Haydn; words by Haschka.
Brazil, Hymn of the Proclamation of
the Republic. Words by Albuquerque;
music by Miguez.
France, La Marseillaise, by De Lisle.
Germany, Die Wacht am Rhein, by
Schneckenburger.
Great Britain, God Save the King,
probably by Carey.
HYPNOTISM
Greece, Sons of Greece, Come, Arise.
Holland, William of Nassau.
Italy, Air—Royal March, by Gabetti.
Japan (translated), May the Empire
ash:
Mexico, Mexicans at the Cry of War,
. by Nuno.
Norway, Song for Norway, by Bjorn-
son.
Russia, God Protect the Czar. Words
by Zhukovsky ; music by Lyoff.
Spain, Himn de Riego.
Sweden, Out of the Swedish Heart.
Hypatia, Hi pa’ shi a,(about 355-415),
a Greek philosopher. She was the daugh-
ter of Theon, an astronomer and phi-
losopher of note in Alexandria. Hypa-
tia was a woman of unusual beauty and
chastity, both of mind and body. Her
father taught her all the accomplish-
ments and learning of the day, and she
finally succeeded him as lecturer in phi-
losophy at Alexandria. Her great suc-
cess excited the jealousy of some of the
Church Fathers, some slanderous tongues
wagged against her, and at last a mob
led by priests seized her on the way
home from one of the lectures, and mur-
dered her. Her tragic story furnishes
the basis of Charles Kingsley’s Hypatia.
Hyperion, Hi pe’ ri on, in earliest
Greek mythology a Titan, the original
sun god, later identified with Apollo. He
married Thea, by.whom he was father
to Aurora, the sun and moon.
Hypnotism, Hip’ no tiz’m, the induc-
ing of a state resembling sleep, called
hypnosis. This state, though superficially
like sleep, differs from it in many partic-
ulars, chief among which is that known
as extreme suggestibility. The subject,
at the suggestion of the operator, is able
to perform in a hypnotic state, actions
which he is not accustomed to perform
and at least feels unable to perform in
his normal state. The majority of sub-
jects, however, cannot without difficulty
be made to perform actions which are
contrary to their beliefs and to their nat-
ural tendencies. Thus, though .a sub-
ject seems readily willing to stab with
a pasteboard dagger, he is unwilling to
do so with a real one.
1405
HYPNOTISM
The hypnotic state 1s seen to differ
from sleep also in the rapidity of the
pulse, the shortened respiration, the loss
of feeling and the capability of produc-
ing local physical changes, such as the
dilation of blood vessels, the raising of
blisters or the functioning of an organ.
The suggestibility of the subject has led
to the use of hypnotism in the curing
of disease, and is practiced, though with
care, by many physicians. During the
ordinary hypnotic trance the subject is
unconscious of his actions and fails to
recall them after awaking. If, however,
posthypnotic suggestions are given, they
are carried out after the hypnosis is
passed, and by such suggestions the mem-
ory of the actions during the trance is
retained.
Hypnosis is brought about by various
means: suggestions; downward passes
over the face and body; pressure upon
certain muscles, especially those at the
root of the thumbs or upon the fore-
head; or requiring the subject to fix his
eyes upon some bright object and to fix
his mind, as far as possible, upon va-
cancy. The method of arousing the sub-
ject is also by suggestion, that is, merely
commanding him to “wake up,” or by
making upward passes over the face and
body.
Autohypnotism, that is, the hypnotism
of one’s self, may be induced by the same
method as sleep is induced: relaxation
of the mind and body or fixing the eyes
and the thought upon one object. In
the advance of psychological study, the
value of hypnotism, its processes and re-
sults are being more studied and better
understood. No doubt the coming years
will bring to light much that is at pres-
ent misunderstood or wholly unknown.
Hypnotism was formerly called mesmer-
ism after Friedrich Mesmer, who first
used it in curing disease. The present
HYSTERIA
name was applied in 1842 by James
Braid, an English surgeon.
A thoroughly readable book on the
mental treatment of disease, and one in-
cluding much valuable information upon
hypnotism, is that by Hugo Munsterberg,
entitled Psychotherapy. In James’s Psy-
chology there is a full treatment of th.
subject of hypnotism.
Hyssop, His’ up, a Mediterranean
herb of the Mint Family having the char-
acteristic square stems, opposite, aro-
matic leaves and two-lipped, tubular
flowers of the class. The plant has been
naturalized here because of its medic-
inal properties and its use as a flavor.
It has a coarse stem with stiff, long
leaves, pointed at either end. The flow-
ers, which are of pale violet color, are
crowded closely in the leaf axils and are
rather inconspicuous. The plant is found
growing in waste lands from Maine west
to the Rockies and as far south as Ten-
nessee. A European hyssop is a member
of the Figwort Family. The hyssop
mentioned in the Bible as being used by
the priest at the time of sacrifice is not
the same as either of these, which are
unknown in Palestine, but is a small leafy
herb growing throughout the: eastern
Mediterranean region.
Hysteria, His te’ ri a, a nervous dis-
order, affecting not only the brain and
spinal cord, but the peripheral nerves and
sympathetic system. Women are more
commonly affected than men. Predis-
posing causes of a hereditary nature are
parental epilepsy, insanity, hysteria or
alcoholism. . Hysteria is precipitated or
aggravated by overwork, responsibility,
worry, mental shock or injury to the
nerves resulting from accident. The
chief remedial features are change of en-
vironment and relief from worry. Some
cases respond to mental suggestion. See
HyPNortisM.
4406
Pierre le Moyne, SreuR pv’ (1661-
1706), a French Canadian soldier,
naval commander and explorer,
born in Montreal. After a training in
the French navy he returned to Amer-
ica, and, in 1686, commanded an explor-
ing expedition from the. Ottawa to
James's Bay. Later:he was active in
King William’s War. In 1699 he sailed
from France to the Gulf of Mexico in
search of the mouth of the Mississippi.
He established Biloxi and Mobile, thus
becoming the founder of Louisiana. He
died in France.
I’bex, a name applied to several spe-
cies of wild goats, all belonging to the
Bovine Family and inhabiting Abyssinia,
Syria and the Himalayas. The ibex is
a swift, agile animal with huge, curving
horns connected on the forehead by
heavy, bony ridges. The Alpine ibex
is called the steinbok or steenbok, and
is fast becoming rare except in the lower
Piedmont regions.
I’bis, a heronlike bird with a long,
curved bill. Many species are known,
living in nearly all parts of the world.
The sacred ibis of Egypt was venerated
by the ancients and many mummies of
them have been found. This bird is
about 28 inches long; the body is white,
with bare, black neck and purplish-black
tertiary feathers falling over the tail like
a plume. In North America two ibises
are common: the white ibis, with pinky-
white plumage, black-tipped wings and
naked face and chin; and the white-
faced glossy ibis, with dark chestnut
plumage, the crown and wings with pur-
plish and greenish iridescence, a white
face and the space between the eyes and
bill red. Both birds are from 19 to 27
inches in, length. The nest of the lat-
ter is made of rushes and other water
plants and is placed among the rushes
in a marsh. It contains three greenish-
a ERVILLE De’ ber” veel,
I
blue eggs. The habits and food of the
ibises resemble those of the herons.
Ib’sen, Henrik (1828-1906), a Nor-
wegian dramatist, born in Skien. He was
an apprentice to an apothecary in Grim-
stad for seven years, and later was a
student at the University of Christiania.
After directing the National Theater at
Bergen he became manager of the Nor-
wegian Theater at Christiania in 1857.
His early plays were received with con-
tempt, and he soon began to write satiric
attacks on the igitorance and degenerate
political condition of his country. Fail-
ure to receive the poet’s pension and
bitterness because of his circumstances
in general caused him to leave Norway
in 1864. He lived in Copenhagen, Dres-
den, Munich and Rome, returning to
Christiania in 1891. Brand, published
1407
LCARUS
in 1866, brought him the pension he
desired and met with enthusiastic re-
ception. Following Peer Gynt, another
lyric-dramatic satire, came the prose
dramas, almost every one urging social
reform. After 1901 his failing health
made further mental effort impossible.
He was a master of dramatic construc-
tion and dialogue. In several of his
plays the climax is represented as hav-
ing occurred before the opening scene,
the drama itself being concerned with
the consequences alone. His themes were
far from popular. Like Carlyle, he
found society diseased; like him, too, he
was content to point out the evil without
proposing a remedy. He analyzed so-
ciety, but he never posed as a moral
teacher. Social hypocrisy was the ob-
ject of his keen and well-directed satire
time and again. Peer Gynt is Norway
personified,—Norway with its faults and
weaknesses; but the hero, as a human
individual, becomes more than a type.
This magnificent drama represents some
of the best Europeon poetry of Ibsen’s
time. In Brand he makes a brilliant pro-
test against compromise; and through
the hero—the priest who tries to live
like Christ and suffers under the con-
tempt of his weak and cringing compan-
ions—the poet touches noble heights.
Among Ibsen’s other works are The Pil-
lars of Society, A Doll’s House, Ghosts,
An Enemy of the People, The Wild
Duck, Rosmersholm, The Lady from the
Sea, Hedda Gabler, Lille Eyolf, John
Gabriel Borkman and When We Dead
Awaken, |
Icarus, Jk’ a rus, mythical son of.
Dedalus. See DapDALUS.
Ice, water frozen into a solid state.
Under ordinary conditions pure water
becomes solid at 32° F. Impurities,
such as salt in solution and increase of
pressure upon the surface, tend to lower
the freezing point. Sea water freezes
at a lower temperature than fresh wa-
ter. When water freezes, most of the
salts held in solution are separated from
it. Hence pure water can be obtained
from sea water by freezing. When water
freezes, it expands; hence ice is lighter
ICE
than water. This expansive force is so
great that it is practically irresistible.
Not only all glass and earthen vessels
burst when water in them freezes, but
iron vessels seem to offer no better re-
sistance, and even rocks are rent asun-
der by this force, many of the huge
rocks lying at the foot of cliffs being
broken off by water freezing at first in
small cracks, then in the larger cracks
formed each succeeding season.
Ice Harvestinc. Natural ice from
the lakes, streams and rivers of cold re-
gions is harvested in winter. The first
step is to clean off the snow and trash
by means of a sort of a scraper; after
this the field is run over by a marker
drawn by a horse, which cuts parallel
grooves in the ice about three feet apart;
then another set of grooves is run across
the ice field at right angles to the first —
and about the same distance apart. The
ice is cut into cakes by a special form of -
plow, consisting of a steel bar, to which
is attached a set of knives, one behind
the other. The plow cuts into the ice
only a few inches. When the plowing
is finished, the first cake is cut out by
a saw; the others are then split off by
striking a wedge-shaped steel bar into
the cuts made by the plow. The cakes
are finally floated to the foot of an ele-
vator, which takes them to the desired.
story of the ice house, where they are
packed in sawdust until needed.
On the Hudson River, in Maine and
on the lakes and streams of Wisconsin
and Michigan, particularly near Chicago,
many ice houses.of great magnitude are
erected. Some of these buildings are
nearly 300 ft. long and five stories high,
and are equipped with galleries running
the entire length of the building, which
are lowered or hoisted, as may be de-
sired, to.each of these stories for load-
ing the ice. Special devices are used
for loading cars from the ice house, and
a steam power plant furnishes the power.
MANUFACTURE OF Ice. In localities
removed from natural ice production, it
is often cheaper to make ice by arti-
ficial means than to transport it. There
are several types of apparatus for mak-
1408
4
3
4
ICEBERG
ing ice, all depending for stccess upon
the principle that cold is produced by
the expansion of compressed air, gas
or a liquefied vapor like ammonia. The
most commonly used machines are those
in which anhydrous, or waterless, am-
monia is employed, and in which there
is an evaporator or congealer by which
the ammonia is vaporized. This vapor
is then compressed by a pump or air
compressor, and when it is allowed to
exparid in coils of pipe, produces intense
cold. The process is made continuous
and the liquid ammonia is used over and
over. Cans of distilled water are placed
in a tank of this liquid, which freezes
the contents of the can into a block of ice.
As this ice is free from all impurities,
it is much preferred to natural ice. Re-
cent improvements in the art have been
productive of very low-priced plants on
such scale as to allow hotels, hospitals,
asylums, etc,, to install them and make
their own ice and have means for cold
storage. _See CoLD STORAGE.
Iceberg, a very large body of ice that
has become detached from its parent
glacier on the shores of the polar regions
and which floats about in the ocean,
driven hither and thither by wind and
current. Icebergs are sometimes several
miles in-length and rise above the water
200 to 300 ft. The part above the water
is estimated at one-eight or one-ninth
the entire mass. This does not mean,
however, that icebergs extend eight or
nine times as far beneath the surface as
they rise above it. The greater part of
the mass of the berg is near its base;
therefore the depth may not exceed or
even equal the height, as in case of
those which taper to needlelike pinnacles. -
However, most icebergs extend to a
much greater depth, sometimes as far as
1200:or 1400 ft. They often become
‘grounded in shallow water, where they
remain until broken up.
Icebergs assume many fantastic forms.
Sometimes they resemble mountain peaks
or huge masses of rock broken from a .
cliff. Again they take weird and fanciful
forms consisting of pinnacles, domes,
peaks and minarets, until they rival in
ICEBERG
beauty and oddity the most fantastic
castles ever reared in the whimsical brain
of a fairy princess. Icebergs often con-
tain outlying spears which project out-
ward under water and are very danger-
ous to vessels, because they cannot be
readily located. Large bergs often contain
pools of fresh water formed by the melt-
ing ice. Under the action of the sun and
warm winds icebergs disintegrate rap-
idly, often breaking apart by their own
weight and with a report that sounds like
the boom of a cannon.
Fields of ice form on the surface of
temperate waters in winter and break off
in spring. A floating mass of field ice is
called a floe, and an aggregation of floes
caused by refreezing forms what is
known as a pack. Icebergs are found in
both the Arctic and Antarctic regions,
but because of their danger to navigation
those found in the vicinity of Greenland
and floating southward receive the most
attention... While the bergs move very
slowly, their enormous weight gives them
a power sufficient to crush the largest
ship as though it were an eggshell.
Therefore, they are greatly feared by
navigators, and that part of the Atlantic
in which they are most numerous has
been the scene of many wrecks, the most
disastrous occurring on Apr. 14, 1912,
when the steamship Titanic was sunk by
collision with an iceberg and over 1500
persons perished. See Titanic, THE.
Since most of the vessels plying be-
tween the United States and Europe pass
directly through that part of the Atlantic
most thickly strewn with icebergs, the
United States Hydrographic Office at
Washington uses all possible means to
warn ships of their presence. All ships
approaching an iceberg or entering fields
of ice are required to send out wireless-
telegraph reports of the exact location
of such bergs or fields. These reports
reach the office at Washington and all
ships in the vicinity, provided they carry
wireless apparatus. Ship commaxders
are also given directions for detecting
‘the appoach of icebergs, such as the
effect of their reflection of light upon
the sky, the echo of steam whistles or fog
~ 1409
ICELAND
horns and the booming sound given off
when they fall apart. The near presence
of a large berg is also usually indicated
by a sudden drop in temperature. Ma-
rine signal stations are maintained at
numerous points on the coast of New-
foundland, Canada and St. Pierre, from
which information can be obtained.
Iceland, a large island about the size
of the State of Ohio, in the North At-
lantic Ocean, a dependency of Denmark.
It is situated about 250 m. from Green-
land and 600 m. from Norway; its north-
erly points are touched by the Arctic
Circle. Of its area of 40,456 sq. m.,
only a small part is inhabited. - The
ICELAND SPAR
and dogs are common. The sea and sea-
shore are dense with cod, flounders, her-
ring and eider duck. The down of the
latter is of great commercial value.
The Icelanders—originally of Scanda-
navian stock—in their struggle for exist-
ence against nature, have developed stur-
diness and endurance, and a quiet earn-
estness touched with melancholy is their
prevailing characteristic. They are highly
intellectual, and illiteracy is practically
unknown, as the children are early taught
to read the old Sagas, with which Ice-
landic. literature is so richly endowed
(See LITERATURE, subhead Scandinavian
Literature; Eppa). It is estimated that
ICEBERG .
plateaus and highlands are unfit for cul-
tivation and an area of 5200 sq. m. is
covered by glaciers. There are immense
craters filled with water, but no large
lakes. The snowfields give rise to large
rivers, the longest of which are the
Joktlsa, Thjorsa and Oelfusa. The cli-
mate is not unduly severe, as the lati-
tude might suggest, but snow falls on
the interior highlands even in summer.
The summers are short and cool; the
winters, long and damp. The vegeta-
tion is confined principally to the low-
lands, and even the grass grows only
within restricted limits. Heather is
aburdant. Few trees attain other than
a stunted growth, and no fodder is
yielded for the cattle until the end of
July. The fox is the most familiar ani-
mal, though reindeer, cattle, horses, sheep
in no other country are there so many
books and newspapers published and sold
in proportion to population as in Iceland.
-The island was discovered by Norse-
men about 870. One of the early settle-
ments was Reykjavik, the present capital.
The country was converted to Christian-
ity in 1000, under King Olaf Tryggvason
of Norway. In the 12th and 13th cen-
turies intercourse with other countries
was extensive. Iceland was joined to
Norway in 1262, and in 1380 came under
the rule of Denmark, becoming a sov-
ereign state in 1918. The king of Den-
mark rules Iceland. Pop. in 1910, 85,089.
Iceland Spar, a transparent variety
of calcite, so called because the finest
specimens come from Iceland. It is used
for optical instruments. See POLARIZA-
TION OF LIGHT.
1410
ICE YACHTING
Ice Yachting, Yo?’ ing, an American
sport developed throughout the Northern
States and Canada since 1790. Tourna-
ments are held at Poughkeepsie and
Newburgh on the Hudson River ; at Lake
Minnetonka, near Minneapolis; Lake
Winnebago, near Oshkosh, Wis.; on
Lake Champlain, the St. Lawrence River,
Lake Ontario and at other places; while
hundreds of those living near small lakes
use ice yachts for occasional recreation.
The ice yacht has usually one large sail,
and often a smaller jib sail. Races are
ordinarily five times around a triangle
measuring one mile on each side. Un-
der favorable conditions and on a
straight course, yachts frequently sail at
the rate of from 40 to 70 m. an hour,
running away from express trains on
parallel tracks. The body of the yacht
is in the form of a cross and is sup-
ported on runners which are now of the —
rocker type. One of the runners is
mounted on a pivot and serves as a rud-
der.
Ichneumon, Jk nu’ mon, a small ani-
mal of the Civet Family found in the
region of the Mediterranean. Its size
varies from that of a rat to that of a
large house cat. In general color the
ichneumon is brown, though it often has
a black stripe at the back of the neck
and a black tail; a southern Egyptian
_ species has a hairy, white tail. The body
is long, the legs short, the nose pointed
and the eyes bright and active. In many
countries, especially Egypt, it has been
partially domesticated because of its agil-
ity and skill in killing dangerous rep-
tiles and discovering buried nests of croc-
odile eggs, which it destroys. Under
care the ichneumon becomes as fully do-
mesticated as a kitten; it is variously ~
called mongoose, mungoos and, in Egypt,
Pharaoh’s rat.
Ichneumon Fly, a family of slender,
bright-colored Insecta of the order Hy-
menoptera. They have flattened abdo-
mens, which are of a metallic luster, yel-
low-banded antennz and yellow and black
wings. Their life in the adult stage
is short, lasting but a few days at the
longest. They lay their eggs either be-
ICONOCLASTS
neath the skin of caterpillars or in trees
which certain caterpillars infest. The tiny
white cocoons of the ichneumon fly may
often be seen protruding from the hairs
upon the back of the caterpillar, and take
up so much of its host’s vitality that
the caterpillar seldom survives. Ichneu-
mon flies are of economic importance
because they destroy many injurious in-
sects. See HyMENOPTERA.
Ichthyosaurus, [k” thi o sor’ us, an ex-
tinct order of fishlike Reptilia, the fossil
remains of which occur in the Mesozoic
rocks of Europe and North America.
The animal had a round, tapering body,
covered with thin, smooth skin; the head
was long, with a long tapering snout,
the neck short. The teeth were conical
in shape and very numerous, as many
as 400 occurring in a single mouth.
There was one triangular fin in the mid-
dle of the back and a vertical fin on the
tail; the feet were broad and shaped
like paddles. Skeletons of the animal
found in rocks show evidences of pul-
monary respiration, indicating that the
animal lived in the air.
Iconoclasts, J kon’ o klasts, (image
breakers), the party in the early Chris-
tian Church that objected to the presence
and adoration of images in the house of
worship. In the sixth century the images
of martyrs and saints, placed in the
churches as a remembrance, began to be
worshiped, incense being offered in their
honor and lights being burned before
them. In the eighth century a strong
sentiment was created against the use of
images in worship, and a reform party,
called Iconoclasts, arose, which declared
that the Christians had fallen into idol-
atry. Leo III, Eastern Roman emperor,
was a zealous Iconoclast, and in 726 he
ordered the people to abstain from the
worship of images, whose destruction
he decreed. The Bishop of Rome op-
posed the royal edict and excommuni-
cated Emperor Leo, besides cutting off
from communication with the Western
Church all Iconoclastic churches. The
controversy lasted over a century. In
842 a council at Constantinople sanc-
tioned the worship of images in the Greek,
1411
ICTINUS
Church. In its present use the term
refers to one who attacks cherished be-
liefs or ideas.
Ictinus, /k ti’ nus, an Athenian archi-
tect living in the fifth century B.C. He
was a contemporary of Callicrates, and
with him designed much of the Parthe-
non. He also was the architect of the
Hall of Mysteries at Eleusis and of the
Temple of Apollo near Phigalia. Though
little is known of his life, his ability is
recognized from those of his works that
remain.
I’da, a mountain range of Asia Minor,
extending through Phrygia and Mysia.
The highest peak is Mt. Gargarus, near
the plain of Troy, 5748 ft. in height.
Another Mt. Ida, equally famous, is the
one in Crete, rising 8000 ft. above sea
level. In a cave of this mountain—as
the legend runs—Zeus is once supposed
to have been nurtured.
I’daho, THE GEM OF THE MOUNTAINS,
one of the Mountain States, is bounded
on the n. by Canada, on the e. by Mon-
tana and Wyoming, on the s. by Utah
and Nevada and on the w. by Oregon
and Washington.
SizeE, The extreme length from north
to south is 490 m. The length of the
northern boundary is 45 m. and that of
the southern’ boundary is 325 m. The
area is 84,313 sq. m., of which 534 sq.
m. are water. Idaho is about the size
of Minnesota, a little larger than Kan-
sas, about the size of New York and
Pennsylvania combined, about twice the
size of Tennessee and the 12th state in
area.
Popu.LaTIon. In 1920 the population
was 431,866. From 1910 to 1920 there
Was a gain in population of 106,272, or
32.6 per cent. There are 5.2 inhabi-
tants to the square mile and the state’s
rank in population is 43.
SuRFACE. Idaho lies between the
Rocky Mountains on the east and the
Cascades on the west, and the southern
part reaches to that section of the United
- States known as the Great Basin. The
Rocky Mountains with their extensions,
the Bitter Root, Coeur d’Alene and Cabi-
net ranges, form most of the Montana
_ making canyons rivaling any on the con-
IDAHO |
boundary. The northern part of the state
is a succession of wooded hills and fer-
tile valleys. To the west and farther
south is the region of the Palouse Prai-
ries, a succession of rolling hills; to the
west of the Palouse region is a moun-
tainous section, rich in ore. In the cen-
tral portion of the state is its most
broken and mountainous region, through
which flow the Salmon and Snake rivers,
tinent. In this region are the Seven Dev-
ils, Yellow Jacket, Salmon River, Lemhi
and Lost River ranges, some of whose
peaks are 12,000 ft. in altitude. Bear
River, Hansel, Black Pine, Goose Creek
and Owyhee mountains are in a succes-
sion of ranges across the southern bound-
ary of the state, the general trend of
these ranges being north and south. The
highest mountain range is the Teton, on
_the Wyoming boundary. The one great
valley of Idaho is the Upper, Middle
and Lower Snake River Valley, which
includes numerous smaller valleys along
the streams flowing into it. The eleva-—
tion of the state varies from 7/00 ft. in
the western part of the Panhandle, along
the Snake, to nearly 7000 ft. in the ex-
treme southwestern part, the mean ele-
vation being less than 4000 ft.
Rivers AND LAKES. With the excep-
tion of a section in the southeastern part,
the entire state is drained into the Co-
lumbia River. The Kootenai, the Clark
and the Spokane drain the northern part.
The Clearwater and Salmon with their
tributaries, both of which flow into
the Snake, drain the central part, and the
Snake with its tributaries drains the
southern part. The Snake is the most im- ~
portant stream, and its chief tributaries
aside from those already mentioned are,
from the north, the North Fork, the
Wood, the Boise, the Payette and the
Weiser. From the south it receives
the Raft, the Goose Creek, the Bruneau
and the Owyhee. In the south-central
part of the state is a region in which the
rivers disappear in the earth. Some of
them reach the Snake by subterranean
channels. This region constitutes what
is known as the Lost River drainage
1412
IDAHO
system, of which Big Lost River is the
most important stream.
One of the largest inland lakes in the
country, outside of the Great Lakes, is
Lake Pend Oreille in northern Idaho,
with 500 m. of shore line. Bear Lake
in southeastern Idaho is next in impor-
tance. Besides these, there are the Pay-
ette Lakes, Hayden, Coeur d’Alene, Priest
and many lesser but beautiful lakes of
central and northern Idaho.
SCENERY. The sides of the mountains
are covered with forests and the low-
lands are green with native grass or with
the crops of the cultivated farms. Sho-
shone Falls, on the Snake River, is one
of the most noted cataracts in America,
exceeding Niagara in height and rivaling
that famous cataract in grandeur. Twin
Falls on the same river are also of more
than local interest, and Salmon Falls on
the Salmon River are of equal impor-
tance. Along the Snake River is a lava
bed containing numerous geysers and hot
springs. In Lincoln County is a cluster
of springs known as the Thousand
Springs, which discharge a large volume
of water into the Snake River.
CLIMATE. The state has a wide range
of temperature owing to its extent from
north to south and its many variations
in altitude. On the plains and in the
valleys the summers are warm but salu-
brious, and there are occasional days
when the temperature may reach 100°.
In the uplands of the same latitude, how-
~ ever, the temperature may be much lower.
In the mountains the winters are severe
and the fall of snow is heavy. On the
lowlands the winters are mild and the
snowfall is light. In many places stock
grazes throughout the winter. The cli-
mate of the entire state is modified by
winds from the Pacific and is more equa-
ble than in the regions of the same lati-
tude east of the Rocky Mountains. The
rainfall is heavy in the northern part,
being 30 inches or more per year; in the
central part it ranges from 20 to 25
inches, and in the south it is less than
15 inches.
MINERALS AND Mrininc. Nearly all
the mountain districts contain immense
IDAHO
deposits of gold, silver, copper and other
ores. In 1921) theyoutput of “gold
amounted to over $1,552,938; of silver,
$6,184,989; of lead, $9,559,558; and of
copper, $13172,;521 hey chien! minmet
districts are the Coeur d’Alene, the Elk
City and Oro Grand, the Buffalo Hump
and Concord in the northern part of the
state, the Silver City and DeLamar in
Owyhee County, the Boise Basin dis-
trict, the Wood River mines in Blaine
County and the Lemhi County and Cus-
ter County mines. Shoshone County in
the northern part of the state produces
the largest amount of ore.
Coal is found in a number of places
and mines’ are in operation in Teton Ba-
sin and on the Payette River in Boise
County. In the vicinity of Bear Lake
are found some of the nation’s great-
est beds of phosphate rock. Marble is
found in the southeastern part of the
state, and good building stone is found
in practically all parts.
Forests AND LUMBER. In the moun-
tain regions in the north and north-cen-
tral parts of the state are extensive for-
ests of soft wood, including white and
yellow pine, red and white fir, cedar,
hemlock and tamarack. The central coun-
ties are considered to have the largest
virgin white pine forests in the world.
Valuable forests are also found in the
mountain regions in the: southwestern |
part of the state. The government has
established 20 national forest reserves
within Idaho, covering 37 per cent of
the state’s area; 19,890,000 acres in
Idaho are recognized as forest lands.-
There are within this area over 330 saw-
mills working up about 650,000,000 board
feet of lumber annually.
AGRICULTURE.
an irrigated fruit-tract area near Lewis-
ton, irrigation is confined to southern
Idaho, where the rainfall is less than 20
inches. In 1910 irrigation had been de-
veloped so as to include 2,457,000 acres,
with a total length of irrigation canals
in operation of 10,490 m. There are
several United States reclamation proj-
ects within the state. See IRRIGATION.
Soil. Inthe mountain regions the soi!
1413
With the exception of.
4
IDAHO
is somewhat clayey ; on much of the low-
iands it is formed largely of decomposed
lava and is very fertile. |
Products. In the northern part of the
state the chief crops are timothy and
grain, with a limited acreage in fruit and
potatoes. In the north-central part in
the Palouse and Camas prairie regions
small grain is the principal crop, with
the addition of timothy in the Camas
Prairie region. The Palouse country of
Idaho, Washington and Oregon is one
of the greatest wheat regions of the
United States. The dry farm lands of
southern Idaho grow large areas of win-
ter grain; the irrigated lands, small
grain, sugar beets, potatoes, alfalfa, veg-
etables and fruit. Idaho has over 120,-
OOO acres in fruit. Lewiston and Em-
mett are well-known grape regions, Pay-
ette is a great prune district, and many
regions in northern, central and south-
ern Idaho grow especially fine apples.
The mountain sections afford unex-
celled pasture grounds for live stock and
here are found large herds of cattle and
horses and flocks of sheep. The alfalfa
of the irrigated valleys is encouraging
the fattening of cattle and sheep and
raising of hogs, and is aiding the rapid
development of the dairy industry in
southern Idaho.
MANUFACTURES. The streams furnish
abundant power. It is estimated that
Shoshone Falls alone can furnish enough
power to run all the railroads and elec-
tric lines and provide electricity for light-
ing and heating purposes for the entire
southeastern part of the state. Owing
to these conditions and the demands of
the local markets, manufacturing indus-
tries are multiplying at a rapid rate.
Lumbering is the leading manufacturing
industry. Next in importance is the
manufacture of flour and gristmill prod-
ucts. The production of malt liquors,
making brick and cement, the manufac-
ture of beet sugar and canning fruits
and vegetables are other important in-
dustries.
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. The
Great Northern Railway crosses the ex-
treme northern county of the state diag-
IDAHO
onally. The Spokane International Rail-
way also crosses this northern portion,
connecting Spokane and northern Idaho
with the Canadian Pacific Railway at
Eastport across the north Idaho line.
The Northern Pacific main line crosses
north Idaho, and it has a number -of
branch lines connecting most of the trade
centers of north Idaho with each other.
The main line of the Chicago, Milwaukee
& Puget Sound Railway crosses north
Idaho below the main lines of the roads
already named, from Roland to Plummer.
The main line of the Oregon Short Line
crosses the state from the Wyoming line,
running from Granger, Wyo., to Hunt-
ington, Ore. A branch line running from
Salt Lake, Utah, to Butte, Mont., crosses
southeastern Idaho through Pocatello,
Blackfoot and Idaho Falls, and extends
north across to the Montana terminus.
The Oregon Short Line has many
branches in south Idaho reaching impor-
tant farming and mining centers. The
Payette Valley, the Pittsburg & Gill-
more, the Idaho Northern and the Pa-
cific & Idaho Northern railroads are
short lines connecting several trade cen-
ters with Oregon Short Line shipping
points. There are interurban lines con-
necting the cities of Moscow, Cceur
d’Alene and intermediate points with
Spokane, and others connecting Boise
with Caldwell, Nampa and intermediate
points. )
The commerce of the state consists
of the shipment of gold, silver, lead and
other mineral products, wool and live
stock, lumber, fruit, grain, hay and po-
tatoes, and the importation of manu-
factured goods, farm machinery and such
foodstuffs as are not raised within the
state.
GOVERNMENT. The executive depart-
ment consists of a governor, lieutenant-
governor, secretary of state, auditor,
treasurer, attorney-general and superin-
tendent of public instruction, all elected
for a term of two years. The Legis-
lature consists of a Senate of not more
than 24 members and a House of Rep-
resentatives of not more than 60 mem-
bers, the members of both houses being
1414
wih @ Se
IDAHO
chosen for two years. The sessions are
biennial and practically limited to 60
days. ‘The judicial department consists
of a Supreme Court of three judges
elected by the people for six years; a
District Court in each judicial district ;
and Probate Courts and justice courts.
EpucaTion. Idaho has an excellent
system of public education, all State
educational institutions and public schools
being under the general direction and
control of the State Board of Education
of which the Commissioner of Education
and State Superintendent of Public In-
struction are executive officers. The
schools of each county are in charge of a
county superintendent. The State uni-
versity at Moscow is at the head of the
educational system. State normal schools
are at Lewiston and Albion. The Idaho
State Technical Institute is at Pocatello.
The State School for Deaf and Blind at
Gooding, and the Industrial Training
School’ at St. Anthony. The College
of Idaho is at Caldwell and Gooding Col-
lege at Gooding. The Intermountain In-
stitute at Weiser is a secondary school.
STATE INsTITUTIONS. The hospitals
for the insane are at Blackfoot and
Orofino, home for the feeble-minded at
Nampa, and the soldiers’ home at Boise.
irinse ’ Phe chief ‘cities. are Boise;
the capital; Pocatello, Idaho Falls, Mos-
cow, Lewiston, Twin Falls, Cour d’ Alene.
History. Idaho is a Shoshone name
which refers to the brilliant sunlight on
the state’s mountain peaks. The land
was first visited by whites when Lewis
and Clark (1805-1806) made their ex-
plorations. In 1852 gold was discovered.
In 1862 the finding of precious metals
caused Fort Boise to become a flourish-
ing town. Idaho City and Lewiston be-
ing shortly established, Idaho was made
a territory in 1863. It then comprised
most of Wycming and Montana, and it
was several years before it was cut down
to its present dimensions.
Of late years the attention of Idaho
has been engrossed with the development
of its rich resources. From having had
no white inhabitants in 1860, it had 32,-
000 in 1880. On July 3, 1890, it en-
IDEALISM
tered the Union. The state is rapidly
increasing in population and wealth.
GovERNoRS. George L. Shoup, 1890;
Norman B. Wiley, 1890-1892; William
J. McConnell, 1893-1897; Frank Steu-
nenberg, 1897-1901; Frank W. Hunt,
1901-1903; John T. Morrison, 1903-
1905; Frank R. Gooding, 1905-1909;
James H. Brady, 1909-1911; James H.
Hawley, 1911-1913; John M. Haines,
1913-1915; Moses Alexander, 1915-1917;
D. W. Davis, 1917—.
Idaho, University of, at Moscow
(1889). The University of Idaho was
opened in 1892. It offers the usual
courses in arts and science and maintains
colleges of agriculture, of engineering,
and of law, and schools of mines, for-
estry and education. It receives Federal
and state support, and has an endowment
of 286,000 acres of land. In 1922 it re-
ported about 60,000 volumes in its li-
brary. It has more than 1,500 students.
Ide’alism (from Greek idein, to see),
a term used in many ways. Its essen-
tial characteristic is that it interprets
reality as having a meaning or idea
apart from sense-appearance, or in addi-
tion thereto. In this inner significance
is found the ultimate truth of the sub-
ject under consideration. In philosophy,
idealism is the doctrine that all reality
is essentially psychical and has no exist-
ence apart from consciousness. It may
merely affirm the dominance of the ideal
element in reality (Plato, Aristotle) ; or
it may assert that the intrinsic nature
and essence of reality is consciousness
or reason (Hegel). Idealism does not
necessarily deny the existence of exter-
nal reality, but regards it as containing
the same elements of reason and purpose
that are present in the mind of the in-
dividual. Many idealists claim that this
involves the existence of an all-embrac-
ing consciousness or Absolute Mind as
the ultimate reality of the universe.
Idealism is the antithesis of realism and
materialism. Natural science is primarily
concerned with the study of practical
phenomena, as they appear in the world
of nature, and its attitude toward these
is necessarily realistic. It is different
1415
1DEAS, ASSOCIATION OF ©
with philosophy and religion, which are
seeking the ultimate nature of things;
hence the conflict often existing between
science on the one hand, and philosophy
and religion on the other.
In literature and art, idealism is not
satisfied with mechanical relationships,
but regards nature and life as ultimately
rational and purposeful. It attempts so
to interpret reality as to make these char-
acteristics apparent. Imagination and
spiritual value-judgments therefore find
a large place in idealism, which never-
theless defeats its own purpose if it is
untrue to the real. See PHILOSOPHY;
REALISM, |
Ide’as, Association of, the linking
together of ideas, by the mind, in such
close relationship that the thought of one
recalls the other. The physiological basis
of association is that when certain brain
cells have once acted together, a connec-
tion is formed between them such that
the activity of one is transmitted to the
other and the two will again act together.
The chances of such connection rather
than any other depends upon the fre-
quency of these cells acting together, the
lateness of their connection, the intensity
of stimulus in their first working to-
gether, the scarcity of other connections
and the general condition of the brain
at the time of receiving the impulse.
The mental element of association is very
similar. When two ideas have been ex-
perienced together, the reappearance of
one tends to bring the other with it, de-
pending, as before, upon the frequency
of their association, the lateness of their
connection, the intensity of the stimula-
tion and the interest in the subject.
Laws oF AssociaATION. The laws of
association are four in number: associa-
tion by contiguity, by succession, by sim-
ilarity, and by contrast. The first two
depend upon the association at the time
the connection was formed; the last two
depend upon the connection at the time
of the recall. Association by contiguity
refers to a relation established because
two objects were perceived at the same
time; thus the odor of a certain flower
recalls a certain person who wore it or
IDOLATRY
an event at which these flowers: were
used. Association by similarity and asso-
ciation by contrast are much alike. The
sight of a stranger recalls a friend whom
he resembles and a hot day reminds us
of the pleasures of a winter day. Asso-
ciation by contrast is primarily a modi-
fied association by similarity, since the
two have some point of likeness.
The establishment of right associations
in youth is important, since, though the
memory may be good, it acts through
association, and, in the effort of recall-
ing, association is the whole foundation.
Association should be direct as far as
possible, that is, by objects themselves —
rather than by pictures ; the word method
of teaching reading is the product of
the. psychological knowledge that associa-
tion should be both as direct and as
simple as possible. Punishments and re-
wards to be of value should also be given
with care. A punishment which fol-
lows an act at one time but which does
not follow it at another is not closely
associated with the act and so loses its
value, just as the lesson would be lost
upon us if we sometimes burned our
hands upon the hot stove and sometimes
did not. Our various homemade systems —
of recalling different things to our minds
are common examples of associations
which have an element of intellectuality.
The pain following the touching of the
stove.gave us an association through the
senses which needed no further links to
connect it with the act, but when we
connect the telephone number of a friend
with the date of a battle, or the letter
we are to mail with the string on our
finger, we have established a connection
as an aid where our senses might have
failed us.
Idol’atry, the worship of an image
which is looked upon as having in itself
a supernatural or divine element. Idols
may be “graven images” representing
some person or deity, or they may be
natural objects to which supernatural
powers -are attributed, as animals.
Among the Hebrews, idolatry was con-
sidered to be one of the worst forms
of sin by which the people were cor-
1416
IGNATIUS, SAINT
rupted. More primitive peoples, how-
ever, unable to grasp the idea of wor-
shipmg an unseen God, or to formulate
abstract principles of religion, used idols
to express their inborn, though unde-
veloped, religious sense.
Ignatius, Jg na’ shi us, Saint.
Loyo’La, SAINT IGNATIUS OF.
Ignis Fatuus, /g’ nis Fat’ u us, or
Foolish Fire, a luminous appearance
sometimes seen floating over marshy
places at night. It may be due to some
gas or gaseous mixture capable of very
slow combustion or to phosphorescence,
but it has not yet been satisfactorily ex-
plained. Other names of the same ap-
pearance are Will-o’-the-Wisp and Jack-
o’-lantern.
Iguana, Jg wah’ na, a name applied
to a large family of tropical American
lizards, the largest and most powerful
of the family. They are generally known
by their high bodies, strong, flattened
tails and comblike pouch at the throat.
The males bear spines upon the head
and back, but these are only rudimentary
in the females. Some species of iguanas
are edible. Their homes are on the
ground or on trees and their food con-
sists of insects and juicy herbs. See
/LIZARD.
Iguanodon, Jg wan’ o don, an extinct
lizard, the fossil remains of which occur
in the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous
rocks of Europe. It was from 15 to 25
ft. in length; the head was narrow and
long; and the jaws heavy and furnished
with strong, horny anterior beaks and
numerous teeth. A large spinal bone,
which rose in a ridge, extended from
the head to the tail; the pelvic bones
strongly resembled those of birds. The
forelegs, which had four toes, were much
shorter than the three-toed hind legs.
The animal lived in trees, on the ground
and in water, and fed upon vegetable
foods. On the ground it walked on its
hind legs and used its tail in a manner
similar to that of the kangaroo. Re-
mains of the iguanodon have not been
found in America, but the animal is rep-
resented by similar existing genera, no-
tably the iguana, which includes the spe-
See
ILLINOIS
cies popularly known as chameleons and
horned toads.
Ik Marvel.
GRANT.
Il’iad, a celebrated Greek epic con-
sisting of 24 books. The authorship of
the poem is a matter of dispute, but it
is generally ascribed to Homer, who lived
about 1000 B. C. The Jliad represents
the gradual accumulations of singers for
generations. Pisistratus, tyrant of
Athens, is said to have first arranged
the Iliad in the form in which it now
exists. The action of the poem is con-
fined to the last year of the siege of
Troy, so that some knowledge of the
events connected with the Trojan War is
necessary to one who reads it. The Jhad
and Homer’s other great epic, the Odys-
sey, were looked upon by the Greeks as
the authority in all matters of religious
doctrine and early history. These poems
exhibit in a remarkable way the varied
powers of their author. In his descrip-
tions, his portrayal of human character
or his narration of incident, he is always
a great master. With all their sublimity
of language and conception the Iliad and
Odyssey have a simplicity and tender-
ness that make them poems of humanity
tather ‘than of ‘one racevor time ioce
Homer; TrRoyJAN War; ACHILLES.
Illinois, Jl” i 01’, THE PRAIRIE STATE,
one of the East Central States, is
bounded on the n. by Wisconsin, on the
e. by Lake Michigan and Indiana, on
the s. by Kentucky, from which it is
separated by the Ohio River, and on the
w. by Missouri and Iowa, from which
it is separated by the. Mississippi River.
The Wabash River forms about one-half
of the eastern boundary.
Size. The extreme length from north
to south is 385 m. The greatest breadth
is 218 m. and the area is 56,665 sq. m.,
of which 622 sq. m. are water. , Illinois
is almost the exact size of lowa or Wis-
consin, a little more than one-half the
size of Nevada, about the size of Eng-
land and Wales and the 23rd state in
area.
PopuLaATION. In 1920 the population
was 6,485,280. From 1910 to 1920 there
See MiTcHELL, DoNALD
49 1417
ILLINOIS
was a gain in population of 846,689, or
15 per cent. There are 115.7 inhabit-
ants to the square mile, and the state
is third in population, being exceeded
only by New York and Pennsylvania.
Nearly one-half of the population is in
and around Chicago in Cook County.
SurFace. With the exception of the
extreme southern part, Illinois lies wholly
in the prairie region. Its surface as a
whole is a great plain sloping gently
toward the south. In the northern tier
of counties there is a range Of low hills
culminating in Charles Mound, 1257 ft.
high, which is the highest point in the
state. Along the Mississippi, Rock and
Illinois rivers there are occasional high
bluffs and in the northern part of the
state the surface is rolling. In the cen-
tral and southern parts, however, it is
nearly level. The extreme southern part
of the state is crossed by a spur of the
Ozark Mountains and is broken and hilly.
The highest elevation among these hills
is 1047 ft.
Rivers AND LAKES. Illinois contains
over 275 streams, but most of them are
small. The drainage is divided between
two river systems, the Mississippi with
the Illinois, and the Ohio with the Wa-
bash. The Rock River drains the north-
western part of the state and the north-
east is drained by the Kankakee and the
Des Plaines, which unite to form the
Illinois. This is the most important
stream wholly within the state, and its
basin includes nearly three-fourths of the
surface. The Illinois has become one of
the leading fish-producing streams in the
country. The fishing industry has its
center at Havana. The chief tributaries
of the Illinois are the Fox, the Vermilion,
the Spoon, the Mackinaw and the San-
gamon. The Kaskaskia drains the south-
central part of the state directly into the
Mississippi. The Little Wabash and the
Embarrass drain the southeastern part
into the Wabash, thence into the Ohio.
Illinois has no large lakes, but in the
northern part of the state are a number
of small lakes noted for their beauty,
which are popular summer resorts. Fox
Lake is the most important.
ILLINOIS
ScENERY. Illinois has no towering
mountains, deep valleys or high water-
falls, but the state is noted for its beau-
tiful prairies. The river valleys are ter-
raced and in some places have high bluffs.
The Valley of the Illinois is of special
interest because in a former geological
age it was through this valley that the
waters of the Great Lakes found their
outlet to the sea. Starved Rock in La
Salle County, one of the highest bluffs
in the state, rises perpendicularly 125 ft.
above the water in the river. Deer Park
and other canyons constitute a state park.
In Randolph counties and St. Clair coun-
ties are interesting caves, and at Piasa
and at Grand Tower on the Mississippi
are peculiar and interesting rock for-
mations.
CLIMATE. Illinois extends through
51%4° of latitude and there is a marked
difference between the climate in its
northern and southern extremities. The
temperature of the southern counties
averages about 11° higher than that of
the northern. The climate of the state
as a whole is mild temperate, but the en-
tire state is subject to sudden changes
in temperature. Extremes of heat and
cold, however, are of short duration. In
the southern half but little snow falls
and it remains but a short time. The
average rainfall is 38 inches, somewhat
heavier in the south than in the north.
Throughout the state the climate is
healthful.
MINERALS AND MINING. The area of
the coal fields of Illinois exceeds three-
fourths the area of the state. The coal
lands are south of a line drawn from
Rock Island to the northern boundary
of Grundy County and east of a line
drawn from Henderson County to the
southern part of Jackson County. Some
of the veins in these fields are over 15
ft. thick and the supply of coal seems
inexhaustible. Wiliimeat Franklin,
Macoupin, St. Clair, Sangamon and
Vermillion are the great coal-producing
counties. The best coal and thickest
seams are just north of the Ozark Ridge.
Illinois is one of the leading coal- pro-
ducing states in the Union,
1418
ILLINOIS
Oil fields 80 m. long are found along
the Wabash River, chiefly in Crawford
and Lawrence counties. Some natural
gas is also found in this region. Lime-
stone suitable for building purposes is
found in 30 counties, but the quarries
in Cook, Kankakee and Will counties
are the most valuable. Lead and zinc
occur in Jo Daviess County. Cement
rock and sand used in making glass are
found in the Valley of the Illinois River
in La Salle County. Fluor spar is mined
extensively in Pope and Hardin Counties.
ForEST AND LUMBER. ‘There are some
forest areas along the streams, but for-
ests containing merchantable lumber are
chiefly in the southern counties, where
oak and other hard woods are found.
There is some lumbering in this part of
the state, the lumber being used chiefly
in making crates, fruit baskets and fur-
niture.
AGRICULTURE. ‘The entire state north
of a line joining Alton to Terre Haute
is covered with deep, fertile soil, making
the prairies of this section one of the
richest agricultural regions of the world.
South of this line, with the exception
of a fertile strip some 30 m. wide along
the Mississippi, and the productive bot-
tom lands along the streams, the subsoil
is a tight clay impervious to water, which
makes good crops impossible in unusu-
ally wet or dry seasons. The farms gen-
erally are larger than in Ohio and In-
diana. The greater part of them are
tilled by their owners.
Propucts. Corn is the most impor-
tant crop and in its production Illinois
leads the Union and the world. About
10,000,000 acres are devoted to corn
every year and the crop is between 350,-
000,000 and 400,000,000 bushels, nearly
half of which is consumed upon the
farms. The other important field crops
are oats, wheat, hay and potatoes. Bar-
ley and rye are raised to some extent.
Apples are raised in large quantities in
Clay, Richland, Marion and Wayne coun-
ties, and in smaller quantities in other
parts of the state. In the southern third
of the state peaches, pears, strawberries
and other small fruits are raised.
ILLINOIS
The farms in Cook and adjoining coun-
ties are largely devoted to supplying the
Chicago market with vegetables, poultry,
eggs and milk. The dairy industry is
important also throughout the northern
part of the state and in the region near
St. Louis. The cultivation of flowers
and ornamental plants and the produc-
tion of nursery stock are also thriving in-
dustries. Douglas, Coles and Moultrie
counties in eastern Illinois produce more
broom corn than any similar area in the
world. Union and Pulaski counties south
of the Ozark Ridge grow early vegeta-
bles for the Northern markets. Cattle,
horses and hogs are raised in large num-
bers.
Manuractures. Illinois is the first
state in the Union in slaughtering and
meat packing and in the manufacture of
agricultural implements and _ distilled
liquors. It is the third state in the total
value of its manufactured products, be-
ing exceeded only by Pennsylvania and
New York. Abundance of fuel and ex-
cellent transportation facilities afforded
by Lake Michigan and the many rail- .
ways of the state have combined to de-
velop the manufacturing industries at a
very rapid rate. Nearly three-fourths
of the manufacturing interests center in
and about Chicago. Among the leading
industries aside from those already men-
tioned are the manufacture of iron and
steel and their products, of boots and
shoes, of furniture, of pianos and other
musical instruments, of soap and fer-
tilizer and of clothing. Printing and
publishing are also extensive industries.
Chicago ranks next to New York in its
publishing interests. At Elgin and
Springfield are two of the largest watch
factories in the country. Elgin is also
an important butter market. In Moline
and Canton are extensive works for the
manufacture of agricultural implements.
Rockford is surpassed only by Grand
Rapids, Mich., in the manufacture of
furniture. East St. Louis has a variety
of manufactures. Quincy is noted for
its stoves. Canton has large plow
works. At Pullman are the larg-
est factories for the manufacture of
1419
ILLINOIS
railway cars in the world. There are
large glass factories at Alton, Ottawa
and Streator. White Hall, Macomb and
Monmouth make the best quality of
stoneware, sewer pipe and building tile,
and Galesburg and Danville have ex-
tensive manufactories of paving brick.
Cairo has become the greatest lumber
market in the state. La Salle leads in
the smelting of zinc and the manufac-
ture of cement. Other important manu-
facturing cities are Joliet, Decatur, De
Kalb and Bloomington.
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. The
transportation facilities of Illinois are not
surpassed by those of any other state.
Chicago is one of the most important
lake ports, and through Lake Michigan,
connection is made with all the leading
ports on the Great Lakes. Chicago is
also the greatest railway center in the
United States and in the world (See
Cuicaco). Next to Chicago, East St.
Louis, Decatur, Peoria, Bloomington and
Springfield are the most important rail-
way centers. Many of the main roads
are now paved with cement and in a few
years, all will be.
Electric lines are being extended to
form systems. The most important of
these extends from East St. Louis to :
Springfield, Decatur, Champaign and
Danville and thence to Indianapolis.
Branches extend to Bloomington and Pe-
oria. The Mississippi is navigable the
entire length of the state and the [Illi-
nois is navigable as far as La Salle. The
Hennepin Canal connects the Illinois at
a point near Spring Valley with the Mis-
sissippi at: Rock Island. A canal will
soon connect Mississippi and the Lakes.
The commerce of the state is very ex-
tensive. Coal from the Illinois mines is
sent to all parts of the West and Nortb-
west. Her agricultural products reach
all the leading markets in the country,
and corn and packed meat are exported
to Europe in large quantities. Her manu-
factures are also widely distributed. In
addition to this, Chicago is the great
distributing center of the country for
the West and Northwest, and its whole-
sale trade is next in value to that of
ILLINOIS ©
shipped more cattle and sheep than from _
Iron |
ore from the Lake Superior region
any other market in the world.
is brought here for the steel mills of
Joliet and South Chicago, and grain from
other states is brought here for tfans- ~
shipment.
GOVERNMENT.
tion was adopted in 1870. The execu-
tive department consists of a governor, ~
lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, —
auditor, attorney-general and _ superin-
tendent of public instruction, elected for
four years, and a treasurer elected for
two years. The treasurer is not eligible
for reelection. The superintendent of
public instruction is elected two years
after the election of the governor.
Legislature consists of a Senate of 51
members elected for four years, and a
House of Representatives of 153 mem-
bers elected for two years. ‘There are
three representatives for each senatorial —
district. The Legislature meets bienni-
ally and the sessions are unlimited.
The judicial department comprises a
Supreme Court of seven judges chosen
for nine years from the seven judicial —
a
New York. From her stockyards are ©
*
The present constitu- ;
»
The |
districts into which the state is divided; _
Appellate Courts, Circuit Courts and
County Courts.
are also Probate Courts. Justice courts
In the larger counties —
exist in towns and villages and have
jurisdiction over petty cases.
EDUCATION,
The public schools of the ~
state are under the general supervision
of a state superintendent of public in-
struction. Those. of each county are in
charge of a county superintendent. Cit-
ies and larger towns maintain graded
schools which are usually independent of
county supervision. The district is the
unit of administration, and each school —
is controlled by a local board. A lim-
ited number of rural schools have been
consolidated. One or more townships —
or portions thereof may be organized
into a district for maintaining a high
school.
The state contains more than
500 of these community high schools. —
State normal schools are maintained at
Normal, Carbondale, De Kalb, Charleston
~ 1420
ILLINOIS
and-Macomb. The University of IlIli-
nois, including the state agricultural col-
lege, is at Urbana. The annual expendi-
tures for the schoolsexceeds $100,000,000.
There are over 40 seminaries and col-
leges within the state, the most impor-
tant being: the University of Chicago;
Northwestern University at Evanston
and Chicago; Armour Institute at Chi-
cago; Lake Forest University at Lake
Forest; McKendree College at Lebanon;
Illinois College at Jacksonville; Wes-
leyan University at Bloomington; Knox
College at Galesburg; Augustana College
at Rock Island; Monticello Seminary at
Godfrey; and Rockford College (for
women) at Rockford.
StaTE InstiTuTIoNsS. The hospitals
for the insane are at Kankakee, Elgin,
Bartonville, Watertown, Jacksonville and
Anna. The schools for the deaf and the
blind are at Jacksonville and the insti-
tute for the feeble-minded is at Lincoln.
The soldiers’ and sailors’ home is at
Quincy, the soldiers’ widows’ home is at
Wilmington and the soldiers’ orphans’
home is at Normal. There is a United
States soldiers’ home at Danville. The
state penitentiaries are at Joliet and
Chester, the state reformatory is at Pon-
tiac, the state homes for delinquent boys
and girls at St. Charles and Geneva.
Cities. The chief cities are Spring-
field, the capital; Chicago, Peoria, East
St. Louis, Joliet, Aurora, Quincy, Rock-
ford, Decatur, Bloomington, Elgin, Rock
Island, Moline, Freeport, Danville, Gales-
burg, Cairo and Evanston.
History. Illinois was named from
the Indians who lived on the bank of
its principal river, also called, from them,
the Illinois. Marquette and Joliet sailed
up the Illinois in 1673. La Salle built
Ft. Crévecceur at Peoria Lake in 1680
and Fort St. Louis on the Illinois in
1682. Kaskaskia was settled in 1695.
The territory was surrendered to the
British in 1763. George Rogers Clark
of Virginia independently captured the
British forts along the Mississippi and
at Vincennes, Ind., in 1778-1779. Illi-
nois was given to the United States by
the Treaty of Paris, 1/83, and was in-
Lowden,
ILLINOIS
cluded in the Northwest Territory in
1787. It became a separate territory
_ with a capital at Kaskaskia in 1809, and
-was admitted to the Union in 1818.
After the insurrection under “Black
Hawk,” 1832, the Indians left the state.
The Illinois and Michigan Canal was
finished in 1848. The first railroad in
the state was built in 1850. It ran from
Chicago to Elgin. Illinois, which sent
nearly 250,000 men to the Federal army
during the Civil War, was the scene of
the Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858). In
1871 occurred the Chicago fire; in 1887
anarchist riots; in 1893, at Chicago, the
World’s Columbian Exposition. In 1913
women were granted the right to vote for
certain specified offices.
Besides three constitutions adopted re-
spectively in 1818, 1848 and 1870, IIli-
nois has had three capitals, Kaskaskia,
Vandalia and Springfield. Consult Ma-
ther’s The Making of Illinois; Smith’s
Student's History of Illinois.
GoverNors. Shadrach Bond, 1818-
1822; Edward Coles, 1822-1826; Ninian
Edwards, 1826-1830; John Reynolds,
1830-1834; Wm. L. D. Ewing, 1834;
Joseph Duncan, 1834-1838 ; Thomas Car-
lin, 1838-1842 ; Thomas Ford, 1842-1846;
Augustus C. French, 1846-1853; Joel A.
Matteson, 1853-1857 ; William H. Bissell,
1857-1860; John Wood, 1860-1861;
Richard Yates, 1861-1865; Richard J.
Oglesby, 1865-1869; John M. Palmer,
1869-1873; Richard J. Oglesby, 1873;
John L. Beveridge, 1873-1877; Shelby
M. Cullom, 1877-1883; John M. Ham.
ilton, 1883-1885; Richard J. Oglesby,
1885-1889 ; Joseph W. Fifer, 1889-1893 ;
John P. Altgeld, 1893-1897; John R.
Tanner, 1897-1901; Richard Yates, 1901-
1905; Charles S. Deneen, 1905-1913;
Edward F. Dunne, 1913-1917; Frank O.
1917-1921, and Len Small,
1921—. }
Illinois, or Illini, a federation of In-
dian tribes of the Algonquian family,
once occupying the land now included in
the states of Illinois, lowa, Michigan and
Missouri. Among these tribes were the
Kaskaskians, Michigamis, Peorians and
Cahokias. These Indians were consist-
1421
ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL
ently friendly with the French during
the French and Indian Wars, and were
later, with difficulty, reconciled to the
advance of the settlers. Less than 200
of the Illinois Indians now remain in
the United States, and these are chiefly
on the reservations west of the Missis-
sippi.
Illinois and Michigan Canal, a canal
which connects Lake Michigan, at Chi-
cago, with the Illinois River, at La Salle,
Ill. It is 6 ft. deep, 60 ft. wide at the
bottom and 96 m. long. There are 17
locks. Begun in 1836, this canal was
completed in 1848, at a cost of more than
$6,000,000. Later, the construction of a
network of railways made it of less im-
portance, and it j3; now little used.
Illinois and Mississippi Canal, also
known as the Hennepin Canal, a canal
7 ft. deep, 80 ft. wide and 50 m. long,
connecting the Illinois River near Hen-
nepin and Spring Valley, Ill, with the
Rock River, 27 m. above its confluence
with the Mis:issinpi at Rock Island, III.
This is the only boat canal constructed
in the United States since 1850. It was
completed in 1907, cost about $7,250,000,
and is used principally for the transpor-
tation of coal from the Illinois fields. In
connection with the Illinois and Michi-
gan Canal, however, it affords a short
route for light boats going from Lake
Michigan to the upper Mississippi.
Illinois River, a river of the state
whose name it bears. It is formed in
Grundy County by the union of the Des
Plaines and Kankakee rivers, and flows
in a southwesterly direction until it joins
the Mississippi 18 m. north of Alton.
It is navigable for its entire extent, about
350 m. The Illinois and Michigan Ca-
nal connects it with the Chicago River
and so with Lake Michigan, and the
Chicago Drainage Canal also enters it
through the Des Plaines. The chief trib-
utaries of the Illinois are the Fox and
the Sangamon, and the principal towns
on its banks are Peoria, Ottawa and La
Salle. See Cuicaco DRAINAGE CANAL;
ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL.
Illinois, University of, at Urbana
(1867). The university campus lies
ILLYRICUM
partly in Champaign and partly in Ur-
bana. This, with the adjacent experi-
mental farm, comprises 1229 acres.
Opened in 1868, as the Illinois Industrial
University, it took its present name in
1885. It includes colleges of liberal arts
and sciences, agriculture, education, engi-
neering, law a graduate school, and
schools of library science and music. The
colleges of medicine and dentistry and a
school of pharmacy are located in Chi-
cago. Connected with the university,
and at Urbana, are agricultural and engi-
neering experiment stations, also the
state geological and water surveys and
the office of the state entomologist. The
university has many fine buildings, valu-
able collections and a library of about
five hundred thousand volumes. Its
total annual receipts exceed $5,000,000.
It enrolls about eleven thousand stu-
dents,
Tllit’eracy, the inability of a person
to read and write. Compulsory educa-
tion diminishes the percentage of illit-
erates in a country; hence it is a fair
test to judge the education, if not the
intelligence, of a community, by the num-
ber of illiterates found therein.
many, Switzerland, Sweden and Norway
the rate is low; in Spain, Portugal and
the southern European countries there
is a high percentage, and in the United
States the percentage varies for differ-
ent states, but for the country as a whole
it is 7.7. In the other large countries
it varies as follows:
Germany ....0.11 . Canadaseaeen 10.20
Sweden ..... 0.11 Belgium ....12.80
Switzerland... 0.30 - Austria)iiee 23.80 |
Scotland, ... 3:57. Italy ee 38.30
Holland,..... 4.00 © Russiayyeeee 61.70
Frances: 2% 4.90 Spain Vases 68.10
England ..... 5.80 Portugaleieees
Illyricum, J] lir' i kum, the name of
the Roman possessions of varying bound-
aries, but including the western region
of the Balkan Peninsula, known as IlI-
lyria. Southern Illyria came under Ro-
man power about 168 B. C., and later
the entire country was subjugated. In
the time of Constantine the name ap-
plied to nearly all of the Roman ter-
1422
In Ger- —
IMAGE
ritory east of the Adriatic, including most
of the modern divisions of Bosnia-Her-
zegovina, Dalmatia, Croatia, Montene-
gro and Albania. The boundaries of
this prefecture at one time extended
until they included within their limits
the cities of Athens and Vienna. The
name Illyricum gradually ceased to have
political significance as the Slavic people
began to settle the Balkan Peninsula; the
Albanians are held to be the descendants
of the Illyrians subjected by Rome, but
sufficiently separated from the tide of 1m-
migration to maintain a distinct nation-
ality. Illyria is the scene of Shakes-
peare’s Twelfth Night.
Im’age. See Licut; Lens; Mirror.
Imag”ina’tion, the mental power by
which new thoughts are brought into
play. A vivid imagination left to its
own guidance is apt to become uncer-
tain and harmful; rightly restrained, it
is a valuable power that becomes one
of the richest products of the mental
life.
An imagination may be creative, like
that of the poet and artist; or receptive,
like that of the person to whom the
poem or picture makes appeal. It is
passive when the combining of ideas to
form new products is unconscious, like
that of the child who sees the fairies
in the trees; or active, when the com-
bination is intentional. The distinction
between these two is, however, not defi-
nitely marked. In its use the imagina-
tion is termed scientific when its aim is
purely intellectual; inventive, when its
aim is utility and its purpose mechan-
ical construction ; artistic, when its pur-
pose is art and its aim beauty.
Lack of imagination is generally due
to repression and not to natural tenden-
cies. Imaginative literature, fairy tales
and legends, which were once seriously
condemned, are now being once again
welcomed on account of the service they
do in cultivating an imagination which,
later in life, accomplishes the inventions
of the practical world of science and art.
Im”migra’tion, the entrance into a
country of settlers from a foreign land.
Leaving the country for the purpose of
IMMORTELLE
residence is emigration; hence immigra-
tion and emigration denote simply direc-
tion to and from. Immigration may
arise from political, economic or religious
conditions, or from mere love of adven-
ture. The economic gain of immigra-
tion to new countries is evident. It adds
directly to their available labor force,
that is, to the number of adults erigaged
in the work of producing wealth. Im-
migration to the United States far ex-
ceeds that to any other country.
The immigration law of the United
States, as revised by the Fifty-ninth Con-
gress, provides for a poll tax of $4 for
every alien entering the United States.
The money thus collected goes into the
treasury and constitutes a permanent ap-
propriation for defraying the expenses
of regulating immigration. The follow-
ing classes are excluded from admission
into the United States: all imbeciles,
criminals, paupers, the insane and per-
sons unable to support themselves. By
the acts of 1882 and 1893 such persons
are rejected and the steamship companies
that bring them are compelled to take
them back, the law clearly stating that all
such aliens as become public charges
from causes existing prior to their land-
ing shall be deported at any time within
three years after their arrival. Canada,
the South American countries and Aus-
tralia have also received a large immi-
gration. See UNITED STATES, subhead
Immigration. Consult Hall, Immigration
(New York, 1906).
Immortelle, Jm” or tel’, a common
woodland herb of the Composite Family,
known from New Jersey west to the
Mississippi and north. The stems are
erect and rise from one to two feet
high, bearing dusty, narrow leaves. The
clustered blossoms are of two kinds, fer-
tile, or fruit-producing, at the outside
and sterile in the center. The separate
heads are circled with a number of dry
chafflike appendages, white or yellowish-
white in color. Immortelle is a familiar
feature of dry autumn woods, where its
heads of blossoms seem never to droop
but to be, as the name implies, ever-
lasting.
1423
IMPEACHMENT
Impeach’ment, an accusation pre-
\sented in legal form, imputing improper
conduct on the part of a civil officer of
the government and calling him to a de-
fense before the proper tribunal. In the
United States the House of Representa-
tives has the sole power of impeachment
and the Senate the sole power to try all
impeachments. As a precaution against
the use of impeachment for party pur-
poses a two-thirds vote is required for
conviction, and in such case the judg-
ment cannot extend further than “to
removal from office and disqualifica-
tion to hold and enjoy any office of hon-
or, trust or profit under the United
States.” The whole procedure is con-
ducted solely to the end that the public
service may be relieved of dishonest offi-
cials. The ordinary machinery of the
law may later be employed to bring to
justice any one removed from office by
stich proceedings.
Should the president be impeached the
chief justice of the Supreme Court must
preside. In states of the Union the pro-
ceeding is practically the same as in the
United States Government service. The
House of Representatives brings the
charges and the Senate tries the accused.
When the governor is under impeach-
ment the chief justice of the State Su-
preme Court presides at the inquiry. Only
seven times in our history have articles
of impeachment been voted by the United
States House of Representatives. These
cases are:
(1) William Blount, United States
senator from Tennessee, in 1/97 was im-
peached for conspiring with British offi-
cers to steal Louisiana for the benefit of
England; he was expelled from the Sen-
ate. (2) Judge Pickering, of the United
States District Court of New Hampshire,
was impeached in 1833 for drunkenness
and profanity while on the bench; he
was removed from office. (3) Samuel
Chase, a justice of the Supreme Court of
the United States, was impeached in 1804
for “highly indecent and extra-judicial
reflections on the United States Govern-
ment” in a charge to a grand jury; he
was acquitted. (4) Judge West H.
IMPRISONMENT
Humphries, of the United States Dis- ©
trict Court of Tennessee, suffered im-
peachment in 1862 for joining the Con-—
federacy without previously resigning
his office ; his office was declared vacant.
(5) President Andrew Johnson was im-—
peached in 1868, charged with violating
the Tenure of Office Act; he was ac-
quitted. (6) William W. Belknap, sec-
retary of war in President Grant's cab-
inet, was impeached in 1876, for cor-
ruption in office. He resigned. The trial
proceeded, but he was acquitted. (7)
Judge Robert W. Archbald, of the Fed-
eral Court of Commerce, was impeached
in 1912 for sustaining improper business
relations with coal and railway corpora-
tions which had cases pending before
his court. He was convicted early in
1913, his sentence being removal from
office and disqualification from holding
further office under the United States.
Imperialism, a political term applied
to the policy of a government toward —
the expansion of national control over
geographical area greater than that with-
in national boundaries. The policy, when
logically carried out, results in the es-
tablishment, or maintenance of colonies
or dependencies. Each acquisition, or
attempted acquisition, of new territory
by the United States has met with much
opposition, which was particularly pro-
nounced at the close of the Spanish-
American War.
was employed as a “catchword” in the
presidential campaign of 1900, especially
with regard to the purchase of the Phil-
ippines and the retention of Porto Rico. ©
The Supreme Court decided, however, —
on Dec. 2, 1901, on the constitutionality —
of expansion; and that extension of the —
sovereignty of the United States to new
territory guarantees liberty, the right to —
property and the protection of the United ~
States to the people.
Import Duties. See TARIFF.
The term imperialism —
:
.
.
|
¥
Impres’sionist, or Naturalist, School 7
of Painting. See PAINTING,
Imprisonment, /m priz’ ’n ment, in the
strictest sense of the term, the legal con-
q
finement of a person in a jail or prison —
provided by law for the purpose. In its
1424
IMPULSE
broadest sense imprisonment means the
restraint of one’s. personal liberty,
whether or not he is forcibly detained
within an inclosure. A person becomes
a prisoner at the touch or command of
an officer legally qualified to make ar-
rests. Imprisonment is the punishment
most commonly inflicted by courts for
crime, the term depending upon the na-
ture of the crime. The sentence varies
from a few days, or even hours, to life.
Persons under indictment for crime are
frequently imprisoned to hold them for
trial. Indicted persons can usually be
released on bail. Persons wanted for
witnesses at a trial are sometimes im-
prisoned to assure the court of their pres-
ence when needed. False imprisonment
consists of illegally detaining one, and
the person so detained can bring action
for damages.
Im’pulse, a tendency to activity
which comes without the prompting of a
definite reasoning. The impulses have
been grouped in three classes: sensation
impulses, those which cause us to fan
ourselves to relieve heat, or to rub our
hands for warmth; perception impulses,
those which cause us to look up when
we see others looking up; and imagina-
tion impulses, those which cause us to’
dodge a threatened blow, or to do a
generous deed. An impulsive action is
apt to be the result of three kinds of
impulses successively aroused; for in-
stance, the simple act of going into a
restaurant for lunch began with the sen-
sation of hunger which stopped our read-
ing; the imagination of satisfying the
hunger led us to rise; and the sight of
others entering a certain restaurant
caused us to follow.
Many impulses are never analyzed nor
considered at all peculiar because they
are common to all people, as the impulse
to put food into the mouth when the
body is hungry. Other impulses, how-
ever, which everyone has in some form,
if carried to any extent, amount.to mania,
as the impulse to jump from a lofty
building, to break fragile articles and to
step over cracks in the walk. The re-
straining of these impulses is self-con-
INCENSE
trol and results in a strength of char-
acter not attained by those who always
give way to their impulses.
Inca, In’ ka, one of the leading tribes
of South America, who formerly inhab-
ited the region comprising Peru, Ecua-
dor and the northwestern part of Bolivia.
They were the most advanced in civiliza-
tion of any of the South American tribes.
They had a well-organized government
which was systematically and justly ad-
ministered. They constructed extensive
irrigation works and built large grana-
ries. They had a good system of roads,
over which posts or public messengers
traveled at regular intervals. The Incas
possessed large quantities of gold and
silver, which they used in decorating
their temples and palaces, and many de-
signs in gold and silver at the time of
their conquest by the Spaniards gave
evidence of the skill of their workmen.
Their buildings were also so well con-
structed that substantial ruins of these
still remain. The Incas were conquered
by the Spaniards under Francisco Pi-
zarro, 1531-1533, but it required 40 years
completely to subdue the inhabitants.
Some authorities claim that as workmen
in metals and engineers they excelled
their conquerors. See PERu, subhead
History; PIZARRO, FRANCISCO,
Incense, Jn’ sens, a perfume whose
odor is developed by burning. The in-
cense used at the present time consists
of some resinous base, mingled with
sweet-smelling materials, such as oliba-
num, benzoin, storax and powdered cas-
carilla bark. These ingredients are placed
in a censer so as to fall on hot charcoal,
and their odor is then diffused through
the building. Both the Greek and Ro-
man Catholic churches use incense in
public worship, but it is not generally
used among Protestants. In the last 50
years it has been restored to some ex-
tent in the Anglican Church. The prac-
tice of burning incense was a part of the
worship of the sanctuary among the
Jews, several allusions being made to it
in the Pentateuch. The ancient Egyp-
tians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Hindus,
Greeks and Romans used incense in their
1425
INCLINED PLANE
worship of the gods, and the Buddhists
still make incense-burning a part of their
ceremonial.
Inclined’ Plane, a simple machine
whereby a small force acting through a
great distance can do the same work as
a much greater force acting through a
smaller distance. It is used commonly
to raise weights, as when barrels are
rolled up an inclined plank instead of
being lifted vertically. Neglecting the
retarding forces of friction, the general
law of equilibrium for the inclined plane
is as follows: To hold an object from
sliding, the force that must be applied
parallel to the plane is equal to the weight
of the object multiplied by the height of
the incline and divided by the length
of the incline. If friction is present, as
is always the case in practice, a some-
what less force is required to hold the
body from sliding or rolling down, and
a somewhat greater force is required to
move the body up the incline. The wind-
ing of a road about a hill in its ascent
to make the grade easier is an example
of the inclined plane. In all cases, on
account of friction, more work must be
done when using the inclined plane than
when lifting the body directly.
Income Tax. See TaAx,
Income Tax,
In’cuba”tor, a contrivance in which
artificial heat is used in hatching eggs.
It consists of a chamber in which an
subhead
INCUBATOR
even temperature is maintained by means
of heated water surrounding it, and in
which the eggs to be hatched are placed.
It is sometimes warmed directly by a
INDEPENDENCE
jamp.