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AS 28S ree ea Or, eet er So ese OT no : at 2 : ; : sents : : ee See ese 3 ; Soe ra en Fe tte es a cere Oris a ee Pots Basten z 5 E ane E of mate = ae - s gids = piven SERS ee ee pag Ci aan Dare Lt Spe ik ag nae cng cer regs seas rs AB ponommeniie tei spear eaetas ADE KDR EUR CERRY Ren Beno s SSS TS SH a SS kc A ES ts RS ET IMPS SEES TTS 7 fe aem Anas SAR SRE SS Saas SET WE NZOS EES 3h aoa ha : i a A Library of | _ Practical, Authoritative Information | o - Drawn From Every ‘Department of Human Knowledge Prepared by more than 200 of the World’s _ foremost educators | ; Ke Satie II] -ERPETUAL ENCYCLOPEDIA CORPORATION Pe ae Vy ae Weal lant a B CHICAGO.) _ Toronto © he oe xi ie: tee ia _ COPYRIGHT 1915, 1923 _ : 4752 Aaah” Fi V3 ERIE CANAL Erie, Battle of Lake, an important naval engagement of the war of 1812 fought near the western extremity of Lake Erie, Sept. 10, 1813, between an American squadron of two large and seven small vessels, under Commodore Perry, and a British squadron of six ves- sels under Commodore Barclay. The Lawrence, flagship of Commodore Perry, on which the British fire has been con- centrated, was nearly sinking when Perry transferred his flag to the Niagara. On the blue pennant were transcribed the words of Captain Lawrence, “Don’t give up the ship.” The engagement lasted four hours, ending in a complete victory for Commodore Perry. One hundred years later, the Niagara was raised from its resting place on the bottom of the lake. Erie Gana a barge canal, 387 m. long, connecting Buffalo, on Lake Erie, with Albany on the Hudson River. This canal was begun in 1817 and opened for towboats in 1825. Its depth of four feet was subsequently increased to seven; and the original investment, of $7,602,- 000, to $52,540,800. Plans for increas- ing the depth five feet having been ap- proved, some $75,000,000 was appropri- ated by the State of New York in 1903, and was finished and ready for operation in 1917, at a cost of about $150,000,000, thus opening the canal to barges having a net tonnage capacity of 2000 tons each. The Erie Canal is the longest canal in the world. It was the first great public work undertaken in the United States, and because portions of it were neces- sarily cut through the solid rock, but without the appliances available in our day, its completion was a national achievement that reflected special credit upon the State of New York and upon its governor, De Witt Clinton, prime mover in this great enterprise. By re- ducing the time required for the trans- portation of freight between Buffalo and Albany from 20 days to 10, and the charges from $100 to $10 per ton, the _ completion of the Erie Canal gave a mar- velous impetus to the development of the great West and assured for New York City that commercial and financial su- EROSION premacy which she has so long retained. Erie, Lake, next to the smallest of the Great Lakes. Its waters wash, Ohio, ‘Pennsylvania and New York upon the south and the Province of Ontario upon the north. It is 250 m. long, 60 m. broad at its widest part and its area is nearly 10,000 sq. m. Lake Erie is the shallowest of the lakes and is, in conse- quence, subject to sudden and severe storms. It lies 564 ft. above sea level, or 330 ft. above Lake Ontario, with which it is connected by the Niagara River, with its famous falls; the Wel- land Canal (See WELLAND CANAL) car- ries lake traffic to Lake Erie, and the Erie Canal (See Erte CANAL) connects the lake with the Hudson River. Buf- falo, Erie, Toledo, Cleveland and San- dusky are the principal American ports, and Port Colborne, Port Dover, Port Stanley and Rondeau are the chief Cana- dian ports. E’ris, in myths, the Greek name for the goddess of discord. See DiscorptA. Eritrea, A’ri tre’ a, or Erythrea, Er’- yth re’ a, an Italian possession of Africa, upon the Red Sea and bordered by Egypt, Abyssinia and the Somali Coast. It is made up of a series of Italian col- onies located both upon the mainland and upon islands. Physically the country is. a part of the fertile Abyssinian high- lands, with rich soil and healthful cli- mate. Near the coast tropical condi- tions prevail. The natives practice a primitive form of agriculture and raise tobacco, cotton, vegetables and tropical fruits. Large herds of cattle are raised and the pearl fisheries are also a source of revenue. Asmara is the capital. The population numbers about 45,000, most of whom are of nomadic habits. Ermine, Er’ min. See WEASEL. Ero’sion, the wearing away of the earth’s surface, generally caused by rain, streams, waves, icé and wind. The acids and other chemical constituents of rain water aid in decomposing the rocks or in breaking them up into fine par- ticles, which the water carries to lower levels; thus slopes are*-worn down and angular cliffs become rounded. The 84 969 ERSKINE channels cut by rivers and streams fol- low the path of the softest rocks and soils and thus are winding and irregular, especially if the stream is a slowly-mov- ing one. Rapidly-flowing torrents often cut deep, vertical-walled valleys known as canyons (See CANYON). On the seashore where the rock is soft, the action of the waves often carves fantastic figures and hollows out arches and caves. Upon the southern shore of Lake Superior the Pictured Rocks, rap- idly being destroyed by the same power that produced them, were hollowed by the powerful waves of the lake as it was heaped up by the north winds. Not far from the region of the Pictured Rocks lie also the ancient Black Rocks, said to be among the oldest geologic for- mations and so hard that the waves have been unable to make any impression upon them. Glaciers rounded off summits and rough peaks by their constant motion in passing over them. The action of ice is chiefly that of breaking off rocks by freezing and thawing until cliffs are gradually crumbled away. Erskine, Ur’ skin, Thomas, Lorp (1750-1823), an eminent Scottish law- yer, lord chancellor of England. His father, the tenth Earl of Buchan, was in straightened circumstances and could not gratify the son’s desire for a college education. After serving for several years in the navy and in the army, spend- ing his leisure time in wide reading, Er- skine gave up his commission in 1775 and studied law. Three years later he was admitted to the bar. In his first case he delivered a speech of remarkable eloquence and ability which at once as- sured his success and fortune. In later cases he gave the death-blow to the doc- trine of constructive treason and ren- dered great service to the cause of per- sonal liberty. In many of his noted cases, including his defense of Thomas Paine for publishing the second part of The Rights of Man, he displayed great skill and courage. He was elected to the House of Commons in 1783, where he served until 1806, when he became lord chancellor and was elevated to the ESCANABA peerage. His political career, however, did not reproduce the success achieved as a forensic advocate, and he died in comparative obscurity and poverty. Er’ ysip’elas, a bacterial disease af- fecting the skin and immediate under- lying tissues. In a large proportion of cases it affects the face and head. It causes acute inflammation, puffiness and sometimes gangrene. It is accompanied by fevér, headache, nausea and some- times delirium. The poisons occasionally wander into the joints and cause rheu- matism. It is highly contagious. Iron and quinine are thought to be the best tonics to be used in a treatment of erysipelas. Nutritious and_ digestible foods, milk, cod-liver oil and something in the form of a stimulant should also be given. Er’ythre’a. See ERITREA. E”sarhad’don, King of Assyria, son and successor of Sennacherib. He came to the throne in 680 B. C. He fought against his brothers, who had killed Sen- nacherib, engaged in a conflict with the Chaldeans, and in 672 B. C. reduced Egypt to the condition of an Assyrian province. E’sau, the eldest son of Isaac and Rebekah, and twin brother of Jacob. It is recorded of him that he was a skillful hunter, of a roving and restless disposi- tion, full of animal spirits. The story of his disposal of his birthright for a mess of pottage and subsequent quarrel and reconciliation with Jacob is one of the familiar narratives of the book of Gen- esis. After the death of Isaac, Esau removed to Mt. Seir, where he became the progenitor of the Edomites. Escanaba, Es’ka naw’ ba, Mich, a city and the county seat of Delta Co., about 73 m. s.e. of Marquette and 115 m. n.e. of Green Bay, on Little Bay de Noquette, an inlet of Green Bay, Lake Michigan, and on the Chicago & North Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul and other railroads. With a good harbor and several large, well-equipped docks, the town is an important shipping point. Its trade is chiefly in iron ore, fish, lumber flooring, coal, furniture and 970 ESDRAELON woodenware. There is an ore plant lo- cated here and also a tie-preserving plant. Water power is derived from the Esca- naba River. Escanaba has a _ water frontage of eight miles, and the fine boating and fishing and picturesque scen- ery make it a popular summer resort. The town was settled in 1863, was incor- porated as a village in 1883 and in the same year chartered as a city. Popula- tion in 1920, 13,103. Esdraelon, Es’dra e'lon, or Plain of Jezreel, a plain of central Palestine, extending from Jenin on the south to the hills of Nazareth on the north, and from Gilboa on the east to Carmel on the west. It is drained by the River Kishon. In Biblical times the plain was invaded by the Canaanites, the Midianites, by the Philistines and by the Syrians, and was the great battleground of the Israelites in their repelling of the many invasions of their land. Esdras, Ez’ dras, Books of, certain ‘books of the Apocrypha (See Apoc- RYPHA). They are generally divided into the First Book of Esdras and the Second Book of Esdras. The first book seems to be a compilation of narratives by various authors; the first chapter is a repetition of the last two chapters of Second Chronicles, with some variations of the text, and the rest of the book is a transcript of portions of Ezra and Ne- hemiah. The Second Book consists of angelic revelations and a series of visions concerning the mysteries of the moral world and the final triumph of righteous- ness. Es’kimo, a race of North American Indians living on the Arctic coast of North America, from Alaska to Green- land, and on the islands to the north. A few live across Bering Strait on the Asiatic coast. The Eskimos call them- selves Innuit, or “the people; our name for the race is a corruption of an Ojib- way word meaning “eaters of raw flesh.” As a people the Eskimos are generally short, although some of the men are six feet in height. They are muscular, with fat, good-humored faces that are apt to ESKIMO DOG be rather flat; the hair is coarse and black and is generally either fastened in a loose knot or left hanging. Men and women dress much after the same fash- ion in coats and trousers made of the skins of the seal, reindeer or bear; the coat has a hood at the top, which may be drawn over the head or is used by the mother for carrying her child. The Eskimos are not at all cleanly in their habits, and as they seldom wash, their skin is coated thickly with smoke, oil and filth. Their summer homes are tents of skin built much like tepees, while in winter they are burrowed half underground and protected at the top by walls of turf, ice and snow, stones or even bones. A basin of oil with a moss wick serves as a lamp and a stove, and the only furniture is a bench, which may be used as a table, bed or chair. Since cultivation of the soil is generally im- possible, the food of the Eskimo is chiefly derived by fishing and hunting, and the seal and reindeer supply not only the greater part of their food and cloth- ing but their other necessities and con- veniences as well. Sometimes berries and roots form an agreeable change in their diet. Much interest has recently been aroused by Stefanssen’s report, in 1912, of the discovery of blond Eskimos about Victoria Land and Coronation Gulf north of Canada. Two villages were found there in which there was but one individual who had seen any people other than those of his own tribe. Eskimo Dog, a wolflike species of dogs found in Arctic regions of Asia and North America and of great use to the natives who train them to draw their sledges and to aid them in the hunt. They are no doubt partially descended from wolves, if they are not, as some claim, merely half-civilized wolves. They are broad-chested dogs with strong shoulders, short, erect ears, a long, sharp muzzle and a straight bushy tail. The hair is woolly and exceedingly thick and warm; .in’ color it ‘is./ grayish, ° black, brown or white. Tne Eskimo dog is remarkable for its endurance; a sledge 971 ESPARTO team of five will pull a heavily-laden sledge an average of 60 m. per day, and the only care required by the dogs is that they be supplied with food of fish and meat. They are cunning hunters, but cannot learn to leave sheep or domes- tic animals unharmed. Since the rapid settlement of Alaska, the introduction of other breeds of dogs and the heavy work reyuired of dogs, an Alaskan variety of Eskimo dog has appeared, somewhat less wolflike than the original of the species. Espar’to, a valuable member of the Grass Family, growing sparingly in the United States. Its most common habitat is the Mediterranean countries, chiefly Spain and Algeria. Esparto grows in tufts or bunches from six inches to three feet in diameter, and has sage-green, hairy leaves, which when young are used for fodder for cattle. The long, flat, rushlike leaves resemble our feather grass and grow to a height of five feet, but when the plant ripens and is dried they become somewhat inflated. The plants grow in beds ten feet or more in diameter, in any sunny place where the soil is dry and sandy. It may be raised from seed, but requires 10 or 15 years to attain its growth. After a few years of growth the stem and leaves become tough and are then used for their fiber. In Spain, on account of its lightness and toughness, esparto has long been used in the making of cordage and float- ing cables. It has also been employed for some time in the manufacture of matting. years the French discovered that it could be used in the manufacture of paper, and now it is being employed extensively for that purpose in the United States, Eng- land and France. For this purpose it is pulled during the summer, dried in the sun and packed in bales to be exported. See PAPER. Recently it has been acclimated to the United States, where it grows, in scat- tered localities, from Maine to Minne- sota. Investigations are being made to discover whether the slag left after burn- ing the vegetable matter can be used in the manufacture of glass, as esparto, like During comparatively recent ESSEX, EARLS OF all grasses, contains a large per cent of silica. Esperanto, Es"pe rahn'to, an in= vented language formed by Dr. L. L. Zamenhof, a Russian of Warsaw, and designed to become an international aux- iliary language; it is not intended to re- place any languages now in use. The words are chiefly of Latin origin but are to some extent derived from all lan- guages. Spelling is entirely phonetic and the grammar has no exceptions to its rules. The vocabulary has about 2500 root words. The first book of Esperanto was pub- lished in 1887 and the language is now familiar to many people. The first Es- peranto society of the United States was organized at Boston in 1905, and now many local societies as well as a national association known as the Esperanto As- sociation of North America are in op- eration. Already Esperanto has a large literature and many periodicals. Inter- national congresses have been held at Boulogne, Geneva, Cambridge, Dresden, Barcelona, Washington and Antwerp. Essex, Earls of, a line of earls prob- ably beginning with Geoffrey de Mande- ville about 1139, The title passed by marriage to the Bohuns, Earls of Her- -ford, in the 13th century and became ex- tinct in 1373. It was afterwards held by the Duke of Gloucester, son of Edward III and husband of Eleanor de Bohun, and thereafter by his descendants, the Bourchiers, until 1540. Thomas Crom- well held the title for a short time before his execution in 1540, when it: passed to William Parr through his wife, the daughter of the last Bourchier earl; and then to the famous family of Devereux, the first of whom, Walter Devereux (1541-1576), was related to the Bour- chiers. Essex, Ropert DEVEREUX (1567-1601), second earl of this line, graduated at Cambridge in 1581, distinguished himself in an expedition against Holland and then took his place at court, where he became the chief favorite of Queen Eliz- abeth after the death of Leicester. He was loaded with honors and given com- 972 bane ESSEX, THE mand of several English expeditions. But he quarreled with the Queen; and for acting contrary to instructions as lord lieutenant of Ireland during an in- surrection, and for other ill-advised con- duct, he was tried for treason, his former friend Francis Bacon acting as prose- cutor, and was condemned and executed. Essex, Ropert DEVEREUX (1591-1646), third earl of this line, was the son of the preceding. He was educated at Eton and Oxford and became one of the com- panions of the Prince of Wales, after- watd Charles I, As’ early as 1626 he joined the side of Parliament in its op- position to Charles, and when the Civil War broke out in 1642 he was appointed ' to the chief command of the Parlia- mentary army. As the war advanced he manifested hesitation in pushing success to the limit and in fighting against the King in person. Having also become entangled with the House of Commons over. the matter of military appoint- ments, he resigned his commission. Hs’sex, The, a famous frigate of the American navy. Under Captain Porter it went to South American waters, where it captured a convoy from the British frigate Minerva, and, Aug. 13, 1812, was attacked by the British. sloop Alert, which it took after a single broadside. It then cruised for over a year in the Pacific Ocean, capturing British whal- ing vessels valued at more than $2,500,- O00, besides hundreds of seamen. In February, 1814, however, it was block- _aded by the British men-of-war, Phebe and Cherub, in the harbor of Valparaiso, South America, and in attempting to run the blockade was attacked, March 28. The battle which took place was one of the most desperate of the War of 1812 and one of the most remarkable in naval history, fully two-thirds of the Amer- icans being killed or wounded before Captain Porter surrendered. Esthonia. A section of country lying between the Gulf of Finland and Latvia, and Russia and the Baltic Sea. It in- cludes the old Russian province of Es- thonia and northern Livonia. It is the country of the Esths, a Finno-Ugrian ESTHER people, closely akin to the Finns whom they resemble in language, and mental and physical traits. Their present loca- tion suggests that they have been forced out of more favored sections in Russia. Their country was long ruled by the Ger- man religious order of the Brothers of the Sword, as a consequence a large part of the land is in the possession of Ger- man families, and old Esthonia was known as one of the German provinces of Russia. Owing to its strategical loca- tion, various Scandinavian countries con- tended for its possession. Esthonia passed finally under the con- trol of Russia by the Treaty of Nassau in 1721. It remained a Russian province until the close of the World War. But the Esthonians are not a Slavic people, and when the Russian government was overthrown in 1917 Esthonia declared its independence. Area estimated about 10,000 sq. mi. See Brest-Litovsk. Estate, originally the legal term for one’s common law interest in his land, but now extended to include all the prop- erty which one leaves to be divided at his death. Common-law estates are di- vided into two classes, free-hold estates and estates of less than free hold. A free-hold estate in fee simple may be dis- posed of by the owner at will. If held in fee-tail, it is limited to certain heirs and cannot be disposed of by the posses- sor except by the consent of these heirs. In the United States fee-tails are gen- erally abolished. See ENTAIL. Esther, Fs’ ter, a book of the Old Testament which contains an episode in the history of those Israelites who re- - mained in captivity after the return of their countrymen to Jerusalem. The scene of the narrative is the royal city of Susa; the events occur in the reign of Ahasuerus, King of Persia, 485-465 B. C. The courage and loyalty of Queen Esther is the theme of this, one of the many charming narratives of Hebrew lit- erature. The book is written in He- brew, though additions in Greek have. been made. The authorship, which is 973 ESTUARY unknown, has been attributed to Mor- decai, kinsman of Esther, and to Ezra. See Bipie, subhead The Old Testament. Es’tuary, the enlarged channel at the mouth of a river, or an arm of the sea narrowing inwards at a river’s mouth in which there is considerable tidal disturb- ance. An estuary is usually formed by the submergence of the land at the mouth of a stream, which is further worn away by erosive action of the tides and waves. Estuaries are usually obstructed by shifting bars which interfere with navigation. At high tide the force of the waves causes the sand and mud brought down by the river to be depos- ited some distance from the sea; while at ebb tide a large part of this deposit is carried out to form a bar some distance beyond. Consitlerable turbidity of the waters is the result of this oscillation. In some estuaries the tides move rapidly against the current of the stream, caus- ing what is known as a “bore,” a phe- nomenon common in the Bay of Fundy. Etch’ing, the process of engraving metal plates by means of an acid. A clean plate is covered with a composi- tion of Egyptian asphaltum, virgin wax and Burgundian pitch, known as an etching ground, which protects the sur- face during the action of the acid. The figure or design is cut through this cov- ering with tools called etching needles; afterwards the plate is placed in a weak solution of nitric acid, which eats or bites the figure in the plate. Etching is often combined with engraving to produce fine effects. See ENGRAVING; ZINC ETCHING. Ete’sian Winds, the north and north- east winds which blow over southern Europe during the summer season. They are thought to be the indraught due to the rising of the heated air over the Desert of Sahara. These winds are strongest in July and August. H’ther, or Sulphu’ric Ether, a light, easily evaporated liquid composed of car- bon, hydrogen and oxygen. It is highly inflammable and colorless and has a sweetish taste and odor. It is medically valuable as an anesthetic and in the United States is more generally used ETHICS than chloroform. It is estimated that there is an average of only one death in 16,000 cases, due to its use. Ether is also used in medicines whose object is to dissolve fats or resins, since ether is a powerful solvent of such compounds. Eth’ics (from Greek ethikos, pertain- ing to conduct or character), the science of human conduct. There are also other sciences, however, that deal with con- duct: anthropology, ethnology, psychol- ogy, political economy, sociology. But these describe human activities; ethics judges them. Ethics is therefore the science that treats of conduct with refer- ence to its moral qualities, whether it is right or wrong, good or bad. Moreover, if we define ethics as a science the term should be understood in a sense broad enough to include the philosophical basis and the practical issues involved. That is, ethics is not exclusively a science, but partly also a philosophy and an art. What are the motives that impel men to action? Why does a man choose this object of endeavor rather than that? What are the ends that men seek in life? These questions place before ethics a part of its task, the scientific investiga- tion and analvsis of the motives that actually form the springs of action. Without this, ethics is in danger of los- ing itself in profitless a priori specula- tions. But more than this is involved also. Can we determine among these motives, or from any source, what end is right or best for men to seek, what is the highest good, the summum bonum of life? Thoughtful men have asked this question in all ages. It involves more than purely scientific problems, and in- cludes philosophical and religious con- sideration of permanent moral values. There are, and have been since the days of the Greeks, two main theories of what constitutes the highest good. One is known as hedonism. It makes pleas- ure or happiness the highest good. Not necessarily the pleasure of the senses, or the pleasure of today, however; it may emphasize also the higher forms of pleasure and may even advocate present sacrifice for the sake of future happi- 974 ETHICS ness. Nor is the theory limited exclu- sively to individualistic pleasure; in modern times it has been extended to include the greatest happiness of the greatest number, the ethical theory known as utilitarianism. The other main theory is that the highest good is found in virtue or per- fection, and its advocates are known as Perfectionists. They claim that hedon- ism is wrong in calling pleasure the mo- tive of action; that pleasure is at best no more than the result of right action; that a man does not eat his dinner, for instance, because there is pleasure in do- ing so, but for other reasons, and pleas- ure is only incidental; that great num- bers of men, as a matter of fact, are living their lives without making pleas- ure their chief aim. The highest good is, rather, in the achievement of that de- velopment and self-realization, for the individual and the community, the possi- bilities of which are inherent in their constitution and nature. Just what is the content of the highest good may not be known in full from the beginning, but is discovered more and more in the proc- ess of historical evolution. This ethical theory has assumed many special forms in the course of history, and has re- garded the highest good as determined in various ways: by the law of God, by the requirements of human reason, by the ultimate constitution of things, by the fundamental human needs or wants existing in individual and community life, by the growing ideals of humanity from age to age. In addition to the problem of motives and the nature of the summum bonum, there arises the other question, Why should a man seek the highest good at all? Ethics includes, therefore, a con- sideration of the problems connected with right and wrong, obligation, conscience. The most satisfactory conception with reference to this aspect of ethics seems to be that the feeling of obligation is not forced from without, but is a constituent element of reason itself. The nature of the mind is such that the very perception ‘of the highest good carries with it a ETHNOLOGY sense of obligation that this end ought to be actualized in life. Conscience is not some separate faculty, or sixth sense, but is the reason of man dealing with questions of moral ends and their attain- ment. The ideals of the highest good may change from age to age with grow- ing knowledge, but conscience is the “categorical imperative,” requiring us to seek that end which reason has approved as best. The study of ethics also leads out into consideration of the institutions of so- ciety, such as the family, business activi- ties, the school, the Church, the State, in which conduct finds its concrete signifi- cance and ripens into character; and: where the individual secures that free- dom and self-realization which come only through the fulfillment of his function in the midst of his environment. See CYRENAICS; CY NICS; EPICUREANISM; STOICISM ; HEDONISM ; UTILITARIANISM ; PHILOSOPHY ; ALSTHETICS. E’thio’pia, the ancient name for the region south of Egypt now included in Nubia, Abyssinia, Kordofan and Sen- nar. In the Bible it is spoken of as the Land of Cush. At one time it must have been a powerful country, with Meroe, a city whose ruins are still to be seen on the Nile, as its capital. The language is a Semitic form still used in the Abys- sinian Church. The kings of Ethiopia frequently ruled over Egypt, but Egypt never gained control of Ethiopia. Abys- sinia is now frequently called Ethiopia. Ethnog’raphy, the science which deals with the distribution over the earth of races and peoples. It is a branch of anthropology and is closely related to ethnology. It deals specifically with the scientific division of men into races and nations. See ANTHROPOLOGY; ETHNOL- OGY. | Ethnol’ogy, that branch of anthro- pology whose unit of study is mankind. It treats of man’s development intellectu- ally through different stages; his re- ligion, customs, government, trade and commercial organization, art and lan- euage. It takes up the study of man at the stage where anthropological investi- 979 ETNA gation ends. See ANTHROPOLOGY; ETH- NOGRAPHY. | Et’na, or A®tna, the largest volcano in Europe. It is in northern Sicily, close by the city of Catania. It rises abruptly from the sea to a height of 10,755 ft., and has a circumference of 100 m., at the base. The top is capped with snow sum- mer and winter; halfway down the side the mountain is densely wooded; and at the base are vineyards and orchards. Several small towns are dotted about over the lower slopes. A traveler pass- ing from the base to the summit journeys through several climates—at the base the warmth of the Sicilian plain, midway , to the top climate corresponding to that of the Northern countries and at the top perpetual winter. From the summit a wonderful view is obtained, embracing all of Sicily and a large part of lower Italy, the Lipari Islands and Malta. Many destructive eruptions from Etna have occurred at various times. In the 12th century 1500 lives were lost and almost as many again in 1669, In 1693 the eruption and the accompanying earth- quake destroyed 60,000 lives. Other dis- astrous eruptions took place in 1755, 1832, 1865, 1874, 1879, 1906 and 1907; and in 1911 occurred an eruption more violent than any of recent times, which brought serious damage to the adjacent country. B’ton College, at Eton, England (1440). It was founded by Henry VI in the little village on the Thames facing Windsor and was first called “The Col- lege of the Blessed Mary at Eton be- side Windsor.” It was originally a school for the poor but is now a popular school for the nobility. Students are en- tered between the ages of 12 and 14 years, and the work is largely prepara- tory in character. Although the school is now housed in well-equipped build- ings, one of the original buildings, begun in 1441, is still in use. Etru’ria, an ancient Italian country occupying what is now included in the provinces of Latium and Tuscany. Its ancient inhabitants are known as Etrus- cans. Physically, it was bounded by the EUCALYPTUS Tiber and the Apennines, while it stretched to the Mediterranean on the west. It was already inhabited and in a high state of civilization at the time of the founding of Rome. Under the Tar- quins, Rome became mistress of Etruria, but later the Tarquins were expelled and the Etruscans, under Lars Porsena of Clusium, endeavored to establish them- selves in Rome. The defeat of the Etruscans in the Battle of Lake Regillus and the treaty with Carthage were among the last notable events of Etruria’s days of power. In 309 B. C. Etruria became wholly Roman, although for nearly two centuries her cities excelled Rome in cul- ture and in prosperity. Etrus’cans. See ETRURIA. Eubea, U be'a, an island of Greece, the largest in the group lying in the /Egean Sea. Its length is 98 m. and it has an average width of 30 m. The highest summit of the mountains which traverse it is Mt. Delphi, extending to a height of about 5725 ft. Grain, figs, wine and oil are the chief products of the fer- tile soil. The island was once the source of the grain supply of ancient Athens, and its honey still remains of excellent quality. Chalcis, Eretria and Carystus are the principal towns. The Abantes and Dryopes were the earliest inhabit- ants, and after the settlement of the island by the Ionians, about 1100 B. C., it rose rapidly in importance and soon became a center of learning and the seat of the Eubcean School of Philosophy. After the Persian Wars it was in the pos- session of Athens, became independent after the Peloponnesian War, and was in the possession of the Turks from 1470 until the Greek Revolution. Since 1830 it has formed a part of the new Greek state. Population, about 59,000. Eucalyptus, U’ka lip’tus, a large class of splendid trees belonging to the ‘Myrtle Family and native in Australia. They have tall, slender trunks and branches which tend to a vertical rather than a horizontal position. The leaves are long and pointed, generally growing in pairs upon the stem and always cov- ered with small, resinous spots. The 976 : EUCHRE flowers grow in almost stemless clusters in the axils of the leaves. These trees are chiefly remarkable for their great size, as some attain to a height of nearly 500. ft. These tallest species are gum trees and are knowl as the blue gums; they are grown in California and the Gulf States and produce an oil which is used medicinally. Recently it has been found that this oil is an effective deodor- izer, disinfectant and antiseptic, and, with the increased use of these, the produc- tion of oil of eucalyptus has increased in importance as an industry. Eucalyptus wood is light and durable and is used in shipbuilding, and for various other purposes. Euchre, U' ker, a game of cards fh two or more persons, in which 24 or 32 cards are used, all spot cards below the 7 or the 9 being thrown out. The cards are dealt, two to each and then three to each, or vice versa, and the dealer then turns the top card face-up on the pack which remains. If but two are playing, and the nondealer holds cards which will probably take three tricks, he orders the dealer to take up the trump. If not, he passes; and then the dealer either takes up the trump and discards his least valu- able card, or turns the trump down. Each, in turn, then has an opportunity to make either of the other three suits trump. The one who orders up, or takes up the trump, or the one who makes it must lead. If he wins either three or four tricks, he scores one; if he wins five, two; otherwise he is euchred, and his opponent scores two upon taking three tricks. The game is five points, or ten if so agreed. In the trump suit, the jack, or right bower, is high; then the jack of the same color, or left bower, the ace, king, etc., in order, but in other suits the ace is the highest card. In every trick each must follow suit if possible. Any trump, however, will take any card of another suit. When neither will make the trump, the deal goes to the opposing player. When three or more play single-handed, each may agree to help the others against the maker ‘of the trump. The game is EUGENE then known as cut-throat euchre; and, if together they win three tricks, each scores two. To complicate the game, a single card known as the joker, and the highest card inthe pack, is sometimes in- troduced. Four-handed euchre is gen- erally played by partners, either of whom may play alone in a given hand if he so elects. Should he win’ five ‘tricks; a march, he scores four. Euclid, U’klid, of Alexandria, a Greek mathematician living about 300 B. C. Because of his work in geometry. that branch of mathematics is still fre- quently called Euclid. His works include 13 books on geometry and several less important treatises on mathematical sub- jects. Eudiometer, U"di om’ e ter, a gradu- ated glass tube bent like the letter U, in which is introduced wires for producing electric sparks. The instrument is used for analyzing gaseous mixtures and de-_ termining their purity, and for this pur- pose electricity i is often employed. Eugéne, U"zhen', Francois (1663- 1736), a famous ‘general, commonly known as Prince Eugéne of Savoy. He was born in Paris. His own desire for a military career prevailed over the plan of his family, that he enter the Church. Because of his mother’s banishment from court, by Louis XIV, and his failure to obtain a commission in the latter’s army, Eugene entered the service of Leo- pold of Austria, having acquired a hatred of the King of France that time never cooled. He first fought against the Turks, later took an active part in the ° war of the Coalition against Louis, and in 1691 became commander of the im- perial army in Piedmont. About this - time Louis tried to secure him for serv- ice, by heavy bribes which he scorned to accept. In 1697 he defeated the Turks in Hungary in the famous Battle of Zenta. In 1701, at the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession, Eugéne was put in command of the army in Italy, and later was transferred to Ger- many. With Marlborough he won the brilliant victory over the French and Bavarians, at Blenheim, Aug. 13, 1704. 977 EUGENE In 1706 he expelled the French from Italy; at Oudenarde, in 1708, and at Malplaquet, in 1709, he shared in the triumphs of Marlborough. After the close of the War of the Spanish Succes- sion, Eugene again bore a prominent part in the war against the Turks, renewed in 1716. In his later years he was a patron of art and literature. Eugene, U jeen’, Ore., a city and the county seat of Lane Co., 124 m. s.w. of Portland, on the Willamette River and on the Southern Pacific and other rail- roads. It is the commercial focus of the fertile farming district comprising the Upper Willamette Valley, a region famed for its timber and mineral wealth (gold and silver). In the city are nu- merous industrial plants, including saw and planing mills, canneries, flour mills, sash, door and blind factories, tanneries, machine shops and ironworks, excelsior factories and brickyards. Eugene is the seat of the Oregon State University, opened in 1876. Settled in 1854, the place was incorporated ten years later; it is at present administered under a char- ter of 1893. Population in 1920, 10,593. Eugenics, U jen'iks, the science of race improvement, whether of plants, lower animals or human beings. In re- cent years the term has been used more especially in the latter sense; Sir Fran- cis Galton, who first thus made use of the expression, defines it as the “study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of the future generations either mentally or physically.” The fact that there are so many feeble-minded, insane, blind, deaf or otherwise subnormal children born into the world has led to the scientific study of the causes and an effort to re- move them. To assist in this, Galton has made a gift of $250,000 to the Univer- sity of London for the establishment of a chair of eugenics. At the same time the subject excited attention in America and the American Breeders’ Association ap- pointed a Eugenics Committee, whose chairman was Dr. David Starr Jordan. The duties of the committee are the col- lection of data upon the subject of race EUPHRATES improvement, research work for the pur- pose of enlarging knowledge of the sub- ject and, lastly, the disseminating of the facts learned. This committee has al- ready established a record office, and in London a magazine of eugenics is being published. At present the practical value of the study cannot be determined. The work is philanthropic in that it aims at the bet- terment of all classes; it favors legis- lative restrictions of the marriage of those physically unfit. Among the most readable books on the subject may be mentioned J. A. Thompson, Heredity; Jordan, The Heredity of Richard Roe; Galton, Studies in National Eugenics; Pearsons, National Life from the Stand- point of Eugenics; Saleeby, Parenthood and Race Culture; Burbank, The Train- ing of the Human Plant. Eugénie-Marie, U”zha"ne'-Mah ree’, de Montijo (1826-1920), formerly Em- press of the French as wife of Napoleon III. She was born at Granada, in Spain, the second daughter of the Count of Montijo. She possessed great personal charm and beauty, and married Louis Napoleon in 1853, soon after he was pro- claimed emperor. Several times she acted as regent in the absence of the Emperor. When the war broke out with Germany (1870), she was again ap- pointed to this position, but was forced to flee to England, where she was joined by her son and later by her husband. The Emperor died in 1873, and her son was killed in 1879 while serving as a volunteer in the Zulu War. The follow- ing year she visited the spot and brought the body back to be buried by the side of his father. She continued to live in re- tirement in England, interested in pass- ing events, but taking no part in French politics. Euphorbia, U for’ bi a. See SPURGE FAMILY, Euphrates, U fra’ teez, the great river of Mesopotamia, forming with its trib- utary, the Tigris, the chief river system in the western part of the continent. Two branches are its source in Armenia: the Kara Su, or Western Euphrates, rising 978 EUREKA northeast of Erzerum and flowing south- west until it is joined by the Murad Su; the Eastern Euphrates, coming from the slope of Ala-Dagh, and joining the Kara Su below Seraijik. Its course is then among the Anti-Taurus Mountains for about 45 m., and it later flows in an unin- terrupted course of 1200 m. to the Med- iterranean Sea. Along its way it sepa- rates Mesopotamia from Syria and the Syrian Arabian deserts, and at Kurna it is joined by the Tigris River. Its total length is more than 1700 m., and the estimated area of its basin is 260,000 sq. m. Commercially, the river has slight importance, for scarcely more than 450 m. are continuously navigable, owing to the shallowness of its water. Histori- cally, on the other hand, the Euphrates has been foremost among the rivers of the world. The early history of the old Oriental world empires connects closely with the river, for it was then a scene of crude but significant means of com- merce and travel. The allusions in Jer- emuah and writings of other prophets re- veal the attitude of the Hebrews to the river, which in their dreams represented the limit of their territory. It was one of the four rivers of Eden, and is re- ferred to in the Bible as “the Great River,” or “the River.” Eure’ka, Cal., a city and the county seat of Humboldt Co., 225 m. n.w. of San Francisco, on Humboldt Bay and on the California Western, the San Fran- cisco & North Western and other rail- roads. There is a fine harbor and con- nection with Pacific-coast ports by regu- lar steamship lines. The city is in the famous redwood region, and there is an extensive trade in red lumber. Other important articles of commerce are shin- gles, wool, apples, butter and fish. There are numerous lumber mills, an iron foundry, a tannery, a woolen mill and a swiss cheese factory. There is a fine courthouse, Carnegie library and a mag- nificent tourist hotel. In the vicinity is Sequoia Park, a redwood forest of 40 acres. Settled in 1850, Eureka was in- corporated in 1856. Pop. in 1920, 12,193. Euripides, U rip’ i deez, (about 480- EUROPA 406 B. C.), a Greek dramatic poet, born probably at Salamis. He received a lib- eral education, was trained to become an athlete, essayed painting and finally, at the age of 25, produced his first play, the Peliades, and was recognized as a tragic poet. Several times during his life he competed for the first prize—he won the distinction only five times—but he was never wholly popular, and was eclipsed by Sophocles and Aristophanes, who con- formed entirely to the traditions of the old school. In the representation of human pas- sion, lay his greatest strength. He places the struggle within the soul of man him- self, instead of making it a conflict be- tween man and laws divine; in this re- spect he touches closely upon modern, especially the romantic, tragedy, of which he was the precursor. In style his works are admirable and have been deemed worthy of imitation; in plot they are weak and defective, for he often presents detached episodes without any pretense of securing unity. His pro- logues are invariably heavy and mechan- ical. He attempted to mold his tragedies to suit an age that was witnessing the undermining of the popular religion and a questioning of the belief in the gods and heroes of old. And the power and insight he manifested in this transitional age caused him to be ranked as one of the great tragic poets that Greece has produced. He wrote at least 75 pieces, of which a great number have been lost. His works embrace Alcestis, Androm- ache, Hecuba, Electra, Hercules Furens, Medea, Hippolytus, Bacche, Iphigenia Among the Taurians, Orestes, Troades and Phenisse. Euro’pa, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Agenor, King of Phcenicia, and a sister of Cadmus. According to legend, Jupiter, attracted by her beauty, assumed the form of a white bull and carried her on his back to Crete, where he resumed his human semblance and won her love. She bore him Minos, Sar- pedon and Rhadamanthus. Jupiter made her presents of the bronze man, Talos, a dog which never lost its prey and a spear 979 ——. a ee a I EUROPE which never missed its mark. Europa subsequently became the bride of King Asterius of Crete, who adopted her sons. Europe, the smallest of the grand di- visions. It forms a part of the Conti- nent of Eurasia, from which it projects to the northwest as a huge peninsula. It is in the Eastern Hemisphere and lies between 71° 11’ and 36° north latitude and between 9° 28’ west and 66° 20’ east longitude. The Strait of Gibraltar and ‘the strait between Sicily and Tunis sep- arate it from Africa on the south. S1zE. From north to south, from Cape North to Cape Matapan, its greatest ex- tent is 2400 m.; from east to west, from Cape St. Vincent to Ekaterinburg, 3400 m. The total area of the mainland and adjoining islands, including Iceland, Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen, is about 3,850,000 sq. m. Europe is peninsular in form, surrounded on three sides by the ocean or sea—the Arctic on the north, the Atlantic on the west and the Med- iterranean Sea on the south. The coast line is very irregular. Its length is esti- mated at 20,000 m.,.if only the large in- dentations are included; the entire shore line measures about twice that length. Although the size of Europe as a whole is comparatively small, its historical and political significance is unparalleled among the grand divisions of the globe. Coast WaterRS, On the north is the White Sea; on the west, the North Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, Baltic Sea, Gulf of Fin- land, Gulf of Riga, English Channel, Strait of Dover and the Bay of Biscay ; on the south, the Strait of Gibraltar, Gulf of Lyons, Gulf of Genoa, Adriatic Sea, AXgean Sea, the Dardanelles, Sea of Marmora, the Bosporus, Black Sea and Sea of Azov; on the east, the Caspian Sea. The Ural and Caucasian moun- tains, together with the Black and Cas- pian seas, form the boundary between Europe and Asia. Several important peninsulas extend into these waters. The Scandinavian Peninsula in the north is the largest in Europe. Here also is the Peninsula of Jutland. The three large peninsulas in the south are the Iberian, the Italian and the Balkan. The EUROPE shores washed by the coast waters are widely different, varying from the rock- bound and fiord coasts of Scotland and Norway and the steep coasts of the Med- iterranean to the sandy lowlands of Netherlands and Belgium. ADJACENT ISLANDS. The islands and peninsulas of Europe form about half its continental area. Both the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea con- tain numerous and important islands. In the northern seas are Iceland, Nova Zem- bla, Zealand, Aland, Gothland, Osel, Dago, Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, Bear Island, Jan Mayen, and, more im- portant, the British Isles and the Shet- land and Orkney islands. The Mediter- ranean group includes the Balearic Isles, Sicily, Corsica, Crete, Sardinia, Cyprus and minor groups and isles. Surround- ing the islands and between them and the Continent the sea is shallow, not ex- ceeding 700 ft. in depth. Many of the islands are extensions of the mountain ranges of the Continent. PuysicaL FEATuRES. The topography of Europe is comparatively simple. The — lowlands embrace fully two-thirds of the land mass and form a continuation of the great Asiatic plain. Highlands. There is one extensive mountain range in the south, and a sec- ondary system in the north. The smaller one occupies a large portion of Scandi- navia, the northwestern part of Scotland, the west of Great Britain and sections of Ireland and France. These mountain ranges are low and comparatively short, often consisting merely of single moun- tains or plateaus. The Scandinavian sys- tem is the highest; in Germany and France are the Jura, Vosges, Bohemian Forest, Harz, Black Forest, Erzegebirge, Thuringian Forest and Riesengebirge. The Ural mountain range is in the east- ern part of Europe. It has no connec- tion with the western elevations, but is the longest mountain range of the Con-- tinent. The southern high zone is a continuation of the immense range which traverses the south-central part of Asia. It breaks into Europe through the Cau- casian mountain range, and soon forms 980 adi} aonf fiavay uj umoys sumo} quvya 009 Fr 00% T S29 39 P1B9S > yu Be, mo ; x AK Vel “@ AS 7 NUOVANG 4 C EUROPE the Alpine system. The Alps proper constitute the loftiest feature of the mass; to them are joined the Carpathian, Balkan and Apennine mountains. To the west of this group, and practically separated from it, are the Pyrenees and the Sierra Nevada of southern Spain. The Alpine system, due to its frequent passes, forms no great impediment to commerce, despite the fact that it is the highest point in Europe. Vesuvius is the only active volcano of the Continent. - The islands contain others, such as Etna in Sicily and Skaptar Jokull and Hekla in Iceland. Lowlands. Between these two high- lands lies the “great plain” of Europe. This area begins at the foot of the Ural Mountains, stretches out widely over Russia, extending to the Arctic and the Baltic seas, and continues along the shores of the North Sea and English Channel, through northern Germany and France to the Pyrenees. There are also fairly extensive lowlands enclosed by the mountains. Such are the plains of Switzerland, between the Jura and the Alps, and the river valleys of the Dan- ube, Po, Sadne, Rhone and other streams. Rivers and Lakes. The European watershed extends from southwest to northeast, from the central Ural Moun- tains through the Carpathians and the Alps to the Iberian Peninsula. The prin- cipal rivers descend from the Alps proper. Among the rivers of Russia which flow to the south are the Ural, Volga, Don, Dnieper and Dniester ; those emptying into the northern seas are the Dvina, Dtina and Petchora. In western Europe the continental area, the British Isles, the northern and the three south- erm peninsulas have their own river sys- tems. The Oder and the Vistula flow into the Baltic Sea;: the Rhine, the Elbe and the Thames into the North Sea; the Seine into the English Channel; the Loire, the Guadalquivir, the Tagus and the Guadiana into the Atlantic Ocean; the Ebro, the Rhone and the Po into the Mediterranean Sea; and the Danube into the Black Sea. | 981 EUROPE There are two principal lake areas of Europe, the southern and the northern. The former, centering around the Alps, embraces sheets of water celebrated for the beauty of their surrounding scenery. Here are found lakes Como, Lugano, Maggiore, Iseo, Geneva, Zurich, Garda, Constance, Lucerne, Ammer and many others. The largest salt-water lake in existence is- the Caspian Sea, between Europe and Asia. Russia contains lakes Onega and Ladoga, the most extensive of European fresh-water lakes. In Fin- land, Sweden, Norway and the British Isles are numerous lakes, many of them formed by ancient glaciers. GeEoLocy. One of the most interest- ing episodes in the geologic history of Europe was the advance from time to time of ice sheets from the highlands of Scandinavia. Smaller ice sheets also de- scended from the mountains of the southern part, and settled over the inter- -vening plains. Deposits of moraine, like clay or shingle, remained over vast re- gions when the ice disappeared. Also numerous lakes were scoured out and the course of streams was greatly mod- ified. The minerals of Europe are varied and abundant. Iron ores are richly distrib- uted, especially in Great Britain, Ger- many, France, Belgium, Norway and Sweden. Italy has iron ores, but no coal. Likewise in Russia the iron is far re- moved, even by rail, from the main sources of coal. The most advantageous combination of iron and coal deposits be- longs to England, and to this reason can be traced in large part her industrial supremacy. South Italy and Sicily sup- ply the bulk of all the sulphur used in the industries; Russia, most of the plat- inum; Spain and Portugal (among Eu- ropean countries), the greatest amount of copper; Spain, the most quicksilver and (next to the United States) the larg- est amount of lead. Large tin mines are found in England. In the Scandinavian Peninsula are found superior steel-mak- ing and rich silver ores. Silver and gold are produced in paying quantities throughout different parts of the Conti- EUROPE nent. Salt, granite, limestone and clay deposits are also found. CLIMATE, Lying principally within the temperate and wholly outside the tropical zone, Europe enjoys a fairly equable climate. Other influences con- tribute to producing and maintaining this mild temperature. The prevailing winds from the Atlantic are warm, and they have free access to the greater part of the western half of the Continent. The Gulf Stream affects the temperature to a great extent (See GULF STREAM). The average elevation of the land is lower than that of any other grand division, save Australia; the result is the absence of extremes of temperature. An ex- tensive coast line represents another in- fluence. The rainfall is well distributed, diminishing, however, as the distance from the Atlantic increases. The east- ern part of Europe has a continental, rather than a sea climate, the summer temperature increasing and the rainfall diminishing at a sufficient rate to pro- duce steppes but-never deserts. The Alps have an ameliorating, influence on the north winds in the southern part of Eu- rope, and the climate becomes very uni- form, while the summers are often dry. Prant Lire. Three rather indistinct regions of the flora of Europe can be distinguished. The first, lying in part within the Arctic Circle, consists mainly of the Russian tundras, and grows lichen, moss, poppy, saxifrage, crowfoot and other showy flowers, as well as willows, beeches and junipers that become stunted in their growth because of being buried under winter snows at long intervals. The highest elevations of the mountains of Europe present a flora somewhat sim- ilar to that of the high latitudes of the north. In the temperate region forests are numerous in the west, and the plant life is in no wise unique in respect of wealth or type; in the eastern part the forest areas yield to the extensive _steppes, or treeless plats, scattered with shrubs and covered tainly with long, coarse grass. The Mediterranean re- gion is essentially the fruit and flower area. The flora is rich and attractive; EUROPE the forests contain a large number of species; among the fruits the orange, lemon and olive are found; of the foli- age used for decorative purposes, the laurel and the myrtle are most abun- dant. ANIMAL Lire. The climatic condi- tions and the luxuriant vegetation have given rise to a richness of European fauna; on the other hand, in the densely ~ populated areas, native species have been crowded out, even to the point of becoming wholly extinct. Mammals, peculiar to the region in which they are found, are the chamois and the marmot (in the Alpine mountain region), the wolf (in large packs in Poland, Hungary and Russia), the lynx, brown bear, beaver, reindeer, elk, Grecian ibex, the civet and the desman. The large herds of cattle formerly seen have practically become extinct. Bird life is abundant, and many of the species migrate from the south; of the numerous insects, the butterfly and beetle in particular are dis- tinguished because of their numbers. Few reptiles are found; frogs of unique species exist, as well as newts and tree toads. Among the fish, the tunny and sole are the ones which are unknown on the American side of the Atlantic. The northern seas have cod, mackerel, her- ring, salmon and other varieties. INHABITANTS. Among the inhabitants of Europe are those belonging to the Celtic, the Teutonic and the Slavonic races and the Greek and Latin peoples. These are all a part of the Aryan, or Indo-European, branch. In addition are immigrants of Mongolian stock, such as Hungarians, Turks, Finns and Lapps. The? Celtie language is spoken in the Scotch Highlands, Wales, Ireland and Brittany. The Teutonic race includes the Germanic branch (Germans, Dutch and English) and the Scandinavian branch (Danes, Swedes and Norwegians). The Slavonians are the Russians, Bohemians, Poles, Croatians and Servians. The Basques, living in France and Spain at> the western extremity of the Pyrenees, are still of unknown origin. The reli- gions represented are the Roman Cath- 982 002 —«OOT SI1W 30 31VOS adOdnd (0) d¥W 'TVOILITOd apnzisu0T KN 7F puowumey §’9 Aq Usd edping Jo dey [eonyog spuowwey EUROPE olic Church, the Greek Church, the Prot- estant, the Jewish and the Mohammedan. The total population of Europe is about 449,883,542. PoLiticAL Divisions. The independ- ent states of Europe are either strictly limited constitutional kingdoms or re- publics of various degrees. The free cities of medieval times are represented, even the shires of tribal days are seen in the still surviving tiny republics. History. The history of Europe traces back to prehistoric times and embraces the history of civilization itself. Cen- turies before the dawn of history, Eu- rope was the home of numberless tribes belonging to different branches of Aryan race; though widely scattered ethnic is- lands of non-Aryan people—Basques and -Lapps—indicate an earlier time of which we have no certain knowledge. The classical history of Europe is that of Greece and Rome which, facing Egypt and the Euphrates Valley, caught the sunlight of their culture and spread it to lands and people subject to their sway, thus that section of Europe that formed a part of the Roman Empire experienced the blessings of organized government, Christianity, and the culture of Greece and Rome. That period terminated when a tidal wave of invading people still organized in tribal society rolled in on the Western Roman Empire and overthrew it. Not being able to assimilate at once the cul- ture of the classical period they initiated the so-called Dark Age of European His- tory. During the centuries of this era we witness the outlines of the great na- tions of Medieval and Modern times tak- ing shape. The modern history of Europe covers the time from the passing of the Dark Age to the World War of 1914. This period witnessed the solidification, so to speak, of the greater nations of Europe and the overthrow of the half-fictitious Holy Roman Empire founded by Charle- magne, and finally the union into one really great empire of the many small Germanic states of Central Europe. It was an age of great intellectual and scien- EUSEBIUS PAMPHILI tific advance, of capitalism, of individual- ism and growth of race consciousness. The age of industrialism. But here and there outbreaks,—much as the French Revolution and the revolutionary upris- ing of the 19th century, testified to deep seated unrest of the masses of the people, not yet recovered the full measure of primitive liberty. The World War of 1914 was the most momentous occurrence in the history of Europe. Autocratic government has dis- appeared from Europe. Austria-Hun- gary has disintegrated into the ethnic elements composing it. There has been a new grouping of Balkan powers and Roumania and Serbia take their place among the potentially great states of Eu- rope. Turkey is no longer a European power. A nation entirely new to history (Czecho-Slovakia) has made its appear- ance, other new nations are trembling on the rise. Finland has resumed its inde- pendence and Poland, phoenix like, is once more a nation with territory as great as it possessed before its first par- tition. France and Italy have gained in territory in Europe; but Germany has suffered the loss of one-sixth of her territory in Europe and all her foreign colonies. But Europe now faces possi- ble changes in social life as momentous as those through which the nations of Europe struggled in changing from tribal to political society. Eurydice, U rid'i se, in Greek myths, wife of Orpheus. See ORPHEUS. Euse’bius Pam/’phili (about 264- about 340), a famous writer of Church history, born in Palestine. He cared for his friend Pamphilus, Bishop of Cesarea, during the two years of his imprison- ment under the persecution of Diocle- tian, and then went to Tyre and later into Egypt, where he was imprisoned on account of his religion. He was made Bishop of Czsarea in 313 and contin- ued in this position until his death. He is particularly conspicuous for his Ec- clesiastical History in ten books, and for his connection with the Arian contro- versy and the Council of Nice. (See NIcENE CREED.) 983 EUSTIS Eu’stis, James Biddle (1834-1899), an American jurist and statesman, born in New Orleans. He graduated in law at Harvard in 1854 and practiced in New Orleans until the outbreak of the Civil War, when he entered the Confederate army as judge-advocate, serving until the close of the war. He was a senator in his own state from 1874 to 1876, and was twice sent to the United States Sen- ate, serving from 1877 to 1879 and from 1885 to 1891. Eustis was also professor of law in the University of Louisiana and, later, minister to France. Eu’taw Springs, Battle of, an impor- tant battle of the American Revolution, fought Sept. 8, 1781, about 50 m. north of Charleston, S. C., between 2000 Amer- icans under Greene and about an equal number of British under Stuart. The engagement opened at 4 a. m. and for a time the Americans had the advantage. Later in the day the British took posses- sion of the field, which they continued to hold. Strategically, however, the Amer- icans won a victory, for on the following night the enemy retreated to Charleston. This battled ended Greene’s remarkable Southern campaign, by which he forced the English to retire to Charleston, where they were confined until the close of the war. Euter’pe, musical Muse of lyric poetry, to whom is credited the invention of the flute. She usually appears as flower-crowned and surrounded with musical instruments. Eux’ine. See BLACK SEA. Evangel’ical Alli’ance, an association of the members of various Protestant de- nominations throughout the United States and Europe. It was organized in London in 1846 for the purpose of secur- ing united effort among the Christian churches in the extension of the Chris- tian faith. The denominations included are the Baptist, Independent, Lutheran, Methodist, Moravian, Presbyterian, Re- formed and a few others. England, France, Germany, Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland, Sweden and the United © States are among the countries repre- sented, and there are branches in many 984 EVANS of the British colonies. International conferences are held at intervals from two to four years. This organization represents the present tendency of the various branches of the Christian Church to unite on practical forms of religious work, and it has done valuable service in promoting religious liberty and checking religious persecution. Evangelical Association, a religious denomination formed originally among the Pennsylvania Germans. The founder of the sect, Jacob Albright, moved by the low religious life of the people about him, began evangelistic work among them about 1790. In 1807 a definite or- ganization took place. In _ doctrine, methods of worship and government, the Evangelical Association closely resembles the Methodist Episcopal Church (See Mernopists). In 1891 the Church was divided, a minority of the members with- drawing and organizing the United Evangelical Church. Among the activ- ities of the Evangelical Association are publishing houses, educational institu- tions, charitable organizations, a Church Extension Society and a Young People’s Alliance. The organization has done much to promote religious liberty and to break down denominational barriers. Ev’ans, Augusta Jane. See WILSON, AUGUSTA JANE EVANS, Evans, Robley Dunglison (1846- 1912), an American naval officer, born in Virginia and educated at Annapolis. During the Civil War he participated in both attacks upon Ft. Fisher, in the sec- ond of which he was severely wounded. Reentering the service in 1866, he com- manded the Yorktown in the harbor, of Valparaiso, Chile, during the’ critical time of 1891, and in 1896 was put in command of the Jndiana. During the Spanish-American War he commanded the battleship: Jowa and took an active part in the destruction of Cervera’s fleet. In 1901 he was promoted rear-admiral. He was in command of the United States fleet during the first part of its trip around the world in President Roose- velt’s administration, but resigned when the fleet reached San Francisco because EVANSTON of ill health. He retired from service in 1908. He wrote A Sailor's Log and various magazine articles. He was pop- ularly known as “Fighting Bob” Evans. Ev’anston, Ill, a city of Cook Co., 12 m. n. of Chicago, on Lake Michigan and on the Chicago & North Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul railroads. There are also elevated and electric railroads to Chicago, of which ~ city it is a popular residential suburb, and an electric line to Milwaukee. The city is attractively located, with wide and beautifully shaded streets and many handsome. residences. Evanston is a noted educational center, and the city is the seat of Northwestern University (Methodist Episcopal), coeducational, opened in 1855 (See NORTHWESTERN University). The Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian Theological schools and the Cumnock School of Oratory are af- filiated with the university. The princi- pal manufactures include steel and wrought-iron pipe, brick and bakers’ ma- chinery. Evanston was the home of Frances E. Willard. The place was in- corporated as a village in 1872 and a city charter was granted in 1892. Popula- tion in 1920, 37,234. Ev’ ansville, Ind., a city and county seat of Vanderburg Co., 1/0 m.:s.w. of Indianapolis and 122 m. s.w. of Louis- ville, Ky., on the north bank of the Ohio River, and on the Chicago & Eastern IIli- nois, Illinois Central,. the Louisville & Nashville, the Southern, Louisville, Hen- derson & St. Louis and the Big Four rairoads. The city was formerly an im- portant port for the Ohio River steam- ers for both passengers and freight. Six interurban lines connect with the general electric system of the southern portion of the state. Evansville is sit- uated on a plateau above the river, and its numerous railway connections and situation in a coal-mining and tobacco- growing region, combined with the large tonnage of the Ohio River, make it the chief commercial and manufacturing cen- ter of southern Indiana and the ee city of the state. PARKS AND BOULEVARDS. Evansville is EVAPORATION attractively located and contains many miles of well-shaded and paved streets and many handsome residences. There are a number of parks, chief of which are Garvin, Cooks, Bayard, Mesker and Sunset. Pus.ic Buitpincs. Among the prom- inent buildings are the courthouse, city hall, Elks’ Club, Evans Temperance Hall, a monastery, a number of banks, substantial business houses and many fine churches. INsTITuTIONS. The educational in- stitutions include three high schools and Manual Training School, St. Jospeh’s Academy, Willard Library and warty Gallery ands pablo cane parochial schools. Among the benevo- lent and charitable institutions are the Southern Indiana Hospital for the in- sane, a home for the aged, the United States Marine and St. Mary’s hospitals. Inpustries. The prosperity of Evans- ville is chiefly derived from trade and manufacture. The city is one of the largest hardwood lumber markets in the country and has an important shipping trade in agricultural products, pork, corn, coal, wheat, dried fruits, packed meats, limestone, flour and tobacco. There are also extensive manufactories of stoves and heaters, furniture, machinery, sad- dlery and harness, planing and sawmill products, cotton and woolen goods, rail- way cars, cigars, soft drinks, leather, brick and tile, pottery, terra cotta, fire- clay products and agricultural imple- ments. Evansville is the cheapest soft- coal market in the world, there being five mines within the corporate limits of the city and, within a radius of 50 m., ap- proximately 60 mines. History. Evansville was laid out as a town in 1817 and named in honor of Robert Morgan Evans, one of its found- ers and an officer in the War of 1812. The place soon became a thriving com- mercial port with a large river trade. The town was incorporated in 1819 and city charter granted in 1847. Population in. 1920,'U. S. Census, 85,264. Evap”ora’tion, the process of slowly changing a substance, especially a liquid, 36 985 - EVARTS to a vapor. It takes place without the formation of bubbles. Evaporation 1s con- stantly taking place and is the cause of much of the drying of walks and build- ings after a rain, the drying of clothes and the disappearance of the dew and of snow. The moisture is taken up into the air where it rises far above the earth, partially condenses and then descends again in rain. As heat is required to ef- fect evaporation, so evaporation lowers the temperature of surrounding objects. Evaporation takes place more quickly at higher temperatures and also with a greater amount of exposed surface. The less water vapor the air contains, the greater will be the amount of evapora- tion. The characteristic odors given off by iron, copper and brass are by some believed to be due to an insensible evap- oration of these substances. EBULLITION. When a liquid is heated so hot that bubbles of vapor are formed within the body of the liquid, it is said to be at the boiling point. The formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid is called ebullition. See BoILING PoINT; CALORIMETRY. SUBLIMATION. When a substance passes directly from the solid to the vapor state without passing through the liquid state, it is said to sublime, and the process is called sublimation. The most common example is the disappearance of frost without wetting the surface on which it has been deposited. Ev’arts, William Maxwell (1818- 1901), an eminent American lawyer and orator, born in Boston. He graduated at Yale in 1837, was admitted to the bar in 1841 and soon established a high repu- tation for learning and ability. From 1851 to 1853 he was district attorney of New York City. In 1868 he was chief counsel for President Johnson in his im- peachment trial, and after the trial served as attorney-general until the end of _Johnson’s administration. He was coun- sel for the United States in the Alabama Claims case in 1872. In 1877 he was counsel for Hayes in the Hayes-Tilden contest, and became secretary of state in Hayes’s cabinet. He was United States EVENING SCHOOLS senator from 1885 to 1891. Evarts ranks as one of the most eminent law- yers that America has produced, and he conducted a large number of prair- inent and important cases. He was a brilliant orator and delivered many nota- ble addresses, among them a eulogy on Chief Justice Chase, the Centennial ora-, tion at Philadelphia in 1876, and the ad- dress at the unveiling of Bartholdi’s Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. Ev’eleth, Minn., a city of St. Louis Co., about 71 m. n.w. of Duluth, on the Duluth, Missabe & Northern, the Du- luth & Iron Range and other railroads. The town is situated in the midst of the’ hematite iron-ore deposits of the Mesaba Range, the most valuable in the Lake Su- perior district. The principal industry is the mining and shipping of ore. Eve- leth is administered under a revised char- ter of 1905. Population in 1920, 7,205. Evening Schools. These are main- tained for the most part in cities, and are intended primarily for those whose circumstances compel them to devote the day to the earning of a livelihood. Those of Germany may be said to have developed from Sunday schools, which about 1760 began to offer some of the courses of the elementary school, in ad- dition to religious instruction. Many of the German evening schools offer tech- nical courses especially adapted to the needs of those employed in the industries of the locality. France and Great Britain also support many evening schools at the expense of the State, and, because at the present time illiteracy is less and less common everywhere, the trend in these countries also is toward the development of advanced and technical courses. The evening schools of the United States have been developed since about 1850. In some, the principal aim is to give those who have come from other lands an opportunity to master the Eng- lish language and the most essential prin- ciples of American history and civil gov- . ernment. In others, those who have never learned to read in any language re- ceive the instruction offered by primary day schools. But the operation of com-, _ 986 EVERETT _pulsory school laws in the United States also is lessening the number of illiterates. Many private institutions and city boards of education support evening schools, in which technical courses of various kinds are open to all who desire. The Young Men’s Christian Association offers a vari- _ ety of courses in almost every large city. The enrollment in the evening schools of the country constantly increases, and about one-half of those enrolled are usu- ally in attendance. See Cooper UNion; DREXEL INSTITUTE OF ART, SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY ; ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECH- NOLOGY; SIMMONS COLLEGE; LEwis IN- STITUTE; TRADE SCHOOLS. Ev’erett, Edward (1794-1865), an American orator and statesman, born in Dorchester, Mass. He graduated at Har- vard with the highest honors in 1811. He became pastor of the Unitarian church in Brattle Square, Boston, at the age of 19, and soon attracted wide at- tention by his eloquence. Two years later he was appointed professor of ‘Greek in Harvard. He traveled and stud- ied in Europe for four years, returning home in 1819 to enter upon his profes- sional duties. In 1820 he became editor of the North American Review, to which he contrib- uted more than 100 articles. He was elected to Congress in 1824, where he served for ten years. From 1835 to 1839 he was governor of Massachusetts ; became minister to England in 1841; was president of Harvard from 1846 to 1849; was made secretary of state in 1852; and in 1853 entered the United States Sen- ate. Against his wishes he was nom- inated for vice-president of the United States by the Constitutional Union Party in 1860, and thereafter retired to private life. } Everett was one of the really great orators of American history. One of his contributions to the public good was the assistance which he rendered the move- ment to purchase- Mt. Vernon and make it a fitting memorial to Washington. He delivered his address on Washington 122 times and gave the proceeds to the Mt. Vernon fund. By his lectures he donated EVERETT nearly $100,000 to various benevolent enterprises. Everett, Mass., a city of Middlesex Co., 3 m. n. of Boston, adjoining Chel- sea, on the Boston & Maine and other railroads. It has electric railroad con- nection with Boston, Lynn, Chelsea, Salem and other cities and towns in the vicinity. Everett is primarily a residen- tial town and includes many Boston busi- ness men and their families among the residents. Everett covers an area of over three square miles. Among the public institutions are the Frederick E. Parlin Memorial Library, the Shute Memorial Library and the Whidden Me- morial Hospital. Everett has varied in- dustrial interests. There are bottling works and manufactories of steel, struc- tural iron, automobiles, varnishes, boots _and shoes, wagons, carriages, chemicals and druggists’ fittings. The gas and coke industry is important, the coal used being brought from the Virginia mines. Until 1870 Everett was a part of Mal- den and was known as South Malden. It received a city charter in 1892. Pop- ulation in 1920, U. S. Census, 40,120. Everett, Wash., a city, subport of entry and the county seat of Snohomish Co., about 35 m. n. of Seattle, on Puget Sound, at the mouth of the Snohomish River. Railroads entering the city are the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. Two interurban electric lines and several large passenger and freight steamers furnish further facilities for transporta- tion. The harbor is a fine one; and this, together with other natural advantages, including abundant mineral resources (gold, silver, copper), has made the city a center of the productive lumbering, mining and agricultural region which surrounds it. The city contains some of the largest lumber plants of the North- west, and has extensive shipyards, paper and pulp mills, shingle mills and sash and door factories. There are also smelting and refining works, a United States as- sayer’s office and ironworks. An ex- tensive trade in lumber, shingles, bullion, paper and flour is carried on. Among 987 EVICTION the conspicuous buildings of the city are a Carnegie library, a Y. M. C. A. Build- ing, a high school building costing $200,000, id the Pacific College build- ings, erected in 1908 by the United Nor- wegian Lutheran Church. Settled in 1891, Everett was incorporated in 1893. Population i in 1920, 27,644. Evic’tion, removal or expulsion by legal process of a tenant from the prop- erty he holds under a lease. The most common causes of eviction are failure to pay rent, destructive or wasteful use of the property and the use of the property for illegal or immoral purposes. The landlord must prove the cause alleged or he is liable to suit for damages by the evicted tenant. Ev’idence, in law, “all the legal means which tend to prove or disprove any matter of fact, the truth of which is submitted to legal investigation.” Evi- dence may be divided into two general classes, oral and documentary. Oral evi- dence includes statements made by wit- nesses before the court during the trial; documentary evidence consists of papers containing writing or other marks capa- ble of being read and which are submit- ted during the trial. OrAL EvipeNnce. Oral evidence is sub- ject to several limitations. Chief among these are the following: 1. It must consist of statements of facts personally known by the witness. Hearsay evidence, that is, statements which the witness heard others make, is not admissible. 2. It must consist of statements of fact. The opinions of the witness are not admissible except under certain con- ditions allowed by the trial judge, such as the opinion of the distance of an auto- mobile from the person injured when warning was given, and the opinion of the rate of speed at which the automobile was moving. 3. It must relate to-the case on trial. Usually direct relation is required, but indirect relation may be admitted if it has an important bearing on the case. DocuMENTARY EvipENcEe. Document- ary evidence is considered as primary or 988 EVIDENCE secondary. It is primary when the doc- — ument itself is produced for inspection by the court. If a document is in counter- parts, each counterpart is primary evi- dence. When the document has been duplicated by printing or any other proc- ess that assures an exact copy, each copy is primary evidence of the other copies,, but no copy is primary evidence of the original. Documentary evidence is sec- ondary when, in lieu of the original doc- ument, copies of the original are submit- ted by one who has seen the original and compared the copy with it, and when office copies, official copies and records are submitted. Before the secondary ev- idence can be received, the party offer- ing it must satisfy the court that the original cannot be produced. Statutes concerning the introduction of document- ary evidence vary in different states, but, in general, documents executed under the seal of a notary public or other officer authorized to administer oaths are ad- missible. EXPERT EvipENCE. Expert evidence is that given by specialists, such as physi- cians and scientists, ~who devote their time to expert work. The specialist must convince the court that he is qualified to give the evidence expected of him, and his testimony consists of facts and his opinions upon the bearing of these facts upon the case. This is because he is more qualified than the jury to form an opinion upon these facts. OTHER EvipENcE. Thumb and finger marks, clothing, weapons and other ob- jects may be admitted as evidence if they have a bearing. on the case, but their ad- mission usually is determined by the court. BurDEN OF ProoFr. The burden of proof must rest with one party or the other, and it is usually considered to rest with the party against whom judgment must be given if no evidence is produced in his favor. In criminal cases it rests with the prosecution, and the crime must be proved beyond reasonable doubt to secure conviction. In criminal cases the defendant cannot be compelled to testify against himself. See Jury. 7 EVOLUTION Evolu’tion (from Latin evolvere, to anroll), a word meaning an unfolding or unrolling, as a scroll; hence, the proc- ess of developing what is contained or implied in something. The term has come to be applied in modern usage to the theory that the existing order of things is the result of a natural unfold- ing of what existed potentially or in germ in earlier and simpler forms of life, or in the original “world stuff.’’ Evolution, therefore, is a method of growth, not a philosophy of nature. It does not deal with the ultimate nature of reality, but rather presupposes reality. It starts at a given point, with an existing substance or order of life. Whether this is eter- nal or was created, whether it is in the last analysis material or spiritual, evolu- tion does not ask. As a method or process of development it may be ac- cepted, therefore, equally by theist or agnostic, by materialist or idealist. Evolution is commonly used with a wider application than is development. The latter refers to an individual, the former te a race or to the world in gen- eral. The two essential factors in evolu- tion are the existing germ containing the potentialities of development, and the unfolding of this germ by the operation of forces resident within it. The devel- opment proceeds from simpler forms to more complex forms of life, like the growth from the simple sapling to the complexly branching tree (differentia- tion). It also proceeds in the direction of increasing unification and better con- trol of organism (integration). Thus the complex and highly organized forms of life now existing have descended in the course of time from simpler forms of life, and these in turn from still simpler forms, and so on back, until the imagina- tion loses itself in the obscurity of the beginnings of things. It is not yet fully demonstrated that evolution is the true method of world development; but there are many things that point so decidedly in that direction as to make a strong presumption in favor of the theory, and its acceptance is now aimost universal. The analogy between 989 EWART the development of an individual from the embryo and of a race of plants or animals from simpler forms of life is most striking. An almost continuous line of development may be observed in spe- cies of plants and animals now in ex- istence and in fossil remains. In the supposed evolution of birds from rep- tiles, for instance, the geologist has dis- covered forms which indicate that the earliest birds were winged and feathered reptiles. All are familiar with the changes that take place in the structure of plants and animals as a result of se- lective breeding; and analogous changes appear in natural selection and the in- fluence of new environment, tending toward the “survival of the fittest.” The acceptance of evolution has also been greatly furthered by the successful way in which the doctrine explains the facts of nature and forms a-point of depart- ure for new research. It furnishes a workable hypothesis for the comprehen- sion and study of the forms of life. The idea of evolution has been of gradual formation. Traces of it are found in Empedocles, and it was elab- orated by Aristotle. In modern times Laplace applied the idea to astronomy in his famous nebular hypothesis (See NEBULAR HyPpoTHEsis), and Lyell used it in descriptive geology. Through Leib- nitz, Schelling, Kant, Buffon, Erasmus Darwin, Lamarck, Goethe and many others the idea may be traced to its more complete formulation as an organic part of our modern thinking in the epoch- making work of Charles Darwin and the writings of Alfred Russel Wallace, Ernst Haeckel, John Fiske and Herbert Spencer. The doctrine of evolution has » profoundly influenced human thought, al- most to the extent of revolutionizing it. Ew/’art, John Skirving (1849- ys a Canadian lawyer, born in Toronto and educated at Upper Canada College. He practiced in Winnipeg until 1904, when he became head of a leading firm of Ot- tawa. He was appointed solicitor for the Canadian Pacific Railway, Ottawa. in 1908 and was chief counsel for Can- ada at The Hague Tribunal in 1910. Be- EWELL sides contributing to the Queen’s Quar- terly and similar organs, he has published several legal works, a brochure on Sur John Macdonald and the Canadian Flag and another on Canadian Independence. Ewell, U’ el, Richard Stoddert (1817- 1872), an American soldier, born at Washington, D. C., and educated at West Point. He was brevetted captain in the Mexican War, participated in the In- dian campaigns of 1857, and in 1861 joined the Confederate army. He was shortly commissioned major-general, was division commander at both battles of Bull Run and at Antietam, and following the death of “Stonewall” Jackson, with the rank of lieutenant-general, com- manded the latter’s corps. He was con- spicuous at Gettysburg and the Wilder- ness, but early in April, 1865, was cap- tured with his entire force by Sheridan. Following the war he engaged in stock raising in Tennessee. Exchange’, originally the commer- cial term used to denote the exchange of one commodity for another, but now used with two significations. The first denotes a series of transactions by which debts are paid without the actual trans- mission of money between the parties. This is accomplished by the use of checks, bank drafts and money orders. When these orders are sent to foreign coun- tries they are known as bills of foreign exchange. Exchange is at par when bought for its face value, below par when bought for less than its face value, and above par when bought for more than its face value. See BANKS AND BANK- ING. The second application of the term is to those organizations in cities which have for their purpose the promotion of certain commercial enterprises, such as a stock exchange, composed of members who deal in stocks and bonds, and the cotton exchange, whose members deal in cotton. Similar organizations which deal in grain are generally called boards of trade. See Boarp oF TRADE. Ex’cise Tax. See Tax. Executor, Eg zek’ u tor, one to whom is committed a person’s last will and 990) EXPANSION testament for the purpose of executing the instrument after the testator’s death. The duties of the executor may or may not be prescribed in the will. If not pre- scribed, the law generally holds that the executor should bury the deceased in a manner suitable to the estate left; that he should collect: within reasonable time. the personal property of the deceased; prove the will; and take out administra- tion papers, under which he will proceed to administer the estate according to the laws of the state. Ex’odus, the second book of the Bible and of the Pentateuch, named from a Greek word signifying a going out. Ex-- ‘odus thus receives its name from the principal event therein related—the mi- gration of the Israelites from Egypt to Canaan. The book begins where Gen- esis concludes, with the death of Joseph, and includes the birth of Moses, his early life and call, the ten plagues and deliverance of the Children of Israel from slavery, the institution of the Pass- over, the passage of the Red Sea, the pro- viding of manna, the pronouncement of the Ten Commandments and various laws and ordinances, instructions for making the Tabernacle, the Ark and other accessories of worship, and the consecration of the family of Aaron to the priesthood. Expan’sion, in physics, the increase in bulk of a substance, due to heat. With very few exceptions, the application of heat expands a body, while the applica- tion of cold, or rather the withdrawal of heat, contracts it. If the expansion of a solid is considered as taking place in but one direction, it is spoken of as linear expansion; in two dimensions it is super- ficial expansion, and in all dimensions, cubical expansion. The fractional in- crease of length which a substance takes on by expansion when its temperature is raised one degree, is known as the co- efficient of linear expansion; the coef- ficient of superficial expansion is twice this, and that of cubical expansion three times. The coefficient of expansion differs ereatly for different substances: that of ) EXPOSITION, INDUSTRIAL copper is nearly twice that of platinum. This expansion of metals is provided for in laying rails on a track, where space is left between the rails to allow for their expansion in warm weather. The pen- dulums of clocks and other metallic in- struments also require regulation for dif- ferences in length at different temper- atures (See PENDULUM). India rubber is a notable exception to solids, as it contracts when heated. Liquids have no definite form and for that reason their expansion is understood to be cubical expansion. The expansion of liquids is very much less regular than that of sol- ids. Water on cooling from moderate temperatures contracts till it reaches 4° C.; it then expands slightly till it reaches O° C.; it then expands about 1/11 of its bulk in freezing. This accounts for ice being formed only at the surface of ponds; when all the water has cooled to A° C., or 39.2° F., the surface water that is cooled still more and hence becomes a little lighter, remains‘on top and freezes there. The great expansion of water on freezing also accounts for the bursting of water pipes in cold weather. Gases expand far more rapidly than solids or liquids. See GasEs, Laws oF. Exposition, Industrial, an exposition of the industries and arts for the pur- pose of stimulating public interest and promoting trade. The first industrial ex- hibition was held at Paris in 1798, which proved so successful that a series of them was held, beginning in 1802. The first French Exposition Universelle was opened in Paris in 1855, with buildings in the Champs Elyseés covering 24 acres, and there were 24,000 exhibitors. Lon- don held an international exhibition in 1862 and the famous Crystal Palace was built to house it. In 1867 the second French International Exhibition was opened in Paris, occupying about 37 acres on the Champ de Mars, with nearly 50,000 exhibitors and an attendance of 10,000,000 persons. The Centennial Ex- hibition in 1876 at Philadelphia was held to celebrate the centennial of the Amer- ican Declaration of Independence, This covered 60 acres and had nearly 10,000,- EXPRESS 000 visitors. In 1878 at Paris a third French International Exhibition was held, and a fourth one in 1889 to com- memorate the centenary of the French Revolution at the same place. The cele- brated Eiffel Tower was its principal fea- ture (See E1rrFeL Tower). In order to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America, the World’s Columbian Exposition was held in Chi- cago in 1893, and was an international exhibition of great magnitude. In 1900 another exhibition of international char- acter was held in Paris. In 1904 an ex- hibition commemorating the Louisiana Purchase was held in St. Louis. See Wortp’s CoLUMBIAN ExposiITION; Lovu- ISTIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION, Expositions for special purposes have been held in recent years at San Fran- cisco; Cal.) Atlanta; « GasieNashvile: Tenn., Omaha, Neb., New Orleans, La., utraloy N.Y. Charlestony SY@iapork land, Ore., and Seattle, Wash. To cele- brate the opening of the Panama Canal in 1915, San Francisco held an inter- national exhibition which possessed great attractions and was of majestic propor- tions. Ex Post Fac’to Law. A law is said to be ex post facto, or retroactive, when it is enacted to punish an offense com- mitted before the passing of the law, the term meaning “from something done aft- erward,” or “after the fact.” It is proper that any law shall not be in effect until a certain number of days after its passage, as such delay gives all an opportunity to become acquainted with its provisions. When public welfare, however, demands prompt action to meet an emergency, a law may become effective upon the day it is passed and signed by the executive. Not only does the Constitution of the United States expressly decree that no ex post facto law shall be passed, but in no enlightened country today is such leg- islation permitted, as such a law might make a deed a crime which was not a crime when committed and lead to un- just punishment. Express’, a business originated in 1839 for the transmission of money and 991 EXTRADITION small parcels between Boston and New York, now one of the most important factors in the commerce of the world. Stage drivers had previously transacted some business of this sort for a small consideration; but William F. Harnden first entered the field in earnest, and his success encouraged others to devote their energy to the business. Today, express companies receive deposits for safe-keep- ing, collect debts in the United States and in foreign countries, and perform an astonishing variety of unusual com- missions, beside transmitting money or property to any part of the world and issuing travelers’ checks, preferred by many to bank letters of credit. The lead- ing express companies in the United States were the American, the Adams, the Wells Fargo and the United States. The Northern Pacific and Great Northern Railway systems both had an express company operating over their lines. Dur- ing the World War all of the railway express companies were combined and their business carried on under direction of the government. In Europe, the government post offices transact much business of this character. Extradition, Ex"tra dish’ un, the de- livery of a fugitive by one state to an- other. In the United States extradition has two specific meanings. First, it re- fers to the surrender by one state govern- ment to the authorities of another state of a triminal who seeks to escape arrest and trial by fleeing from the state in which the crime was committed; second, it refers to the surrender of a criminal from one nation to another. The de- mand for extradition made by one na- tion upon another is a matter of inter- national law. The Jay Treaty of No- vember, 1794, with Great Britain made provision for extradition powers for 12 years. After its expiration no provisions were made for extradition until 1842, when the Webster-Ashburton Treaty was concluded. France was the next coun- try to enter into an extradition treaty with the United States, and 24 foreign governments have since provided for the mutual extradition of criminals. In EYE order to justify an extradition claim it is necessary to establish that the supreme political authority, in the country where the crime has been committed, has de- manded the surrender of the criminal and that an inquiry has been made into the facts of the case by a United States com- missioner or judge under direction of the. president. Criminals are extradited from one state to ‘another in the Union on the demand of the governor of the state from which the criminal has fled. A man may be extradited from the United States only for crimes included within the term felony. Eyck, van, Vahn Ike’, the family name of two brothers, Hubert (about 1370-1426) and Jan (about 1390-1440), founders of painting in Flanders, Hol- land and Germany. They were born at Maaseyck, a. little town on the Maas, from which they took their name. Little is known of the life of the elder brother, but of Jan, who was one of the greatest of portrait painters, it is known that he was for a time in the service of the Count of Holland (John of Bavaria) and later court painter to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, who sent him on various em- bassies. The service to art of these two brothers is of inestimable value and their place in the evolution of Flemish paint- ing unique. While they were not the inventors of oil painting, as has been re- peatedly stated, they made many im- provements in this medium which led to its universal adoption. They also made a tremendous advance in _ technique, painting with greater realism than their predecessors. The Van Eycks intro- duced freshness and naturalism into their landscape backgrounds and life and vi- tality into figures. Their masterpiece is an altarpiece in 28 panels depicting the Redemption from Sin, painted for the Cathedral of Ghent and now divided between the towns of Ghent, Berlin and Brussels. Numerous other works ascribed to the individual or joint efforts of the Van Eycks are distributed throughout Europe. . Eye, the organ of vision. The term is used to denote the eyeball, the essen- 992 EYE tial anatomical feature of the eye, but may also include connecting parts. These superficial parts of the eye are important. The eyelids are two folds of skin, fringed with short hairs, which protect the eye from dust or other foreign par- ticles. A lachrymal gland, about the size of an almond, is situated near the surface, between the eyeball and the tem- ple. These glands secrete a salty fluid, which flows continuously across the front of the eye, bathing the cornea and pass- ing into a basin at the inner corner of the eye, called the lachrymal lake. From this.they are drained through ducts into the nasal passage. Excessive secretion of the liquid causes an overflow in tears upon the face. FIGURE 1 A, sclerotic membrane; B, choroid mem- brane; C, retina; D, optic nerve; E, cornea; F, crystalline lens; G, vitreous humor. The eyeball is nearly spherical in shape and about an inch in diameter. It lies in a cavity of the skull, on all sides of which it is supported by a cushion of fat and by muscles. By means of these muscles, the eye can be moved in every direction. Three coats cover the globe of the eye. The sclerotic, or outer coat, is a tough, thick, whitish, opaque mem- brane covering about five-sixths of the surface. In the front it is continuous, with a transparent, convex disk called the cornea, which covers the remaining surface and which bulges out somewhat EYE beyond the limits of the sphere. The choroid coat lies within the sclerotic membrane, and ends at the cornea in front in a ciliary process. It contains nerves, blood vessels and cells of coloring matter. By means of this coat the interior of the eye is transformed into a dark chamber. The optic nerve, passing from the brain, enters the ball of the eye at the back, and, branching out, forms a third coat inside the choroid membrane, called the retina. The retina is of com- plex structure. It is only about 1/80 of an inch thick, but is made up of ten dis- tinct layers of nerve fibers, membranes, rods and cones. The point at which the optic nerve enters the eye is called the blind spot, because here the nerve fibers are not sensitive to light. The slight de- pression near the blind spot is the point of clearest vision. The eyeball is divided by the crystal- line lens into two unequal chambers. This lens has the appearance of glass. It is about one-third of an inch long and one-fourth of an inch thick, and is held in place by a suspensory ligament con- necting with the ciliary process at the termination of the choroid membrane. The lens is the chief focusing instru- ment of the eye, and by means of the ciliary processes can vary its degree of, convexity so as to adapt it to focusing objects at different distances. Figure 2 shows this adaptation at A and B. An extension of the choroid membrane forms a circular curtain in front of the lens, known as the iris. This is the colored portion of the eye. In the center of the iris is a small opening, called the pupil, through which light is admitted into the interior of the eye. The muscles of the iris increase or decrease the size of the pupil and regulate the amount of light which shall enter. Exposure to intense light causes these muscles to contract and narrow the opening. If a sudden change from a light to a dark room be made, objects cannot be distinctly seen until the iris again dilates and admits the light. The bulging of the cornea leaves a chamber between it and the iris which is 993 EYE filled with a watery liquid called the aque- ous humor. The chamber behind the lens is filled with a glassy, jellylike fluid called the vitreous humor. The light waves pass through the cornea and lens, which focus them upon the retina. After passing through the transparent optic fibers of the retina, they reach the rods and cones. Here they set up a certain stimulation, which causes a nerve cur- rent to run along the optic nerve to the brain, and excite the optical centers, which are the seat of vision. The eye acts like a camera, the rays of light passing through the pupil forming upon the retina an inverted image of the ob- FIGURE 2 ject within the field of vision. If the cornea or lens is too convex, the rays of light are brought to a focus in front of the cornea, and objects are not dis- tinctly seen. Persons affected with this deformity of the eye are said to be short- sighted or nearsighted. The defect is remedied by means of spectacles with concave lenses. If the cornea is too flat the image is brought to a focus back of the retina, and the person is farsighted. This defect is remedied by means of spectacles with convex lenses. See LENS; SPECTACLES. EZRA Eze’kiel, a book of the Old Testa- ment, occupying a place between Lam- entations and Daniel; also one of the greater Hebrew prophets and the author of the book of Ezekiel. Ezekiel, son of Buzi, was one of the captives taken away by Nebuchadnezzar about 13 years be- fore the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B. C. Settled with a Jewish colony on the banks of the Chebar River, he began to prophesy in the fifth year of his exile. The book of Ezekiel contains several visions, parables and proverbs, and may be divided into two parts. The first part, including chapters i-xxxix, contains the prophecies spoken before the destruc- tion of Jerusalerh. The second part is full of consolation, containing a vision of the final glory of God’s people in a new Jerusalem. See BIBLE, subhead The Old Testament. ‘ Ez’ra, that book of the Old Testa- ment which, in the English Bible, comes between Second Chronicles and Nehe- miah; also the name of the author of this book. gra was originally a part of Nehemiah. The author of the book ~ was a scribe and priest who went up to Jerusalem as the leader of the second expedition of Jews from Babylon, about 458 B. C., in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus. The book, covering a period of 79 years, consists of two parts: the first chronicles the return of the captives in the time of Cyrus and the re- building of the Temple; the second part recounts the second immigration to Jeru- salem and the reformation of the people by Ezra. See BiBLe, subhead The Old Testament. 994 F ““A’BIUS, an ancient family of leg- endary Rome. They went on an expedition against the Veientes, fell into an ambush and were killed (477 B. C.) with only one boy sur- viving. The most famous in the later history was Fabius Maximus, Roman dic- tator during the Second Punic War, whose policy of avoiding open warfare with Hannibal was so __ successful. Quintus Fabius Pictor, who lived at.the same period, was the earliest writer of Roman history in prose. He wrote the chronicles. of the famous families of Rome, and an account of the Second Punic War, in which he took part. Fa’ble. See Fiction, subhead The Fable. Fac’tory, an establishment where wage earners work in large groups or- ganized for the purpose of production of commodities. The factory became an important industrial unit at the time of the introduction of machinery*and steam power in the middle of the 18th century. ~ The first factory in England was a silk mill. The first cotton mill in America was built in 1803 by Samuel Slater. Factory Syst—eM. The use of ma- chinery and the concentration of effort through division of labor led to a rapid growth of industries in the beginning of the 19th century. A great number of factories were established, and the evils attendant upon the indiscriminate mass- ing together of laborers were many and serious. At first the factory system was unregulated. Insanitary conditions, over- working and the employment of children and women in dangerous occupations prevailed. The employers did not come into immediate contact with employees and took no thought for their welfare. All this changed when the public con- science was awakened to the need of fac- tory inspection, and for over a century legislation has been directed toward the improvement of conditions in the facto- ries, the regulation of the length of the working day and the exclusion of women and children from employment too tax- ing for their health and strength. The buildings in which employees work must be properly ventilated, sanitary, well lighted and heated, have means of easy egress and be protected against fire. The International Association of Fac- tory Inspection, including Canada and several of the states of the Union, was organized at Philadelphia in 1886. All states in which there are large manufac- tories now have laws safeguarding the employees and prohibiting the employ- ment of children under a specified age. -The compulsory education laws also pro- hibit the employment of minors who have not reached the educational stand- ard set by the law. SwEATING SysTEM. A task, or con- tract, system originated in the early part of the 19th century and became known as the sweating, or sweat-shop, system. Contractors sublet their contracts to sub- contractors. These subcontractors do the work in smaller workshops, engage workmen with but little skill and effi- ciency at a low wage-rate, and the mar- gin between the wages they pay and the contract price is their profit. Many of the laborers are foreigners who desire to learn a trade and work from 12 to 16 hours per day. When they learn rapidly, the profit to the subcontractor, or sweater, is large. The sweating system originated and prevails in the tailoring trade. Within recent years it has been under legislative control. See CHILD Lasor; LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. Fahrenheit, Fah’ ren hite, Gabriel Daniel (1686-1736), a German scientist, 995 ° FAIENCE born at Danzig, Prussia. His early edu- cation and training had in view a busi- ness career, but, becoming greatly in- terested in natural philosophy, he aban- doned his business pursuits and went to Holland to study. When he was about 34 years of age he conceived the idea of using quicksilver instead of alcohol for the purpose of determining temperature. This idea he worked out successfully, made a new scale for thermometers, placing freezing point at 32°, and gave to the world the Fahrenheit thermom- eter, which is very generally used for or- dinary purposes. He also made other valuable discoveries in natural philos- ophy. In 1724 he was elected a member of the Royal Society. See THERMOM- ETER., Faience, Fa" yahnz’, a fine variety of pottery, which is an imitation of porce- lain. It excels common pottery ware in beauty of form, decoration and glazing. True faience is made of yellowish clay, usually covered with white enamel, though the enamel may be colored. The ware derived its name from the town of Faenza in Italy, where a variety of pot- tery known as majolica was manufac- tured in. the 14th century. Modern faience was probably invented at this town about the middle of the 16th cen- tury as an imitation of majolica. See MAJOLICA, Fainting, loss of consciousness due to lack of proper supply of blood in the brain. It is accompanied by loss of sen- sation and power of motion, pallor, fee- ble heart action and sometimes temporary failure of respiration. It may be brought on by a shock, such as fear, great joy or grief may cause, or by excessive pain, loss of blood, etc. The clothing about the throat and chest should be loosened, and the patient should be placed upon his back with his head and chest lower than the rest of his body. Plenty of fresh air should be given by fanning, if not otherwise supplied. Smelling salts. sometimes prove efficacious, and strong coffee or a few drops of ammonia may be given. If the attack continues, a phy- sician should be sent for. During return- FAIRBANKS ing consciousness excitement of any kind should be avoided and quiet insured. Fair’bairn, Andrew Martin (1838- 1912), a noted English theologian, prin- cipal of Mansfield College, Oxford, born near Edinburgh. He was educated at the universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow and Berlin. After a ministry of 17 years in Scottish churches, he became principal of Airedale College, Bradford, England, in 1878, where he remained for seven years, lecturing at the University of Edinburgh in 1881-83. When the Con- gregationalists founded Mansfield Col- lege at Oxford in 1886, Dr. Fairbairn was appointed its first principal and re- tained the position until he retired on ac- count of age in 1909. When he began ‘his services there the “Oxford Move- ment” under the leadership of John Henry Newman was very strong. Prin- cipal Fairbairn was a man of equal intel- lectual ability and probably did more than any other man to turn the tide. He lec- tured frequently in the United States, where he was greatly admired. Among lis most important works are The Place of Christ in Modern Theology; Catholi- cism, Roman and Anglican; and The Philosophy of the Christian Religion. See Oxrorp MovEMENT. _, Fair’banhks, Charles Warren (1852- 1918), a former vice-president of the United States, born near Unionville Cen- tre, Union Co., Ohio, and educated at Ohio Wesleyan University. He was ad- mitted to the bar of the Supreme Court of Ohio in 1874, moved to Indianapolis, Ind., in the same year, where he prac- ticed for 23 years, and was elected to the United States Senate in 1897, and again in 1903. He was a member of the United States and British Joint High Commission, which met in Quebec in 1898 to adjust Canadian matters, and was chairman of the United States High Commissioners. He was ‘delegate-at- large to the Republican National Con- vention at St. Louis in 1896, at Phila- delphia in 1900 and at Chicago in 1904, holding important positions in each con- vention. Mr. Fairbanks was unanimously nominated for vice-president of the 996 } FAIRCHILD United States at the convention in Chi- cago in 1904, and was elected with Theo- dore Roosevelt. Fair’child, Lucius (1831-1896), an American soldier, born at Franklin Mills, Ohio. In 1846 he removed with his father to Wisconsin. He went to California during the gold excitement in 1849, returning after six years no richer than when he left. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1860. In 1861 he enlisted in the army, was made captain of volunteers, and later, captain in the regular army. At the Battle of Bull Run he commanded part of the famous “iron brigade.’ He lost his left arm at Gettysburg. In 1863 he was made brigadier-general of volun- teers. He soon resigned, however, be- came secretary of state for Wisconsin, and, was then elected governor, serving for six consecutive terms. He was ap- pointed consul at Liverpool in 1872 and held this office until 1878, when he be- came consul-general at Paris, and in 1880, minister to Spain. He resigned and returned to Madison, Wis., in 1882. In 1886 he was elected commander-in- chief of the Grand Army of the Re- public. Fair’fax, Thomas (1612-1671), an English soldier and statesman. During the struggle between Charles I and Par- liament, he was cavalry officer in the Parliamentary army, distinguishing him- self at Marston Moor. Later, while com- manding all Parliamentary forces, he re- ceived great credit for the victory at Naseby, but he was subsequently super- seded by Cromwell for refusing to march against the Scotch who supported Charles II. Afterwards he belonged to Parliament and treated with Charles II. He wrote an account of the Civil War. Fair’mont, W. Va., a city and the county seat of Marion Co., 77 m. s.e. of ~ Wheeling, on the Monongahela River and on the Baltimore & Ohio and other railroads. The city, built on both sides of the river, is in a region rich in coal; and large quantities of coal are mined and shipped. Among the manufactories and other industrial plants are flour FAIRWEATHER, MOUNT mills, glass factories, planing mills, fur- niture factories, foundries, machine shops and manufactories of lumber, cigars and machinery. A state normal school is located here; and there is a miners’ hospital, maintained by the state, and a fine courthouse. In 1819 the place was laid out and was called Middletown ; it became the county seat in 1842 and two years later received its present name. The city was chartered in 1899, Population in 1920, 17,851. : Fair Oaks, Battle of, an important engagement of the Civil War, fought about seven miles east of Richmond, Va., May 31 and June 1, 1862, between 42,000 Federals under McClellan, and about an equal number of Confederates under Johnston and G. W. Smith. While fol- lowing Johnston on his retreat from Williamsburg toward Richmond, Mc- Clellan reached the Chickahominy, across which he threw his left wing, under Heintzelman and Keyes. On the morn- ing of May 31 Johnston sent D. H. Hill, supported by Longstreet, to attack the two corps that had crossed the river. Johnston soon joined the fight, and the Federals were almost beaten when Sum- ner arrived with reinforcements. The Confederates were now thrown into con- fusion, being driven back with great slaughter, and Johnston himself was se- verely wounded. Command then fell upon General Smith and, later, upon General Lee, who withdrew toward Richmond about noon the following day. The Confederates lost about 5200 men; the Federals, about 5000. The honor of this victory for the Army of the Poto- mac belonged chiefly. to Sumner. Mc- Clellan was blamed for not having marched at once to Richmond, the spires of which could be seen from the bat- tlefield. Fairweather, Mount, a mountain of southeastern Alaska lying in the St. Elias Range on the boundary between British Columbia and the narrow strip of Alaska’s “panhandle.” It lies about 15 m. inland, and its elevation is given as 14,580 ft., although some suppose it to be much higher. The mountain takes 997 FAIRY its name from Cape Fairweather, directly west of it. Fairy, in myths, a delicate, ravishing creature who interfered in men’s af- fairs. Belief in fairies has come down to the present time, and is spread from Ireland, where these spirits are thought to inhabit the ‘“‘raths,” to Australia, Samoa and to the Arabs and Moors, whose fairy is called Jan. A human being who has tasted food in fairyland is believed doomed to dwell there eter- nally. Certain women fairies are be- lieved to lure human lovers to death. Nereids, Oreads and Naiads are thought to be fairies of wells, of mountains and of seas. Believers in fairies say that they have superhuman knowledge; that many of them are inspired by the feelings of love, jealousy, envy and vengeance; that they are responsible not only for the disappearance of various objects, but that they spirit folks off in whirls of dust. Against their many pranks, how- ever, the rue is said to be acharm. Still, if you are kind to the fairies you need have no fear; they will be kind to you. For this reason, the people of the Ori- ent address. fairies as “blessed ones.” Though locally appearing as animals, fairies are popularly supposed to have the human form in miniature. For the Norse fairy, see ELVEs. Faith Cure, the healing of the sick by prayer and by faith in God. Since the beginnings of Christianity numerous cures have been recorded which were re- ported to have been made without the use of medicines and only by the exer- cise of faith upon the part of the patient. The touching of sacred relics, carrying of certain jewels and performing of cer- tain tasks were only different forms which the method of cure took. So great was the belief in these cures that for a long time the practice of medicine was held in disrepute, since it séemed to imply a lack of faith in divine power or a desire to interfere therein. Apothe- caries were supposed to have a secret league with the Evil One. In the United States in the middle of the 19th century many sects arose having cure by faith FALCON FAMILY as the basis of their religion. These differ from each other in many details and their statements of belief differ widely. Much good has arisen from their work in many instances and there is no lack of earnestness in it. In the United States, however, it is held to be a crim- inal offense to allow a person to dié without giving him proper medical at- tendance if such can be secured. Fa’kir, a Mohammedan religious mendicant, more particularly one of the Hindu race. The Hindu fakirs are of two classes, those belonging to the re- ligious orders, and the wandering rogues who overrun the country. The first class are sincerely religious; the second are simply unscrupulous beggars who prey upon the superstitious villagers. They inflict dreadful tortures upon themselves, and most of them are’ un- speakably filthy. Fal’con Family, a family of bitds of prey, which includes kites and falcons. The birds of this family are character- ized by their strong powers of flight, fearlessness as hunters, and their habit of capturing their prey on the wing, seizing it in their sharp, curved claws— the most deadly weapons with which any bird is armed. They all fly by day. They feed upon other birds and small Mammals, and certain species were used in falconry during the Middle ee (See FALCONRY). Duck Hawk. This bird is a good example of the true falcon, and is a race of the European duck hawk which was much used for falconry. It is slaty blue above, barred with dark gray; the top of the head is black; the under -parts are deep buff, barred with dark gray; and the throat is white or light buff. The male measures 18 and the female 20 inches in length, the latter being the larger and stronger bird. The four red- dish eggs are laid on the bare ground, in hollows in trees or in old nests of other hawks The duck hawk feeds mainly on waterfowl, its flight being so swift as to enable it easily to pursue and capture the swiftest flying ducks. It is found in nearly all parts of the world. 998 FALCONIO Falconio, Diomede (1842-1917), an American cardinal, born at Pescoco- stanzo in Abruzzi, Italy. He joined the Franciscan Order when 18 years of age, and five years later was sent as a mis- sionary to the United States, where, after being ordained a priest, he became professor of philosophy and vice-presi- dent of St. Bonaventure’s College, at Allegany, N. Y., and later, after a year’s absence, became its president. For ten years (1872-1882) he was secretary and administrator of the Cathedral of Har- bor Grace, Newfoundland, and in 1883 he returned to Italy, where he held many high offices in the Franciscan Order. After being consecrated Bishop of Lace- donia and then Archbishop of Acerenza and Matera, Archbishop Falconio be- came apostolic delegate to Canada and to the United States. In 1911 he, with two other American archbishops, was created cardinal. He has published a volume entitled Pastoral Letters. Fal’conry, the pursuing of game by means of falcons, and the necessary ac- companiment of training the birds for the sport. The name hawking, which is sometimes used synonymously, more accurately refers only to the sport in the field. Two kinds of birds are used: the long-winged, or true, falcons, rep- resented by the gyrfalcons; and the short-winged falcons, represented by the goshawk. These were chained to the wrist of the hunter and were released when the game was sighted. Pigeons, partridges, larks, rooks, magpies, her- ons, wild ducks and even rabbits were among the animals attacked by the fal- cons, and the birds so pursued were caught on the wing. Falconry was a popular sport in Eng- land after the Norman Conquest and was practiced by nobles and court ladies. A person’s rank could be distinguished by the species of falcon possessed; thus an earl carried a peregrine falcon, etc. In Germany and France falconry was popular about the same time, and the literature of the period, or that concern- ing those times, abounds in references to the practice. The sport died out in the FALLIERES 17th century and, though later revived, died out almost entirely with the use of firearms in the hunt. Consult Freeman and Salvin, Falconry, Its Claims and Practice. Falk’land Islands, a group of islands in the South Atlantic Ocean, a posses- sion of Great Britain. The two largest islands are known as East and West Falkland; the Island of South Georgia and other smaller islands are uninhab- ited. They lie about 300 m. east of the Strait of Magellan. The entire area is about 7500 sq. m. There are good harbors and the coasts are greatly in- dented; the climate is favorable except when continuous drizzling rains and strong winds set in. Sheep farming is practically the only industry, as the soil yields little except grass. There are large unworked deposits of peat. In 1592 Davis visited the islands and they were named by Captain Strong in 1690, when he sailed through Falkland Strait. The French, British and Spanish have had control of the territory; since 1833 it has been in the hands of the British, and the present colony was established in 1851. Stanley, in East Falkland, is the principal town. The population of the islands is about 2000. Fal’lacy. See Locic. Falliéres, Fal’ yar’, Clément Armand (1841- ), eighth president of the French Republic. He practiced law and became mayor of Nérac in 1871. Three years later he was elected a Republican member of the Chamber of Deputies from the same piace. He soon drew at- tention as a speaker of the Republican Left. In 1880-82 he was undersecretary for the minister of the interior and prime minister for 22 days in January, 1883. He served in other high positions and became president of the Senate in 1899. He continued to fill this office for seven years. In 1906 he was elected president of France by the Radical Republicans and the Socialists, and he took his seat Feb. 18, serving until 1913. His peas- ant ancestry and his free and democratic manners made him very popular with the common people. 999 . FALLING BODIES Falling Bodies. The earth exerts a constant force of attraction on every body, so that if the body is free to move it will fall toward the earth with uni- formly accelerated motion (See Mo- TION, Laws oF). In the air bodies fall with slightly unequal velocities because of the resistance of the air; but in a vacuum they fall with equal velocities. Neglecting the friction of the air, all freely falling bodies acquire in each sec- ond a velocity of 32.16 ft., or 980 centi- meters, per second. The velocity acquired accordingly increases in proportion to the time of falling, and the velocity at the end of ¢ seconds is 32.16 x ¢ ft. per sec- ond, or 980 xt centimeters per second. Thus at the end of three seconds, a freely falling body would have a veloc- ity of 32.16 x 3, or 96.48, ft. per second. If the body has an initial velocity, as a ball thrown vertically upward, it begins to acquire a downward velocity the mo- ment it leaves the hand; but it continues to go up until its acquired downward velocity equals its initial upward veloc- ity, when it stops and begins to fall. It will finally reach the earth with a speed equal to that with which it was thrown up, if the air friction can be neglected. Again, when a rifle ball is shot horizontally, it begins to fall the moment it leaves the barrel, and in a given time it will fall the same distance as if it had simply been dropped. To allow for this falling, the sights of a rifle are so placed that the rifle barrel is pointed slightly above the object aimed at. This elevation of the barrel in- creases with the distance to be shot. The distance a body will fall in a given time is found by multiplying its average vertical velocity by the time of fall, its average velocity being half the sum of its initial and final velocities. For example, during the first second of fall the average velocity is +3", and the distance fallen is 16.08 x 1, or 16. O08, ft. During the second second it will fall 16.08 ft. as before, and it will also fall 32.16 ft., due to the velocity it acquired during the first second, or a total of ‘in 1865 a brigadier-general. FALLOWS 16.08+-32.16, or 48.24. The total fall during the two seconds will accordingly be the sum of the distances’ fallen in the two separate seconds, 16.08-+48.24, or 64.32 ft., which is four times the distance fallen in the first second. The general rule is: The distance that a body, start- ing from: rest, will fall in a given time equals 16.08 ft., or 490 centimeters, mul- tiplied by the square of the number of seconds. Stated in formula, using s for distance, s=16.08 7? ft., or s=490 7? cen- timeters. If the body has an initial up- ward or downward velocity, it is only necessary to calculate the distance it would go in the given time due to this velocity, and then add or subtract the result from the distance it would fall in that time as calculated by the rule given above. The distance a body will fall during any given second, as, for exam-. ple, the fifth, is found by calculating the total distance it will fall in five seconds and subtracting from this the total dis- tance it will fall in four seconds. Fallow Deer, the spotted deer of Europe and Asia, and the one chiefly seen in English parks and game preserves. Aside from its color, it differs from other deer in having long, slender antlers which are flattened at the ends and branch like the fingers from the palm. The fallow deer is found along the shores of the Mediterranean, where large herds. graze upon tender grass or eat fruit and nuts. The skin makes a soft leather, the flesh is desirable and the antlers are of use in cutlery. The ani- mal is so tame, however, that the species would soon be exterminated were it not protected by law. Fallows, Samuel (1835- ret): American bishop of the Reformed Epis- copal Church, born at Pendleton, Eng- land. When he was 13 years of age the family came to America, settling in Wis- consin. Fallows graduated from Wis- consin University and was for a time professor in Galesville University. He entered the Civil War as chaplain of a Wisconsin regiment, but left the service He served the State of Wisconsin for three years 4 1000 FALL RIVER as superintendent of public instruction, and subsequently was president of Illi- nois Wesleyan University. He accepted a call to St. Paul’s Reformed Episcopal Church, Chicago, in 1875, and the next year became bishop. Bishop Fallows has assisted in the preparation of sev- eral works of reference, and has been engaged in numerous enterprises of great importance. Fall River, Mass., a city and port of entry of Bristol Co., 49 m. s.w. of Bos- ton and 18 m. s.e. of Providence, R. I., at the mouth of the Taunton River on Mt. Hope Bay, which is the northeast- ern part of Narragansett Bay, and on the New York, New Haven & Hartford and other railroads. The city is on a good harbor and has steamer connections with Providence, Newport, and New York, notably by the Fall River line be- tween New York and Boston. There are also steamer connections with Philadel- phia by the Windsor freight lines of steamers. Fall River is irregularly laid out, with many fine residences built out of native granite, and is situated on slopes rising from the river. The area of the city is 41 sq.m. It has abundant water power furnished by the Queque- chan River, the outlet of Watuppa Lake, which descends 130 ft. in the course of half a mile. There are a number of fine public parks. | _ Among the principal buildings are a state armory, St. Vincent’s and St. sks homes, a custom-house, Notre ame, jot. Mary’s .and” St. :Anne’s churches, First Congregational Church, Second Congregational Church, classical and technical high schools, several ele- mentary schools, a city library, Bradford Durfee Textile School, Quequechan Club, the Boys’ Club, a county court- house, Notre Dame College and the Academy La Ste. Union des -Sacrés Ceeurs. It is as a manufacturing center that Fall River is best known. It ranks first in the cotton-milling industry in the United States. Textile weaving and dye- ing is one of the great industries, and an extensive hat manufactory furnishes the United States army with hats. There FAMINE are also manufactories of woolens, thread, rubber goods, bobbins and shut- tles, rope, wire, iron and brass products, machinery, calico, soap, twine and knit goods. Fall River was included within the lim- its of Freetown until 1803, when it was incorporated under its present name as a separate town. The town was called Troy from 1804 to 1834, when its old name was restored. It received a city charter in 1854. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 120,485. False Imprisonment, the illegal con- finement of a person against his will, whether in a public prison or a private house. False imprisonment is consid- ered a crime and is punished by the State. The one imprisoned may also recover damages through a civil suit. False Pretenses, misrepresentations of one’s purpose, financial standing or business, for the purpose of obtaining pecuniary or other assistance. Such a misrepresentation is considered a mis- demeanor and is punishable by fine or imprisonment, or both. Fa’ma, in Greek myths, goddess of rumor. She is probably an invention of the poets. Vergil vividly describes her and Ovid tells of her bronze palace. Family. See Botany. Fam/ine, a distressing scarcity of food affecting the inhabitants of an ex- tensive geographical area. Among the chief causes of famine are irregular rainfall, floods, wars and destructive in- sects. Famine usually occurs in coun- tries where, as in Ireland, the people depend heavily upon a staple product. Famines are rare in those regions where there is a diversity of activity, and where in the event of failure of one product the other resources can be drawn upon to sustain life. In ancient and medieval times famines were numerous and devas- tating to the population, but at the pres- ent time they are not so frequent, owing partly to the increased facilities for transportation and: ready intercourse be- tween countries. India and China have been the scene of many destructive fam- ines; in the latter country as many as 1001 FAN 9,000,000 persons perished in 18/77 and 1878 from this cause. English rule in India has greatly lessened the loss of life from famine, and the British budget makes annual provision against any need that may arise from failure of the rice crop. Fan, the name given to various in- struments and contrivances for produc- ing air currents. Hand fans for cooling the face were well known to the Egyp- tians, Greeks and Romans, and were in- troduced into England during the reign of Henry VIII. They have been made of many different materials, such as the leaf of certain palms, of wood, of feath- ers, of paper and of thin skins, variously constructed and attached to ahandle. The folding fan was introduced by the Japanese in the seventh century, and consists of two portions, one the folded fabric and the other the rigid strips fastened to it, and all pivoted together at one end, so as to open when used and shut up or fold when not in use. Great display of artistic ability is shown in the ornamentation of fans. For the descrip- tion of a fan as a‘machine see BLOWING MACHINE. Faneuil, Fan’), Hall, a public build- ing, given to Boston by Peter Faneuil in 1742. As originally planned, it com- prised a market house, being enlarged to provide a public hall; but it was burned in January, 1761, the walls alone being saved. ~The town speedily erected a new building, funds for which were raised partly through a lottery. This building was enlarged in 1805. Faneuil Hall, known as the “Cradle of American Lib- erty,” is one of the most cherished land- marks of Revolutionary times. Here, in 1772, the first Boston Committee of Cor- respondence was organized; in 1773, the Boston Tea Party was planned; and in 1837, Wendell Phillips made his first anti-slavery speech. See Boston TEA PARTY; PHILLIPS, WENDELL. Far’ad, the practical unit of electric capacity in the electromagnetic system. The microfarad, 1,000,000 times as small, is the more commonly employed unit. A conductor is said to have a FARGO capacity of one microfarad, if, when charged with a micro-coulomb of elec- tricity, its potential is changed by one volt; or a condenser is said to have a capacity of one microfarad when a posi- tive charge of one micro-coulomb on one coating and an equal negative charge on the other coating cause a potential dif ference of one volt between the coatings. See ELecrric Capacity; LEYDEN JAR. Far’aday, Michael (1791-1867), an English chemist whose work began in self-planned experiments while he was a bookbinder’s apprentice. In 1813 he be- came Davy’s assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institution-at London, and after traveling with Davy for over a year he was made director of the labora- tory and later life professor of chem- istry in the institution. Faraday’s chem- ical work was chiefly in investigation of chlorine and other gases. His most im- portant work, however, was in the line of electrical discoveries, where his greatest achievement was the discovery of the induction of electric currents. Faraday’s work was characterized by the concentration and persistency of his efforts and the accuracy of his state- ments. His private life is particularly worthy of note on account of his kindly, sympathetic disposition, which rendered him doubly helpful to his students and associates. Far’go, N. D., a city and the county seat of Cass Co., 265 m. w. of Duluth (Minn.) and 651 m. n.w. of Chicago, on the Red. River and on the Chicago, Mil- waukee &.St. Paul, the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific railroads. The city is situated in a fertile agricultural region producing quantities of wheat. It is an important financial and jobbing center and one of the leading distribut- ing points for heavy farm machinery in the United States. Fargo is a city of beautiful streets and parkways, and there are many artistic homes. It has two city parks, Island Park and Oak Grove. A modern elec- tric railway system serves the city and connects it with Moorhead (Minn.). An interurban line also connects with Dil- 1002 FARIBAULT worth (Minn.), where large car shops are located. The prominent buildings include a courthouse, city hall, Federal Building, Masonic Temple, Y. M..C. A. and Y. W. C. A. buildings, three public libraries, a number of banks, substantial business houses, fine hotels and about 30 churches. It is the seat of a Catholic see and of a Protestant Episcopal bish- opric. Fargo is the seat of the North Dakota Agricultural College (coeduca- tional), which receives both Federal and state support. Other colleges include the Fargo College, Sacred Heart Acad- emy (Catholic), Lutheran Training School for women, a central high school, public schools and several busi- ness colleges. St. John’s and St. Luke’s hospitals are among the benevolent in- stitutions. The first settlement was made in 1871 and the place named in honor of W., G. Fargo of the Wells- Fargo Express Company. A city char- ter was granted in 1875. In 1893 the city suffered from a heavy loss by fire. . Population in 1920, 21,961. Faribault, Far’i bo”, Minn., a city and the county seat of Rice Co., about 45 m. s.w. of St. Paul, at the confluence of the Cannon and Straight rivers, and on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Chicago, Great Western, the Chi- cago, Milwaukee & St. Paul and other railroads. There is ample water power and the manufactures include foundry products, gasoline engines, windmills, wagons, carriages, warehouse trucks, furniture, pianos, rattanware, shoes, woolen goods, flour, cane sirup and canned goods. Faribault is situated in a region dotted with attractive lakes and is known as a summer resort. The town offers exceptional educational advan- tages, being the seat of the state institu- tions for the deaf, the blind and the fee- ble-minded; the Shattuck School for boys and St. Mary’s School for girls, both under the control of the Protestant Episcopal Church; the Bethlehem Acad-. emy for girls (Roman Catholic); the Seabury Divinity School; and the hos- pital and nurses’ training school of the Minnesota District of the Evangelical FARMERS’ ALLIANCE Synod. The city has a public library. Faribault was permanently settled in 1848 and chartered as a city in 1872. It was named in honor of Jean Baptiste Faribault, a French fur trader. Popu- lation in 1920, U. S. Census, 11,089, Far’ley, John Murphy (1842-1918), an American Roman Catholic clergyman, born at Newton Hamilton in Ireland and educated at St. Marcartan’s College in Ireland and at St. John’s College at Fordham, N. Y. Later he studied law and spent four years in the American College at Rome, where, in 1872, he was ordained a priest. Subsequently he held the offices of private chamberlain to Pope Leo XIII, vicar-general to the Archbishop of New York, and again do- meéstic’ prelaté, to: Pope’ Leo Xi igamin 1895 he was consecrated auxiliary Bishop of New York and titular Bishop of Zeugma. He was promoted to the See of New York in September, 1902, re- ceived the special approbation of the Pope in June, 1903, and was made as- sistant at the Pontifical Throne in De- cember, 1904. In November, 1911, he was one of the three American arch- bishops to be created cardinal by Pope Pius. Cardinal Farley is an author of some note, having written a valuable Life of Cardinal McCloskey and con- tributed articles to many current mag- azines. Farmers’ Alliance, a national organ- ization of agriculturists for mutual im- provement and furtherance of political ends. It was founded in the State of New York in 1873, for social and edu- cational purposes, but, with the develop- . ment of other organizations of the same name in various parts of the country, it soon became a political force. In 1890 it reached the height of its popularity and at its national convention of that year declared the following principles of government in its platform: free and unlimited coinage of silver; laws pro- hibiting speculative dealings in agricul- tural products; government ownership of all lines of transportation and com- munication; prohibition of ownership of land by any except American citizens; 1003 FARMERS’ CLUBS and a plan for lending money to farmers on the security of farm products. The membership steadily decreased, however, until in 1895 its remaining followers united with the People’s Party. Farmers’ Clubs, local associations of persons interested in questions pertain- ing to the farm. Meetings are held at regular intervals, and, as generally con- ducted, consist of a program devoted to papers, talks, etc., interspersed with music and with discussions of the topics of common interest, whether of local or national, scientific or purely practical character. Much influence has been ex- erted by the most progressive of these clubs in improving methods of farm work, disseminating scientific agricultural education and interesting farmers in public questions not directly connected with their profession. Such clubs are found in nearly all agricultural communi- ties of the United States and have a social as well as educational value. See FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. ! Farmers’ Institutes, a series of meet- ings for the instruction and help of farmers. In the United States such in- stitutes have been held in all the states and territories except New Mexico, Nevada, Alaska and Hawaii. They con- sist ordinarily of a two or four days’ meeting conducted by directors sent out by the agricultural colleges of the states. Sessions are held morning, afternoon and evening and consist of practical talks upon the line of farm work done in the community where the institute is held, and lectures upon popular subjects. The expense incurred is almost entirely met by appropriations from the state Legislatures. The weak point in the service done by the institutes at present is the failure to see that application is made of the suggestions given from the platform. The growing tendency is to follow up the lectures with practical demonstration of the principles ad- vanced. In 16 states separate institutes have been held for women and system- atic instruction given in women’s depart- ments of the farm; and a few states, rec- ognizing that many young people in the FARRAGUT country leave school at the age of 14, are providing means of organizing them into associations under the direction of insti- tute instructors, who can give them vocational training adapted to their years. Perhaps one of the most helpful and popular branches of the institute work has been the establishment of institute trains. These trains are equipped with material for illustrating the points of the lectures, and are run at the expense of the railroad companies. They are side- tracked at the different agricultural cen- ters, where farmers have the privilege of- examining the exhibits and talking with the instructors in the intervals between sessions of the institute. At present 18 states have at least one such train each and many have two or more. Farming. See RANCHING, 2 Fa’roe Islands, a group of islands, lying in the North Atlantic, between the Shetland Islands and Iceland. There are 21 in all, and of the 17 which are inhabited the largest are Stromo, Ostero, Videro and Vaago. Their total area is 530 sq. m. Hurricanes prevail and pre- vent the cultivation of trees and vegeta- bles. Fishing, the rearing of sheep and bird hunting are the chief occupations. » The inhabitants are of Norse descent, and the language is a form of old Norse. Population 18,000. Far’ragut, David Glasgow (180I- 1870), an American naval hero, born near Knoxville, Tenn., the son of George Farragut, a native of Minorca. David entered the navy as midshipman when nine and first served under Porter, with whom he went to Valparaiso, Chile. In 1841 he was promoted commander, and from 1854 to 1858 was employed in founding the Mare Island navy yard at San Francisco. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was placed in command of the Brooklyn, and in the spring of 1862 he led a naval expedition against New Orleans, the Hartford being his flagship. _On reaching the Gulf of Mexico he there organized the West Gulf Blockading Squadron, and with able land assistance forced the surrender of New Orleans.’ Later he captured Baton Rouge and 1004 FARRAR Natchez, and, by running the batteries at Vicksburg, joined the Union fleet above that place. In consequence of his services at New Orleans he was placed first on the list of proposed admirals. In 1863 he cooperated in attacks on Port Hudson and Vicksburg, and in August, 1864, defeated the Confederate forces in Mobile Bay. His exploits in the Gulf region won him great fame. He received the thanks of Congress and for him the rank of vice-admiral was created. In 1866 he became the first admiral of the United States navy, and, on visiting Europe the following year, was there ac- corded the highest honors. Far’rar, Frederick William (1831- 1903), an eminent English clergyman, born in Bombay, India. He was edu- cated at the University of London and became assistant master at Harrow in 1855. Later he drew attention by his work as head master of Marlborough College, and became Dean of Canter- _bury in 1895. He established a reputa- tion as a writer of fiction, biography, his- tory and on religious subjects, while his works, popular in style, tended to elevate religious thought. His chief works are a Life of Christ and The Eternal Hope. Fashion. See Dress, Fast, a temporary abstinence from food and drink, usually in connection with religion. Fasting’ as a religious practice Has prevailed almost universally ; it has been found among the Romans, the Greeks, the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Aztecs and Toltecs of Mexico, the Incas of Peru and other American abo- rigines, among the Pacific Islanders, and in eastern Asia wherever Brahmanism and Buddhism have made their way. Fasting among the Israelites was not at first obligatory, but after the Captivity, days of public fasting were established. An orthodox Jew of today fasts on his birthday after he reaches the age of 13, as well as on the birthday of his eldest son, until the latter is 13, besides observ- ing the regular fast days. The period of abstinence is from daybreak until the first three stars appear. In the early Christian Church fasting was a general FATIGUE observance, being required as a prepa- ration for holy acts and feasts and for ordination and baptism. Roman Catho- lics, generally speaking, abstain from meat on Friday and throughout Lent, be- sides observing certain other fast days. Fasting is very strictly kept by the Greek Church; their Easter fast covers a period of 48 days, that of Christmas 39. The Church of England recommends fasting as a means of grace, though the observance is not obligatory. The Mo- hammedans rigorously observe the fast which Mohammed commanded, that dur- ing the month of Ramadan. Fata Morgana, Fah’ tah Mor gah' nah, the name applied to a peculiar kind of mirage, observable in the Straits of Mes- sina between Sicily and southern Italy. It appears in the air, on the water or even in the water and reflects the images of trees, building and people. The name Fata Morgana means fay, or fairy, Mor- gana. In the legends of King Arthur, Fata Morgana was the sister of Arthur, and in attempting to steal his sword, Excalibur, she secured only the scab- bard, which she threw into the sea. She was supposed thus to have caused the mirage in the Straits of Messina; hence the name, which may also be applied to any mirage. Fates, or Parce, Par’ se, in classic © mythology, three daughters of Jupiter and Themis (Law) who presided over human destinies. Clotho spins, Lachesis twists. and Atropos severs the thread of life. | Fatigue, Fa teeg’, a condition of the body or of the mind resulting from con- tinued exertion. The form of fatigue most often felt is that due to muscular exercise and nervous strain. Of this sort of fatigue there is a ready con- sciousness, but some organs of the body may be overworked and the signs of fatigue not be manifest for some time. When the muscles are exercised, certain substances are formed in the muscular tissue, which are poisonous in their effect if not thrown from the system. These poisons are carried off in the blood, but if they accumulate, as the result of contin- 1005 FAULT ued exertion, the natural agencies are overtaxed to eliminate them, and serious injuries sometimes result. When the blood of a fatigued person is injected into another, the sense of weariness is transmitted to the second person. If the muscles be overworked, they lose their contractile power and fail to respond readily to the ordinary stimuli. In nervous fatigue the nerves undergo cer- tain physiological changes and lose their sensitiveness. The mind is also affected by fatigue. Some forms of mental fatigue are marked by dullness of per- ception and feeling, and decreased mem- orizing and reasoning powers. Fatigue is nature’s warning that it is time to rest. It is, therefore, a protect- ive measure. Every part of the body re- quires its periods of rest. The muscles of respiration and circulation, while ap- parently perpetually active, have their short periods of rest between each rhythmic movement, when for a brief interval they are absolutely inert. It is during the intervals of rest that the tis- sues are nourished. Very young per- sons are prone to overexercise, but they should be prevented from all violent ef- fort which would result in exhaustion. - See ATTENTION; MeEmory. Fault, in geology, the displacement of strata of rock caused by fracture. In coal beds the extent of a fault varies from a few feet to several hundred, and is sometimes a thousand. The miner de- termines the location of a lost and dis- SENSATION; WILL; FAWCETT placed stratum by the angle of fracture, or slope of the broken surface. In the illustration the section bounded by the lines A A and BB has been raised from its former position. Fauns, sportive woodland demigods of the Romans, human in form except for the ears, legs and feet, which were those of a goat. They were similar to the Greek satyrs. It was a peasant custom to sacrifice lambs and kids to them. The name is derived from Faunus. Faust, Foust, or Faustus, Johann (about 1485-about 1540), a German as- trologer and soothsayer, supposed to have been aided by the Devil in his per- formance of marvelous deeds. In 1587 the first history of Dr. Faust appeared. This relates how the son of a peasant, after gaining distinction at the Univer- sity of Wittenberg, seeks to increase his knowledge by resort to magic. Secur- ing the help of a devil, Mephistopheles, who is to be his servant for 24 years, Faust enters upon a course of unre- strained revelry. Awakened to remorse by visions of the spirit world, he turns to mathematics for consolation, but aft- erwards visits hell and the stars and re~ sumes his revelry. At the end of 24 years he is carried away by the Devil. The story of Faust since its first appear- ance has been a favorite literary theme. Christopher Marlowe, an English dram- atist of the time of Shakespeare, pre- sented it in his Tragedy of Dr. Faustus, and among the eminent German writers who have used the story are Friedrich Miller, Lessing, Heine and Goethe, the last of whom gave the world a master- piece in his drama Faust. The opera Faust, the music of which was written by — Gounod, is also based on this legend. Faw’cett, Henry (1833-1884), an English statesman and political econo- mist. He attended Cambridge and, hav- ing studied law, took up economics, in 1863 becoming professor of political economy at Cambridge. In 1865 and in 1868 he was elected to Parliament for Brighton, and as postmaster-general in the second Gladstone administration he was responsible for many important re- 1006 BMY KIA e #* z : 8 16° an a weve Seis VE Tae sa MORE 3 Fs ae ee s ‘ s sy i AW BE Soe Stott hdd dete a Toho SONGSTERS ~~ + ( t J ‘ - ‘ : i ‘ i ' _—_ 1 , . - 4 y > : r a x bie x a ot | a 2 ~ 4 é* «¥ A ) > Ke ey ook) 7¢ f P 9 » { os ‘ ip \ ‘ 40 t 4: nny at hate, FAWKES forms. He strongly advocated free trade. He wrote A Manual of Political Economy and Lectures on the Economic Position of the British Laborer. Fawkes, Guy. See GUNPOWDER PLOT. Fayetteville, N. C., a city and the county seat of Cumberland Co., 60 m. s.w. of Raleigh and about 80 m. n.w. of Wilmington, on the Cape Fear River, at the head of navigation, and on the At- lantic Coast Line, the Raleigh & South- port and other railroads. In the inter- ests of navigation the river channel has been considerably enlarged and im- proved, and from this stream and its tributaries near the city good water power is derived. The manufactures in- clude silk, cotton .goods, flour, lumber, Carriages, wagons, woodenware, edge tools, turpentine and cottonseed oil. There is a_large vineyard here. At Fayetteville are located a state normal school for negroes and the Donaldson Military School. There are two hospi- tals, each with a training school for nurses. Fayetteville was settled by Scotch Highlanders in about 1762 and called Campbellton. The name was changed in honor of Lafayette, who visited the place in 1784. At the outbreak of the Civil War the United States arsenal here was seized by the Confederates, and in March, 1865, General Sherman took and destroyed the arsenal and much prop- erty. Fayetteville was incorporated in 1893. Population in 1920, 8,877. Feathers, growths from the skin forming the covering of birds. A typ- ical feather consists of a long, central shaft or stem having on each side a web made up of barbs, from which project many small barbules. The upper and under edges of the barbules have many hairlike projections, usually terminating in minute hooks, which become attached to the edge of the adjoining barbules, thus locking the barbules together and producing a compact web. Many feath- ers bear a small downy feather, called an aftershaft, which proceeds from the shaft at the base of the web. Ina few birds, as the emu, this appendage is nearly as large as the feather itself. The FEBRUARY commonest feather is the contour feather, which is usually slightly curved toward. the body and has a distinct quill and web. The wing and tail feathers are good examples of this kind. In great contrast to this feather is the long, web- less plume of some birds of paradise, the bristles about the mouth of the night- hawk and the tail feathers of the lyre bird. Another kind of feather is found in the down of geese and swans, in which the center shaft is nearly or quite absent, as are also the hooks, the barb- ules being soft and long. Feathers grow from definite tracts on the body of the bird, between which there are bare spaces. These tracts dif- fer widely in the various groups of birds, those of a thrush being quite different from those of a woodpecker. Feathers develop from small projections called papillz, which first appear on the skin of the embryo about the sixth day. From these papillz the first soft, downy feathers (natal down) of the chick de- velop, and as the bird becomes older the true feathers grow from the same cap- sule, the downy feathers being pushed forward, attached to the tip of the new feather, and finally breaking off from the end. Feathers are an important article of commerce, being used for ornamental purposes, for filling beds and pillows and, in rare instances, for making gar- ments. The demand for brilliantly-col- ored feathers for millinery purposes has brought several species of birds to the point of extinction. Among these are the white egret, several species of gull, birds of paradise and some species of humming birds. The ostrich has been saved only by the ostrich farms. For- merly the quills of the goose and swan were used for pens, and these birds were bred by the Dutch for their quills, which were exported to all parts of Europe. See Birps; PEN. Feb’ruary, the second month of the year, containing 28 days regularly and 29 each fourth year. February is from the Latin Februare, to purify. > - ris *¢ . i ke ; . 2 ‘ é > * ; ; $ oe Oe ee my ue tf Vy 4 res . eT ae ‘ nee hoe ’ 4 7 a r = ae 744 i Ps « > ~ > wel Be ‘ i ’ ‘ ’ 4 ‘ ‘i 2 \ | s i 7 + re ' + i > 2 ~ . i ‘ % st ay “ i .- - * 3 ; 4 i ~- ts ' A > » . 7 ‘ > o4l tm ‘ = » 4 . » ¢ ore A iviery « 4 * strike it most strongly. render the screen luminous. FLUOROSCOPE cury, so that ordinary methods of collect- ing it are useless. It has been found in milk, teeth, bones and the blood of ani- mals and in small quantities in plants and volcanic rock. Its principal com- pound is hydrofluoric acid used in etch- ing on glass. Fluoroscope, Floo or’ o skope, a flu- orescent screen so arranged that radio- graphs produced by X rays can be exam- ined without the necessity of using pho- tographic plates. A fluorescent screen can be made by coating a piece of paste- board on one side with fine crystals of calcium tungstate or of platinum barium cyanide, the crystals being bound up on FLUOROSCOPE the surface by wax. When such a screen is exposed to the action of X rays, pref- erably in a darkened room, it is rendered luminous where the X rays strike it; most strongly luminous where the X rays If the hand, or other part of the body, is held close to such a screen and between it and a source of powerful X rays, the coated side of the screen being the one farthest from the source of X rays, the rays readily pass through the pasteboard and Those parts of the screen which are shielded from the X rays by the bones of the hand are comparatively little affected; those shielded only by the flesh are more affected; while the rest of the screen is strongly affected. The resulting ap- pearance on the screen is like a shadow, hence called a shadowgraph or radio- graph, in which the shadows of the rela- tively opaque bones are fairly dark; FLUX those of the flesh alone are less dark or moderately bright, while the rest of the screen is uniformly bright. Metallic objects, such as finger rings or coins, show as black shadows, since metals are opaque to X rays. Glass objects are fairly opaque and show as dark shadows, while diamonds are transparent and show bright in the radiograph. When such a screen is protected from stray light on the sensitive side by an open pasteboard box, so fashioned that _ its open end fits closely around the ob- server’s eyes, it is called a fluoroscope and can be used in a well-lighted room. The cut shows the fluoroscope with the screen removed. Fluoroscopes are much used by physicians and surgeons in ex- amining broken bones and in locating foreign substances in the body. The va- rious organs of the body, as the heart and lungs, can be examined, since the shadows cast by the different parts of the body differ some in density. The part of the body to be examined is placed between the source of X rays and the fluoroscope, which the observer moves about until he can get a satisfactory ra- diograph of the part: in question and judge what the trouble is. See X Ray. Fluor Spar, a crystalline compound of calcium, found in connection with ores of tin, lead, silver and cobalt. It forms in cubical crystals that are of yel- low, green, red or blue color, or are sometimes almost colorless. It is a source of hydrofluoric acid and of fluorine, and is used in metallurgy to aid in fusing ores. Flute, a musical wind instrument, usually made of wood, sometimes of metal. It consists of a hollow tube or ' cylinder about two feet in length, with from six to twelve lateral keys and a lateral mouthpiece. It has a compass of nearly three octaves and is one of the most important instruments for the or- chestra, being frequently used for solo parts in delicate lyrical passages. Flux, a material used to advance the fusion of minerals or to tend to their decomposition. Many different sub- stances are employed, depending upon 1053 ‘ FLY the nature of the minerals to be treated. Limestone combines with the silicates and the alumina in iron ore, and is, there- fore, the flux generally employed in blast furnaces. A flux should combine with the earthy matter and impurities of the ore to form a slag, and thus act as a vehicle to set the metal free. The flux used in pottery consists chiefly of borax, red lead and sand. See Brast Four- NACE; POTTERY. Fly, a name applied to all insects of the order Diptera; with qualifying ad- jectives it is used to designate numerous insects of other orders, as the May fly, sawfly, dragon fly or butterfly. Unmodi- fied, the term is generally applied to the familiar but deadly typhoid, or house, fly. These flies constitute a family, having in common with all Diptera one pair of well-developed, nearly transparent wings and a secondary, rudimentary pair, which serves as a set of balancers in the insect’s flight. The head has two prominent compound eyes made up of some 8000 hexagonal facets, or surfaces, each comparable to a single, simple eye. Aside from these there are three simple eyes on the back of the head, and with all these organs of vision it is not strange that the slightest movement startles this wary insect. The mouth of the fly is a sucking organ, and the tongue is provided with tiny, filelike patches for rasping a sur- face upon which the fly wishes to feed. It is the movement of these rasps which causes the annoying sensation known as the bite of the fly. When not in use, the proboscis is, folded back under the head. The legs are of medium length and an- gled; at its extremity each is divided into two hairy, hook-bearing pads. The hairs secrete a sticky fluid, which enables the fly to walk upon smooth surfaces and cling to the ceiling. Flies are so numerous and so familiar to everyone that though they are con- sidered annoying, they are looked upon as an unavoidable pest. A compara- tively recent study of their habits has led to appalling discoveries, which have caused one writer to state that the fly, FLY referring to the typhoid, or house, fly, is the most dangerous wild beast in America and causes more deaths an- nually than war, flood or famine.. Were children taught to fear it as they fear the less dangerous snakes, many avoid- able deaths would be prevented. The breeding place of the fly is wherever filth, especially decaying animal tissue, is allowed to accumulate. Here the eggs are deposited, the maggots, or larve, hatched and fed, and the adult insects developed. The sticky secretion upon the fly’s feet picks up particles of the filth and carries them to the house, leav- ing them upon whatever it lights. Thus even though the fly were not dangerous, it would always be unclean. But the old habit of “shooing” the fly or only screen- ing houses against them is now recog- nized as a sort of criminal procrastina- tion, for the fly, keen for the scent of decaying tissue, haunts sick rooms and . carries away germs of disease, which it spreads wherever it goes. Typhoid fever is especially liable to be so distributed, and epidemics of this disease are trace- able to the now despised fly. Many cities of the United States have organized effective campaigns for the abolishment of the fly. Notable in this respect is the city of Cincinnati, which is said to be practically flyless. When it is known that a female fly may deposit 100 eggs, which in two weeks have be- come adult insects ready to reproduce at the same rate, the rapid multiplica- tion of the species is easily accounted for. One investigator, mathematically in- clined, has figured that the possible prog- eny of the first fly of spring may, by fall, number 1,096,181,249,320,720,000,000,- 000,000 individuals, a mass which would exceed the total mass of the earth. For- tunately these do not all live at the same time or the earth would indeed be over- run. To rid a place of flies many precau- tions should be taken. Chloride of lime or kerosene should be sprinkled over the garbage boxes which should always be kept tightly covered and emptied at least once a week, Piles of manure and other 1054 FLYING FISH waste should be treated in the same man- ner. Dirt and decaying matter should never be allowed to accumulate, since it forms a favorite breeding place. All food, especially milk, should be screened away. Fly poisons, made by putting two teaspoonfuls of formaldehyde in water or one dram of bichromate of potash in two ounces of sweetened water, may be placed in shallow dishes about the house, but should be kept out of reach of chil- dren and pets. - Pyrethrum powder burned in a room stuns the flies, after which they may be gathered up and burned. Every individual fiy should be captured as soon as it appears. In killing one fly, the unimaginable number of its possible descendants are thus destroyed. When it is fully understood that flies feed upon the discharges of those sick with tuberculosis, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria and other infectious diseases, that they carry these germs to our food, our drink, the open wounds upon our hands, the lips of sleeping chil- dren and whatever they touch upon, but that by: concerted effort they may be absolutely exterminated, the campaign against the fly will become universal. Flying Fish, a small family of deep- sea fishes of warm latitudes. They are found generally near the surface and are noticeable because of their habit of leap- ing into the air and spreading their pec- -toral fins as though in flight. These fins, however, seldom vibrate while the fish are in the air; hence it is generally con- sidered that the fins are spread as sails rather than as wings. Since some can travel through the air for an eighth of a mile or more, it would seem that there must be, in a few species at least, the power of propelling themselves during the flight. They rarely raise themselves more than three or four feet above the water, but may travel in a straight or curved line. In falling, the tail touches the water first. All are slender, graceful fish resembling huge dragon flies when out of the water. The flying fish of the Catalina Islands is an excellent food fish. Other well-known species are the sharp-nosed and the common flying fish. FOG Flying Squirrel, a member of the Squirrel Family which has received its name because of a loose flap of furry skin which extends from each leg and when widespread acts as a sail or para- chute. This squirrel makes its home in hollow trees where it stays by day, com- ing forth by night to feed upon nuts, ten- der shoots, eggs or even young birds. It has round, full eyes, generally rimmed with black, and a long bushy tail which, unlike that of the tree squirrel, is straight. The fur is soft and silky and has a gray-brown tone. Foch, Marshal Ferdinand (1851- ), a French soldier. He received his education at the French military col- lege of St. Cyre, graduating as a lieuten- ant in 1875. For many years he was in- structor in the college and nearly all French generals in the World War were among his students. He wrote two well known treatises, ‘““The Principles of War” and “The Conduct of War.” He com- manded one of the French armies in the First Battle of the Marne and turned what threatened to be a defeat into a French victory, perhaps the most im- portant of the war. He was afterwards the general in command of the British and French forces that fought the Battle of Ypres and saved the channel ports. Being regarded as the greatest strategist of the day, he was appointed generalissi- mo of the Entente Allied forces in March, 1918. Under his command were, ultimately, the greatest number of men ever commanded by one general. It was his continuous series of assaults along 250 miles of front that resulted in the utter collapse of Germany, November 11, 1919. Fog, a cloud upon the surface of the earth formed by the condensation of water vapor into minute particles of water. Fog forms when the air is very moist and the water vapor in the atmos- phere is condensed near the surface. Fog differs from cloud only in that it forms near the surface; it does not wet objects with which it comes in contact, nor fall as does mist. A necessary condition to the formation of fog is the presence in the atmosphere of numerous particles of 1055 FOGAZZARO dust, the nuclei around which the water vapor condenses. The density of the London fogs is due to the abundance of dust and germs in the overlying atmos- phere; and off the coast of Newfound- land, where heavy fogs are of frequent occurrence because of the conflict of cold and warm moist air currents, this land dust is present in large quantities. See CLoupD ; RAIN. Fogazzaro, Fo’ gaht sah' ro, Antonio (1842-1911), an Italian novelist and poet, born in Vicenza. His writings are in- tensely spiritual, possess a Wordsworth- ian simplicity and reveal a sympathy with the Liberal Catholic Movement. He published Miranda, Valsolda, Malombra, Daniele Cortis and The Trilogy of Rome, including The Patriot, The Sinner and The Saint. .Fog Signals, signals used to warn vessels of their approach in a fog to places dangerous to navigation. Fog sig- nals are given most effectively with bells, guns, whistles, sirens or powerful flash lights. These are an important aid to navigation, particularly because many of them are now given according to an easily understood international code. During a fog, bells can be usually heard for a distance of from one to three miles ; guns and large whistles, perhaps ten miles; and sirens for 20 or 30. The sound of a movable bell, the clapper being fixed, travels farther than that of the ordinary type. From a whistle placed in a hori- zontal position within a reflector, it trav- els farther than from one in a vertical position. The siren consists of a hollow cylinder, into which compressed air or steam is forced from one end. In the other end there are perhaps a dozen slits; and in front of this end is a disk, similarly per- forated, which is revolved at any desired rate, thus permitting, say, for 2800 revo- lutions per minute, as many as 33,600 puffs of steam or air. A long iron trum- pet, which is attached, compresses the vibrations thus originated, and directs the sound in any desired direction: To signal the engineers of railway trains in a fog, or in case of emergency, flat cases FOLK LORE of tin, charged with detonating powder, are so placed upon the rails that the wheels of an engine must necessarily ex- plode them. See LIGHTHOUSE. Fo’ley, John Henry (1818-1874), an Irish sculptor, born in Dublin. He re- ceived his training at the Dublin Society of Fine Arts and at the Royal Academy of London. His earlier works are chiefly on ideal subjects, but he achieved his ereatest success in his portrait statues. His statues of Hampden, Selden and Sir Charles Barry stand in the Houses of Parliament; those of Lord, Hardinge, Lord Canning and Sir James Outram are in Calcutta; those of Oliver Goldsmith and Edmund Burke are in Dublin. He made the. statue of the Prince Consort and the group Asia in the Albert Memo- rial of Hyde Park and designed the seal for the Confederate States during the Civil War. His last work is in Amer- ica and is a statue of Stonewall Jackson, made for North Carolina: Foley was made a member of the Royal Academy in 1858. Folk, Joseph Wingate (1869- 5 an American lawyer and statesman, born at Brownsville, Tenn., and educated at Vanderbilt University. He settled in St. Louis. When the great street car strike in 1900 paralyzed his city, he was instru- mental in bringing the trouble to an end. As circuit attorney, Mr. Folk acquired national fame by prosecution of those involved in election frauds and by the vigorous way in which he purified the municipal affairs of St. Louis. He served as governor of Missouri for one term, ending in 1909. In this position also he distinguished himself for his fearless en- forcement of the laws of the state. He has been a popular lecturer in Chautau- qua and lyceum courses. Folk Lore, the science which includes everything relating to the ancient notions, beliefs, customs, traditions, prejudices and superstitions of the common people; more specifically, it embraces folk tales, hero tales, ballads and songs, place leg- ends, festivals, ceremonies, games, witch- craft, popular sayings, proverbs, jingles, riddles, etc. The systematic study of 1056 ae ati a aml psi 455 ee aia =x ~~ FOND DU LAC folk lore did not begin until the 19th century, though Percy’s Reliques of An- cient English Poetry, published in 1765, had inspired Scott and others to examine the rich stores of poetic beauty be- queathed by the past. The earliest col- lection of folk-lore material was made by the Grimm brothers, who created a school in this field of study. Societies have been formed in many countries to carry on the work. The Folk Lore So- ciety of England was established in 1878, and an American society in 1888. The latter includes in its study the lore of the negroes and of the Indians. Folk lore embraces the study of many appar- ently trivial matters, but it serves to bring out the relationship between races and the origin of religious beliefs and ceremonies, and thus is of assistance to students of ethnology, sociology, history, mythology and religion. See Grimm, JacoB AND WILHELM. Fond du Lac, Wis., a city and the county seat of Fond du Lac Co., about 60 m. n. of Milwaukee, at the south end of Lake Winnebago, at the mouth of the Fond du Lac River. The Chicago, Mil- waukee & St. Paul, the Chicago & North Western, the: Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie railroads enter the city, and interurban electric and steamboat lines establish connection with surround- ing territory and with the principal lake ports. Chief among the manufactures are typewriters, shoes, automobile tires, agricultural implements, furniture, refrigerators, toys, flour, sashes, doors, leather goods, and shirts. The town has a large out- put of dairy products, grain and lumber. Noteworthy institutions and buildings of Fond du Lac are Grafton Hall School for girls, a Protestant Episcopal cathe- dral, St. Agnes’s Hospital, the Henry machinery, Boyle Roman Catholic Home for the Aged, the Elks’ Clubhouse, St. Mary’s Springs Academy and a Carnegie public _ library. The first settlement on the site of _. Fond du Lac was made by Americans ie ~ from New York about 1835; the village which arose was incorporated in 1852. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 23,427. paper FOOD Fontainebleau, Fon’ten"blo’, a town of France about 37 m. s.e. of Paris and 2m. from the Seine, famous for its grapes. It has clean, wide streets and is set in the midst of the Forest of Fon- tainebleau. It is chiefly noted for its pal- ace, one of the most magnificent in all France. The origin of the palace is unknown, but the older chateau was used by Louis Vad the 12th century, and the present palace was erected by Francis I. Here the Edict of Nantes was signed, Pope Pius VII lived two years as a prisoner, and Napoleon signed his abdi- cation. Fontenoy, Font’nwah', Battle of, a battle of the War of the Austrian Suc- cession, wherein on May 11, 1745, the French under Marshal Saxe defeated the allied English, Dutch and Hanover- ian troops under the Duke of Cumber-’ land. The village of Fontenoy lies in Belgium about four miles southeast of Tournai, which was the objective point of both factions. The battle, though long indecisive, was finally a complete French victory. 3 Food, any substance taken into the body to nourish life. It may be gaseous, liquid or solid, but must be a substance which can be absorbed from the alimen- tary canal and so contribute to the erowth of the body, an oxidizable sub- stance that furnishes energy or a solu- ble substance that aids in the absorption of other foods. Oxygen is the great gaseous food, and without it all other foods prove useless. It is taken from the air into the blood through the lungs, and - is the agent which burns, or oxidizes, the other foods. Water is the most common liquid food, and it acts chiefly as a sol- vent for the solid foods. The solid foods are of three general classes, the nitrogenous, carbohydrates and hydrocarbons. Those of the first class consist chiefly of proteids and they are found abundantly in lean meat, eggs, milk, cheese and many vegetables. They are chiefly digested in the stomach and are absorbed from there to form new tissues or to replace old ones that have > been torn down. Albuminoids, though 1057 FOOD not as valuable as the proteids,.are still useful; gelatin and the various Jellies which are made with it are the common- est albuminoids. The carbohydrates are the sugars and starches; they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are found in nearly all fruits and vegetables. They are partly digested by the saliva in the mouth, and the process there begun is completed in the intestines. Since the carbohydrates contain a greater percent- age of carbon and of hydrogen than of oxygen, they do not yield so much en- ergy as do the hydrocarbons. The hy- drocarbons are the fats and oils and are found in butter and in most animal prod- ucts. They are also digested in the in- testines and, having a large percentage of oxygen, are great heat producers. Mineral substances pass through the body undigested or are taken with other FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE ment of Agriculture, the following foods have the greatest fuel value: olive oil, lard, beef suet, butter, walnut, coconut, bacon, peanut butter, cream _ cheese, smoked ham, chestnuts, sugar, corn and buckwheat. The chief protein foods are: oats, corn, wheat, rye, buckwheat, corn bread, whole-wheat bread, toasted bread, white bread, cottage cheese, peanuts, potatoes, smoked herring, skim milk, salt cod, buttermilk, cream cheese, beef steak, pork chops, mackerel, dried beef, smoked ham, lamb chops, rice and eggs. Various bulletins concerning dietary standards and the relative values of foods may be secured from the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Office of Experi- ment Stations. The Illinois State Food Commission, after careful analysis, prepared the fol- lowing table of relative food values: EACH OF THESE FOODS CONTAINS THE SAME AMOUNT OF NUTRITIVE MATERIAL AS 1 QUART OF MILK AMOUNT NU} WEIGHT KIND OF FOOD cost Alara neve eee WaT ere ea hes da anata $0.08 per Ot LOL. 976 2 2 Cheese Ps See. ae 3p 7 peta Wo Sa iy ees a CP 193-3 v0) eels 6.8 TOSS. eis gti boa she ners cre ate Poe Loz 10 566 1 3.9 Meatt 2c oie, Wg as re Gee! Lb eee 307.7 i ete ae 10.8 ASRYCLITS DAN cise os aholehakee ‘5 ies Rae BF om Ered a AIST 428.5): ree I5e4 UES ao2 te thir PIP AMOEBA PAR RR NE CIN i 22 Se URN RRR FL MA 185,62) So ae 6.6 (orn Neal owes os A SE WG MIR ee a ES Race TS 2.7) uapliece ees 4.9 Potatoes 4 iy. gts won eee MOO pil; re pace | 1 9.4 Cabbage cia ove 2025: °° Lib: 1 Head 1875 4 Bee Died Beans 0) ab. ns Reo Cb. dome ont 243 0) dee 5.05 Oranges 29 lg icin 0.40 ‘' Lb. 8 1304.4 2 14.0 A DpTeS i tik a cio clue ae Ciao) Pk. Pore 1052.6 2 Set Bananas ...0.. 40a: NORGE Doz.) 5 774 1 | 11.3 Pruresey se ce wes ce cise Perse VDoc. aes SF Soy Sl yes 6.62 Nutsiow nec cacmoun ee ae Sb.) so hoe 128.7 sh | eo ee Meat—Fat, Round Beef. 3. Codfish—Boneless. 1. Full Cream Cheese. 4, painrsesties Lb. to Bushel. foods and pass into the system un- changed. The value of a food depends upon its ability to supply warmth, energy and building material. Its money value de- pends not so much upon the amount as upon its ability to satisfy our needs. According to the United States Depart- 5. Bread—White. Foot and Mouth Disease, a disease common among European cattle and appearing in eruptions upon the skin of the mouth and feet. It is usually accom- panied by fever and produces a conse- quent weakness. Lambs are especially apt to die from the effects of it, but the disease is not ordinarily fatal. Since it 1058 FOOTBALL is a bacterial disease, the infection is apt to spread and stables should be fre- quently disinfected. The meat from cat- tle having the foot and mouth disease is not infected, but milk and milk prod- ucts, as cheese and butter, carry the bac- teria to man and cause a similar diseased condition. The bacterium which causes foot and mouth disease has not been isolated and inoculation has not proved unfailingly successful. The best treat- ment is to keep the diseased parts as antiseptic as possible and allow all possi- ble exposure to sunlight and fresh air. Football, a game played, chiefly as a part of college and high school ath- letics, during the autumn and early winter. Tue GAME. Football is played in a rectangular field, called the gridiron, 360 ft. long and 160 ft. wide; the limits at the ends of the field are called the end lines and those at the sides are called the side lines. The goal lines lie 30 ft. froin the end lines and parallel to them, and the portions of the field between them and the end lines are called the end zones. The gridiron is marked at in- tervals of five yards with white lines, also parallel to the end lines. Two goal posts, 18% ft. apart, stand at the center of each end line and are connected by a horizontal crossbar 10 ft. above the ground. The ball is a leather-covered, inflated spheroid whose lengthwise cir- cumference is 28 inches and whose short axis circumference is 2244 inches. The time of play consists of 60 minutes, which since 1910 has been divided into four periods of 15 minutes each, ex- clusive of any time taken out. an intermission of one minute between the first and second and between the third and fourth periods, and of 15 minutes» between the second and third periods. The game is played by two opposing teams of 11 players each, and the object of the play is for each team to put the ball behind its opponent’s goal posts, while at the same time it attempts to prevent the opposing team from making a score. A touchdown is made when a There:is FOOTBALL ball in the possession of any player is on, above or behind the opponent’s goal line; this counts six points. A goal from touchdown is made by kicking the ball from the field over the crossbar of the opponent’s goal by a place kick; a goal from touchdown counts one point. A goal from field, counting three points, is made by kicking the ball from the field over the crossbar of the opponent’s goal in any way except by a punt, that is, dropping the ball from the hands and kicking it before it touches the ground; or by a kick-off, that is, the opening kick of the first and third periods, and consists of a place kick from the 40-yard line of the team entitled to kick. Safety, counting two points, is made when the ball in possession of a player guarding his own goal is on, above or behind the goal line, provided the impetus was given by the side defending the goal. The ball is first placed in the center of the field, and the men line up in the fol- lowing positions, with the two teams facing each other: center, right and left guards, and right and left tackles; be- hind these a quarter back, two half backs and a full back. The official rules change from year to year and cannot here be given in detail. Consult Spald- mgs Official Foot Ball Guide. History. Football has been known in a variety of forms since medieval times. In the city of Florence the Medicis were among enthusiastic play- ers of the game. Though much decried, it was long a favorite sport in Great Britain, where it became a college game at Eton, Rugby, Harrow and Charter- house. The game was first introduced into America at Harvard in 1875 and the Rugby rules were used; the first intercollegiate contest was between Har- vard and Yale a year later and from that time on American colleges took up the sport with enthusiasm. With the formation of an intercollegiate football association in 1885, American rules, which have differed greatly from those used in England, have developed. Foot- ball has never been played to any extent outside of schools and colleges, but there 1059 FOOTE large crowds are attracted to the games, which are followed with great interest. The old methods of playing resulted in so many injuries to the players that the later revisions of the rulés aim to elimi- nate the personal struggles of the players and the team plays that require a mass- ing of the teams. Owing to the objec- -tions that have been made to the rough- ness of the play the game is not so popular as formerly. Foote, Foot, Andrew Hull (1806- 1863), an-American naval officer, born in New Haven, Conn. He studied at West Point, but entered the navy as mid- shipman in 1822. He was flag lieutenant of the Mediterranean Squadron in 1833, five years later as first lieutenant of the John Adams, circumnavigated the globe and attacked the pirates of Sumatra, from 1849 to 1852 engaged in suppress- ing the slave trade on the African coast, and in 1856, during the Chinese and English disturbance, commanded the China station. In the summer of 1861 he was made captain and commanded the fleet in the Southwest. In February of the following year he cooperated with Grant against forts Henry and Donel- son, being severely wounded in the at- tack on the latter stronghold. Though suffering, he commanded the naval attack on Island No. 10; but after the reduction of that place was forced to return home, in July, 1862, with the rank of rear- admiral. He then acted as chief of the bureau of equipment and recruiting and in June, 1863, was ordered to succeed Rear-Admiral DuPont in command of the South Atlantic Squadron. Foote died, however, while preparing to assume duties off Charleston. Foote, Mary Hallock (1847- Vy an’ American author and artist, born in Milton, N. Y. She studied art in New York and has illustrated in black and white for magazines and books. She married a civil engineer and subsequently lived in Colorado, Idaho, and California, whence are drawn the scenes of many of her works. These include The Led- Horse Claim, John Bodewin’s Testi- mony, The Last Assembly Ball, The ¥ Pee 3 Ly ba Me: Te as fu’ he Ne ee i ae TVS. ta ee re Nei, L! -FORAKER Chosen Valley, In Exile and Other Stories, Ceur dAléne, The Little Fig Tree Stories, The Prodigal, The Desert and the Sown, A Touch of Sun, and Other Stories and The Royal Americans. Foot Pound, abbreviated ft. lb., the common unit of work. in most English- speaking countries. It is the work-re- quired to raise a one-pound weight one foot against the attraction of gravity, and is equal to 32.16 foot poundals where the acceleration of gravity is 32.16 ft. per second per second. See Foor POUNDAL. Foot Poundal, the unit of work in the foot-pound-second system of units. It is the work done by a force of one poundal when it moves its point.of ap- plication one foot in the direction the . force acts. The work required to raise a pound weight one foot is 32.16 foot poundals, since the earth pulls down on a pound of matter with a force of 32.16 poundals. See PouNnDAL. Foot Rot, a disease attacking the feet of sheep and causing unusual growth. The margins become cracked and thus open to the entrance of dirt which induces soreness and ulceration. The secretions from the glands between the toes cease to flow and a growth of proud flesh results. The disease is said to be caused by allowing the animals to stand too much upon damp ground. To treat, the diseased portion should be cut away, the wound washed with a solution of one pound of blue vitriol to one quart of water, and the animal kept in a thor- oughly dry shed. For’aker, Joseph Benson 1917), an American statesman born in Rainsboro, Ohio. age he enlisted in the Union army and served throughout the war. He grad- uated from Cornell in 1869; was ad- mitted to the bar in the same year; was judge of the Cincinnati Superior Court, 1879-82 ; was governor of Ohio 1885-90; and was United States senator from 1897 to 1909. He was identified in Congress with the conservative wing of the Re- publican Party, and exercised great in- fluence in its councils. 1060 (1846- When 16 years of. FORAMINIFERA Foram”inif’era, a group of minute microscopic water animals, a subdivision of the Protozoa. The body of the ani- mal is contained within a shell formed from sand, mud, sponge spicules or other foreign matter cemented together in symmetrical and varied form. Fossil remains of these shells are found all over the ocean floor, excepting the Arctic regions, in deposits which are often of great thickness. Whole beds of chalk and limestone in Europe, Asia and North America are formed from the shells of the foraminifera, the oldest-known formation occurring in the Lower Cam- brian rocks of New Brunswick, Canada. The type of the order has undergone few changes from the earliest times to the present. Forbes, Forbz, Archibald (1838- 1900), an English war correspondent, born in Scotland and educated at Aber- deen University. After serving in the Royal Dragoons he went to London in 1865 and began work on a newspaper. He served as a war correspondent for the London Daily News throughout the Franco-German War, and also during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 and the Zulu War of 1879. He was unrivaled at securing news and quick reporting, rid- ing 120 miles in 15 hours to report the victory of Ulundi in 1879. Among his stirring war stories may be mentioned Glimpses Through the Cannon Smoke, My Experiences in the Franco-German War, The Afghan Wars, The Black Watch and Barracks, Bivouacs, and Bat- tles. 3 Force, that which tends to produce, alter or destroy motion of a_ body. Forces may be due to various causes, as gravity, elasticity, friction, magnetism, electricity, etc. Force does not always produce motion, although it tends to do so, for an equal and opposite force may be exerted as soon as the first force acts. Thus, in attempting to draw a nail from a plank, the force of friction is imme- diately exerted in such a direction as to oppose the force applied to draw the nail. The effect of a force in producing motion of a free body depends on both FORCE the magnitude of the force and the length of time it acts. A constant force, such as the force of gravity, produces uni- formly accelerated motion in a free body; if the force is variable, the resulting motion is accelerated but not uniformly. When a force acts for a very short time, as the blow of a hammer on a nail or a bat striking a baseball, it is not usually possible to measure separately either the force or the length of time it acts. Such a force is called an impulsive force, and since its effect is determined by its (unknown) magnitude and the (unknown) time it acts, the product of its magnitude by the length of time it acts is called the impulse of the force. This product, or impulse of the force, can usually be determined from the change of momentum produced in the body struck or from the loss of mo- mentum in the body giving the blow, since change of momentum of a body is equal to the impulse causing it (See Motion, LAws or). In the case of the hammer blow, the impulse is measured by the mass of the hammer multiplied by its speed at the instant of striking the nail, since the hammer loses its entire momentum when stopped by the nail. A centrifugal force is that force by which a revolving body tends to pull away from the center about which it is revolving. The opposite force, which resists this tendency, is sometimes called a centripetal force. When a pail of water is rapidly swung in a vertical cir- cle, the water is kept from spilling by the centrifugal force which drives it out- ward against the bottom of the pail, while the pail is kept in its circular path by the centripetal force exerted through the arm that swings it. There are several units in common use for measuring forces: (1) the pound, the force necessary to support a one- pound weight; (2) the kilogram, the force necessary to support a one-kilo- gram weight; (3) the poundal (See PounpAL); and (4) the dyne (See DyneE). Of these, the first two are gravitational units, and their values vary slightly from place to place on the earth’s 1061 FORCE BILLS surface due to the variation in the force of gravity. The first is the one in most common use in engineering work in this country. The last two are absolute units independent of any locality where they may be used; the fourth being the one most commonly employed in accurate scientific work in nearly all countries. Force Bills, the name applied to sev- eral Federal laws whose object has been to provide means for enforcing certain statutes offensive to the section where _ they operated. The first of these laws, March, 1833, aimed to compel the accept- ance of certain tariff laws. During the Reconstruction Period, after the passage of amendments Fourteen and Fifteen, Congress passed a second so-called Force Bill on May 31, 1870. It made punish- able by fine or imprisonment any attempt to intimidate qualified voters from ex- pressing themselves at the polls. Another act of this nature was directed against certain societies organized systematically to evade Federal laws in the South. Ford, Paul: Leicester (1865-1902), an American historian and novelist, born in’ Brooklyn, N.\Y.)* He recéived » his education in private schools, chiefly in his native town. His investigations into the source of American history led to the editing of the Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Writings of Thomas Dickin- son and The Federalist. He wrote The True George Washington, The Many- Sided Franklin and The New England Primer. He founded the Bibliographer, and as its editor made valuable contribu- tions to it. His fiction includes The Honorable Peter Stirling, The Great K. & A. Train Robbery, Tattle Tales of Cupid, Janice Meredith, Wanted: a Matchmaker and Wanted: a Chaperon. Foresters, Ancient Order of, a fra- ternal society founded in Yorkshire, England, in 1745. It was introduced into the United States in 1836 and now has about 45,000 members in the coun- try. The entire membership throughout the world is over 1,293,000. Foresters, Independent Order of, a fraternal organization founded in New- ark, N. J., in 1874 and reorganized in FORESTRY 1881. There are branches in Canada, Great Britain and other European coun- tries and in India and Australia. The membership is some over 242,000. Foresters of America, a fraternal or- ganization founded in 1864 and reorgan- ized in 1889. It has no connection with the Ancient Order of Foresters or the Independent Order of Foresters, and its jurisdiction is confined to the United States. The membership is about 240,- 000. Forestry, the science of producing, caring for and cultivating large groves and forests. It differs from the study of a single tree, or dendrology, in that it takes up the forest as a whole; and treats of the relations of the trees to each other and of their separate needs, rather than being a study of botanical structure or classification. The study of forestry, while scientific, is also wholly practical and has recently come into prominence in the United States through the awakening to the fact that the forests were not unlimited in extent. In the majority of countries where there have | been forests of great extent, there have been four steps in changing public opin- ion in regard to forests. The first atti- tude toward the forests was to consider them so abundant as to be more of a nuisance than a resource. They were hewed down recklessly to prepare the way for agriculture and were neglected where they were not destroyed. As the settlements grew and the wood supply retreated farther and farther from them, the forests were seized as valuable pos- sessions, sources of wealth to individuals who owned them and who thus destroyed them for personal profit or to some ex- tent spared and protected them. The third step came through the knowledge that the wood supply was waning and, though still plentiful, was not, as had been supposed, unlimited; the forests began to be treated as agricultural crops which, when destroyed, must be renewed, and the management of forests to secure the best growth became important. The last step and the one which is slowly be- ing approached in the United States is 1062 FORESTRY that forests as a natural and national resource must be protected and con- trolled, not by individual whim and for the benefit of the present generation, but by scientific knowledge and in order that they may yield a constant, maximum product from one generation to the next. To one who passes through the vast forests of the Northwest there seems to be still no limit to the lumber, but the same amount of time spent viewing the products of furniture factories, box fac- tories and lumber yards _ suddenly changes the point of view and makes one wonder where the necessary lumber could be produced. It is almost impossible to estimate just how much faster the wood is being cut down than it is being produced, nor how long at the present rate of destruction the’ supply will last. The forest area of the United States is estimated at about 937,500 sq. m., or a little more than one-fourth the area of the country, and the annual growth at 60 board feet per acre. This gives a yearly increase of 36,000,000,000 board feet, while the amount used for lumber alone is equal to, if not more than, this amount. The other uses, for shingles, ties, pulp wood, cooperage stock, mine timbering, veneer, lath, poles and wood for distillation, are also taken from the unrenewed forests. A growing appreciation of this and a study of conditions in foreign countries has led to the establishment in the United States of a Bureau of Forest Service in the Federal Department of Agriculture; its head is the national forester, whose headquarters are at Washington. The duties of the forest service are the patrol of the national forests to check fires and protect the trees from floods, disease, decay, and from depredations of man, and the planting of new trees to replace old ones. Most interesting in the latter connection is the planting in the Tahoe National Park, California, of sequoia saplings, which will not reach maturity for at least 2000 years. Unfortunately the appropriation set aside by Congress for the protection of the national forests is strikingly inadequate to the work FORESTRY necessary to be done. Telephone service must be maintained, fire protection pro- vided, experts employed and scientific study carried on in order to make the service wholly effective. The depart- ment itself has, however, accomplished a great work and is providing for coming generations a heritage that would other- wise be uselessly lost. The number of acres of forest land under control of the United States Gov- ernment in 1912 is here given: ATIZON A! | hU) CON ae 13,883,452 IATKAansas: (uley uae ae 1,184,012 Caletorniay 2 Gn salon 21,104,069 Colorada) ee oes, aan 13,408,138 lOrida OS al hy aa 318,960 - PAAR. Me Chena ay 18,139,435 Rarrsas! dio sr ieie, anes 156,376 Nichioan ce Nel ia 84,011 Niuinnesota fe ees 844,473 AVL nitaria er oe a eur 16,192,504 IN eSiraek ae iy ain behets Outs 521,065 Mevada wlpe a Oi hay 5,424,254 Nev ilexito tsa 9,810,522 NOriakotay oy ore 6,224 PpieTaAn Dina haul he, 61,028 CARGO OTF. ia tedin ask Claman 13,740,139 Pout Dakota ce. va 1,073,760 ae ok ae aap OP ea 7,201,695 WASHINGTON dl cedure 9,914,314 WVOra Iti ON tae.) Yt an 8,420,497 VEUIE Gg Wane eis Ama a ASI 26,643,260 HOLLO. IRICOPANS shad Gk 32,975 The timber in the National Forests of Alaska is estimated at 69,000,000,000 ft. In 1911 Congress made an appropriation of $2,000,000 for the purchase of forest areas in the Appalachian and White mountain regions. The forestry service is engaged in reforesting 7,500,000 acres that have been denuded by fires, and in connection with this work over 30 nurs- ery stations are maintained. Many of the leading universities and the majority of the agricultural colleges have established schools for forestry to train men for governmental and com- mercial work. Men taking up this pro- fession study the trees to find at what age they may be cut to yield the most and the best quality of lumber, to dis- cover methods of avoiding destructive 1063 FORGE, FORGING lumbering and to check the advance of fungus disease and insect pests. The field offers an opportunity for scientific study among the most pleasing surround- ings to one who enjoys outdoor life and its accompanying freedom. The study of forestry in foreign coun- tries is among the oldest of sciences. It is practiced in every civilized country and has been discussed for over 2000 years in many of them. Germany, which has 35,000,000 acres of forests, leads in scientific knowledge and in practical suc- cess of its application. At present the system practiced there has solved the problem of securing an increasing forest output and at the same time increasing profits with no danger of final destruc- tion of the forests. Compare with that the fact that the United States, which might be growing all the lumber that it needs, is now using three times as much as it produces.. In France and in the most of the other European countries re- forestation has been practiced for at least 50 years, and many countries require a man who cuts his forest to replant as many trees as he has cut. The fact that when forests have once been destroyed there is no way of hurrying the growth of a new crop makes foresight more nec- essary than in the case of shorter-lived crops, The effect of the lack of lumber upon numerous industries and its con- nections with climatic and soil conditions and irrigation make the study of forestry one which is of general interest and not one affecting only a few individuals or this generation alone. See CONSERVA- TION. Forge, Forging. A forge is an open furnace or hearth provided with an air blast and used for heating materials, that they may be shaped into forms by ham- mering and pressing. Forges are made in all sizes, from the diminutive gas-heat- ing device used by jewelers to the great furnaces for heating armor plates and steel ingots weighing many tons. Port- able forges are usually constructed of metal and comprise a shallow pan for the hearth, over which is a smoke hood and to which a fan blower, with its driv- FORGET-ME-NOT ing mechanism, is attached, all mounted on four legs made of metal tubes. Sta- tionary forges are built of masonry, lined with fire brick and supported by heavy steel plates and rods drawn together on the outside. The blast is produced by power fans. Forging originally was simply a ham- mering process, but since the develop- ment of steel: making, the power press has largely superseded the hammer. The hydraulic press squeezes the material into shape by a slow, steady pressure, while that used for drop forgings strikes a sud- den, heavy blow, forcing the heated metal into a die, or other form. Many articles that were for- merly made of cast iron are now made of steel by drop forging and by . pressure of steel into dies. For large forg- | ings of simple form the steam hammer is still employed to advantage. See IRON AND ST BBs hae DROS TA TEC oe Press; STEAM HAMMER, Forget-me- not, a plant of the: Borage Family whose flowers are as much loved and widely sung as those of any plant. The leaves and stems are light green or even grayish and so form an inconspicuous and fitting background to the starry blue flowers with their | golden centers. The artistic simplicity . of their form and their clear blue color render them a favorite in pictures. Though delicate in appearance, the for- FORGET-ME-NOT 1064 7 FORMALIN - get-me-not is a hardy plant and blossoms profusely ; it is the emblem of constancy. The wild species found in the United States is no doubt an escape from old gardens which always included this dainty, lovable flower. A less commonly known though widely growing speciés has white flowers, similar in form but lacking the chief charm of the true for- get-me-not, the clear, bright blue color. The forget-me-not is the flower of Alaska. For’malin, a powerful antiseptic and disinfectant made by the solution of 40 per cent of formaldehyde gas in water. It is used in surgery and has lately been injected with success as an antitoxin in cases of blood poisoning. For’mic Acid, a colorless acid found in various plants and animals; notably in pine needles, nettles, the soap tree, tama- rind, bees, red ants, caterpillars and in the human body. It is an irritating acid, in concentrated form causing severe skin burns. Its chief chemical property is its ability to take up oxygen. Formic acid may be prepared by the distillation of red ants. Formaldehyde, the well- known antiseptic, takes its name from the fact that by oxidization it is con- verted into formic acid. Formo’sa. See JAPAN. Forrest, Edwin (1806-1872), -an American actor, born in Philadelphia, Pa. In 1820 he made his first appear- ance in Home’s Douglas, and was partic- ularly successful in Othello, which he played in New York six years later. His popularity in London, where he went in 1836, continued until he yielded to his jealousy and hissed Macready, the favor- ite actor of the English stage. When Macready played in New York City the Astor Place Riot occurred and Forrest was severely criticized for this affair, al- though he was far from solely to blame. The fortune which he made in his profes- sion amounted to $1,000,000, and on his death he bequeathed a large portion of his estate to found a home for aged and poor actors. He was an eminent trage- dian, excelling in melodramatic parts and in Shakesperean roles. FORT DODGE Forrest, Nathan Bedford (1821- 1877), an ‘American soldier, born in Ten- nessee. Early in the Civil War he raised and equipped a Confederate regiment of cavalry and commanded at Ft. Donelson. He was wounded at Shiloh, captured Murfreesboro and was shortly commis- sioned brigadier-general. In 1864 he cap- tured Ft. Pillow (See Fort PILLow). He was acknowledged the foremost Con- federate leader of the West, and his in- vasion of Tennessee, in 1864, was among the most spectacular raids of the war. Fort Collins, Colo., a city and county seat of Larimer Co., 74 m. n. of Denver, on Cache la Poudre River and on the Colorado & Southern Railroad. The city is situated in a fertile valley watered by an extensive irrigation system, near the Snowy Range of the Rocky Mountains. Long’s Peak, 14,231 ft. high, is in Lari- mer County. Fort Collins is the seat of the state agricultural college, opened in 1879, and of a government experiment station. There is good water power for manufacturing purposes. Population in 1970 53,/ 59) Fort ‘Dearborn, a stronghold built in 1804-05 on the site of the present city of Chicago (See Cuicaco, subhead His- tory). It is well known from the mas- sacre which occurred there on Aug. 15, 1812. By orders of Gen. William Hull, the garrison of 67 men, under Capt. Na- than Heald, with some 30 resident set- tlers, evacuated the fort, and while re- treating to Detroit were attacked in am- bush by 500 Indians and by the band of Miami which was acting as their escort to safety. Fully two-thirds of the num- ber, including 12 children, were killed. The survivors surrendered on promise of protection, and from Ft. Mackinaw were eventually returned to their homes. On the day following the massacre the Indians burned Ft. Dearborn, which was rebuilt in 1816 only to be destroyed in 1856. When Wilderness was King, the novel by Randall Parrish, gives the story of the outrage, but without historical accuracy. ‘Fort Dodge, Iowa, a city and the county seat of Webster Co., 89 m. n.w. 1065 FORT DONELSON of Des Moines, on the Des Moines River and on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pa- cific, the Illinois Central, the Minneapolis & St. Louis, the Chicago, Great Western and other railroads. The Ft. Dodge, Des Moines & Southern, an interurban elec- tric railway, also enters the city. Fort Dodge is an important railway and ship- ping center and is situated in a section rich in natural resources, for which it is the principal market. In the vicinity are extensive deposits of potter’s clay, glass sand, limestone and a gypsum bed 50 sq. m. in extent, said to be the most valuable in the United States. The Clay products industries are very important. Among the manufactures are pottery, sewer pipe, brick, tile, plaster, stucco, paints, gloves, telephones, overalls, steel, iron culverts, butter tubs, candy, shoes, foundry and machine-shop products and oatmeal. Among the interesting features of the city are Wild Cat Cave, Phinney, Dol- liner, Reynolds and Oleson Parks. A steel railway bridge, one of the longest in the country, spans the river at this point. Important educational institu- tions include Tobin College, St. Paul’s School, Corpus Christi Academy, the Sa- cred Heart School, Fort Dodge Business College. The High School has a new mil- lion dollar building and there are ten modern grade school buildings and a public library. The first settlers on the site of Fort Dodge were protected by Ft. Clark, built in 1850. The name was changed in 1851 in honor of Col. Henry Dodge, a prominent soldier. In 1854 the town was laid out and in 1869 chartered as a city. Population in 1920, 19,347. Fort Don’elson. See Fort HENry AND Fort DONELSON. Fort Duquesne, Du kane’, a fort es- tablished in 1754 at the confluence of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, the site of the present city of Pittsburgh. The fort was begun by Virginia settlers, but the situation was desired by the French, who early in the year succeeded in taking it. The next year the British under General Braddock were disas- trously defeated in an attempt to capture FORT GRISWOLD the fort. In 1758, however, they were successful, and immediately changed the name to Ft. Pitt in honor of William Pitt. See PirrspurcH, subhead History. Fort Edward, a fort in New York, about 20 m. from the head of Lake Champlain. About 1700 its site was known to the French and English as the Great Carrying Place, as it was the cus- tom of Indian war parties to make a portage from it on their way to Canada. In 1709 Colonel Nicholson built a stock- ade there which was called Ft. Nichol- son. In 1755 another stronghold was © erected on the site and named Ft. Ed- ward, in honor of the Duke of York. It was a haven for survivors of the Ft. William Henry Massacre, 1757, and was a starting place for expeditions into Can- ada during the French and Indian and Revolutionary wars. During the Sara- toga campaign it was occupied for a time by Schuyler and by Burgoyne. See Fort WILLIAM HENRY; SARATOGA, BAT- TLES OF. Fort Erie, Attack on. During the War of 1812, a night attack was made on the Americans, under General Brown, at Ft. Erie, at the head of the Niagara, by the British under General Drummond, Aug. 15, 1814. The attack was a blunder and, though fighting bravely, the British were repulsed with a loss of some 900 men. The Americans lost 84. Fort Fisher, a fort in North Carolina, protecting Wilmington.’ On Dec. 24 and 25, 1864, it was attacked by Porter’s fleet of 500 guns and 6500 troops under Butler and Weitzel. This attack failing, Grant sent General Terry with a large force to aid Porter, and after a desperate assault the fort, garrisoned by Whiting with 2300 Confederates, surrendered Jan. 15, 1865.. The mouth of the Cape Fear River was closed, and the blocleade of Southern ports was made complete. Fort Griswold, Massacre of, an event of the Revolutionary War, occurring Sept. 6, 1781, at Groton, Conn, vAtter prolonged resistance, some 800 Tories under Benedict Arnold gained the fort, which was garrisoned by 150 Americans. In the butchery that followed the surren- 1066 FORTH der, 85 of the 150 were killed and 35 were mortally wounded. A monument has been erected on the site of the fort. Forth, a river and estuary of south- ern Scotland formed by the juncture of Duchray Water and the Avondhu. The river has a winding course, giving it a length of 66 m., whereas the distance in a direct line is less than half as much. It has a general southeasterly direction through passes of great beauty, and the interesting and historic towns of Stir- ling, Kirkcaldy and Leith lie upon its banks. Many bridges, ferries and rail- way viaducts cross the stream, chief among which is the famous Queensferry cantilever bridge, completed in 1899 at a cost of $13,000,000.’ The tide ascends the river to nearly five miles above Stir- ling, and the stream may be navigated to that point by ocean-going vessels. Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, two forts in Tennessee, near the Kentucky border. The first was a small position on the right bank of the Tennessee River, but the second, 12 m. away, was much more formidable, being situated on a plateau about 100 ft. above the Cumber- land River. It extended over 100 acres _and, besides its heavy guns, had two bat- teries on the river bank beneath the bluff. These posts were erected by the Confederates in 1861 and commanded the entrance to the Central and Southern states. On Feb. 6, 1862, General Grant and Commodore Foote captured Ft. Henry, most of the garrison of which had es- caped to’ Ft. Donelson. About a week tater Grant attacked Ft. Donelson and, after three days of vigorous bombard- ing, in which he was supported by the fleet, received a note from General Buck- ner offering to capitulate. To this Grant promptly answered, “No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move im- mediately upon your works.” Buckner was forced by circumstances to accept these terms, and, Feb. 16, surrendered about 15,000 men with a great quantity of stores and ammunition. The Federals tost over 2800 men. This was the first FORTIFICATION real Northern victory of the war, and it opened the way to the heart of the South- west. For’tifica’tion, the art of protecting, by engineering devices, troops or places from attacks by the enemy. The term is also applied to the works constructed for this purpose. The earliest fortifica- tions were natural objects, such as trees, rocks and mounds of earth, behind which men could shield themselves from the missiles of the enemy. As armies were organized, artificial works were often constructed, their nature depending upon the material at hand and the sort of weapons in use. A hedge of fallen tim- ber and brush, for instance, afforded good protection against arrows and jave- lins, and at the same time an obstruction over which the attacking party could not readily pass. The palisade of stakes was often employed by the American colon- ists in Indian warfare, and, unless set on fire by the enemy, was very effective. As ‘the Indians gained possession of fire- arms, the blockhouse succeeded the pali- sade. This was a square structure built of hewn timbers eight to t a inches in thickness and laid one upon the other. The base was a little smaller than the house, in whose walls were numerous openings through which the garrison could fire. Field fortifications usually consist of an embankment of earth a few feet high often hastily constructed. When the ma- terial is at hand and time permits, the front of such works may consist of logs. The earth is then banked against the logs, forming a firm and efficient protection against infantry fire, but of little use if artillery is used against them. The great fortifications constructed for the protection of harbors and on strategic points along the coast are works requiring the greatest engineering skill. They are intended to be strong enough to resist the fire from the largest battle- ships. Experiments have proven that banks of sand form the most effective resistance to heavy ordnance; therefore the most approved fortifications consist of strong walls of masonry, often 30 ft. 1067 FORT MADISON or more in thickness, surrounded with banks of sand and earth of such thick- ness, that a shot in penetrating them will lose its force before reaching the wall. The mound is usually covered with grass, so as to make it as inconspicuous as possible. The large cannon within the fort are mounted upon carriages, which will allow them to be elevated into a position for firing and then to be lowered to their former position of safety. Such an arrangement is called a disappearing carriage. The largest guns within these forts are 40 ft. long and weigh over 100,000 Ib. They require a charge of 500 Ib. of pow- der and will throw a 12-inch ball 9 m. The United States has numerous fortifi- cations of the most modern type extend- ing along the Atlantic coast from Ports- mouth, N. H., to Key West. In addi- tion to these, there are six on the Gulf of Mexico and eight on the Pacific coast. Fort Madison, Iowa, a city and the county seat of Lee Co., about 20 m. s.w. of Burlington, on the ‘Mississippi River and on the Chicago, Burlington & Quin- cy, the Atcl..son, Topeka & Santa Fe and other railroads. A railway and highway bridge Grosses the river at this point. The city has a variety of industrial in- terests and operates foundries, machine shops, sawmills, grain elevators, canning factories, heater works and manufacto- ries of tires,, tractors, fountain pens, bricks, chairs, paper, agricultural imple- ments, boots and shoes, overgaiters, but- tons and flour. Among the principal fea- tures of Fort Madison are the state penitentiary and the Cattermole Mem- orial Library. The first permanent set- tlement was established here in 1833 on the site of an earlier stockade. The town was laid out in 1836 and chartered as a city in 1839. Population in 1920, 12,066. Fort Mer’cer, an abandoned fort in New Jersey, at Red Bank on the Dela- ware. During the Revolution it was a defense of Philadelphia, and after his occupation of that city, 1777, Howe de- termined to capture it with Ft. Mifflin, and thus prevent a seige by controlling the water route to New York. A picked =a S ™ FY) ae 6 ooh Se fa 73 a: a ree ( FORT MOULTRIE detachment of 2500, most of whom were Hessians, marched against Ft. Mercer, while a supporting fleet came up the river. On Oct. 22 the attack was made, the American garrison of 300 under Col. Christopher Greene fighting bravely till the Hessians were forced to withdraw. The stronghold was abandoned Nov. 20, after the capture of Ft. Mifflin, and was destroyed by the British. Fort Mims, Massacre of, a massacre perpetrated during the Creek War at Ft. Mims, a temporary stockade 35 m. above Mobile, on the Alabama River. At the outbreak of the war some 550 men, women and children had gathered here for protection. These, including the gar- rison of about 200, under the command of the half-breeds Bailey and Beasley, were surprised on Aug. 30, 1813, by 800 Indians, under the leadership of the half- breeds Weathersford and McQueen. Fif- teen escaped, a few negroes and half- breeds were made prisoners and the re- mainder were scalped. Fort Moultrie, Mol' try, a fort on Sullivan’s Island, commanding the har- bor of Charleston, S. C. In June, 1776, Sir Peter Parker and a squadron from Ireland, with Sir Henry Clinton and a force of English regulars, attempted to capture Charleston, which was to serve as a base of operations against the col- onies in the South. A force of some 5000 militia under Gen. Charles Lee had assembled to defend the city, while 1200 men under Colonel Moultrie were sta- tioned in the unfinished palmetto strong- hold, then known as Ft. Sullivan. On June 28 Clinton landed some 3000 men on the sand bank near Sullivan’s Island, planning to ford the intervening space of sea and make a land attack at the point of the bayonet. Unfortunately, however, Clinton remained on the sand bank. Par- ker, in the meantime, had opened fire on the fort and the attack became a mere artillery duel. After ten hours Parker was obliged to retreat out of range. The American loss in killed and wounded was 37; the British, 205. Only one gun had been silenced in the fort, while nine of the ten English sail were unseawor- 1068 i oe / ~ FORT NECESSITY thy after the engagement. In commemo- ration of this repulse the stronghold was subsequently named Ft. Moultrie. The victory freed the Southern States from invasion for more than two years. May 7, 1780, a few days before the cap- ture of Charleston, the fort surren- dered. Previous to the opening of the Civil War, a United States garrison oc- cupied Ft. Moultrie; but on Dec. 26, 1860, Major Anderson transferred the soldiers to Ft. Sumter, which was better protected on the land side. South Caro- lina militia soon occupied the abandoned fort, which was a defense of Charleston throughout the remainder of the war. Fort Necessity, Attack on, an inci- dent of the French and Indian War, oc- curring on July 3, 1754. From Great Meadows, southwestern Pennsylvania, Washington had approached Ft. Du- quesne, but, hearing that the French were advancing, he had fallen back to his original position, where he put up a rude breastwork which he named Ft. Necessity and which was garrisoned by some 300 men. On July 3 nearly 500 French and Indians marched upon the fort in a pour- ing rain, and after nine hours of inter- mittent fighting the Americans capitu- ‘lated, giving up all prisoners taken at Great Meadows, but being promised a safe retreat. Fort Niag’ara, a stronghold on the American side of Niagara River, near its mouth, upon the site of a house built by. La Salle about 1669 and of a trading post erected some ten years later. In - 1725 Vandreuil built Ft. Niagara, which was destined soon to become the fore- most military and trading center in America. During the French and Indian War a British expedition under Gover- nor Shirley of Massachusetts attacked it, and later, in the summer of 1759, it was besieged for 16 days by the British under Prideaux, reinforced by Johnson. It surrendered on July 24. Various Indian treaties were negotiated here; the place served as the headquarters of John But- ler and Joseph Brant, and the scene of the organization of the Wyoming and Cherry Valley expeditions. The Ameri- FORT SCOTT cans occupied it upon its evacuation by the British, August, 1796. During the War of 1812, Nov. 21, 1812, it was se- verely bombarded from the Canadian side, and later, Dec. 19, 1813, it was again attacked and captured, being sur- rendered to the Americans, however, at the termination of the war. The United States garrison was withdrawn in May, 1826. Fort Pillow, a fort in Tennessee, about 40 m. n. of Memphis, on the east shore of the Mississippi, built early in 1862 by the Confederates under General Pillow. That summer it was attacked by a fleet of Federal gunboats, the Confed- erate flotilla being speedily destroyed and the fort itself thereupon reduced, June 4. On Apr. 12, 1864, then held by Major Booth with 550 Federals, 260 of ‘whom were negroes, the place was at- tacked by a strong force under the Con- federate cavalryman, Forrest. After two assaults in which most of the garri- son were slain, the fort capitulated. Fortress Monroe, a military post of the United States located at Old Point Comfort, Va., guarding the entrance to Hampton Roads. The reservation in- cludes 282 acres and has within it a post- graduate artillery school, with equipment for 100 officers and 900 men. Jefferson Davis was imprisoned in Fortress Mon- roe for two years after the Civil War. Fort Schuyler, Ski’ ler. See Fort STANWIX. Fort Scott, Kan., a city and the county seat of Bourbon Co., 100 m. s. of Kansas City, on the Marmaton River and on the Missouri Pacific, the St. Louis & San Francisco, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas and other railroads. The city occupies a site upon a rolling plain in the midst of rich mineral deposits, espe- cially bituminous coal, and in this article a considerable trade is carried on. Other valuable natural resources are oil, gas, building stone, clays, cement rock, lead and zinc. Excellent sulphur water has been obtained by well-boring. Contribu- tory to the industrial importance of the city are grain elevators, foundries, ma- chine shops, cement and pottery works, 1069 FORT SMITH flour mills, brick and tile works and man- ufactories of sirup and mattresses. The city is the seat of the Kansas Normal College and Notre Dame de Lourdes Academy for girls. Other features wor- thy of mention are the Mercy Hospital and a public library. There is a national cemetery in the vicinity. Fort Scott, which occupies the site of the fort of the same name, which was abandoned in 1855, was platted in 1857 and three years afterwards chartered as a city. Popula- tion in 1920, U. S. Census, 12,066. Fort Smith, Ark., a city and one of the county seats of Sebastian Co., on the western border of the state and on the Arkansas River at the junction of the Poteau. Transportation facilities are provided by the river and by the Arkan- sas Central, the Ft. Smith & Western, the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & South- ern, the St. Louis & San Francisco, the Kansas City Southern, the Midland Val- ley and other railroads. Fort Smith is situated in the coal and natural-gas re- gion of the state and is a business center of the surrounding farming country. It has extensive jobbing and wholesale in- terests in cotton and lumber products, dry goods, meats, groceries and drugs, and carries on a large trade in cotton, lumber, coal, hides and live stock. In the city are a number of plants connected with the cotton industry, saw and planing mills, wagon factories, brickyards and mattress and broom factories. Several furniture factories are also located here and the city is called the “Grand Rapids of Arkansas.” Fort Smith has good public schools and contains a Catholic Academy, con- vent and infirmary. There is a Carnegie library. The first settlement was made here in 1817, with the establishment of a United States army post. Four years later a town was laid out, which was in- corporated in 1842; the place was char- tered as a city in 1845. . Several skir- mishes of the Civil War took place here in 1864. The first railway was completed in 1871. In 1905 the area of the city was more than doubled. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 28,870. / FORTUNA Fort Stanwix, a stronghold built in 1758 on the site of the present city of Rome, N. Y., by a British soldier named Stanwix. Being situated on the water- shed between Lake Ontario and the Hud- son, it commanded the main traffic route between New York and Upper Cariada, and several Indian treaties were arranged there. In 1769 it was dismantled, but when the Revolution broke out it was again fortified and called Ft. Schuyler. About ten miles from it, Aug. 6, 1777, Herkimer fought the celebrated Battle of Oriskany. See ORISKANY, BATTLE OF. Fort Sum’ter, a fort guarding Charleston Harbor, S. C., named for Thomas Sumter, a partisan leader of Revolutionary fame. When South Caro- lina seceded, December, 1860, Major Robert Anderson in command of a small garrison moved from Ft. Moultrie to Ft. Sumter, which was close by and stronger, on Dec. 26. A few days later, on Jan. 9, as the Star of the West entered the harbor bringing supplies to the fort, it was fired upon and driven away. This was the opening shot of the Civil War, which was begun in earnest when nego- tiations between Anderson, the South Carolina authorities and Washington finally resulted in General Beauregard’s being ordered to demand the fort and, in case of refusal, to reduce it. Before daylight, Apr. 12, 1861, Ft. Sumter was fired upon. After 34 hours of bombard- ment, it fell to the Confederacy. In April, 1863, it withstood an attack by nine ironclads, and four months later re- sisted a heavy bombardment, defending itself until Charleston was evacuated, Feb. 17, 1865. Two months following, on the fourth anniversary of the fall of Ft. Sumter, Anderson (then General) raised over it the identical flag that he had lowered four years before. The fort has been rebuilt and modified. See ANDERSON, ROBERT. Fortu’/na (in Greek Tyche), Roman goddess of good fortune, who was often represented as holding a cornucopia. In her Theban temple she held Wealth in her arms. The worship of Fortuna was prominent among: Italian observances. 1070 a oar >. ‘a FORTUNY Y CARBO Fortuny Y Carbo, For too’ ne e Kar'bo, Mariano (1839-1874), a cele- brated Spanish painter. He studied in Barcelona and at Rome. Although not a profound master, his skill and facility as a craftsman were exceptional, and in the numerous Eastern scenes which he de- picted, color is used with brilliant effect. He produced, among other canvases, Choosing a Model, The Snake Charmers and Moors Playing with a Vulture. Fort Washington, an . important stronghold of the Revolution, located on the highest part of Manhattan Island, N. Y. It fell to the English under William LX ne oS &, FORTUNA Howe on Nov. 16, 1776. Following the engagement at White Plains, Washington crossed into New Jersey, leaving Ft. Washington in charge of Colonel Ma- gaw. Nov. 15 Howe appeared before the fort with a powerful force, declaring that if it were not immediately surren- dered the entire garrison would be put to the sword. On Magaw’s determining to defend the position, the British opened an attack in four divisions. Ona second summons, being outnumbered more than five to one, Magaw surren- dered about 3000 prisoners of war. The ~ FORT WAYNE loss of Ft. Washington caused wide- spread consternation and has been re- garded as one of the most crushing blows that befell the Americans throughout the war, the garrison comprising the best troops in the colonial army. Fort Wayne, Ind., a city and county seat of Allen Co., 148 m. s.e. of Chicago and 102 m. n.e. of Indianapolis, at the junction of St. Joseph’s and St. Mary’s rivers, which unite within the city limits to form the Maumee River, on the pro- posed Michigan & Erie Canal, a survey for which the government has ordered, and on the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Day- ton, the Pennsylvania, the Wabash, New York, Chicago & St. Louis, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Lake Erie & Western and other railroads. The city is also the center for various lines of interurban roads which connect with the excellent electric system throughout the state. It is situated 770 ft. above sea level and covers an area of ten square miles. The surrounding country is large- ly agricultural; the city is an important manufacturing and trade center. ParKS AND BouLevarps. There are many miles of fine shade trees lining the well-paved streets and boulevards. The city contains over 100 acres of parks and nine miles of river front. There are many handsome residences and suburban homes. The park system includes the Swinney, Lawton, Hayden, McCullough, Reservoir, Piqua, Lakeside and Old Fort parks. Lawton Park contains a monu- ment erected in honor of Maj.-Gen. Henry Ware Lawton. Old Fort Park is located on the site of the stockade built by Gen. Anthony Wayne in 1794. Pusiic Burtpincs. Among the note- worthy buildings are the courthouse, one of the finest structures in Indiana, Fed- eral Building, Elks’ Hall, Scottish Rite Cathedral, city hall, a number of banks, theaters and substantial business blocks. There are about 50 churches. The city is the see of a Catholic diocese and one of the largest constituencies of the Mis- souri Lutheran Synod. InstituTIONS, The educational insti- 1071 FORT WILLIAM tutions include the. Concordia College (Lutheran), Sacred Heart Academy, Bible Training School, Art School, Con- servatory of Music, Westminster Sem- inary for young ladies, St. Augustine Academy, a public library, public and parish schools, high school, college of: medicine and surgery, school of oratory and several business colleges. Other in- stitutions include St. Joseph’s, Hope and German Lutheran hospitals, Indiana School for the Feeble-Minded, several orphan asylums, emergency home and a refuge for women. INDUSTRIES. Chief among the indus- trial establishments of the city are large railroad repair shops, iron and steel mills, car-wheel factories, knitting and hosiery mills, sash and door factories, boiler and engine works, carriage and wagon fac- tories, flour mills, road-construction ma- chinery, woodenware factories, electrical- machinery works, gas-machinery works and manufactories of gloves, caps, pianos and organs, shirt waists, paper boxes, harness and leather findings, soft drinks, oil tanks, cigars, furniture and washing machines. History. The principal village of the Miami Indians, called Kekionaga, was situated on the east bank of the St. Jo- seph River within thé limits of the pres- ent city. A French trading post was later established on the St. Mary’s River, also within the present city boundary, in 1680. The Indian village was destroyed in 1790 and in 1794 General Wayne built the stockade fort which was named in his honor. The first permanent settle- ment was made in 1815. The town be- came the county seat in 1824 and in 1840 a city charter was granted. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 86,549. Fort William, a city of Ontario, sit- uated on the north shore of Lake Su- perior, 861 m. from Winnipeg. Because of its railways and excellent harbor fa- cilities it is one of the commercial and traffic centers of the province. The lead- ing manufactures consist of car wheels, iron pipe, tinware, brick tile, wire nails, lumber, cigars, flour, oatmeal, cheese and aerated waters. Thirteen grain elevators ‘ FORT WORTH have a capacity of 20,690,000 bushels. The first settlement was made by French traders in 1669. Population in 1911, 16,499. Fort William Henry, a stronghold built by Sir William Johnson, in 1755, on the site of the present Caldwell, NY. During the early French and Indian troubles it was an important position, and from it some of the lesser expedi- tions against the French and their allies were started. On Aug. 2, 1757, Mont- calm with 8000 men, one-fourth of whom were Indians, captured the fort. The garrison marched out with the honors of war, but the following morning, while being escorted to Ft. Edward by a French detachment, they were attacked by Indians and a large number were killed and captured in the massacre that took place. This episode figures in Coop- er’s Last of the Mohicans. Fort Worth, Tex., a city and county seat of Tarrant Co., 30 m. w. of Dallas and 170 m. n. of Austin, at the junction of the Clear and West forks of the Trin- ity River and on the International & Great Northern, the Chicago, Rock Island & Gulf, the Ft. Worth & Rio Grande, the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas & Pacific, the Colorado & Southern, the St. Louis, San Francisco & Texas and other railroads. The city is attractively situated,on a plain above the river and has an elevation of 700 ft. above sea level. The surrounding country is large- ly agricultural. The city is the center of a vast stock-raising and cotton-growing region, and it is one of the great distrib- uting points of the Southwest. The wholesale and jobbing interests are also important factors in the city’s progress. ParKs AND BouLeEvarps. The city is well laid out and contains many miles of improved streets and handsome resi- dence districts. There are 21 parks with an area of 311 acres. Pusiic Buitpincs. Among the note- worthy buildings are the courthouse, con- structed of granite and marble from the Texas quarries, a city hall, two fine rail- way stations, Elks’ Club Building, a 1072 ( So) ae Fe i eae PE B93 A Dg AA. He Pee Cerwin TP be ANS? Ae Pry ‘ ae pers ah Pee TIVE eae at ‘ by Meee . bit hea Avia Yate ae , ae fy ¥ \ y Why t ne X ¢ . 4 I ¥ 7 . R \ - manufactories of woven-wire beds, FORUM Carnegie library, fine hotels, about 15 banks, substantial business blocks, mod- ern office buildings and about 86 churches. INSTITUTIONS. The city is the seat of the Texas Christian University, with a medical school department, Polytechnic College (Methodist Episcopal South), established in 1890, Baptist Theological Seminary, St. Andrew’s School (Prot- estant Episcopal), St. Ignatius Academy (Catholic), the Texas Masonic Manual Training School and about 27 other col- leges and schools. The benevolent and charitable institutions include Jo- seph’s Infirmary, Texas State Masonic widows’ and orphans’ home, a number of private hospitals and sanatoriums and All Saints’ Hospital. InpustTRIES. Extensive packing houses, flour mills, tanneries, machine-shop and rolling-mill plants, grain elevators and foundries are the chief industrial establishments of the city. There are fur- niture, trunks, mattresses, confectionery, overalls, Italian paste, cigars, shoes, ele- -vator cages and other diversified prod- ucts. The city has just completed a res- ervoir for its water supply with a 31,- 000,000,000-gallon capacity, and has one of the largest and most modern electric- ower plants in the Southwest, costing $2,000,000 and distributing electricity commercially 150 m. from the city. History. In 1849 a military post was established here which was called Camp Worth. The name was later changed to Fort Worth. The fort and settlement were named in honor of Gen. William Jenkins Worth, who served in the War of 1812. In 1841-42 General Worth commanded the against the Seminole Indians. The city was incorporated in 1873, and in 1907 adopted the commission form of govern- ment. Population in 1920, 106,482. Fo’rum (Roman), the central space in the city of Rome designed as a meet- ing place for the people, “either for busi- ness or pleasure. Originally it was merely the open space in the lowlands surrounded by the Palatine, Capitoline United States forces. FOSSILS and Quirinal hills and served as a com- mon meeting ground for the various tribes on the hills. When Rome became a united city the Forum was improved, encircled by shops and made a public ground in the business quarter of the city. The temples of Saturn, of the Di- oscuri and of Concord were built be- fore 300 B. C., but it was practically two centuries later before the first justice courts were constructed there. From this time the Forum was crowded with beau- tiful buildings and became the meeting place of the Senate. Monuments and statues adorned the place, but now only the ruins remain. The familiar pictures of the Forum show: _ __..aaded style which was adopted in the construction of the buildings and which was later copied in other cities. Recently the Ital- ian Government has been making exca- vations about the Forum and is preserv- ing the valuable relics found there. See map in the article RoME, ANCIENT. Fos’sils, the remains of organic bod- ies which were buried in the earth in past geologic ages and which are now found in rock formations. They are of interest and value as showing the succes- sive forms and conditions of life which have appeared on the earth in the sev- eral geologic periods. Fossils show that plant life preceded animal life and that the simplest forms of each appeared first, the more complex forms following as conditions prepared the way for their development. The earliest plant forms were seaweeds and rushes, and the first animal species was the Mollusk of the simplest structure. Each *successive era of the earth’s bi-- tory has been marked by the predom- inance of some particular life form. Fol- lowing the Mollusks the lowest forms of Vertebrates appeared in the Silurian Period, during the latter part of which and in the Devonian Period Fishes were the predominating form of life. Rep- tiles, Birds and Mammals followed suc- cessively, and, after untold ages, the species, among them man, which exist at the present time. The traces of the suc- cessive stages of evolution are fragmen- 1073 FOSTER tary. In some cases all actual remains of a species are lacking, and the only rec- ords left for the geologist are fvotprints made in sand or other yielding material, which afterwards solidified. See GroL- OGY; PALEONTOLOGY. Fos’ter, George Eulas (1847- ); a Canadian statesman, born in New Brunswick and educated at New Bruns- wick, Edinburgh and Heidelberg univer- sities. For some time he engaged in teaching, finally becoming classics pro- fessor in New Brunswick University; from here he resigned, however, in 1879, to lecture throughout Canada and the United States, chiefly on temperance and prohibition. An Independent Conserva- tive, he has sat in the House of Com- mons for Kings and for York, N. B., 1882-1900, and for North Toronto since the general election of 1904. Meanwhile, he was successively minister of marine and fisheries and minister of finance, un- der Sir John A. Macdonald, and minis- ter of finance in the following adminis- trations until 1896. As minister of marine and fisheries, he prepared the Canadian side of the deep-sea fisheries case for the committee that sat at Washington, 1888, and which resulted in the Chamberlain-Bayard Treaty. In 1903 he lectured in the large cities of Great Britain in support of imperial trade preference. He was Canadian representative on the Dominion Royal Commission appointed by King George, 1912. “In 1916 he was made one of the four rep- resentatives of Great Britain to the Economic Conference of the Allies at Paris, and in 1918 headed the Canadian delegation to the first as- sembly of the League of Nations at Geneva, being subsequently elected vice-president. Foster, John Watson (1836- ie an American statesman and diplomat, born in Pike County, Ind. He was edu- cated at the Indiana State University “nd at Harvard, was admitted to the bar and practiced law in Evansville, Ind. During the Civil War he served with dis- tinction. Foster was engaged for some time in journalism after the war, and in 1873-1880 was minister to Mexico. In 1881 he was minister to Russia and in 1883, to Spain. In 1893 he went to Paris as a member of the court of arbitration in the Bering Sea Controversy. By the desire of the Emperor of China, he took part in. the negotiations of peace to close FOUCAULT PENDULUM the war between China and Japan. He has also acted as envoy of the United States in international arbitration. Among his writings are A Century of American Diplomacy and American D1- plomacy in the Orient. Foster, Stephen Collins (1826-1864), a gifted American song writer, born at Lawrenceville, Pa. He was educated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa., and learned when very young to play sev- eral instruments. His creative impulse received its stimulus in melodies heard in the negro cabins. He was irresponsible and pleasure-loving; and he died in ab- ject poverty. Among his numerous negro songs are The Suwanee River, Massa’s in the Cold, Cold Ground, My Old Kentucky Home, claimed by one E. P. Christy and first published with his ‘name, and Come Where My Love Lies Dreaming. Fosto’ria, Ohio, a city of Senees county, situated 13 m. nw. of Tiffin and 35 m. s.e. of Toledo, on the Balti- more & Ohio, the Lake'Erie & West- ern and other railroads. Ojijl fields are found in the vicinity and the surrounding country is a fertile farming region. The city is an important manufacturing cen- ter and contains flour mills, brass and iron works, a carriage factory, planing mills, stave and barrel factories, glass factories, a safe factory, carbon works, machine shops and spoke and bending works, and numerous other industries. The city was named in honor of Charles Foster, governor of Ohio in 1879 and 1881, and secretary of the United States treasury in 1891-93. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 9,987. Foucault, Foo"ko’, Pendulum, the name applied to a simple pendulum so mounted as to demonstrate the rotation of the earth on its axis. Ifa very heavy weight be hung by a long fine cord free from twist and set to swinging north and south, it will continue to vibrate in the same plane passing through the cen- ter of the earth, but this plane will grad- ually shift its direction on the earth’s surface, due to the rotation of the earth under it. Such a pendulum at the North 1074 FOUNDRY Pole would change its direction of vibra- tion 360° in 24 hours, as the earth would rotate under it once in the 24 hours. At the equator it would not change its direction at all; at latitude 40° it would gradually change its direction 9° 40’ in an hour, requiring about 37 hours for its plane of vibration to make a complete revolution. This experiment was first performed by the French physicist Fou- cault in 1851; he used a heavy ball of copper hung by a wire over 160 ft. long, from the dome of the Pantheon in Paris. See PENDULUM. Foun’dry, an establishment designed for making metal castings. When the term is used without qualification it means a foundry for casting iron. The implements required are a cupola for melting the iron, patterns of the articles to be cast, molds into which the molten iron is poured, molder’s sand for packing around the pattern to form the mold and ladles for carrying the molter. The cupola consists of a cylindrical furnace lined with fire brick, having a bottom which opens downward, a low chimney, and air pipes opening into it near the bottom and through which the blast of air is driven through the fire. Just above the hearth is an opening — through which the molten iron is drawn off. The iron to be melted is broken into small pieces, and with the necessary amount of coke, is fed into the cupola near the top. The fire is lighted at the bottom and the blast applied. The molds are made by placing the patterns in boxes made for the purpose and pound- ing damp moider’s sand around them. A ‘small opening is then made in the sand and the mold is ready for use. The iron solidifies quickly, and within a few mo- ments after the iron is poured, the boxes are opened and the castings taken out. See IRoN AND STEEL. Fountain, Foun’ tin. In the ordinary sense the term denotes an ornamental, ar- tificial basin having jets of water. Foun- tains are usually connected with the water system of a city, from which they get their water under pressure or by means of pumps, and they frequently FOURIER supply drinking water for man and ani- mals. The Greeks and Romans gave considerable attention to fountains, as is indicated by the remains of fountains in many of the ancient cities of the Medi- terranean coast. Modern fountains are fashioned largely from those of the Greeks, which were highly ornamental, and in many cities and towns in Europe and America there are to be found foun- tains justly celebrated for their beauty. Those most famous in Europe are the Schone Brunnen at Nuremberg, Ger- many; the Fontana Maggiore at Peru- gia, Italy; the Fontaine des Innocents, in Paris; the fountains and cascades at Versailles and St. Cloud, in France; and the Alameda Fountain at Malaga, Spain. In some of the expositions ornamental, symbolic fountains were conspicuous, among them the Fountain of the Repub- lic, by Macmonnies, at Chicago, in 1893; the fountains of Man, Nature and Prog- ress at Buffalo in 1901 and the Cascades at St. Louis, in 1904. See Exposition, INDUSTRIAL. Electric fountains are those which are illuminated through variously-colored glass plates, producing on the jets of water many beautiful effects. Fouqué, Foo"ka’, Friedrich Heinrich Karl, BARON DE LA Motte (1777-1843), a German poet and novelist, born in Brandenburg. He was a Romanticist, and is remembered for his fantastic Un- dine, one of the most charming of Ger- man fairy stories. Among other produc- tions are The Magic king, Aslauga’s Knight and Sigurd the Snake-Killer. Fourier, Foo"re a’, Francois Marie Charles (1772-1837), a French socialist, founder of Fourierism, born at Besan- con, France. His father was well-to-do and gave him a good education in the college in his native town. After com- pleting his studies, in which he excelled, he became a merchant’s clerk, and in this capacity made business trips throughout France and into Germany and Holland. He inherited about $25,000 from his father, and engaged in trade at Lyons, but lost his property when the city was besieged by the troops of the Conven- 1075 FOUR-O’CLOCK tion in 1793. After serving for two years in the army, he secured employ- ment in a mercantile house in Lyons, un- dertaking later a small brokerage busi- ness of his own. During the remainder of his life he thus met his expenses and devoted his leisure time to elaborating his program for the reorganization of society, publishing his books out of his meager earnings. Fourier’s investigations were begun as a result of the fact that while a young man he had been required by his em- ployers to hold a quantity of rice for higher prices until it spoiled, while thou- sands of the poor were starving for lack of food. His social system was aimed at the relief of poverty by the elimination of the waste of competition and extrava- gant methods of selling goods. It advo- cated the division of society into com- panies, or phalanxes, each of which, sub- divided into series and groups on the basis of “passional attraction,’ should produce as far as possible all the neces- saries of life required by its members, and distribute them through a common storehouse at cost, thus getting rid of the middleman. A minimum allowance was to be made to each individual, and the remaining proceeds of industry were to be distributed according to a fixed per- centage between capital, labor and talent. Colonies founded upon the principles of Fourierism have been attempted in Eu- rope and America, but without great suc- cess. Four-o’clock, a native American herb of the Marvelwort, or Four-o’clock Family. It is found wild in Texas and South America and is elsewhere culti- vated for ornament. The roots are large and thick, the leaves somewhat heart- shaped. The showy flowers, which grow in profuse clusters, are of all colors, gen- erally tubular in form, and open on cloudy days or in the late afternoon; hence its name. It blooms all summer. Fowl, Domestic, a name applied es- pecially to the cock and hen when raised for food or for the eggs. Occasionally guinea fowl are also understood as in- cluded under the same term. Fully 96 1076 FOWL, DOMESTIC per cent of the poultry raised in the United States belongs to this class, and their eggs even more than their flesh con- stitute an important article of food. There are over 280,000,000 fowls kept upon farms or in small flocks in the United States, and their value is esti- mated at over $150,000,000. The num- ber of eggs produced annually is over 1,300,000,000 dozens, and yet this pro- vides only about 200 eggs per annum for each person. The states which produce the most of these are Iowa, Ohio, Illi- nois, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, Pennsyl- vania, New York and Michigan. CHICKEN RalisinG. This is an impor- tant industry, owing to the great num- ber of eggs and fowls needed to supply a constantly increasing city population. To raise chickens easily and with, finan- cial success, arrangements should be made to give them clean, comfortable quarters near enough to the barnyard for them to pick up any scattered grain, The buildings should be well ventilated and warm in winter, though cool in summer. Cement floors and earth floors are apt to be damp, and wood floors are apt to be too cool unless they are double and lined with building paper. Cement floors cov- ered six inches with earth are probably the most satisfactory, but are also ex- pensive. If the chickens must be continually confined, they should have from 6 to 15 sq. ft. for each adult. If possible, the yard should be upon a gravelly slope, protected from wind and seeded with grass or clover. Here the — chickens may get plenty of exercise, which is a necessity to their growth, In the yards ‘there should be from 50 to 120 sq. ft. of space to an adult. Coops for young chickens are of various kinds; formerly the most common were the box- like or tentlike coops with slatted fronts. Modern coops resemble small houses or are in the form of rectangular boxes, which are divided into two or more com- ~ partments. Wire netting is used in place of slats, and the boxes are so arranged that they are easily cleaned and are well ventilated. Roosts at a convenient height ‘should be provided. sy yh ie SR een FOWL, DOMESTIC The most convenient nests are merely straw-filled boxes located in various parts of the shed. Trap nests are ar- ranged to imprison or to separate from the rest of the flock the hens which lay; they are of different devices, and by means of them the farmer may know which hens are providing the eggs. There is a great difference in hens in their desire to set or to hatch their eggs; many lay throughout a season without showing impulse to remain on the nest. Broods are now ordinarily hatched in in- cubators, as by this means several hun- dred can be hatched at once. Brooders are artificially warmed compartments de- signed to care for incubator chickens. To hatch, eggs require a constant tem- perature of about 104°. Great care should be taken that fowls have fresh, pure water and plenty of grain, green food and some animal food. Too much corn is fattening and is apt to lessen ' laying; wheat is now considered a bet- ter poultry food. The food should con- tain lime and plenty of grit to aid in _ digestion. Breeps. Among the favorite breeds in the United States are Plymouth Rocks, - Wyandottes, Orpingtons, Rhode Island _ Reds, Cochins, Brahmas and Leghorns. - Of these the Plymouth Rock is the most popular both for food and for egg pro- ducing. The barred Plymouth Rocks are especially pleasing in appearance. The standard weight of a cock of this breed is nine and one-half pounds and - of a hen seven and one-half pounds. _ The Brahmas are probably best for eat- _ ing purposes alone, and the Leghorns are _ the most prolific layers. If kept clean, given plenty of water, exercise and wholesome food, chickens are not diff- cult to care for, and, aside from their value for their meat, eggs and feathers, they do great good in destroying harm- ful insects, while their damage to gar- ‘dens is not apt to be great if they are otherwise provided with green food. Consult Watson, Fowls, Care and Feed- mg; United States Department of Agri- culture, Farmers’ Bulletin 41; McGraw, y The Plymouth Rock and The Wyan- FOX dotte; Collingwood, The Business Hen; Watson, Farm Poultry. Fow’ler, Charles Meaty (1837-1908) , an American Methodist Episcopal bishop, born in Burford, Ontario, and educated at the University of Syracuse and at Gar- rett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Ill. He was pastor of churches in Chicago for several years, but left the pastorate to be- come president of Northwestern Univer- sity. This position he held from 1872 to 1876, when he was chosen editor of the Christian Advocate, the leading paper of the Methodist denomination in America. Dr. Fowler became missionary secretary in 1880, and was made a bishop in 1884. In a tour of the world, which he began in 1888, he founded Peking and Nankin universities in China, and in Russia or- ganized the First Methodist Episcopal Church in St. Petersburg. Upon his re- turn he assisted in founding the Nebraska Wesleyan University. Fox, a wild member of the Canine, or Dos, Family but differing from other members of this family so widely that by some authorities it is placed in a class by itself. The most common representative of this species is the American red fox, which is found in the northern regions of America and Asia and is probably only a variety of the European red fox. It is a smaller and more delicate animal than the wolf, with pointed muzzle, erect ears, slender body and legs; its tail is bushy and is the brush prized by English hunts- men. Though it is called the red fox the color of its fur is variable, being gener- ally yellowish-red but often black, frosted or pale yellow; in the frosted varieties the hairs are black but tipped with white, and the pelts of this variety as well as of the yellow are very valuable to furriers, The red fox is a burrow-dwelling ani. mal and often constructs ample under- ground apartments of three rooms, one of which is often his storeroom. The grey fox is a Southern species, smaller than the red fox, with beautiful, red-tinged, silver-gray fur; it makes its home in hollow trees and lives upon eggs, poultry and fruit; the latter it secures by climbing trees with great agility. The 1077 FOX Arctic, or blue, fox is a Northern spe- cies, common in Alaska, Iceland and Greenland, and has been described by all polar navigators. Its fur is of great value. Other species known in America are the big-eared California foxes, Alas- kan foxes and the swift kit foxes com- mon on the plains. All of these are cred- ited with the same cunning given, in the old medieval epic, to Reynard the Fox, who outwitted all his enemies by his stratagems and stealth. Although the fox has been noted in the legends and folk tales of all lands for its slyness and cunning, stories of its skill are probably somewhat exaggerated. It does, however, display remarkable intel- ligence in facing new difficulties and adapting itself to new conditions. This is partly accounted for in its having to act both as hunted and hunter, for it is the prey of man, wolves and mountain lions, and itself hunts Rodents, poul- try, birds, frogs and reptiles. Its meth- ods are interesting for it can out-distance most animals, and employs numerous stratagems in securing its prey or baf- fling its enemy. The sport of fox-hunt- ing, popular in England, is not widely practiced in the United States, though, in the South, European foxes, said to dis- play more cunning than the American varieties, have been imported for the hunt. | Fox, a tribe of the Algonquians whose familiar name was given them by the French. They called themselves the Muskwakiuks, or Red-Earth People. They first occupied the Lake Superior re- gion but were driven southward by the Ojibways and, later, by the French. In self-defense they united with the Sauks, and the two tribes gradually fused. The members of the tribe are now few in number and live in scattered localities in Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma and Iowa. Fox, or Nee’nah, River, a river of Wisconsin, rising in Green Lake County in the south-central part of the state. It flows southwest almost to the city of Portage on the Wisconsin River, with which the Fox is united by a canal. From there it winds in an east-northeast- FOX erly direction until it passes through Lake Winnebago; thence it flows north, en- tering Green Bay, a long arm of Lake © Michigan. The stream is important com- mercially since it forms one of the chan- nels connecting the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. Its length is practieally 250 m. The largest cities upon the stream are Oshkosh, Appleton, Green Bay and Portage. Fox, Charles James (1749-1806), an English statesman. He entered Parlia- ment in 1768 and was a member of the cabinet under North from 1770 to 1773, and under Rockingham in 1782 as secre- tary for foreign affairs. He opposed the coercive policy of Great Britain in re- gard to the American colonies, and also opposed the war with France. Fox ranked among the leading orators of his age. He was the friend of Burke, Gib- bon and Johnson, and the political rival of Pitt. Fox, George (1624-1691), the founder of the sect called Quakers or Friends, born at Drayton in Leicester- shire, England. In his youth he was a shoemaker’s apprentice, but at the age of 19 years he became convinced that he was called to be a reformer. He wan- dered from place to place preaching and teaching that the Holy Spirit rather than the Bible was the source of divine truth, and consequently the authority according to which man should live. He taught simplicity of religious life, wore his hat on all occasions and affected certain pe- culiarities of dress. He was persecuted and several times imprisoned. Fox trav- eled and preached in the West Indies and Europe, and visited America with Penn, Barclay and Keith. His followers were called Quakers from certain trembling and shaking motions which they prac- ticed, “trembling before the Lord.” Fox was distinguished for his doctrine and life of “peace on earth, good will toward men,” which also characterized his fol- lowers. See FRIENDS. Fox, John, Jr. (1863-1919), an Amer- ican novelist, born in Bourbon County, Ky., and educated at Harvard University. After spending some time in newspaper — 1078 FOXE work and business, he settled at Big Stone Gap, Va., making here the study of mountain life that gives vitality and interest to his novels. Among his popu- lar stories are The Kentuckians, The Lit- tle Shepherd of Kingdom Come, Knight of the Cumberland and Trail of the Lone- some Pine. He published an account of his experiences as a correspondent in the Russo-Japanese War under the title Fol- lowing the Sun Flag. Foxe, Fox, John (1516-1587), an English Church historian, educated at Oxford. He was a fellow of Magdalen College and in 1545 was expelled for heresy, but later was ordained deacon of the Anglican Church, being variously connected with Reigate, the Cathedral of Salisbury, Cripplegate and Durham. In _ 1575 he interceded with Elizabeth for the Dutch Anabaptists. He is immortalized by his History of the Acts and Monu- _ ments of the Church, or Foxe’s Book of _ Martyrs. The first English edition ap- peared in 1563, and it was placed in every Episcopal palace in England. The book has gone through innumerable edi- tions, and is very widely known. | rns HOXP OVE, a corruption of folk’s-glove, a European herb of the Figwort Family, which has become common in the United States through culti- vation and escape from gardens, It is a sturdy plant with showy flowers, which in shape re- semble glove fingers. The Leaves vane ee pointed and somewhat downy. The flowers, which are crowded on a long stalk, are white or pale purple and sometimes spotted. From the shape of the flower, foxglove FOX TERRIER has been given many fanciful local names, such as fairy-bells, fairy-thimbles, lady’s-glove, lady’s fingers, dog’s finger. rabbit’s flower, etc. It blossoms all sum- mer. Two native American members of the same family, whose flowers are yel- low and more regularly tubular, have been named smooth false foxglove and downy false foxglove from their likeness to their European cousin. rf: Digitalis, a drug derived from the leaves and stems of several species of foxglove, is valued as a cardiac sedative. Foxhound, a species .of hound, a cross between the greyhound and the old English hound, which has been bred in England for the sake of the hunt. It is a medium-sized dog with straight pro- truding muzzle, long, silky ears, strong legs and erect tail; the coat is short- haired and smooth, generally black, white and tan in color. It is noted for its swiftness and endurance and is said to travel faster than the fastest horse and for a longer distance without rest. The foxhounds’ enjoyment in the chase and their zeal in its continuance for ex- traordinary distances render them favor- ites among English lovers of the sport. Foxtail Grass, a common member of the Grass Family, found growing in meadows where it has been self-sown or is planted for hay and fodder. Some spe- cies are found by roadsides and there, or when found among other crops, are classed as weeds. It has received its name from its bushy spike of stems which is really a number of much-con- tracted, short-stemmed «clusters. Its stems are hollow and its leaves long, sheathing the stem in the same manner as do those of most grasses. A species called bottle grass or green foxtail grass is lighter green than the other species; and a cultivated species is tall, growing three or five feet high, and is locally known as Italian millet, Bengal grass or Germanica. Fox Terrier, a dog of the terrier spe- cies common as a pet, but deriving its name from its former occupation of driv- ing foxes from their holes. It is a bright, intelligent dog, full of play and quick 1079 FRAMINGHAM and active in its movements. The head is small, the muzzle black and protrud- ing, the ears long and inquisitive. Its slender body has a short, silken coat gen- erally black and white, or black, white and tan in color. The tail is stiff and straight. The fox terrier is one of the most easily educated of dogs and its compact build makes it pleasing in ap- pearance. Fra’mingham, Mass., a town of Mid- dlesex Co., 21 m. s.w. of Boston, on the Sudbury River and on the N. Y., N. H. & H. and B. & A. Railroads. Saxonville and Nobscot are included in the corpo- rate limits of Framingham. Framing- ham is the chief business and banking center. It has manufactories of boots and shoes, paper boxes, gummed labels, chairs, rubber, straw goods, tags, crape paper, carpets, boilers, automobiles, ra- diators, woolen yarns, worsted cloths and wool blankets. A_ state normal school, state reformatory and home for the aged are located here. settled in 1647 and known as Dan- forth’s Plantation until 1700, when it was incorporated. An important health program has caused Framingham to be known as the Model Health town. Pop- ulation of the town in 1920, U. S. Cen- sus, was 17,033. France. A republic of Europe bounded on the north by the English Channel and the Strait of Dover; on the east by Bel- gium, Luxemburg, Germany, Switzer- land, and Italy; on the south by the Mediterranean Sea and Spain; on the west by the Bay of Biscay and the At- lantic Ocean. The shape of the country is that of a hexagon, with a greatest length from the North Sea to the Pyre- nees of about 550 miles, and a maximum breadth from the Bay of Biscay to the Rhine of about 400 miles. Its area in Europe including Corsica and other is- lands is 212;734 sq. m. It is the second European nation in size. Owing to its geographical location, the western outlet of Europe, France became the thoroughfare of commerce and ideas between the old and the new world. 1080 ee was: ie FRANCE SuRFACE, The territory of France forms a physical unit, due to its natural boundaries on all sides, its boundary line being almost equally divided between. coast and frontier, On the east a series of mountain ranges, including the Alps, Jura, Vosges, Rhenish Highlands, and Ardennes, form a boundary, broken by passes, which facilitate commercial com--° munication with the rest of Europe. The Pyrenees, on the other hand, are an al- most impassable barrier, except around the extremities, between France and Spain. The coast line, about 1950 m. long, is variably one of rocky cliffs or low sandy dunes, bordered by barren moors. The interior of France consists of highlands principally to the south and east, a great central plateau, a less elevated plateau in Normandy and Brit- tany and the plains in the northern and the western part. The average eleva- tion of the land, about 1000 ft., dimin- ishes in the western part to about 650 ft. and less. Here are the basins of the Garonne, the Seine and the Loire. The great central, or Archzan, plateau ex- tends west of the Rhone and south of the Loire River. Near the Mediterra- nean is its separated border, called the Cévennes, and the mass as a whole — stands out boldly against the sea. Near the middle of the plateau are gorges, deep ravines and inundations showing the effects of volcanic eruptions. Be- yond it are the fertile plains of western and northern France.. Rivers AND Lakes, The Rhone, en- tering from Switzerland and piercing the gap between the Alps and the Jura, is the largest river of France. It drains the southeastern part of the country into - the Mediterranean, and has as its im- portant tributaries the Saodne, Ain, Gard, Ardéche, Isére, Durance and the Dréme. The Garonne, Seine and the Loire con- stitute the other important drainage sys- tems. The area of the basin of the Loire is approximately 46,000 sq. m. It col- lects the waters of the Allier, Indre, — Vienne-Creuse, Cher, Loir, Mayenne and Sarthe, and drains west-central France. The Garonne receives the waters of the © FRANCE southwestern part of the central plateau from the Dordogne, the Tarn-Aveyron and the Lot rivers, and at its mouth is joined by the Gironde, forming a large estuary. The Seine is of great commer- cial importance, and is navigable from Paris to the sea. The whole of France is connected by means of natural or ar- tificial waterways, and since they carry about half the trade of the country the rivers of France have great commercial significance. The lakes are few and unimportant. The largest, partly within the boundaries of the country, is Lake Geneva, princi- pally a Swiss possession. The Alpine region and the Rhone basin contain a few lakes, among which are Annecy and Bourget. CLIMATE. In general, the climate of France is temperate. The prevailing winds are from the west and southwest, and they, together with the warm ocean gurrents, temper the climate, which grows continental when no longer with- in reach of their influence. Hence the summers on the eastern frontier are ex- tremely hot and the winters are long and severe. In the neighborhood of the Cévennes, as well as the Alps, are bit- ter winds and perpetual snows. On the Mediterranean coast the temperature be- comes subtropical, due to the high ranges, which prevent the entrance of cold winds. At times, howéver, a local wind known as the mistral sweeps over this region ‘with such violence as to cause great havoc; it is chilling, but a general clearing of the atmosphere is the beneficent influence attendant upon it. The mean annual rainfall of France is about 2914 inches, a maximum of 71 inches falling in the neighborhood of the Pyrenees, and a minimum of 19% inches along a part of the Mediterranean coast. MINERALS AND Mininc. The most valuable mineral resources of France are coal and iron. The coal fields, compris- ing a territory of 2100 sq. m., are widely distributed, the principal deposits being found in the neighborhood of Valen- ciennes and Saint-Etienne. The yield of bityminous coal is the largest, though FRANCE small amounts of anthracite are found in the Department of Isére. Despite the fact that wood is the chief fuel, the coal. supply does not suffice for home con- sumption, and large amounts are im- ported from England and Belgium to meet the demand of industrial France. With the return of Alsace-Lorraine the iron industry of France will soon become prominent for from Alsace came three- fourths of the iron used by Germany in the days preceding the World War. Those rich iron deposits now belong to France along with the coal and other mineral wealth of the province. France also produces lead, copper, zinc, anti- mony, and manganese and is rich in building stones; marble, slate, cement, phosphates and millstones are exten- sively quarried. The precious metals are few. FISHERIES. One of the important in- dustries, carried on in France on a vast scale, is its fisheries. About 145,000 of the inhabitants are engaged in the work. The catch consists chiefly of herring, oysters, mussels, anchovies, tunnies, pil- chards, mackerel and sardines. The breeding of oysters is constantly grow- ing in importance. AGRICULTURE, For centuries agricul- ture has been the chief occupation of the inhabitants of France, and the French peasant and landholder have long been significant types. About one-half of the territory is under cultivation, and agri- culture and forestry give employment to 8,000,000 people. Along the Garonne and the Rhone rivers the land is very fertile, while the barren regions belong principally to the neighborhood of the Alps and the Pyrenees. The forests are not important, but pine, spruce, beech, ash, oak and other varieties of trees are found. The destruction of the national forests has been extensive within recent years. Arnong cereals, chief prominence is given to the cultivation of wheat. Oats, rye, barley, potatoes, hemp, flax, beets, maize, buckwheat and rape are grown. ‘The productions of the vine- yards of France, as well as different kinds of fruit, are famous. The or- 38 1081 FRANCE ange, lemon and olive are found in the south; the pear, peach, plum, apple and cherry in the north. For a long time the vine has represented one of the chief sources of its agricultural wealth, the climate and soil of the country being es- pecially favorable for its growth. The finest grapes come from Champagne, Bordelais and Burgundy, the wines of Burgundy being known the world over. The apple is grown, chiefly in Nor- mandy, and the production of cider is fairly large. Among nuts, the chestnut forms a staple food among the poorer classes in the mountain regions of Cor- sica and Auvergne, and is extensively exported. The chief industrial plants are beets, mulberry tree (for silk pro- duction), colza and tobacco. Attempts have been made to increase the area of natural meadow and pasture lands in order to meet the demands of stock breeding, which remains of secondary importance. The chief attention is given to the breeding of sheep and of fine horses for the army. Formerly the land was in the hands of the peasantry and was fairly equally distributed into small portions for each farmer. The tendency within recent years has been to increase these to large estates, which are then subplotted. Manuractures. Due to lack of nat- ural resources, France has been unable to hold her own in the industrial compe- tition among nations, since the new in- dustrial appliances have been intro- duced. Beauty, elegance and artistic finish are characteristics of her most dis- tinctive products, and these yield rather pleasure to the eye than a fine net total of financial gain.: The most important is the textile industry, and the production of silk, ranking third in amount, is the most superior in artistic finish. Mil- linery goods, kid gloves and.small ar- ticles are also important. The linen goods have reached a high grade of per- fection. Chemicals, glass, paper and pottery are manufactured. The metal industry is significant, chief attention be- ing paid to smaller metalware. The jewelry, mirrors and surgical instruments FRANCE are famous. The government monopo- lizes the tobacco industry, and alcohol, wine, beer and refined sugar are manu- factured in large quantities. COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. Re- cent years have witnessed a marked in- crease in both imports and exports. The chief imports are coal and raw materials, only abowt 18 per cent of the total amount consisting of manufactured goods. About one-fourth of the exports are raw materials, and one-half are man- ufactured goods. Textiles, raw wool and yarn, clothing, linen, wine, chemical products, raw silk and leather goods are. among the leading exports. The United Kingdom receives the largest per cent of the exports of France, and is, in turn, drawn upon for the greatest bulk of im- ports. Other countries with which im- portant commercial communications are maintained are the United States, Ger- many, Belgium, Argentina, Russia and Algeria. . Methods of transportation represent a high state of perfection. Reference to the system of waterways, by means of natural river basins and artificial canals, has already been made. The largest canals are the Canal du Midi, or Canal of Languedoc, connecting the Atlantic -Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea and crossing the southwestern part of France; the Rhine and Rhone Canal, uniting thé two rivers so named; the Canal of Bourgogne, joining the Seine, Yonne and Saone rivers; and the Canal du Centre, connecting the Saone and the Loire. The railway system is one of the best in Europe, its mileage being surpassed only by that of Germany and Russia. The six large trunk lines of railway of the country are the Paris- Lyons-Mediterranean, the Southern, the Paris-Orléans, the Western, the North- ern and the Eastern. All except the Southern Railway converge upon Paris. The railways are in the hands of private individuals, but are strictly controlled by the government. There are three kinds of highroads in the country: national, departmental and communal. They are admirably maintained and organized, and 1082 FRANCE are a heritage of magnificent engineer- ing skill, dating back to the days of an- cient France. The total length of rail- way lines in 1909 was 30,000 m.; of tele- graph lines, in 1908, over 96,000 m.; of navigable rivers, 5480 m.; of canals, 3075 m.; of roads, 62,540 m. INHABITANTS, There are several dif- ferent races represented in the country, chiefly the Iberian element-in the south- west, the Ligurian on the shores of the Mediterranean, and the Germanic and Scandinavian in the northwest. The Celtic type, inhabiting the territory be- tween the Garonne and the Seine rivers, is short of stature, has dark hair and a broad head. The Celts (and this charac- terization applies more or less to the French people as a whole) are vivacious and temperamental, with alternating moods of gayety and depression; they have a mind that responds quickly to logic and organization; they are lively and frank and have admirable qualities of thrift and industry, as well as genuine love of the soil. In Normandy is the tall, light-haired and blue-eyed type, re- sembling the Teutonic invaders. darker type is found in Champagne and in the neighborhood of the Vosges and the Perche. stature and dark hair and eyes prevail. Many European countries surpass France in density of population, and while at the beginning of the 19th century only Rus- sia exceeded France in population, by the last half of the century France had fallen to fifth place among European nations, an unusual decline. GOVERNMENT. The Government of France is a centralized Parliamentary re- public. Monarchical traditions prevail, however, and the president, or chief ex- ecutive, is not elected by popular vote but by the two chambers of the legisla- tive assembly, a majority of the total number being necessary for election. The constitution provides for this legis- lative body, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is nominated by a special electorate; the Chamber of Deputies is elected directly by universal male suffrage for four In southern France, a short FRANCE years. The local government of France is now controlled by departments, at the head of each of which is a prefect appointed and removed at the pleasure of the chief executive. Below the de- partment is the arrondissement, four be- longing to each department and each serving as an administrative and elec- tion district. Smaller and less important units are the canton and the commune. There are 36,000 communes, and all ex- cept Paris are administered by a mayor elected by the municipal council. - The council, elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years, is the deliberative body of the commune. Central admin- istrative control is one of the prevailing characteristics of French local govern- ment, and an extraordinary degree of uniformity is obtained, though at a par- tial sacrifice of the fullest freedom in local self-government. In the judicial system the highest court is the Court of Cassation at Paris, consisting of a first president, three presidents of sections and 45 judges. There are 26 Courts of Appeal hearing cases from the Courts of First Instance in the arrondissements; they in turn deal with appeals from decisions made by the justices of the peace in the different can- tons. The army plays an important part in the national life of France, and the country has come to be recognized as a military republic. There are 2,500,000 men available of the 4,350,000 liable to military duty, and the national system of defense is maintained at a high de- gree of efficiency. EpucaTion. For an account of the system see EpucATION, NATIONAL Sys- TEMS OF, subHead France. LITERATURE. See LITERATURE, sub- head French Literature. Reticion. The Catholic Church has numbered among its adherents 98 per cent of the population of France. Until 1905, when the bond was severed, the Catholic Church and the Jewish and Protestant confessions were subsidized by the State. In recent years there has been a movement of opposition to Cathol- icism, but both Protestants and Jews are 1083 FRANCE likewise gradually diminishing in number. CHIEF CITIES. Foremost among the cities of France is Paris, the largest city of the Continent. Other important cities are Marseilles, Bordeaux, Havre, Lisle, Lyons, Versailles, Toulouse and Nantes. The three important seaports on the north are Dunkirk, Calais and Boulogne. The ports of the Seine are Paris, Rouen and Havre. On the Atlantic coast are Saint-Malo, Morlaix, Brest, Lorient and Nantes. The southeastern part contains many old- Roman towns, including Or- ange, Avignon, Beaucaire, Nimes, Cette and Marseilles. History. In the time of the Romans the country was called Gaul and was in- habited by a people called Gauls, who had conquered the Celts, the earliest in- habitants. When Czsar came into the country (58-50 B. C.) the quarreling tribes were subdued and Gaul came with- in the circle of Roman civilization and even furnished three Roman emperors. Invasions. In the fifth century began a furious pouring in of the barbarians, which continued for over 100 years. Vandals swept over Gaul beyond the Pyrenees, while Franks, Visigoths and Burgundians settled within its borders. In 451 these tribes all united under the Roman general Aétius and drove back the devastating Huns at the famous Bat- tle of Chalons. Church and Barbarians. part of the barbarians were not ortho- dox, being Arians in faith, but this es- trangement was happily changed for the Roman Church and for Gaul by the con- version of Clovis (See Ciovis). This Frankish ruler and his sons conquered almost all Gaul. Under his descendants, called the Merovingian kings, the royal power declined and was absorbed in the office called mayor of the palace. Fi- nally this office was made hereditary by the famous Pippin of Heristal. The family renown was increased by Charles Martel, who succeeded to his father’s office, and who stood as the champion of the Church. Charles Martel saved Europe for Christendom and drove the Arab Mohammedans into Spain by the The greater FRANCE Battle of Tours in 732. The son of Charles Martel, Pippin the Short, sent the puppet Merovingian ruler to a mon- astery, and, seeking alliance with the Church, was crowned king by the Pope (See CAROLINGIANS). His son, Charle- magne, succeeded him and made even_a closer alliance with the Church (See CHARLEMAGNE). The empire of Charlemagne was di- vided into three parts by his descendants, in the Treaty of Verdun (843), and his grandson Charles received the territory of modern France as his share. The history of France proper begins at this time. The invasion of the Northmen in- creased the power of the nobles and feudalism secured a firm hold. The Carolingian kings, or descendants of Charlemagne, ruled with the royal power steadily declining until at the death of Louis V in 987, Hugh Capet, one of the greatest nobles of the country, founded the Capetian dynasty. For 200 years these kings struggled unsuccessfully to establish the royal power over the tur- bulent nobles. Louis the Fat (1108) was the first to succeed in controlling his own duchy. He tried to keep the high- ways free from robbers, but it was left for his grandson, Philip Augustus, to make the Duchy of France expand into a kingdom (See PHitip AuGustus). At the death of Charles IV (1328), as the Salic law excluded female succession, the crown passed to another branch of the Capetian family. Philip VI of the House of Valois became king. This led to a series of wars with England called the Hundred Years’ War. France came out of this long conflict in an impoverished | condition but with the English prac- tically driven from the country, as they retained only the seaport Calais. See HuNpDRED YEARS’ WAR; JOAN OF ARC, Louis XI (1461-1483), an unscrupu- lous king, put down the powers of the nobles and thus began the foundation of the absolute monarchy of France. Large fiefs came under his control and Brittany was added during the reign of his son Charles by ‘his marriage with Anne of Brittany. Charles began the 1084 ee FRANCE series Of Italian invasions. These were . expensive campaigns and resulted in no addition of territory, but the invaders carried back the seeds of the Renaissance which was soon to flower in France un- der Francis I (See RENAISSANCE). This ruler began his reign by a successful campaign in Italy and was the generous patron of art and literature. He was defeated by Charles V, who claimed his conquered Duchy of Milan. When his son Henry II came to the throne he con- tinued the war with Austria, as well as the persecution of the Huguenots (See REFORMATION, THE). Savoy was lost, but Calais was taken from the English. During the short reign of his son, Fran- cis II, the House of Guise rose to power. His second son, Charles IX, was dom- inated by Catherine de’ Medici, wife of Henry II, and there was a struggle be- tween the Huguenots and Catholics. The religious wars continued tinder Henry III and ceased only when his cousin, Henry IV, became King of France. With Richelieu as prime minister a new policy was adopted. The internal troubles were suppressed, nobles were put down and the power of France was extended abroad (See THirty YEARS’ War; RICHELIEU, ARMAND JEAN). Dur- ing the minority of Louis XIV, Mazarin was minister. Though more cautious than Richelieu, he carried on the plans of the great cardinal. Mazarin died when Louis XIV was a young man, and Louis undertook the task of ruling with- out a minister. By his extravagant court and reckless wars he left France bur- dened with an enormous national debt and with declining industries. Still an- other long minority of his grandson, Louis XV, followed, during which the public money was wasted, while the reckless extravagance was even worse during his long reign. Thus France had reached the verge of financial ruin when Louis XVI, well meaning but incompetent, became king. Minister after minister tried to reform the finances until, as a last resort, a States-General was called in May, 1789 (See FRENCH REVOLUTION). ; FRANCE | Napoleon became first consul in 1799, and the history of France and that of Napoleon are virtually the same until 1815 (See Napoteon 1). Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, ruled after the first abdication of Napoleon and was again restored after his-fall at Waterloo. He at first made no attempt to destroy the great work of the French Revolu- tion, but the emigrant nobles tried to bring about a reaction. The King was led by their influence to pass several op- pressive measures. His brother, Charles X, who succeeded him in 1824, had been the leader of these reactionaries. He was overthrown in 1830, when the min- istry tried to enforce ordinances sup- pressing the liberty of the press, and to give the people less choice in the elec- tions. Louis Philippe was proclaimed constitutional king, but, elected as leader of the popular party, he soon began to oppose reform and was driven into ex- ile in 1848. The new government was a republic with Louis Napoleon as presi- dent; four years later, he overthrew the republic and proclaimed himself emperor. The modern history of France centers around two events. The first is the Franco-German War of 18/0, which is considered elsewhere. At the conclusion of that unfortunate war, the republic was revived and France enjoyed forty years of peace. The War of 1914. Germany’s vast scheme of world conquest finally led to the.war of 1914 in which France was at once involved. At this point, French his- tory suddenly becomes of great interest to Americans. . When we entered the Eu- ropean War,France was the field of activ- ity. Millions of our soldiers fought with those of our other allies on the blood soaked fields of France. Rivers and hamlets of that country are invested with vivid interest since there, American sol- diers untried in the arts of war, showed themselves not inferior to the disciplined veterans of Germany. America will not forget the self-sacrificing valor there dis- played. Clement Arman Fallieres presi- dent from 1906 to 1913 was succeeded 1085 FRANCE, BANK OF by Monsieur Raymond Poincaré in Feb- ruary, 1913. Population in 1911, 39,- 601,509. France, Bank of. See BANKS AND BANKING, subhead Continental Banks. Francis I (1494-1547), King of France, succeeding his uncle and father- in-law, Louis XII, in 1515, and reign- ing for 32 years, a contemporary of Henry VIII of England and Charles V of Germany. He regained Milan in 1515, and on the field of battle accepted knight- hood from the famous Bayard. . He failed of election as Emperor of Ger- many in 1519, and declared war on his successful rival, Charles V. Defeated at Pavia and taken prisoner in 1525, he was released on hard terms a year later and renewed the war, exciting the in- dignation of all Christendom by form- ing an alliance with the Turks. A treaty for ten years was finally concluded be- tween Charles and Francis in 1538, but when Charles undertook an unsuccessful expedition against Algiers, the King of France began war again in 1542. Charles won the aid of Henry VIII, and Francis was compelled to sign the Treaty of Crespy in 1544. He fostered art and learning, and built several of the finest palaces in Europe. Francis II (1768-1835), Holy Roman emperor from 1792 to 1806 and ruler of Austria until 1835. He became Em- peror of Austria in March, 1792, upon the death of his father, and in July of the same year was elected to the throne of Germany. His reign occupied the troublous years of the French Revolu- tion, and under his direction the allied Prussian and Austrian armies invaded France, from which they were driven out. Later the war was continued on German territory, and in 1797 Napoleon entered Austria. By the, Treaty of Campo Formio Francis was obliged to surrender Belgium and Lombardy, but received in return the lands of the Re- public of Venice. In 1799 Francis formed an alliance with Russia and Eng- land and again took up the war against Napoleon, but was disastrously defeated at Marengo and Hohenlinden, and later FRANCIS JOSEPH I at Austerlitz; this battle lost for Fran- cis the Venetian territories and Tyrol, and the Holy Roman Empire was wholiy dissolved. On Aug. 6, 1806, Francis laid down his imperial crown and there- after ruled as Francis I, Emperor of Austria. Through the years of Napo- leon’s power Francis frequently hoped to regain his lost possessions, although by the marriage of his daughter with the French ruler a temporary peace was made. After the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, Francis joined in the forma- tion of the Holy Alliance, whose reac- tionary policy he largely dictated under the guidance of his counselor, Metter- nich. Franciscans, Fran sis’ kans, (Minor- ites, also called Gray Friars), the first mendicant order of preachers, estab- lished by St. Francis of Assisi (1182- 1226), a man of boundless piety and charity. They were the union of his first 12 followers, who were bound by a severe rule, which, to great learning added poverty so rigorous as to neces- sitate complete dependence on alms. In 1210 Innocent III gave verbal approba- tion to the new order which Honorius III confirmed in 1223. The Francis- cans have done their greatest missionary work in Mexico, South America and in the East, where St. Francis himself labored. With. St. Clare he established the Poor Clares for women. The order had a rapid growth in Italy, France, and Spain. At the first general chapter held at Assisi in 1219, upwards of 5000 friars were present. Francis Joseph I (1830-1916). Em- peror of Austria, nephew of Ferdinand I, whom he succeeded in 1848. At the time of his accession, Hungary was in a state of revolt, and in April, 1849, the country was declared a republic, with Kossuth as governor. In Italy, Charles Albert of Sardinia took up arms against Austria, but the Emperor was success- ful in quelling the outbreaks in both countries. In 1855 a concordat was con- cluded with Pope Pius IX, which was favorable to the Catholic Church throughout Austria. In 1859 Francis 1086 FRANCIS OF ASSISI Joseph engaged in a war with France and Sardinia, through which he lost Lombardy, and in 1866 occurred the dis- astrous Seven Weeks’ War with Prussia. In 1867, Austria and Hungary made a compact (Ausgleich) for a dual mon- archy (See Austria-Hungary), and from thenceforth Francis Joseph was em- peror of Austria and king of Hungary. Into his domestic life obtruded the sin- ister shadows of three tragedies. In 1899, his wife, the Empress Elizabeth, was assassinated; in 1899 his only son and heir suffered a mysterious death; in 1914, his heir apparent, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, was murdered at Sarajevo, which last event was the ostensible cause of the war on Servia, the hasty prelude to the great European War itself. He was succeeded in 1916 by his nephew Charles I. Francis of Assisi, Saint (1182-1226), founder of the Order of St. Francis, was born in Assisi, Italy. When he was about 28 years of age he formed a band of 12 companions and drafted rules for their government and mode of life. Pope Innocent III sanctioned the order in the year of its formation, and shortly after- wards they established themselves in a little house adjoining the Chapel of St. Mary of the Angels, in Assisi. The members of the order have acted as mis- sionaries, unsupported, living by alms. St. Francis traveled in the East. He died in Assisi, and was canonized in 1228. Francke, Frahn' ke, August Hermann (1663-1727), a distinguished German theologian and educator, founder of the Francke Institute at Halle, born at Lu- beck. He graduated at Leipsic in 1685, became lecturer on theological subjects there in 1689, and in 1691 was called to _ the chair of Greek and Oriental lan- guages in the new University of Halle. In 1698 he was transferred to the more congenial chair of theology. He re- mained in Halle for 36 years, teaching and acting as pastor of a small church in a neighboring town. Greatly moved by the ignorance in which children were growing up, he established a school, first for the poor, and later for the well-to-do. ' FRANCO-GERMAN WAR It grew rapidly. New buildings were erected, able teachers gathered around him, a school for girls was added and a department for the training of teachers. The success of Francke’s Institute led to the founding of others and greatly influenced the Prussian public school system established by King Frederick William I. Franco-German War, a war be- tween France and Prussia, occurring in 1870-1. The Prussian defeat of Austria in 1866 aroused the jealousy of Napo- leon III, and in 1870, when a Prussian prince of the House of Hohenzollern was considered as candidate for the throne of Spain, the French nation was dis- pleased. The Hohenzollern candidate withdrew, but William I refused to yield to the French demand that no member of the House of Hohenzollern should ever, with his consent, be a candidate for the Spanish crown. The French were led to believe that their ambassador at the Prussian court had been dismissed, and war was declared. The Germans were fully prepared. Three armies were immediately sent into France. The French imperial adminis- tration was revealed in all its hollow- ness, and nearly all the generals were incompetent. Defeat followed defeat until General MacMahon was completely overcothe at Sedan, Sept. /1,. 18/0. Napoleon III was taken prisoner, and as soon as the news of Sedan reached the capital, there was a revolution and the Third Republic was proclaimed, with Trochu, Favre and Gambetta acting for the national defense. The Germans now besieged Paris, and the French made the most strenuous efforts to relieve the city with armies raised in the provinces. Strassburg fell before the close of September, and, though the French won a few victories, the Germans had too securely invested the country to be driven out. After a four months’ siege, Paris was taken Jan. 28, 1871, and peace was signed May 10, whereby Alsace, German Lorraine and Metz were surrendered by France, which also promised to pay a war indemnity 1087 FRANKFORT of $1,000,000,000. It was three years before all German troops were with- drawn from France. The chief results of the war were the establishment of the Third Republic of France and the Ger- man Empire. See France, subhead His- tory; GERMANY, subhead History. Frank’fort”, Ind., a city and county seat of Clinton Co., 24 m. s.e. of La- fayette and 40 m. n.w. of Indianapolis, on the Lake Erie & Western, the Chi- cago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Van- dalia Line and other railroads. It is situated in a productive agricultural re- gion and has a supply of natural gas which is used extensively for light and heat. The city contains manufactories of lumber, brick and tile, flour, agricul- tural implements, crackers and furniture. Railway repair shops are also located here. There is a large trade in grain, vegetables and fruit. Frankfort has a fine library and courthouse. Population in 1920) UU, SCensnsw Ise: Frankfort, Ky., the capital of the state and the county seat of Franklin Co., 55 m. e. of Louisville, on the Ken-' tucky River and on the L. & N., the C. & O., the F. & C. and K.-H. railroads, and on The Dixie, The Jackson Highway and the Midland Trail. An electric traction railway connects the city with neighbor- ing points. The river, here spanned by a suspension bridge 400 ft. long, is navi- gable for steamboats, which ply between Frankfort and Cincinnati, Louisville and other ports. Frankfort is in. the famous Blue Grass section of ithe state; the land is highly productive and hemp and tobacco are extensively cultivated. It is surrounded by valuable timber tracts. By means of a lock and dam abundant water power is derived from the river and used for manufacturing purposes, the leading articles of manufacture being lumber, hemp, chairs, brooms, twine, shoes, carriages, etc. An extensive trade is maintained in Frankfort through these industries. Situated upon a series of hills over- looking the river, the city is picturesque and healthful; and its beauty is enhanced by numerous fine buildings. The prin- FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN cipal buildings include the capitol, erected at a cost of $2,000,000; the governor’s mansion; the state arsenal; and those used for important institutions, such as the state penitentiary, the state home for feeble-minded children and the state nor- mal school for negroes, the last just be- yond the city limits. The state library here has over 100,000 volumes. Frank- lin cemetery, near the city, is a beautiful burying ground, in which are buried Daniel Boone, Theodore O’Hara, Rich- ard M. Johnson (vice-president of the United States, 1837-1841), Joel T. Hart and others identified with the history of the state. Frankfort was founded in 1786 by Gen. James Wilkinson, who made it a base of his commercial operations and intrigues with the Spanish at New Or- leans. [t became the capital of the state in 1794. Here in the autumn of 1862, while a force of Confederates under Gen. Braxton Bragg occupied the city, Richard J. Hawes was inaugurated gov- ernor. The city is administered under a charter of 1839. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 9,805. Frankfort-on-the-Main, a city of Prussia located on the river Main 24 m. above its juncture with the Rhine. Up to 1866 it was one of the four free cities of Germany, and it has always been an important financial and trading center as well as a popular residence city. The streets are broad and pleasant and lined . with attractive buildings of both public and private character. Situated as it is near the region of the great medicinal springs, it attracts a large floating popu- lation. Frankfort is one of the old Roman towns of Germany and was probably founded as early as the first century and contains many places of historic in- terest. The cathedral of red sandstone surmounted by a classic central tower 300 ft. in height contains the room in which the Roman emperors were elected, and the Leonhardskirche is situated upon the site of the palace of Charlemagne. This famous old church was begun in the year 1219 and was restored in 1882. 1088 FRANKING Other important and interesting build- ings are: the Romer, or town hall, where the German kings were chosen and crowned; the Saalhof, the oldest build- ing in the city; the Goethehaus, where Goethe spent the first 26 years of his life; the magnificent opera house com- pleted in 1880; the Municipal Library, having a Gutenberg Bible and an illumi- nated manuscript Bible; and various educational institutions, as the Bethmann Museum, the Museum of Arts and Crafts, the Municipal Museum and the Stadel Art Institute. The city has many _ beautiful groups of statuary, several of which were executed by Thorwaldsen. The industries are varied and consist of printing, brewing and the manufacturing of quinine, type, machinery, soap, per- fume, etc. Population, 414,600. Frank’ing, the sending of postal matter free of charge. Members of the British Parliament had this privilege up to 1840. In the United States, up to 1873, Revolutionary War soldiers, some government officials, senators and con- gressmen could frank mail matter. A few years later, the privilege was re- stored; and, though not infrequently abused, it has been continued in force because people like to receive, and con- gressmen, especially, like to send, official reports and public documents, which otherwise might not be generally dis- tributed. © Frank’land”, State of. Frankland, or Franklin, is a name given to a state organized in 1784 by the inhabitants of what is now Tennessee, in revolt from the control of North Carolina. A con- stitution was framed and ratified by popular vote, and a Legislature and gov- ernor elected. Civil war with the older parts of North Carolina seemed immi- nent, but. after a somewhat bitter strug- gle the new government was suppressed in 1788. The Territory of Tennessee was known as the “Territory South of the Ohio” until June 1, 1796, when it was admitted into the Union. See TEN- NESSEE, subhead History. Frank’lin, Benjamin (1706-1790), a famous American diplomat, statesman FRANKLIN and philosopher, born at Boston, in a house opposite the Old South Church. His father, Josiah Franklin, was a na- tive of Ecton in Northamptonshire, Eng- land, where his ancestors had lived for nearly four centuries. The family was strongly Protestant, and Josiah accom- panied a small Puritan migration to America in 1685 to escape persecution, He settled in Boston, where he became a soap and candle maker. He was twice married and had in all 17 children, of whom Benjamin was the 15th. Earty Lire. Since he was the tenth son, his father destined him for the min- istry as a tithe of his sons. This did not suit Benjamin, however; neither was there money for the necessary educa- tion; and so he was taken from school at the age of ten to assist in his father’s business by cutting wicks and filling candle molds. The work was so distasteful to the lad that he thought of running away and going to sea, but his father apprenticed him at the age of 12 to his older brother James, who was a printer. He was a precocious boy, and had been able to read ever since he could remember. At an early age he had made himself fa- miliar with The Pilgrim’s Progress, Rob- inson Crusoe, Plutarch’s Lives, Locke’s On the Human Understanding and other standard works, and had practiced prose after the model of Addison’s Spectator. In 1721 his brother started the New Eng- land Courant, one of the first newspa- pers established in America. Benjamin tried his hand at writing for this paper anonymously, and with much success. After his authorship became known, however, he fell into disfavor with the authorities for the independent character of his political and religious utterances. He also became dissatisfied with his brother’s treatment of him, and he de- cided to leave home at the earliest op- portunity. A Journauist. At the age of 17, by the sale of his books Franklin raised a little money and sailed for New York; from there he proceeded to Philadelphia. Here he arrived one Sunday morning, 1089 FRANKLIN after various adventures by land and water, cold and friendless, with a single Dutch dollar in his pocket. His first meal was made from a loaf of dry bread which he munched as he walked along the street, much to the amusement of his future wife, then a young girl watch- ing him from her father’s doorway. But he had learned his trade thoroughly, and soon found employment in a printing of- fice. His excellent workmanship and good sense early attracted the attention of Sir William Keith, governor of the colony, who offered him the government printing if he would set up in business for himself. Franklin went to London to buy presses and type, at the instance of Sir William, who promised to send him letters of credit for that purpose. The latter failed to keep his promise, however, and Franklin was forced to seek work in a printing office in London to meet his expenses. Here he remained for a year and a half, gaining much use- ful knowledge and making valuable ac- quaintances, and returned to Philadel- phia in the autumn of 1726. By 1730 he had become sole manager of a printing house, and soon became known as the most accurate, capable and reliable printer in the colony. The pre- ceding year he had purchased the Penn- sylvania Gazette, a weekly newspaper, which he at once converted into one of the ablest journals in America, and which he edited for more than 35 years. In 1732 he began the publication of Poor Richard’s Almanac, a distinctive feature of which was its fund of homely proverbs and witty sayings. This Almanac he continued for 25 years. It reached an annual circulation of 10,000 copies, far exceeding that of any other publication in the colonies, and gave Franklin a wide reputation. Through the columns of the Gazette and by the exercise of personal influence Franklin now entered heartily into the life of the colony and had a hand in most of the public enterprises and re- forms of the day. The organization of the militia, of a police system, and of fire companies; the development of pav- FRANKLIN. ing and street cleaning as municipal functions; the founding of the Philadel- phia Library, one of the first, if not the first, in America, and of a city hospital; the, establishment of the American Phil- osophical Society and of the University of Pennsylvania,—these were among the conspicuous enterprises in which he was leader. , Franklin early took a special interest in scientific investigations. During his life he also invented many useful de- vices, but refused to patent them for his own personal gain. By simple experi- ments with a key and a kite in a thun- derstorm he proved the identity of light- ning and electricity; and for this bril- liant discovery he received the Copley medal from the Royal Society and the plaudits of the learned world. He-in- vented the lightning rod; the Franklin open stove; a remedy for smoky chim- neys; and improvements in the print- ing press, in ship rigging, in carriage wheels and in windmills. Pusiic Lire. For more than half a century Franklin served the colonies in public office. In 1736 he was made clerk of the General Assembly of Pennsyl- vania. The following year he was ap- pointed postmaster of Philadelphia, and in 1753 deputy postmaster-general for the colonies ; and vastly increased the ef- ficiency of the postal service. He be- came a conspicuous figure in interco- lonial politics in 1754 by proposing at the Albany Congress (called by the royal governor to devise concerted action of the colonies in the approaching war with France) the first definite scheme for uniting the colonies in a permanent fed- eral union—a plan of much political in- sight and practical merit (See ALBANY ConvENTIONS). In 1757 Franklin was sent to London by the Pennsylvania As- sembly to urge its claims in favor of _ taxing the lands of the proprietors of the colony, the descendants of William Penn. Here he was most cordially re- ceived for his literary and scientific at- tainments, was given the freedom of the city of Edinburgh, was granted the de- gree of doctor of laws by the universi- 1090 Z, — 2 Zz < ~ (2, z = < = ra eal oy | PS TT &) A} HHQREQOAUOVUGGUUAONUUUGGEMUUAUAUCOEAAEEOEEOUGOQUOUIOHONENOOOOUOGOOOUOOOOOOOOGOQUEGOOUGNOUUGOOOCOOOOVGGUOGORUVOOOUDOOOOOQNUGAUUOGUOROQOQNOOOUEGOUUEOOOUUCGNOQUGQUOGQGUOHOOUEONOUONOGUOUOONUONOOUEAUOQUQUONQUOUQEOEOUOUOUS0S0QI0Q008H0000R00000N0000591000099080900000000000808H00(1\\\S Me KSCO OOH OO PO OOOOO OOOOH HOOOOOO0000E, mo ; : ) COOOOOOO OOO : : © ys ©6, (») ; ©, I a UOT is \S3 N) IWS YO CORMICK, A coos N ErICSSO ] JOH VSESSSCSLCCS Cyrus Ht MS i ELt WHITNE SC Nd knights and men-at-arms who engaged in plunder or sold their services. These bands were prominent during the Mid- dle Ages, particularly in Italy and France. In Italy, where they were known as the Condottieri, they developed from the feudal wars. In France, where they were called Compagnies Grandes, they were brought out by the long and terrible wars between that country and England. These free lances of France were exceedingly dangerous to the coun- try, and were finally persuaded to sell their services to Spain; thus France was freed from their depredations. Free’man, politically, one who has inherited the» full rights and privileges of citizenship. The term is of ancient origin. Among the Romans it included all classes who were not slaves. From the time of the Romans thé distinction continued through the Middle Ages, and it was also recognized from time im- memorial among the Germanic nations. Among these nations the privileges of the freeman were based on ownership of land; thus in England the freeman was strictly a freeholder. The term freedman is usually applied to those who have been liberated from bondage but do-not share full political rights with the freeman. Freeman, Edward Augustus (1823- 1892), an English historian, born at Harborne, Staffordshire, England. He was educated at Oxford College and be- came a fellow in 1845. During 1881-2 he traveled in the United States, chron- icling his views of the nation in his book Some Impressions of the Umted States. In 1883 he was called to the regius professorship of modern history at Ox- ford. Freeman was the leader of the Teutonic School of English history, and wrote voluminously, not only on _his- torical but also on antiquarian and topographical subjects, architecture and politics. The History of the Norman Conquest is his most important work. Freeman, Mary Eleanor Wilkins (1862- ), an American story-writer, born in Randolph, Mass., and educated there and at Mt. Holyoke Seminary. 1096 ——— FREE MASONS She was married to Dr. Charles M. Free- man in 1902. At an early age she began to contribute short stories and poems to magazines, later becoming widely known for her stories and novels descriptive of New England life and character. The charm of her work lies in her faithful and vivid power of portrayal. The most important of her writings include Young Lucretia, A New England Nun, The Love of Parson Lord, Jane Field, Pem- broke, The Portion of Labor, By the Light of the Soul, The Jamesons, and People of Our Neighborhood and The Poor Lady. Free Masons, a secret society orig- inating in the Middle Ages. The present system of Freemasonry dates back to 1717, when the Mother Grand Lodge was inaugurated i in London. The first lodge was ‘opened in the United States in Bos- ton, Mass., 1733. In 1919 the member- ship in the various lodges throughout the United States was over 2,000,000. Charity, brotherly love and mutual assist- ance are the principles on which the order is founded. Free’port”, Ill., a city and county seat of Stephenson Co., 120 m. n.w. of Chicago, on the Pecatonica River and on the Illinois Central, the Chicago, Mil- waukee & St. Paul, the Chicago & North Western and other railroads. It manu- factures hardware, windmills, pumps, carriages, spring wagons, paints, leather, gasoline engines and novelties, and con- tains railroad shops. The city has a public library. Freeport was settled in 1835 and chartered as a city in 1885. It was here that Douglas in one of his debates with Lincoln enunciated his fa- mous slavery doctrine known as the “Freeport heresy,” which held, in spite of the Dred Scott Decision, that the citizens of a territory possessed the right to decide through its representa- tives whether or not slavery should be allowed in that territory. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 19,969 Free-Soil Party. See Poriricat Par- TIES IN THE UNITED STATES, subhead Free-Soil Party. Free Trade. See TARrirr. FREMONT Freez’ing Mix’ture. See Cotp Stor- AGE. Fremont’, John Charles (1813-1890), an American soldier and explorer, born in Savannah, Ga., and educated at Charleston College. From 1833 to 1835 he was instructor of mathematics in the United States navy, and in 1837 he entered upon a survey of the Cherokee country, thus beginning his famous ex- plorations. He explored the region from the Missouri River to the British pos- sessions and later, as second lieutenant of topographical engineers, mapped out an overland route to the Pacific. He ascended, while thus engaged, what was afterwards called Fremont’s Peak, ex- plored the Great Salt Lake region and penetrated to the mouth of the Columbia River. In 1845 he led another govern- ment expedition to the Rocky Mountain region, and the following year became involved with the Mexican authorities on the Pacific coast. Shortly afterwards he assisted in the conquest of Cali- fornia, becoming its commander and civil governor. When, toward the close of 1846, General Kearny reached California, Fremont refused to recognize his. au- thority and was thereupon court-mar- tialed, convicted and sentenced to dis- missal. Though this penalty was remitted by President Polk, Fremont resigned from the service. Subsequently he led another exploring expedition over the Rockies, and, upon the admission of California, became its first United States senator. At his own expense he made his fifth and last exploration in 1853. For his scientific researches he had been honored by the King of Prussia and by the Royal Geographical Society of Lon- don, and had become popularly known s “the Pathfinder.” In 1856 Fremont was _ presidential candidate of the newly-formed Repub- lican Party, but received only 114 electoral votes to the 174 given for Buchanan. Returning from Europe in May, 1861, he was appointed major-gen- eral, with command of the Western De- partment ; but in the course of six months he was removed because of an 1097 FREMONT ill-advised order of confiscation. Later he commanded another department, but in 1862 he resigned, as he refused to serve under an officer of inferior rank. In 1864 he was candidate for president for the Radical Republicans, but with- drew his name before the election. Fol- lowing the war he was interested in con- structing a transcontinental railway, and from 1878 to 1882 he was governor of Arizona. See Fremont’s Memoirs of My Life. Fremont, Neb., a city and the county seat of Dodge Co., 46 m. n.w. of Omaha, about 2 m. distant from the Platte River, on the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Bur- lington & Quincy, the Chicago & North Western and other railroads. Fremont is surrounded by rich farm lands and has an extensive wholesale grain trade and dairy and live-stock interests of impor- tance. There are numerous industrial plants, including flour mills, canning factories, machine shops, planing mills and manufactories of saddlery, carriages, furniture and incubators. Fre- mont is attractively situated amidst the picturesque scenery of the Platte River, which is lined with high bluffs and dotted with wooded islands. The city is the seat of Fremont College; of the Com- mercial Institute and School of Phar- macy, a private institution, founded in 1875; and has a public library. Founded in 1856, Fremont became the county seat in 1860, in 1871 receiving its char- ter as a city. Population in 1920, 9,605. Fremont, Ohio, a city and county seat of Sandusky Co., 30 m. s.e. of To- ledo, on the Sandusky River and on the Lake. Shore & Michigan, Southern and the Lake Erie & Western and other rail- roads. Sandusky county is a rich agri- cultural section of Ohio, its location near the lake makes it possible to raise fruits more successfully than in some sections of the state. To its advantageous situa- tion, we must add that Fremont is situ- ated in an agricultural region and is a busy industrial center, having manufac- tories of cutlery, agricultural implements, cigars, engines, boilers, electrocarbons, carriages and carriage hardware, The FRENCH Birchard Public Library, founded by an uncle of Ex-President Hayes, is located here. The public school system is modern and excellent. Fremont occupies the site © of a trading post established in 1785. In 1850 its former name was changed from Lower Sandusky to Fremont in honor of J. C. Fremont. Populatiorrin 1920, U. S. Census, 12,468, French, Alice (1850- ), an Amer- ican novelist, better known as Octave Thanet, born in Andover, Mass. She published articles on economics and social science in 1878, and after her removal to Arkansas and Iowa began to write short stories. The new scenes and in- terests furnished her with fresh themes for literature which attracted attention because of their very novelty. She has written The Bishop's Vagabond, Whit- sun Harp, Knitters in the Sun, Otto the Knight, A Book of True Lovers, Stories of a Western Town, Expiation, We All and The Man of the Hour. She also edited The Best Letters of Mary Wori- ley Montague. French, Daniel Chester (1850-1912), one of the foremost American sculptors, born at Exeter, N. H., the son of a judge in the New Hampshire courts. He studied at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, with J. Q. A. Ward and with Thomas Ball at Florence, Italy. Returning to America he opened a studio and worked in Washington, Boston and Concord, finally settling in New York. He is a versatile genius, and his output, including portraits, ideal figures and re- liefs, is considerable. Busts of Emerson and Alcott; the marble statue of Lewis Cass, in the Rotunda of the Capitol, Washington; the monument to John Boyle O’Reilly, Boston; The Minute Man, made for the town of Concord, Mass.; the Hunt Memorial, Central Park, New York; Alma Mater, for Co- lumbia University; the statues History and Herodotus for the Congressional Li- brary, Washington; the bas-relief me- morial, entitled Death and the Sculptor, are among his noteworthy productions. He designed the fine bronze doors of the Boston Public Library ; and, among other 1098 FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS pieces of decorative statuary for the Co- lumbian Exposition, Chicago, the colossal gilded figure of the Republic. His brother, W. M. R. French, was director of the Art Institute, Chicago. French and Indian Wars, a name given to a series of wars between the French and the English in America in the 17th and 18th centuries. KinG WILLIAM’s War, 1689-1697, was the American movement in the Eu- ropean War of the Palatinate. The con- flict opened with French expeditions un- der Governor Frontenac of Canada, who sent forces composed mostly of Indians, to raid the border towns of New York and New England. In retaliation the English colonists sent out two expedi- tions, one overland against Montreal and one by way of the sea against Quebec. Sir William Phipps, commander of. the fleet, made a temporary capture of Port Royal, Acadia. Otherwise the expedi- tions were failures. The Treaty of Rys- wick made mutual restoration of all con- quests in America. QUEEN ANNE’S War, 1702-1713, was the American action of the European War of the Spanish Succession. It opened in the South, when an attack from South Carolina against Spanish set- tlements in Florida brought on a counter- charge upon Charleston. In the North there were the usual French and Indian raids upon New England towns. In Massachusetts, the town of Deerfield, in 1704, and Haverhill, in 1708, suffered especially. The English sent three expe- ditions to capture Port Royal, Acadia, the last of which, 1710, was successful. A subsequent attempt to capture Canada, by taking Montreal and Quebec, proved pmeatmiliatine.failure. . The’ Peace of Utrecht, April, 1713, gave to England the Hudson Bay region, Acadia and Newfoundland. Moreover, by it the Iro- quois were recognized as British sub- jects. KING GeEorGE’s War, 1744-1748, con- sisted of the American operations in the War of the Austrian Succession. The early movements were French incursions against English settlements in New Eng- FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS land and Newfoundland; but the event of the war was the capture of Louisburg, Cape Breton Island, in 1745. This was the strongest coast fortress in America; it took 25 years to build it and it had cost $6,000,000. The expedition against Louisburg was conducted by a force of 4500 under William Pepperell, a mer- chant from Maine. The Treaty of Aix- la-Chapelle, October, 1748, restored Louisburg, despite the indignation of New England, and all other conquered territory. FRENCH AND INDIAN War. The last of the four wars, 1754-1763, was an American phase of the Seven Years’ War waged by England and France. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had been just a truce, and the committee which had been appointed to settle the bound- ary dispute in America had accom- plished nothing after three years of de- liberation. Trouble on the border line between Nova Scotia and Maine early became serious, and after 1748, the great Western movement brought French and English jurisdiction into conflict. Each country was anxious to secure the terri- tory at the head of the Ohio River. The French, through Céloron, took formal possession of it in 1749, and when the Ohio Company proposed peopling its royal grant of 500,000 acres there with Englishmen, the French began to erect forts. One at Presque Isle (Erie, Pa.) was erected in 1753, as were Ft. LeBoeuf and Ft. Venango on branches of the Al- legheny River. Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia, through Washington, ordered the French to vacate their posts. They refused. In May, 1754, a skirmish oc- curred while Washington was attempt- ing to build a fort at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. This “cannon shot fired in the woods of America was_the signal that set Europe in a blaze.” Hostilities had commenced. Later Washington built, but had to sur- render, Ft. Necessity. The next year, an English expedition under Braddock attempted to retrieve this disaster by at- tacking Ft. Duquesne (Pittsburgh). This force was surprised in ambush and 1099 FRENCH BROAD RIVER routed with great loss (See BRADDOCK, EDWARD). The same year the British Government exiled about 7000 Acadians, whose loy- alty to the Crown was suspected. Expe- ditions subsequently made against Can- ada, by way of Lake Champlain and Ft. Niagara, were failures, and the English were nearly despondent when, in 1758, through the efforts of the elder William Pitt, new life was put into their waning cause. That year generals Amherst and Wolfe captured Louisburg; and Ft. Frontenac, on the western shore of Lake Ontario, and Ft. Duquesne were also taken. Ticonderoga, Crown Point and Niagara fell to the English the following summer. The crowning event of the war was the capture, September, 1759, of the almost invincible Quebec by an English force under General Wolfe (See WoLFE, JAMES; Montcatm, Louis Jo- SEPH; QUEBEC). This practically ended the war, though skirmishes were kept up, and in the spring of 1760, the French made a desperate though unsuccessful at- tempt to regain Quebec. The Treaty of Paris, February, 1763, stipulated that France give to England all its territory east of the Mississippi, including Canada, Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island; to Spain it gave Louisiana and all possessions west of the Mississippi together with the Isle of Or- leans. Spain gave England Florida, in exchange for Havana. Thus French power in North America was annihilated, and Spain alone was a rival of England in the New World. French Broad River, a picturesque river rising in the Blue Ridge Mountains in North Carolina and flowing east into the Holston, a few miles above Knox- ville. Through the Smoky Mountains the scenery along the river is especially beautiful, for the deep mountain gorges are cut in cliffs whose walls are from 200 ft. to 300 ft. in height. The river is 250 m. long, but is not of especial value for navigation. French Congo. TORIAL AFRICA. French Equatorial Africa, formerly See Frencu Eoua- FRENCH INDO-CHINA: known as the French Congo, a French possession upon the coast of West Af- rica. It lies between Kamerun and Congo State and is made up of three col- onies, Gabun, Middle Congo and Ubangi- Shari-Chad. In 1910, when its new name was given it, its boundaries were accurately defined. The country is trav- ersed by mountains, which run parallel to the coast and are covered with great forests. The rivers are large and are mostly tributary to the Congo. Libre- ville, the capital, has one of the finest harbors of Africa. Other important cities are: Loango, Franceville and Braz- zaville. Coffee, cocoa, vanilla, rubber, palm oil and kola nuts are largely pro- duced and exported. Gold, copper and iron are mined. The population is esti- mated at 1,498,000. = French Guinea, Gin'y, a colony of French West Africa, lying between Portuguese Guinea and Sierra Leone and having about 175 m. of coast upon the Atlantic Ocean. The country is very fertile and has many rivers intersecting it. India rubber is the chief product, but bamboo, sesamum, kola nuts, coffee, palm oil, rice, millet and fruits are also abun- dantly produced. The area of French Guinea is about 98,000 sq. m. Konakry, the capital, is its largest port. The ad- ministrative affairs are under charge of a lieutenant-governor, subordinate to the governor-general of French West Af- rica. Its population is estimated at 1,498,000. French Indo-China, the collective name applied to the French possessions in southeastern Asia. It includes Cochin China, Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia and Laos. Hanoi, the capital, lies in Tonkin and is the official residence of the gov- ernor-general, who is appointed by the French Government. The agricultural products consist of rice, corn, pepper, silk, cotton, tea, sugar, rubber and to- bacco; coal, lignite, zinc, antimony, tin, tungsten and gold are mined. Kwang- chauwan, on the coast of China, was made a dependency of French Indo- China in 1900, and its governor is subject to the governor-general. The area of 1100 / FRENCH LANGUAGE French Indo-China is 310,000 sq. m.; its population is 16,315,000. French Language. See LANGUAGE, subhead Modern Romance Languages. French Revolution, the great social ‘and political upheaval in France during the last decade of the 18th century. It is usually regarded as covering the period from the meeting of the States-General in 1789 to the establishment of the Con- sulate in 1799. The primary cause of the Revolution was the survival of medi- eval ideas and practices in the midst of modern conditions; and its chief result was the overthrow of these remnants of an outgrown civilization and the inaugu- ration of a new social epoch in France. When the Revolution began there were two privileged classes in France, the no- bility and the clergy. Together they numbered about a quarter of a million, out of a population of over 25,000,000; but they owned half of the land and en- joyed practically all of the special privi- leges and immunities. The burden of taxation fell almost wholly upon the peasant class. Taine has estimated that four-fifths of the fruits of the peasants’ labors were taken by the government. Under the old regime the administration of government was arbitrary, antiquated and cumbersome, both at the court and in the provinces. The growing discon- tent was fanned by a brilliant company of critics, including such men as Mon- tesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau, who satirically arraigned existing conditions. The luxurious extravagance of the French court could not be maintained upon the taxes wrung from the peas- antry, and the imminent bankruptcy of the nation brought matters to a crisis and forced Louis XVI to convene the States- General, which had not met since 1614. When this body assembled at Versailles in 1789, the Third Estate, constituting half of the representatives, rejected the old custom of having the social orders meet and vote separately, claiming that this would effectively block reform. They insisted upon joint sessions and majority decisions. When the others de- murred, they declared themselves to be FRENCH REVOLUTION the National Assembly. The King finally yielded, and at his bidding the two upper orders—nobility and clergy—joinéd with them in organizing the Constituent As- sembly. When the King dismissed Necker, the popular minister of finance, and concen- trated troops on Paris, an immense crowd on July 14 stormed the Bastille, the national prison and symbol of gen- erations of tyranny, and brought on the tragic scenes of the Revolution. The Constituent Assembly abolished the old feudal privileges, adopted the Declara- tion of the Rights of Man, and organized the National Guards. The nobles who were unwilling to accept the situation left France, and became known as the Emi- grés. In October a mob marched to Ver- sailles, killed the royal guards and com- pelled the King and Queen to return to Paris and take up their residence in the Tuileries. The Constituent Assembly also re- moved to Paris, where it decreed the transfer of the property of the Church to the State, suppressed all titles of no- bility and completed the constitution. This was signed by the King on July 14, 1790, although his oath of acceptance was regarded with suspicion,—a suspi- cion that was increased by the attempt of the King and Queen on the night of June 20, 1791, to escape from France to the protection of the Queen’s brother, Emperor Leopold II of Austria. They were captured and brought back to Paris. A revised constitution was adopted, to which the King took oath in September, 1791. The Constituent Assembly then dissolved, and was succeeded on Oct. 1 by the Legislative Assembly. The retire- ment of Necker and the death of Mira- beau having left France without experi- enced statesmen, new leaders came for- . ward in the Legislative Assembly. The delegates divided into two groups, the Girondists, who were moderate repub- licans, and the Mountain (so called be- cause they occupied high seats in the hall), the party of more radical reform. And now, at a time when France greatly needed peace in order to adjust 1101 FRENCH REVOLUTION her internal affairs, complications had arisen with Prussia and Austria through the efforts of the Queen and Emigrés to enlist these nations in the defense of the royal family; and war was declared on mpr./\20, 1/92. Early “defeats tot "the French forces caused outbreaks of the Paris mobs. On Aug. 10 the Tuileries was stormed, and the King threw himself upon the mercy of the Legislative As- sembly, which suspended him and im- prisoned the royal family in the Temple. Further military defeats led to the mas- sacres of September, in which 1000 Roy- alists were slain by the mob. The tide of disorder was temporarily stayed by the French victory in the Battle of Valmy. The National Convention, elected by universal suffrage under a new consti- tution adopted after the imprisonment of the King, succeeded the Legislative As- sembly on Sept. 21, 1792. It showed its radical character by promptly abolishing the monarchy and declaring a republic. In December the King was brought to trial on a charge of treason, convicted, and beheaded on Jan. 21, 1793. The di- vision of parties in the Convention now became bitter. The Girondists, as the party of moderation, had voted reluctantly for the death of the King, and could not cope with the situation. The King’s exe- cution had united the nations of Europe against the Revolution. Hostile armies were pressing toward Paris. Within was anarchy. Bold measures became neces- sary, and the Girondists were overthrown by the fierce champions of democracy. Before the end of the year their leaders were put to death, leaving the Jacobins of the Mountain Party in complete control. The court known as the Revolutionary Tribunal was established in March, 1793, for the trial of persons charged with crimes against the nation. In April the Convention appointed an executive com- mittee, known as the Committee of Pub- lic Safety, which assumed dictatorial powers and inaugurated the Reign of Terror. More than 2500 prominent per- sons, including Queen Marie Antoinette, were sent to the guillotine. The Worship of Reason was established, and the re- FRENCH REVOLUTION straints exercised by religion became in- operative. But the iron rule of the Com- mittee saved France. Civil war was suppressed, new legal codes were adopted, the army was reorganized, the invaders were driven out and the Aus- trians were defeated. Gradually one man stood out preeminent—Robespierre. At his instigation the Committee had exe- cuted Danton, one of its chief leaders, for suggesting that the Terror had gone far enough; and shielded by his great popu- larity, the Committee continued its work. But Robespierre’s own time finally came. A plot was formed against him, and he was tried and beheaded in July, 1794, bringing the Reign of Terror to an end. The Convention now resumed its au- thority, restricted the powers of the Com- mittee of Public Safety, dissolved the Revolutionary Tribunal, closed the Jaco- bin Club and recalled the Girondists and conservatives. The Constitution of the Year III was adopted in the summer of 1795, placing the government in the hands of a Directory of five persons and two legislative bodies, the Council of An- cients and the Council of Five Hundred. The establishment of this constitution led to an uprising in Paris, the suppression of which by Napoleon Bonaparte brought him into prominence. The military success of the last months of the Convention promised the continue under the Directory. Napoleon won bril- liant campaigns against Austria in Italy, and became the popular idol. But the Egyptian campaign, which he now under- took, was a failure, and Austria took ad- vantage of his absence to recover the lost ground in Italy. Neither was the Directory succeeding at home. There was friction with the legislative bodies, the finances were mismanaged and discontent became prevalent. The leaders turned to Napoleon as the only man who could save France fromruin. At their invitation he returned from Egypt, and with their co- operation overthrew the Directory and Councils on Nov. 9, 1799. A new consti- tution was drawn up establishing the Consulate, to consist of three men; and Napoleon was made first consul with dic- 1102 FRENCH SOMALILAND tatorial powers, thus bringing the Revo- lution practically to a conclusion. For the subsequent history see NAPo- LEON I and FRANCE, subhead History. See also MiIRABEAU, GABRIEL HONORE RiguetTI; Marat, JEAN PAuL; DAn- TON, GEORGE JACQUES; ROBESPIERRE, MAXIMILIEN; NECKER, JACQUES; Ma- RIE ANTOINETTE; GIRONDISTS; JACO- BINS. French Somaliland, So mah’ le land’, or Somali Coast Protectorate, a small group of French possessions in eastern Africa on the Gulf of Aden. Jibuti, the capital, is also the chief city. The coun- try consists of about 1000 sq. m. of fer- tile plateau, but is only sparsely inhab- ited. Frenchtown, Battle of. RAISIN, BATTLE OF THE. French West Africa, a name applied See RIVER to the French possessions known sepa- rately as Senegal, French Guinea, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Upper Senegal and the Niger. Its total area is 1,330,887 sq. m. The country is under the rule of a French governor-general, whose resi- dence is at Dakar, a fortified naval sta- tion in Senegal. The colonies making up French West Africa are described under their separate titles. See FRENCH GUINEA; Ivory COAST; SENEGAL. Freneau, Fre no’, Philip (1752-1832), an American poet, born in New York City. He wrote satiric verse and prose, and in 1791 Jefferson induced him to take charge of the Anti-Federalist Na- tional Gazette. He preferred life on the sea to journalism and soon abandoned that profession. As the first American poet of distinct ability he wrote The Ris- ing Glory of America, The Indian Bury- ing-Ground, The Wild Honeysuckle and Eutaw Springs. Fresno, Frez' no, Cal., a city and the county seat of Fresno Co., 209 m. s.e. of San Francisco, on the Atchison, To- peka & Santa Fe, the Southern Pacific and other railroads. It is situated in the San Joaquin Valley (about 300 ft. above sea level), which is naturally arid, but which is under an extensive system of irrigation. Grains and fruits are grown FREY in abundance, peaches, figs and raisins being among the leading crops. Apricots, oranges and olives also are extensively cultivated, and there are numerous wine- making and fruit-drying establishments. Stock raising is an important industry, special attention being given to sheep and horses; lumbering and mining are extensively engaged in, and the oil in- terests are important, producing one- thirtieth of the world’s supply. In ad- dition to the industrial features, there are several noteworthy objects of inter- est, among them the United States Gov- ernment Building and a Carnegie library. There are a number of fine hotels. Fresno was laid out and incorporated in 1872 and two years later became the county seat. It was chartered as a city in 1885. Population in 1920, 45,086. Frey, Fra, in Scandinavian mythol- ogy, loving god of sunlight and of warm summer rains, was son of the sea king, Niord, and brother of Freya. Accord- ing to Northern custom, Frey received many valuable gifts when he cut his first tooth: the beautiful realm of Fairy- land; a magic sword, invincible, which fought, on being unsheathed, of its own accord; a golden-bristled boar of in- credible speed; a dauntless horse which could leap through fire and water; and a most marvelous ship which could sail as well on land as on water, if need be could accommodate all the gods, and ‘could be folded up, like a napkin, and tucked out of sight. Frey fell in love with beautiful Gerda. Being diffident, he left his wooing to a trusty servant, to whom he lent his horse and to whom reward for success was his magic sword. Frey was later slain by the dazzling blade of the mighty flame-giant. Not only was Frey god of sunlight, fruitful- ness, peace and prosperity, but he guarded horses and horsemen and res- cued all prisoners. Oxen and ‘horses were the principal sacrifices in his shrines, where no weapons ever entered. Yule month, when boar’s flesh was eaten, was sacred to him. Freya, Fra’ ya, in Scandinavian my- thology, sister of Frey, was martial god- 1103 FRIARS dess of beauty and love. She often ac- companied the Valkyrs to battle, where she selected and claimed half the slain warriors. This accounts for the breast- plate, helmet, shield and spear with which she is represented. When de- serted by her roving husband, Odur, the summer sun, Freya hunted him through all the worid, the while shedding tears which turned to gold or to amber. She -owned a dazzling necklace fashioned by the dwarfs, and falcon plumes, which enabled her to fly across the sky like a bird. Cats drew her chariot. The swal- low and cuckoo were her favorites. Fri- day was sacred to her worship. Charle- magne destroyed the last of her many temples at Magdeburg, Germany. Fri’ars. See DoMIN’ ICANS.' Fric’tion, in physics, the resistance, due to its contact with other bodies, which a body offers to actual or possi- ble motion. The surfaces of bodies, though seemingly perfectly smooth to sight and touch, have many minute in- equalities which cannot be removed. Thus, when the surface of one slides upon the surface of the other the eleva- tions of one project into the other’s depressions and tend to retard the mo- tion. There are two kinds of friction, known respectively as sliding and rolling friction; the first is exerted when a book is pushed across a table; the sec- ond, when a wheel rolls along a surface. In machines sliding friction occurs more commonly than rolling friction. Experiments for investigating friction are easily performed. A block, having its three dimensions unequal, placed upon a table and connected by a string pass- ing over a pulley, with a weight, serves as apparatus. If the block is pulled across the table first upon its broadest side and then upon its others in succes- sion, the force required to overcome the friction will be found to be the same in each case. Weights placed on the block show that friction increases in propor- tion to the total force pressing the two surfaces together and that it is inde- pendent of the area of the surfaces in contact. It is also shown by experiment FRICTION that the force required to overcome fric- tion is the same for all ordinary speeds; but it is greater for exceedingly slow speeds, especially noticeable in starting one body to slide along another, and it appears to be less for very great speeds. Friction varies greatly with different substances, and in engineering work the coefficient of friction between two sur- faces of the same or different materials is defined as the force required to slide one surface along the other divided by the total force pressing the two surfaces to- gether. The coefficient for iron sliding on iron is about 0.2; that for oak wood on oak wood about 0.4. Thus a locomotive pressing with a weight of 100,000 Ib. on the driving wheels can exert a pull of .2 of this weight, that is, 20,000 Ib. pull; practically, however, somewhat less. In rolling friction, the force required to overcome friction decreases as the di- ameter of the wheel increases. A wagon with large wheels is more easily pulled along a road than one with small wheels. Rolling friction is very much less than sliding friction; hence the great use of roller and ball bearings wherever prac- ticable. The bicycle would have been almost impossible without ball bearings. In all journal bearings like the axle in the hub of a wagon wheel or the pivot of a watch in its jeweled bearing, we have sliding friction; the smaller the diameter of the axle or pivot, the less is the surface. The rubbing surfaces must be made to slide over one another ; hence the less the energy that must. be spent in overcoming friction. In fine pivot bearings and in most journal bear- ings of machinery it has been found that it is better to have the shaft or pivot of one material and the journal or socket of another. In this manner friction and wear are both decreased. In all such bearings the use of oil between the rub- bing surfaces greatly reduces the fric- tion. In machinery, friction is generally con- sidered a great hindrance, since it uses up force in overcoming it which might be otherwise employed; practically, how- ever, friction is of great value. It holds 1104 FRIDAY objects firm and causes the heavier, by their very weight, to stand more solidly ; a | flesh meat. mous increase in engine power. ‘tion with the crucifixion. it holds bolts and screws in place, keeps the fibers of thread tight and even makes it possible for us to stand, to walk and to hold objects in our hands. FLuip FRicrion. - When a solid moves through a fluid, either a liquid or a gas, the resistance encountered is not independent of the speed, as is the case for one solid sliding on another. Fluid friction increases with the speed; it is very little at low speeds; it increases about proportionally to the speed for moderate speeds; and it increases very much more rapidly for high speeds. Thus, it requires only a small force to push a boat through the water at a speed of a few feet per minute, while to in- crease the speed of an ocean liner from 20 to 25 m. per hour requires an enor- Like- wise, the friction of wheels on the rails and the axles in their journals is much Preater than the friction of the train against the air at low speeds of a few miles per hour; but at high speeds of 50 to 60 m. per hour, the air friction is by _ far the greater resistance to overcome. Fri’day, the sixth day of the week. The name is derived from that of Frigga, Scandinavian goddess, wife of Odin. This day among Germanic peo- ples was sacred to Frigga. In very early times in the Christian Church Friday was consecrated to the commemoration of the death of Christ, which occurred on that day. Good Friday, the Friday be- fore Easter, is quite generally observed among Christians, and the Roman Cath- olic and Anglican churches designate all Fridays (except those on which. Christ- mas falls) as days of abstinence from The somewhat prevalent superstition that Friday is an unlucky day originated probably with its connec- See FRIGGA. Friendly Islands. See Tonca Is- LANDS. Friends, or The Society of Friends, a Christian sect commonly called Quak- ers. The name Quaker was ‘originally applied in derision. Their founder, FRIGATE George Fox, began to preach in England about 1647, soon gathering about him a following of those dissatisfied with the religious teaching of the day and de- sirous of a higher spiritual life. During the reign of Charles II the Friends suf- fered severe persecution, and it was not until after the Revolution of 1688 that they were free from serious interference. Spreading to America, the Quaker move- ment exercised considerable influence in the colonies, and it was a Quaker, Wil- liam Penn, who established the Pennsyl- vania Colony. The Quakers were sub- jected to persecution in the New World, but persevered in establishing their Church. In 1827-28 a division occurred, under the preaching of a Friend of Uni- tarian tendencies, named Elias Hicks. The two bodies are frequently called Orthodox and Hicksite, though the latter and smaller party preferred to be known as the Liberal Branch. The Friends hold views very similar to those of other Christian bodies, but they have a distinguishing doctrine. This is the belief in the immediate personal teaching of the Holy Spirit to the indi- vidual, often called the Inner Light. In conducting their public worship they de- pend entirely on the guidance of the Holy Spirit, usually sitting in silence until someone feels that he has been called upon by the Spirit to speak. They believe in a spiritual baptism and com- munion service, not an outward ordi- nance; they refuse to take and adminis- ter oaths; they protest against warfare in any form and advise the refusal to aid in military affairs. The ministry to them is not a profession and is not put upon a pecuniary basis. Their form of gov- ernment is simple. In 1919 the Ortho- dox Friends in the United States num- bered about 100,000; the Hicksites, 19,595. Frig’ate, a warship of great speed. In olden times the frigate was a long, narrow warship propelled by sails and oars, used on occasions where great speed was necessary. The term was later applied to a larger class of ships smaller than the regular battleships. They were 1105 aa BIRD used in the 18th and 19th centuries as cruisers and scouts, usually joining the line of battle in an engagement. In mod- ern times the name is applied to ironclad vessels of great speed and power. See Navy; Scour. Frigate Bird, a bird of the Man-of- War Family. The frigate birds are sea birds and may be known by their large size (over 40 inches) and long, narrow wings, which have a spread of 12 ft., forked tail, long, hooked bill, partly webbed feet and black color. The sides and breast are white in the female. The nest is very large, made of sticks, and is placed in the tops of low trees and in bushes. One white egg is laid. The young are naked when hatched and are » brooded by the parents. Later, they are covered with a white down which pre- cedes the true feathers. The frigate bird is abundant on tropical and sub- tropical portions of the Atlantic and Pa- cific coasts. It is casual as far north as Wisconsin and Nova Scotia. The name is given on account of the bird’s swift flight. Frig’ga, a queen of the gods and goddess of the clouds, was the wife of the Norse Odin, with whom she sat on royal Hildskialf, whence they could see over the entire world. She spent most of her time spinning bright-colored clouds on what is known as Frigga’s Spinning Wheel in the North, Orion’s Girdle in the South. Heron plumes decked Frigga’s hair, and her white robe was bound with a golden girdle from which were suspended her household keys. Although an influential goddess, she had no shrines and worship was accorded her only as Odin’s favor- ite wife. Fro’bisher, Sir Martin (about 1535- 1594), a famous English navigator. In the hope of reaching the East by a northwest passage, he made three trips to the Arctic regions, where he failed in attempting to settle a colony. It was in 1576-78 that he sailed into what is known as Frobisher Bay. Subsequently he en- gaged in expeditions against Spain and was killed while attacking Brest. ; / and FROG Froebel, Frub’ bel, Friedrich Wil- helm August (1782-1852), a German educational reformer, a true lover of children, the originator of the kinder- garten and its system of instruction. Born at a small village in the Thuringian forest, the son of a Lutheran minister, left motherless in early childhood, -and in boyhood enjoying few educational ad- vantages, he began teaching at the age of 21 in a model school at Frankfort-on- the-Main, where it soon appeared that he was, as the Germans love to say, “a teacher by the grace of God.” He later studied at Berlin and Gottingen, and spent three years in study and teaching under Pestalozzi at Yverdun. Although not a Prussian, he was heart and soul a German. Hence, he dropped his stud- ies at Berlin in 1813, and served in a volunteer corps against Napoleon; for, as Froebel said, “How could any young man capable of bearing arms become a teacher of children whose Fatherland he had refused to defend?” His attitude throughout life is indi- — cated by the statement that “his hands were made for giving not for receiving.” Like many other great men, he was not understood by those of his time. In youth he was called “a -moon-struck child;” in. his ‘mature years)) atom fool.” But now men see that he clearly understood the requirements of educa- tion, and that the child’s training should be a development from within, not a pre- scription from without. Hence, his life and work have already modified educa- tional methods in schools of all grades. Hewn deep in the solid rock of the Glockner Mountain, the word Froebel, — in great letters, today reflects his fame. But the kindergartens of the world are his best memorial. See KINDERGARTEN, Frog, a small animal that lives part of the time in the water and part of the time on land. Frogs belong to the Ranid Family. They have large heads and mouths, and long sturdy legs by means of which they hop about on land. Frogs differ from toads by having a smooth skin, generally of a green color, but of- ten beautifully striped or spotted. They 1106 FROGFISH have a small tongue and well-developed teeth. The eggs are deposited in water in the spring, where they form a thick jellylike mass. Before reaching the stage of complete development the young are 1 2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG called tadpoles or polliwogs. They live in streams and ponds and feed on grasses and seaweeds. Gradually the head enlarges, the tail becomes narrower and shorter and the legs break through the enveloping skin as the gills disappear. In place of swim- _ ming as before, by means of a tail, they now leap through the water with a long stroke of the hind legs; their prey con- sists, of insects, worms and small fishes. _ This course of development is common to _all members of the order. - Frogs, like toads, shed their skins fre- quently, pulling them off over their heads. See Toap; BATRACHIA; TREE Toap. Frogfish. See ANGLER. Froissart, Frwah"sar’', Jean (about 1338-about 1410), a French poet and his- torian, born in Valenciennes. Whatever is known of his life is gained from his own chronicles and poetry. At the age ‘of 20 he began to write a history of the wars of his time, and traveled exten- sively over Europe to gain material for his work. He wrote verses for queens and ladies, and in England Queen Philippa was his patron until her death. His Chronicle covered the period from 1326 to 1400. He considered his poetry superior to his prose, but later criticism has reversed this judgment, and it is for the faithful, graphic accounts of the life and customs of his own age and not for his mechanical verse that he is remem- bered. Frontenac, Fron”te nak’, Louis de Buade, ComTE DE (about 1620-1698), a French soldier and early governor of New France in America. After winning FROSTBITE distinction in Italy, Germany and Flan- ders, he was made governor of New France in 1672. The following year he commissioned Joliet to find the Missis- sippi. For him, La Salle named Ft. Frontenac at Kingston, on Lake Ontario. He was tactful with the Indians, and New France prospered under his rule. However, he was recalled in 1682, only to be reinstated by Louis XIV in 1689. It was then, during King William’s War, that he undertook his great plan of con- quering the English settlements in New York, New Hampshire and Maine, but without any permanent success. Later, attacking the Iroquois of New York, he dealt them a blow from which they never recovered, and they were glad to sue for peace, 1696. Frost. When the air is cooled to the dew point, it is saturated with mois- ture at that temperature. If cooled still further, some of the contained moisture will condense as rain, fog, snow, hail, dew or frost. Frost is formed on the surface of the ground or other exposed objects when the dew-point temperature of the air is below 32° F. and the radi- ation of heat from the ground cools the ground and the air immediately next to the ground, below the dew point. The excess moisture in the air is then depos- ited directly as frost without passing through the condition of liquid drops. Such frost is frequently called white frost, or hoar frost. The heavier hoar frosts occur under weather conditions similar to those under which the heavi- est summer dews are formed; namely, on clear, calm nights when there are no clouds or smoke banks to hinder the cool- ing of the ground and other exposed sur- faces by radiation. See Dew; Vapor. Frostbite, the frozen or partly frozen condition of a part of the body caused by exposure to intense cold. The feet, hands, nose and ears are the parts often- est frostbitten. In cases of slight injury, cold treatments, such as rubbing with snow or the use of cold water, are effi- cacious in restoring vitality to the chilled member. When the part has been com- pletely frozen as the result of long ex- 1107 FROUDE posure to severe cold, it may die or de- cay, making amputation necessary. Froude, Frood, James Anthony (1818-1894), an English historian, born in Dartington. In 1689 he was made the rector of St. Andrews Univer- sity, and a short time afterwards visited South America in the interests of the British Government, publishing reports relative to his investigations. He made extended tours through the United States, West Indies and Australia. His historical writings are distinguished by brilliancy and picturesque narrative rather than accuracy, and because of his prejudices he cannot be ranked among the best historians. He published The Nemesis of Faith, The History of Eng- land from the Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth, Short Studies, Rem- iniscences of Thomas Carlyle, Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle, and Life of Lord Beaconsfield. Fruit, the part of a plant which ripens with the seeds and either encloses them or bears them upon its surface. Technically, it is the matured ovary and its coverings. In common usage, a fruit differs from a vegetable in being the product of any plant, herb, shrub or tree having a decided flavor and generally being eaten raw as dessert. Fruits are botanically classified according to their composition as follows: simple, when they arise from a single, simple pistil, as thé peach, and this may or may not in- clude the old calyx of the flower; ag- gregate, when a cluster of simple pistils have ripened in a mass, as the raspberry ; accessory, when the supports of the pistil have ripened with it, as the wintergreen ; multiple, when formed from several con- solidated flowers, as the pineapple. In regard to texture, fruits are classi- fied as fleshy, having a juicy covering; drupes, or stone fruits; and dry fruits. Fleshy fruits are subdivided into the berry, the pepo, of which the melon is an example, and the pome, or applelike fruits. Stone fruits have hardened cen- ters surrounded by juicy coverings. Dry fruits are grains, nuts, pods, cones, key fruits, or akenes, and capsules. FUCHOW In reference to the dissemination of their seeds, fruits are said to be dehiscent or indehiscent according to whether they do or do not open at maturity. Pods are dehiscent fruits. Fleshy and stone fruits are indehiscent and depend for the dis- semination of their seeds upon the decay of the fleshy part or upon their being set free by the animals that eat them. The production of new and choice fruit with better flavors and fewer ined- ible parts is becoming one of the chief aims of horticulturists in the United States and other countries. See Bur- BANK, LUTHER. Fruit Thrush. See BuLBUL. Frye, Fri, William Pierce (1831- 1911), an American statesman, born at Lewiston, Me. He graduated at Bow- doin College in 1850 and entered the pro- fession of law. He was a member of the State Legislature in 1861-62 and again in 1867,’meantime serving as mayor of Lewiston in 1866-67. The next two years he was attorney-general of the state, after which he served in the lower house of Congress for ten years (1871- 81), when he became United States sen- ator, to succeed James G. Blaine. In 1898 he was one of the commissidners to negotiate the treaty of peace with Spain. In 1901 Frye became president pro tem- pore of the Senate. Fuchow, Foo’ chou’, or Foochow, a city of China, capital of the Province of Fukien, situated on the Min River, 140 m. n. of Amoy. A stone wall 30 ft. high surrounds the city and the so- called “Bridge of Ten Thousand Ages” spans the river. dwells a large floating population. ‘The arsenal on Pageda Island, established in 1867, formerly turned out a number of small gunboats; it is now the point at which seagoing vessels anchor. Sev- eral missions have been established in the city since 1846. The European com- merce is significant, as also is that with America, while the trade with Australia and New Zealand is on the increase. Ex- ports consist principally of opium and tea; native merchants bargain over the staples, timber, cotton and woolen goods, 1108 ‘ j Je Wi ae On the river itself | , ‘4 F ‘ FUCHS paper, olives and oranges. Population, estimated at 700,000. Fuchs, Fooks, Leonhard. See Fuen- SIA, Fuchsia, Fu’ shi a, a name applied to a class of plants of the Evening Prim- rose Family, whose individuals are herbs, shrubs or trees, chiefly natives of the Andes. Our most common species is a garden plant cultivated for its beautiful flowers, which drop from their stems and give the plant the apt name, ladies’ ear drops. There are many varieties, but the flower most commonly known has a white or pale pink tube, surrounding the base of the red, blue or violet petals, from the midst of which extend the long, drooping stamens. The tree fuchsia is found in Mexico and is a stout shrub with rose-colored flowers. The name fuchsia is derived from that of a noted German botanist, Leonhard Fuchs, who named the parts of flowers. Fu’el, a substance used for produc- ing heat by combustion. Fuels are of three classes, solid, liquid and gaseous. The solid fuels most extensively used are coal, wood, peat, charcoal and coke. Coal and wood are used in the natural state, but charcoal and coke are manu- factured fuels. They are used exten- sively in smelting ores and reducing met- als, since they contain no impurities that will injure the metal, and produce in- tense heat. Briquettes are small bricks of coal slack cemented together by clay or some other adhesive substance. In some localities they are used for warm- ing houses. The liquid fuels are certain animal and vegetable oils, crude petro- leum and its products, kerosene and gas- oline. Fuels of this class contain the greatest amount of heat energy. They are used chiefly in producing steam in steam engines and as a source of power in gas engines. The gases used for fuel are natural gas, coal gas, water gas, producer gas and blast-furnace gas. Gaseous fuels are very convenient, and in cities are used for cooking and to some extent for warming dwellings. In the manufacture ot glass and some other products, a gas- FULLER eous fuel is essential for melting the raw material. See CoaAL; CHARCOAL; PETROLEUM ; KEROSENE; GASOLINE; AL- COHOL; NaturAL Gas; Gas, ILLUMi- NATING; COMBUSTION. Fugitive, Fu’ ji tiv, Slave Law. Pre- ceding the Civil War, Congress in 1850 passed an act known as the Fugitive Slave Law, which provided for the re- turn of slaves who had escaped from one state to another. Under the provisions of this act any slave escaping should be returned as soon as apprehended, and it became the duty of every officer to exer- cise great diligence in the pursuit and capture. The North never gave the measure its approval and some states passed special “personal liberty” acts to counteract if possible the effect of the act of Congress. There was also a fugi- tive slave law passed in 1793, but in the early days of the nation it excited little comment, as the institution of slavery at that time had not gained public interest. Fujiyama, Foo’ je yah’ ma. See Ja- PAN, subhead Physical Features. Fuller, Melville Weston (1833-1910), apenier justice of the, Unitedy states Supreme Court, born at Augusta, Me. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1853, studied law at Harvard and was admitted to the bar in 1855. He was editor of the Augusta Age, served on the city council, and was city attorney. In 1856 he moved to Chicago, where he practiced law successfully for 32 years. He was elected to the Illinois Legislature in 1863. President Cleveland appointed him chief justice of the Supreme Court in 1888, where he served until his death. In 1899 he was one of the arbitrators in the Anglo-Venezuelan controversy. As a jurist and judge he ranks among the most distinguished in America. Fuller, Sarah Margaret, MarcHIon- Ess Ossoxti (1810-1850), an American author, born in Cambridgeport, Mass. She was the eldest child of Timothy Fuller, a prominent lawyer, who conducted her education so zealously that she became a youthful prodigy to the permanent in- jury of her health. After teaching in private schools in Boston and Providence 1109 FULLER’S EARTH she conducted The Dial, the magazine representing the ideas and aims of the Transcendentalists, in 1840-42. She re- moved to New York in 1844 at the re- quest of Horace Greeley, to write liter- ary criticisms for the Tribune. In 1846 she went to Europe, and in the following year she was married to the Marquis Giovanni Angelo Ossoli, whom she met in Rome. Both took active part in the Italian struggle for independence in 1848- 49, she taking charge of two hospitals. They sailed for America in 1850, but were drowned off Fire Island Beach. Her brilliant conversational powers and personality revealed a depth of sympathy and intellectual power not so apparent in her writings. She was an especial friend of Emerson and one of the Brook Farm visitors. Her works include Summer on the Lakes, Woman in the Nineteenth Century, Papers on Literature and Art, letters and translations. See TRANSCEN- DENTALISM ; BRooK FARM. Fuller’s Earth, a clay composed of oxides of aluminum, iron, calcium, so- dium, magnesium, etc., and once widely used in cleansing wool and cloth of grease. This process, called fulling, gave the name to the clay. Now it is more commonly used for purifying cottonseed oil and lubricating oil by filtering them through the clay.’ Fuller’s earth is fine- grained, soapy to the touch and of a vari- ety of colors. It was once mined only at Reigate in England, but recently deposits were found in Florida, South Dakota and other localities in the United States. Fulling Mill, a contrivance for cleansing, scouring and pressing woven woolen goods so as to render them stronger, firmer and closer. It consists of a wheel, with its trundle, which gives motion to the tree, or spindle, whose teeth communicate that motion to the stampers. These fall into troughs, wherein the cloth is put, with fuller’s earth, soap and water. Ful’mar, sea birds related to the al- . batross and the petrel. They are web- footed, with rather long bills, hooked at the end, and with tubelike nostrils. killed his rival, Acis. See AcIs. 1119 GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO Gala’tians, Epistle to the. See PauL- INE EPISTLEs. Ga’len, Claudius (131-200), a Greek physician, born at Pergamus, in Mysia. He studied medicine as thoroughly as the opportunities of his age permitted and was surgeon to the school of gladia- tors in Mysia for six years. He then went to Rome, where he was physician to Marcus Aurelius. He was a prolific writer, 83 of his writings being extant. Those which treat on anatomy and physi- ology are among his best. Galen was the first to take the pulse into consideration in determining the nature of disease. He was the authority in medicine up to about the middle of the 16th century. Gale’na, the most important ore of lead, containing, when pure, 86.6 per cent of that metal; but it is usually mixed with copper, zinc, antimony or celenium. It crystallizes in the form of cubes, but is frequently found massive or granular; and is often found in veins or beds of - amorphous or crystalline rock. It has a pure lead color and a metallic luster. Al- most the entire lead supply of the world comes from this ore. It is widely dis- tributed, and is found in Germany, Bo- hemia, Austria, England, Mexico and parts of the United States. .Argentifer- ous galena, so called because of the large proportions of silver ore which it con- tains, is extensively mined in the Rocky Mountains. Certain varieties, called pot- ter’s ore, are used for glazing. See Leap. Gales’burg, Ill., a city and county seat of Knox Co., 53 m. n.w. of Peoria and 163 m. s.w. of Chicago, on the Atch- ison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago & North Western, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and other railroads. The city is attractively situated in a fertile agri- cultural region and extensive coal mines are located in the vicinity. Galesburg has wide, well-paved and shaded streets, substantial business blocks, numerous churches and many handsome residences. The city is well known for its industrial activities and contains large stockyards, railroad repair shons, boiler and engine works, iron foundries, agricultural-im- plement works, carriage and wagon fac- GALICIA tories, broom factories and one of the largest vitrified brick-paving plants in the world. Galesburg is noted for its educational facilities and is the seat of Knox College (nonsectarian), founded in 1837 as the Knox Manual Labor Col- lege; Lombard University (Universal- ist), named in honor of Benjamin L6ém- bard, a benefactor; St. Joseph’s Acad- emy (Catholic) ; Corpus Christi College (Catholic) ; and Brown’s Business Col- ege. There is an excellent system of pub- lic schools. A public library was founded in 1874. The first settlement was made in 1836 by a colony from New York State and named in honor of Rev. George Wash- ington Gale, a prominent Presbyterian minister, who desired to establish a col- lege to supply “an evangelical and able ministry” and also make the settlement a rallying ground for abolitionists, Gales- burg was granted a city charter in 1857. On Oct. 7, 1858, one of the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates was held on the grounds of Knox College. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 23,834. | Galicia, Ga lish ia. The southern province of the Republic of Poland lying to the north of the Carpathian Moun- tains, facing Ukrania on the east. The province is roughly triangular in shape and possesses an area of over 30,000 sq. m., and a population of about 8,000,000. The population consists, in the main of two ethnic stocks—the Poles and the Ruthenians. In the entire province, the Poles are in the majority, decidedly so in western Gdlicia, in eastern Galicia the Ruthenians are the most numerous ex- cept in a few localities. Ruthenian Ga- licia is under the mandate rule only of Poland. The Carpathians form the southern boundary of the province and send their spurs to the north and the east and the larger part of the province is broken like the Appalachian Highland Section of the United States. Coal and zine occur in abundance. The oil fields extend along the Carpathian mountains for a distance of two hundred and fifty miles and gas- oline—called in Europe petrol—is an ex- 1120 GALILEE tremely valuable product. Salt and pot- ash are also produced. Timber is abun- dant. The valleys are fertile, the usual crops of the temperate zone being raised. Gal’ilee, the most northern of the three provinces into which Palestine was divided in the days of Christ. It was bounded on the e. by the River Jordan, on the s. by Samaria, on the w. by the Mediterranean and Phoenicia and on the n. by Syria and the Lebanon Mountains. In Galilee were located Nazareth, the boyhood home of Jesus; Cana, where the first miracle was performed ; Capernaum, Nain and other places of sacred associa- tion. Galilee is now a part of the Prov- ince of Syria. Galilee, Sea of, a fresh-water lake in central Palestine, also known as the Sea of Tiberias or the Lake of Gennesaret. It _is 13 m. long and about half as wide. At » Ny , pe he the southwest corner is the outlet of the Jordan. It lies about 680 ft. below sea level, and on the east coast rise hills nearly 2000 ft. in height. Deep ravines and wild gorges, cut out by the water courses, converge to the head of this lake, and through these the cold mountain winds often rush with great violence and suddenness. The tempests which the dis- ciples encountered on this lake, in the time of our Lord, are familiar to all readers of Biblical literature. At that time nine flourishing cities were on its shores, only two of which, Magdala and Tiberias, have remained, and they are now wretched villages. Gal’ile’o (1564-1642), the name usu- ally applied to Galileo Galilei, mathe- matician, physicist, philosopher and astronomer, born at Pisa, Italy, and edu- cated in a monastery near Florence and later (1581-1585) at the University of Pisa. While a student at Pisa he was attracted one day by the swinging of the great lamp in the roof of the cathe- dral there. His study of this movement resulted in his application of the pendu- lum to the measurement of time. In 1585 he was obliged to leave his uni- versity course unfinished for lack of funds. But he pursued in private the study of Archimedes, which led to his GALION invention of the hydrostatic balance. He continued the study of mathematics and natural science while teaching these sub- jects in Pisa University from 1589 to 1591, at the same time lecturing on some of the newer phases of science which he had discovered. These lectures were thought by the people of his day to con- flict with the teaching of the Bible, and he found it advisable to resign his posi- tion. He continued his studies and lec- tures, however, and in 1592 was called to a chair in Padua University, where he remained for 18 years. In 1609 Galileo perfected the telescope, and the next year he discovered the satel- lites of Jupiter and observed the pecul- larities of Saturn, which were later more clearly defined and called “rings.” Dur- ing the same year he discovered spots on the sun, and, noting their movements from west to east, he worked out the theory of the rotation of the sun on an axis and determined its inclination to the ecliptic. He also discovered the phases of Mercury, Venus and Mars, and the librations of the moon. His lectures upon his discoveries, such as the laws of falling bodies, the thermometer, in- teresting action of magnets, and the re- sults of his astronomical researches spread his fame throughout Europe. He accepted the view of Copernicus con- cerning the movements of the heavenly bodies, and this led to his persecution by the Church, though he was not pun- ished. During the last years of his life he was blind, but he continued his work. His service to modern science is notable, for he laid the foundation upon which later scientists have built. See AsTRON- OMY; TELESCOPE. Gal’ion, Ohio, a city of Crawford Co., 80 m. s.w. of Cleveland and 15 m. s.w.of Mansfield, on the L. E. & W. and om the C., Ci, Coe Ste rativoads: ‘The city is an important railroad town, being a division terminal and connecting point. It contains railroad shops, machine shops, brick and tile works, automobile, grane vault and garment manufactories, lumber mills and roundhouses. It has one of the best public school systems in the state. S21 GALLATIN Galion was originally laid out by western Pennsylvania settlers in 1831. It was chartered in 1878. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 7,374. Estimated 1922, 9,000. Gallatin, Albert (1761-1849), an American statesman and author, born in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1779 he grad- uated from the University of Geneva, emigrated to America the following year, and served for a brief period in the American army. He engaged unsuccess- fully in business, then was an instructor in Harvard. In 1786 he became a nat- uralized citizen of the United States. He was influential in suppressing the Whiskey Insurrection in 1794, From 1795 to 1801 he was a member of Con- gress from Pennsylvania and took a lead- ing part in the deliberations of that body as a pronounced Anti-Federalist. President Jefferson appointed Galla- tin secretary of the treasury in 1801, which position he filled for 12 years, and became known as one of the ablest finan- ciers of America. He was one of the peace commissioners after the War of 1812, served as minister to France from 1816 to 1823, and as minister to England in 1826-27. Upon his return he was president of a New York bank from 1831 to 1839, when he retired from busi- ness, and devoted the remainder of his life to literature and historical investiga- tions. He published pamphlets dealing with finance, the Maine boundary, the Oregon boundary, the war with Mexico, and other subjects of national impor- tance. His scientific publications include the Synopsis of the Indian Tribes, and Notes on the Semi-Civilized Nations of Mexico, Yucatan and Central America. Gall Bladder, a small sac attached to the underside of the liver, in which bile is stored. It is shaped like a pear, is about four inches long and two inches in diameter, and has a capacity of about an ounce and a half of fluid. Its stem connects with the cystic duct. The gall bladder serves as a storehouse for the bile secreted by the liver. During the process of digestion, the bile passes from the liver through the hepatic duct into a common bile duct and empties into the GALLINULE : duodenum. In the intervals when it is not needed, however, the bile, which is continually being secreted, is prevented from emptying into the intestines by a sphincter muscle, which guards the open- ing of the common bile duct. It there- fore flows backward into the cystic duct, one of the tributaries of the common duct, and enters the gall bladder, where it remains until needed. See LIveER; BILE; DIGESTION. Gal’leon, originally the name of a warship with three or four gun decks, but later applied to those large unwieldy vessels long used by Spain in her trade with Mexico and her other American colonies. Many of these ships, although armed, fell a prey to pirates and to the navies of other countries with which Spain was from time to time at war. - Galley, a type of ship used in ancient and medieval times by all the great na- tions of the Mediterranean. Galleys were built for speed, their length (of per- haps 120 ft.) being six or eight times their width, and they were propelled both by sails and by oarsmen. The main mast carried a sail, yet often there were two or three masts. War galleys, however, depended principally upon their oarsmen, of whom they had so many that there were usually three banks of rowers, one above the other, on each side of the ship. Venetian galleys were larger, some be- ing even 160 ft. in length, and are known to have carried more than 1000 men. In France, as in other countries, convicts were sentenced to penal service in the galleys, and were often branded with the letters spelling “Gal.” As late as the time of the Napoleonic wars, galleys were used with much effectiveness. Gal’linule, a bird of the Rail Family. The Florida gallinule is 14 inches long or about the size of the domestic pigeon, and is easily recognized by its bright red bill and frontal shield, long legs, long, slender, unlobed toes, dark slaty plumage with white-edged wings, and white- streaked flanks and tail coverts. The nest is built in reeds on the edge of a marsh and is made of dry grass and weeds. Eight to eleven brown-spotted, 1122 — GALLNUTS light buff-colored eggs are laid. The gal- linules are rail-like in their habits, skulk- ing through the reeds and seldom taking to the water. The Florida gallinule ranges from Canada south to Brazil. A related species, the purple gallinule, is purplish on the head, neck and under parts, and green on the back and wings. It lives in tropical and_ subtropical America. Gallnuts. See GALLS. - Gallon. See WEIGHTS AND MEAas- URES. Galls, Nutgalls or Gallnuts, malfor- mations of leaf, flower, branch or stem of a plant, caused by a fungus disease or by the sting of an insect. They are made noticeable by the peculiar growth of the part attacked, which generally be- comes exceedingly enlarged and puts forth a thicker growth. The leaves at- tacked curl and grow in profuse clusters very close together. Sometimes small, hard bodies are formed, which cling tightly to the leaf. Flowers so attacked often put forth peculiar green leaves in- stead of petals, and trunks of trees or stems of shrubs and herbs produce gnarled and swollen protuberances which are intensely hard. Such galls formed on some varieties of oaks, and called oak galls, are used in the production of inks and dyes, and other galls are of such hardness as to take high polish and be useful in cabinetwork. The curious bunching of leaves and stems on willows, known as “‘willow roses,” is another form of galls. When the galls are formed by a fungus, the plant attacked has generally been wounded and the disease has en- tered through the wound. If caused by an insect, and this is the most common method, the tree has been stung that the eggs of the insect may be deposited in the trunk; there the larva feeds upon certain parts of the tissue and thus causes malformation. Such galls dif- fer so widely in characteristics that an examination of them will disclose the character of the insect which caused the gall, Among the gall-producing insects are the wheat midge and Hessian fly. tf GALT Galsworthy, Golz’ wur thy, John (1868- ), an English author. His writings bear evidence of a marked in- terest in vital social problems, and, al- though a tinge of pessimism often colors his work, his is the method and product of an artist, and his novels and plays alike possess high literary merit. In dramas like The Silver Box, Strife and Justice he is the keen analyst of social ills, and he is always faithful to a photo- graphic presentation of life. His dra- matic creed insists on unbiased delinea- tion; if he swerves from this it is only to yield to his pity for the lower strata of society. His novels and_ short sketches include Jocelyn, The Island Pharisees, The Man of Property, The Country House, Fraternity, The Patri- cians, A Commentary and A Motley. The Pigeon, a more recent play, was staged by the “Little Theatre” of New York in- 1912, Galt, a city of Canada in the Prov- ince of Ontario, on the Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk and other railways, 57 m. s.w. of Toronto. Lumber, limestone and sand are supplied by the neighborhood. The manufactures include knit goods, flour, safes, edge tools, boots and shoes. The city was named for John Galt, a Scottish novelist. Population in 1911, 10,299. | Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch (1817- 1893), a Canadian statesman, born in Chelsea, London, England. He was ed- ucated under private tutors, and when 18 years of age was appointed to a clerk- ship in a colonization society at Sher- brooke, Lower Canada. Galt served this company for 21 years, being its president for about ten years. In 1849 he was a member of the Provincial Parliament, but resigned the same year, being chosen again in 1853 and serving until 1872. He was inspector-general of finance at two different times, and under the Federal Government was the first finance minis- ter, laying the foundations of the present system of currency in Canada. On two different occasions he was a commis- sioner to the United States, and was high commissioner of the Dominion in Eng- 11423 GALTON iand from 1880 to 1883. He wrote sev- eral important political papers. Gal’ton, Sir Francis (1822-1911), an English scientist and traveler, born at Birmingham, England. He was a cousin of Charles Darwin and, like his distin- euished cousin, was noted for his stud- ies in regard to heredity. He believed that genius, and the lack of it, is largely a matter of ancestry, and in exposition of these views he published Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences; English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture; and In- quiries into Human Faculty and Tis De- velopment, As a result of his studies, he suggested the improvement of the human species by scientific study of the laws of heredity. The science of race im- provement he named eugenics, a name now widely used. Through his efforts a chair of eugenics was established in the University of London and an asso- ciation founded for the further study of the subject. Besides his work in eugenics, Galton did great service in other lines of an- thropological work. He became inter- ested in the subject of finger prints and showed how they might be used’ in the identification of individuals. Among Galton’s publications are: Studies in National Eugenics, Tropical South Africa, Natural Inheritance, Finger Prints and Memories of My Life. See EUGENICS, Galvani, Gahl vah' ne, Luigi (1737- 1798), an Italian physician, born at Bo- logna, Italy. He practiced medicine in his native city until 1762, when he was chosen to the chair of anatomy in Bo- logna University. His experiments with animals in studying and demonstrating animal electricity and the work that’ he published on that subject have given him a lasting fame. Because of his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine Republic he was retired from his professorship, but was recalled within a few months. The Galvanic battery takes its name from Galvani. A complete set of his works was published at Bologna in 1841. See ELecrric BATTERY. GALVANOMETER Galvan’ic Battery. See ELeEcTrRIC BATTERY. Gal’vanism. See ELECTRICITY. Gal’vanized Iron, a term given to iron or steel coated with zinc. The metal is first cleaned and made smooth by fric- tion and a weak solution of sulphuric acid. It is then plunged into a bath composed of melted zinc and sal ammo- niac. The zinc; on cooling, forms crys- tals, which give to the metal its white- mottled appearance. The coating of zinc prevents oxidation or rust from ordi- nary exposure to moisture. In sheets, galvanized iron is used largely in cover- ing buildings and for roofs, cornices and water pipes. Vessels of galvanized iron are made in various forms for domestic use, but they are not suitable for hold- ing drinking water because the zinc dis- solves upon long exposure and poisons the water. Sheet-iron workers prefer to use galvanized iron instead of plain sheet iron on account of its being easier to solder in the seams and joints. Gal’ vanom/eter, an instrument for detecting the presence of electric cur- rents and for determining their direction and strength. Galvanometers are of two general types. One consists of a freely- swinging magnetic needle about which is a fixed coil of wire. As a current is sent through the coil the side toward which the north pole of the magnetic needle turns shows the direction of the current, while the size of the angle through which the needle is turned shows the strength of the current. The simplest galvanometer of this type is probably the tangent galvanometer, which has its coil as the circumference of a circle about the needle, and the plane of the coil should be in the magnetic meridian. Another type of galvanom- eter consists of a coil of wire suspended between the poles of a permanent horse- shoe magnet, the plane of the coil being parallel to a line joining the twe poles of the magnet. As a current is sent through the coil, it turns slightly; the direction of turning indicates the direc- tion of the current and the amount of turning the strength of the current. Gal- 1124 GALVESTON vanometers of this type are called D’Ar- sonval galvanometers from the name of their inventor, and are the ones in most common use today. A ballistic gal- vanometer measures the quantity of elec- tricity discharged by a current which acts almost instantaneously. It may be of either construction described above, the time of oscillation of its moving needle or coil usually being rather longer. Almost any galvanometer can be used as a ballistic galvanometer with more or less success. Gal’veston, Tex., an important com- mercial port, the county seat of Gal- veston Co., located on Galveston Island at the entrance of a bay of the same name, 48 m. s.e. of Houston and 300 m. s.w. Of New Orleans. It is the deep- water terminus of the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the International & Great Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Southern Pacific, the Trinity & Bra- zos Valley and other railroads and is connected by more than 60 steamship lines with other Gulf. ports, the Atlantic ports of both North and South America and European ports. The island is 30 m. long and from 2 to 3 m. wide; the city lies at its eastern extremity, stretching from the bay to the Gulf of Mexico, but has its harbor upon the bay. GARDEN OF THE GODS an eye for artistic effect. Like the archi- tect, a member of an allied profession, the landscape gardener must be able to transform the grourds upon which he works from uncouth spots to places of beauty. Garden of the Gods, a natural park of Colorado, about 5 m.. from Colorado Springs. Its rocks have been water- worn into grotesque shapes, and have re- ceived names from their real or fancied likeness to animals, buildings, human fig- ures and other objects. Gard’iner, Samuel Rawson (1829- 1902), an English historian, educated at Oxford, Edinburgh and Gottingen. For many years he was professor of modern history at King’s College, London, and subsequently at Oxford, where he de- clined to succeed Froude as regius pro- fessor of modern history. Gardiner wrote many valuable works, including The History of England from the Ac- cession ‘of James I to the Outbreak of the Great Civil War, histories of the Civil War, of the Commonwealth and Protectorate and of the first two Stuarts and the Puritan Revolution. He also wrote two textbooks on English history. Gardner, Mass., a town of Worcester Co., 15 m. w. of Fitchburg and 25 m. n.w. of Worcester, on the Otter River and on the Fitchburg branch of the Boston & Maine Railroad. The town contains the villages of South Gardner, West Gardner and Gardner Center. The chief industry is the manufacture of chairs, but there are also manufactories. of rattan goods, toys, tubs, pails and machinery. The surrounding country is agricultural and fruit-growing. Dunn and Crystal Lake parks are attractive features of the town. The Levi Hey- wood Memorial Library, a home for the aged and an almshouse are located here. Gardner was incorporated as a town in 1785. Population in 1920, 16,971. Garfield, James Abram (1831-1881), twentieth presidgnt of the United States, born in Orange, Ohio, of New England ancestry. His father moved to the West- ern Reserve in Ohio in 1830, and here James was born in a log cabin in the GARFIELD wilderness, His father died soon aft- erward, leaving the mother with four small children. At the age of ten James assisted in the support of the family by working on neighboring farms in the summer, while attending school in the winter, and spending his spare moments in reading. He thus fitted himself for college, spent three years at Hiram Col- lege, Ohio, and graduated from Wil- liams College, Mass., in 1856 with the highest honors of his class. Returning to Hiram College as teacher of Latin and Greek, he became its president the following year (1857), and widened his activities by preaching and studying law. In 1859 he was elected to the Ohio Senate. | When the Civil War broke out in 1861, he organized a regiment of his students and was appointed to its command with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He was later given command of a brigade with instructions to drive the Confederates out of eastern Kentucky, which task he accomplished so successfully that he was made brigadier-general early in 1862. He was engaged at Shiloh, Corinth and Chickamauga, and was made major-gen- eral for gallantry on the latter field. At the request of President Lincoln, Garfield resigned his commission near the close of 1863 to take his seat in Con- gress, to which he had been elected 15 months earlier. Here he became an in- fluential leader, being a member of many important committees and rendering es- pecially efficient service in connection with military affairs and finance. He en- tered the Senate in 1880. At the National Republican Conven- tion in. June, 1880, he was nominated for the presidency of the United States by a combination of the forces opposed to a third term for Grant, and was elected in the fall, defeating General Hancock. He had served only four months, when he was assassinated by a disappointed office-seeker, and died Sept. » 19, 1881, after lingering between life and death for ten weeks. His remains were conveyed amid universal mourning to Cleveland and interred in Lake View 1129 GARFIELD cemetery on a beautiful eminence over- looking Lake Erie, where a magnificent monument has been erected to his memory. Garfield was successful in all of his varied activities—as educator, soldier, statesman. He won for himself a place of the highest honor and usefulness by hard study, careful and conscientious ap- plication to the task in hand, and a sin- gularly pure and patriotic devotion to the nation’s interests. Garfield, N. J., a city of Bergen Co., 10 m. n.e. of New York City, opposite Passaic, on the Passaic River and on the Erie Railroad. It is a residential suburb of Fassaic and has many attractive resi- dences. The city has manufactories of wax paper, perfumes, woolen yarns, es- sential oils, chemicals, etc. It was in- corporated in 1898. Population in 1920, U.S; Census, 19,381. Garfish, a family of fish represented in all temperate and warm countries. It has a long, snakelike body covered with tiny scales. The dorsal and anal fins lie directly opposite each other and give the caudal extremity a fanlike extension. The jaws are exceedingly long, hard and sharp-pointed and contain few teeth, but sharp ones. With the long bill a severe wound may be inflicted, and many spe- cies, especially the needlefish, are ex- tremely active in its use. Garfish are green in color; even the bones are green, and for this reason it is not a popular food fish although its flesh is sweet and fine. Locally the garfish is called long tom or green tom. Gar” ibal’di, Giuseppe (1807-1882), an Italian patriot. He joined Mazzini to gain Italian liberty and fled from the country when-the attempt failed in 1834. He returned to Italy in 1848 and led a company of volunteers against Austria. He also lent his aid to the patriots who were holding Rome, which was then be- sieged by the French. When all efforts for liberty again failed, Garibaldi came to the United States and lived for a time at Staten Island, N. Y. Later he had command of a trading vessel on the Pacific coast. GARLAND In 1854 he settled on a small farm in the Island of Caprera where he could watch the result of Cavour’s policy in uniting Italy. He joined the Sardinians against Austria in 1859 and objected strongly when Nice and Savoy were given to the French in 1860. The same year he sailed from Genoa with a com- pany of volunteers. He landed in Sicily May 11, 26 days later he had won Pa- lermo, and he gained the whole island for Italy by July 27, when the Neapoli- tans left Messina. He then crossed to the mainland and entered the city of Naples on Sept. 7, after a triumphal march to its gates. He resigned his command when the troops of Victor Emmanuel reached the frontier, and was again on his farm in Caprera by November. He was eager to see the old capital, Rome, restored to Italy and made two unsuccessful attempts to regain it. In the second attempt, in 1867, he was taken prisoner by the Sardinian Government, but was released after a few days’ con- finement near Spezia. In 1870-1 he com- manded a company of French volunteers in Burgundy against the Germans. In 1874 he entered the Italian Parliament. Consult Garibaldi’s Autobiography (English translation). Garland, Augustus Hill (1832-1899), an American lawyer and statesman, born in Tipton County, Tenn. He removed with his parents to Arkansas in infancy. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1853. Although at first opposed to secession, he finally followed his state, and was elected to the Confederate Con- gress, serving in both houses. In 1874 he became governor of Arkansas, and served as United States senator from 1877 to 1885. President Cleveland ap- pointed him attorney-general of the United States in 1885, and he continued in that position until 1889, when he re- — sumed his law practice in Washing- ton, DG. Garland, Hamlin (1860- =), _:~ an American novelist, born at La Crosse, Wis. He studied at Cedar Valley Sem- inary, Osage, Iowa, and after farming and teaching school in Illinois and Da- 1130 \ GARLIC kota, he removed to Boston in 1884 and devoted himself to literary work. In 1891 he returned to the West. He founded the Cliff Dwellers’ Club and was its first president; in 1911 he became connected with the Chicago Drama League. His stories are realistic and abound in local color. Among his works are Main-Traveled Roads, Jason Ed- wards, A Little Norsk, Wayside Court- ships, Crumbling Idols, The Trail of the Gold Seekers, Captain of the Gray Horse Troop, The Tyranny of the Dark, Money Magic, Boy Life on the Prairie and The Shadow W orld. , Gar’lic, a bulb-bearing herb of the Lily Family and closely allied to the onion and leek. It has an extremely strong odor and taste and is used as a seasoning or, in southern Europe, as a food. The bulb is made up of several smaller bulbs known as cloves and is the source of a bitter drug widely used in tnedicine as a stimulant, and as a rem- edy for spasms and indigestion. The garlic is mentioned in the Old Testament (Num. «i, 5) as being part of the food furnished to the Israelites while in bond- age in Egypt. Garnet, a class of glasslike minerals which occur in mica, slate, limestone and granite, or as a secondary form in lava and serpentine, being red, brown, green, black or yellow. Those stones which are transparent and red are known as car- buncles. The presence of aluminum in- creases the value of garnet, and the best grades of this variety are valuable for jewelry. The gems are classified as Syr- ian, Bohemian and Singhalese, not to indicate their geographical origin, but to designate their value. Inferior grades of garnet are ground and used for pol- ishing other precious stones. Deposits occur in Brazil, Peru, Ceylon, Bohemia, Siberia and Syria, the finest coming from Syria. | Gar’nishment, a process of law by which the wages, goods or other prop- erty of a debtor which are in the posses- sion of a third party may be seized by the creditor and applied to his claim. The garnishment consists of a legal no- GARRISON tice to the party owing the wages or holding the property not to pay the debtor or turn over the property to him. Garnishment is carefully guarded by laws in each state. It can be applied only to a debt owing at the time it is made, and in most states the debt must amount to $10 or more. A judgment given by a Federal court cannot be gar- nished in a state court. - Garonne, Ga’ron’, a river of the southwest of France. It rises at the base of Mt. Maladetta, in the Pyrenees, in the Val d’Aran (Spain), enters France in the Department of Haute-Garonne, flows northward and empties into the At- lantic Ocean at Pointe de Grave. It is © 400 m. long and is navigable beyond Tou- louse. The tributaries are numerous and an area of about 38,000 sq. m. is drained. The frequent overflows are highly de- structive. By means of the Canal du Midi communication with the Atlantic and Mediterranean is maintained. Gar’rick, David (1717-1779), an Eng- lish actor and theatrical manager, born in Hereford. He studied at Lichfield, then at Edial under Samuel Johnson, who was seven years his senior. The two set out for London together, and Garrick’s career as an actor began in 1741. His daring substitution of natu- ralness in voice and acting for the stately, artificial declamation of the old actors gained the applause of the critics as well as the large audiences. He was manager of Drury Lane Theater from 1747 until 1776, and this period marks a revival of Shakespearean drama and a reform of | the English stage, for which much credit is due to Garrick. He wrote farces and comedies without great success, but as an actor he was vivacious and versatile to an extraordinary degree, and was un- equalled in expression and in passionate roles. Gar’rison, William Lloyd (1805- 1879), an American journalist and anti- slavery reformer, born in Newburyport, Mass. At 14 years of age he became apprentice in the office of the Newbury- port Herald, where he remained until he was of age. When 16 years old he plot GARTER, ORDER OF THE / 4 began to write for the paper on the slay- ery question and aroused much interest. At the end of his apprenticeship he be- came editor of the Newburyport Free Press, where he was one of the first to publish poems from the pen of the then unknown Whittier. In 1827 Garrison became editor of the National Philan- thropist, published in Boston, the first American temperance journal; in 1828 | he edited the Journal of the Times, in the interest of the reelection of John Quincy Adams; and in 1829 he became the part- ner of Benjamin Lundy, a Quaker abo- litionist, in conducting the Genius of Universal Emancipation, a journal estab- lished to advocate the immediate aboli- tion of slavery. In this publication he was so outspoken that he was imprisoned - for libel. : Upon his release Garrison immediately began to lecture against slavery, and founded The Liberator, which contin- ued for 35 years and was uncompromis- ing in its demands for the abolition of slavery. In 1832 appeared his Thoughts on African Colonization, and in 1834 he was influential in the organization of the American Anti-Slavery Society. He twice visited England in the interests of abolition and was warmly welcomed by philanthropists there. He had the great reward of living to see the accomplish- ment of the object to which he had de- voted his life, and in 1865 the Anti-Slav- ery Society was dissolved, with its mis- sion fulfilled. His friends raised and presented him with $30,000 for his sup- port in his old age in recognition of his services; and after his death the city of Boston, through whose streets he had once been dragged with a rope around his body, erected a bronze statue to his memory. Garter, Order of the, the highest order of knighthood in Great Britain. The order was founded by King Edward III in 1349 and is one of the most chiv- alrous orders of Europe, though not the most ancient. It was founded in honor of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, Edward the Confessor and St. George. Since St. George was the patron saint of GARY England, the order is sometimes called the Order of St. George. The member- ship is limited to a small number, and election to the order is one of the highest honors that can be conferred upon Eng- lish nobility. Garter Snake, or Striped Snake; a genus of harmless snakes of the Colu- brid Family, all species of which are found in the United States. It is the commonest of American serpents prob- ably because it is exceedingly prolific; sometimes as many as 75 are produced in one litter. Its body is dark, marked with three yellow lines; the average length is three and one-half feet. The American boy commonly calls this ser- pent the streaked snake. See SERPENT. Gary, Elbert Henry (1846- Piet American judge and financier, born in Wheaton, IIl., and educated at Chicago University. He was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1867, to the bar of the Su- preme Court in 1878 and practiced in Chicago for 25 years. He was general counsel for various corporations and identified himself with organizing the Federal Steel Company, of which he be- came president in 1898. Judge Gary was also connected with the organization of the United States Steel Corporation, of which he became chairman of the board of directors and of the finance commit- tee. Gary, Ind., a city of Lake Co., 26 m. s.e. of Chicago, on the Wabash, the New York) Central, the Pennsylvania and other railroads. Interurban lines also connect with many near-by towns and cities. Gary has unequaled advan- tages of central location, harbor possi- bilities and convenience by rail and water to all markets, especially Chicago’s. The inital plant established in 1906 was the Indiana Steel Company. This was followed by subsidiary plants of «the U. S. Steel Company, American Bridge Company and the American Sheet & Tin Plate Company. These mammoth steel mills are all under the direction of the United States Steel Corporation. They cover over 6,000 acres between the lake front and the North Branch of the Calu- 1132 ‘ } \ Z GAS met River. Among the independent con-. cerns are the Gary Bolt & Screw Com- pany, Gary Metalic Works, Union Drawn Steel Co., Gary Motor Truck and the National Spring Product. The Port- land cement plant is at Gary. Among the public buildings and insti- tutions are the Y. M. C. A., Public Li- brary, Elks’ Home, Jefferson School, Gary’s original educational institution, o re or South. GENTIAN his barbarians destroyed the city. Gen- seric died in 4/7 still in possession of all his conquests, the greatest Vandal of the Vandal kings. See VANDALS. Gentian, Jen’ shan, an autumn-bloom- ing plant of the Gentian Family. It grows chiefly in woods or damp places. The fringed gentian, which is the most’ beautiful species, is an annual herb, bear- ing narrow, opposite leaves on the almost square stems. The flower is a deep violet-blue in color and has a paler pur- ple tube, from which the four fringed lobes spread flatly. The other gentians are more intensely blue in color but less graceful in form. The downy gentian has not the flat- tened lobes, but instead has five sharply- pointed. divisions which open only a short distance. The bottle, or closed, gentian seldom opens at all, but is deeply fringed. This is sometimes found in white or white-lined variations. These gentians are found chiefly in dry hill- sides or pine barrens in the North, West The soapwort gentian is found in more marshy localities, prin- cipally in the North. The blue gentian is the state flower of Wyoming. Bryant’s To the Fringed Gentian and Emily Dickinson’s The Fringed Gentian aptly characterize the species named. Genus, Je’ nus. See Borany, subhead Classification. Geodesy, Je od’e sy, the study of measurements on the earth’s surface which are of such length that the earth must be considered as a sphere. The principles and formulas of spherical trigonometry are made use of, and the instruments employed are the same as those used in surveying. The measure- ments taken are used in making maps of continents or other large areas. : - When Newton announced the law of gravitation and advanced the consequent theory that the earth is flattened at the poles, geodetic surveys were sent out to take measurements of an arc near the equator and of one in polar regions. The result was not only vindication of New- ton’s theory, but also the beginning of modern geodesy. Practical geodesy is GEOGRAPHY at present engaged in the measurement of geodetic arcs necessary in the prep- aration of survey maps. Two of these arcs have been completely measured and a third practically so in the United States, by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. © Geoffrey, Jef ry, of Monmouth (about 1100-about 1154), a Welsh his- torian, born at Monmouth, Wales. In 1152 he was consecrated Bishop of St. Asaph. He is remembered chiefly as author of a famous work in Latin, en- titled History of the Kings of Britain, first circulated about 1139. The author relates the history of the kings of Brit- ain from Brutus, great-grandson of Agéneas, down to Cadwallader. Among the stories given is that of Lear, and the book is also one of the sources of — the legend of King Arthur. See ARTHUR, KING. j Geographic Societies, scientific soci- eties interested especially in advancing the knowledge of geography and in per- fecting that science. The leading geo- graphic societies in the United States are the American Geographical Society with headquarters in New York, which pub- lishes the Bulletin; the National Geo- graphical Society of Washington, D. C., which publishes the National Geographic Magazine; the Geographic Society of Chicago and those of Baltimore and Philadelphia. The Royal Geographical Society of London is the leading organ- ization among societies of this. class. Geog’raphy, the description of the earth, or the science which treats of the earth as the home of man. Until com- paratively recent times geography was confined to a mere description of the earth’s surface, but it has now been de- veloped into a science based upon prin- ciples and laws of its own. Geography now includes within its scope the dis- tribution of all phenomena upon the earth’s surface and the interaction be- tween life and its environment, placing special emphasis upon the influence of environment on man. Geography draws upon geology for a knowledge of the earth’s structure and the history of its 40 1145 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY formation; upon botany for a knowledge of its vegetable life; upon zoology for a knowledge of animal life; and upon ethnology for a knowledge of the human race. Geography lies at the foundation of history, since all movements in hu- man progress have been due primarily to geographic conditions. For conveni- ence of study, geography is usually di- vided into four departments or divisions: (1) mathematical geography; (2) phys- ical geography; (3) political geography ; (4) commercial or economic geography. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. Mathe- matical geography treats of the form, size and motion of the earth, latitude, longi- tude and the change of seasons. It is sometimes called astronomical geogra- phy. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Physical geog- raphy treats of the surface of the earth, the atmosphere and conditions pertain- ing to animal and vegetable life. See PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. POLITICAL AGEOGRAPH Vee olitic al geography treats of man and his work and the political divisions. It is closely related to physical geography. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. This divi- sion treats of industries and commerce, showing especially the conditions upon which the various industries depend and the causes for trade between nations. It is really a subdivision of political geog- raphy, but it has become so important that all recent authorities treat it as a sep- arate department. See EARTH; OCEAN; ATMOSPHERE; WIND; RAIN; CURRENTS, MARINE; SEASONS. Geological Survey of the United States, a bureau of the department of the interior. Its function is to prepare maps of public lands; to classify these lands ; to investigate the geological struc- ture and mineral resources of the coun- try; and to survey irrigable lands be- longing to the government. For some- time previous to 1879 this work was carried on, to a certain extent, by four independent surveys working under the general government. In that year these organizations were consolidated and made a part of the interior department. GEOLOGY The bureau is in charge of a director, who is required to submit an annual re- port of the plans and operations of the survey to the secretary of the interior. Pamphlets containing information as to the results of investigations are pub- lished from time to time, which tthe bureau distributes free of charge to all persons interested. Maps are also pub- lished and these can be obtained at small cost. Geology, Je ol’ a sy, the science which treats of the formation of the earth as revealed in the rocks. The history of the formation and development of the earth is written in the rocks constitut- ing its crust, and it is the work of the geologist to read and interpret this his- tory. The record is far from complete, and in this respect the geologist meets difficulties similar to those of. the his- torian in deciphering an ancient manu- script who finds here and there a page missing. Again, in order to interpret this rock-written history, the geologist must bring numerous other sciences to his aid, especially botany, physics, chem- istry, zoology and astronomy. With the aid of these he is able to compare the composition of the earth with that of other bodies in the solar system; to trace the evolution of plant and animal life through the succeeding geologic ages; and to determine the physical forces that have wrought the various geologic changes. In pursuit of their work, geol- ogists are guided by two fundamental principles: (1) the age of the earth is very great; (2) in the processes and forces in operation at present, we may look for illustrations of most of the changes of the past. | AGE OF THE EartH. Since the geo- logical records are found only in the rocks, geology cannot scientifically ac- count for the origin of the earth. What- ever is attempted toward the solution of this problem is speculative theory. But that the time which has elapsed from the formation of the oldest rock to the pres- ent is very long, there is abundant evi- dence. The foliowing illustrations show how geologists arrive at this conclusion. 1146 at BAN Ksfa D Beaufort Sea FP QUEEN Ae. (S.Q San Francisco | 4 JaMalca> HAE es 0 Sr = —— aribbean Sea *, C EQUATOR 0 i _MARQUESAS 1$, | | =f, LOW =e ARCHIPELAGO ek TAHITI eee mv PUTCAIRN = > EASTER 1h bes} . e 40 } FALKLAND 1S . } (Port Stanley ‘ Punta Arenas = set, ABSOUTH GEORGIA THE WORLD 60/ GALL’S STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION Re af Se: SOUTH ORKNEYS COLONIAL POSSESSIONS United States Portugal Great Britain Spain France : Netherlands Former German] Italy Colonies Countries having foreign possessions are colored )|as8 above; this color scheme is extended to include Africa and_Asia, Hammond’s 8 x 11 Map of The World Copyright by C.8, Hammond & Co.,N.Y. 140° 120° 100° g0°Longitude 60° West 40° from 20°Greenwich 0° Lo: = “FRANZ JOSEF © LAND=- fe) 0 Sa NEW,SIBERIA, oe ~ Nordenskiold Sea, SS PELE ON INTO RARTENE I ONC OTE ONY Nikolaiefsk’ Pe) 45 ° 40 |f ay? SShanghai: East china PBONIN 18. 5 Jap.) =o ee FORMOSA | Ol ong | 20 {MARIANNE 1SJ WAKE Teg (3 U8: WALKER Inq | > Gap.) (2-8) (U-8.) 8 Ea C EE A (U.8.) a «ved APA NE SIE —— * GAROLINE tB, “(apy Se (Jap.) | Howipnn 1.(0-8.) | | 0° R «C_H. BRITISH “ee, BAKER 1,(US4) , iN = PAN EW BRITAIN ARCHIPELAGO ++ PHOENIX IS*« | Br.) *, LAGOON OR MA TE : : ANDAT BY SALOMON 18s *) ELLICE Is. bored ‘s ~ ° Ke, ee a = SS = J \ Coral Se ON SAMDA 18. yh DAG ASCAR yy NEW HEBRIDES, = ‘05? yananariva 3; Townsville 2 a 2. id e - w® MAURITIUS Aci ' se z| REUNICN tA Ki sNORFOLK 1. {LORD HOWE 1. TASM PKeacueten “CAMPBELL 1. O ENDERBY_LAND ® BALLENY 1S, . ———— ; carte i AC ; KING GEORGE. Ve LAND y > OATES LAND [>> SOUTH VICTORIA LAND 520° East 40° from 60°Greenwich 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° o eetepeeekameder GEOLOGY We see water wearing away the loose ‘earth and carrying the particles down the streams to lakes and to the sea, where they form sediment on the bottom and gradually fill up the lake or make the gulf or bay more shallow. When first deposited, the sediment is soft mud; in the course of years it becomes harder, and possibly in a century or more it is changed to solid rock. There are ex- tensive formations of this sort of rock and in some cases they are 40,000 ft. in depth, and even if the process in the past was much more rapid than now, it must have taken 100,000,000 years to build these rocks. There are also ex- tensive formations of rock, consisting almost entirely of the fossils of minute animals, and when the slow growth of coral formations at the present time is considered, the conclusion is easily reached that the time required for form- ing these rocks is little, if any, less than that required for the other class. In tracing the evolution of plant and animal life from the oldest fossils, the same con- clusion is also reached; namely, that the age of the earth is very great, so great in fact that it cannot be accurately esti- mated. Geologists, therefore, have given widely different estimates, ranging from 20,000,000 to over 100,000,000 years. GeroLocic Forces. The forces which have caused geologic changes and are still causing them are air and water (See EROSION) ; gravity, chemical action and life. Chemical change is constantly tak- ing ‘place; rocks are being disintegrated _ and changed into other substances. We have already referred to the work of minute animals in forming rock, and wherever the coral polyp is found, rock is being formed in a similar manner. Plants also decompose rock and extract from its elements most of their food; that these forces operated in the past much more rapidly than they do now in the same localities, is seen by the exten- sive deposits of coal in the cool tem- perate regions, like the United States, Nova Scotia and Alaska. The fossils in these localities also tell us that at this time they supported plants and animals GEOLOGY similar to species now found in the tropical waters. CLASSES OF Rocks. The rocks form- ing the earth’s crust are divided into three classes according to their forma- tion. These are: Sedimentary, or those formed by the action of water, as described above. Sandstone arranged in layers and strati- fied limestone are good illustrations. Igneous, or those formed by heat. The igneous rocks were once in a molten state and solidified. Most of them are crystalline. Quartz, granite and basal are good examples. | Metamorphic, or those rocks formed by water and having their appearance ~ and structure changed by heat. Marble and slate are the best illustrations of this class. ARRANGEMENT OF ForMaTIoNs. If the rocks had remained as they were formed, the oldest would be at the bot- tom and the most recent at the surface of the earth’s crust. Such, however, is not the case. Repeated foldings and breakings of the earth’s crust while cool- ing threw up high ridges, in some places forming mountains, and made deep de- pressions in others, forming valleys. In this way the layers of rock were folded and often broken, and in places molten matter was forced out and flowed over sedimentary rocks, thus forming igneous rock on top of them. In many places the older formations are on or near the surface, while those of more recent date are underneath. The relative ages of the strata are determined by their fossils ; hence the practical geologist has little difficulty in determining the system to which any formation belongs, let its posi- tion be what it will. CLASSIFICATION. . The different for- mations follow the same order in Europe and America, and so far as known in the other continents. The fossils in each formation indicate the most important forms of animal and vegetable life dur- ing that period, and geologists have di- vided the earth’s history into eras and . systems. While the European and Amer- ican classifications agree in the main, 1147 GEOLOGY they differ in minor particulars. The classification here given is that adopted by the United States Geological Survey. ‘World-wide systems of strata cor- responding to periods of the same names, U. S. Geological Survey usage 1903. Quaternary Tertiary Cretaceous Mesozoic | Jurassic Triassic Carboniferous Devonian Paleozoic) Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Proterozoic: Algonkian Azoic: Archean Divisions OF GEoLocy. The various lines of geological research have caused the science to be divided into a number of branches, the most important of which are: Historical Geology, which gives an ac- count of the development of the science from its earliest conception. Geognosy, the division which includes the study of the substances of which the earth is made, as the rocky crust, the water and the atmosphere. Dynamic Geology, which treats chiefly of the forces which cause and have in the past caused geologic changes. Structural Geology, which investigates the structure of the earth’s crust and tries to account for the cattses which have placed the formations in their pres- ent position. Phystographic Geology. This is also called Surface Geology, and is concerned with changes now taking place in the surface. It is practically the same as physiography. Economic Geology. This treats of economic phases, such as the location of ore deposits and of marble, slate, sand- stone and other rock suitable for build- ing or other purposes. Consult Heilprin, The Earth and its Story; Shaler, Out- lines of the Earth’s History and Aspects of the Earth; Tarr, Economic Geography of the United States, See PHYSICAL Eras Cenozoic | 1148 GEOMETRY GEOGRAPHY; MINERALOGY; EARTH ; GEYSER; VOLCANO; GLACIAL PERIOD. Geometry, Je om’e try, the branch of mathematics which treats of extent as represented by solids, surfaces, lines and points and their relations to each other. It was called by the ancients a perfect science, since it is made up of statements of facts which are not only proved true in one instance but are true for all time. The laws of physics may be changed by the introduction of new forces and chemical experiments may — fail through temporary changes of con- dition, but the statements of geometry are always true. The name geometry is derived from two words meaning “to measure the earth” and the name indicates the possi- ble beginnings of the science. When the annual overflow of the Nile washed away the artificial boundaries of a man’s land and even changed the natural land- marks, a system of mensuration which included geometric computations of area were necessary to restore to each his own amount of land. The Pyramids, also, show that the Egyptians early knew the rudiments of geometry. The Egyptian communities included men profession- ally known as “rope-stretchers” who bore ropes divided by knots into three sections of six, eight and ten feet, re- spectively, or corresponding lengths. Their occupation consisted in the con- structing of right angles by making of the rope a triangle whose sides of six and eight feet respectively would include a right angle, since the sum of the squares of these sides equaled the square of the third side. The truth of this statement about the relation of the sides of a right triangle was not demonstrated, however, until the time of Pythagoras, whose name is still given to the theorem to which he gave the first proof. Plato, Aristotle, Archi- medes and Euclid, also of the schools of Greek philosophers, discussed geometri- cal questions and organized the science. Euclid divided the subject into 13 books and preceded each by preliminary axioms and definitions. LEuclid’s plan was to \ 1 4 ¥ 7 7 ‘ E # i © a aie — a a ee ae GEOMETRY prove theorems only after the figure con- cerned was accurately constructed by means of the straight edge and the com- pass: the modern tendency is to assume that figures may be drawn or construc- tions made, and proofs are then sought for all assumptions that may be made. In many localities geometry is still spoken of as Euclid, though the name applies only. when the old theory is assumed. | ae > 4 Dg i ‘ . Pea ee A F LRAT RTO 4 ROPE TRIANGLE All mathematicians, Gauss, Legendre, Descartes, Helmholtz, Klein and those of distinctly modern times, have given great attention to geometry, but owing to the nature of the subject greater change has come about in the method of teaching than in the subject matter. Geometry is divided into several de- partments: plane geometry, which deals with lines and angles lying in the same plane; solid geometry, which treats of GEORGE I constructions of three dimensions; higher geometry, which treats of conic sections, curved lines and bodies gen- erated by means of curved lines; and analytic geometry, which makes use of the coordinates and the principles de- rived therefrom. George, the name of several kings of Great Britain and Ireland, belonging to the House of Hanover. George l succeeded to the throne in accordance with the Act of Settlement of 1701, and was succeeded by his son, George II. Both of these kings were German and cared more for Continental affairs than for the interests of England. It was due to their indifference that cabinet government originated and gained so much power in the country. GeorcE IIT (1738-1820), the grandson of George II, was born in London and received an English education. He be- came king in 1760 and the next year married Charlotte Sophia of Mecklen- burg-Strelitz. George III was deter- mined to recover the royal power lost by the indifference of the two former kings. The chief events of his reign were: the war by which the American colonies gained their independence; the formation of the Triple Alliance under the ministry of William Pitt and includ- ing Great Britain, Prussia and Holland; the war between England and France; the union of Ireland with England; the long war with France, ending with the Battle of Waterloo; and the beginning of colonization in Australia. During his last years George III was hopelessly insane. GeorcE IV (1762-1830), the eldest son of George III. He became prince regent in 1811, and king in 1820. England was prosperous during his reign and held a high place in European politics. In 1829, on the strong representations of the Duke of Wellington, the King withdrew his opposition to Catholic Emancipation. George I (1845-1913), the second son of Christian IX of Denmark, and King of Greece from 1863 to 1913. He was elected king by the National Greek As- sembly after the deposition of Otho, and 1149 a" GEORGE V began to reign on Oct. 31, 1863. Under his democratic rule Greece advanced rap- idly. The King took an active interest in the development of the army, which he brought to a high degree of efficiency. Greece bore a prominent part in the Balkan War which broke out in 1912, and after the capture of Saloniki, Turkey, King George made that city his place of residence. Here, on March 18, 1913, he was assassinated by an anar- chist. He was succeeded by his son, Constantine I, the commander of the Greek forces in the Balkan War. The Queen Dowager, Olga, is the niece of the former Czar of Russia, Alexan- der II. George V (1865- ), King of Eng- land from 1910. He was the second son of King Edward VII and, with his elder brother, began his education under a tutor in Sandringham. Later he became a naval cadet and spent several years cruising, advancing through the posts of sublieutenant and lieutenant to the final position of commander of H. M. S. Thrush. Upon the death of his brother, the heir apparent, he left the navy to devote himself to the preparation of his later duties. In 1893 he married Princess Victoria Mary, daughter of Francis, Duke of Teck. When his father as- cended the throne, he became Duke of Cornwall, and soon afterward, with Princess Mary, he made a tour of the colonies, stopping in Australia to open the first Parliament of the new Com- monwealth of Australia. Though a stu- dent and fond of a quiet life, King George has shown himself a practical and progressive ruler, interested espe- cially in the organization and develop- ment of Britain’s colonial possessions. Edward Albert, the eldest son and heir apparent to the throne, was born June 23, 1894, George, Henry (1839-1897), political economist, born in Philadelphia, Pa. A seafaring life was planned for him, but when he arrived at California, instead of going to sea he found employment as a printer, and later became interested in social and political subjects, and was GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC one of the founders of the Post of San Francisco. In 1876 he was made state inspector of gas; and three years later he published his book, Progress and Poverty. He moved to New York in 1880. In 1881 he visited Europe, and subsequently made several other visits both to the British Isles and to the Con- tinent. In 1886 he was nominated for mayor of New York by the Union Labor Party, but failed of election. He estab- lished the Weekly Standard, of which he continued to be the editor until 1890. Mr. George also lectured extensively on political economy. He was one of the chief promulgators of the single-tax the- ory, and also the author of several books on political economy. Among them may be mentioned the Land Question, Social Problems and Protection or Free Trade. See Tax, subhead Single Tax. George Eliot. See ELiot, GEORGE. George Junior Republic, an indus- trial institution near Freeville, N. Y. It is a republic in miniature, with boys and girls as citizens, and in its organization it resembles the United States Govern- ment, with executive control vested in three departments, the legislative, the judicial and the executive. It was founded July 10, 1895, by William Reu- ben George of New York City. For four years he had been in charge of the children’s summer outings arranged by the New York Tribune, and during this time he had become interested in meth- ods of conducting charities which would do away with the danger of pauperiza- tion and indiscriminate giving. He experimented for some time with trial communities, and a permanent colony was finally established. The aim of the George Junior Republic is clearly indicated by its motto, “Nothing with- out labor,” which has become the guid- ing principle of all the members of the community. About 225 children are in attendance. They are dependents or de- linquents, many of them, and are gath- ered chiefly from the poorer districts of the large cities throughout the country. The entrance age varies from 12 to 18 years, and already at this early age many 1150 Soa A RRO Cs ahieh ORERERIT 2S z E ms aa) > < sa c4 0 — ) 0 z M > Lr] Se) ad O Lr] Se) THE METROPOLIS OF THE WORLD Population one and one-half times that of Greater New York. Ss Bi 2 se * = Rd ood me Copyright, Underwood & Underwood, N. Y¥. REGENT STREET, LONDON Here are located some of the most fashionable shops. GEORGE, SAINT have manifested marked criminal tend- encies. The method of dealing with these children is one of reform through labor. Opportunities for choosing an occupation are provided and diligent ap- plication to his chosen task is required of each child. Carpentry, plumbing, printing, farm work, blacksmithing, do- mestic service, sewing, cooking and laun- dry work represent the chief activities. Attendance in school is compulsory for children under 16 years, and a high school course prepares those who desire entrance to college. The citizens reside in cottages. Other buildings in the community are a school- house, a library, a store, a bank, work- shops, restaurants and hotels. The aver- age age of the children in residence is about 17. Mr. George acted as presi- dent during the first year, but in 1896 this privilege was transferred to the citizens. The right of suffrage is granted to all, but children under 15 years of age are placed in the charge of an older resident. By this method of self-government, each child is taught the principles which govern a self-controlled and moral life. Since the establishment of this com- munity, several other organizations with similar aim and scope have been formed. The Carter Junior Republic at Reading- ton, Pa., and the National Junior Re- public near Annapolis Junction, Md., are models of the George Junior Republic. In 1908 the National Association of Junior Republics was formed. The pres- ident was Mr. George, and the purpose of the association was the supervision of the establishment in each state of the. Union of at least one republic modeled on the government of the state in which it is found. Republics are now in exist- ence at several places. George, David Lloyd. Grorce Davip. George, Saint, the patron saint of England, Genoa and Russia. His life is so obscured by legend that it is diffi- cult, if not impossible, to be sure even of his identity. But the probabilities seem tao be that he was born of Christian par- See Ltoyp, GEORGIA ents of Cappadocia, and became a soldier and the patron saint of soldiers. He is also the patron saint of chivalry. It is related that he once slew a dragon who was about to capture and devour a royal lady of charming beauty. St. George’s Day in England was fixed, in 1222, as the 23rd of April, to be observed as a national holiday. In 1350 he was made patron of the Order of the Garter by Ed- ward III. The red cross of St. George is on the white background of the Union Jack of England. George Washington University, at Washington, D. C. (1821). Chartered. by Congress as Columbian College, and in 1874 as Columbian University, the insti- tution has borne its’ present name since 1904. It is nonsectarian and coeduca- tional. Its library of about 55,000 vol- umes is supplemented by some 34 govern- mental libraries of the city, which con- tain more than 2,000,000 bound volumes. Students also have access to the numer- ous, extensive and valuable collections in’ the museums of the city,and enjoycertain advantages obtainable only at the capital of the nation. The university offers courses for undergraduates in College of Engineering, in Columbian College and in the Teachers College; it also maintains graduate courses and departments of law, medicine and pharmacy. The en- rollment includes some 1,800 women and about 2,600 men. In addition to its regu- lar days course there are many evening classes. Georgia, THe Empire STATE OF THE SoutH, one’ of ithe . South’ “Atlante States, is bounded on the n. by Tennes- see and N. Carolina, on the n.e. by S. Carolina, on the e. by S. Carolina and the Atlantic, on the s. by Florida and on the w. by Alabama. The Chattahoochee River forms about one-half of the western boundary. ) SizE. The length of the state from north to south is 320 m.. The breadth is 254 m. and the area is 59,265 sq. m., of which 540 sq. m. are water. Georgia is the largest of the South Atlantic States, a little larger than Florida, about the size of Illinois and Delaware combined oS} GEORGIA and a little larger than England and Wales, and the 20th state in area. PoputATIon. In 1920 the population was 2,895,832. From 1910 to 1920 there Was a gain in population of 286,/11, or 11.0 per cent. There are 49.3 inhabi- tants to the square mile and the state’s rank in population is 12. SurFACE. Extending inland from the southern coast is a great plain known as South Georgia and having an area of about 35,000 sq. m. This plain extends northward to the Fall Line, which passes through Augusta, Milledgeville and Macon, reaching the western boundary at Columbus. Along the coast and about 20 m. inland the elevation does not ex- ceed 10 ft., but as we go westward and northward the surface rises until at the Fall Line it has an altitude ranging from 500 to 600 ft. In the southeastern cor- ner of the state is the Okefenokee Swamp, part of which is. in Florida. That portion north of the Fall Line is known as Middle and North Georgia. It is divided into four surface regions, each having distinct characteristics. The first of these is the Piedmont Plateau, which extends from the Fall Line to the Blue Ridge Mountains. This region is characterized by low hills separated by valleys formed by erosion. The next di- vision is the Blue Ridge Mountain re- gion. This range of mountains crosses the state from northeast to southwest and forms one of its most striking phys- ical features, though the mountains are not so high here as in Virginia and North Carolina. Beyond the Blue Ridge is the Appalachian and Great Valley re- gion, characterized by parallel ranges of low mountains separated by deep valleys. In the extreme northwest is a part of the Cumberland Plateau containing Lookout and Sand mountains, the former lying partly in Tennessee. Rivers, Georgia is divided into three drainage areas. The eastern part of the state is drained into the Atlantic Ocean. The principal rivers from north to south are the Savannah, which forms the boundary between Georgia and South Carolina; the Altamaha, formed by the GEORGIA Oconee and the Ocmulgee and having . the Ohoopee for its tributary ; and the Satilla, which is in the southern part of the state. The Chattahoochee, south- east of the Blue Ridge and parallel tc the mountain range, drains the north- central part of the state into the Gulf of Mexico. Its chief tributary, the Ftint, drains the central part. The southern ‘part-of the state is drained by the Allap- aha and the Ocklockonee. A small sec- tion of the northwest is drained into the Tennessee, and the Great Valley is drained by the Coosa, which flows into the Alabama. ScENERY. Northern Garand presents a beautiful landscape in which moun- tains, hills and valleys alternate in the most pleasing manner. The valleys are highly fertile and contain valuable farms. The mountains are clothed with forests and the streams are clear and rapid. In the northwestern part of the state are a number of caves, some of which are more than locally interesting. Saltpeter Cave near Kingston has large chambers, some of them 30 ft. high. Chickamau- ga National Park is surrounded by hills and mountains and is of interest because of its beauty as well as its historical as- sociations. Tallulah Falls in the north- east are of unusual beauty and pictur- esqueness, giving to this region the title, “Switzerland of the South.” CrimMATE. In the northern part of the state the summers are cool and delight- ful and the winters mild, making this region an attractive resort both in sum- mer and in winter. In midwinter there is considerable snow on the mountains, but in the valleys it soon disappears. The central part of the state has a some- what warmer climate than the northwest. In the lowlands of southern Georgia the summers are exceedingly hot and in win- ter snow is practically unknown. The rainfall varies, being heaviest in the north. Its average for the entire state is about 49 inches. MINERALS AND Mininc. A remark- able bed of clay several miles wide ex- tends across the state from Augusta to — Columbus. This clay is free from im- 1152 eeeri- te dvr : ge GEORGIA purities and is suitable for making brick and tile. Below the Fall Line are found extensive beds of clay suitable for glazed brick, pottery and terra cotta. Marble of excellent quality occurs in large quan- tities in Gilmer, Pickens and Cherokee counties. The famous “verde antique” can be duplicated from these quarries. ° The largest quarries are in Pickens County. Georgia is the second marble- producing state in the Union and con- tains more asbestos than any other state, while granite, gneiss, limestone, and bauxite (aluminum ore) are found in large quantities. Manganese, corun- dum, coal and iron are also important. Gold is found in a number of localities, but is not relatively important. Slate, soapstone, graphite, lead and copper also occur. When the demand for these ntin- erals warrants they will all be exploited. Forests AND LuMBER. Georgia has over 17,000 sq. m. of pine forests, be- sides large forests of cypress, live oak, poplar, ash, beech, chestnut, maple and other woods. Pine, cypress and palmetto occur in the lowlands of the Coastal Plain, but most of the other forests are im the mountainous sections. Lumbering is one of the leading industries and there is about $12,000,000 invested in it. Georgia is the foremost lumber-produc- ing state in the South. It is also the leading state in the production of tar, turpentine and rosin. _ AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the chief industry and in central Georgia fully three-fourths of the land is under cul- tivation. There are many small farms, especially in the northern part, but in the middle and southern parts many of the large plantations are held together. In the cotton regions, the farms are mostly worked by negro tenants. A great vari- ety of crops is produced. Soil. The northern part of the state has a dark red soil which is very fertile. The soil in the lowlands is deep and also fertile. Much of that in the central part of the state is a yellow loam. Products. Cotton and corn are the chief crops of the central and of the southern part of the state. Cotton is the GEORGIA leading crop and averages about 2,000,- 000 bales, making Georgia the second cotton-producing state. On the islands and along the coast the long-fiber, or sea- island, cotton is raised. Rice is grown on the lowlands, and in the southern part of the state sugar cane of excellent qual- ity is produced. Farther inland apples, peaches, pears, cherries and other kinds of small fruits are raised. Large quan- tities of wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, clover and timothy are also produced in the central and northern sections. In some sections market gardening is profitable. Excellent pasturage is found in the mountainous regions and here live stock is an important source of income. MANUFACTURES. Georgia is the lead- ing manufacturing state of the South, both in variety and extent of her manu- factures. Since 1890 manufacturing in- dustries have increased very rapidly. The production of cotton goods leads all other industries. The rapid development and success of this industry have been almost phenomenal. The manufacture of hosiery and other knit goods is also im- portant, and woolen goods are produced to considerable extent. The manufac- ture of lumber and lumber products, tar, turpentine and rosin, furniture, cars, car- riages, brick, tile and pottery, chemicals and paint, butter and cheese and the canning of fruits and vegetables are other important industries, from each of which a good revenue is derived. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. Georgia has over 6000 m. of railway. The leading systems are the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Southern, the Central of Georgia and the Georgia railroads. There are also a number of other lines so that all sections of the state have good railway facilities. Numerous electric lines are found con- necting cities and their suburban towns. The chief railway centers are Atlanta, Savannah, Augusta, Macon and Colum- bus. Georgia has an extensive trade with other states and some trade direct with foreign countries. The exports consist of fruits and other agricultural produce, | 1153 GEORGIA lumber and lumber products, tar, turpen- tine and rosin, cotton and woolen goods and other manufactures. The imports include raw material for manufactures, manufactured goods and such _ food- stuffs as are not raised with ge: within the state. GOVERNMENT, The Pee constitu- tion was adopted in 1877; the rights of the people are carefully safeguarded and the Legislature is prevented from mak- ing extravagant appropriations. The ex- ecutive department consists: of the gov- ernor, attorney-general, comptroller-gen- eral, treasurer, state superintendent of schools, commissioner of agriculture, state geologist and state librarian. The chief boards are those of railway com- missioners, prison commissioners and ed- ucation. All these officers are elected for two years. The Legislature consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The senators are apportioned among districts and the representatives among counties according to population. Members of each house are chosen for two years. The sessions are annual and limited to 50. days. The judicial department comprises a Supreme Court consisting of one chief justice and five associate justices elected by the people for six years, a Court of Appeals of three justices elected for six years, and a Superior Court in each judi- cial district. The judges of the Supe- rior Court are elected by the people for four years. EpucaTion. The state maintains a complete system of public schools which is constantly increasing in efficiency. The schools are in charge of the state superintendent of schools and state board of education. The school fund is derived from both state and local taxation. In the cities and towns graded schools with high schools are maintained for white and for colored children. The Univer- sity of Georgia at Athens is at the head of the educational system and maintains an official relation with the following state institutions: North Georgia Agri- cultural College at Dahlonega; Georgia GEORGIA School of Technology at Atlanta; Geor- gia Medical College at Augusta; Geor- gia Normal and Industrial College for Colored Youth at Savannah; Georgia Normal School (for both sexes) at Ath- ens; Georgia Normal and Industrial Col- lege (for girls) at Milledgeville; South ‘Georgia Normal School at Valdosta. Also 12 district agricultural high schools. The higher denominational institutions of the state are Emory University at Atlanta; Mercer University at Macon; Oglethorpe University at Atlanta; and the following colleges for women: Ag- nes Scott College at Decatur ; Lucy Cobb Institute at Athens; Wesleyan Female College at Macon; Cox College at Col- lege Park; Brenau College at Gaines- ville ; Bessie Tift College at Forsyth; Sotithern Female College. at La Grange; Andrew Female College at Cuthbert ; and Shorter College at Rome. STATE INSTITUTIONS. ‘The state san- atorium for the insane is at Milledge- ville, the Georgia Institute for the Deaf and Dumb is at Cave Spring and the Academy for the Blind at Macon. There are also a number of orphan homes, re- formatories and industrial institutions under private control. Cities. The chief cities are Atlanta, the capital; Savannah, Augusta, Macon, Columbus, Athens and Brunswick. History. Georgia was named for King George II. The territory, wan- dered over by De Soto and by Ribaut, belonged originally to Carolina, as granted by Charles II. When Carolina became a royal province, this strip was reserved as crown propeity. James Oglethorpe, aiming to establish a colony for honest debtors and bank- rupts, came from England with 35 fami- lies, and founded Savannah in 1733. The colony slowly prospered under a most liberal government, and in the war of 1739 the refugees were able hero- ically, though vainly, to oppose the Span- ish. When, however, Oglethorpe re- turned to England i in 1743, the colony de- clined under trustee rule. It was mainly settled by emigration from Virginia and N. Carolina, during the years immedi- 1154 GEORGIA ately following the Revolution in 1752 ‘and it became a royal province contin- uing till the Revolution. In 1763 the boundaries were extended to include Mississippi. The British in 1778 con- quered Georgia, over which they rein- stated a royal governor. In July, the same year, the state had signed the Ar- ticles of Confederation. It accepted the Constitution in January, 1780. About 1825 a heated controversy took place be- tween the United States and Georgia re- garding the Creek Indians in the state. It was finally settled by removing the Creeks to Indian Territory. ; Despite the strenuous opposition of Alexander H. Stephens and others, Geor- gia withdrew from the Union, Jan. 18, 1861. The state suffered severely during the Civil War and reconstruction was slow. It reentered the Union in July, 1870. Recent development of Georgia’s resources is making her one of the most prosperous states in the Union. GoverNors. John A. Treutlen, 1777- 1778; John Houston, 1778-1779; John Wereat, 1779; George Walton, 1779- 1780; Richard Hawley, 1780; Stephen Heard, 1780-1781 ; Myrick Davies, 1781; Nathan Brownson, 1781-1782; John Martin, 1782-1783; Lyman Hall, 1783- 1785; Samuel Elbert, 1785-1786; Ed- ward Telfair, 1786-1787; George Mat-° thews, 1787-1788; George Handley, 1788-1789; George Walton, 1789-1790; Edward Telfair, 1790-1793; George Matthews, 1793-1796; Jared Irwin, 1796-1798; James Jackson, 1798-1801; David Emanuel, 1801; Josiah Tattnall, 1801-1802; John Milledge, 1802-1806; Jared Irwin, 1806-1809; David BB. Mitchell, 1809-1813; Peter Early, 1813- 1815; David B. Mitchell, 1815-1817; William Rabun, 1817-1819; Matthew Talbot, 1819; John Clarke, 1819-1823; George M. Troup, 1823-1827; John For- syth, 1827-1829; George R. Gilmer, 1829-1831; Wilson Lumpkin, 1831-1835; William Schley, 1835-1837; George Gil- mer, 1837-1839; Charles .J. McDonald, 1839-1843 ; George W. Crawford, 1843- 1847; George W. B. Towns, 1847-1851; Howell Cobb, 1851-1853; Herschell V. GEORGIAN BAY Johnson, 1853-1856; Joseph E. Brown, | 1857-1865; James Johnson, 1865; Charles J. Jenkins, 1865-1868; Thomas H. Ruger, 1868; Rufus B. Bullock, 1868- 18/1; Benjamin Conley, 1871-1872; James M. Smith, 1872-1876; Alfred H. Colquitt, 1876-1882; Alexander H. Ste- phens, 1882-1883; James S. Boynton, 1883; Henry D. McDaniel, 1883-1886 ; John B. Gordon, 1886-1890; W. J. Northen, 1890-1894; W. Y. Atkinson, 1894-1898; A. D. Candler, 1898-1902; Joseph M. Terrell, 1902-1907; Hoke Smith, 1907-1909; Joseph M. Brown, — 1909-1911; Hoke Smith, 1911; Joseph M. Brown, 1911-1913; J. M. Slaton, 1913-1915: Nat E. Harris, 1915-1917; H. M. Dorsey, 1917-1921; T. W. Hard- wick, 1921—. Georgia, Strait of, the main section of that part of the North Pacific Ocean which separates Vancouver Island from the Continent of North America, com- municating indirectly with the ocean through Queen Charlotte Sound in the north and the Strait of Juan de Fuca in the south. It is about 250 m. long, aver- ages about 25 m. in width and has sound- ings to the depth of over i000 ft. It re- ceives the Fraser River and smaller streams. Georgia, University of, an institu- tion of collegiate grade located at Athens. It was chartered in 1785 and from this viewpoint is the oldest state university in the country. It did not, however, open its doors until 1800. It includes the Franklin College of Liberal Arts, Geor- gia State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, the law school and the graduate school, all located at Athens. There are also a number of colleges lo- cated in different parts of the state which are affiliated with the university. The university is at the head of the educa- tional system of the state, and by the terms of the charter the primary and sec- ondary schools are officially connected with it. The university proper is co- educational. The enrollment is about 1,300. Georgian Bay, an extensive arm of Lake Hurov indenting the Province of 1155 GERANIUM Ontario. A long narrow peninsula par- tially separates it from Lake Huron at the south, and Great Manitoulin Island forms the northwestern boundary. The bay is 120 m. long and 50 m. broad; it has many beautiful islands and its shores are picturesque. Owen Sound and Col- lingwood are the chief ports. Georgian Bay was formerly known as Lake Man- itoulin. Geranium, Je ra’ ni um, a name given to a number of genera of the Geranium Family. The wild geranium, or cranes- bill, is a rough, roadside plant of dry woods or woody roadsides, and flowers in the spring and summer. The stem is straight and brittle, with leaves much- divided and sometimes marked with whit- * CRANESBILL GERANIUM ish spots. The flowers are of a pale magenta or pale blue color and are borne in pairs at the ends of long, branching stems. There are five petals, which are arranged to form a shallow cup. After the flower falls, the dry seed pod length- ens into a slender, pointed spike which gives the plant its common name, cranesbill. : The name geranium has also been gen- erally applied to a common house plant which is really the pelargonium, a plant of a closely-allied genus. These plants are all perennials and natives of the Cape of Good Hope. They are popular for cultivation because they thrive with little GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA care and have luxuriant, fragrant foliage and brilliant, varied flowers. The best- known cultivated pelargoniums are the so-called rose geranium, the ivy-leafed geranium and the Lady Washington geranium, German East Africa, a mandatory of Great Britatn in Africa, formerly a protectorate of Germany, lying between Congo State and the Indian Ocean and bounded on the n. and s. by British pos- sessions. Along the coast the country is flat, but beyond lie lofty mountain chains, traversing the country in irregular ridges and reaching their highest point in the extinct volcano, Kilimanjaro, at the north. Beyond the mountains is an ag- ricultural region drained by numerous rivers and dotted with lakes. The great lakes, Victoria Nyanza, Kivu, Tangan- yika and Nyassa, lie upon its boundaries or partly within them. Agriculture is the chief industry, and fruits, cocoanuts, areca nuts, millet, grains, castor oil, sugar cane, vegetables, tobacco, cotton, vanilla, India rubber, coffee and cocoa are produced. Ivory, gums and sesamun are exported, and in the mountains coal, iron and a little gold are mined. The German Government maintains schools and churches. Population, about 10,- 032,000. German Language. See LANGUAGE, subhead Teutonic Languages. German Silver, a white alloy of cop- per, nickel and zinc. The proportions are generally one part zinc, one part nickel and two parts copper, and when the articles are to be cast or molded, two per cent of lead is added to make the mixture more fusible and ductile. Ger- man silver is harder and tougher than silver or brass, and takes a high polish. It is easily corroded by acids, and espe- cially by vinegar. It it sometimes plated with silver, and with alloys of nickel containing tin and cadmium and known under the names of silveroid, argentoid, nickeline. and navolin _ German Southwest Africa, a man- datory of the Union of South Africa, ‘formerly a German colony, lying between the Portuguese territory and the South 3156 e eA ; — - oe a . te GERMANTOWN, BATTLE OF African Union and washed by the At- lantic Ocean. Walfish Bay, a British possession, lies at the center of its coast. The coast is low and many of the har- bors are sand-blocked. Farther inland are high plateaus advantageous for graz- ing land, and agriculture is the chief oc- cupation. Cattle, sheep, horses, mules, goats, swine and camels are raised. Cop- per and diamonds are mined and ex- ported. Angra Pequefia, the first Ger- man possession in Africa, is on the southern coast ; Windhoek, is the capital. The population is about 83,900. . ' Germantown, Battle of, an important battle of the Revolutionary War, fought Oct. 4, 1777, in a village several miles northwest of Philadelphia. Here the main British force under Howe was stationed and detachments were sent to seize Ft. Mercer and Ft. Mifflin. Aiming to take advantage of this division in troops, Washington advanced upon German- town, at daybreak, in two converging columns. During the engagement a heavy fog arose and, in the confusion which followed, Americans under Ste- phen fired upon Americans under Wayne. The panic that ensued compelled the Americans to retire, but the British loss in killed and wounded was almost equal to that of their opponents. The inge- nuity. of Washington’s attack on Ger- mantown made a great impression on military cities in Europe and was one of the causes of the French alliance. Germany, a country of central Eu- rope, bounded on the north by the North Sea, Denmark and the Baltic Sea; on the east by Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, and Austria; on the south by Czecho-Slo- vakia, Austria, and Switzerland; on the west by France, Luxemburg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The province of East Prussia occupies a’ peculiar position in regard to the rest of the Republic since it is almost surrounded by Poland and is separated from the main body of Ger- many by the free area of Danzig and the northward projecting arm of West Po- land. In area, present Germany com- prises very nearly 171,000 square miles; and contains an estimated population of GERMANY 58,000,000. The line of greatest length extends from southwest to northeast, about 675 miles. Tue Country. The topography of Germany falls naturally into three main divisions: the highlands of the southern part, the secondary mountains or high- land area of the center, and the low- lands in the northern part. Highlands. The Alps do not extend far into Germany. Along the borders of Bavaria the elevation of the highest peaks reach into the region of perpet- ual snow. The Alpine foreland averages 1600 ft. im height, and forms the Ger- man part of the Danube basin. The cen- tral highland region extends from the Carpathians to the Rhine and contains numerous ranges, such as the Riesenge- birge, Vosges, Harz and Erzgebirge. Schneekoppe in the Riesengebirge reaches 5266 ft., and is the highest ele- vation. The valleys are shallow, having been filled by the sediment which ice and constant denudation have removed from the mountains. The general character of the southern part of Germany is broken with ranges of forest clad hills and inter- vening fertile valleys. Lowlands. The northern plain of Ger- many is uniformly low, and merges grad- ually into the lowlands of Netherlands and the plain of Russia on each side. The slope of the country is to the north and northwest, and along the shores of the North Sea there is a low coastal plain. There are numerous sand dunes, but where they do not serve as sufficient protection against the approaching waters it has been found necessary to construct dikes, or sea walls, frequently referred to as the “golden hoop.” The good har- bors are few and the important ports in- clude Hamburg, Bremen, Libeck, Kiel and Stettin. Rivers AND LAKES. There are two river systems of Germany, the northern and the southern, for which the Central Highlands form the watershed. The Rhine is the only stream which crosses these highlands and binds together the two divisions. Its main course is through Germany, but it belongs also te Switzer- EESZ, GERMANY land, where it finds its source, and to Holland, a country formed by its delta. The Danube drains the waters of the southwestern part of Germany into the Black Sea. The Weser, the Elbe and the Ems flow into the North Sea; the Oder Vistula, Pregel and Memel fall into the Baltic. The lakes of the Alpine forelands re- veal distant traces of glacial origin and appear only in those parts which were covered by the immense ice sheet that ' descended from the Alps at the time of _ the Great Ice Age. In the northern low- lands are shallow shore lakes; the Cen- tral Highlands have none of significance. CLIMATE. The chief climatic’ differ- ences of Germany are rather between the east and the west than between the north and the south, for the higher alti- tude of the south counteracts the differ- ences that would naturally arise as a re- sult of the variation in latitude. The cli- mate of western Germany resembles, in general, that of France, and is fairly mild in winter and temperate in summer. In the east it becomes continental, and is severe except near the coast, where it is tempered by the Baltic Sea. The heav- iest rainfall is in the mountainous re- gions. The maximum precipitation is about 28 inches. THE Peopie. The population of Ger- many possess ethnic unity,—they are all Germans. In the days of the empire, there was a Polish element in eastern Germany that persistently clung to its language. But that territory is now a part of New Poland. Ninety per cent of the Germans of Europe are citizens of Germany, Austria being the only other German nation. In Germany itself there are only slight dialectical differences be- tween the inhabitants of North and South Germany, in other words,—low and high German, and there are only slight physical differences—as between Bavarians and the Saxons,—survival of tribal variations in early times. Among the slightly different ethnic strands that unitedly compose the Ger- man people the most noticeable are the Saxons, the Bavarians, and the Prus- GERMANY sians. The common race or subrace from which all the people of Germany diverged was the Teuton,—the people that in very early times inhabited that part of Europe lying to the north of the Alps, west of the Oder to the Rhine, vaguely known by the Romans as Germania. The Saxons are almost pure Teutons. They occupy one of the most fertile regions — of Germany. The Bavarians are racially the most composite people of Germany, being descended from Slavs, earlier Cel- tic people, and Teutonic tribes that en- tered the country from the east and were known as Baivari. The Prussians are the most important element of the Ger- man population. Their original home was East Prussia and they were near kindred to the Lithuanians and the Letts. They derive their name from the Borussi, one of the three cognate tribes living in that section at the opening of our era. In the tenth century they were on the low- lands of the Oder, Vistula, and the Nie- man. In the process of time they became the most powerful group among the Germans. MINERAL AND Forest WEALTH. Hay- ing lost the rich iron fields of Alsace- Lorraine and control of the coal fields of the Saar Basin, in the western part of the Palatinate, the mineral production of the Republic will not be as noticeable as were those of the Empire. But there are still rich. deposits of coal in Westphalia, some in Upper Silesia, Saxony, and Ba- varia. Lignite is produced in many sec- tions and, made into bricketts, is a valu- able products. The known iron fields are not large. Three-fourths of all the iron formerly produced came from Al- sace, now a part of France. The silver mines, however, are among the richest én Europe, and are found chiefly in the highland sections of Prussia and Saxony. Other mineral deposits include rock salt, © potash salt, petroleum—in limited quan- tities —— manganese, sulphur, alphalt, nickel, copper, bismuth, zinc and lead. One-fourth of Germany is covered with forests, as carefully attended to as any field crop, since forestry is a science. In the west the forests are composed of 1158 GERMANY leaf trees, of which the beech is the prin- cipal representative. Further east and in the more rugged sections the conifers,— pines and fir trees—abound. The Black Forest—an extensive region across the Rhine opposite Alsace, is so named be- cause it contains a wealth of evergreen trees. AGRICULTURE. Up to the time of the middle of the 19th century, Germany was pre-eminently an agricultural coun- try. About one-third of the population is now engaged in the pursuit of agricul- ture which is pursued scientifically. Im- proved methods of cultivation and in- creased use of machinery have advanced productivity. The river valleys of the south and west are most fertile. Large crops of cereals and potatoes are raised annually. The production of corn is lim- ited exclusively to the south. Wheat, oats, rye and barley grow in all parts of the country. Other products are flax, hemp, hops, and tobacco. The vine, grown principally in the valleys of the Main and the Saale, the Rhine and the Moselle, yield many million gallons an- nually. The land is divided among large landowners, who control immense es- tates, but many peasants have farms averaging only about five acres in size, used as garden plots. About 86 per cent of the land is worked by owners. Stock breeding is an important industry, and ample opportunity for grazing is afforded by the rich meadows on the marshes bor- dering the North Sea. The horses bred in Mecklenburg, Hanover and other provinces enjoy a wide reputation. One of the most important agricultural prod- ucts is sugar beets. In fact, Germany was the home of sugar beet culture. The greatest attention is given to the scien- tific development of the beet. The selec- tion of mother beets for seed purposes is made with great care. ManuFactures. In the closing years of the Empire Germany was making wonderful advance as a manufacturing nation. But the Republic has lost the rich manufacturing field of the tip of Upper Silesia, her colonies are a thing of the past, her navy is destroyed and GERMANY much of her merchant marine has been given up. One great field of industry— the making of cannons and implements of war, formerly of great importance—is forbidden. But the very inertia of past activity enables Germany to take a prom- inent role among manufacturing nations. The clothing industry is very important and occupies the larger proportion of the laboring population. A close second is the textile industry, the oldest and most important industrial art of the country. Manufacturers of cotton, silk, linen, and flax are prominent industries. Other industries are brewing, printing, type founding, the manufacturing of musical instruments, silver, gold and jewelry work, rubber and gutta-percha goods, clocks and glass and pottery ware. Be- fore the war, the chemical industry was almost a Getman monopoly and the manufacture of drugs, rare chemicals and dyes was very important. Forced by the necessities of war, other nations, especially the United States, learned the secret and will dispute that field in the future. Germany formerly supplied a large part of the world’s potash, but other sources of supply have been found in the United States. COMMERCE. Germany made wonder- ful advance in international trade dur- ing the fifty years of peace the Empire . enjoyed, in fact, her foreign trade in- creased four-fold. Foreign commerce is a matter of scientific investigation. The needs of foreign nations are studied; banking facilities are arranged, methods of shipment are considered and her salesmen are educated for their work. Foremost _ among her imports are cotton, wheat, lumber, copper, petroleum, lard, maize, machinery, meat and dried fruits. The exports consist principally of textiles, chimicals, iron and steel products, scien- tific instruments, jewelry, malt liquors, small wares and gold and silver wares. TRANSPORTATION. The railroad system of Germany is the most extensive in Eu- rope,—about 30,000 miles. Built with an eye for military needs, every important point in the republic can be reached from the capital in 24 hours. The entire system 1159 GERMANY is under the control of the general gov- ernment at least for all of the interstate lines. Allican be taken under such con- trol in times of need. Some lines are di- rectly controlled by the states in which they are situated. The inland water transportation routes were worked out scientifically for purposes of both peace and war, and now advance the interests of the Republic. The principal rivers are navigable for considerable distances. Then canals connect many of them. Thus the Ludwig canal unites the Dan- ube with the Main in Bavaria; the Plauen Canal connects the Elbe with the Havel; the Eider Canal joins the Eider River and the Kiel. Canals enable water- borne commerce to pass from Berlin to Baltic sea ports; from Hamburg to the Rhine cities. GOVERNMENT. Germany’ was provision- ally organized as a republic in Novem- ber, 1918. The constitution was adopted July 31, 1919. Provisions were made for organizing the various grand duchies, duchies, and principalities of the former Empire into more suitably arranged di- visions. At present the four princi- pal states are Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Sax- ony, and Prussia. Each German state must have a republican form of govern- ment. ~All officials are elected on the basis of universal, direct and secret bal- loting. It will be noted that women’s suffrage prevails in Germany. The Congress of the Republic consists of two chambers. The lower house is the Reichstag. The members are elected from the German states on the basis of population. The upper house is the Na- tional Council or Reichsrat. The mem- bers represent the German states. Every state has at least one member, and other members on a basis of population. No state can have more than two-fifths the total number of members. A national law takes precedence over state laws, but in all matters affecting the respective states, the states themselves exercise the powers of government. Provisions are - made for a referendum of important leg- islative acts if it be desired. The president is elected by universal suffrage for a term into two main divisions. GERMANY of seven years. He may be deposed from office before the expiration of his term, if the Reichstag by a two-thirds vote so order. In the matter of personal rights the German citizen enjoys the liberties of the most advanced states. Liberty of press, of speech, of religion are all granted. All Germans are equal before the law. Men and women have fundamentally the same civil rights and duties. All distinctions of rank are abolished. Jupictary. There is a Supreme Court that has jurisdiction in national matters and in cases between German states. Then there are various state courts that administer justice in the several states. Judges are elected for life. Military law is abolished except in times of war and on battle ship. | EpucaTion. Liberal provisions are made for education. The schools fall schools, or schools for all, in which at- tendance is compulsory unless the pupils attend popular schools, which are, broad- ly speaking, parochial schools. The pub- lic schools are followed by intermediate and high schools. The popular schools are followed by technical and continua- tion schools. In both instances attendance continues to the eighteenth year. Tuition and books are free. In case the parents need assistance in order to give children the benefit of an education such aid is given by the state. History. The present teraltcey of Germany has been the home of the Ger- man people from extremely early times. In that territory they slowly evolved from the tribal state of society into that of modern political society. The pres- ent area of Germany, however, has in historic times always been the section whence migrating tribes issued, pushing out in all directions, coming in con- tact with other branches of Aryan people in Europe,—the Celts to the west, the Greco-Romans to the south, the Slavs to the east; and to the south- east Finno-Ugrian people, — the Huns, Magyars and Turks. But their kindred left behind in the home land remained 1160 The basic THE BEAUTIFUL BLUE DANUBE "yso}01d J9}sIdo1 0} ‘Burpyinq Seysyoay PY} e1ojoq ‘uriag ‘zje[dssiuoy oy} Ul potoyjyes Suory} ysea we ‘AdT[eA IYNY 3Y} posiojuo voueIy JO snjlog ay} SV | ‘NITYHE AO SNAZILID SHILS WHNA AO NOISVANI HONG GERMANY in substantially the same _ sections, and were on the whole but little influ- enced by the people just named. So in some respects the history of the German people, their political evolution and their national ideals are peculiar to the people of Germany. 7 The Roman Empire with which the migrating Teutonic tribes came in con- tact was such an impressive reality that after it had fallen in ruins, the more suc- cessful kings of the day constantly planned to rebuild it with more than its former glory. Charlemagne (742-814) succeeded in this great undertaking. He was one of the greatest statesmen, warri- ors and rulers that ever lived. When he died his empire extended from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, from the Atlantic to the Banks of the Danube. For his great service in behalf of the Church of Rome, he was ctowned (800 A. D.) by the Pope and proclaimed “Emperor and Augustus,” the titles of the Roman Em- perors when Rome comprised the known world. Thus a new Rome was created and for 1000 years that shadowy empire survived and for the most of that time the Emperor of Rome was also the em- peror of a more or less united Germany. Through all these centuries of German history, we must bear in mind that the | king was ‘elected; that the country was broken up into many independent prin- cipalities, duchies, etc., a survival from tribal society, whose ruling men, and finally whose princes formed the council of the kingdom and the electors of the king. During the five hundred years follow- ing the crowning of Charlemagne there were four different dynasties or ruling houses that furnished the rulers of Rome. They were simply the most powerful German rulers and exercised more or iess centralized power over the. many German states into which the independ- ent tribes of earlier times had crystalized. If we note more particularly these dyna- sties it will help us to an understanding of the times. The Karling line (Charle- magne) was succeeded, early in the tenth century, by the Saxon line of emperors, GERMANY who were also the kings of Saxony, that country being at that time the most powerful German state. Otto I of this line is considered “the greatest sovereign of the tenth century.” A map of Europe of the tenth century shows a Germany almost identical with that of today, though Bohemia and Austria were in- cluded in the empire of that time. . ‘ A century later (1024) we find Fran- conia the ruling power. The center of power had shifted to the west and south of Saxony. In 1137 the Hohenstauffen line succeeded, they were dukes of Swabia, still further to the southwest. Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II were members of this dynasty. It was customary in those days for bishops, prelates, and abbotts to have temporal — possessions over which they claimed con- trol, and here was another element of division in addition to the inheritance from tribal times. It was only the strong- est and most energetic of the emperors that exercised any effective control over the multitudinous German states of his empire. When the Hohenstauffen dy- nasty came to an end (1254) there was no German duke or king who cared for the onerous duties of empire and for twenty years there was no central au- thority. It was a time of utmost con- fusion. Then arose a generation of rob- ber knights who built strong-castles in easily defended positions and robbed and plundered almost at will. During this time also various cities and trade guilds organized for self-protection. The most important was the Hanseatic League, At length they selected Rudolph of Hapsburg (1273), which marks the rise to power of the House of -Hapsburg which played for 650 years such an im- portant role in European hsitory, espe- cially in German history, still more prom- inent in the affairs of Austria. Rudolph’s rule was vigorous. He began by forcing Bohemia to acknowledge his sway, and he destroyed seventy castles of as many robber knights throughout Germany gen- erally. He conquered Bohemia, reduced Germany to order, founded Austria, and organized Switzerland. 1161 GERMANY From 1308 to 1437 the Hapsburg line was interrupted by a succession of em- perors elected from various princes of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia. The most renowned one among them was Charles IV of Bohemia (1347-1348) au- thor of the “Golden Bull” that made Frankfurt the place of election of the -emperor, Aix the place of coronation, and named seven officials in Germany to serve henceforth as electors of the em- peror. These seven were the princes of Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony and the Palatinate:of the Rhine; and the arch- bishop of Mainz, Cologne and Treves. Notice at that date neither Austria nor Bavaria were of great importance. The selection of Brandenburg shows the ris- ing importance of the mark of Branden- burg. Notice also, as indicative of the times, that three of the seven electors were dignitaries of the church of Rome. Charlemagne and the early emperors rendered great service to the Church, _ perhaps saved it from destruction. With the passage of time, the church grew in power and differences began to appear between the church and some of the em- perors. Noticeably so in the case of Henry IV (1056-1106) who “went to Conossa,” Barbarossa (1156-1190) and Frederick II (1212-1250) whose brilliant reign closed in gloom, ushering in that period of confusion when no one cared . to assume charge of the empire. Then came the times of the Reformation and the Hussite wars, later still the terrible times of the Thirty Years War in which Germany suffered greatly. In all the years of their history there was no such a time of gloom and despair for Ger- many as that which included the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). The House of Hohenzollern was the ruling house of Prussia. There is a strange parallelism between the Hohen- zollern and the Hapsburg royal houses. Both took active parts in the history of Germany, both founded great empires, both met a common fate. In 1411 Fred- erick of Hohenzollern became Margrave of Brandenburg and so one of the seven electors of Germany. ing the bay, only a small part of it ex- tending over level surface and several 1168 GIBRALTAR, STRAIT OF of the streets ending in rough stone steps. The old buildings were destroyed during the siege of 1779-1783, and among modern structures are the “con- vent,’ the Anglican Cathedral, the civil hospital, the garrison, library, the court- house, exchange buildings, naval and military hospitals. Since 1705 Gibraltar has been a free port except in point of alcoholic liquors and tobacco. Several thousand men are employed in its chief business—the coal- ing of passing steamers. Wine is the principal export, and the main sources of wealth are revenues, port and har- ‘bor dues. The harbor has been ex- tremely improved by new dockyard works, three large moles enclosing its 440 acres. Gibraltar was formerly known as one of the “Pillars of Her- cules,” and among the Greek and Roman | geographers as Calpe. Its military his- tory dates back to its capture and forti- fication by the Saracen leader, Tariq, in 71i. The Spaniards took possession of it in 1462, and in 1502 it was incorpo- rated with the domains of the Spanish Kingdom. In 1704 it fell into the hands of the British and Dutch. The memo- rable siege of 1779-1783, one of the most remarkable in history, ended in the de- feat of the Spanish and French forces; since that period the history of Gibral- tar has been comparatively uneventful. It is now a crown colony with little local government. Population in 1901, 27,460. Gibraltar, Strait of, the channel con- necting the Atlantic Ocean and the Med- iterranean Sea, and separating Spain from Morocco. It is about 36 m. long, has an average depth of about 900 ft. and varies in width from 9 to 13 m. There is a continual central current entering from the Atlantic and on both shores is an ebb and flow of tidal currents. An undercurrent setting towards the ocean is thought to carry off surplus waters of the Mediterranean. Gibson, Charles Dana (1867- ___), an American illustrator, born in Rox- bury, Mass. Following the publication of his Collection of Eighty-four Draw- mgs in 1894, he enjoyed for a decade GIDDINGS or. more a popular favor unequaled by that of any other contemporary Amer- ican artist. His fame rests chiefly upon his representation of a type of American womanhood, known as the ‘Gibson Girl,’ whom he portrays in every imag- inable situation. Gibson, John Morison (1842- ve a Canadian statesman, born in Ontario and educated at Toronto University. For many years he practiced law at Hamilton, being a leader of the provin- cial bar. A Liberal, he sat for West Hamilton and for East Wellington from 1879 to 1905, meanwhile being successively provincial secre- tary, commissioner of crownlands and attorney- general. Subsequently he sat in the Ross gov- ernment, without portfolio. From 1908-1914 he was lieutenant-governor of Ontario. He is Brigadier-General Reserve of Officers, and ac- tive in the banking life of Toronto. Gid’dings, Franklin Henry (1855- ), an American sociologist, born at Sherman, Conn. He graduated at Union College in 1877, and for a number of years wrote for newspapers on the sub- jects of politics and economics. He then became lecturer and professor of polit- ical science at Bryn Mawr College, and in 1894 was elected professor of soci- ology in Columbia University. Profes- sor Giddings maintains that it is the province of sociology to deal with the elements and first principles of society. He attempts to explain social phenom- ena primarily by psychical forces, such as the “consciousness of kind,’ rather than merely in terms of environment. Among his chief works are Principles of Sociology, Elements of Sociology, Democracy and Empire and Inductive Sociology. Giddings, Joshua Reed (1795-1864), an American statesman, famed as a mod- erate abolitionist of slavery. Born in Pennsylvania, he served in the War of 1812, taught school and practiced law, entering the Legislature and Congress, where he advocated the abolition of slavery in the territories. For a strong speech to the effect that slaves had a right to use any means whatsoever to gain their freedom, he was censured, and resigned, but, being reelected, was a 1169 , 5 sj " A GIDEON leading opponent of slavery until the Civil War. Gid’eon, the fifth of the judges of Israel, son of Joash. He came into prominence in a time of general backslid- ing, when the Midianites were greatly oppressing the people of Israel. An an- gel of the Lord appeared to him while he was thrashing wheat to announce that he was called to deliver the people, and, subsequently, with 300 of the bravest of the Israelites, each armed with a sword, trumpet and earthen pitcher containing a lamp, he gained a decisive victory over the great host of the enemy. Gideon lived 40 years longer, during which time the country was at peace. ‘See Judges Vi-VU1. Gila, He'la, a river of southwestern United States, rising in western New Mexico and flowing in a westerly direc- tion through New Mexico and across Arizona. Its length is about 130 m. and it enters the Colorado River near Yuma in the southwestern part of Arizona. The course of the river lies in an arid desert region occasionally interrupted by mountains and plateaus. Silver and gold are mined in the Gila Valley, and the ruins of ancient cities, as well as the modern cities of San Carlos and Flor- ence, mark its course. Its principal trib- | utaries are the San Pedro, the Santa Cruz and the Rio Verde. Gila Monster, a lizard of the Helo- derm Family found in Arizona and New Mexico and comprising the only group of poisonous lizards known in the United States. Its body is generally about 20 inches long and is covered with beadlike irregularities, its color is unevenly mar- bled with black and pink or yellow spots. This lizard is particularly vicious in dis- position and snaps its cruel jaws at the slightest provocation. The teeth, at the base of which lie the venom sacs, are grooved and direct the course of the poison to the wound made by the bite. Their food consists of eggs and small reptiles, and the tail, like the hump of a camel, is the reservoir of its extra food supply. Ordinarily the bite of the Gila monster is not fatal. See Lizarp. GILLETTE Gilbert, Sir William Schwenck (1836- 1911), an English dramatist, born in London. From journalism he turned his attention to comic opera, and in collab- oration with Arthur Sullivan produced a series of fantastic burlesques which have enjoyed enduring popularity. Best known are H. M. S. Pinafore, The Mi- kado, The Pirates of Penzance and The Gondoliers. Gilder, Richard Watson (1844-1909), an American poet and journalist, born in Bordentown, N. J. He served for a time.in the Civil War, later engaged in editorial work and became assistant ed- itor of Scribner's Monthly, taking the editorship of this periodical in 1881, when its name was changed to the Cen- tury. Besides taking an active interest in public affairs, he published several volumes of poems. These include Lyrics, Five Books of Song, Poems and In- scriptions and In the Heights. Gilding, the process of covering a surface with a thin layer of gold. The oldest and best method consists in apply- ing a fine gold leaf to a surface which has been treated to a size, which, when partly dry, allows the gold to adhere. Gold dust or powder is also used for surfaces. The frames of mirrors, pic- tures and moldings are gilded by the ap- plication of gold leaf or by using tin foil or silver leaf, with a yellow varnish afterwards applied. The edges of books are gilded by coating with dextrine or mucilage and applying the gold leaf, and afterwards polishing. Metals can be gilded by coating with an amalgam of gold and mercury and applying heat, which drives off the mercury, leaving a coating of gold, which is then varnished. In gilding class, china, pottery, etc., gold powder is mixed to form a paint, and after giving them a coating the articles are baked in an oven at a low tempera- ture. It is then fixed in a kiln at high temperature. After cooling, the gilding is burnished. Gilia, Jil’i a. See PHiox. Gillette, Jz let’, William Hooker (1855- ), an American actor and playwright, born in Hartford, Conn. He 1170 GILMAN studied at the universities of New York and Boston while playing in stock com- panies in those cities, and later met with success in the South and West. In re- cent years he has taken part in plays written by himself, among which are The Private Secretary, Esmeralda, Se- cret Service and Sherlock Holmes. Gil’man, Daniel Coit (1831-1908), an American educator, born at Norwich, Conn. Graduating at Yale in 1852, he spent some time in study and travel in Europe. From 1856 to 1872 he held im- portant positions at Yale, resigning there to accept the presidency of the Univer- sity of California. He left this institu- tion in 1875 to become the first president of Johns Hopkins University at Balti- more; and retired from this position in 1901 to become the first president of the Carnegie Institution at Washington. He was an exceptional judge of men, was quick to recognize workers in new branches of science and was an able ad- ministrator. He was an original mem- ber of the General Education Board, and was a trustee of the John F. Slater Fund, the Peabody Education Fund and the Russell Sage Foundation. For six years he served as president of the Na- tional Civil Service Reform League, and in 1893 became president of the Ameri- can Oriental Society. He wrote The Launching of a University, University Problems in the United States and other valuable works. Gin, Jin, an alcoholic liquor com- pounded from distilled grain and fla- vored with coriander seeds, angelica roots, juniper berries and various essen- tial oils. It contains from 40 to 50 per cent of alcohol. Gin is known as dry when unsweetened. It is made princi- pally in Plymouth, England, and Schie- dam, Holland. Cheaper grades were man- ufactured in the United States. See WINE. Gin, as used in machinery, is* the term applied to a device for hoisting weights, principally from shafts in mines. In its simplest form it consists of three poles of equal lengths fastened together at the top, and with the bottom of the GINGER poles spread apart to form a tripod. From the top is supported a tackle block with a pulley, over which a rope is passed to haul up loads. Subsequently a wind- lass was added to this contrivance and attached to an upright shaft, with gear- ing so arranged that a traverse beam could be carried around as a sweep by animal power, and hoist loads. Ginger, Jin’ jer, a plant or a product of a plant of the Ginger Family, valuable as a spice. It is a grasslike herb culti- vated in the East Indies and elsewhere in the tropics for the large, thickened roots which yield commercial ginger. The stems are cylindrical and sheathed by the bases of the long, narrow leaves something in the manner of our Indian corn. The flowers are clustered in a leafy head and are highly colored. There is a small, sheathing calyx surrounding a tubular corolla, which has three long, pointed lobes. The flowers are particu- larly noticeable because one of the sta- mens is broadened at the top into a flat lip which bends over the lobes of the corolla. The roots are dug for drying as soon as the leaves wither, generally in about nine or ten months after planting. If the ginger is to be exported dried, it is soaked in water, peeled and dried for a week. If preserved, it is boiled and dipped in sirup every. 24 hours for a week. It may be found in our markets in both forms. Probably most of our preserved ginger is imported from China. Wild ginger is a low, woolly herb of the Birthwort Family, growing in wood- lands throughout the United States. It has a thickened underground stem and long-stemmed, rounding leaves which have velvety surfaces and are inclined to be of purple-brown color underneath. The flowers are inconspicuous, being low, nodding blossoms that hide under the leaves and do not differ from them in color. There are no petals, and the calyx is a three-parted cup whose divi- sions spread broadly. The root of the wild ginger provides a popular remedy for measles and whooping cough. 1171 GINSENG Ginseng, Jin’ seng, a Chinese herb of the Ginseng Family and valued in China for a drug obtained from its roots. The name ginseng is the corruption of a Chi- nese word meaning manlike and refers to the shape of the root, whose likeness to the human form caused the Chinese to believe it had occult curative powers. The plant has straight, slender stems and broad leaves, whose five leaflets extend from the top of the leafstalk. The flow- ers are a bunch of small, clustered blos- soms, growing upon a slender, naked stem and followed by small, scarlet ber- ries. The root, which has a pleasing odor and a sweet taste, is large and thick; the value of the plant depends upon the size and quality of this root; thus ginseng growers give especial at- tention to aids to its better production. Ginseng grows plentifully in China but the demand greatly exceeds the sup- ply, since it is there used for almost every conceivable household purpose as well as for medicine. The wild ginseng was discovered in America early in the 18th century, and roots were almost 1m- mediately exported. The trade became so profitable that ginseng is now culti- vated in large tracts to be shipped to Chinese exporters at American ports. At present it is grown in many states east of the Mississippi and north of Georgia. Almost the entire crop is sent to China, where extremely high returns -are procured. Giordano, Jor dah’ no, Luca (1632- 1705), an Italian painter, born at Na- ples. His father was an artist of little reputation who taught his son the ele- ments of his art. When but eight years of age, Giordano painted a cherub into one of his father’s pictures, and for this he acquired early notoriety. His rapid- ity of execution earned for him the title of Luca Fa-Presto (Luke Work-Fast), from the constant injunction of his father, greedy for the price of his paint- ings. Giordano studied in Rome and in many other Italian cities. In 1687 he went to Madrid, where he remained for 13 years at the court of Charles II. He left many works, most of which are re- GIORGIONE DA CASTELFRANCO markable for their brilliant, showy color. Some of those best known are Christ Ex- pelling the Traders from the Temple, Moses and the Brazen Serpent, The Judgment of Paris and Christ with the Doctors in the Temple. Giorgione da Castelfranco, Jar jo’ na dah Kas” tel frahng' ko, (about 1478- 1511), one of the greatest Italian paint- ers of the Venetian School, born at Cas- telfranco, near Treviso, of humble par- ents. In early boyhood he went to Ven- ice, where he became a pupil of Gio- vanni Bellini. He was a person of social charm and distinguished bearing, a ro-- mantic figure and a musician. In 1500 he was commissioned to paint portraits of the’ Doge Agostino Barberigo and the Condottiere Consalvo Ferrante; four years later an altarpiece at Castelfranco, and in 1507 the Hall of the Audience of the ducal palace. Besides these impor- tant engagements he decorated in fresco numerous Venetian palaces. One of the most important events of his life was his meeting with Leonardo in 1500, when the Florentine artist visited Venice. He’ died of plague at the age of 33, in the full splendor of his powers. Of the 150 paintings attributed to him, only a few are of unquestioned authenticity. Among those which documentary evidence as- cribes to him are an altarpiece of the Cathedral of Castelfranco; the Family of Gwtorgione (Venice), an idealistic group in a landscape setting; Three Eastern Sages (Vienna); The Concert, in the Pitti Palace; Christ Bearing the Cross, owned by Mrs. Jack Gardner of Boston; and the Sleeping Venus, at Dresden. The last of these is generally considered to be the most chaste and. exquisite representation of Venus in the art of the Italian Renaissance. Giorgione’s position in Venetian art is analogous to that of Leonardo in Flor- entine art. He freed it from the conven- tional and rigid formulas and traditional shackles of his predecessors. With both, the picture was the apotheosis of the idea behind it, and detail was subordinated to general effect. Many of his pictures tell no story, but embody a mood and appeal 1172 ural action and natural feeling.” GIOTTO DI BONDONE to the highest artistic sense through beauty alone. “He achieved a full ex- pression in art of phases of the splendor, charm, grace and poetic melancholy of the Venice of his day.” Giotto di Bondone, Jot’ to de Bon- do' na, (about 1267-1337), an Italian painter and architect, born at Vespig- nano, near Florence. There is a legend that he attracted the attention of Cima- bue, who first saw him drawing his father’s sheep upon a slate by means of a sharp stone, and thereupon took the lad as his apprentice. The legend, however, has little foundation, and it is more prob- able that his training came from other sources. Giotto’s great work has been the vitalizing of Italian art; it is said of him that “it is his glory to have been the first among his countrymen to breathe life into wall pictures and altarpieces, and to quicken the dead conventionalism of inherited practice with the fire of nat- He prepared the plans for the beautiful Campanile of Florence, known as Giot- to’s Tower. His pictures are mostly re- ligious in theme, and his figures have a grace of form and coloring that make them especially appealing. Some of his frescoes are still to be seen at Rome and at Assisi, and on the walls of the Chapel of the Arena at Padua. Among his best- known works are the four allegorical frescoes in honor of St. Francis and scenes from the life of Christ. Giraffe, Ji raf’, or Camel’opard, the tallest of ruminating animals and one of the two members of the Giraffe Family. It is found in central Africa, where herds of them are still numerous, but was formerly known throughout the en- tire continent. The extraordinary height of the giraffe is due to the lengthening of the vertebre of the neck and not to any increase in their number. This also gives the forelegs an appearance of great length, though they are really no longer than the hind legs. The body slants from the long neck to the tail, and the reddish, spotted coat is sleek and silky. In order to drink or to crop grass the giraffe must spread its forelegs wide GIRONDISTS apart in an ungainly attitude, but when feeding on the twigs and leaves of trees it presents a graceful figure. Between the ears is a pair of skin-covered projec- tions, the rudiments of horns lost in the course of evolution; the tail is tufted like that of a cow. It can run swiftly with a rocking camel-like gallop. ‘ Girard, Stephen (1750-1831). Ship- master, merchant, banker and _ philan- thropist, born at Bordeaux, France. He left home at the age of fourteen as a cabin boy on a ship of which he was part owner, the gift of his father. Ten years later, as master of a ship, he entered New York. In 1776, he was forced into Chesapeake Bay to escape capture by a British ship. Having to abandon the sea, he entered business in Philadelphia and afterwards amassed great wealth as a banker and became the financial advisor and supporter of the United States dur- ing the War of 1812. When he died his fortune was the greatest in America at that time, being about $7,500,000, the larger part of which was left to Philadelphia and to found the college known by his name. Girard, Ji rard’, College, at Phila- delphia (1848). Established by a be- quest of Stephen Girard, it was designed and has been administered for the educa- tion of poor boys, and the age of admis- sion was between six and ten years and the age of leaving between 14 and 18. Later the scope of the work was greatly extended to meet growing educational de- mands. The college fits its students for entrance to the leading American col- leges and also provides thorough training in. the industrial arts. The college is under the management of a board of trustees appointed by the judiciary of Pennsylvania. The original bequest of $3,250,000 has been increased until the institution now controls property exceed- ing $40,000,000 in value. The enroll- ment is 1,540. Girondists, Ji ron’ dists, the party of moderate republicans in the French Rev- olution. The name was derived from the Department of Gironde, whose deputies were the recognized leaders of the party, 1173 GLACE BAY and they constituted the most notable group of men in the Legislative Assem- bly which convened in 1791. They were able orators and succeeded for a time in controlling the Assembly; but they lacked the definite and determined policy of their rivals, the radical Jacobins, and were overthrown by them, all of their prominent leaders being executed in 1793. See Jacopins; FRENCH REVOLU- TION. Glacé, Glas, Bay, a city of Canada in the Province of Nova Scotia, on Glacé Bay and the Sydney & Louisburg Rail- way, 15 m. e. of Sydney, to which city it is connected by an electric railway. It is the center of a coal-mining region, being the seat of the Dominion Coal Company. Mining and fishing are carried on and the city contains machine works and a wood- working factory. The annual production of the coal mines amounts to about 3,000,- 000 tons. A little to the southwest of Glace Bay is a station of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph, from which the first message from Canada to England was dispatched on Dec. 21, 1902. Population, 17,007. Glacial, Gla’ shal, Period (or the Great Ice Age), a name used to desig- nate the period of geologic time occur- ting during the first part of the Quater- nary, when, in the Northern Hemisphere, glacial conditions prevailed similar to those existing at the present time in the Arctic regions. Northern Europe, the British Isles and the northern half of North America were covered with ice, in places several thousand feet thick, which was intermittently accompanied by intense cold. Glaciers are never sta- tionary, but move continually; and the ice mass of North America traveled southwestward and southeastward, ex- cept the parts over what is now Canada, which moved northeastward. Quantities of material, such as boulders, trunks of trees and fossil remains, were transported by the action of the ice, and New Eng- land, Long Island, Canada, New York and the states southwest as far as Iowa are thickly covered with foreign matter GLACIER deposited in this way. This material is commonly called drift. In some places the ice sheet excavated lake basins, in others, channels for streams, and in the basin of the Mississippi it pulverized the rock into soil, so that the high degree of fertility of much of that region is due.in no small degree to the results of the Glacial Period. The cold of the Glacial Period was - probably due to a variety of causes act- ing interdependently. Among the theo- ries advanced is the one to the effect that the continents affected were at the time on a higher level above the sea, and that the land interfered with oceanic cir- culation and that vertical circulation of the air was affected; that lack of mois- ture and carbon dioxide in the atmos- phere reduced the temperature of the heat envelope around the earth; and that the average temperature of the earth’s surface was reduced and redistributed. — See GLACIER; GEOLOGY. Glacier, Gla’ sher, an icy mass com- ~ posed of both ice and snow, covering the “ands of the Far North and the sides of mountains above the snow line.} These great ice fields move from 18 to 24 inches in a day and sometimes approach the limits of warmer zones. Their sur- faces are marked by fissures, or crevasses, and ‘along their extremities and sides are piled heaps of rock and earth, as a snow plow leaves the heaps of snow along its track; these mounds are known as mo- raines and are lateral or terminal ac- cording to their formation by the sides or ends of the glacier. Some of the most remarkable glaciers are those of the Alps; the Mer de Glace on Mont Blanc lies 5700 ft. above sea level, The Andes, the Himalayas and the mountains of northern Europe are also covered with glaciers of vast extent. The glaciers of Alaska are the largest on the American continent. A vast one on Mt. Fairweather is far larger than those of the Alps (See FAIRWEATHER, Mount). Others of nearly equal size and grandeur are the Malaspina, the Valdez and the Muir. See GuactaAL PE- RIOD. 1174 pO GLACIER NATIONAL PARK Glacier National Park, a national park located in the northwestern part of Montana. It has an area of 1400 sq. m. and was set aside as a park by the gov- ernment because of the beauty and gran- deur of its scenery. Within its bounda- ries are 250 lakes, ranging from 10 m. to a few hundred feet in extent; and 60 glaciers, of which Sperry Glacier is the | best known. Snow-covered peaks, wild gorges, dense forests and clear streams with numerous cascades are striking features of the scenery. The park is a game preserve and contains many wild animals. The summit of Cutbank Pass is literally the top of the North Ameri- can continent. At this point one can dip water from Cutbank Creek and pour it ‘out so as to send it to Hudson Bay, to the Pacific or to the Atlantic. Glad’den, Washington (1836-1918), an American clergyman and author, born in Pottsgrove, Pa., and educated in Oswego Academy and Williams College. In 1860 he was ordained to the Congre- gational ministry, and became pastor of the State Street Congregational Church in Brooklyn, N. Y. He was also pastor at St. Albans, Vt., at North Adams and Springfield, Mass., and at Columbus, Ohio. He was one of the editors of the Independent for four years, from 1871, and for two years was editor of the Sun- day Afternoon. Mr. Gladden is the au- thor of Young Men and the Churches, Workingmen and Their Employers, So- cial Salvation and many other valuable books. ~ Glad”ia’tor, a person who fought with weapons in an arena. The first _ gladiatorial combats are said to have taken place at funerals and may have developed from the custom of offering human sacrifices at the burial ceremo- nies. For a long time captives, criminals and slaves were the contestants, and throngs crowded the arenas to witness the combats. Schools for the purpose of training the gladiators flourished and contests of various kinds were arranged, as between men and beasts, two men or two parties of men. They generally fought without other protection than GLADSTONE small shields, and the weapon used was usually a small dagger. If a gladiator was wounded and asked for mercy, he held up his hand, but if the populace in response held their thumbs down, a sign that no mercy was granted, he must con- tinue to fight until he could defend him- self no longer. The combats were brutal and appealed to the low traits of the peo- ple, but were popular in Rome through several centuries. Gladiolus, a stately plant of the Iris Family. It is commonly grown in con- servatories and flower gardens for its | spike of showy crimson, white or yellow flow- ers. The stem is straight and leafy, the leaves sword-shaped and the flowers somewhat irreg- ular. The lower blossoms of the spike open first, disclosing a fun- nel-shaped tube with unevenly divided lobes streaked with darker shades. Florists are con- stantly produc- ing new varie- ties. A, blwe gladiolus is a re- cent production. The cultivated varieties have spikes some- times growing to a height of six feet, and pro- duce large blos- soms that are very ornamental. Gladstone, William Ewart (1809- 1898), an eminent British statesman and GLADIOLUS -orator, born in Liverpool. His ancestors having lost their estates in the Scottish lowlands, his father, John Gladstone, went to Liverpool, where he became one 1175 GLADSTONE of the merchant princes of the city, a baronet and a member of Parliament. William was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, graduating in 1831 with the highest honors in classics and mathematics. After spending six months in Italy studying art, he entered Parliament early in 1833, where for more than 50 years he gave himself to the pub- lic service of his country. Gladstone’s unusual ability as a debater had become evident in college and gained immediate recognition in Parliament. In 1835 he became junior lord of the treas- ury under Sir Robert Peel. In 1841 he was made vice-president of the Board of Trade, and turned his attention to the field of national finance, in which he sub- sequently became so famous. Two years later he succeeded to the presidency of the Board of Trade, and entered the cabinet at the age of 33. In 1845 he was secretary of state for the colonies in Sir Robert Peel’s cabinet; but during this period of two years was not a member of Parliament. He was returned to Parlia- ment, however, in 1847, as one of the two members for the University of Ox- ford. The next three years constituted a pe- riod of mental growth and transition, as Gladstone gradually swung away from his old political moorings in the Con- servative Party toward Liberalism. In 1852 he came into still greater promi- nence as a debater by his vigorous speeches against the budget of Disraeli, which caused the overthrow of the min- istry and established his reputation ‘as the leading financier of the day. In the new cabinet he was made chancellor of the exchequer under Lord Aberdeen, a position for which he was eminently fit- ted by his combination of financial, ad- ministrative and rhetorical gifts. In 1858 he went as high commissioner to the Ionian Islands. He became chan- cellor of the exchequer again in 1859, under Lord Palmerston, and was by far the most brilliant and conspicuous figure in the cabinet. Lord Palmerston died in 1865, and Gladstone, retaining the chan- cellorship of the exchequer under the new GLADSTONE ministry of Lord Russell, became leader of the House of Commons; and upon the ~ retirement of Lord Russell from political life in 1867, he became the recognized leader of the Liberal Party, with which he had by this time fully identified him- self. In 1868 the Liberal Party returned a large majority to Parliament, and Gladstone became’ prime minister. The Liberals were defeated in 1874 and he resigned; but in 1880 they were re- turned to power, and Gladstone became prime minister for the second time, re- maining in office until 1885. In 1886 he became premier for the third time, and soon startled the country by the. introduction of a Home Rule bill for Ireland and a bill for buying out Irish landlords. His policy was defeated in the general elections that ensued, and he made way for Lord Salisbury. The general elections of 1892, however, re- sulted in a majority of 40 for Home Rule, and Gladstone became prime min- ister for the fourth time, at the age of 83. His new Home Rule bill passed the House of Commons in 1893, but was thrown out by the House of Lords. He regarded his political work as now com- pleted, and made his last speech in the House of Commons on March 1, 1894, soon afterwards presenting his resigna- tion as premier, but retaining his seat in Parliament until its dissolution in 1895, when he retired to private life at Ha- warden. Upon his death three years later he was buried in Westminster Ab- bey with every mark of popular respect and affection. The English legislation of half a cen- tury was identified with Gladstone’s name. Through his efforts, among other measures, a school system was adopted establishing boards of education in each district ; the Irish Land Act was passed, for the relief of Irish tenants; compul- sory Church rates were abolished and re- ligious. tests in the universities elimi- nated; the English Church was dises- tablished in Ireland; appointment to the army and navy by merit was substituted for the purchase of commissions; the franchise was greatly extended, and the 1176 GLAND secret ballot established ; and Home Rule for Ireland was carried in the House of Commons. Gladstone was a remarkable public speaker, being one of the leading orators of the Victorian reign. Tall and com- manding in appearance, with a voice clear and melodious, possessing a mem- ory that supplied him with facts down to the minutest detail, a master of wit and invective, clear and lucid in statement, quick and keen in repartee and debate, earnest, courteous and convincing in de- livery, he always held the interested at- tention of his hearers, and presented *his political and moral convictions with per- suasive power. Gladstone was a Conservative by na- ture and training. The new needs of the new age, however, forced him into the Liberal Party, where, often against his own natural sentiments, he advocated re- form measures that changing conditions convinced him were necessary for the comimon good. He was deeply religious in spirit, and in executing his purposes seeméd to have the conviction that eter- nal truth and right were on his side and must prevail, a conviction that greatly increased his forcefulness as a national leader. - In the midst of an unusually busy life, Gladstone retained his literary and schol- arly interests, and found time for read- ing and authorship along many lines. | Among his writings are The State in Its Relations with the Church, Letters on the State Persecutions of the N eapolitan Government, Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age, The Vatican Decrees, The Irish Question and A Translation of Horace. Gland, in anatomy, a term applied to a secreting organ. A gland consists of a layer or group of cells resting upon a basement membrane and a network of nerves and blood vessels. All glands fall into two principal groups, true secreting glands and ductless glands. The se- creting glands are either tubular, being merely depressions of mucous membrane jined with secreting cells, or saccular, consisting of an aggregation of sacs GLANDERS lined with epithelial cells arranged around a short tube, or duct, into which their secretion is discharged. The prin- cipal secreting glands of the body are: the lachrymal glands, or tear glands, of the eye; the mammary glands; the kid- neys and pancreas; the submaxillary, sublingual, parotid and buccal glands, which secrete the saliva; the liver, the largest gland in the body; the sebaceous ‘ glands of the skin, numerous in the scalp, which provide an oily secretion; and the sweat glands, found all over the body. | The ductless glands are the spleen, the suprarenal capsules,.and the thymus and thyroid glands. The suprarenal capsules are situated close to the kidneys, and se- crete a substance called adrenalin, which has the power of stimulating the nerve fibers which control the muscles of the small arteries, causing them to contract and thus increasing the circulation of the blood. A diseased condition which inter- feres with their proper functioning re- sults fatally. The thymus gland is situ- ated in the chest. It is very large at birth, but rapidly decreases in size and some- times seems to disappear altogether. In hibernating animals a large supply of fat, reserved for the period of seclusion, is stored up in this gland. The thyroid gland is situated in the throat. Common diseases of this gland are goiter, which usually occurs in adults, and cretinism, a condition causing insanity, and often present from infancy. See Liver; Pan- . CREAS; SKIN; SPLEEN. Gland’ers, a bacterial disease com- mon among horses. It is known in two forms, the acute and the chronic. In the former the affected animal usually dies in from three to eight weeks, while in the latter it may live for years and be only slightly affected until the disease suddenly changes to the acute form. The presence of the disease is marked by the hard lusterless condition of the coat, the formation of bunches that turn to ulcers under the skin of the thigh and shoulder, and an offensive discharge from the nos- trils caused by the diseased condition of the lungs. The disease is spread by #1 1177 GLASGOW means of infection from the discharges, and occasionally affects man as well as horses. At present no cure is known for it, but stringent laws are in effect in most states designed to prevent the spread of the disease. Glasgow, Glas’ ko, a city of Scotland, the largest of the country and next to London the largest in the United King- dom, situated on both banks of the Clyde River. To the northwest the level ground, on which the main part of the city is built, rises in a series of irregu- lar elevations. The streets are straight and wide and a good view of the river is obtained, with its bridges of light and attractive architecture. Buchanan Street separates the eastern, or old quarters, from the western part, which contains the fashionable residences. Most of the houses are built of white freestone. Among the old buildings is the Cathe- dral, begun in 1238, of .early English architecture and elaborately decorated. Above it is the Necropolis with impos- ing monuments. Other edifices are the handsome new buildings of the univer- sity, the Royal Exchange, the Bank of Scotland, the Merchants’ House, the General Post Office, the Institute of Fine Arts, the corporation galleries, the Mitchell Free Library and several col- leges and technical institutions. There are statues of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, Sir Walter Scott, James Watt, Sir John Moore, Sir Robert Peel, The Duke of Wellington and William Pitt, The industrial development of Glas- gow is largely due to its geographical position at the mouth of the Clyde River, which gives it an excellent harbor, as well as to the heavy iron and coal de- posits of the surrounding country. The commerce and manufactures are very significant. The exports include coal, chemicals, liquors, machinery and cot- ton, woolen and linen goods. The ship- building industry is the most important in the world, and here were built the celebrated “ocean greyhounds,” the Lusi- tania and Mauritania and the larger Olympic. The constructing of all kinds GLASS 1 of machinery, cotton spinning, weaving, dyeing, calico printing and brewing are the chief industries. The St. Rol- lox Chemical Works are known as one of the largest establishments of their kind in the world. Glasgow has taken the lead in munici- pal activity and reform in the United Kingdom. There is a municipal coun- cil which divides into numerous subcom- mittees, these supervising the different departments of city administration. The city operates its own hospitals, tene- ments, lodging houses, public baths, sew- age plant, waterworks, street cars, light- ing plants, markets, slaughterhouses and harbor ferries. On all these investments it now gains a net profit. Glasgow was built as early as 560, and since the union of Scotland with England in 1707, its commercial growth has been very rapid. Population in 1922, 1,034,069. Glasgow, University of, at Glasgow (1450). It had a struggling existence until the middle of the 18th century, when it became famous and for a time enrolled a large number of students. In the 19th century it was reorganized and is now one of the largest British univer- sities. The site was changed in 1870 to more spacious grounds, and the new buildings were well planned and well equipped. The chancellor and principal of the university are appointed for life, and the rector is chosen by the students every three years. There are depart- ments of arts, medicine, theology, science and law, a library of two hundred and ten thousand volumes and numerous mu- seums and scientific laboratories. Queen Margaret College is for women. The average enrollment is four thousand five hundred. Glass, a common and usually trans- parent material made by melting together sand and some alkaline substance, such as potash, soda, lime or oxide of lead. When cold, glass is brittle, but it softens when heated, and at high temperature it can be molded into any desired form and drawn into fine threads suitable for weaving with silk. Varieties. The different substances 1178 GLASS used and the methods of manufacture employed give rise to numerous varie- ties of glass. Pure materials are essen- tial to a good quality of glass, whatever the variety. Sand is the foundation of all kinds of glass, and is the most diffi- cult substance from which to separate impurities. Iron is the most objection- able impurity, since it discolors the glass and makes it less valuable. Lime makes a hard, brilliant glass, but if too much is used, the glass is brittle. Potash makes a clear, transparent glass; soda imparts a green tint, seen in cheap bottles; oxide of lead makes a soft glass having a brilliant luster. Window Glass. Window glass is made of sand, soda and lime. The American window glass is first blown in the form of cylinders. These are flattened, and the sheet thus formed is cut into panes. Crown Glass is English window glass. It is blown in the form of a sphere, which is cut,open and flattened, forming a circular sheet that is cut into panes. It is now but little used. Colored Glass. Glass is colored by the oxides of different metals, which are added in small quantities to the ordinary ingredients. Iron gives all the rainbow colors, but its most common effects are orange and green. Manganese produces a pink or amethyst, but too high a tem- perature will turn it brown, then yellow, then green. Copper imparts a red to cheap glass, but when further heated it turns purple, blue and green: Cobalt produces a rich blue or a black. Gold in the form of purple of Cassius pro- duces the finest ruby, also violet and amber. Tin produces white. By mix- ing these coloring matters, many beauti- ful tints can be obtained. Sometimes glass is colored by dipping a white glass into a colored one in a molten state. Colored glass is extensively used in church windows. The most elaborate designs are first painted on the glass, then the colors are baked or burned in. Glass prepared in this way is called stained glass. . Flint ,Glass, remarkable for its clear- GLASS ness and transparency, is made of sand of excellent quality and lime and alu- mina. Plate Glass. This is the most expen- sive, as well as the most desirable grade of window glass, and is used in the large windows in stores and other public buildings. Its clearness and luster are due to the purity of the materials used in its manufacture and the high polish given the surface. It is made by pour- ing the molten glass on a table con- structed for the purpose, and flattening the sheet to a uniform thickness with a roller. When cool the surfaces are pol- ished. Skylight glass is a cheaper grade of plate that has not been polished. Wire Glass. This is a variety of plate glass containing woven-wire net- ting. The netting is stretched just far enough above the surface of the table to place it midway between the surfaces of the sheet, and the molten glass is poured around it. Wire glass is used for base- ment windows and in other places where ordinary glass is liable to be broken. Triplex Glass. This is a variety of glass recently invented in France. It consists of two plates cemented together with gelatin. The surfaces of each plate that are to face each other are covered with a thin coating of gelatin. These surfaces: are then placed together with a thick sheet of celluloid between. The whole is then subjected to pressure in a hydraulic press to make the combination solid. The triplex glass thus formed is to all appearances as transparent as or- dinary plate. If broken, the celluloid sheet prevents the fragments from fly- ing. Triplex has all the advantages of wire glass with the additional advantage of being transparent. Pressed Glass. This term is applied to glassware, that is, fashioned by press- ing the molten glass in a mold, and does not apply to the quality of glass used. All the cheaper grades of tableware are of pressed glass. Cut Glass. This is the most expensive elassware for table use. The articles are first cast in a mold, or blown, and have plain surfaces. A design is then marked 1179 GLASS upon them, and this is cut into the glass by holding the object against a grind- stone, shaped for the purpose. Water and sand continually drop upon the stone. The workman is guided by the pattern and his eye, and depends wholly upon his skill to produce the pattern. The grade of material, amount of labor and high degree of skill required in the manufacture of cut glass make this ware very expensive, and it often exceeds the price of silverware. MANUFACTURE. Furnace. The fur- nace is the most important part of a glass factory. This may be circular or rectangular, and in either case is the base of a huge chimney. The fuel is commonly gas, either natural or made from coal. In order to melt the mate- rials, they are either placed in fire-clay pots holding 1500 to 2000 Ib., which rest upon a shelf, or the materials are melted in a tank of fire brick. For the glass that is to be blown, pots are generally used, while for pressed glass, the tank furnace is employed. Preparation of Material. The sand and other materials are ground to a fine powder and intimately mixed in proper proportions, making what is known as a batch, and to this a small quantity of broken glass, or cullet, also ground fine, is added to assist in melting. When using pots it requires about 24 hours for the glass to melt. In tank furnaces the material is ‘constantly added and the glass constantly withdrawn, making the process continuous. Methods. The methods of shaping glass are pressing, molding and blowing. Window glass, bottles, vases, goblets and the finest tableware are made by blowing. The glass blower gathers on the end of a blowpipe, which is a straight iron pipe about four feet long, a quantity of melted glass, then by blowing, rolling and swinging the pipe he fashions the object, using also such tools as calipers, shears, etc. When blowing window glass, the glass blower stands over a trench several feet in depth, so that he may have more room to swing his blowpipe. He gathers on the end of the blowpipe a large mass, GLASS probably 25 Ib. in weight, and by blow- ing and swinging the pipe he causes the glass to take the shape of a pear, and by holding the pipe upright and con- tinuing to blow, and revolving the mass, he gets it into the.form of a cylinder. Afterwards the ends are cut off, and the cylinder is scratched with a diamond, cracked open and put into a flattening furnace, when, as it becomes heated and softened, a workman flattens it by press- ing it down upon a table. In this man- ner a pane of ordinary window glass is made. Machinery for blowing and special de- vices for assisting in molding and rolling glass are used. In many operations blow- ing and molding are combined. See Botte, Annealing. All articles made from glass have to be carefully annealed to prevent breaking from change of tem- perature. The process consists of slowly heating the articles until they approach the melting point, and then ,cooling them very slowly. This is accomplished by passing the articles through a chamber, whose various compartments are heated to different degrees of temperature. When glass is cooled too quickly a hard surface is formed before the molecules inside the glass have time to become ad- justed to the change of temperature. Pouring hot water into such a vessel or slightly scratching the surface will usu- ally cause it to break into a number of — pieces. History. The invention of glass is probably due to the Egyptians, among whom glass is mentioned in 3300 B. C,, made in the form of beads, vases, small figures, etc. The Phcenicians-took up the art and introduced it among the Romans during the empire, though they had long before imported glass articles. After its decline in Rome, the manufac- ture was transferred to Constantinople, where it flourished during the Dark Ages. The Arabs obtained a knowledge of glassmaking about this time, and the glassware made at Damascus during the Middle Ages became quite celebrated. Mirrors, goblets and cups from Venice, 1180 —————— a GLASS SNAKE known as Venetian glass, became famous for their beauty over the entire world. Germany, France and England became noted later for their glassware. The first glass factory in the United States was erected at Jamestown, Va., in 1608, but now the chief centers of manufac- ture are located in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. Glass Snake, a misnamed lizard of the Anguida Family and because of its invisible limbs often thought to be a snake. It is easily recognized as a liz- ard, however, because, unlike the snakes, it has well-developed eyelids and no ear openings. Its scales are so hard and glassy as to look as though newly var- nished; in color they are green, brown or black. The body has a fold of skin on each side from head to tail. Like all lizards it can part with its tail when at- tacked, but cannot, as some suppose, shatter itself against rocks and then put itself together again when the danger is past. Glass snakes are found in cen- tral and southern United States and in Europe and Asia.. An African species attains a length of four feet. BLINDWoRM. The blindworm is a nearly related species of the same family and differs mainly in being smaller, less stiff in its movements and in having grooved teeth, which indicate that the an- imal was once poisonous. It, too, seems to have been misnamed, as it has keen eyes, which are protected by a thin mem- braneous covering. Both the blindworm and the glass snake have underneath the skin the rudiments of limbs which have long been useless organs. See LIZARD. Glauber’s, Glow’ bers, Salt, a bitter, salty, crystalline compound, which takes its name from a German chemist who first prepared it as a medicine in 1658. Chemically, it is a sodium sulphate, white in color and having crystals that are re- duced to powder when exposed to the air. It occurs as the constituent of the medicinal waters of Karlsbad and Seid- litz, Germany, and elsewhere throughout urope, and in Great Salt Lake, Utah. Aside from its uses as a medicine, it is GLENS FALLS valuable in the manufacture of certain kinds of glass, and as a mordant in dye- ing and printing. See DvEINc. Glau’cus, in classic myths a fisher- man who became a sea god on tasting some magic herb. He loved the maiden Scylla, who spurned him. In his grief he applied to the sorceress, Circe, beg- ging not to be cured of his passion, but to have it returned. Now Circe, for her part, loved Glaucus, and so enraged did she become on not being able to win his affection, that she vented her spite on her rival. By poisoning the water in which Scylla was wont to bathe, Circe trans- formed her into a destructive monster. See CHARYBDIS. Another Glaucus was the Trojan hero, grandson of Bellerophon, who, with Sar- pedon, led the Lycian forces of Priam. Glendower, Glen’ door, Owen (about 1359-about 1416), a Welsh chieftain, descendant from the last regular Prince of Wales and noted for his rebellion against Henry IV. Before Henry be- came king, Glendower was a follower of Richard II, but upon Henry’s accession he changed his allegiance. Later, be- cause of depredations upon his estate, which Henry took no measures to pre- vent, Glendower declared himself Prince of Wales, gathered about him a band of followers, intrenched himself in the mountains and resisted the King’s force for a number of years. Glens Falls, N. Y., a city of Warren Co., 40 m. n. of Troy and 60 m. n. of Albany, on the Hudson River and on the Delaware & Hudson Railroad. The region abounds in points of interest con- nected with the French and Indian and Revolutionary wars. It derives its name from the falls in the Hudson, which sup- ply excellent power. The city contains the Crandall Free Library, a state arm- ory, St. Mary’s and Glens Falls acade- mies, an old ladies’ home and the Parks Hospital and an excellent public school system. There are large quarries of limestone, extensive limestone works, cement works, saw and planing mills and manufactories of paper, shirt waits, collars, etc. Population, 1920, 16,638. 1181 GLOBE Globe, a sphere. Artificial globes constitute an important part of school- room apparatus. They may be made of metal, plaster or cardboard. There are two kinds of globes, the terrestrial and the celestial, the former containing a rep- resentation of the earth’s surface, the lat- ter a diagram showing the positions of the heavenly bodies. The terrestrial globe is held in position on a frame by a rod through the center corresponding to the earth’s axis; and by means of it the globe is free to rotate, and its inclina- tion to the plane of its axis is the same as that of the earth’s body. On the globe, parallels of latitude and the merid- ians are indicated, and sometimes ele- vations of land, such as mountain ranges. The finest celestial globes, if set in proper position, so exactly represent the posi- tions of the stars that a straight line be- ginning at the center of the globe and passing through the point on its surface indicating a particular star, if projected into space, wotld pass through the star so indicated. Globe, Ariz., county seat of Gila Co., 124 m. n.w. of Bowie and 112 m. n. of Tucson, on Pinal Creek and on the Arizona Eastern Railroad. The city is noted for its great output of copper ore, and since the first settlement in 1873 has developed from a mining camp into a modern city. The adjacent region is rich in mineral wealth, and the city is surrounded by the Mogollon, White, Mazatzal and other mountains. The climate is exceedingly mild. Globe con- tains good municipal buildings and an excellent system of public schools. A city charter was granted in 1907. Popu- lation in 1920, according to the U. S. Census, 7,044, in 1922, estimated, 10,000. Globigerina, Glo bij"er 7’ na, a family of microscopic animals of the group known as Foraminifera. The various species are chiefly found in the deep sea, where they form a part of the floating plankton and where after death they sink and their tiny shells form the soft mud known as globigerina ooze. At great depths in the ocean floor this forms a stratum known as gray chalk. The GLOUCESTER sheli of the globigerina consists of a thin, limy covering separated into a few spirally-arranged chambers;: upon the outside are several depressions and spines which aid it in keeping afloat; some of these chambers contain a light liquid of less specific gravity than water, and these, too, aid in keeping it at the surface. The globigerina has no skele- ton and no specialized canal systems. Its most conspicuous feature is the mouth opening, a characteristic which it has in common with all Foraminifera. The elobigerina is the most abundant of this group. See PRroTozoA; PLANKTON. Gloucester, Glos’ ter, Mass., a city and port of entry of Essex Co., 28 m. n.e. of Boston, on Massachusetts Bay. It is beautifully situated on the south side of the Peninsula of Cape Ann, and is connected by the Boston & Maine Rail- road with the principal seaports and towns of the seaboard and interior. The city is a popular summer resort and the picturesqueness of its surroundings at- tracts many artists and tourists. There is a large, accessible and safe harbor for vessels of the largest class, and coal, salt and lumber are extensively imported. Gloucester is one of the most important fishing ports and fish markets in the world, having over 500 vessels engaged in the fisheries. Cod, herring, halibut and mackerel are the chief catches. It has also extensive granite works, foun- dries, forges, shipyards and manufacto- ries of oil clothing, twine, sails, shoes, fish glue and anchors. Not far distant is the massive sunken rock called Nor- man’s Woe, rendered famous by Long- fellow’s Wreck of the Hesperus. Nu- merous vessels have been wrecked in the vicinity. Gloucester was occupied as a fishing station as early as 1624, being the first settlement made on the north shore of Massachusetts Bay. The first settlers were from Gloucester, England, from which it received its name. It has the oldest Universalist church in the United States, founded in 1770. Annisquam, Bay View, East Gloucester, Lanesville, Magnolia, West Gloucester and Fresh- 1182 GLOUCESTER water Cove are near-by villages and sum- mer resorts. Gloucester was chartered as a city in 1874. The city has the com- mission form of government. Popula- tion in 1920, 22,947. Gloucester, N. J., a city of Camden Co., about 1 m. s. of Camden, opposite Philadelphia, on the Delaware River and on the Atlantic City and the West Jer- sey & Seashore railroads. It has ferry connection with Philadelphia. The city has manufactories of Smyrna rugs, woolen yarns, incandescent gas burners, boats, drills, fertilizers, etc. Gloucester was settled in 1677 and incorporated in 1868. Population in 1920, 12,162. Glove, Gluv, a covering for the hand that encloses each finger in a separate sheath. A mitten has a separate sheath for the hand alone. The glove is of very ancient origin, and we do not know when or where it first come into use, but there . are authentic accounts of gloves being worn by the ancient Persians. The an- cient Greeks and Romans corisidered gloves unnecessary as a means of protec- ‘tion, but in the latter part of the Roman Empire they were worn by the nobility and were highly ornamented. During the Middle Ages the glove was a mark of distinction, and those worn by officials of high rank were elaborately orna- mented. They were taken off in the presence of superiors. The gauntlet, or glove of mail, was a part of the knight’s armor, and throwing it down before an adversary was a challenge to combat. If the adversary picked up the gauntlet he accepted the challenge. There are two principal classes of gloves, those made of cloth, yarn or thread and those made of the skins of animals, either with or without the fur. Leather gloves of the finest quality or genuine kid gloves are made from the skins of young goats, but most of the so-called kid gloves on the market are made from sheepskin. Buckskin gloves are generally made of sheepskin, calf- skin, cowhide and horsehide, tanned, dressed, finished and split for the pur- pose. MANUFACTURE. Gloves are stamped GLOWWORM out of the finished leather into forms by special dies; the parts are sewed to- gether by a special type of sewing ma- chine; and afterwards the gloves are shaped and stretched over a metal hand heated by steam from within. While on this hand they are smoothed, polished and finished. Finally they are marked, assorted into sizes, arranged in pairs and wrapped in boxes ready for shipment. Kid gloves bearing the names of Paris factories have generally enjoyed the rep- utation of being the finest, particularly those made for women for full dress, and those of so-called dogskin for men’s wear from London have been similarly favored. However, by introducing im- proved methods of tanning and prepar- ing the leather, and, furthermore by im- porting skilled labor, the United States, which now makes an immense number of kid: gloves, has made rapid progress in glove manufacture. Knitted white gloves of cotton are used largely by policemen, porters and carriage drivers. Mittens of cotton cloth are made in great quantities, and are principally used by farmers, mechan- ics and laborers to protect their hands against injury when handling materials. Gloves made of rubber combined with cloth are used by housewives when dust- ing, sweeping and in washing dishes. A very thin glove made of rubber is em- ployed by physicians and surgeons to prevent infection. Knitted wool gloves and those of fur are the best gloves for protection against cold. Gloversville, N. Y., a city of Fulton Co., 53 m. n.w. of Albany, on the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville Railroad. The Nathan Littauer Hospital is located here. The city contains many fine public build- ings. It is the principal seat of the glove manufacture in the United States, its factories, with those of Johnstown, a sister city, controlling a large propor- tion of the entire production of the coun- try. It has also extensive manufactories of glove and shoe leather. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 22,075. Glow’worm”, a name variously ap- plied to a number of wingless insects 1182 GLOXINIA having the power to emit light. This ability is seated in certain organs called luminous patches, which are lo- cated generally just beneath the skin on different parts of the body; they are composed of a network of nerves and of fatty tissue connected with the trachea in such a manner that air may be passed through them. The union of the oxygen and the tissues produces a slow combus- tion with the evolution of light. In America the wingless female of the firefly and its larve are called glowworms. See FIREFLY. . Gloxin’ia, a native of the tropics be- longing to the Gesneria Family. It is an almost stemless plant with wavy-mar- gined leaves and irregular, bell-shaped fiowers of various colors. The gloxinia is a favorite greenhouse plant and under cultivation produces.) numerous showy flowers. It is also used as a garden and house plant.. Glucinum, Gloo si’ num, or Beryl’- lium, an element found in the mineral, beryl, which under some conditions is known as emerald, a gem. On account of the sweetish taste of its salts, it was first called glucinum, and the two names are both in use at the present time. Glucinum was first obtained free by Bus- sey, in 1828. It is a comparatively rare element, though it is found in other min- erals, notably the emerald. Gluck, Glook, Christoph Willibald (1714-1787), a musical composer, of German parentage, but identified with the French school, born near Nuremburg. After study in Milan he wrote many florid operas in the contemporary Ital- ian style. In 1745 he went to London, where the scathing criticism of Handel awakened in Gluck a realization of his deficiencies, and going to Paris he de- veloped a music drama that was to be epoch-making. His later themes were lofty, many of them taken from classic drama, and in his handling of them all former flowery effects were sacrificed for the sake of dramatic consistency. The greatest of his operas are Orpheus and Eurydice, Iphigenia in Aulis, Iphi- gemia in Tauris, Armide and Alcestis. GLUCOSE SIRUP Glucose, Gloo' kose, commercially the name of sirup made from starch. The glucose placed on the market in the United States is made from corn. The process consists first in making starch from the corn (See STARCH), and then producing glucose from the starch. The starch is converted into sugar by form-. ing it into a paste with water containing sulphuric acid, and boiling the mixture. The acid is removed by adding chalk, and the mass is again heated and filtered through a press under steam at a pres- sure of 25 to 40 lb. per square inch. This gives a clear sirup, which when cooled forms solid glucose. This prod- uct is refined by reducing it to liquid form and filtering through charcoal, two products being obtained, the glu- cose of commerce and a residue known as grape sugar, because of its resem- blance to sugar obtained from grapes. Glucose is used extensively in brewing malt liquors, as a substitute for sugar, and in the manufacture of candy and artificial honey. It is not as sweet as cane sugar, but when properly prepared, it forms a cheap and healthful food. It is made chiefly in Germany and the United States, See Corn. Glucose Sirup, or Corn Sirup, a sirup made from the starch of corn, used ex- tensively in canning fruit and in making confectionery. Its manufacture has be- come a great industry in the United States, where the standard sirup does not contain more than 25 per cent of water nor more than three per cent of ash. The entire process of manufacture re- quires more than three days. The corn is steeped in water containing sulphurous acid, after which it is ground and the starch allowed to separate. The starch is then cleaned and heated with hydro- chloric acid and water in closed vessels called converters. At the close of this step, or when the starch has all been converted to sugar, the remaining acid is neutralized and a long process of fil- tration and concentration follows. The filtration is both bag filtration and bone- black filtration. With the final concen- tration the liquid becomes a thick, sirupy 1184 GLUE mass which does not crystallize readily and which is sweet to the taste, although only about one-half as sweet as cane sugar. Glucose sirup is used in adulterating other sirups, as a substitute for malt in brewing and, most widely, in making confectionery and in canning and pre- serving fruit. Consult Bulletin 66, Bu- reau of Chemistry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, for a complete dis- cussion of its manufacture and use. Glue, a fluid cement, or adhesive preparation. It is usually impure gela- tin (See GELATIN). Glue is employed to unite pieces of wood and other ma- terials. It is purchased at stores in thin, hard, brittle cakes of dark brown color, which, on boiling with water in a kettle surrounded with water to prevent scorch- ing, forms a sticky mass known as liquid glue. Isinglass dissolved in cold water makes a glue known as fish glue. This is used in making a gum for sealing en- velopes. Isinglass glue is made by soak- ing isinglass in cold water until it swells, and then adding spirits of wine and chalk. Marine glue is equal parts rubber and shellac, dissolved separately in naphtha and then mixed. Glutton. See WOLVERINE. Glycerin, Glis' er in, an oily, colorless liquid obtained in large quantities in soap factories by treating fats with steam ata high temperature, or with lime. Pure elycerin is solid, but the presence of the slightest impurities prevents it from crystallizing; hence it usually occurs in liquid form. It is about as thick as sirup and has a slightly sweetish taste. It dis- solves readily in alcohol, but is insoluble in ether. It mixes with alcohol or water in any proportion. preserving animal and vegetable sub- stances; as a vehicle for administering medicines; for many purposes in the arts, such as keeping a material moist; in the manufacture of tobacco; in keep- ing paper moist for printing; in spin- ning, weaving, tanning; and in rope making. It absorbs moisture from the air and lowers the freezing point of water. It is employed in the manufac- Glycerin is used in. GNEISS ture of nitroglycerin. As an ingredient of toilet soaps, it is valuable in soften- ing the skin. In medicine it is used to soothe and heal. Confectioners employ it, and it is used to adulterate beer, wine and milk. It is sometimes itself adul- terated with glucose. Glyp’todon, an extinct animal 10 or 12 ft. in length, allied to the armadillo and somewhat resembling the turtle. It had short, stout legs and stubby, hooflike toes, and stood in a more upright posi- tion than the turtle. A bony armor cov- ered the back and extended down over GLY PTODON the sides of the body. The tail and head were similarly protected. Fossil re- mains of the animal have been found in Florida, Texas, Mexico and South America. Gnat, Nat, a name given to a number of small, annoying insects of the order Diptera. Members of the family are al- ways disliked because of their blood- thirsty habits and their long, sharp pro- boscis which forms their organ of tor- ture. The eggs are laid upon the water and float there for three days, after which they hatch into aquatic larve. Fif- teen days are necessary for the larve to pass through the stages of develop- ment to the adult form. To rid a com- munity of gnats is comparatively easy if the pools of standing water are removed. The name gnat is becoming less common in usage and is being replaced by that of mosquito, which formerly referred to but one genus of gnats. See Mosquito. Gneiss, Nise, a family of metamorphic rocks composed chiefly of mica, feldspar and quartz and numerous accessory min- erals, among them garnet, graphite and 1185 GNOMES tourmaline, and sometimes copper, iron, cobalt, gold, silver and other metallic ores. It has nearly the same mineral composition as granite, but differs from granite in structure, the constituents lying in layers instead of massive, as in granite. It is the most widely distrib- uted of all metamorphic rocks. The or- igin of gneisses is not certainly known. They are of great geological age and were the typical rocks of the Archzan series. They are often found accompa- nied by limestone, graphite, ‘schists, quartzites and other sedimentary rocks, and for this reason many of them are thought to be sedimentary in origin, hav- ing been transformed into their present state by crushing, heat, recrystallization and other metamorphic agents. Also, their chemical composition differs from that of other igneous rocks. Many gneisses are igneous and, in structure, modifications of the normal type. They are sometimes an intermixture of sedi- mentary and igneous rocks. The com- monest and most important class of gneisses are those containing mica. Por- phyritic gneisses contain large crystals of feldspar, which sometimes traverse sev- eral layers. Gnomes, Nomes, in Norse mythol- ogy, part of an army of maggotlike crea- tures bred in the body. of Ymir, giant of fire and ice, to whom the gods gave forms and divine intelligence. These gnomes, dark, crafty beings, were con- demned to underground Svart-alfa-heim (home of the black dwarfs), and ap- peared in daylight only under penalty of being turned to stone. Under the lead- ership of Sindri they mined gold, silver and rich stones, besides acting as smiths for the gods. The female gnomes occa- sionally crept out to torment man. In this case he had nightmare. Dwarfs, trolls and kobolds were other names for gnomes. See Fairy. Gnu, Noo, or Wildebeest, Wild'- beest", a peculiar African animal of the Bovine Family and related to the an- telopes. It has a strong, but slender body and a heavy, buffalolike head with strong, curving horns. There are two _a cloth called mohair. GOAT chief varieties: one with brown fur, a long, reddish-white mane and tail and long, dark hair on the chest; the other with blue-black coat and black mane and tail. Both species require a great deal of water and are thus unable to live in the desert. The wild gnu has been al- most completely exterminated. 7s Goat, a useful member of the Bovine Family, which in many countries takes the place of the sheep, the cow and the mule. It is extremely hardy and can be used as a beast of burden in mountain- ous countries because of its sure-footed- ness and its ability to feede upon the coarse vegetation which would not sup- port more delicate animals. The goat is also valuable for its milk, which is sweet and nourishing, and for its coarse, strong hair, which is useful in making The Angora goat is a highly prized variety of the domes- tic goat, whose long, silky fur produces the best mohair; the cloth made from its fur remains firm and does not mat. Asia, especially the southern portion, is famous for its cashmere goats, which are another silky-haired variety. From their fur are made the valuable cash- meres of India (See CASHMERE GOAT). In America large herds of goats are less common. Their principal use is as pets or for clearing ground of coarse brush. In their feeding they are omnivorous and voracious. Goats have hollow, curv- ing horns, slender, agile limbs and short tails. The face is somewhat sheeplike, although the snout is more pointed and the eye more eager than that of the sheep. The male goat is bearded and is apt to be of rather uncertain temper. At present there are in the United States, according to the census of 1910, 2,/98,160 goats having a total value of $5,964,812, and yet in the past ten years Americans have sent to foreign coun- tries $250,000,000 for goatskins. Con- sidering that the goat is of value not only for its skin but also for its flesh, milk and tallow, it would seem that larger herds might be raised with great profit in the United States. See Rocky Mountain GOAT. 1186 GOATSUCKER Goatsucker, a bird of the Whippoor- will Family. It is about ten inches in length, and is ash-gray, spotted and barred with brown, black and chestnut. White spots are conspicuous on the wings and the outer feathers of the tail. The mouth is very large, the gape ex- tending back to the eye. The two eggs are laid on the bare ground. The goat- suckers, which are confined to the Old World, were so named because of an ancient superstition that they sucked the milk from goats and cattle. The name “night jar” is often used for these birds and is given on account of the purring or jarring noise which they make. Gobi, Go’ be, Desert of, a desert re- gion of central Asia, forming an exten- sive plateau about 3000 ft. above sea level, a dreary stretch of sand, table- lands and mountains. The climate is generally severe, but during the summer the rainfall suffices for an adequate pas- turage for flocks and herds. Nomadic tribes, chiefly Buddhists, inhabit the cen- tral part, and to the north are several permanent settlements; numerous cara- van routes connect Siberia and China proper. ~ God, the creator and ruler of the universe. In all languages there is some word or expression that voices, directly or suggestively, this idea of a supreme or superior being or beings who inspire reverence or worship. The idea is often vague and elusive among primitive peo- ples, manifesting itself in superstitious fear of the powers of nature and of ghosts. As such spirits peopling the uni- verse are many, polytheism, the belief in many gods, is the result. But with ad- vancing civilization and increasing intelli- gence and knowledge, the tendency is to a belief in one true and supreme God. The God believed in and worshiped by Christian nations is the God revealed or discovered in the history of the Hebrew people, supplemented by the life and teachings of Jesus. This God is a spiritual being, self-existent, all-power- ful, all-wise, everywhere present, a wholly just and loving personal spirit. Various arguments have been used in GODFREY OF BOUILLON the course of history to prove the exist- ence of God. The following are the most noted of these: The ontological argu- ment holds that the subjective existence of the idea of God involves the objective existence of God himself. The cos- mological, or causation, argument pro- ceeds from the existence of secondary causes back to the final cause of the uni- verse. The teleological argument, or argu- ment from design, holds that the evi- dences of plan, harmony, purpose and adaptation in the world prove the exist- ence of an intelligent designer. The moral argument maintains that the moral law within us involves a moral lawgiver in the world outside of us. The validity of these arguments has been called in question, and it is true that no one today would attempt to present them in the strictly logical form of the past, although the conceptions that underly them still have weight. But the reasons for the belief in the existence of God have now taken a wider range, including the study of human history, of human nature and the existence of the whole in- telligent and moral world, and make the postulate of the existence of God vastly more probable than any other view. See RELIGION; JESUS CHRIST; MOHAMME- DANISM; CHRISTIANITY. ; Godavari, Go dah’ va re, River. See Inp1A, subhead Physical Characteristics. Godfrey of Bouillon, Boo”yon', (about 1060-1100), a leader in the First Crusade, born in Belgium. When the forces of Henry IV, Emperor of Germany, be- sieged Rome, Godfrey was the first to scale the walls. For this act Henry made him Marquis of Antwerp and Duke of Lorraine. He raised an army of 80;000 infantry and 10,000 horsemen, led them with great ability through Ger- many to Constantinople, captured An- tioch and arrived at Jerusalem in 1099. After a siege of five weeks a breach was made in the walls and Godfrey was among the first to enter. He ruled in Jerusalem for a year and elaborated the system of medieval jurisprudence called Assize of Jerusalem. He died in 1100 and was buried in the Holy Sepulchre. 1187 GOD SAVE THE KING God Save the King (or Queen), the national anthem of Great Britain. The origin of the words and music is a mat- ter of dispute. The familiar song My Country “Tis of Thee is sung to the same tune, and Germans and Russians also have national songs written to this music. God’s Truce. See TRUCE OF Gop. Godwin, Parke (1816-1904), an American journalist, born in Paterson, N. J. He was associated with his father- in-law, William Cullen Bryant, in edit- ing the New York Evening Post, and he edited Putnam’s Magazine for a short while. As an author he is known for his Handbook of Umiversal Biography, A Mythological Tale, Political Essays and for his edition of The Life and Works of Wiliam Cullen Bryant. Goethals, Go’ thals’, George Wash- ington (1858- )3 the builder of the Panama Canal, was born in New York City and educated at West Point, gradu- ating in 1880. He was for four years instructor in civil and military engineer- ing at West Point. He superintended the construction of the Mussel Shoals Canal along the Tennessee and during the Spanish American War was en- gineer for the volunteer army. In 1907 Colonel Goethals became Chief Engineer of the Panama Canal where his skill as an engineer and administrative ability won him a world-wide reputation. In 1915 he was made Brigadier General and appointed Governor of the Canal Zone. Goethe, fon Gw' te, Johann Wolfgang von (1749-1832), a German poet, dram- atist and philosopher, born at Frank- fort-on-the-Main. His father’s serious- ness and his mother’s impulsive imagina- tion as well as poetic gifts were a pre- cious inheritance to the young boy, who fed his childish fancies on books, an- tiquities and works of art in the old home. He was a precocious child, know- ing something at eight of French, Ital- ian, Latin and Greek. In 1765 he went to Leipsic to study law, and, after a brief illness which compelled him to return to Frankfort, he continued his legal stud- ies at Strassburg. There he also took up GOETHE music, anatomy, art and chemistry. | met Herder and a close intimacy was formed between the two; they spent their time studying the masterpieces, Herder urging the need to create na- tional ideas and to appreciate Shakes- peare and the folk songs. About the same time Goethe fell in love with a charming girl, an experience which col- ors some of his later literary work. He returned to Frankfort after grad- uating in 1771, went to Wetzlar to prac- tice law, and soon published his first drama, Gotz von Berlichingen. Then there came a new love affair, which the novel, The Sorrows of W erther, immor- talizes. In 1775 he was invited by Karl August to become one of the court at Weimar, and gradually the heavy State duties forced the young poet to give up his round of merry pleasures. As a man of affairs his foresight, energy and bal- anced judgments brought him wide polit- ical recognition. Agriculture, horticul- ture, geology and mineralogy, as inter- ests of the State, soon became his own, and he devoted only a small part of his time to writing during the ten years that followed. In 1786 he asked leave to visit Italy, and could scarcely restrain his im- patience at the thought of the long-ex- pected journey which was to exert so tremendous an influence on him, In Italy, the land of blue skies, he gained a clearer vision of his duty and mission as a poet, and from -the year 1788 he worked with the calm and self- possession of a seer. Never wholly in sympathy with the “Storm and Stress” movement of the literature of his native country, he here caught the spirit and the beauty of the Greek classics, and a change becomes apparent in all his sub- sequent work. The unfinished products, Iphigenie, Egmont, Tasso and Faust which he brought with him to Italy, were later completed in a wholly different vein from the one in which they were begun. On his return to Germany he found his country backward in its literary activ- ity as well as appreciation, and for some time he renounced writing, devoting him: self to scientific pursuits, 1188 He : _— oo pecan thas % F " i i % . a... ee ee GOETHE His renewed interest in literature was brought about through the influence of Schiller, who soon proved to be an en- couraging and sympathetic critic. Goethe now wrote Reinecke Fuchs, Wilhelm Meister, the fragment of Achilleis, his share of the Xenien and Hermann and Dorothea. The last is a classic of sim- plicity, done with Homeric insight, with- out sentimentality and without idealiza- tion. He made use of an old and homely story, and made it a masterful tribute to family life. An unsuccessful attempt was also made to complete the first part of Faust. He published an exquisite cycle of ballads, Der Zauberlehrling, The Bride of Corinth, Alexis and Dora and The Good Women. _ Despite the fact that he was not in sympathy with the Romanticists they looked upon him as their master, and when the first part of Faust appeared in 1808 they hailed it enthusiastically as the very triumph of their art. After the death of Schiller, whose loss Goethe deeply mourned, a third period of activ- ity followed, during which he wrote Elective Affinities, his autobiography published under the title, Truth and Fic- tion Relating to My Life, the Conver- sations, the continuation of Wiulhelm Meister and the second part of Faust. During the last years of his life he lived in retirement, except for the pilgrimages made to his home by the younger gen- eration, who looked upon him as a lit- erary giant, a survivor of an heroic past. Of his work in the many fields, poster- ity has shown a willingness to ignore his scientific researches and economic the- ories, despite the fact that they were modern to an extraordinary degree; even his art criticism and his novels have minor significance. But as a lyric poet he stands supreme in a country es- sentially lyric in its literary expression. There is an exquisite grace and a sweet- ness about his verse, and a combination of melody and music of words, as well as sentiment and depth of feeling, such as few poets of the world have paral- leled. And Faust, his masterpiece on which he labored from early manhood. GOITER until the approach of old age, is Ger- many’s most national drama. It is the full “confession” of his life and ex- perience. But it is more than the story of individualized experience; it embraces the strivings of the Humanists of the 18th century, and in the Second Part the poet enters the unreal world of allegory and presents the whole of human life and activity. His theme is the turning of an idealist from private haunts, thoughts and dreams, from all that is un- natural, to the real world, to the com- pany of men and to nature and the founts of life. There is here a noble expression of the poet’s faith in the ulti- mate triumph over the powers of evil, and his world-wisdom and philosophy of life are sounder and wiser than any other that literature has recorded since the Renaissance. That Goethe himself con- sidered it the culmination of his life work is apparent by his exclamation when he was sealing the manuscript of the Sec-_ ond Part: “The rest of my life may be regarded as a free gift. It is now really indifferent what I do, or if I do anything at) all.’ Goethe’s genius was of the universal type, a mind responsive to all the intel- lectual interests that literature, art, sci- ence and philosophy might offer. He was first and last modern, quick to sym- pathize with the changing social condi- tions of the 19th century, and as ready to grant that the idyllic age of his early years, the last decades of the 18th cen- tury so fruitful in their contributions to art, must yield to the demands of a new industrial system. As a philosopher and as a moralist he exerted a powerful in- fluence. Greater only than his work was the fullness and richness of his life itself. Goi’ter, a disease causing swelling of the thyroid gland in front of the throat. It is universal, but in certain localities the cases are more numerous than in others. It is a common occurrence in Switzerland and is not infrequently found in the Alps, Andes and Himalaya Mountains, in Derbyshire, England, and in various other localities where the geo- logical formation consists largely of lime 1189 GOLD and the drinking water is impregnated with that mineral. Women are oftener affected than men. Gold, a precious metal, which, on account of its luster and resistance to oxidation, has always been used in orna- mentation and as money. Gold is found in quartz veins in the oldest rocks and in the sand of most river beds. It is estimated that there is two cents’ worth of gold in every ton of sea water. Gold is found in association with lead, silver and copper, and many processes for sep- arating it from its alloys are now in use. See METALLURGY. Gold is a relatively soft, reddish-yel- low metal of such ductility that it can be drawn into exceedingly fine wire threads and beaten into very thin leaves. The light passing through these leaves has a greenish tinge, and gold when melted is a greenish liquid. Gold does not tarnish in air even when heated, and is attacked by only one single acid, selenic, or by the compound nitric-muri- atic acid, called aqua regia. It is also soluble in potassium cyanide. Gold is so soft and wears away so rapidly that it is seldom, if ever, used pure, but generally in alloy with cop- per or silver. With the former it has a tinge of red, and with the latter a paler gold color. American gold coins are 90 per cent gold and 10 per cent copper. Goldsmiths estimate the pu- rity of gold in carats, 24 carats being pure gold. Most jewelry is from 14 to 18 carats fine. Gold is used everywhere for the choicest ornaments and ranks in this respect with the precious stones. It is also the standard for money in all civilized countries. The chief gold-producing countries are South Africa, United States, Aus- tralia, Mexico, Canada and Russia. The annual production of gold in the world is about $350,000,000. Of this amount the United States produces about $96,000,000, Africa about $175,000,000 and Australia about $65,000,000. The leading gold-producing states of the United States are California, Colorado, Nevada and South Dakota. GOLDEN EAGLE Gold and Silver Certificate. See Money, subhead Paper Money. Gold Beating, the process by which gold is hammered into extremely thin leaves, making what is known.as gold leaf. This is used in ornamental gilding to protect metal surfaces against rust, and for filling teeth. The arts of gold beating and gilding were known to the Egyptians many centuries before the Christian Era. The process in gold beat- ing is first to cast the gold into thin, oblong pieces weighing two ounces. These are flattened into a ribbon 6f about 1/800 of an inch thick, and the ribbon is then cut into pieces one inch square; 150 of these are placed between inter- vening leaves of vellum, or tough paper, and enclosed in a parchment case. This pack is beaten on a wooden block with a heavy hammer until the gold pieces meas- ure four inches square. These are then cut into four pieces, when they are again beaten in a similar manner, but this time between leaves of goldbeater’s skin, a membrane from the intestines of cat- tle. The final result is a thickness of about 1/200,000 of an inch, making an ounce of gold cover about 100 sq. ft. By using silver and other different met- als as alloys a variety of colors is ob- tained, but if the gold is too much adul- terated, its malleability is destroyed. See ALLOY; GILDING. Gold Coast, a British crown colony of West Africa, lying between the Ivory Coast and Togoland and reaching from the Gulf of Guinea to French West Af- rica. In its southern part lies the Prov- ince of Ashanti (See ASHANTI); its total area is 82,000 sq. m. Near the coast the country is level, but farther in- land are low mountain ranges. The soil is fertile, but because the climate is not healthful settlers are not attracted to the country. Palm oil, palm kernels, valu- able woods and gold dust are exported. The population is about 1,502,900, most of whom are pagans. Golden-Crowned Thrush. See Oven- BIRD. Golden Eagle. Golden Eagle. See EacLe, subhead 1190 GOLDEN FLEECE Golden Fleece, in classic myths the ram’s fleece for which Jason and _ his hero crew sailed to Colchis in the Argo. See ARGONAUTS; JASON, Golden Gate. See CALIFORNIA, sub- head Scenery. Golden Robin. See OrioLe, subhead Baltimore Oriole. Goldenrod, an American wild flower of the Composite Family, so common that it has been chosen the national flower of the United States and the state flower of Missouri, North Carolina, Alabama, Kentucky and Nebraska. There are over 100 species known in the United States, and all are roadside or river-bank plants, blooming in the late summer and early autumn. The stems are brown and dry, varying in height and being smooth or hairy according to the species. The leaves also vary greatly in the different species, being rough or smooth, parallel- veined or much-divided. In all but one species, the white goldenrod, or silver- rod, the flowers are yellow. The most common species, the early goldenrod, the showy goldenrod and the late goldenrod, bear their flowers in long, loose clusters, often mostly on one side of the stem and often in partly pyramid form. The other common species are rather easily distinguished, from their names: broad-leafed goldenrod, acute- leafed goldenrod, seaside goldenrod and sweet goldenrod. The last species has a noticeable fragrance when crushed. Goldfinch, a bird of the Finch Fam- ily. The American goldfinch, also known as the yellowbird and the wild canary, is a beautiful little bird about the size of a canary, which it closely resembles. In summer the male is bright yellow, with. black crown, wings and tail and white wing and tail markings. The fe- male is olive-brown above and yellowish below and has no black on the forehead. In the winter the male is of the same color as the female. The song resembles that of the canary. The nest is placed in the crotch of a tree or bush not far from the ground, and is a cup-shaped structure, skillfully woven and lined with thistle down, thus giving the bird locally GOLDSMITH the name thistle bird. It contains three to five bluish eggs. In autumn these birds collect in flocks. They feed upon seeds, being especially fond of the gold- enrod, thistle and sunflower. They do not migrate and can be kept near dwell- ings during the winter by planting sun- flowers in the garden and leaving them for the birds to feed upon. Chapman says: “I wish everyone knew the goldfinch. His gentle ways and sweet disposition are never failing anti- dotes for discontent.” Goldfish, a Chinese fish of the Carp Family, introduced into the United States and other countries because of its beautiful form and color. A darker color is natural to the goldfish, and the pure yellow fish are obtained only through careful selection and breeding. The goldfish are small, rarely more than six inches in length, and are among the very few fish which are tamable and show any signs of affection. They have be- come domesticated on the Potomac through escape from fountains and aquariums, but have there reverted to their natural dark color. Goldschmidt, Jenny Lind. See Linn, JENNY. Goldsmith, Oliver (1728-1774), an English poet, novelist and playwright, born probably in Pallas, Ireland. He studied at Dublin University, graduating in 1749, and attempted to enter five or six professions without success. When he applied for ordination he was quickly dismissed from the episcopal palace for appearing in a bright scarlet costume; the money his uncle gave him to study law in London was lost in a gambling den; his stay at the University of Edin- burgh and at Leyden left him with only a smattering knowledge of medicine. From 1753 to 1756 he wandered through Europe, making his way (as runs the story) with a flute, on which he played so merrily that the dancing peasants hos- pitably offered him a bite to eat and a bed. Then he turned to hack-writing, and in the magazines for which he wrote appeared his Enquiry into the Present State of Polite Learning in Europe, the 1191 GOLD STANDARD Chinese Letters (later known as The Cit- izen: of the World) and the Life of Richard Nash. In 1764, his whimsical and delightful writings having attracted attention, he became one of the original members of the famous Literary Club in London. Dr. Johnson, as the account goes, was the agent for the sale of the manuscript of the Vicar of Wakefield, which was sold in 1764, appearing two years later. Despite the successes of his novel, poems and comedies alike, he al- ways remained poor, himself and his own mismanagement to blame for his sharp distresses. The two productions which made him famous as a poet are The Traveller and The Deserted Village. In both are found a spirit of quiet meditation, a moralizing strain and a winsome view of rustic life. His classical couplet is a close approach to the polish and perfection of Pope’s. His comedies are pure and laughing, in drollery and rich mirth far surpassing anything previously written during this period. The Good Natured Man was not warmly received, for the public was too accustomed to the sentimental comedy of the age to recognize its merits. But the sprightly, uproarious humor of She Stoops to Conquer triumphed and its first night was a splendid success. No less fascinating in its humor and gentle satire on village life was the Vicar of Wakefield, a novel with an aimless plot but with sparkling fun and inimitable character portrayal. Goldsmith adhered with difficulty to fact, and his History of England, as well as his essays, though at their worst very readable, are lacking even in any pretense of accuracy. Gold Standard. See BIMETALLISM. Golf, a game known to have existed in very ancient times among the people of Holland and Belgium, where, how- ever, it was most commonly played on the ice. It derived its name from the Dutch word for club. Introduced into Scotland previous to 1457, it had by that time begun to rival archery in the affec- tions of the people; and has now long been known there as “The Royal and An- cient Game of Goff.” Since 1880, how- GOLF ever, the tremendous interest among the English people has greatly stimulated in- terest among the Scotch; while, in the United States, the game has become im- mensely popular since about 1890. Golf is played on fields, or links, over courses of either 9 or 18 holes, these being four and one-half inches in diam- eter and not less than four inches deep, and located at the center of carefully tended spots called greens. A course of 18 holes should be not less than three nor more than five miles long. The holes should be from 100 to 600, or more, yards apart; and the last should be near the first. The location of each is indicated by a metal flag supported on an upright iron rod which rests in the hole except when temporarily re- moved by a player. If one plays alone, he aims to drive a white gutta-percha ball, one and three-quarter inches in diameter and weighing from 26 to 28 pennyweights, over the entire course, putting it successively into each of the holes, with the fewest strokes possible. He is said to play against bogey, a speci- fied number of strokes allowed for each hole, and for the course. It is desirable to have numerous ob- stacles, or hazards, between holes. Where such do not exist, in the form of walls, trees, pits or water courses, they are supplied by artificial means. For overcoming these various difficulties, clubs of different size and form have been devised. Six are usually deemed sufficient,—one for long drives, and oth- ers to raise the ball over obstacles, re- move it from difficult positions or for the short strokes necessary upon ap- proaching a hole. In starting, and after the ball is removed from a hole, it is placed on a little elevation, called a tee, which is commonly of sand. This makes possible a long drive at a single stroke, perhaps 200, 250 or 280 yards. When two or more compete, they play in reg- ular order; and, after each hole, in the order in which-they made that, or holed out. The game is called singles when be- tween two, and foursomes when two, as 1192 GOMEZ Y BAEZ partners, compete against two others. In match play the winner has finished the course with fewer strokes than his opponent. In medal play the game goes to the one who wins the largest number of holes. In America, the central au- thority, since 1894, has been the United States Golf Association. There are, however, numerous subordinate leagues and associations and numerous independ- ent clubs. Gomez Y Baez, Go’ mase e Bah’ ase, Maximo (1826-1905), a Cuban patriot and general, born at Bani, San Domingo. When a young man he served for a time in the Spanish army, but later became a planter. On the breaking out in 1868 of the series of insurrections, Gomez took his place among the insurgents. He soon became a leader and then a commander of Cuban forces. In 1895 he was made general-in-chief of the Cuban army, but was dismissed in 1899 because he re- ceived for his soldiers $3,000,000 appro- priated by the Congress of the United States. He cooperated with the United States in the effort to secure Cuban in- dependence, but his motives were not always appreciated by his compatriots, so that he spent some time in exile. Gomor’rah. See Sopom. Gom/’pers, Samuel (1850- ), an American labor leader, born in London, England. He received his education in a night school. He was a shoemaker and later a cigar maker. While serving in this latter capacity he became greatly interested in the conditions of laboring people and in the social questions in- volved. After coming to the United States he continued his efforts to im- prove the conditions and lighten the bur- dens of the laboring classes. Mr. Gom- pers was one of the founders of the American Federation of Labor, and, with the exception of one year, has been its president. He is also the editor of The American Federationist, the official organ of the society. He is also vice- -president of the National Civic Federation. Gon’dola, a boat usually about 30 feet long and four or five feet wide, each end of which is sharp and raised to the ‘ized on the fraternal order. GOOD TEMPLARS height of perhaps five feet. On the canals of Venice, they were for centuries the only means of transportation. They have never been much used elsewhere, and power boats are now threatening their existence even in Venice. In ac- cordance with an ancient law, they have. always been painted black, except those of certain officials. The oarsman, or gondolier, stands in the stern facing for- ward, and rows with a single long oar. Sometimes there is a second oarsman in the bow. Passengers occupy a cabin amidships. Goo’ber. See PEANUT. Goode, George Brown (1851-1896), an American scientist, born in New AI- bany, Ind., and educated at Wesleyan University. From 1887 until his death he was assistant secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution, in charge of the Na- tional Museum at Washington, D. C. He was a prominent authority on fishes and was connected with various popular scientific exhibitions. His publications, about 400 in number, deal mostly with ichthyology and the management of museums. Good Friday, a Christian feast hon- oring the death of Christ on Calvary, and observed on the Friday before Faster.. Nearly all Christian Churches have fitting services on this day. In the Catholic Church mass is not said, nor is ‘communion given; but all peoples of the world are prayed for, and at three o'clock the “Way of the Cross” is re- cited. Candles are unlighted and the stripped altar is overshadowed by a cross veiled in mourning. The vestments worn are black. Good Templars, Independent Order of, a temperance brotherhood organ- It originated in Fayetteville, N: Y., in 1851, The members are pledged to abstain from the use of intoxicating liquors and to con- form to the rites and ceremonies of the order. The organization includes local lodges, county lodges and an interna~ tional right worthy grand lodge. There is also a juvenile order. The total mem- bership is about 620,000. 1193 GOOD WILL Good Will, in business whatever ad- vantage has occurred to a business be- cause of its location, long continuance, the reputation established by upright dealing and by its connections. In law the good will of a business is considered property and one of the factors in de- termining the valuation of the business in case of transfer.. In such case when a business is sold it is not supposed that the former proprietor will engage in the same business in a locality where his trade will affect the trade of the party to whom he has sold. Goodwin, Nathaniel Carl (1857- 1919), an American actor, born in Bos- ton, Mass. He made his début in 1873, playing in Joseph Bradford’s Law, and his first decided success was as Captain Crosstree in Black-Eyed Susan. In 1898 he married the well-known actress Max- ine Elliott, with whom he was associ- ated in several performances. Among the burlesques and light comedies in which he established his wide reputation as a comedian are Black-Eyed Susan, A Gilded Fool, Nathan Hale, The Altar of Friendship and When We Were Twenty- one. Goodyear, Charles (1800-1860), an American inventor, born in Connecticut. He early began to manufacture hard- ware in Philadelphia, soon discovering that the surface of rubber hardened when dipped in nitric acid, thus making it less sticky in warm weather and less brittle in cold weather. This process was used for years in manufacturing rub- ber shoes. Later, Goodyear perfected the vulcanizing of rubber, which he ap- plied to many practical uses. His pat- ents are in general use today. He was awarded medals at the London (1851) and Paris (1885) expositions, and be- longed to the Legion of Honor. See RUBBER. Goose. See CANADA GOOSE. Gooseberry, a wild or cultivated shrub of the Saxifrage Family, best known from its juicy, edible fruit. It is a slender, bushy shrub growing gen- erally in close thickets about four feet in height. The leaves are thick, dark GOPHER green in color, with rounding, wavy- margined lobes, and are often covered: with fine, rough hairs. The greenish-yel- low flowers are arranged along a slen- der, curving stem; each single blossom has a tubular five-parted calyx, often colored like the five short petals and en- closing five stamens. The berries are often armed with sharp prickles, which, in cultivated varieties, are less spiny; when ripe the fruits are brown-purple in color, larger than currants and ex- tremely juicy; they are used in making preserves, jelly and medicinal drinks. In the swamp gooseberry the stems are covered with spines, and the berries, which are very spiny, are not pleasant to the taste. Gopher, Go’ fer, a name applied to various members of the Bat and the Squirrel families, all of which are bur- rowing animals. The true gopher is bet- ter known as the pocket gopher and be- longs to the former family. It is a plump Western animal about the size of a rat, has small eyes and ears, a head which seems clumsily fitted to its body and a sensitive tail that has the appear-. ance of having belonged to a different an- imal. The mouth is rather small but dis- closes long, gnawing teeth, and upon each side of it but not opening into it, is a large fur-lined pouch whose object seems to be the prevention of the dirt, dislodged in tunneling, from entering the throat. The claws of this gopher are extremely long and strong and assist in digging its winding passageways. 1216 GRASSHOPPER Grasse was not returned to his command ; after being released by the English, he spent his remaining years in Paris. Grasshopper, a name applied to a number of species of two different fami- lies in the order Orthoptera. It is not definitely distinguished from the term locust in the United States, but is per- haps a little broader in its usage. It ordinarily refers to members of the Lo- custid Family, which, strangely enough, does not include the true locusts; the Acridiid, or True Locust, Family is the other group, having members spoken of as grasshoppers (See Locust). This dis- cussion will concern itself only with members of the Locustid Family. GRASSHOPPER There are three well-known species, the sword bearer, the common meadow grasshopper and the lance-tailed grass- hopper. All may be recognized by their short, peaked heads, long, slender anten- ne reaching backward, as long as or longer than the body, and their delicate build. The meadow grasshopper is the one which leaps from the path before one on dusty midsummer days, startling one by its high leap and its sudden rasping call, or jumping from the uncut grass of the’ pasture, where its green color had ef- fectually concealed it from view. Their music, without which the meadow and _ the roadside would be silent places, is produced by rasping together roughened portions of the forewings. The stridulat- ing apparatus, as the roughened patches are called, is possessed only by the males, and in grasshoppers makes but a faint, soft sound heard by day as well as by night. This note has been likened to a prolonged z r r r, terminated by the re- peated syllable jip, jip, jip. GRAVITY, CENTER OF The wings of all three species are long, but are not often used. The long, stout hind legs, whose knee joints are high above the back, are its chief aid in loco- motion. The grasshopper deposits its eggs in the stems or leaves of grasses or in the pith of trees. Ordinarily grass- hoppers are not serious pests because they are kept down by the numerous birds which prey upon them. When they do overrun the countryside, artificial means of destroying them must be re- sorted to. Some of these are discussed under the article on locusts. Grav” ita’tion, the force which, act- ing at appreciable distances, attracts bodies toward each other. A small body and a large one exert this force toward each other equally, since each particle of one attracts each particle of the other. The nature of gravitation is unknown, but its force holds the planets in their orbits about the sun and causes bodies to fall toward the earth. Newton, who first studied gravitation, established the two facts concerning it: that at equal distances its force varies as the product of the masses of the attracting bodies ; and that at unequal distances its force varies inversely as the square of the dis- tance between the attracting bodies, cen- ter to center. For this reason, eliminat- ing centrifugal force, which acts most strongly at the equator, the same body | would weigh less at the equator than at the poles, which are nearer the center of the earth than the equator is. The constant of gravitation is the force with which two spherical bodies, each of unit mass whose centers are unit distance apart, attract’ each other. The force is 0000000666 dyne for two bodies of one gram each, whose centers are one centimeter apart. The laws of gravita- tion of the earth, or gravity, are dis- cussed under the title FALLING Bopies. Grav’ity, Center of, a point upon which a body may be balanced. It is the point through which passes, whatever the position of the body, the resultant of the parallel forces of gravity acting upon all particles of the body. In regu- lar plane and solid figures the center of 1217 GRAVITY, SPECIFIC yravity is the same as the center of the figure. The center of gravity of an irregular plane figure may be found by suspending it first from one corner and then from another and in each case drop- ping a plumb line from the vertex used ; if lines are drawn in the position taken by the plumb line in its successive posi- tions, the center of gravity will lie at the intersection of these lines. If pinned to the wall at that point, the figures will remain at rest in any position. The center of gravity of a solid can be found in the same manner as that of a plane figure, by suspending the solid from each of two different points in turn and noting the intersection of the plumb lines from the two points respectively. For some bodies the center of gravity lies wholly outside the body. Gravity, Specific, the density of a substance compared with that of a fixed standard. For solids and liquids the standard is water; for gases it may be either water or air. The terms density and specific gravity should be carefully distinguished. The density of a sub- stance is its weight (more properly, its mass) per unit volume; the density of cast iron is 462.5 lb. per cubic foot, while the density of water is 62.5 lb. per cubic foot. The specific gravity of iron is the ratio of these two densities, ==, which equals 7.4. “In the metric system the density of iron is 7.4 grams per cubic centimeter, while that of water is one gram per cubic centimeter. In the metric system the numerical values of the den- sity and the specific gravity of a sub- stance are the same, since the density of water is one gram per cubic centimeter at the temperature of 4° C.; the density of water is slightly less at lower tempera- tures and decreases with rise in tempera- ture, being only .9586 gram per cubic gentinetér at. 100° Gu The fundamental method of determin- ing the specific gravity of a substance is to find the weight of the substance and the weight of an equal volume of water ; then divide the first weight by the second. When a solid is placed in a liquid, the solid loses in weight an amount. equal to 1218 GRAVITY, SPECIFIC the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid; that is, its loss in weight is the weight of an equal volume of the liquid. Because of this, to find the specific grav- ity of a solid heavier than water, the solid is weighed first in air and then in water, and the weight in air is divided by the difference between the two weights. If a solid is lighter than water, a sinker can be used. The solid and the sinker are weighed separately in air, the sinker is weighed alone in water, and then the sinker and the solid are weighed in water. If from the loss of weight of both, the loss of weight of the sinker is subtracted, the result will be the loss of weight of the solid alone. Then the weight of the solid in air divided by its loss of weight in water gives its specific gravity. The specific gravity of a liquid is usu- ally found by means of a “specific grav- ity bottle,” a light glass bottle with a glass stopper, so arranged that the bottle can be easily filled just to the top of a small hole in the stopper. The bottle is weighed first empty, then when filled with water. The difference in weight of the bottle full of the liquid and empty di- vided by the difference in weight of the bottle full of water and empty gives the specific gravity of the liquid. The spe- cific gravity of liquids is very conveni- ently found directly by means of a varia- ble immersion hydrometer. See Hy- DROMETER. In all the above work corrections should be made for the density of the water used, if it is not distilled water at 4° C., when very accurate results are re- quired. The specific gravity of gas is found by weighing a light glass bulb filled with the gas and then exhausting the bulb with an air pump and weighing again; _the difference is the weight of this volume of gas. The weight of the gas divided by the weight of the same volume of air obtained in like manner gives the specific gravity of the gas. Since the specific gravity of a gas depends upon its tem- perature and pressure, it is necessary to see that the gas and the air are at the same temperature and pressure in carry- GRAY ing out the above determination. If they are not used under the same condi- tions, corrections must be applied ac- cording to the laws of gases; air at 0° C. and under a pressure of 76 centimeters of mercury is taken as a standard, its density then being .001293 gram per cubic centimeter. See Gases, LAwS OF. Gray, Asa (1810-1888), an eminent American scientist, whose works on bot- any are authority in the United States. He was a graduate of Fairfield Medical College, but owing to his love for botan- ical study gave up the practice of medi- cine for work in natural history. He be- came professor of’natural history in Har- vard University and was there a volumi- nous writer on botanical subjects. Liv- ing as he did, at a time when botanical classifications were undergoing a change from the artificial to the natural system, and when the newer portions of his country were being explored and settled, Gray found wide field for his labor in the study and classification of American flora. His investigations and their results are recorded in his many books and papers; his School and Field Botany was long a popular school text and his Flora is still widely used. Gray, Elisha (1835-1901), an Amer- ican inventor, born in Barnesville, Ohio. He took up "special studies in physical science at Oberlin, and in 1867 in- vented a self-adjusting telegraph relay. In 1872 he organized the Western Elec- tric Manufacturing Company, and four years later claimed to have invented the speaking telephone. After a memorable litigation, however, this honor was awarded Alexander Graham Bell. Later Gray perfected and patented various tel- egraph instruments and details of tele- graphic construction, including a system of multiplex telegraphy, a type-printing telegraph and in 1893 the telautograph, which transmits the handwriting of mes- sages. Gray, George (1840- ), ary Amer- ican jurist, born in New Castle, Del., and educated at Princeton and Harvard. Ad- mitted to the bar, he practiced at New Castle and Wilmington, being attorney- See TELEGRAPH ; TELAUTOGRAPH.. GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT general of Delaware and, from 1885 to 1899, serving as a Democratic United States senator. Meanwhile, he was ap- pointed to the Anglo-American Commis- sion, the Spanish-American Peace Com- mission and the Joint High Commission between Canada and the United States. In 1900 he belonged to the Hague Arbi- tration Commission, and in 1902 to the anthracite coal strike commission. In 1899 he became judge of the United States Circuit Court. Gray, Thomas (1716-1771), an Eng- lish poet, born in London. He studied at Eton and Cambridge, but before tak- ing his degree in civil law accompanied | Herace Walpole on a tour through France and Italy. He declined the honor of being poet laureate of England and in 1768 became professor of modern his- tory in Cambridge. His fame rests ‘chiefly on the Elegy Written in a Coun- try Churchyard, a marvel of simplicity and classical finish. His theme, the com- pensations of lowly life, was compara- tively new, and reveals his sympathy with the early beginnings of Romanti- cism. His interest in Norse mythology and literature likewise indicates his re- volt from Classicism and gave rise to the odes, The Fatal Sisters, The Descent of Odin and The Triumphs of Owen. Other poems were Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College, The Progress of Poesy and The Bard. See RoMANTICISM. Gray’ling, an exceedingly active fish of the Salmon Family, found in cool streams of temperate regions or colder Arctic zones. Its body is long and only slightly elevated at the back, but a high dorsal fin gives it the appearance of width. The head of the grayling is short, the mouth small and the eyes very prom- inent. The Michigan, Montana and Arctic graylings are all good game fishes, much sought by American fishermen and propagated at many government fish hatcheries. They are about 18 inches in length and of blue-gray color. Great Australian Bight, Bite, a great bay at the south of Australia made by a broad indentation of the shore and form- ing an arm of the Antarctic Ocean. Its 1219 GREAT BEAR shores are irregular, with smaller bays and numerous capes and peninsulas pro- jecting into its waters. The Murray and the Darling rivers flow into this great bay, but no large cities are upon its banks. See AUSTRALIA, subhead Coast Waters. Great Bear (Ursa Major), one of the constellations about the North Star. It contains 138 stars visible to the naked eye, but is- popularly known by seven stars and called the Big Dipper. The two stars of the second magnitude form- ing the outer end of the bowl of the Dip- per are very nearly in line with the North Star, and for this reason are called the pointers. In England this constellation is called Charles’s Wain (wagon). See STARS; CONSTELLATIONS. Great Bear Lake, a lake situated in northwestern North West Territories, Canada, 250 m. from the Rocky Moun- tains and just beneath the Arctic Circle and the constellation of Ursa Major, from which it derives its name. It is about 150 m. long and from 25 m. to 45 m. wide, but its coast line is very irreg- ular. The lake receives the drainage from a large area and is fed by the Dease and other rivers; the Great Bear River is the outlet. The surface is frozen over nine months of the year. Great Britain, the largest island of Europe, comprising England, Scotland and Wales. The name British Isles ap- plies to this same territory with the ad- dition of Ireland, the Hebrides, the Ork- neys, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey and other groups of islands lying near. The official title is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, while the British Empire refers to all of the terri- tory under the authority of the British Crown. The numerous possessions in- cluded in this great empire, embracing all climes and containing one-fourth of the population of the world, are listed at the close of this article. For detailed de- scriptions, see ENGLAND; SCOTLAND; IRELAND; WALES. The Island of Britain, or Great Brit- ain, has an irregular coast line indented by many bays, estuaries and firths. Its 1220 GREAT BRITAIN principal boundaries are: on,the n., the Atlantic Ocean; on the e., the North Sea and the Straits of Dover; on the s., the English Channel, separating England from «France; and on the “wast, George’s Channel and the Irish Sea, sep- arating England from Ireland, and the Atlantic Ocean at the extreme northwest. Its area is 88,729 sq. m., or slightly greater than the State of Utah. Its greatest length is 608 m. and its greatest width is 320 m., the latter being from Land’s End in the southwestern part to Kent in the southeastern. Its latitude is the same as that of North America from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the southern extremity of Greenland, though its tem- perature generally corresponds to that of the United States. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. At the west and northwest a series of irregular mountain systems reach almost-to the coast and spread to the east in some- what disconnected groups. The Cam- brian Mountains of Wales, the Cheviots, forming a part of the boundary of Eng- land and Scotland, and the Grampians in Scotland are among the best known. The highest point of the island is Ben Nevis (4406 ft.), a peak of the Grampians near the western coast of Scotland. The loftiest elevation in Wales is Mt. Snow- don (3560 ft.), and in England, Mt. Scafell (3210 ft.), not far from the Scottish border. The central and south- ern part of Great Britain is a region of rounding hills clothed with verdure and intersected by many rivers; at the west these hills rise to the mountains; at the east they slope to an alluvial plain. The rivers, lakes and other physiographic features are described in greater detail under the titles of the separate political divisions. CLIMATE, PropucTIoNns, INDUSTRIES, Etc. The climate is variable but health- ful. The Gulf Stream, washing the western shores, moderates the tempera- ture, making the winters less rigorous than in European countries of the same latitude. The island has supported so large a population that agriculture has become highly developed. Fruits, grains —_—S ie 7 GREAT BRITAIN and vegetables of temperate climates are produced, and cattle of all kinds are ex- tensively raised. The native wild ani- mals are the fox, badger, wildcat, marten, rabbit, hare, otter and deer; these take the place of the bear, boar, wolf and beaver, once common but now almost wholly exterminated. The mineral pro- ductions, especially tin, iron, copper, sil- ver, gold and coal, are valuable; of the latter, England mines annually fully 153,- 000,000 tons; Scotland, 32,800,000 tons ; and Wales, 32,600,000 tons. Manufac- turing is among the important industries because of the excellent water power and the wealth of iron and coal. Of these the manufacture of textiles is first in rank, and its exports constitute more than one“third of the exports of the United Kingdom. | GOVERNMENT. Politically Great Brit- ain is a limited monarchy whose great possessions are united under the name of British Empire, consisting of two parts: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; and India, the colonies, the protectorates and the dependencies. The constitution is not one written instru- ment but is a vast collection of acts, some unwritten, which have grown with the years and form the great body of English laws. It consists of ten kinds of documents: the laws of Parliament, royal decrees, agreements, treaties, legal de- cisions, the Magna Charta, granted by. King John in 1215, the Declaration of Rights of 1689, the Act of Settlement of 1701 and the two Acts of Union, one with Scotland in 1707 and one with Ire- land in 1800. The central government is made up of three departments. The executive is a king whose office comes to him through descent. Although the king is the nom- inal executive, the cabinet, a commit- tee of ministers, is the real authority; the ministry, however, depends for its existence upon the possession of a ma- jority of the House of Commons. The first lord of the treasury is generally the head of the cabinet and is then known as the prime minister. The other members of the cabinet, 18 or 20 in number, are GREAT BRITAIN appointed by the Crown upon the advice of the prime minister, who has been previously chosen by the Crown from the majority of the House. The legislative department consists of a House of Lords and a House of Commons. Members of the former are peers of the realm who hold their places by hereditary right; by creation of the king; by virtue of office, as bishop; by election for life, as the Irish peers; by election during Parlia- ment, as Scottish peers. The full house is about 630. The members of the House of Commons are representatives of the counties, boroughs, and university constituencies. Clergymen are disquali- fied from holding seats, and sheriffs and government contractors can neither hold seats nor vote. The annual session of Parliament extends from the middle of February to about the middle of August and is summoned by writ of the sover- eign issued 35 days before the date of assembling. It is closed by prorogation, and all bills which have not passed dur- ing the session lapse. The longest Par- liament of recent years was the sixth of Victoria’s reign; it lasted for six years and one month. The limit of existence of Parliament now is five years. The local governments differ in the different large divisions. In each county of England and Wales a lord lieutenant represents the Crown. Scotland has a local government board whose president is called the secretary of Scotland. The county authority of Ireland is a council elected by popular vote. The other de- pendencies are of three principal kinds: crown colonies, wholly controlled by the home government, as India, «Gibraltar, the Straits Settlements, etc.; those pos- sessing responsible governments in which the sovereign appoints the governor and has the right of veto on legislation, but otherwise has no control on any public officer, represented by Canada, Austra- lia, South Africa and New Zealand; and © those possessing representative institu- tions in which the Crown may veto legis- lation and in which the home govern- ment controls public officers, represented by Malta, Ceylon, Cyprus, Jamaica, etc. 1221 GREAT BRITAIN Aside from these may be mentioned the protectorates, which are governed by na- tive agencies, and the old trading com- panies, whose rights were granted by _ charter. ' History. After the accession of James I in 1603 (See ENGLAND, subhead His- ~ tory). England and Scotland had the same sovereigns, but the legislatures were not joined until the Act of Union (1707) was passed during the reign of Queen Anne. Although the union was not unanimously approved, it seemed the only certain way of preserving peace be- tween the two countries. Peace at home and abroad became the desire of the Tory Party, which was then in ascend- ancy. In literature this age ranks as the age of prose writers, among whom may be mentioned Addison, Swift, Steele, Berkeley and Locke. Anne was suc- ‘ceeded by George I (1714-1727), the first of the Hanover line, during whose reign the peculiar and efficient cabinet government of England began. Robert Walpole, whose aid had kept the coun- try from bankruptcy upon the bursting of the South Sea Bubble, was the first prime minister (See SouTH SEA Com- PANY). Through his skill and the effi- ciency of the ministers which he chose, England enjoyed great prosperity through the last years of the reign of this ruler who was himself unable to speak a word of English. George II (1727-1760) succeeded his father and followed his policy of nonin- terference and indifference in English affairs. Walpole, who continued prime minister, was unwillingly drawn into a war with Spain in 1739, and later, in 1742, resigned rather than assume the responsibility of the War of the Aus- trian Succession, in which, under the ministry of Lord Carteret, England won a fruitless victory. A rising in Scotland under Charles Edward, the Young Pre- tender, was crushed at Culloden, and the leader was compelled to flee (See CuHarLes Epwarp). William Pitt, who had been a young statesman of oratorical fame in the days of Walpole, became head of the cabinet and, during ab- GREAT BRITAIN sences of the king, the virtual ruler of Great Britain; he prosecuted the war with France with great vigor and through his plans England gained impor- tant victories in America and India. See Pitt, WILLIAM ; CLIVE, ROBERT; WOLFE, JAMES, “¢ George III (1760-1820) was English in training, upright, conscientious ‘and ambitious, and he determined to regain the royal powers lost by his father and grandfather. But he was also narrow and bigoted. Pitt resigned in 1761 and was followed by the King’s favorite, Bute, and, later still, by North. Under North the dissatisfaction of the Ameri- can colonies reached a crisis and their independence from Great Britain. was declared and won (See REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN AMERICA). This forced North’s resignation, and his place as prime min- ister was taken by the younger Pitt, who remained in office until his death in 1806; he maintained a constant opposi- tion to the French Revolution and to Napoleon. Nelson’s great naval victory over the French at Trafalgar and Well- ington’s defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo made England dominant upon the sea and led to favorable terms for England at the subsequent Congress of Vienna. See NeEtson, HorAtTi0; WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY. The French wars, an insurrection in Ireland and a second war with the United States (See War or 1812) had piled up an enormous national debt. When George IV (1820-1830) became king the discontent and distress led to de- mands for reform, which were begun under Canning, and under Wellington, who succeeded him, were still further carried out. The Test Act against the Catholics was repealed in 1828, and Catholics were henceforth admitted to municipal privileges, to corporate offices and even to Parliament. William IV (1830-1837) created the requisite num- ber of peers to pass the Reform Bill of 1832, which completely reorganized the representation in Parliament, and in 1833 slavery was abolished in the colonies. Queen Victoria (1837-1901) ruled the 1222 GREAT BRITAIN empire for nearly 64 years, making her reign the longest in history, with oné ex- ception. She greatly endeared the mon- archy to the people, and during her long reign strengthened the relations of the colonies to the central government. Brit- ish power was extended and strength- ened in India, the Confederation of Ca- nadian Provinces was formed in 1867 and the Commonwealth of Australia in 1900. These were among the most im- portant civic events of the century. The Crimean War occurred in 1853-6, and the Boer War in 1899-1902, which re- sulted in adding the Orange River Re- public of Transvaal to the British Em- pire. The most important measures with- in the United Kingdom were the repeal of the Corn Laws, the extension of the franchise. THE War oF 1914. Signs of a coming struggle were apparent before the close of Victoria’s long reign. When the dev- astating war broke out, George V, son and successor of Edward VII, and grand- son of Victoria, was on the throne. For years, it had been an open secret that Germany planned a crushing blow at Great Britain and it was generally held that the Bagdad Railway project was a great step in preparation for that result. A treaty between Great Britain and Ger- many in 1914 (but not signed) would . have prevented the World War. England was one of the powers gtar- ‘anteeing the independence of Belgium and could not stand idly by when Ger- many invaded Belgium in August, 1914. England was not bound by treaty to come to the assistance of France, but every consideration of national honor and na- tional safety impelled to such a course. In the fierce furnace fires of the con- flict the old British Empire and the old order of life in England disappears and a new empire emerges. .The great self-governing colonies of ° the empire are bound together by new ties of loyalty and devotion to new demo- cratic ideals of government. Changes going to the warp and woof of English GREAT FALLS political life have been effected, and a new England will result. BRITISH EMPIRE United Kingdom, Great Britain, Ire- land. Europe, Gibraltar, Malta. Asia, Aden, India, Straits Settlements, Malay States, Hongkong, Wei-hai-wei, Cyprus, Perim, Sokotra, British Borneo, Sarawak. Pacific, Australian Commonwealth, Papua, New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga Is- lands, Solomon Islands, Gilbert Islands. Africa, Egypt and Lybian Desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Uganda, East Africa “Protectorate, Union of South Africa, Nigeria; (Gold: Coast, %Sierra Leone, and Gambia; Ascension, St. Helena, Zanzibar, Seychelles, Mauritius. Under Mandate Rule, Former Ger- man Island in the Pacific south of the equator, German East Africa, German/ Southwest Africa, and Turkish Prov-: inces in Mesopotamia. America, Canada, Newfoundland and Labrador, British Honduras, British Guiana, Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks and Caicos Islands, Jamaica, Windward Is- lands, Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, Falkland Islands. Great Falls, Mont., the second city of the state and the county seat of Cas- cade Co., situated in the north-central part of the State, on the Missouri River and on the Great Northern, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul and other rail- roads. It lies in a level valley surrounded by. the foothills of the Rockies, whose snow-capped peaks are visible to the west, and is ten miles above the Great Falls of the river, from which the city derives its name. : ; STREETS, BOULEVARDS AND PARKS. Great Falls has been well laid out, for the streets, with the exception of two which follow the course of the river, cross each other at right angles. A strip of lawn ten feet wide on each side of the walk lines all of the streets and is set out to trees; thus, though the region was originally treeless, Great Falls is a well- shaded city. The most of the streets are paved, and a broad boulevard, Valeria 1223 GREAT FALLS Way, encircling the city, furnishes an attractive drive and automobile speed- way. The extensive park system includes Black Eagle Park, Gibson Park and Whittier Park, aside from large park reservations to be used as the growth of the city demands. The city maintains a nursery, which keeps the parks and bou- levards supplied with trees and shrubs. Pusitic Buitpines. The well-kept public grounds of the city have inspired the people to give especial attention to their private grounds and homes, and Great Falls is thus an unusually attrac- tive home city. Aside from its pleasant residences, there are many public build- ings of importance, including a modern courthouse, the Federal Building, a Car- negie library, several beautiful churches and the Rainbow Hotel, one of the finest of the Middle West. EpucaTIONAL Institutions. The school system maintains grade schools and a high school in modern, well- equipped buildings. St. Ursula’s Acad- emy for girls is a recently-established higher institution. INDUSTRIES. Great Falls is in the midst of a great mining region, and its great copper smelter, one of the largest in the world and having the highest stack, is the center of the industrial activity of the city. Next to Anaconda the product of the Great Falls smelter is the largest in the state. Coal and silver mining are carried on in the vicinity, and the fine grazing lands in the valley about the city render it an important shipping point for live stock. The water power from the river is unsurpassed and is sufficient, it is estimated, to furnish power to every city of Montana. Power generated by Rain- bow Falls, with the Great Rainbow Dam, is used to run the city’s electric railway and lighting plant, as well as those of Butte and Cascade. This power is also used for other manufacturing plants, which, though important, are largely, overshadowed by the city’s one great in- dustry. Black Eagle Falls above Rain- bow Falls, and Great Falls below them, both furnish immense possibilities for water power. GREAT LAKES History. Great Falls was settled in 1884 and owes its location to the indus- trial value of the situation. Its growth was rapid and it became a city in 1888. Population in 1910, 13,948; in 1920, U. S. Census, 24,121. ' Great Falls of the Yellowstone. See YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, Great Kanawha, Ka naw’ wah, a river of eastern United States. It rises in the Blue Ridge Mountains in North Caro- lina and first flows northeast through Virgina, then turns to the northwest and crosses the west-central counties of West Virginia. It enters the Ohio, of which it is an important tributary, near the city of Point Pleasant. Its entire length is about 450 m., but it is navigable for only a little more than 100 m., because of the Kanawha Falls not far from its junc- ture with the Gauley. The cities of Charleston, Montgomery and Hinton lie upon its banks. Great Lakes, the name givén to the five large lakes that lie in northern United States and form a part of the boundary between it and Canada. Through the St. Lawrence River their waters reach the Atlantic, and thus with their connecting rivers, straits and small- er lakes they are a part of the great St. Lawrence basin. Together these lakes have an area of 94,650 sq. m., practically the same as that of Oregon and greater than the combined areas of New York and Pennsylvania. They cover a greater area than the Island of Great Britain and are about one-half as large as France. Lake Superior, the largest, is also the farthest north. It is 390 m. long and 160 m. wide and alone is larger than the en- tire State of South Carolina. By means of St. Mary’s River it connects with Lake Huron, the second of the lakes in size. This lake is a little smaller than West Virginia and has a large arm known as Georgian Bay. Through the Straits of Mackinaw the waters of Lake Michigan join those of Lake Huron at the northwest. Lake Michigan has about the same area as Vermont, Massachu- setts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. 1224 GREAT LAKES South from Lake Huron the waters flow through the St. Clair River, beautiful Lake St. Clair and the broad Detroit River into Lake Erie. This lake is shal- low and subject to sudden storms. It is slightly larger than Vermont. The Niag- ara River, with its famous falls and rap- ids, carries the great stream on to Lake Ontario, the smallest lake of the five. Its area is greater than that of Connect- icut and Rhode Island, and at its eastern extremity it narrows to the bed of the St. Lawrence. The great traffic in grain, lumber, iron ore, coal, copper, flour and other freight carried on by means of these lakes ren- ders this one of the greatest waterways of the world. Lighthouses mark the dan- — i — — a — —— L.Michigan L.. Huron —J81-FET, 581 FIT GREAT SALT LAKE of freight. See Superior, LAKE; Micu- IGAN, LAKE; Huron, LAKE; ERIE, LAKE; ONTARIO, LAKE; SAULT STE. MarigE CANALS; WELLAND CANAL. Great Northern Diver. See Loon. Great Salt Lake, a lake of Utah, lying in the northeast part of the Great Basin. It is now 75 m. long and from 20 to 35 m. in breadth, but is the remains of a far larger lake, called by geologists Lake Bonneville, the surface of which was fully 1000 ft. above that of the present lake. It has an average depth of 60 ft., and upon its surface lie two islands, Fremont and Antelope, and a long pen- insula, called the Promontory, entering it from the north. The lake is crossed from east to west by the “Lucin Cut-off” ALTITUDE AND DEPTH OF THE GREAT LAKES gercus reefs and rocky coasts, and chan- nels have been widened and deepened to make passageway for the largest boats. The great locks at the “Soo,” the ship canal across Keweenaw Peninsula in northern Michigan, and the Welland Ca- nal around Niagara Falls are among the engineering feats that have rendered this highway complete. The first vessel other than a canoe to be sailed upon the Great Lakes was the Griffon, constructed by La Salle in 1679. Later, in 1818, the first steamer, Walk- m-the-Water, was launched on Lake Erie. The first steamer reached the Soo in 1827, and the first came to Chicago in 1832. Today the great passenger and freight boats are as well equipped and as convenient as ocean-going boats, and carry an average of 16,000,000 passen- gers annually and fully 83,000,000 tons of the Southern Pacific Railway. The lake has no outlet and is fed chiefly by three rivers, the Bear, the Jordan and the Weber, all of which enter from the east. The water is so heavy with solid matter, principally salt, that a person bathing cannot sink, being lighter than the water. The amount of salt in the water varies as the lake rises and falls with the change of seasons. The lake is of interest because of its picturesque surroundings, its popularity as a bathing resort and its geological and commercial importance. Garfield and Saltair lie upon its southern shore and have excellent pavilions and bathhouses. Commercially, the lake is an important source of salt. The brine is pumped through long conduits to ponds, where it is evaporated by the sun. The salt is then purified. Great Salt Lake was not 1225 GREAT SLAVE LAKE P much known until the Mormon settle- ment was made near it in 1847. Since then extensive geological surveys have been made of the lake and its vicinity. Great Slave Lake, a lake situated in North West Territories, Canada, s.e. of Great Bear Lake, is about 300 m. long and about 50 m. wide, but the shores are very irregular and deeply indented with large bays. It is fed by the Slave, Hay, Yellow Knife and smaller rivers and the Mackenzie River forms the outlet into the Arctic Ocean. The shores are steep and rugged and the lake contains several islands. The water is very clear but is frozen over six months of the year and is open to navigation only from July to October. Great Wall of China, an extensive wall or fortification of China originally built to bar out the invading tribes of the north. Its eastern extremity was probably at Shanhaikwan on the Gulf of Liaotung, although much of the eastern portion has been destroyed. From here it extended west and southwest to Pe- king and along the northern boundaries of the Chinese provinces. Two branches of the wall extend south, affording double protection. With its windings the extent of the wall is 1500 m., making it the longest artificial structure in the world. It is built generally of boulders and earth, although in the valleys brickwork and hewn stone show traces of better masonry. At the base the wall is from 20 to 25 ft. wide; at the summit it is about 12 ft.; its height-is from 20 to 30 ft.; and every two hundred yards there are square towers 40 ft. in height. In many places in the mountains the wall is 4000 ft. above sea level. The wall was begun probably about the third century B. C. and was repaired in the 15th century A. D.; a year later it was extended 300 m. Although much of the wall has been destroyed or buried, military posts are still maintained at many of the city gates. The labor ex- pended in building the wall was prob- ably much less than was formerly sup- posed, since little of the work was that of skilled masons. 1226 GREECE Grebe, or Diver, a diving bird re- lated to the loons and auks. They have heavy bodies, short legs, the toes only partly webbed, and short wings. Like the loons, the grebes are almost helpless on land. FEARED GREBE. This is one of the»best- known grebes of western North Amer- ica. It is about 14 inches long; the back is blackish; the sides, brown; head, chest and neck,! b Parieaad breast, silvery white. Each side of the head is provided with a long tuft of yellow, silky feathers. Like some other grebes, the nest of the eared grebe is made of rushes, floats on the water and con- tains from four to six dirty-white eggs. The young are downy and black. This beau- tiful bird is being rapidly exterminated. Its silvery breast and brown flanks are highly prized by fashion’s devotees, and whole colonies are destroyed in the breeding season when the parents are caring for the young; for, when the parents are killed, the helpless offspring are allowed to die of starvation and ex- posure. Greece, a kingdom of Europe oc~- cupying the southern extremity of the Balkan Peninsula. It is bounded on the n. by Albania, Servia and Bulgaria, on the e. by the AXgean Sea, on the s. by the Mediterranean, which separates it from Africa, and on the w. by the Ionian Sea. The numerous islands that lie in the Ionian and A*gean seas belong to the Kingdom of Greece and are insep- arably connected with it through histor- ical association. The continental por- tion is made of two parts—Hellas, at the north, and Morea, formerly called Pelo- ponnesus, at the south; these divisions are almost wholly separated by the great gulfs of Patras and Lepanto, or Corinth, that deeply indent the country on the west, and by the broad Gulf of A¢gina, FOOT OF GREBE ATHENS. (1) Capital of modern Greece, center of Athens. The square is adorned with orange trees, oleanders and lofty cypress. (2) Shoe Street, Athens. (3) Ancient Greek baths. (4) Stadium at Athens, scene of the Pan-Athenic games in the glorious days of Ancient Greece. Olympic games are now held here. THE GLORY THAT WAS GREEGE, 1. The Acropolis, (See Pages 182, 183, 184). 2. The Erectheum, (Pages 182, 183). 3. Temple of Theseus, (Page 2875). 4. Theater of Dionysius, (Pages 183, 2869, 2870). ). East Front Parthenon, (See Pages 182, 183). GREECE indenting it on the east. The narrow Isthmus of Corinth connecting the two is barely four miles across and is traversed by a ship canal completed in 1893. The area of Greece and her islands is 46,000 *~ sq. m., about the same as that of Mis- sissippi. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Greece is a mountainous country. The western portion of Hellas is traversed by the Di- naric Alps, isolated peaks of which form the Ionian Islands; the range continues through Morea, where it rises in many lofty summits. The Pindus Range en- ters from Turkey and, running north and south, divides Morea into two nearly equal parts. One branch of the Pindus forms the southern boundary of Thes- saly, and another, farther south, culmi- nates in Mt. Parnassus (8070 ft.), now known as Mt. Liakoura, once dedicated to Bacchus and to the Muses. The rocky character of the country has given Greece an extended coast line, greater in propor- tion to its size than that of any other country, and the same physical features appear in its isolated islands. The rivers are rapid mountain torrents of great beauty, but generally of little use for navigation. The climate is ordinarily healthful, although in the lower sections the summers are hot and dry and vege- . tation can seldom resist the drought of the warm months. Propucts, INDUSTRIES, Etc. Greece is a land of fruits and vines. Along the coast great vineyards climb the slopes and, wherever the elevation permits, groves of olives, figs, oranges, citrons and pomegranates are cultivated even to the very limits of the cities. Melons, rice, wheat, barley, rye and cotton also form important crops, but agriculture is not a profitable occupation, and only about 14 per cent of the land is under cultivation. Currants, fruit whose name is derived from the word Corinth, are exported in large quantities, and acorns used in tan- ning are picked up and shipped by the thousands of tons annually. Minerals, though undoubtedly existing in abundance, are not extensively mined, yet many of the mines have been worked GREECE since earliest times. Silver, manganese, cadmium, iron and lead are known to exist and are mined to some extent. Sul- phur is taken from many of the volcanic islands and the marbles of Naxos and Paphos have long been famed. The man- ufactured articles are made chiefly for home consumption and consist of silks, cottons, woolens, pottery, sugar, soaps, leather and paper. Maritime commerce has always been one of the great indus- tries; Athens with Pirzus, Patras, Hy- dra, Nauplia, Hermoupolis and Kala- mata are the chief ports. ANCIENT GREECE. The ancient Greeks called their country Hellas and they spoke of themselves as Hellenes. In the beginning the more important centers of Greek civilization were not alone in the peninsula but in the islands and coasts of the A“gean Sea, while Greek colo- nies were planted on the shores of the Black Sea, in Sicily and in Italy and other parts of the Mediterranean region. Greece proper was favored by nature in respect to position, physical characteris- tics and climate. Its separation from the east by the narrow Hellespont and the “fégean Sea saved it from falling under the numbing despotism of the older countries, while its proximity to these older civilizations enabled it to profit by their progress. The islands scattered over the A°gean early led to commerce, and through commerce to the learning of the East. Moreover, nearly all of the people shared in the civilizing influence of the sea, for only two states, unpro- gressive and unimportant, were without coast line. Thus early in their history we find the Greeks having the progres- sive and venturesome cast natural to a nation of traders and sailors. Religion. The religion of the Greeks was based on ancestor worship, the wor- ship of a local deity, and upon a nature worship. Like the Oriental, the Greek believed that the world was peopled by spirits who interested themselves in his daily life and influenced it. All the forces of nature revealed the presence of these beings, from the sprouting of the spear of wheat to the voice of thun- 1227 GREECE der in the sky. These spirits had the de- sires and passions of human beings, but on a larger scale. They represented their gods under the forms of the highest hu- man beauty and thus escaped the debas- ing tendency of the animal form of wor- ship of the people of the East. More- over, they systematized or organized their gods into a family of whom the chief dwelt upon the top of cloud-capped Olympus. This religion was, however, largely for the present life. The dead dwelt- in a dark underground region called Hades, so gloomy that Achilles expressed the national belief when he said, “Rather would I live upon the earth as the hireling of another, with a land- less man who had no great livelihood, than bear sway among the dead that be departed.” Olympian Games. These games were held at Olympia, Elis, every four years in honor of Zeus; they constituted the most largely attended festival, and men from all parts of Hellas flocked thither. At first the contests consisted of foot and chariot. racing, wrestling and box- ing. The highest honor open to any Greek was to receive the olive wreath as victor at Olympia. See OLYMPIAN GAMES. Oracles. An oracle among the ancients was the seat of worship of some god where he announced his prophecies to those consulting him. Sometimes the prophecies were made known through priests and priestesses and sometimes they were intimated by signs. People came from near and far to consult these oracles in regard to matters of public and private interest, from the conclusion of a treaty to a new venture in business. The most famous Greek oracle was that of Apollo at Delphi, a town in Phocis. Here a priestess named Pythia, after the Python slain by Apollo, sat on a tripod and delivered the message of the god. To the uninitiated the utterings of the priestess were unintelligible, but these were interpreted to the inquirer by the priests of Apollo. In historical times the Delphic oracle often gave evasive an- swers and also seemed to be swayed by GREECE party faction. The Greeks had 22 ora- cles for the consultation of Apollo. Zeus was also considered a god of prophecy and he was consulted in the shade of Dodona in Epirus, where the divine will was revealed by the rustling of the oak leaves of the forest. These oracles, were consulted until the time of Theodosius (379-395), who closed the temples. Amphictyonic Council. This was a league of ancient Greek cities centering in a shrine. Among the most famous was the association formed to protect the temple at Delphi. Later smaller leagues arose for the protection of other temples in Greece. They were the earliest sug- gestion of a sense of unity among the Greek states. The name Amphictyonic signifies “dwellers-round-about.” Literature. See LiTERATURE, subhead Greek Literature. History. Mycenean Age. (? -1000 B. C.). The beginnings of Greece are lost in obscurity, and the first period, called the Mycenzan Age, reaches from this obscure past to about 1000 B. C. We dimly see by the ruins, for they left no written records, the outlines of states on the coasts of the 7“gean, with kings, rich and powerful, ruling over wide ter- ritories and making alliances with the people about them. That they had com- mercial relations with distant nations is proved by the Mycenzan pottery found in\ Egypt, while Mycenzan soldiers are pictured on the walls of Egyptian tem- ples built in the 19th and 20th dynasties. In the Odyssey the extent of sea known by them is revealed, for this poem, though it was written in the age that fol- lowed, depicts the glory and tells the tra- ditions of the Mycenzan Age. Middle: Age (1000-500 B. C.). The Mycenzan period was brought to a close by the invading Dorians, a rude people who poured into Greece from the north- west. In the process of the next 300 years a new political and social life was built up. By 700 B. C. commerce had again been established, city states had arisen with the aristocracy as the pre- vailing type of government, while the de- mocracy had already begun the struggle 1228 ¢ GREECE. (1) Piraeus, principal port of Athens. (2) Marathon, where one of the world’s great battles was fought. (3) Lantern of Diogenes. (4) In the Acropolis, (5) Delphi, where the oracle proclaimed wisdom. GREECE. (1) Entrance to Acropolis. (2) The modern Academy at Athens. (3) Greek troops enjoying view of Athens. (4) Market place at Argos. (5) At Sparta. GREECE for a share of the government. During the next two centuries Greece came into contact with the East and became a more powerful factor in the world politics than she had ever been before. In order to understand the sudden de- velopment of the Greek genius after 500 B. C. it is well to realize what had actu- ally been accomplished between 1000 and 500 B. C. By this time the Greeks had risen in.race consciousness to the belief that they were one in origin and culture; colonies had been planted all over the Mediterranean coasts; nearly every city _ had passed through various revolutions leading either to democracy or aristoc- racy; Sparta already ruled in military affairs; Athens led in the democratic movements; while Ionia held first place in affairs intellectual and artistic. Period of State Supremacy (500-331 B. C.). From 492 to 480 B. C. came the inevitable conflict with Persia, and this period was followed by successive at- tempts at empire by Athens, Sparta and Thebes, and closed with the subjection of Greece by Macedonia in 338 B. C. During this time came the marvelous flowering of the Greek genius in liter- ature, philosophy, science, sculpture, painting and architecture, while the best that was said and done in these lines was said and done at Athens. This city, ri- diculously small when compared with any large city of the present day, pro- duced more famous men in the age of Pericles (463-431) than any other coun- try has produced in a century, while these intellectual giants lived among a people more keenly appreciative of things intellectual and artistic, and of more gen- eral culture, than any other body of men who have ever lived. Following this period came the. Pelo- ponnesian War (431-404 B. C.), which involved the entire peninsula and re- sulted in the downfall of Athens and the rise of Sparta as a political power (See ATHENS, subhead Peloponnesian War). For 33 years after the Peloponnesian War, Sparta was supreme in Greece, a period marked by tyranny and oppres- sion. At length the other states of GREECE Greece, under the leadership of Thebes, rose against Sparta. Led by the Theban generals, Epaminondas and _ Pelopidas,. the allies won a decisive victory over the Spartans at Leuctra, 371 B. C. During the period of Theban supremacy democ- racy was the principal form of govern- ment in Greece. The leadership of Thebes, however, rested on the genius of her great statesman and general, Epa- minondas, and it ended with his death, which occurred at the Battle of Manti- nea, 362 B. C. There was no state left in Greece to assume the leadership, and she soon sank to a position of depend- ence. See THEBES; SPARTA; ALEXAN- DER THE GREAT. Period of Foreign Rule. After the Battle of Mantinea came a period of anarchy, lasting over 20 years. In 338 B. C. Philip of Macedon became master of Greece, decisively overcoming Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chzronea. Then a congress of Greek states ac- knowledged Macedonia as the head of Greece. Under Philip’s strong rule re- bellious outbreaks were quelled. At his death in 336 B. C., his son Alexander the Great succeeded to the throne. Al- exander quickly subdued those states of Greece that rose in rebellion, and, when he had firmly established his authority there, proceeded against Persia. By his conquests Greek learning and culture were spread over the vast Persian Em- pire. Following the death of Alexander his kingdom was divided into three smaller kingdoms, and Greece was left a vassal of Macedonia. During the next two centuries there was continued inter: nal dissension, and in 279 B. C. the Gauls invaded the country. In 146 B. C,, when Corinth was burned and captured, Greece and Macedonia fell under the power of Rome, and Greece became a Roman province under the name of Achaia. After the division of the Ro- man Empire into the Eastern and West- ern empires, in 395, Greece became a part of the Eastern Empire, remaining under its control until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453. After the fall of Constantinople Greece 1229 GREECE became a part of the Turkish Empire. The country lapsed into poverty and an- archy under Ottoman tyranny, but the more independent and energetic of the people kept alive that spirit of independ- ence which was to win them freedom. Modern Greece. At the beginning of ‘the 19th century the Greek people began a movement for a national revival, and in 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti headed a revolt and proclaimed the independence of Greece. From 1821 to 1828; under the leadership of Ypsilanti and with the . help of Russia, France and England, she fought for freedom. In 1830 a congress of the European powers declared Greece an independent nation and forced Tur- key to agree to this declaration. In 1832 Otho, second son of King Louis I of Bavaria, was made king by the powers, and three years later Athens was made the capital of the kingdom. In 1843 a bloodless revolution forced the King to grant a constitution, but the people still remained dissatisfied, and in 1862 Otho was deposed. In 1863 the second son of the King of Denmark became ruler as George I. He was succeeded in 1913 by his son Constantine. In 1878, a boundary dispute between Turkey and Greece was settled in favor of the latter nation by a conference of ambassadors which met at Berlin. A war, disastrous for Greece, broke out be- tween the two countries in 1897; the cause this time was the cruel treatment of the Cretans by the Turks. As the result of this war Greece had to pay an indemnity of $18,000,000, while a slight change, favorable to Turkey, was made in the frontier. Later (1898) the pow- ers of Europe forced Turkey to with- draw from Crete, and the island was placed under the protection of Greece. The Greek Christians, the Serbs, Monte- negrins and Bulgarians living within Turkish boundaries have always been subject to the cruelties of their Moham- medan rulers and recent massacres led to the declaration of war against Tur- key in 1912, made by Montenegro and joined later by Greece, Bulgaria and Servia. See BaLKAN War, GREEK CHURCH In spite of their unsettled political af- fairs the Greeks have continued to be a poetical people, patriotic and proud of the historic importance of their country as well as of its recent advancement. Education, especially in literature and the arts, has been widespread, and the leg- ends and history of ancient Greece are unconsciously learned by the youths. Schools are established in all of the towns and cities, and formal education, though not at present compulsory, is everywhere encouraged. The University of Athens is the principal higher institu- tion. Aside from the native Greeks, Greece contains many Albanians, Turks and Europeans. Strangely, too, only about one-third of the Greek people live in Greece, the rest having emigrated tem- porarily to European Turkey, Bulgaria, the United States and other countries. The Greek Church, with the king as its head, is the established Church and in- cludes fully nine-tenths of the people. The government is a constitutional monarchy. The present constitution was adopted in 1864 and vests the legislative authority in a single house, called the Boule. Since 1911 a Council of State, somewhat answering the purpose of a second chamber of the legislative assem- bly, has been added as a department of government. Population, 4,600,000. Greek Church, a religious organiza- tion calling itself the Holy Orthodox Catholic and Apostolic Church, in a wide sense including those Christians who accept the Greek rite. There are three important branches: the Church within the Ottoman Empire; the Church in the Kingdom of Greece; and the Russo- Greek Church in the Russian Empire. These agree in receiving the first seven general councils of the Catholic Church ; and in refusing to accept the supremacy of the pope or any of the later councils of the Western Church. There is a close connection between the separation of the Greek and Roman churches and that of the Eastern and Western branches of the Roman Empire. The increasing im- portance of Constantinople and the ri- valry between Church and State contrib- 1230 CORFU. Top: Corfu from the sea. Bottom: The old fortress of Corfu. “ a GREEK CHURCH uted to the growing spirit of independ- ence on the part of the East, while the insertion of filioque (and from the Son) in the Nicene Creed and the question of papal supremacy were a continual source of discord. Doctrinal differences and the war of the Iconoclasts (See IcONOcLASTS) were additional elements in the movement which culminated in a formal division in 1054. The Greek Church admits the seven rites of the Ro- man Church—baptism, confirmation, communion, penance, extreme unction, holy orders and matrimony, though dif- fering somewhat in their observance. Baptism consists of triple immersion, confirmation immediately following. In the Lord’s Supper the Greeks admit the real ‘presence of Christ in the elements, and both adults and children receive the sacrament. Confession and: absolution by priests are recognized; honor is paid to relics; but the only graven image per- mitted is the cross. Among the fast pe- riods kept are Pentecost and Lent; all Wednesdays and Fridays are observed. The Virgin Mary is especially revered. The public service is formal and im- pressive, the singing being performed by male voices alone. Priests and deacons marry, but bishops may not. Monas- teries and convents are maintained. The chief difference between the Greek and Roman churches is the rejection, by the former, of the papal supremacy, and the refusal to permit filioque in the creed. In regard to government, the Turk- ish Church is subject to the Patriarch of Constantinople, who may be appointed and deposed at the will of the Sultan of Turkey. The Russian Church is un- der the Holy Synod at St. Petersburg ; the Czar of Russia is the recognized tem- poral head of the whole Greek Church. The National Church of Greece was es- tablished under a Holy Synod in 1833. Besides, there is a United Greek Church, which acknowledges the supremacy of the pope at Rome. This Church exists in Austria-Hungary, southern Italy, Po- land and parts of Russia. The total membership of the Greek Church is 98,016,000. : GREELEY Greek Fire, a name applied to sev eral inflammable and destructive com- pounds used in the Middle Ages for pur- poses of warfare. The use of these com- bustibles by the Greeks for centuries gave them superior advantages, and they jealously guarded the secret of their composition. Greek fire appears to have been made principally of naphtha, sul- phur and niter. | Greek Language. See LANGuaGE, subhead Greek and Latin. Greeley, Colo., a city and the county seat of Weld Co., about 50 m. me. of » Denver, on the Cache la Poudre River and on the Union Pacific, the Colorado & Southern and other railroads. It is the center of one of the most productive of the irrigated farming districts, the principal crops being alfalfa, potatoes, sugar beets, peas, onions and cabbages. Some wheat is grown, and the raising of sheep and cattle is an important in- dustry. The leading industrial planits are lumber yards, a large beet-sugar fac- tory, a flour mill, an elevator and vege- table canning factories. Near the city are rich coal fields. Greeley is the seat of the Colorado State Teachers College and has a public library and municipal parks. The place was founded in 1870 by a colony from New England and New York State, which, acting under the guidance of Nathan Cook Meeker, an agricultural journalist of New York, bought a large tract of land; and the whole colony was administered under laws arising from idealistic ideas of community life. The scheme received the moral support of Horace Greeley (in whose honor the settlement was named). A town was laid out in 1871. and the place\was chartered as a city in 1886. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 13,958. Greeley, Horace (1811-1872), an American journalist and author, born in Amherst, N. H. After receiving a common school education, he entered upon an apprenticeship in a newspaper office in Vermont, and became an expert compositor. In 1831 he removed to New York City, working for some time as a journeyman printer, and later as a job 1231 GREELEY printer. In 1834 he undertook the estab- lishment of a literary weekly, the New Yorker, and in conducting this period- ical Greeley became so widely known and respected that he was-selected by the Whigs to edit their campaign paper, the Jeffersonian; he continued in this work during 1838-39. In 1840 he started the Log Cabin, to further the campaign of William H. Harrison, and in a short time this paper had a weekly issue of from 80,000 to 90,000 copies. When the famous campaign was over Greeley founded the Daily Tribune (1841), which he edited until his death. The New Yorker and Log Cabin were merged into the Weekly Tribune, which eventually had a wide circulation throughout the Northern and Western states and exerted great influence. In December, 1848, Greeley entered Congress to fill a vacancy, serving until the following March. He was an oppo- nent of slavery and especially zealous in opposing its extension to the territory acquired from Mexico. Through the Tribune he furthered the anti-slavery movement until the struggle was over, and was influential, as a delegate to the Republican National Convention of 1860, in securing the nomination of Lincoln. While he favored the vigorous prosecu- tion of the war, he was willing to have it ended by compromise, and in 1864 went to Canada to hold a fruitless peace conference with the Confederate agents. After the war he declared for universal amnesty and suffrage, and joined with others in signing the bail bond of Jef- ferson Davis. From now on Greeley was prominent in the politics of his state, and in 1872 joined the body of Liberal Republicans who held a convention in Cincinnati pre- vious to the regular convention, the lat- ter of which renominated Grant (See PoLiTicAL ParTIES IN THE UNITED StaTES). Greeley was nominated not only by the Liberal Republicans, but by the Democrats. The campaign was both bitter and strenuous, completely ex- hausting him, and he died shortly after the election, in which he was defeated. GREEN He was a man whom neither praise we. S nor blame could swerve from what he considered a right decision, and through- out his journalistic career he set an ex- ample of moderation, fairness and truth- fulness that has never been surpassed. His writings include Hints Toward ‘Reforms, History of the Struggle for Slavery Extension or Restriction in the United States, The American Conflict and What I Know of Farming. Greely, Adolphus Washington (1844- plorer, born in Newburyport, Mass. At the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the volunteers, was finally brevetted ma- jor of volunteers and in 1868 was as- signed to signal service. From 1876 to 1879 he constructed 2000 miles of military telegraph in the West. In 1881 he commanded an expedition to the Arc- ‘ ), an American soldier and ex- © tic regions, to establish a series of cir- — cumpolar stations for scientific observa- tions, and penetrated to latitude 83° 24, the highest northerly point reached up — to that time. He made many valuable geographical discoveries, but of the 25 men who landed at Discovery Harbor in August, 1881, all but six, besides Greely, died of starvation at their permanent camp at Cape Sabine, where they were found by Capt. Winfield S. Schley in © June, 1884. eral, Greely became chief of the signal service, and between 1898 and 1905 many - thousand miles of wire and wireless tele- graph were erected under his supervi- sion in China, Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippines. The following year, in command of the Pacific Division, he had charge of the relief of San Francisco. He wrote Three Years of Arctic Serv- ice, American Weather and American Explorers and Travellers. EXPLORATIONS. Green, John Richard (1837-1883), an English historian, educated at Magda- len College and at Jesus College. He took orders in 1860, became vicar of St. Stephen’s, Stepney, i in 1866, and was made librarian at Lambeth in 1869. Thereafter he devoted himself to history and politics. A Short History 1232 In 1887, as brigadier-gen- ~ See POLAR GREENBACK LABOR PARTY of the English People was rewritten twice before Green published it in 1874. It was subsequently expanded into a four-volume History of the English Peo- ple, which in 1882 was followed by his scholarly The Making of England. Fol- lowing his death, his wife published his Conquest of England. Greenback Labor Party. See Porirt- ICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES, subhead Greenback Labor Party. Greenback Party. See POoriTicaL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES, sub- head Greenback Party. Greenbacks. See MOoNEy, subhead Paper Money. | Green Bay, Wis., a city, port of entry and county seat of Brown Co., 114 m. n. of Milwaukee and 198 m. n. of Chi- cago, on the southern extremity of Green Bay at the mouth of the Fox River, and on the Chicago & North Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, the Green Bay & Western and other railroads. There is steamboat serv- ice to points on Green Bay, Mackinac Island, Milwaukee and other ports on the Great Lakes. The city has 12 m. of water front and a fine harbor accom- modates considerable lake commerce. There is a complete electric railway sys- tem, and interurban lines up the Fox River Valley connect the city with Apple- ton, Neenah, Fond du Lac, Oshkosh and other towns and cities. Green Bay has an area of 13 sq. m. and is situated on high, level ground on both sides of the river, which is here spanned by a number of bridges. The city is an ad- vantageous distributing point for north- eastern Wisconsin and upper peninsula. Parks AND Boutevarps. The city contains a number of parks with an area of 32 ‘acres, Hagemeister and Union parks being the largest. Bay Beach is a noted resort and there are many sum- mer houses located around the bay. Green Bay has beautifully shaded and paved streets, picturesque drives and many elegant residences. Pusiic Burtpincs. Among the note- worthy buildings are the Federal Build- ing, courthouse, Masonic Temple, Na- GREEN BAY tional Fraternal League Building, Y. M. C. A., custom-house and Green Bay, Catholic Woman’s Club, city hall, a num- ber of banks, Elks’ Clubhouse and good municipal buildings. There are about 27 churches, including a Catholic cathedral. The city is also the seat of a Catholic see, being the earliest bishopric estab- lished in this portion of the country. Instirutions. The educational insti- tutions include several high schools, pub- lic and parish schools, St. Joseph’s Acad- emy, academy for young ladies, the Kel- logg Library and a business college. Among the benevolent and charitable in- stitutions are a number of hospitals, in- cluding an isolation hospital, almshouse and an orphans’ home. The city is the seat of the Wisconsin State Odd Fel- lows’ Home. The state reformatory is located about five miles southwest of the Citys INDustTRIES. Green Bay is an impor-. tant industrial and manufacturing cen- ter. The industries comprise flour, saw, paper and sulphite mills, furniture and woodenware, canning, shoe, glove, con- fectionery biscuit factories and automo- bile trucks, pickle factory, farm imple- ments, brick and tile works, soap fac-. tories, woodworking machinery plants, and meat packing plants, boiler and ma- chine shops, casket works and cornice works. There are also lumber yards and railroad repair shops, dry docks and grain elevators. A large fish-shipping business is carried on and there is an _ extensive coal import trade. Many acres of Oneida Indian Reservation lands ad- join the city. History. The first visit to what is now Green Bay was made by Jean Nicol- let in 1634, and a Jesuit mission was later established by Allouez. The place was settled by the French, but fell into the hands of the English at the close of the French and Indian War. The Amer- icans established a fort on the opposite side of the river in 1816 known as Ft. Howard, which grew to be the center of a prosperous town and was annexed te Green Bay in 1895. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 31,017. 1233 GREENE Greene, Nathanael (1742-1786), an American general of the Revolutionary War, born at Patowomut, R. I. In 1770 he entered the Rhode Island Legislature, where he became such a belligerent ad- vocate of freedom that he was excom- municated by the Society of Friends, to which he had belonged. Four years later he enrolled as a private in the Kentish Guards, which he himself had organized, and in 1775, as brigadier-general, he marched to Cambridge, Mass., with an almost model brigade. Greene soon won the esteem of Washington, who often consulted him in times of perplexity, and on Aug. 9, 1776, he became major-gen- eral with command of the forces on Long Island. He distinguished himself there save at Ft. Washington, Nov. 16, 1776, when a prompt and decisive move on his part might have averted one of the most crushing blows that overtook the Ameri- cans during the entire struggle. Later Greene led divisions at Trenton, Prince- ton and Brandywine. His skill at Ger- mantown received the unqualified praise of Washington. Subsequently. he took part in the Battle of Monmouth and before Newport, R. I. In 1780, accom- panied by Morgan, he went to assume command of the Southern army. Greene’s strategy found victory even in defeat, and he succeeded in gaining Georgia and the Carolinas for the Amer- icans. . After: the Battle:tof “Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8, 1781, Congress pre- sented him with a British standard and a gold medal. With the close of the war he returned to Rhode Island; but in 1785 he moved to a valuable estate near Savannah, of which the State of Georgia had made him a present. He sold the land given to him by South Carolina to pay debts, which he had assumed to secure supplies for his sol- diers. June 12, 1786, he suffered a sun- stroke and a week later he died. Of the American Revolutionary generals, Greene ranked next to Washington as a strategist and as an example of consum- mate generalship. Greenfield, Mass., county seat of Franklin Co., 36 m. n. of Springfield, GREENLAND the capital of the state, and 56 m. w. of Fitchburg, on the Connecticut River, 2 m. above the mouth of the Deerfield River, and on the Boston & Maine Rail- road. The chief manufactures include machinists’ tools, silverware, agricultural implements, paper boxes, woodenware, children’s carriages, toys, cement build- ing blocks and boots and shoes. Green- field is a popular summer resort. It was settled in 1686, but remained a part of Deerfield until 1753. Population in 1920, Uas. Census, 15 AGe. Green Fly. See A’PHID. Green Heron. See HERON. Greenhouse, a structure designed to furnish protection to plants. It may be also a hothouse for the forcing of the growth of plants, or a conservatory for the care and exhibition of flowers, or an orchard house for the protection of fruit trees. Greenhouses are provided with glass roofs and sides to let in the sun’s — heat, and are generally furnished with some system of heating. Hothouses now produce a large amount of early vege- tables and fruits which bring high prices. See HorBep AND CoLD FRAME. Greenland, the largest island in the world. Baffin Bay, Davis Strait and Smith Sound separate it from the Con- tinent of North America. Its area is estimated at 512,000 sq. m., and the maximum height of its mountainous sur- face is about 8000 ft. above sea level. Petermann Peak is 11,000 ft. high. Characteristic features of its surface are deep and somber fiords between the high mountains, and a great number of glaciers. abundant, consisting of berries, lichens, mosses, shrubs, herbs, saxifrage and poppies. Vegetables are cultivated under glass. The fauna consists princi- pally of the Eskimo dog, musk ox, Are- tic fox, hare, ermine, lemming and rein- deer. The surrounding waters are the hunting grounds for the whale. The seal and walrus have supplied the bulk of the native food. Many necessaries are imported from Denmark. Green- land is supposed to have been visited by Eric the Red, a Norseman, in 985, and 1234 In summer the vegetation is GREEN MOUNTAINS a settlement made under his leadership. Population in 1901, 11,893. See PoLar EXPLORATIONS. Green Mountains, a range of the Ap- palachian system, extending from Can- ada through Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut to Long Island Sound. In Massachusetts they are known as the Berkshire Hills, and in Connecticut as the Taconic Mountains. The Green Mountains are among the oldest moun- tain ranges in North America. They are low mountains with rounded sum- mits and forest-covered slopes. Much of the timber consists of spruce, fir and hemlock—all evergreens—and from this characteristic the mountains take their name. Mt. Mansfield, the highest peak, has an altitude of 4364 ft. Killington, Camel’s Hump, Equinox and Jay are other important peaks. The Green Mountain region is a favorite summer resort. Greensboro,’ N. C., a city and the county seat of Guilford Co., 81 m. n.w. of Raleigh, on several lines of the Southern Railway. The city lies in a section rich in mineral resources; and gold, copper and iron are mined. Chief among the farm crops of the surround- ing section are tobacco, cotton, fruit and Indian corn; and a large trade in to- Meco iron -and~ coal’ is: carried: “on. Among the industrial plants are cotton mills, blast furnaces for the manufac- ture of Bessemer steel, sawmills, foun- dries, flour mills, terra-cotta works, cigar factories, brick and tile works and manufactories of cotton goods, machin- ery, lumber, sashes, doors, blinds, flan- nel, carpets, spokes, handles, bent rims, bobbins and cotton-mill supplies. The city is a focus for a large insurance business. The educational institutions include Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South), opened in 1846; a state normal school; Guilford College (coeducational), maintained by the Society of Friends; and three institu- tions for negroes—the North Carolina State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Immanuel Lutheran College GREENVILLE (Evangelical Lutheran) and Bennett College (Methodist Episcopal). Other features’ of the city” are a Carnegie library, an auditorium and St. Leo Hos- pital. About six miles northwest of the city is Battle-Ground Park, a 100-acre tract on the site of the Battle of Guil- ford Courthouse, fought in March,1781, by Lord Cornwallis and Gen. Nathanael Greene; and it is in honor of the latter that Greensboro is named. Greensboro was founded in 1808, organized as a town in 1829 and chartered as a city in 1870. Population in 1920, 19,861. Greensburg, Pa. county seat of Westmoreland Co., 31 m. s.e. of Pitts- burgh, on the Pennsylvania Railroad. Several private institutions for second- ary education are located here, among them Seton Hill College. The bor- ough has an extensive trade in coal, which is mined in the vicinity, and manufactories of glass, iron, nuts, bolts, lumber, brick-heating apparatus, etc. Population, 1920, U.S. Census, 15,033. Greenville, Miss., a city and the county seat of Washington Co., about 137 m. s.w. of Memphis, Tenn., on the Mississippi River and on the Southern, the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley and other railroads. Steamboats connect it with other ports on the Mississippi. The city is the center of a productive cotton section and carries on a large trade. It has cotton mills, compresses, cottonseed-oil mills and saw and planing mills. There are beautiful streets, lawns, parks and playgrounds. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 11,560. Greenville, S. C., a city and the county seat of Greenville Co., 110 m. n.w. of Columbia and 160 m. n.e. of At- lanta, Ga., on the Southern, the C. & W. C. and the P. & N. (electric) railroads. The city is situated in an undulating country near the outlying spurs of the Blue Ridge Mountains and has a delight- ful climate. Among the industrial plants are cotton mills, ironworks and foun- dries. Greenville is known as the textile center Of the south. The important ed- ucational institutions are Furman Uni- versity (Baptist) ; Greenville College for 1235 .GREENVILLE Women; a business College and an excel- lent system of Public Schools (in south- ern accredited class). Greenville was settled in 1784 and incorporated in 1831. Population in 1920, United States Cen- Briss wos Z/. Greenville, Tex., a city and the county seat of Hunt Co., about 54 m. n.e. of Dallas and 235 m. n. of Houston, on the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St. Louis Southwestern, the Texas. Mid- land and other railroads. Among the industrial plants are cotton compresses, cotton-seed-oil mills, flour mills, machine shops, brickyards and stockyards. The distinguishing features are Burleson and Wesley colleges and many beautiful pub- lic parks and excellent schools. Settled in 1844, Greenville was incorporated a city in 1875. The population in 1920, United States Census, was 12,384. Green Vitriol, Vit’ riul. See Copr- PERAS. Greenwich, Grin'1j, a borough of London, England, in Kent, formerly a town, 5m. s.e. of St. Paul’s Cathedral and on the right bank of the River Thames. Objects of interest in the city are the Greenwich Royal Observatory, established in 1675 (from which point longitude in calculated and used by British astronomers and geographers, and also by most of the geographers of the world, and which establishes the time for all parts of the United King- dom), the Royal Naval College and the Greenwich Observatory. From the 13th to the 17th century it was a royal resi- dence, and marks the birthplace of Henry VIII, Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth. Population about 185,000. Greenwich, Conn., a town and popu- lar summer resort of Fairfield Co., 28 m. n.e. of New York City, on Long Island Sound and on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad. The town is attractively situated and is a suburban resort \for many New York people. There are many handsome residences. The Greenwich Academy, Rosemary Hall and the Brunswick School’ are lo- cated here. Greenwich was settled in 1640 and was a part of the Dutch GREGORY VII Province of New York from 1642 until 1650, when by a Dutch and English commission agreement it became part of Connecticut ; it marks the line of bound- ary. Population in 1920, 22,123. | Greenwood, James M. (1836-1914), an American educator, born -near Springfield, Ill. He studied in the pub- lic schools, and moved with his parents in 1852 to Adair County, Mo. Here he pursued his studies by himself while working on a farm. Later, he spent a year in Canton Seminary. From 1867- 1874 he taught mathematics, astronomy and logic in the normal schoot at Kirks- ville, Mo. In 1874 he became superin- tendent of schools at Kansas City, Mo. He has published Principles of Educa- tion Practically Applied. Greg’ory, the name of 16 popes and one anti-pope. SAINT GREGORY (avout 540-609), pope from 590 until his death, was born at Rome and educated for a public ca- reer. He turned early to the Church, however, and became abbot of St. An- drew’s, where he wax »vopular in spite of his severity. Gregor, determined to undertake personally the conversion of Britain, but before hix ‘ask was well begun he was recalled to Decome pope. He ruled wisely and zealously and is known as a great organizer of mission- ary enterprise. Grecory XIII (1502-1585) was pope from 1572 until his death, He gave great aid to the Jesuits, but is remem- bered chiefly for his great public works and for his reform of the calendar (See CALENDAR). Gregory VII (about 1015-1085), the Great Hildebrand, one of the greatest ecclesiastical geniuses of history. He became pope in 1073. In his Paschal Synod (Rome, 1074), he threatened with excommunication all who received sacred ministrations from the so-called married clergy. Blood was shed, espe- cially in Germany, France and Italy, be- fore the clergy submitted to this de- cree. Gregory’s law against investi- tures, propagated in 1075, precipitated one of the greatest religious struggles 1236 | Fee ae - war followed. GREGORY of all ages. It was aimed especially at Henry IV of Germany, who openly sold high Church offices to the notoriously immoral. But Henry was undaunted, even when Gregory excommunicated five of his advisers. Consequently Gregory summoned him to Rome. Instead of obeying, Henry undertook to depose Gregory at the Council of Worms on Jan. 24, 1076. This so in- censed the. Pope that he immediately absolvéd all Christians from allegiance to Henry, with the result that the Ger- mans proceeded to select a new king. Brought to terms, Henry now asked and obtained reconciliation with Gregory, but before long proceeded to act as im- piously as before. His subjects, thor- oughly aroused, hereupon elected Ru- dolph of Swabia as king in 1077. Civil Gregory again excom- municated Henry in 1080; but Henry in retaliation set Guibert of Ravenna on the papal throne, holding Gregory a prisoner, during three years, in the Cas- tle of St. Angelo. Saddened and worn, Pope Gregory died in seclusion at Sa- lérno. See HENry IV. Gregory, Lady Isabella Augusta Persse, a British woman of letters, one of the group of modern writers who have found their inspiration in the peo- ple and soil of Ireland. She was born (Persse) in Roxborough, County Gal- way, Ireland, and grew up with a ro- mantic love for Ireland that later found definite literary expression. When, in 1893, Dr. Douglas Hyde founded the Gaelic League, the object of which was the preservation of the Irish spoken language and the Irish nationality, Lady Gregory entered into the movement with enthusiasm. She learned the Irish language, made translations of Irish songs and ballads, edited and made re- visions, and became a prominent figure in the production and presentation of a group of Irish plays. Associated with her were Dr. Hyde, William B. Yeats and John M. Synge. In her two books, Cuchulain of Muirthemne and Gods and Fighting Men, she gathered together and retold in the Elizabethan English GRESHAM’S LAW of her neighborhood, the great legends of Ireland. Among other writings are Poets and Dreamers, The Kiltartan Wonder Book and the plays—Spreading the News, The Rising of the Moon and The Workhouse Ward. See Irisu PLAYS: Grenadier, Gren’a deer’, the name once applied to a soldier who threw hand grenades, which were small metal or glass bullets filled with powder and fired by a fuse. Companies of grena- diers formed a part of the troops of both English and French armies up to the time of the invention and use of the musket. The grenadiers were usually soldiers above ordinary height and were distinguished by special uniform. Grenfell, Wilfred Thomason (1865- ), a British medical missionary, author and lecturer, a graduate of Ox- ford. Shortly after completing his medical education at London Hospital, he entered the service of the Royal Na- tional Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen. Fitting out the first hospital ship for the North Sea fisheries, he cruised with the fishermen from the Bay of Biscay to Iceland, establishing homes for them on land and arranging mission vessels for their use at sea. In 1892 he went to Labrador. There he established several hospitals, an orphanage and a series of cooperative stores, and started many small industrial schemes for the allevia- tion of the poor. Dr. Grenfell has lec- tured extensively in the United States. Among his publications are Adrift on an Ice-pan, A Man’s Faith, The Harvest of the Sea, Off the Rocks, Labrador and Down to the Sea. Gresham’s Law, a term used to des- ignate the economic principle, first pro- pounded by Sir Thomas Gresham, that when good and bad money are both in use the bad will tend to drive out the good; because the money having the greater intrinsic value will be used in the foreign trade, where only the bullion value is recognized. The money of less intrinsic value will thus be left for do- mestic circulation. See Money, subhead Varieties. 1237 GRETNA GREEN Gret’na Green, or Graitney, Scotland, a village on the Solway Firth, 8 m. n. of Carlisle. According to an old Scot- tish law, the statement before witnesses of an unmarried couple that they were man and wife, constituted a legal mar- riage. Gretna Green became notorious as a wedding place of runaway couples from England, who availed themselves of this peculiar marriage law. The term “Gretna Green marriage” is now used to designate a runaway marriage. Grévy, Gra’ve’, Francois Paul Jules (1807-1891), a French statesman, born at Mont-sous-Vaudrey. He studied law in Paris, while a student participating in the Revolution of 1830. In 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, dis- tinguishing himself as an orator. Re- tiring from politics after the coup d’ état of Louis Napoleon, he devoted him- self to his profession and rose to emi- nence. In 1869 he again entered the National Assembly, and two years later he was there chosen president, holding this position until 1879, when, Marshal MacMahon having resigned as president of the republic, he was elected his suc- cessor. He won the election to a second term as president in 1885, but, hampered by ministerial complications, he was forced to resign in 1887. Grey, Lady Jane (about 1537-1554), the daughter of Henry Grey, afterward Duke of Suffolk, and the grandniece of Henry VIII. Edward VI settled on her the succession to the crown, :but nine days after the proclamation of her ac- cession, Mary’s claims were recognized and Lady Jane was sent to the Tower. Four months later she and her husband, Lord Guilford Dudley, were beheaded. Grey, Sir Albert Henry, Fourtu EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND (1851- i an English statesman, educated at Har- row and at Trinity College, Cambridge. When he was 26 he married Alice Hol- ford, sister of Lord Minto, and three years later entered the British House of Commons, where he remained for six years. He then succeeded Cecil Rhodes in representing the British South Africa Company. From 1904 to 1911 he was GRIFFIN governor-general and commander-in- chief of Canada, his term of office being extended for 12 months at the instance of Edward VII. While filling this post, Earl Grey closely identified himself with every movement calculated to advance Canadian interest. He was also.Jlord lieutenant of Northumberland and dis- tinguished himself in the Boer War. Greyhound, a tall, aristocratic dog, noted for its speed and its keen sight, two qualities which make it particularly valuable as a hunting dog. The coat of the common English greyhound is smooth and generally gray in color; its name, however, does not refer to its color, but to the Irish word grey, meaning dog. Built for speed, its entire frame— the body, the strong legs, the pointed nose and the tail—is slender and elon- gated. The ears are long and pointed, sometimes held erect and sometimes drooping. The sense of smell is defec- tive in all greyhounds, but a remarkable vision more than makes up for the loss. The general class of greyhounds in- cludes the deerhound, which has a shaggy coat and is of heavier build; the Irish wolfhound; the Italian greyhound ; and the hairless dogs of Central Amer- ica. Lurchers and whippets are a cross between greyhounds and other species. Grieg, Greeg, Edvard Hagerup (1843- 1907), the most celebrated of Nor- wegian composers, was born at Bergen, He was educated at Leipsic. His great- est achievement was in the field of com: position. He wrote for violin, piano and - for orchestra, besides a large number of songs. His music has a marked national character, much of it being based upon Scandinavian legends and folk tales. His most famous orchestral work is the Peer Gynt suite, founded upon the drama of the same name by Ibsen. Griffin, Ga., a city and the county seat of Spaulding Co., 43 m. s. of At- lanta, on the Central of Georgia, the Southern and other railroads. The in- dustrial interests of the town are cen- tered in cotton mills, gins and bleacheries, machine shops, foundries and vehicle and a large pimento canning factory. {238 GRIMM Griffin is an attractive resort. In the vicinity is the Georgia State Agricul- tural Experiment Station. Population in 1920, 8,240. Grimm, Jacob Ludwig Karl (1785- 1863), and Wilhelm Karl (1786-1859), two German philologists, brothers, born in Hanau. They formulated what is popularly known as Grimm’s Law, one of the most important of phonetic laws. They compiled the great Dictionary of the German Language, and Jacob Lud- wig Grimm wrote a History of the Ger- man Language, a German Grammar, German Mythology and Origin of Lan- guage. They founded the science of folklore by collecting from manuscripts and books and by word of mouth the popular legends and fairy tales of their country; and because of the Nursery and Fireside Stories “Brothers Grimm” have become known the world over. Grind’stone”, a flat, circular stone held in a frame by a horizontal axis upon which it is made to revolve. It is cut from blocks of sandstone of vary- ing degrees of coarseness. The larger stones used in factories sometifnes weigh several tons, and are operated by ma- shinery; the smaller ones are revolved by hand or foot power. Artificial grind- stones of fine texture are made from emery and are used for grinding metal. Those made from carborundum are much used for grinding precious stones. Grippe. See INFLUEN’ZA. Grosbeak, Grose’ beek”, a bird of the Finch Family.. The rose-breasted gros- beak is a little smaller than a robin (eight inches in length). The male may _ be known by its black head, throat and back, white-spotted wings and tail, and particularly by the brilliant rose-colored spot on the breast. The female has a buff-colored back and breast streaked with brown. The grosbeak is a song- ster of the highest order, its notes somewhat resembling those of the oriole. Unlike most birds, it sings at night. The mest is very loosely constructed and is built in alow bush or vine and contains two to four brown-spotted eggs, which both sexes incubate. The young leave GROUCHY the nest when about 11 days old and begin to sing when ten weeks old. These birds are largely insect feeders, eating by preference the potato beetle, and for this reason they are called by the farm- ers of Pennsylvania “potato-bug birds.” Grote, George (1794-1871), an Eng- lish historian, born in Kent. His princi- pal literary work was his History of Greece, to which he gave the latter years of his life. This work is in 12 volumes, and is considered the most complete his- tory of Greece published. Grote went to Parliament in 1832 on the Liberal ticket and was twice reelected. Up to p ee it PO with ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK the time of his death he was president of University College and vice-chancel- lor of London University. Grotius, Gro’ shius, or De Groot, Hugo (1583-1645), a Dutch scholar born at Delft, Netherlands, and educated at the University of Leyden. He is noted for his great work On the Law of War and Peace, which gave a clear ex- position of the fundamental purposes of international law, and is still considered a standard authority on the subject. Grouchy, Groo” she’, Emmanuel, MaAr- QUIS DE (1766-1847), a French marshal, born in Paris, France. He joined the Royal Life Guards at the age of 14 years, on the side of the Revolutionists. He served in the Prussian War in 1806; and the following year was in the war with Russia, where he distinguished 1220 GROUND HOG himself and was made a marshal of France. In 1815 when Blucher was de- feated at Ligny, Grouchy was ordered to push the Russian retreat. Upon Napoleon’s second abdication and the second restoration, Grouchy was ban- ished and lived for some time in Phila- delphia, Pa. Returning to his native land in 1821, he was again made a mar- shal of France. Ground Hog. See WoopcHUCK. Ground Ivy, Gill-over-the-Ground or Creeping Charley, a low, spreading GROUND IVY herb of the Mint Family, common in “waste or shaded grounds which have plenty of moisture. It is often found growing thickly in. the grass of door- yards, where it creeps so closely along the ground that it is hardly noticeable. The leaves are rounding, with wavy margins, much like those of the catnip, to which it is closely related. The stems are square and slightly hairy. The flowers are small, two-lipped and light blue in color. The stems, leaves and flowers all have a slightly pungent taste GUADALAJARA and odor, common to members of this family. Ground ivy is commonly called a weed, because it spreads so rapidly, but its delicate flowers and _ beautiful dark green leaves make it really an orna- mental herb. Ground Pine. See Ciup Moss... Ground Robin. See TOWHEE. Ground Squirrel, a name applied to a Class of Rodents of the Squirrel Fam- ily, whose technical name means food- storers. They are small, active animals with sharp-toed feet, lengthened cra- niums and large cheek pouches. Their homes are burrows where they store, during the summer and autumn, the nuts and dried roots which are to be their food during the winter. There are many varieties, the most common Amer- ican species being generally spoken of as the chipmunk. See CHIPMUNK. Grouse, a family of rough-footed, gallinaceous birds found generally in temperate or colder regions of Europe, Asia and North America. The family includes such birds as the quail, par- tridge, blackcock, ptarmigan, prairie hen and ruffed grouse. The nests are made on the ground, generally hidden by tall grass or sheltering shrubs, and contain from 10 to 14 greenish-tan or brown- speckled eggs. The young feed upon insects, but the older birds prefer grain and are destructive of the farmer’s fields.. See QUAIL; PARTRIDGE; RUFFED GROUSE; CAPERCAILLIE, Grow, Galusha Aaron (1823-1907), an American lawyer and statesman, born in Ashford, Conn. He entered Congress from Pennsylvania in 1851 as its young- est member, and served for 12 years, first as a Democrat, then as Republican. He was speaker of the House from 1861 to 1863. For ten years he introduced at the beginning of each Congress a free- homestead bill, until it became a law in 1862. After an interval of 30 years he served again in Congress from 1894 to 1903. as congressman-at-large from Pennsylvania. | Guadalajara, Gwah"thah lah hah' rah, ‘a city in Mexico and the capital of the State of Jalisco. It is situated on the 1240 _ sive granite blocks. GUADALQUIVIR Santiago River 125 m. from the Pacific Ocean and 275 m. n.w. of the City of Mexico. Guadalajara is among the most pleasant of Mexican cities. Among the most beautiful drives is that of the Paseo, along one of the branches of the river and terminating in the famous Alameda, or public garden. The most interesting building is the great cathe- dral in Plaza Mayor. The government palace in the same square, is in Spanish style and is a stately building of pleas- ing appearance. Other interesting edi- fices are the mint, the library, the Acad- emy of Fine Arts, the Teatro Degollado and the large penitentiary built of mas- Among the educa- tional institutions are the university, the national college, an Episcopal seminary and fine public schools. There are many charitable institutions. The chief indus- tries of the city are those connected with the iron and steel works, and with the manufacture of glass and artistic pot- tery. Other manufactures are those of textiles, leather, furniture, hats and candies. Population, 101,208. Guadalquivir, God" al kwiv’ er, a river of southern Spain, rising in the moun- tains of the Province of Jaen and flowing in a southwesterly direction to the At- lantic. Its length is 360 m. It has many large tributaries, and in one part of its course. it separates into three channels, forming the two islands known as Isla Mayor and Isla Menor. The cities of Seville and Cordova lie upon its banks and large boats can ascend the river to the former city. Guadalupe Hidalgo, God"a loop’ Hi- dal’ go, Treaty of, the treaty made Feb. 2, 1848, between the United States and Mexico, which ended the Mexican War. By this treaty the Mexican Government ceded to the United States the territory of Texas, New Mexico and a part of California and agreed upon the Rio Grande River as the boundary between Mexico and Texas. The United States agreed to pay Mexico $15,000,000 and to assume all claims of its citizens against Mexico arising before the treaty. It also reserved to Mexicans in GUARDIAN the ceded territory the right to remove or remain and assured protection of their rights of property. See MEXICAN War. Guam, Gwam, an island of the La- drone group, acquired by the United States from Spain in 1898. It has an area of only 200 sq. m. and is low in the north, but rises to a moderate eleva- tion in the south. Guam is of coral formation, has a-~fertile, well-drained surface and is covered with forests. Coconut, breadfruit, rice, sugar and in- digo are cultivated. Agafia, the capital, has San Luis de Apra as its port. The island is of especial importance to the United States since it has been made a landing place of the Pacific cable, and will be even more useful after the open- ing of the Panama Canal. The execu- tive officer is a governor appointed by the president. Population, 12,240. Guano, Gwah'no, the excrement of sea birds, once found in large quantities upon the islands of the coast of Peru and, because of its rich nitrogen and phosphorus content, used extensively as a fertilizer. The largest deposits of guano having been exhausted, that upon the market at the present time is com-. monly a manufactured product obtained from the refuse at fish canneries and known as fish guano. Another variety, made at slaughter pens, is known as blood guano. At present the menhaden, a fish caught in large quantities upon the New England coast, is used almost entirely for the production of this fer- tilizer. See MENHADEN; FERTILIZER. Guaranty, Gar’ an ty, or Guarantee, a warrant or contract by which one be- comes responsible for the debts, defalca- tion or miscarriage of another. At com- mon law a guaranty is considered bind- ing, whether written cr oral. Many so- called guaranties, however, such as the guaranty of a salesman of the quality of his goods or of a certain per cent profit on an investment, do not fall with- in the legal requirements and are, there- fore, worthless. | Guardian, Gar’ de an, one having th lawful control of the person or property, s 1241 GUATEMALA or both, of a person under legal age to care for himself, or of a feeble-minded or insane person. In the United States the term without qualification means one who has control of the person and prop- erty of an infant; that is, a person under 21 years of age if a man, and under 18 years of age if a woman, though these limitations may vary in different states. Guardians are usually appointed by par- ents or courts, and in most states they are strictly accountable to the probate court of their district or county. The authority of a guardian is similar to that of a parent. Guatemala, Gwah” te mah’ lah. CENTRAL AMERICA, \ Guava, Gwah’' vah, a low tree of the Myrtle Family growing in both the East and the West Indies, but probably a na- tive of the latter. The tree grows to a height of about 20 ft. and has many branches, which are thickly covered with long, smooth leaves. The flower of the white, or lemon, guava is a long white blossom having a pleasing fragrance. The fruit, which is yellow when ripe, has a brittle rind, within which is a flesh- colored pulp used in making jellies, pre- serves and marmalade. The seeds are numerous and extremely hard. Other varieties of the guava are the strawberry guava and the red guava. The fruit of the latter is a beautiful wine color, but less pleasant to the taste than that of the lemon guava. Guayaquil, Gwi’ah keel’, or Santiago de Guayaquil, a city and the chief sea- port of Ecuador, capital of the Province of Guayas, situated on the Guayas River, 33 m. above its mouth, The un- satisfactory drainage system of the streets, the surrounding marshes and the floods in rainy seasons make the city unhealthful. Recent improvements in lighting, tramway and telephone service have been made, and several fine build- ings added. The exports are cocoa, ivory, gold, silver, Panama hats, cotton, hides and cinchona bark. Population estimated at 51,000. Guayule, Gwah yoo’ la, a gum pro- duced by a Mexican and Texan plant of See GUELPH the Thistle Family and used there, and to a slight extent elsewhere, as a substi- tute for India rubber. The plant from which the gum is produced is also fre- quently called guayule, having no other ~ common name. . Gudgeon, Guj’ un, a European food fish of the Carp Family found in large schools upon gravelly beaches. It is a trim, plump fish, with a broad body and fleshy tail. It is probably among the most common fish taken by young Eng- ~ lish fishermen. The Niagara gudgeon, probably introduced from England, is smaller, and though of excellent flavor is not commonly considered a food fish. Guelder-Rose, Gel' der-Roze, or Snow- ball Tree, an ornamental, flowering shrub of the Honeysuckle Family, gen- erally known here under the latter name. It is a cultivated shrub, erect in form and growing to a height of from seven to ten feet; the bark is somewhat rough below but smooth on the finer branches. The leaves are generally three-lobed with finely-cut margins. The flowers, which give the plant its popularity, are big balls of blossoms, which when ma- ture are pure white, but when opening change from leaf-green to white. The single blossoms may be either sterile, that is, not for fruit production, or fer- tile. The outer ones are sterile and are much larger than the inner ones; all have short tubes and _ evenly-divided, five-lobed corollas. The fruit is a sour, red berry which is often substituted for cranberries, and thus the plant derives its name of highbush cranberry. The English name comes from the plant’s being a native of the Dutch Gerderland. Guelph, Gwelf, a city of Canada in the Province of Ontario, situated on the Speed River, in a fine agricultural dis- trict. In addition to the municipal and county buildings is found the Ontario Agricultural College, which is one of the best agricultural colleges in America. A waterfall of 30 ft. in the river furnishes power for numerous mills and factories. The leading manufactures are agricul- tural implements, musical instruments, sewing machines, furniture and woolen 1242 GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES goods. tant occupation, and fruit, grain and live stock are the principal exports. The first settlement was made in 1827, and the town became a city in 1877. Popu- lation in 1911, 15,175. Guelphs and Ghibellines, Gib’ el ing, names probably corrupted by the Italians from the German Welf and Waiblinger. The most popular version is that the names were used as battle cries between the soldiers of Welf VI of Bavaria afid Conrad of Hohenstaufen, who owned the estate of Waiblinger. The members of the Lombard League became known as Guelphs in Italy in their struggle against Frederick II, and his followers were called Ghibellines. The story of the fierce struggle of these two parties is the story of Italy in the Middle Ages. In general, the Guelphs were opposed to the rule of the German emperor in Italy and allied themselves with the pope, while the Ghibellines wished for a strong central government and favored the rule of the emperor. Guernsey, Gurn’ zy, an island of the British Channel belonging to the group called the Channel Islands. It is the second of the group in size and has an area of 2414 sq. m., most of which is rocky and picturesque. On the south of the island are many resorts attractive to summer visitors. Gardening, floricul- ture and horticulture, the quarrying of granite and fishing are the chief indus- tries. Port St. Peter is the capital and chief city. Population of the island, 40,500. Guiana, Ge ah’ na, a region of South America, bounded upon the n. by the Caribbean Sea, on the e. and s. by Brazil and upon the w. by Venezuela. It lies between the basins of the Orinoco and the Amazon and rises from a swampy coastal plain, rich in tropical vegetation, to low mountain ranges containing gold, iron, mercury and precious stones. Guiana is drained by many rivers, the most of which flow toward the north. Much of the interior is unexplored but is known to contain forests of valuable wood. Politically, Guiana is divided into Stock raising is also an impor- GUIANA three parts: British, Dutch and French Guiana. BritisH GuiANA. This is the largest and the westernmost of the three. It has an area of 90,277 sq. m. The prin- cipal crops are rice, sugar cane, maize, wheat, cocoa, vanilla, tobacco and cin- namon. The exports are sugar, mo- lasses, rum, lumber, gold and diamonds. The government is vested in a governor and a government secretary, assisted by a Court of Policy. Georgetown is the capital city and New Amsterdam is the only other city of importance. The population is about 296,000, not includ- ing the aborigines occupying the unex- plored depths of the forest. DutcH GUIANA, or SURINAM. This is the middle region of Guiana and is a possession of the Dutch. It is separated from Brazil by impassable forests and from British Guiana by the Corentyn River. Much of Surinam is unsettled, for where the forests do not cover the land there are swampy districts and sandy tracts. The language, laws and coinage are all Dutch. The products are practically the same as those of British Guiana. The government is adminis- tered by a governor, a vice-president and a council of three members, all appoint- ed by the Dutch Crown. The capital is Paramaribo. Its area is 46,060 sq. m., and its population, exclusive of the na- tives in the forests, is 85,100. FRENCH GuIANA. This is the small- est of the three divisions, having an area of but 34,060 sq. m. It_is separated from Dutch Guiana by the Maroni River vand from Brazil by the Oyapok. In its products, its low swampy coast and its rolling mountains, it resembles the other two divisions, although less of its terri- tory is given over to agriculture. Gold washing is the most profitable pursuit. The colony includes the Island of Cay- enne, upon which Cayenne, the capital, is situated. The first French settlement here was in the Island of Cayenne in 1664, but at present it is used chiefly as a place of banishment for criminals and political offenders. The population of French Guiana is 27,000. 1243 GUIDO RENI Guido Reni, Gwe'do Ra'ne, (1575- 1642), an Italian painter of the School of Bologna, born at Calvenzano near Bologna. He studied with Calvart and Caracci, but early left to study at Rome, where he remained for 20 years. There in the garden house of the Rospigliosi Palace he painted his famous picture which he ysalled Phebus and the Hours Preceded by Aurora; it is now generally spoken of as merely the Aurora. This is his masterpiece and gives a good idea of his later style. Guido spent a part of his time in Naples, but being driven out by the enmity of fellow artists he returned to Bologna, where he estab- lished a large school with more than 200 students. (Guido’s pictures are generally well knowr and are admired for their softness of coloring and the beauty of form in th figures. He painted chiefly from Biblical subjects, but also painted a few pleasing portraits. Among his best works are The Crucifixion of St. Peter in the Vatican, the Pieta in the Church of the Mendicanti, Fortune in the capitol at Berlin, and Samson Drink- ing from the Jawbone of an Ass. Many of his pictures are in the Louvre and seven are in the National Gallery of London. Guild, Gild, a society for carrying on some particular line of work, such as handcraft or commerce. Guilds are of ancient origin and were very influential in Europe during the Middle Ages. In Germany in the 13th century they ob- tained the right of bearing arms for the defense of their own interests, and in time they became so powerful that they resisted and overcame the nobility. The by-laws of the German guilds regulated the learning of apprentices, the practice of one’s trade as a journeyman and the requirements of a master. Finally their political influence became so strong that in the 18th century edicts were issued against them, and in the 19th century in most of the German states freedom was granted to all to engage in any occupa- tion without joining the guild. In Eng- land their influence was largely political, since one gained the right to vote by GUILLOTINE joining a guild and because they were in sympathy with the democratic ele- ment of the constitution. In the city of London there are several guilds which are important corporations. Their chief functions consist in managing large funds left in trust for benevolent pur- poses and relieving poor and disabled | members. In recent times the guilds have been merged with or changed into trade unions, both in Europe and the United States. Guilford, Gil’ ferd, or Guilford Court- house, Battle of, one of the most stub- born battles of the Revolutionary War, fought 30 m. from the Virginia border, March 15, 1781. The Americans were under Greene, whom Morgan’s forces had joined, and the British were com- manded by Cornwallis. From the first the British had the advantage and a rout of the Americans was with difficulty prevented. The English lost 600 men, the Americans about 400. Greene’s gen- eralship turned into a strategic triumph what military critics declare was an American defeat. His heavy losses made Cornwallis retreat to Wilmington, abandoning the interior of the state, which he had been struggling for months to possess. Guillemot, Gil’ e mot, or Sea Pigeon, birds related to the auks and puffins, having a short, slender, straight bill and webbed feet. These birds are 12 to 15 inches in length and the plumage is usu- ally black with some white markings, in the spring, and variegated black and white in the fall. The feet are bright red in the summer and pink in the win- ter. The nest is made in a depression in the rocks near the water and two eggs are laid by some species. The common guillemot is found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, while the pigeon guille- mot is abundant on the Pacific coast of America and in northern Japan. Guillotine, Gil’ o teen, an instrument for beheading persons. It was invent- ed in the Middle Ages, and when Dr. Guillotine, for whom it was named, pro- posed its adoption in France during the French Revolution, the National Assem- 1244 ‘ a tae GUILMANT bly voted in favor of it. It has a steel blade loaded with lead, which slides up and down the inner grooves of two per- pendicular posts. The prisoner’s neck is held below in a round hole between two planks and is severed by one blow. Guilmant, Geel” mahng', Félix Alex- andre (1837-1911), an eminent French composer and organist, born at Bou- logne. After holding several important positions as organist he was appointed chief organist at La Trinité, Paris, re- maining in this position nearly 30 years. As a virtuoso and composer he held first rank among organists of his generation. His compositions include organ sonatas, Christmas carols and many books or shorter organ compositions. Guinea, Gin’ y, an English gold coin in use between 1663 and 1813. It de- rived its name from the fact that it was first made from gold mined in Guinea. It was designed to be worth 20 shillings, but was never worth less than 21 shil- lings and was finally made legally to equal the latter. Its value is $5.11 in currency of the United States. Guinea Fowl, a bird related to the pheasants and native in West Africa and the Cape Verde Islands. It is about the size of a small domestic fowl, and is usually bluish-gray, spotted or speckled with white. The neck is purplish and the head is yellow and red. There is a hard protuberance, or casque, on top of the head. The nest is made on the ground and upwards of 17 eggs are laid. In Africa these birds live in flocks of con- siderable size, and roost upon trees at night, at which time their noise is al- most deafening. The guinea fowl has been domesticated and thrives well un- der these conditions. Guinea, Gulf of, a body of water on the western coast of Africa, a portion of the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between capes Lopez and Palmas, along the shores of Upper Guinea. The bights of Biafra and Benin are here, and also Prince’s, Po and St. Thomas islands. Guinea Pig, an interesting South American member of the Cavy Family, first domesticated by the Peruvians and GUIZOT now known throughout the United States. It has a plump, short-haired body, short legs and an inquisitive face. Many varieties are reared, mostly black, white or tawny in color. They are ex- tensively used in bacteriological experi- ments. Guise, Gu ees’, a ducal house of France, and a branch of the Lorraine family. The Guises became politically important under Francis II, as his wife, Mary, Queen of Scots, was the niece of the Duke of Guise. The most important was Francois of Lorraine, Duke of Guise, who defended Metz successfully against Charles V and was the real ruler of France under Henry II and Francis II. Henry, his son, succeeded Francois as leader of the Catholic Party. He de feated the allies of the Huguenots, but his popularity aroused the fear of Henry III, who forbade him to enter Paris. After the Duke had entered, Henry III invited him to'a conference and had him assassinated. Guitar, Git ar’, a box-shaped musical instrument, made of wood, with a neck arrangement similar to that of the violin. Of its six strings, three are treble and made of catgut, and three are bass and are made of silk wound with wire. The instrument is played upon by plucking the strings with the fingers, the pitch being regulated by placing the fingers of the left hand on a series of metal frets along the neck. See VIOLIN. Guizot, Ge”’zo’, Francois Pierre Guil- laume (1787-1874), a French historian and statesman, born at Nimes, France, and educated at Geneva. In 1809 he wrote a review of Chateaubriand’s Mar- tyrs, which was well received, and in 1812 he became professor of modern history at Sorbonne College, University of France. In 1814 Guizot was made secretary-general of two ministries; in 1819, director-general of commons and departments of the ministry of the in- terior. In 1820 he lost his offices be- cause of his political opinions, but he was restored to his chair and to the council of state in 1828. In 1840 he was sent as ambassador to London and the 1245 GULF STREAM same year became minister of foreign affairs. In 1847 he became official head of the cabinet. On the fall of Louis Philippe in 1848 Guizot escaped to Lon- don, but returned to Paris in 1849. Among his writings are History of Civ- ‘tlization in France, General History of Civilization in Europe, History of the English Revolution and a life of Wash- ington. Gulf Stream, the principal current of the Atlantic Ocean. It takes its name from the Gulf of Mexico, from which it flows northward, passing between Florida and the Bahama Islands. The stream has its origin in deep currents far to the east of the Windward and Leeward islands. At its narrowest part it is about 50 m. in width. Its depth is about 2000 ft., and it flows at an aver- age rate of about 2 or 3 m. an hour, in some localities reaching a velocity of 5 or 6 m. an hour. It moves in a north- eastwardly direction along the coast of North America, and, between 30° and 35° north, separates into several small streams about 600 ft. in depth. North of this the stream is further broken up by the westerly winds and becomes a mere drift flowing in a northeasterly di- rection toward northern Europe. The current is several degrees warmer than the remainder of the ocean through which it flows, in the same latitude, and in consequence the climate of the Brit- ish Isles is greatly tempered by the drifts which flow past their shores. The Gulf Stream is generally sup- posed to be the result of the general vertical circulation of the ocean started by the creeping of the polar waters along the ocean bed toward the equa- tor. The equatorial waters are forced upward by this deep-sea current and move northward to replace the perpet- ually sinking waters at the poles. De- viation to the east in the flow of the current is due to the rotating movement of the earth. See CurRRENTS, MARINE. Gulf’port”, Miss., a city and port of entry of Harrison Co., 13 m. s.w. of Bi- loxi, on the Gulf. of Mexico and on the Louisville & Nashville and the Gulf & nes GULL Ship Island railroads. The city has the best harbors on the entire Gulf coast, and is the port of entry for the Pearl River customs district. In 1901 the Federal Government and the Gulf & Ship Island Railroad Company dredged a navigable channel for coasting vessels which greatly promoted the trade of f j \ Vs = 1 7A f WE Zo 3 a | | WCU ES Nt GULL Gulfport. During the last decade the town has grown from a small seacoast village to a thriving city, and contains canning industries, lumber and cotton mills, machine shops, woodworking plants, foundries and manufactories of cotton-seed oil, fertilizers and other di- versified products. Prominent among the public buildings are the courthouse, post office, banks and Great Southern Hotel, one of the finest in the South. Population in 1920, 8,157. Gulla name applied to many sea and lake birds with heavy bodies, short legs, partly- webbed feet and a more or less hooked bill. They have long, pointed wings and are birds of powerful flight. A number of different species are known. HERRING GULL, perhaps the most common and best-known species.. This bird is over two feet in length, with pearl-gray back and white under parts, the five outer primary feathers of the GULL’S HEAD AND FOOT 1246 GUM wing being black with white tips. The bill is yellow with a red spot near the end of the lower mandible. In winter the plumage of the head and neck is streaked with gray. The nest is placed on the ground, on rocks or in trees, and is made of grass, earth, seaweed, etc. It contains three eggs spotted with brown or lilac. The herring gulls live on both sides of the American continent and on the Great Lakes. On the ocean they follow the schools of herring and other small fish, upon which they feed. On the Great Lakes they follow steamers to feed upon the refuse thrown overboard. Gum, a compound of carbon, hydro- gen, and oxygen which occurs in nearly all plants and oozes from their stems or fruit. Gums differ from resins in being capable of being dissolved in water but not in alcohol. They are generally odor- less and tasteless. Our commonest va- rieties are cherry-gum and gum mes- quite. Other familiar gums are: gum arabic, which is used in the manufacture of medicines, candy and paste and also to give finish to silk and other cloth fabrics; gum tragacanth, used in medi- cines and glue; and gum acacia, also used in medicines. Gum Arabic, Ar’ a bik, a reddish, sometimes yellowish, gum obtained from acacia trees that grow in Asia and north- ern Africa. It is used for a large variety of purposes, principally in making muci- lage and pastes. See Acacia; Muci- LAGE, Gum Resin, a name given to the thickened, milky juices of plants, made up of gum, which is soluble in water; resin, which is soluble in alcohol; and some mineral and vegetable substances. Gum resins are prepared as powders or dissolved in diluted alcohol and used medicinally. The best-known gum res- ins are gamboge, myrrh, asafetida and scammony. Gunboat, a small war vessel armed generally with one large gun. This gun is sometimes mounted on a pivot on the deck of the vessel, and can be turned in any direction; and sometimes it is mounted on a platform that is raised GUNPOWDER and lowered from hold to deck and back by machinery. The gunboat is used chiefly for coast and river defense. In 1860 the United States had about 250 of these vessels, and they rendered good service during the Civil War; but their use has been practically discontinued. Guncotton, or Pyrox’ylin, a highly explosive compound prepared by the ac- tion of nitric acid on the fibers of cot- ton. It is used in the making of collo- dion, varnishes and celluloid. Military guncotton is very explosive and is used by the United States navy in torpedoes. It is compressed into blocks of about three inches in diameter and two inches high, with half-inch holes in them. A form of guncotton called pyrocellulose is employed in making smokeless pow- der. See CoLLopION ; CELLULOID; VAR- NISH ; SMOKELESS POWDER; TORPEDO. Gunpowder, a well-known explosive mixture consisting of saltpeter, charcoal and sulphur. The proportions of these materials vary according to the kind of powder desired. -The origin and early history of gunpowder is obscure, but its invention is generally attributed to the Chinese, who used it before the Chris- tian Era. It was known in Europe in the 13th century, but it did not come into general use for warfare until the 16th century. The materials used in making gunpowder are first relined and purified and then ground very fine, and for the most common grades are mixed in revolving cylinders in the following proportions: 75 per cent of saltpeter, 15 per cent of charcoal and 10 per cent of sulphur. They are mixed wet and worked into a cake called a mill cake, which is afterwards crushed into meal. This meal is then pressed into cakes by hydraulic pressure, the degree of which depends upon the strength of the powder desired. These cakes are again crushed by means of a machine having toothed rollers, which break up the mass and reduce it to grains of various sizes, which are sorted by screens. Afterwards, the pow- der is put through a revolving, wooden barrel, whereby it is polished, graphite being added for the purpose of produc- 1247 GUNPOWDER PLOT ing the glaze so commonly seen on that used in firearms. Finally it is conveyed to drying rooms preparatory to being packed in kegs for shipment. See GREEK FIRE; GUNCOTTON; SMOKELESS Pow- DER. Gunpowder Plot, a plan for destroy- ing King James I and the members of Parliament on Nov. 5, 1605. The King had disappointed the ‘Catholics because. of his severity in enforcing the penal laws, and a few of the most desperate banded together to overthrow the gov- ernment. They secured the cooperation of a fearless soldier, Guy Fawkes, and a Thomas Percy. They discovered a cellar beneath the House of Lords, and stored in it several barrels of gunpow- der. Several other plotters were added to their band, and Fawkes was selected to set fire to the gunpowder on the as- sembling of Parliament, Nov. 5. Be- trayed by the indiscretion of one of the band, Fawkes was arrested early in the morning of the fifth, as he was emerg- ing from the cellar. Many of the con- spirators were killed on being taken and several died with Fawkes on the scaf- fold. Gunsaul’us, Frank Wakeley (1856- 1921), a distinguished American cler- gyman, born at Chesterville, Ohio. He was educated at Ohio Wesleyan Uni- versity and at Beloit College, Wiscon- sin. Beginning as a Methodist minister in 1875, he entered the Congregational ministry four years later. Since 1899 he has been pastor of the Central Church, Chicago, an independent organization, and in this capacity has attained a wide following. His lectures upon Savona- rola, John Hampden and other subjects have added to his popularity. Dr. Gun- saulus became president of Armour In- stitute (Chicago) in 1893, and is the author of several publications. Among his works are Monk and Knight, Phid- ias, Gladstone and Paths to Power. Gusta’vus I, or Gustavus Vasa (1496-1560), King of Sweden from 1523 until his death, was born at Lindholm. At this time the three Scandinavian kingdoms, Denmark, Norway and Swe- GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS den, were united, and the Swedish people were divided in their allegiance, some favoring more national power for Sweden and others upholding the Dan- ish authority. Sten Sture, the cousin of Gustavus, was one of the former, and through his executive ability had been proclaimed administrator of Sweden. To his court the youthful. Gustavus was sent. He took part in the Battle of Brannkyrka, in which the Swedish forces defeated Christian II of Den- mark, and later was sent with five other youths of the court as hostage to the Danish court. Here he was treacher- ously kept prisoner by the King, who said, “There is many a Sten Sture in the lad.” | Escaping from his imprisonment, Gustavus wandered as an outcast until the news of the Swedish massacre, in which his father and uncle lost. their lives, and of the price set upon his own head determined him to strike a final blow for the freedom of Sweden. By his own efforts and with courage that faced disappointment, privation and treachery, he aroused the hardy Dale- carlian peasants to a revolt which re- leased the country from Danish tyranny and placed Gustavus himself upon the throne of Sweden. He was crowned in 1523, and during a long reign of 37 years was untiring in his efforts to de- velop the nationalism of his country. His son Eric succeeded him on the Swedish throne. Gustavus V_ (1858- ), Baines cor Sweden, successor of King Oscar II. He studied at the University of Upsala -— and in 1875 he entered the army, where he attained the rank of general in 1898. From 1884 to 1891 he was Vice-King of Norway, and his efforts to maintain the union of Norway and Sweden made him greatly disliked by the Norwegian Radicals. In 1881 he married Princess Victoria, the daughter of the Grand Duke of Bavaria. He succeeded his father.as King of Sweden in 1907. Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632), King of Sweden and successor of Charles IX. He conciliated the nobles who had 1248 a. «© t way tid oF rh > GUTENBERG deen alienated by his father’s harsh- ness, protected the lower classes from the oppression of the landowners and reorganized the government. He also built new towns and encouraged com- merce. He terminated his war with the Danes with honor in 1613, and in 1617 by the Treaty of Stolbova gained Carelia and Ingria. From Poland he won Li- vonia, Esthonia and Courland in 1629. In 1630, during the Thirty Years’ War, he went to the relief of the Protestants in Germany. In 1631 Gustavus defeated the Germans at the Battle of Breitenfeld. The next year he defeated them again under Wallenstein at Ltitzen, but fell on the battlefield. His conquests had a last- ing influence. See THirTY YEARS’ War. Gutenberg, Goo’ ten berk, Johannes (about 1398-1468), the inventor of print- ing with movable type, born in Mainz, Germany. The documents referring to his early life are obscure and tell very little that may be accepted as authentic. His name Gutenberg was assumed from *he name of his mother’s birthplace, the sity of Gutenberg. His first inventions were along a variety of lines, including a method of polishing stones and a new way of making mirrors. Both business ventures connected with these inventions turned out disastrously, and Gutenberg next appears about 1450 in partnership with Johann Fust, a wealthy goldsmith; Fust was to furnish the money and Gutenberg the “‘tools” for a new printing device. The types were cast, the office opened and the first book, a large Latin Bible, printed, when the partners dis- agreed. The printing of the Bible had taken five years and Fust saw no re- turns for his investment, so he brought suit against Gutenberg, secured control of the plant and carried on the business with a new partner. Gutenberg, how- ever, was aided to secure another press and continued his work until his death. Books believed to have been printed by him are now very costly, but Gutenberg died poor and friendless and almost un- known. A fine bronze monument has been erected to his memory in Mainz. See PRINTING. GUTTA-PERCHA Guth’rie, Okla., the county seat of Logan Co., located in the central part of the state, on Cottonwood Creek not far from its juncture with the Cimarron River. It is 32 m.n. of Oklahoma City and 450 m. s.w. of St. Louis, on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chi- cago, Rock Island & Pacific, Fort Smith & Western and other railroads. It is a city that has grown rapidly, but has been well planned. Its most interesting public buildings are the old capitol, city hall, the Federal Building, a Masonic Temple and a Methodist hospital. Guthrie is one of the seats of the Federal courts, and its cotton gins, foundries and machine shops attract trade from the surrounding coun- try. Cottonseed oil, lumber, brooms, flour, cigars and overalls are manufac- tured. The city has a St. Joseph’s Col- lege and a business college. Population in 1920, according to the United States Census, 11,757. Gut’ta-Per’cha, a substance found in the so-called milk sap of various trees of the Nettle, Spurge and Sapodilla fam- ilies. It occurs in the form of tiny, translucent globules suspended in the wa- tery sap, and gives to the sap its milky appearance. It is supposed to assist in protecting plants against wounds. At ordinary temperatures gutta-percha is hard and resembles India rubber, though it is not elastic. Gutta-percha is obtained by cutting down the trees, stripping the bark and allowing the white, thick sap to run into troughs. . After exposure to the air a light, thick cream +vises and the entire liquid darkens. The cream is made into cakes which are merely boiled in water before being ready for shipment. It is shipped in blocks of from five to ten pounds each and is put to innumerable uses, stich as the making of flexible hose, bottles, surgeons’ splints, temporary filling for teeth, molds, golf balls, in- sulating material, etc. Gutta-percha and India rubber are often confused through the similarity of their uses, but they dif- fer mainly in the fact that India rubber is very elastic, while gutta-percha, _ though extensible, is inelastic. 1249 GUYOT Guyot, Ge’ yo, Arnold (1807-1884), a Swiss-American geologist and physicist, born near Neuchatel, Switzerland. He became professor of history and phys- ical geography at Neuchatel in 1839. In 1848 he came to the United States, where he lectured in Boston, his lectures later appearing as Earth and Man, a text- book on physical geography. In 1855 he became professor of geology and physical geography at Princeton, where he established the museum. For pre- paring a series of geographies and wall maps, he was honored by the Vienna Exposition of 1873. His publications include, besides biographies of Carl Rit- ter, James H. Coffin and Louis Agassiz, A Treatise on Physical Geography and Creation, or the Bible Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science. Gymnas’tics, exercises by which the physical, and particularly the muscular, powers are developed, usually indoors and by the use of various machines and — appliances, each of which has been scien- tifically designed to strengthen a particu- lar muscle or set of muscles. These are of special value in making it possible for one to overcome physical defects, so that an inherited weakness, or one de- veloped during childhood, shall not con- tinue into maturity and prevent the maxi- mum of physical efficiency. Gymnastic exercises are of most value between the ages of 12 and 35. But they should be taken under expert direc- tion; and, in no case, can the undue development of any portion of the body or the use of very heavy weights, or exhausting exercises, be considered ad- visable. Too often these result in the straining of some muscle or ligament, or in injury to the heart action. Be- cause the gymnasium is seldom a well- ventilated building, out-of-door exercises are usually preferable; while the zest which is found in clean, wholesome sports is of greater recreative value than any mechanical exercise can be. The gymnasium, however, has its function, and the value of properly directed gym- nastic exercise should not be ignored nor underestimated. -are also always GYPSY Gymnosperm, Jim’ no sperm, the smaller of the two great divisions of seed-producing plants, whose members are distinguished as not having their un- developed seeds enclosed in a case.. The flowers are always imperfect,’ that is, lacking one of the essential parts neces- sary to the production of the seeds, and without calyx and corolla. Gymnosperms are always trees or shrubs with needle-shaped, or, at least, very narrow, leaves. Members of the Pine Family are typical of this class. See ANGIOSPERM. Gypsum, J7p’ sum, a calcium sulphate which occurs in great abundance in vari- ous parts of the earth. It is colorless and white; and forms in prismatic or tubular crystals. When it occurs in the form of transparent crystals it is termed selenite; when the formation is fibrous, with fibers extending parallel to one an- other and at right angles to the direc- tion of the vein, and the polished sur- face presents a pearly appearance, it is called satin spar. Alabaster is a form of translucent gypsum, granular like mar- ble and colored pink, gray or yellow. Rock gypsum, the ordinary gypsum of commerce, occurs in large beds of mas- sive rock, frequently mixed with clay, calcium carbonate and other impurities. It is often accompanied by rock salt. Gypsum when heated to a high tem- perature is reduced to powder. From this powder plaster of Paris is made. It takes its name from Paris, France, near which large quantities of gypsum are found. Aside from its use in the manu- facture of plaster, gypsum is employed for, cementing purposes, in the manu- facture of stucco work and imitation marble, porcelain and glass, as a filler for paper, a basis for paints and a fer- tilizer of soils. It is found in Canada, the United States, Austria, Germaay, France and Arabia. See ALABASTER. Gypsy, Jip’ sy, a nation of wandering people supposed to have come originally from India. Their language, customs and physical characteristics distinguish them from all other nationalities, al- though their nomadic, unsettled life has 1250 GYPSY MOTH brought them into contact with all races of people. They are a finely-built race, with clear olive skins, glossy black hair, bright black eyes, red lips and white, regular teeth. Probably less than 500,000 now remain. Gypsy Moth, a moth of the Tussock Moth Family, whose caterpillar is ex- <= —S=—> 8 = = a \ Ne GYPSY MOTH tremely destructive to trees. The male moth is bluish-yellow in color and very active; the female is white, with dark irregular spots, and is rarely on the wing. The eggs are laid in masses upon the limbs and trunks of trees, the sides of houses and on fences. These hatch into long, blue-gray caterpillars, which, when mature, are about three inches in length and are marked with two rows of black and two rows of red spots. In the illus- tration A represents the caterpillar, and B the moth. This moth migrates only during the caterpillar stage and is then carried on passing wagons, carriages and trains; thus it is not readily spread, but tends to infest thickly certain neighbor- hoods. The eggs may be destroyed by touching with a mixture of creosote oil, 50 per cent; carbolic acid, 20 per cent; turpentine, 20 per cent; coal tar, 10 per cent. The caterpillars may be killed with the usual poison sprays, which must be used in stronger solutions for the old than for the young. Strips of burlap tied about the tree are effective, for the caterpillars feed only by night, and by day will crawl beneath the burlap; from GYROSCOPE thence they may be easily collected and disposed of. See INSECTICIDE. Gyrfalcon, Jur' fo k’n, or Gerfalcon, a bird of the Hawk and Eagle Family, about two feet in length. The plumage is barred and streaked white and gray; the under parts are marked with slate; the tail is banded. The nest is made on high, rocky cliffs, is composed of sticks and is usually lined with seaweed and sea moss. The eggs are spotted with brown. The gyrfalcons are rapid flyers and tire- less hunters, fiercely pursuing sea birds on the coast or land birds in the fields. Gyroscope, Ji’ ro skope, an instru- ment used to illustrate the motions of rotating bodies. It consists of a wheel, accurately balanced, freely rotating and fixed upon an axis which in turn is mounted in a ring. One point of this ring has a small socket, into which the point of the supporting standard is in- serted. When the wheel is set in rapid motion by means of a string wound about the axis, the instrument balances. and moves in apparent defiance of the laws of gravitation. These motions are ry ao ee d y 4 ’ 4 / GYROSCOPE due to resistance to the change of direc- tion of the axis of the rotating wheel. The gyroscope is used as a balancing or steadying device in certain models of aeroplanes and in a monorail transporta- tion system. Children’s tops are one form of gyroscope. See Top. 1251 H The earliest of them, Haakon the Good, spent his youth in the court of King Athelstan of England, who brought him up according to Chris- tian beliefs. At his father’s death in 933, he wrested the throne from his brother, Eric, and unsuccessfully tried to introduce Christianity into Norway. Haa- kon IV, surnamed the Old, ruled from 1217 to 1263, and added Iceland and Greenland to the Norwegian realm. Haakon VI came to the throne while a child, in 1343, his father having been compelled to resign and serve as regent during his minority. See Haakon VII. Haakon VII (1872- \indsino: ‘of Norway and second son of King Fred- erick of Denmark. He entered the Nor- wegian navy in 1886 and became familiar with all kinds of vessels. In 1896 he married Princess Maud, the youngest daughter of Edward VII, and in 1905, when Norway and Sweden were sepa- rated and the Government of Norway offered him the crown, he accepted on condition that the choice be approved by the people. In November, 1905, the peo- ple expressed their approval by a large majority, and a few days later he became king. Habak’kuk, a book of the Old Testa- ment, the author of which, Habakkuk, flourished about 600 B. C., during the reign of Jehoiakim, King of Judah. Habakkuk was the eighth of the minor Hebrew prophets and belonged to the tribe of Levi. - The book of Habakkuk consists of two parts. The first part con- tains a dialogue between the prophet and God, in which is foretold the destruc- tion of the Babylonian Empire; the sec- ond part is a majestic song of prayer and praise, expressing the prophet’s con- fidence in the justice and mercy of Jeho- vah, AAKON, Haw’ kon, the name of several kings of Norway. Habeas Corpus, Ha’ be as Kor’pus, an ancient English writ addressed to him who has another in custody, and commanding him to produce the body of the person named at a certain timé and place. In other words, it is a “writ of right” brought into use for better secur- ing the liberty of British subjects. This act, passed in 1679, and next in impor- tance in England to the Magna Charta, provided that if any person were impris- oned by order of any court or of the king, he might demand a writ to bring him before the King’s Bench, which should determine whether the commit- ment was just. In the United States Constitution there is a provision that “the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of re- bellion or invasion the public safety de- mands it.” Congress may, by majority vote, suspend the writ and the same ac- tion may be taken by a state Legislature. Either the person in custody, or an- other acting for him, may demand the writ, which must be accompanied by an affidavit declaring that the detention is, in the opinion of the applicant, contrary to law, and also clearly setting forth all the facts as they have been established. Hab’it, an act of mind or body which is performed automatically, and, on some occasions at least, unconsciously. Habits are acquired, supposedly, because it is always easier for the nervous system to act as it has once acted than in an en- tirely different manner; and easiest for it to act as it has on many occasions, This is explained upon the theory that when a current of nerve force passes along a nerve tract it “blazes a trail” which similar currents may thus more easily follow; and that, the more fre- quently such a current travels a par- ticular route, the easier this route be- comes; unt, ultimately. one performs 1252 ae

at Ls . . “i » HAMILTON village that sprang up about it was in- corporated as a town in 1810. In 1854 Rossville, on the opposite side of the river, was annexed, and in 1857 a city charter was cranted. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 39,675. Hamilton, Sir William (1788-1856), a Scottish theologian and philosopher, born in Glasgow. After gaining dis- tinction as a student at Glasgow he went to Oxford, where he took first honors. In 1813 he was admitted to the Scottish bar. Turning his attention to literature and philosophy, he was appointed pro- fessor of history at the University of Edinburgh in 1821, and in 1836 became professor of logic and metaphysics in the same institution. In 1844 he was stricken with paralysis, but continued to do his work, with the aid of an assist- ant, until his death. Hamilton was an exponent of the “common sense” school of Scottish phi- losophy. He accepted a natural realism, maintaining that we are directly con- scious of external objects. In his doc- trine that the unconditioned cannot be known and that God is an object of faith, not of knowledge, he closely ap- proached the position of Kant. He was for many years a regular contributor to the Edinburgh Review. In 1852 he edited these contributions with. addi- tions, under the title Discussions in Phi- losophy and Literature, Education, and University Reform. After his death was published his Lectures on Meta- physics and Logic. Ham/ites, a race in northern Africa, the supposed descendants of Ham. The Copts, Somalis, Nubians, Berbers, Abys- sinians and Guanches belong to the class. The dialects are, the Libyan (known as Berber), the Cushitic, or Ethiopian, and the ancient Egyptian. The northern Hamites reached a compara- tively high state of civilization. The east- ern Hamites -are pastoral and nomadic tribes. Ham/lin, Hannibal (1809-1891), vice-president of the United States, born in Paris Hill, Me. He was admitted to the bar in 1833. He served in the State HAMPDEN Legislature in 1836-40 and in 1847; in the lower branch of Congress in 1843- 47; and in the Senate in 1848-56, the latter year being elected governor of Maine. He joined the Republican Party, which he had helped to organize. In 1860 he was elected vice-president of the United States on the ticket with Lincoln. He was again United States senator from 1869 to 1881, when he be- came minister to Spain, serving for two: years. Ham/’/mond, Ind., a city of Lake Co., 18 m. s.e. of Chicago’s business center, on the Grand Calumet River and on the Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Michi- gan Central, the Pennsylvania, the Wa- bash and other railroads. As far as its industries are concerned Hammond is a part of Chicago. It has> extensive slaughtering and packing houses, iron and steel works, a piano factory, wagon and carriage factories, printing plants, flour and starch mills, book binderies, glue. works, _brickyards, _ tanner- ies, foundries, chemical works, a_ nail plant and steel-spring works. Ham- mond was settled in 1868 and named in honor of Abram A. Hammond, acting governor of Indiana in 1860-61. It re- ceived a city charter in 1883. Popula- tion in 1920, U. S. Census, 36,004. Hampden, Ham'den, John (1594- 1643), an English stateman famous for his refusal to be taxed by royal prerog- ative. He was educated at Oxford and Aeshusat in -Parhament) ini l6Zie wile drew the attention of the whole nation upon him when he refused to pay the demand of Charles I for ship money. This was a tax originally limited to London and the maritime towns, but which in 1635 was extended to the in- land counties by Charles. In 1637 Hampden was prosecuted for nonpay- ment. Although seven of the twelve judges voted against him, the people had formed their own opinion in his favor. He sat in the Short and Long Parliaments, and was one of the five -members sought by Charles when he tried to intimidate Parliament. After the Civil War began he was placed in 1265 HAMPTON command of a Parliamentary regiment. He was wounded on Chalgrove Field in 1643 and died a few days later. Hamp’ton, Wade (1818-1902), an American soldier and statesman, born at Columbia, S. C. He graduated from the University of South Carolina, stud- ied law, and then gave his attention to his great estates. He served for a time in both branches of the South Carolina Legislature. When the Civil War broke out he enlisted in the Confederate army, raising and equipping the famous “Hampton’s Legion.” During the war Hampton rose to the rank of lieutenant- general, serving with Lee and Johnston, and becoming commander-in-chief of the Confederate cavalry. After the war he exerted his influence to secure loyalty te the Union. In 1876 he was elected governor of his state; in 1879 he entered the United States Senate, where he served with great ability until 1891; and two years later he was appointed United States commissioner of railroads. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Va. (18608). This is a coeducational school, established under the auspices of the American Missionary Association, by Gen. S. C. Armstrong, who became its first super- intendent. The General Assembly granted a charter in 1870, and five years later gave the school one-third of Vir- ginia’s share in the Federal land grant for the support of agricultural and mechanical instruction. Many Indian pupils, chiefly from the Sioux tribe, have also been enrolled here since 1878. The most eminent of its many gradu- ates is Booker T. Washington, the founder of Tuskegee Institute. The institution has 1160 acres in its farm, 27,000 volumes in its library, a faculty of 54 men and 58 women, about 1400 students, and assets amounting to over $3,470,300. See WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO; TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE. Hampton Roads, Battle of, a naval battle between the Federal ironclad war- ship Monitor and the Confederate iron- clad Merrimac, fought in Hampton HAMPTON ROADS CONFERENCE Roads March 9, 1862. On the previous day the Federal frigate Congress, the sloop Cumberland, the frigates Minne- sota and Roanoke, with the ship St. Lawrence, were attacked by the Confed- erate ironclad Virginia, but more popu- larly known as the Merrimac, whose armor rendered it invulnerable to the shot from the Federal ships. Within a short time after beginning the attack the Merrimac had sunk the Cumberland and disabled the Congress. During the night the Momitor, an ironclad ship constructed on an entirely different pattern, arrived, and on the morning of the ninth the contest began and lasted several hours. While to outward appearances neither ZN Norlalk. Gf Portsmouth ae Yardy ys NS HAMPTON ROADS ship was seriously injured, the Merri- mac withdrew, and some days later was sunk by the Confederate naval authori- ties. This was one of the most spectac- ular conflicts of the war, and also one of the most far-reaching in its influence, since it revolutionized naval construc- tion; all nations began to build ironclad warships. See Monitor, THE. Hampton Roads Conference, an in- formal conference held Feb. 3, 1865, with reference to the arrangement of a peace between the North and South. The meeting, which lasted four hours, took place on board the River Queen near Fortress Monroe, toward the close of the Civil War. President Lincoln and Secretary of State Seward repre: 1266 HANCOCK sented the United States Government, and Vice-President Stephens, Senator R. M. T. Hunter and Assistant Secre- tary of War John A. Campbell, the Con- federate States. The originator of this conference was Francis P. Blair. The representatives failed to agree on the most important points at issue and the conference failed of accomplishing its purpose. Han’cock, John (1737-1793), an American Revolutionary statesman, born in Braintree, Mass. He inherited a large fortune from his uncle. From 1766 to 1772 he serve@iin the Massachu- setts Legislature, where he advocated the cause of the colonists. After the Boston Massacre he was one of the com- missioners who demanded the with- drawal of the British troops from the city. He was elected to the Provincial Congress in 1774. It was his arrest and that of Samuel Adams that the British were attempting in their expedition to Concord in April (1775), which resulted im the Battle of Lexington. From 1775 to 1780 Hancock repre- sented Massachusetts in the Continental Congress, being president of that body from 1775 to 1777; and in that capacity he was the first signer of the Declara- tion of Independence. He served as major-general in the Revolutionary War, and was most liberal in the use of his fortune for the patriot cause. He was the first governor of Massachusetts as a state, which office he held from 1780 until his death, except in 1785-86, when he was again a member of the Continental Congress. Hancock was a man of pleasing address, excellent edu- cation, firmness of character and unques- tioned patriotism. ) Hancock, Mich., a city in Houghton Co., opposite Houghton on Lake Por- tage, and on the Duluth, South Shore & Atiantic and other railroads; and on a ship canal communicating with Lake Superior. Hancock is situated in the Lake Superior copper belt and has valu- able copper mines, smelting works, ma- chine shops, foundries, stamp mills, lumber mills and brickyards. Notable - HAND BALL features of the town are a Finnish col- lege and a public park. Settled in 1859, Hancock was incorporated in 1863 and ig governed under a charter of 1895. Population in 1920, 7,527. Hancock, Winfield Scott (1824-1886), an American soldier, born in Pennsyl- vania and educated at West Point. He participated in the war with Mexico, and became quartermaster of his regi- ment. In 1861 he was made brigadier- general of volunteers, with command of a brigade in the Army of the Potomac. He distinguished himself at Williams- burg, Antietam, Fredericksburg and Gettysburg, where he was_ severely wounded, and was prominent in the campaign of the Army of the Potomac of 1864-65. In 1866 he was appointed major-general in the regular army, and in 1867 superintended reconstruction in Louisiana and Texas. In 1880 he was Democratic candidate for presidency. Grant considered Hancock the most conspicuous general officer who did not hold a separate command in the Civil art Hand Ball, an Irish and an Amer- ican sport similar to the English game of Fives. It is played indoors by two or four persons on a well-floored court measuring about 60 by 24% ft., and en- closed, save at one end, by walls ap- proximately 35 ft. high., The floor should be of wood and the front wall of brick, faced with marble, while the side walls may be of cement. A service line is drawn parallel to the front wall through the middle of the court. A single rubber ball is used, which in Ire- land is called a red ace or a black ace, according to its color. The striker, standing in front of the service line, bounces the ball upon the floor and then with his hand endeavors to strike it against the front wall. If it strikes either side wall before hitting the front, or rebounds either within the service line or behind the court, he tries a sec- ond time.. If he again fails to put it into the player’s territory, that is, be- tween the 30- and the 60-foot lines, it is a hand-out and the players change 1267 HANDEL places. If the ball is properly served by the striker, and his opponent, the player, fails to strike it before it hits the floor or on the first bound, back against the front wall, the striker scores one point. The game is usually for 21 points, but rules vary somewhat. Hand ball is one of the favorite games of those who are training for contests re- quiring great endurance and agility. See Spalding Athletic Library. Han’del, George Frederick (1685- 1759), a German musician and com- poser, born at Halle. He early showed a love and appreciation for music. At the age of 12 Handel could play “he violin, oboe, organ and several other instruments, and through the interces- sion of his teacher, Zachau, he was sent to Berlin for further study. When but 17, he was appointed organist at the cathedral of his native town. After oc- cupying that post for one year, Handel played in the orchestra at Hamburg, where in 1705 his first opera, Almira, was performed with great success. This was followed after a few weeks by Nero. From 1706 to 1709 he studied in London and there produced the opera Roderigo. Upon his return to Germany he was appointed chapelmas- ter to the Elector of Hanover, but he returned to England, and while there produced many operas and _ oratorios and was director of the Haymarket Theater. Ill health put an end to his public activities, and in 1752 he became blind; but he continued to write and to play upon the piano, deriving much solace from both. Handel holds an ex- alted place among the greatest of the world’s composers and his music reaches to sublime heights. His greatest and best-known work is the oratorio The Messiah, Others of his orchestral com- positions are Israel in Egypt, Saul, Es- ther, Samson, Alexander's Feast, Deb- orah and L’ Allegro. Hangbird. See OrIoLe, subhead Bal- timore Oriole, Hangchow, Hahng’ chou’, a city of China, capital of the Province of Che- kiang, situated near the Tsientang ; aa i ae ae HANNIBAL River, about 100 m, s.w. of Shanghai. Canals connect it with Shanghai and Suchow, these waterways forming the highway of commerce through the rich- est district of China. Features of inter- est are the Nestorian Church, several Protestant and Catholic missions, col- leges, hospitals, temples, arches, monu- ments, bridges and baths. The city is recognized as the center of Chinese lit- erary and ecclesiastic life. In commerce it is important because of its silk manu- factures, tinsel paper, gold and silver work, fans and lacquered ware. In 1896 it was declared Open to foreign trade. Population, estimated at from 400,000 to 800,000. Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a structure of ancient Babylon; referred to as one of the wonders of the ancient world. It is supposed to have been a tower, or pyramid, constructed by Neb- uchadnezzar to satisfy the longings of his Median Queen for sights other than the dreary stretches of the Babylonian plain. In construction, it rose in ter- races which were planted in trees, shrubs and flowers; and a large force of men were employed in irrigating its gardens by water pumped from the Euphrates. Hankow, Hahn' kou’, a river port and commercial city of China, situated in the center of the country on the left bank of the Yangtse River. The native city has narrow, dirty and crooked streets, but the foreign settlement to the east has excellent streets and substan- tial buildings and is kept in spendid con- dition. Commercially, the city is of the first importance. The industrial estab- lishments comprise hemp, flour and cotton mills, iron and steel works, a mint and a tannery. The exports are tea, tobacco, silk, hemp, vegetable wax, medicines and coal. Population, includ- ing the surrounding concessions and de- partmental cities, about 1,500,000; of Hankow alone, approximately 870,000. Han/’nibal (about 247-about 183 B. C.), a Carthaginian general and states- man. He was devoted from youth to the overthrow of Rome. At 26 he was 1268 L HANNIBAL commander of the Carthaginian army in Spain, and gained the southern half as a province for Carthage, then took Saguntum, an ally of Rome, after a long siege. Hannibal’s services in Spain led to’ war between Rome and Carthage. During this war Hannibal led his army over the Alps, a feat supposed impossi- ble, and defeated the Romans in several engagements on their own ground. The most noted of these was the Battle of Canne (216 B. C.), in which the Ro- mans lost over 80,000 men. The success of Scipio in Africa caused Hannibal’s recall to defend Carthage, and he was defeated by Scipio near Zama in 202 B. C. After peace was restored he was made chief magistrate, in which position he proved himself as great a statesman as he was general. In time, Roman jealousy compelled him to retire, and soon afterwards he ended his life by taking poison. See Punic Wars. Hannibal, Mo., a city of Marion Co., about 20 m. s. of Quincy, Ill., and about 120 m. n.w. of St. Louis, on the Missis- sippi River and on the Wabash, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the St. Louis & Hannibal railroads. It has steamboat communication with other points along the river and carries on a considerable trade in agricultural produce, flour, lumber and tobacco. The principal manufactures are shoes, stoves, cigars, car wheels, lime, cement, furni- ture, and foundry and machine-shop products. The residential part of Hanni- bal is built upon elevated ground above the river and commands fine views. There is a bridge across the river connecting with East Hannibal, Ill. The important buildings include a United States Gov- ernment Building, municipal buildings, a high school building, grade school buildings, a public library and several churches. There are also two hospitals and a public park. Mark Twain spent his boyhood at Hannibal, which was the scene of parts of his Tom Sawyer, Huckleberry Finn and Life on the Miss- issippi. Mark Twain Cave is near the town. Hannibal was platted in 1819 and HANSEATIC LEAGUE chartered as a city in 1839. Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 10,392. Han/over, a province of northwest Prussia, formerly a kingdom of Ger- many. It is bounded on the n. by the . North Sea, on the e. by Saxony and Brunswick, on the s. by Hesse-Nassau and Westphalia and on the w. by Hol- land. It includes the old Brunswick- Luneburg possessions, and also Hilde- sheim, East Friesland, Osnabrtick, Got- tingen and other districts. In the region of the Harz Mountains are valuable mineral deposits and dense woods, and the valleys are fertile. The coast, like that of Holland, is low and frequently subject to overflow. The manufactures include cotton and woolen textiles, leather, machinery, wagons, paper, chemicals, glassware, etc. The early history of Hanover is identical with that of Brunswick. In 1692 it became an electorate; in 1714 George Louis, Elec- tor of Hanover, became King of Eng- land (as George I), and as a result of this, Hanover grew rapidly in impor- tance. A century later it was established as a kingdom by the Congress of Vien- na. It was annexed to Prussia by the Peace of Prague in 1866. Population, about 2,760,000. Hanover, a city of Prussia, the cap- ital of the Prussian Province of Han- overt. The city is divided into the old and new towns, and in the newer part are many handsome edifices, including | the new municipal buildings. The Royal Palace, the old Marktkirche, the old Gothic Rathaus and the Royal Theater are other prominent buildings. The manufactures are important. Han- over was originally a fishing village, and in 1241 it received a municipal charter, two centuries later joining the Hansea- tic League. Since 1866, when the King- dom of Hanover was annexed to Prus- sia, it has been the capital of the Prov- ince of Hanover. Population, about 303,000. Hanseatic, Han’se at’ ik, League, or The Hansa, a union established in the 13th century by various cities of northern Germany for the purpose of protecting 1269 HAPSBURG, HOUSE OF their trade. Between 1241 and 1255 Lubeck and Hamburg entered into a compact whereby the control of the Bal- tic and North seas was put into the hands of the merchants of those cities. In 1259 Lubeck, Rostock and Wismar formed an alliance against pirates and land robbers, and in 1284-85 Lubeck, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund and Greifs- wald, by waging war, secured from Eric of Denmark certain privileges. Vari- ous other groups of allied cities found it advisable to join the Lubeck union, which in 1343 was officially named The Hansa. The league at one period in- cluded every important city between Netherlands and Livonia, and for years it was the mistress of the Baltic and the German Ocean. Its services to trade, agriculture and the industrial arts were notable, but after the 15th century its power rapidly declined. Hapsburg, House of, the most cele- brated dynastic house in the history of Europe. For two centuries they were scarcely noticeable among the confused lists of petty German chieftains. In 1273, Rudolph I was elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. From that date until the close of the World War they played a leading part in the history of Europe. With the exception of the century following 1332, they furnished the emperors of the Roman empire until that empire ceased to exist in 1740. From the time of Rudolph IJ, the Hapsburg furnished the rulers of Austria until the downfall of that empire in 1918. By reason of a succession of fortunate mar- riages the Hapsburg exercised rule over Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain; and a large part of what is now the United States, Mexico, Central America, the Spanish states of South America, the West India Islands, and the Philippines. The ill-fated Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico was a Hapsburg. Harbin, Har been’, or Kharbin, a town of Manchuria, situated on the right bank of the Sungari River. The town was founded in 1896 as a center for the surveys of the Chinese Eastern Railway Company, and soon became the junction HARBOR of the Manchurian main line and the branch line extending south to Port Ar- thur. During the Russo-Japanese War it was an important Russian military station. Population, estimated at 20,000. Harbor, an outlet on the shore of a sea or lake forming a roadstead, or port, for ships, being either a natural con- formation for protecting them against wind and waves or having an artificial system of walls or breakwaters. A har- bor includes all the structures and ap- purtenances to facilitate the safe anchor- age, loading, unloading and repairs of vessels, such as quays, docks, break- waters, jetties, piers and wharves. The value of a harbor depends largely upon the depth of its water, its freedom from breakers and its natural protection against sea storms. Harbors are main- tained usually by national governments, and liberal appropriations are made to dredge and otherwise improve them in order to make a safe entrance for ships. The United States spends nearly $20,- 000,000 annually in keeping in condition its various harbors, not including the expenses of quarantine stations or the removal of wrecks, Harsor CoNnstTRUCTION. The open- coast harbor, consisting of a quay wall or bulkhead wall open to the sea, is the simplest form, but it serves only to tie up ships alongside the shore, to dis- charge and receive cargoes, and affords no protection from winds, tides or cur- rents. A straight pier, extending out from the shore, affords no shelter from waves coming inshore, but in case of winds and waves alongshore, it gives some protection on the lee side. When the pier is curved with its convex side to the sea, there is better protection, but it is best to build two curved piers, converging toward each other, so as to include a harbor basin. A breakwater wall built offshore to break the force of the waves is sometimes employed, and a harbor may contain a combination of all these structures. Jetties are also em- ployed for protecting harbors, as well as to maintain their depth (See Jerry). The harbor of New York is so enclosed 1270 29 1es. “Peace hath her victor YN ‘s. Z (2) = 2. eS 2 a4