a at : : 3) : : reyes fe Sette : sch 4 ‘ ? : has ; satecpentiriberas i sseeeieee = = eee 3 pratt THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 918. | W9S5nz Cop-2 Return this book on or before the de | Latest Date stamped below. A ’ charge is made on all overdue books. U. of I. Library MAY 07 |1995 M32 . | | , that'd 7 “Si hs - me oll, THE NEW BRAZIL ITS RESOURCES “AND ATTRACTIONS Eee dar ox - ds > 47 ‘pe Gopryuight 907, by GRarue Lond ; : i = = i is) > 1 hy) i) ‘ ~ an " ~~} + : > - . = Ned i 7 oe . — we “9 Py ~ ey Fi tye £ v4 am VARIG + hi i ras a ? ay art ve 7 OE Be hoe a " ao dye ee = AND om Ys tae PgSA heh) ee ee 1 ee ae Pees ae! aaa . ~™/;, ; - ~ - ; : - : = i ae : Z . se) — - s e 4 | ae a } { an; o 4 7 yw ices ee ie Dr. AFFONSO AUGUSTO MOREIRA PENNA ek Ie d; a ld _ PRESIDENT se ii Berane Mw (2a An Sees, eae ‘ ‘ SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED fae NEW BRAZIL ITS RESOURCES AND ATTRACTIONS HISTOR CAD ESE RTE Ea AND SUNDUS TRIAL BY MARIE ROBINSON WRIGHT MEMBER OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BRAZIL, HISTORICAL AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTE OF SAO PAULO, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF LA PAZ AUTHOR OF HGhORESOUENMEXICO:” HE REPUBLIC.OER CHILE. BOLIVIA; THE HISTORY OF PERU, ETC. THE LIBRARY OF THE APR 20 1925 UNIVERSITY 8F ILLINOIS PHILADELPHIA : PRINTED ANDY PUBLISHED BY GEORGE BARRIE & SONS LONDON: C. D. CAZENOVE & SON, 26 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W. C. PARIS: 19 RUE SCRIBE COPYRIGHT, 1907, BY GEORGE BARRIE & SONS ~ 4 TOSHISsEXCELLENGY Dr. Affonso Auqusto fHMoreira Penna PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. QF BRAZIL WHOSE ADMINISTRATION MARKS AN EPOCH OF EXTRAORDINARY PROGRESS IN THE ANNALS OF HIS COUNTRY fs Dedicated THIS BOOK DESCRIPTIVE OF A NATION THAT HAS GROWN GREAT AND PROSPEROUS THROUGH PEACEFUL DEVELOPMENT 975298 CONEENUS BEDICA LONGER taketh ia omen hs Ra, Bed 5 EIST OGMLLUSTRATIONS yg acta ences as & 9 INTRODUCTION Mate. St Ba NARA ee ns CHAPTER | EARLY HISTORY AND TRADITION. ...... . pe Si7. CHAPTER II NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 2505) 2 45 44024 - 30 CHAPTER III THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE AND THE GENESIS OF ANGQEY Jeo es ABR EVONG. 6 oc 6 eA oe oo ae Nelo coe one CHAPTER IV THE FIRST DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC ........ 79 CHAPTER V THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS AND EARLY STATESMEN . . 95 GHAPTERSV | THE PRESIDENT’S: CABINETORP ara Gi =e = & we 115 CHAPTER VII THE NE W-REDERAL CAPITA) 2 kat ne 129 CHAPTER VIII THE SUBURBS OF RIO AND THE BOTANICAL GARDEN 151 GHAPTERSIX MUSIC, ART; AND LITERATURE = = - 3 3 es 2 . 165 PAGE CHAPTER X TWRVE SHANE OR IOs oe oe Se oe Oe eo IRSY/ CHAPTER XI SAO@OBRA WEO icprce acti Bee Can et toe R na) Bocas ie 203 CHAPTER XII SCHOOLS AND) CHARITIES OF SAO PAULO => = =: 221 CHAPTER XIII AGRICULTURE AND COLONIZATION IN SAO PAULO . 235 GHAPTER XIV. COPBEES (amass et rece fe Fett ie cater caeretosd Poach gle 253 CHAPTER XV RAILWAY TRAVEL IN SAO PAULO ....- . eee 207 CHAPTER XVI MINAS GE RAB Scamocmeae (Mtge ne. Sere, Teo tthe, GY oe 270 CHAPTER XVII THEDE, WINNIE S OIE TIQUNS (QUIRES). GG 6 Go a a doe so 297 CHAPTER XVIII PARANA Tuer NaAe A nun Ges oe By ae ich Hew 3 311 GCHAPTER XIX THES VERBAWMATET OF PARANA) 2.6 © mm cee & 327 GHAPTER EX SVAINDUN YORMNSUMRIININ 5. 5 co @ ceo bo 6 Soboo uw ae 337 8 PAGE CHAPTER: XXxI RIOLGRANDESDOTSUIEM Sy 2 ios ie niacin eee 349 CHAPTER XXII THE NATIONAL REVENUE, COMMERCE, AND TRANS- PORTAT ION Seen eae, oes er ee eee ee, 365 CHAPTER excl AMAZONAS meres ols Repu cee cums: wen hu acre) rene ts eee 379 CHAPTER XXIV THE ACRE TERRITORY AND THE RUBBER INDUSTRY 307 CHAPTER XXV PARAS cas. Lhe, cae eee oe oe Pe ee 1 Se 400 NIVARYNMIGUNOl 1s. 5 dea Deo G Seo wae o Bb aw 8 6 423 CHAPTER XXVII MATTO GROSSO, GOYAZ, AND PIAUHY . . ee 20) CHAPTER XXVIII CEARA =) = CONTENTS CHAPTER XXIX RIOEGRAND 2S ORIN © Ry isgeemee eae ee en et CHAPTER XXX PARA YBAVAND §SERGIP Eee eo: n ttle teint aanranrc CHAPTER XXX] PERNAMBUCO eal 2 acts Mme tne cro. 2, Beit unr mete CHAPTER XXXII ABAGO AS Bop age < tt as ee eo a ee ee CHAPTER XXXII BAHIA? fo cs eso cece EO aay een AM ek Oey a mr eC CHAPTER XXXV OLD ICHURGHES FANDESHRINES memes li: itt nne ie [LP ENVOI> = Be ae ee en ere ee ee PAGE “ Be) eee AGOINS DR. AFFONSO AUGUSTO MOREIRA PENNA, PRESI- DENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL Fronts. MONUMENT OF PEDRO ALVARES CABRAL . DOM JOAO VI., KING OF PORTUGAL, BRAZIL, AND ALGARVES . DOM PEDRO lI., EMPEROR OF BRAZIL FOUNDATION STONE OF RIO DE JANEIRO ENTRANCE TO THE HARBOR OF RIO. DOM PEDRO II., EMPEROR OF BRAZIL . PAGE RUSTIC BRIDGE INS TRE SGARDENS OFS hie PRESI- u DENT’S PALACE, RIO. CATTETE PALACE, RESIDENCE OF THE PRESIDENT . GRAND SALON, CATTETE PALACE, RIO . RECEPTION ROOM IN CATTETE PALACE IN THE GARDENS OF CATTETE PALACE STATUE OF DOM PEDRO I. PROCLAMATION OF THE INDEPENDENCE « OF > BRAZIL STATUE OF THE VISCOUNT DE RIO-BRANCO . . YPIRANGA MONUMENT, SAO PAULO .. . INTERIOR VIEW OF YPIRANGA . . CORRIDOR OF YPIRANGA . : NATIONAL MUSEUM, SAO CHRISTOVAO, RIO : THE CROWN-PRINCESS ISABEL . VISCOUNT DE RIO-BRANCO DR. ANTONIO DA SILVA PRADO DR. JOAO ALFREDO CORREA DE OLIVEIRA . OLD CARIOCA AQUEDUCT, RIO .- OLD CARIOCA eee te SEEN FROM BELOW . THE GAVEA THE ISLAND OF PAQUETA, HOME OF ‘ANDRADA BRITISH PLENIPOTENTIARY DELIVERING HIS SOVER- EIGN’S RECOGNITION OF THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL PALACE OF AGRICULTURE, RIO DE JANEIRO . MONUMENT OF THE DUKE DE CAXIAS . THE STOCK EXCHANGE, RIO DE JANEIRO THE POST OFFICE, RIO DE JANEIRO . MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL, RIO DE JANEIRO - RUA DO OUVIDOR, RIO DE JANEIRO .- . THE INSANE ASYLUM, RIO DE JANEIRO .- A GLIMPSE OF THE OLD CARIOCA SQUARE VISTA IN THE PARK, RIO DE JANEIRO GENERAL VIEW OF RIO DE JANEIRO . STATUE OF GENERAL OSORIO NATIONAL MINT, RIO DE JANEIRO . . : MARSHAL FONSECA, FIRST PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL ; MARSHAL PEIXOTO, SECOND PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL PRACA DA REPUBLICA, RIO DE JANEIRO. . MILITARY SCHOOL, RIO DE JANEIRO . IN THE PASSEIO PUBLICO, RIO DE JANEIRO COAT-OF-ARMS, BRAZIL : NATIONAL TREASURY, RIO DE JANEIRO 3% PRUDENTE MORAES, FIRST CIVIL PRESIDENT . DR. DR. CAMPOS-SALLES, PRESIDENT, 1898-1902 . DR. RODRIGUES ALVES, PRESIDENT, ey DR. PECANHA, VICE-PRESIDENT DR. NABUCO, AMBASSADOR TO THE UNITED STATES DR. RUY BARBOSA . DR. QUINTINO BOCAYUVA THE SUPREME COURT, RIO DE JANEIRO .- DR. LAURO MULLER ADMIRAL MAURITY, COMMANDER OF WHE SFEEET DR. FRANCISCO ROSA E SILVA . PALMS IN GARDEN OF ITAMARATY PALACE, RIO. SMALL RECEPTION ROOM, ITAMARATY PALACE YELLOW SALON OF ITAMARATY PALACE .« sat GARDEN OF ITAMARATY PALACE . BARON DE RIO-BRANCO, FOREIGN MINISTER - GREEN AND GOLD SALON, ITAMARATY PALACE ITAMARATY PALACE, THE FOREIGN OFFICE CORRIDOR LEADING TO LIBRARY, ITAMARATY PALACE DR. LYRA, MINISTER OF JUSTICE AND INTERIOR . FACADE OF THE LIBRARY, ITAMARATY PALACE DR. CAMPISTA, FINANCE MINISTER - DR. ALMEIDA, MINISTER OF COMMERCE . INTERIOR OF THE LIBRARY, ITAMARATY PALACE . MARSHAL FONSECA, MINISTER OF WAR ADMIRAL ALENCAR, MINISTER OF MARINE .- THE ROSE SALON, ITAMARATY PALACE . THE AVENIDA BEIRA-MAR, RIO . DR. FRANCISCO PEREIRA PASSOS MONROE PALACE, RIO . ARRIVAL IN RIO OF SECRETARY ROOT . 10 LIST OF LLCS TRATIONS BARON DE RIO-BRANCO, OPENING THE THIRD PAN- AMERICAN CONGRESS AT RIO, JUNE 27, 1906 - AVENIDA BEIRA-MAR FROM THE PRAIA DA LAPA . THE NEW AVENIDA CENTRAL, RIO DE JANEIRO AVENIDA CENTRAL, LOOKING TOWARD BEIRA-MAR . OBELISK OF THE AVENIDA CENTRAL . CORCOVADO, SEEN FROM AVENIDA BEIRA- MAR RUA URUGUAYANA, RIO DE JANEIRO - PRAIA DA GLORIA, SHOWING RIO-BRANCO STATUE . MUNICIPAL THEATRE, RIO ono) yo) Four GENERAL AGUIAR, PREFECT OF RIO er, (Orr : AVENIDA OF PALMS ON THE CANAL DO MANGUE DR. OSWALDO CRUZ. - CANAL DO MANGUE .. .« POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL .- PRACA DA GLORIA . < CORCOVADO, FROM SYLVESTRE . DR. RODRIGUES, DIRECTOR OF BOTANICAL GARDEN THE SUMMIT OF CORCOVADO . . SCENE EN ROUTE TO CORCOVADO GRAND CASCADE OF TIJUCA. . . A PATHWAY IN SYLVESTRE. . TIIUCA FOREST eo HOTEL INTERNACIONAL AT ‘SANTA THERESA . VISTARAT SS VEVESTRE STREET LEADING TO THE BOTANICAL GARDEN . SCENE IN THE BOTANICAL GARDEN THE BAMBOOS, BOTANICAL GARDEN . ‘*PEACE AND CONCORD.” ALLEGORICAL PAINTING BY PEDRO AMERICO . STATUE OF JOSE BONIFACIO DE ANDRADA THE BRAZILIAN ACADEMY OF LETTERS GONCALVES DIAZ THE OLD NATIONAL LIBRARY THE NEW NATIONAL LIBRARY BERNARDELLI MODELLING BUST OF DR. PASSOS . PEDRO AMERICO. . ‘“HONOR AND COUNTRY.” PEDRO WEINGARTNER .- Boe avec ON boltoh or ag bac ““THE COUNTRY BALL.’? BY PEDRO WEINGARTNER THE BERNARDELLI BROTHERS .. . ““MANIOC.”’? BY MODESTO BROCOS. . “DURING THE REST.” BY FERRAZ D’ ALMEIDA CARLOS GOMES : DR. MACHADO DE ASSIS . OFFICE OF ‘‘JORNAL DO COMMERCIO,’ u RIO. DR. JOSE CARLOS RODRIGUES, EDITOR-IN-CHIEF OF THE ““JORNAL DO COMMERCIO”’. . DR. OLAVO BILAC OFFICE OF THE NEWSPAPER ae PAIZ, ee RIO . DR. RODRIGO OCTAVIO STATUE OF JOSE DE ALENCAR . PETROPOLIS . . ae DR. BACKER, PRESIDENT ¢ OF THE STATE OF RIO : ROUTE TO PETROPOLIS Secrets 2). Sis SUMMER PALACE OF DOM PEDRO Ney “PETROPOLIS : THE AMERICAN EMBASSY, PETROPOLIS . A MOUNTAIN DRIVEWAY IN PETROPOLIS . THE PUBLIC LIBRARY, PETROPOLIS ~ RIVER SCENE IN PETROPOLIS GERMAN LEGATION, PETROPOLIS . PRAIA DE ICARAHY, NICTHEROY . ANCHIETA COLLEGE, NOVA FRIBURGO .- BY PEDRO AMERICO . PAGE 132 133 134 135 36 137 138 139 140 I4I 142 143 145 147 148 150 I5I 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 164 165 167 168 169 170 17I 172 72) 173 174 175 175 176 176 Hoey 178 180 181 182 183 184 186 187 188 189 190 IQI 192 193 194 195 196 LYCEUM AND NORMAL SCHOOL, CAMPOS . WATERFALL AT THEREZOPOLIS . THREE-RAIL TRACK ON LEOPOLDINA RAILROAD SACCO DE SAO FRANCISCO, SUBURB OF NICTHEROY DR. FERREIRA, SECRETARY OF Oe oo STATE OF RIO . : A MILITARY REVIEW, SAO PAULO DR. TIBIRICA, PRESIDENT OF SAO PAULO . PALACE OF AGRICULTURE AND STATE TREASURY .- DR. BOTELHO, SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE RUA DIREITA, SAO PAULO : DR. ALBUQUERQUE LINS, SECRETARY. OF FINANCE . DR. WASHINGTON LUIZ, SECRETARY OF JUSTICE .- AVENIDA TIRADENTES, SAO PAULO . MUNICIPAL THEATRE, SAO PAULO . PALACETE ELIAS CHAVES, SAO PAULO . AVENIDA PAULISTA, SAO PAULO . RUA SAO BENTO, SAO PAULO MODERN OFFICE BUILDING, SAO PAULO . SCENE IN THE JARDIM DA LUZ, SAO PAULO . THE VACCINE INSTITUTE, SAO PAULO GATEWAY TO THE QUARTEL . RESIDENCE OF COUNT ALVARES PENTEADO . SANTA CECILIA, A SUBURB OF SAO PAULO . PARK OF THE EPISCOPAL SEMINARY . DR GODOY> SECRETARY, OFs THESINTERIOR EPISCOPAL SEMINARY NORMAL SCHOOL KINDERGARTEN, SAO PAULO . PRUDENTE MORAES SCHOOL . SEE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, SAO PAULO . . MODEL SCHOOL OF BRAZ . COLLEGE OF LAW, SAO PAULO MORAES BARROS SCHOOL . MACKENZIE COLLEGE ons MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL, SAO PAULO oe CORRIDOR OF MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL . INSANE ASYLUM AT JUQUERY MILITARY HOSPITAL, SAO PAULO . SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, AT PIRACICABA PIRACICABA CASCADE, SAO PAULO . . CLASS AT WORK, SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE . ; A PINEAPPLE PLANTATION, STATE OF SAO PAULO . MANGO ORCHARD AT RIBEIRAO PRETO GRAPE CULTURE, CAMPINAS . RICE GROWING ON A SAO PAULO PLANTATION WATERFALL NEAR BROTAS. . POWDERING MANGO TREES . CUTTING SUGAR CANE, SAO PAULO WATERMELONS READY FOR SHIPMENT . GLIMPSE OF A SAO PAULO FOREST OFFICE OF COLONIZATION . . HOTEL FOR IMMIGRANTS, SAO PAULO . A CHEERFUL GROUP OF IMMIGRANTS . COLONIST’S HOUSE, STATE OF SAO PAULO . FIRST GLIMPSE OF THEIR ADOPTED LAND . HARVESTING HE COFFEE CROP . A COFFEE TREE AT HARVEST TIME FOREIGN VISITORS PICKING COFFEE . A TYPICAL COFFEE FAZENDA . FAMILIAR SCENE ON A COFFEE PLANTATION . DRYING COFFEE - A STREET IN CAMPINAS ES eOmelLUSTRATIONS WEIGHING COFFEE FOR SHIPMENT AT SANTOS LOADING COFFEE AT SANTOS SENHOR DOM FRANCISCO SCHMIDT . AN AVENUE OF COFFEE TREES : THE SAO PAULO RAILWAY STATION “puz” VIEW OF THE CITY AND HARBOR OF SANTOS . VIADUCT BETWEEN SAO PAULO AND SANTOS CABLE ROAD BETWEEN SAO PAULO AND SANTOS . VIEW ON THE SAO PAULO RAILWAY . LIGHT AND POWER STATION, PARNAHYBA . RAILWAY AT SANTOS, SHOWING THE DOCKS . MAYRINK, SHOWING RAILWAY WORKMEN’S HOMES . VIEW ON THE SOROCABANA LINE . . SOROCABANA STATION OF BARRA FUNDA SCENE ON THE RIVER TIETE - THE GOVERNMENT PALACE AT BELLO HORIZONTE . DR. JOAO PINHEIRO DA SILVA, PRESIDENT OF MINAS DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR, STATE OF MINAS GERAES STREET SCENE IN BELLO HORIZONTE =e DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BELLO HORIZONTE GOLEEGE TOR. LAW = DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE . BIRTHPLACE OF PRESIDENT AFFONSO PENNA CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES, BELLO HORIZONTE . WATERFALL IN PARK, BELLO HORIZONTE OURO PRETO, FORMER CAPITAL OF MINAS GERAFS JUIZ DE FORA, MINAS GERAES . NATIONAL CERAMIC FACTORY, MINAS GERAES . THE PARK OF CAXAMBU . F MINERAL SPRING ‘“‘ISABEL PRINCEZA” . MINERAL SPRING ‘‘ DUQUE DE SAXE”’ THE POST OFFICE, BELLO HORIZONTE . QUARRY AT MORRO VELHO A DIAMOND MINER’S HUT . DIAMANTINA, MINAS GERAES. . F CHARITY HOSPITAL OF DIAMANTINA . A STREET SCENE IN DIAMANTINA CONDUIT FOR DIAMOND MINING PURPOSES . WASHING DIAMONDS . SCENE NEAR MORRO VELHO . CASCADE IN THE VICINITY OF BELLO HORIZONTE . : ARASSUAHY MINING DISTRICT . . MINAS NOVAS MINING DISTRICT, MINAS GERAES . MINAS NOVAS, MINAS GERAES . COLLEGE OF OUR LADY OF SORROWS, DIAMANTINA THE FALLS OF IGUASSU THE GYMNASIUM, CURYTIBA . RUA QUINZE DE NOVEMBRO . THE GOVERNMENT PALACE PROVIDENCE COLLEGE .- PRACA GENERAL OSORIO THE HOUSE OF CONGRESS . A PUBLIC GARDEN . ; THE CATHEDRAL, CURYTIBA é VIADUCT ON THE PARANA RAILWAY . VIEW ALONG THE PARANA RAILWAY. . . HE POST OFFICE, CURYTIBA THE AMERICAN CHURCH . VINEYARD OF DR. MOURA, NEAR CURYTIBA . STREET SCENE IN PARANAGUA . THE MUNICIPAL CHAMBER. .- RUA GENERAL CARNEIRO RAILROAD BRIDGE OF CASTRO . PONTA GROSSA, PARANA WATERFALL NEAR CURYTIBA, PARANA . RIVER BOAT LOADED WITH YERBA MATE INDIANS CARRYING YERBA MATE TO THE MILL YERBA MATE TREES ~ CATARACT ‘‘ VISCONDE DE RIO- BRANCO, ae PARANA . MAMMOTH ROCKS AT VILLA VELHA, PARANA TRANSPORTING YERBA MATE FOR SHIPMENT MATE BLOSSOMS : CUYAS, MATE DRINKING VESSELS PLANT THAT SUPPLIES HIS FAVORITE BEVERAGE . BRIDGE OVER THE IGUASSU RIVER RAILWAY STATION AT PONTA GROSSA . THE PINES OF PARANA . FLORIANOPOLIS, CAPITAL OF SANTA ¢ CATHARINA .- STAIRWAY, GOVERNMENT PALACE, FLORIANOPOLIS GOVERNMENT PALACE, FLORIANOPOLIS PRINCIPAL PARK OF FLORIANOPOLIS IX MUI OF IMsls, (NAG Vl: THE MARKET PLACE . BOCAYUVA AVENUE . THE MUNICIPAL CHAMBER. . THE CATHEDRAL . . FLORIANOPOLIS FROM THE BAY .- THE STATE TREASURY . . THE CUSTOM HOUSE . LAKE AT BLUMENAU, SANTA CATHARINA . PICTURESQUE CASCADE IN SANTA CATHARINA . DR. BLUMENAU STREET, BLUMENAU . PRACA GENERAL DEODORO, PORTO ALEGRE . CHURCH IN PORTO ALEGRE, RIO GRANDE DO SUL . GENERAL VIEW OF PORTO ALEGRE, THE CAPITAL . INTERIOR OF GOVERNMENT PALACE, PORTO ALEGRE DOCKS AT PORTO ALEGRE . MUNICIPAL THEATRE, PORTO ALEGRE . - - .- A STREET SCENE IN THE CAPITAL . . THE MUNICIPAL CHAMBER . 5 PORTUGUESE HOSPITAL AND CHURCH . LYCEUM AND PUBLIC LIBRARY RUA MARECHAL PEIXOTO THE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING A CENTRAL THOROUGHFARE, PELOTAS . ENTRANCE TO THE PARK, PELOTAS QUARTEL, CITY OF RIO GRANDE DO SUL . THE LANDING PLACE . Cas bes A VIEW OF THE PUBLIC GARDEN MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL .- TAMANDARE PARK . LIGHTHOUSE OF ITAPOAN, NEAR PORTO ALEGRE . TABATINGA, MILITARY POST OBSERVATION ENGINE .- HALL OF ROYAL MAIL STEAMER “ ARAGUAYA” ROYAL. MAIL STEAMER ‘‘ ARAGUAYA”’ RIO STATION, CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL BOA VISTA BRIDGE . OFFICES OF LLOYD BRAZILEIRO STEAMSHIP CO., RIO SALON OF ROYAL MAIL STEAMER “ ARAGUAYA” . TRANSPORTATION ON THE RIO NEGRO . THE JANGADA, PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION . AMAZONAS THEATRE, MANAOS . STATUE OF TENREIRO ARANHA . COLONEL NERY, GOVERNOR OF AMAZONAS . PALACE OF JUSTICE, MANAOS 12 LISTROP ILLUS ERATIONS PAGE | PAGE VESTIBULE OF THE PALACE OF JUSTICE, MANAOS . 382 | RAILROAD BRIDGE OF ACARAHU, CEARA....- . - 438 PALAGE OFATHESG OVERNOR arate aetna aera eS RUA COMMERCIO, NATAL ... .- Serb nee AO) PSININWSINIGUNRE A ooo Bo oh mG OH 0 a 6 5 5 6 eo oo BheMh RUA SENADOR JOSE BONIFACIO, NATAL es nee 440 RUASMUNIGIP AT an-secerce son) esta iyi Oana ean mee Mr . 385 CONVENT OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, VILLA THE | CATHEDRA@aysaee (hy ce ohne Sam SO) DE “ESTREMOZoe cea eae ee ee ne AT THESGYMNASIOUM rete FHo eo oe oo om Shy QUARTEL, NATAL... .-.- AA AVENIDA EDUARDO RIBEIRO . So 8 eb wo oo 5 o Bhefel INTERIOR OF CARMO CHURCH, ‘PARAHYBA . eee AAS SYLVERIOUNERWEs CHO © lic aa aicent itn ee mene OO) PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR, ARACAJU...... . 444 AMAZON NAVIGATION MONUMENT ......-.- +. - 390 GATHEDRAUS ARAGALW ica ane mne ee- 5 PUBLIC ARCHIVES AND LIBRARY... .- . Pia a ot BO COTTON UMILLS, SERGIPE ema. 446 MONUMENT OF BARON SANTA ANNA NERY mes 302 DR. SIGISMUNDO ANTONIO GONCALVES, GOVERNOR BENJAMIN CONSTANT INSTITUTE. ----..- - - 393 OF PERNAMBUCO) 2] = =: Labs estat ere AAG! LANDING FLOAT, MANAOS HARBOR ...... =. . 304 PUBLIC SQUARE, SETE DE SETEMBRO =) eRe 449 MILITARY QUARTEL, MANAOS .. . . 3905 AN IMPORTANT BUSINESS STREET IN PERNAMBUCO 450 DR. MANOEL F. SA ANTUNES, SECRETARY OF STATE, RAMOS) QUAYS )=3 0 =e J fh aso fora (ZI AMAZONAS = = =) Ga 390 SANTA ISABEL BRIDGE, PERNAMBUCO eee na e452 PATIO OF THE AFFONSO PENNA INSTITUTE, MANAOS 306 HALL OF CONGRESS, PERNAMBUCO .......- - 454 HUT OFFA SERINGUEIROPAGRESteicaiais iii mere 307, RUA COMMERCIO, MACEIO... . . Big on Doe eo IS MANAOS, FROM CONSTANTINOPOLIS . . .- .- es OO PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR, MACEIO Sooo ba s AGS STEAM LAUNCHES IN THE ALTO PURUS, ACRE . 5 9 ASS) GENERAL VIEWSOFRMMAGEIO ming stitute tna mnmnr a 5 7 RUBBER GATHERERS IN THE AMAZON COUNTRY. . 4o1 BUSINESS#STREED, MACE] Oe en. ee ee eS CUTTING AND CLASSIFYING RUBBER, MANAOS. . . 403 BAHIA. VIEW FROM THE UPPER CITY . Ate Wok oe c ~ah 2hS0) THE-SAOWIGCENDE Seta Be oo a “lel MONUMENT DOIS DE JULHO... .. =. Gee IEAOD TRANSPORTING RUBBER FROM THE ACRE eer AO STREET SCENE VIN THESURPERSGCIRY,, BAHIA. s 6 co tee PRACA VISCONDE DE RIO-BRANCO, PARA ... - - 408 GENERATE VIEW) OPPS AHIA] i mten init itnn ans maar mame OS DR. AUGUSTO MONTENEGRO, GOVERNOR OF PARA. 409 EACULTY: ORE MEDICINEs BA EITA aie mle i met pant- iene e407 BOULEVARD DA REPUBLICA, PARA... .. ... = 4Io SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS, BAHIA... . . 470 ' PROGESSION, EEAST OF ONAZAREWE (cient w n-ne INE COLONEL HENRIQUE DA SILVA COUTINHO, PRESI- GOVERNMENT PALACE, PARA <= 2 3 3 2) = ta ANZ DENT OF ESPIRITO SANTO: == - . 471 ANolSy MSs, (DY eyWA oun Moe @ 6 o We Go odd 4c ap, A VICTORIA, CAPITAL OF THE STATE OF ESPIRITO SANTO 472 EA WROSSODRE SINS TRU Eerie gtemesan= citer ne met 10 PICTURESQUE APPROACH OF VICTORIA .... - . 473 BITTENGOURTIINSTIDUTE Sy co 415 A LAKE SCENE: NEAR VIGTORIA = 2) 474 DR. ANTONIO LEMOS, INTENDENTE OF PARA . ere TO PALHA, A SUBURB OF VICTORIA ... . 476 Msley XOOPS, INN co oo a 3 fhe/ INTERIOR OF THE FRANCISCAN CHURCH, BAHIA, OFFICE OF THE NEWSPAPER “A PROVINCIA”? ee ATS WOOD-CARVING OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 478 SMALL SALA IN THE MUNICIPAL BUILDING. ... . 419 SHRINE OF BOMFIM, BAHIA... .- . 479 ESERADASDE SAO JERONY MOPAR A seer tacme enum 72O) HIS EMINENCE JOAQUIM ARCOVERDE, THE FIRST RESIDENCE OF GOVERNOR MONTENEGRO... . . 42! CARDINAL IN SOUTH AMERICA. ..- . .- 481 CWSMOWN OWS a5 INN 6 oo 8 oo boo Fo 8 og on 8 A CHAPEL OF NOSSA SENHORA DA GRACA, BAHIA, SHATUELORSGONGCAIL VES DA Z.aF arate in ae em ee 2 BUILT BY PARAGUASSUS === 2 . 482 ENA SINUBYY TVURYNNISIEINS 6 6 o 6 6 66 5 G89 5 co 5 0 6 Al CHURCH OF THE CANDELARIA, RIO DE “JANEIRO . «Akers PRAGAVIOAOSEISBOAGa ee mrnn Gee nt et a mnt ta en 2.5) CHURCH OF NOSSA SENHORA DE NAZARETH, PARA . 485 WH DIO)! SOE a a bt Peo oa Goan 6.6 a Le RUINS OF CARMELITE CONVENT IN OLINDA, PER- COTTON MILLS, MARANHAO E-abo pe Oot o clu ca JAY NAMBUCO ROE Een: ear ON, MG Btols) PNA SISUIDYS SWOIN IU WAON S Sis go 10605 co 6 a oom co oe oes A POND OF VICTORIA REGIA LILIES SRE ca apse sae oe haky) PIGTURESOUE, COUNTRY ROADE es 420 AFTER THE HUNT «.. =... rcgee ate a ee ACO) CHURCH IN CUYABA, CAPITAL OF MATTO GROSSO . 431 A CONTENTED SON OF THE FOREST . 3m Ae 491 OXSTEAM. PIAUIH Vem ene le Soo a “eyh A GOOD DAY’S SPORT, TAPIR HUNTING IN THE RIO LEGISLATIVE CHAMBER, FORTALEZA, CEARA ee) ek CAS DOCE COUNTRY \:2: cnt poets oy aero RAILROAD DEPOT, GCEARA eae ca an nents nS 7) THERA MAZO© Nigereecue inne teem eee Sees (sand Suey teyn INTRODUCTION =IHEN the New World was yet in the dawn of its development, at the beginning 4| of the nineteenth century, and European powers controlled the destinies of a great part of the western hemisphere, Portugal was the first to recognize the claims of colonial subjects to an independent share of the world’s trade. In the year 1808, the ports of Brazil were opened to commerce with all nations and Brazilian products were carried to every part of the globe. This was the initial step in the extensive cultivation of foreign relations which to-day places Brazil among the leading countries; and it is fitting that the Brazilian people should honor the memory of the Portu- gsuese monarch, King Dom Jodo VI., by celebrating the centennial of the important event brought about by his royal command. The close bond of sympathy and good will which exists to-day between the mother country and her emancipated offspring affords the world an example of unity such as is possible only between nations of common origin when the sentiment of rejoicing turns their thoughts with equal pride to the memory of the same gracious Sovereign. The development of an essentially modern spirit of progress and enterprise, which has placed the people of Brazil in the front rank among the leading powers of the New World, and which so dominates the national life at the present moment that every part of the vast republic is responding to its stimulating influence, shows an awakening to new conditions and a realization of larger responsibilities such as necessarily distinguish a great nation thoroughly aroused to the importance of its high destiny. It is this spirit which has created the new Brazil. In earlier periods, the same national character was expressed through a gentle but unyielding independence and patriotism that proved itself, upon more than one occasion, capable of achieving, with the arms of peace alone, those priceless victories of liberty which patriots of other lands have been able to win only at the cost of terrible bloodshed. And it was due not less to the liberal spirit of the country’s rulers than to the character 13 14 INTRODUCTION of the people themselves that the Portuguese kingdom of Brazil became successively an empire and a republic without the horrors of war, and that her institutions were, from the beginning, established on a broad and liberal basis. By the celebration of her four hundredth anniversary, in 1900, Brazil not only signalized her wonderful growth and development from apparent insignificance to a position of great importance among the nations, but also marked the successful inauguration of new condi- tions, which during the past eight years have been strengthened and given the stability of a permanent force in moulding the national life to accord with the watchword of the people: Order and Progress. All eyes are now turning toward South America, as they turned toward her northern neighbor at the beginning of the century recently closed; and there is every reason to believe that the phenomenal growth and progress which marked the history of the United States of America during the nineteenth century will be duplicated during the present one by her young republican sister and friend—The New Brazil. Philadelphia, November 25, 1907. THE NEW BRAZIL CHAPTER | EARLY HISTORY AND TRADITION MONUMENT OF PEDRO ALVARES CABRAL. HE magnificence of nature’s gifts to this great country, the patriotic and genial qualities that distinguish its people, and the remarkable course of its political history, as a province, a kingdom, an empire, and a republic, are all to be considered in tracing the development of Brazil from the time of the discovery to the present day. Of vast extent and unrivalled scenery, ‘it is a paradise of abundance and beauty. Its majestic rivers, gigantic forests, Spacious plains, the gorgeous coloring of the land- scapes, their prodigal adornment, distinguish it among all the countries of the world. It was certainly a favoring fortune that guided the ships of the Portuguese naviga- tor, Pedro Alvares Cabral, when he steered westward out of his course to avoid the dead calm off the coast of Africa and was wafted to the wonderful “Land of the Southern Cross.” That he became the discoverer of a new continent, and set in the royal diadem of Portugal a gem of brilliant lustre destined to eclipse the crown itself, was due to one of those happy caprices of fate which visit men once or twice in a century. A Spanish navigator, Vicente Yafiez Pinzon, is said to have sighted the coast of Brazil some months earlier than Cabral, passing the mouth of the Amazon River, which he named the “ Fresh- water Sea”; but he did not take possession of the newly found territory, and the news of its discovery is said to have reached the Old World first through Cabral. Neither of Dy f 18 THE NEW BRAZIL these navigators knew that he had discovered the western continent, Pinzon believing that he had reached the coast of India, and Cabral that he had discovered only an island, to which he gave the name “Island of the True Cross,” though this was changed the next year to “Santa Cruz,” and later to “Brazil,” from the name of the rich dyewoods that formed part of all cargoes taken out of the country during the early years of its colonization. When this name came to be popularly applied to the country, all efforts to preserve the more religious appellative failed, much to the disgust of the Christian fathers, who inveighed bitterly against the cupidity of man, so interested in unworthy traffic as to bestow upon a land once christened “The Holy Cross,” a name of such worldly significance as “ Brazil.” But their protest was of no avail, as the name of “Santa Cruz” soon became lost to the records and “ Brazil” grew into universal recognition. It was on Good-Friday, the 22d of April, 1500, that Cabral first landed, taking posses- sion of the country in the name of the King of Portugal. The point of disembarkation was not far from the present site of Bahia, at what is known as Porto Seguro. On Sunday, the 26th of April, an altar was erected, and the first Mass was celebrated in Brazil by Friar Hen- rique, of Coimbra. A few days later, the fleet left the harbor, proceeding on its way to the Indies, having. put ashore in the newly discovered territory two degradados [mutineers]. It was not until King Manoel of Portugal later sent out expeditions to explore the so-called island that the extent and possibilities of the new discovery began to be appre- ciated. Between 1501 and 1504 two fleets were dispatched from Portugal: the first, under Andre Gongalves, sailed along the coast from Cape Sao Roque southward; and the second, under Gongalo Coelho, proceeded from Bahia southward. In the. latter expedition sailed the Florentine cosmographer, Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first to learn that the new discovery was nota part of the coast of India, but a great western continent, separate and apart from Asia,—a New World. His memory is immortalized in the name “America,” which was first given to Brazil, then extended to include all South America, and finally became the title of the entire New World. When the first republic was created in America, its constitution gave it the name of “The United States of America,” and its people generally claim the title of “Americans,” though South Americans do not recognize this monopoly of a name to which the discoverer gave them a prior claim. They invariably refer to the people of the United States as “North Americans.” During the voyage, Vespucci built a fort at Cape Frio, and Coelho another at Rio de Janeiro, though both efforts proved useless, as they were demolished by the Indians. Vespucci returned to Lisbon in 1504, and one of his letters, still extant, is the first published document about the new country, which he describes as a “terrestrial paradise.” It seems incredible, in the light of modern ideas, that during the ten years of exploration which followed Columbus’s discovery, and in spite of all the evidences of an unclaimed land, of virgin soil and primeval forests, whose inhabitants were too barbarous to be classed with the civilized Asiatics, the early navigators should have persisted in believing they were in an ancient, rich, and powerful monarchy of the Orient. Certainly Vespucci deserves credit for his greater discernment. BARELY HISTORY AND TRADITION 19 Meantime the Brazilian coast was explored from Cape Sao Roque to Maranhao by a Portuguese navigator Jodo Coelho, and the same year a Portuguese expedition made a survey southward, extending the discoveries to the Rio de la Plata and Patagonia. Nearly all the Portuguese fleets sailing for the Indies at this time, put into port somewhere along the coast of Brazil. Years before any systematic attempt at colonization was made, there existed settlements under the control of Portuguese new- comers who had made friends with the natives and were liv- ing on good terms with them. In some instances, the colonists were Survivors of shipwrecks, while others were sailors left on shore as a punishment for misdemeanors. Oimthe Vearliest. arrivals, among whom were the ances- tors of some of the best fami- lies of Brazil to-day, three are especially noted for their influ- ence upon the civilization of that time, Duarte Peres, Jodo Ramalho, and Diogo Alvares Correa. Peres was a nobleman, who had been transported to the island of Cananéa in 1501, and who afterward became a power in colonial affairs. Ramalho arrived in Brazil in 1512, a Shipwrecked soldier of fortune. Making his way to the camp of the mighty chief Tibiriga, he not only received a HIS MAJESTY DOM JOAO VI., KING OF PORTUGAL, BRAZIL, AND ALGARVES. kindly welcome, but was given the chief's daughter in marriage. From this union was founded the sturdy race of ‘“Mamelucos,” as the pioneer Paulistas were called, who lent valuable assistance to the Portuguese crown in ‘its efforts to colonize the present State of Sdo Paulo and neighboring provinces. Diogo Alvares Corréa, celebrated as “Caramurt,” was shipwrecked off the coast of Bahia in 1510, and his remarkable rescue and romantic marriage to the Indian maiden Paraguasst gave rise to a popular legend of a Brazilian Pocahontas, which is one 20 THE NEW BRAZIL of the most picturesque tales that embellish the pages of Brazilian chronicles. Diogo Alvares Corréa, in company with eight of his countrymen, was shipwrecked off the coast of Bahia while on a voyage from Portugal to the Indies. All his companions were killed and devoured by the savages, who had reserved Alvares for their last morsel; but as they approached to seize him, he fired a shot from a musket which he had saved from the ship, which so terrified the Indians that they fled in all directions, shouting “Caramuru! Caramurt!”? which means “man of fire.” Among the spectators of this extraordinary scene was the beautiful maiden, Paraguassu, the daughter of the most powerful chief of the Tupinamba Indians. Filled with admiration for the brave “Caramuru,” and realizing that although he had succeeded for the moment in warding off the attack of her people, yet he must inevitably fall a victim to their cruelty if some effort were not put forth to save his life, she went to her father and interceded for him herself, with such effective pleading that the great chief became Caramurt’s protector and friend. Inspired with - gratitude and affection for the Indian princess, Diogo Alvares married her. He took her to France, where King Henry II. and Queen Catherine de Medicis received her, and wit- nessed her baptism, the queen acting as godmother and bestowing upon the little Indian girl her own name, after which both the king and queen witnessed her marriage to Diogo. Their union is a matter of history, and their descendants are to-day among the most influential families of Bahia. Paraguassti lived to be a hundred years old, and at her death her mortal remains were placed in the monastery of Nossa Senhora da Graga, in Bahia. Alvares made friends with the Indians, and through his influence with them became one of the most powerful personages of Brazil during the early days of its colonization. He aided materially in the settlement of the capitania of Bahia, where he established his family at the place since called “Villa Velha,” maintaining a position of importance second only to that of the governor-general himself. In the ancient registry of deaths in the cathedral of Bahia was recorded: “On the 5th day of October, 1557, died Diogo Alvares Corréa Caramurt, of the hamlet of Pereira; he was buried in the monastery of Jesus; leaving for his executor, Joao de Figueiredo, his son-in-law.” The first successful effort to colonize Brazil was made when King Jodo III. divided the new territory into parallel strips, each strip extending along fifty leagues of coast and of unlimited extent inland, and gave them as hereditary grants, under the name “ Capitanias,” to such of his followers as would undertake their settlement; the title to the capitania giving full power of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. The first capitania was founded by Martim Affonso de Souza, who arrived in Brazil, in 1531, with a fleet and four hundred colonists. He stopped first at Bahia, then in the harbor of Rio de Janeiro, and the following year he pursued his course as far south as La Plata and founded the colonies of Sao Vicente and Piratininga, in the present state of SAo Paulo. He sent troops into the interior in search of gold, but they were driven back and killed by the Guarany Indians. In his efforts at colonization he was, as previously stated, greatly aided by the ‘“Mamelucos,” or Paulistas, who were invincible in courage and energy, as their descendants have been from that day AN ae SO mye AN De RADI TION 21 to the present. The colony of Piratininga was founded on the site of the present city of Sao Paulo in the Mameluco territory of Sdo André, and Jodo Ramalho, the son-in-law of the chief Tibiriga4, was appointed its first governor. The name Tibirica is borne to-day by descendants of the great chief, and is among the most honored in Brazil. Soon after establishing the colony of Sao Vicente, Martim Affonso de Souza imported sugar cane from the Madeira Islands and it was cultivated with great SUCCESS. Another grantee, Duarte Coelho, who founded the capitania of Pernambuco about this time, introduced the Sugar cane into that province, with what marvellous results is generally known. In addition to the capitanias founded by the two grantees just referred to, Martim Affonso’s brother, Pero Lopes de Souza, took his fifty leagues in two allot- ments, one of which joined his brother’s, and was called Sao Amaro, and the other ad- joining Duarte Coelho’s on the north. Vasco Fernandes Coutinho founded Espirito “Santo; Pedro de Campo Tou- rinhe, Porto Seguro, afterward merged into another State; Francisco Pereira Coutinho founded the capitania from Sado Francisco to Bahia. Others DOM PEDRO I., EMPEROR AND PERPETUAL DEFENDER OF BRAZIL. were founded later, but all were finally made tributary to a central government, though maintaining the office of ouvidor [magistrate], with authority second only to that of the governor. In 1539, Orellana made a voyage down the Amazon River from Peru, by order of Pizarro. He was eight months on the journey, and the thrilling stories of adventure which he related in an account of his experiences during that time outrival some of the boldest tales of ancient heroes. It was from his account of the warrior-women of the Amazon that 22 THE ONEW BRAZIL the river received its name, though his story is not the only record of the existence of such a tribe. He related that there lived in the forests of the Amazon country a great and powerful tribe of woman-warriors who ruled over a large territory, and were invincible in battle. They were described as very tall, robust, fair, with long hair twisted over their heads, skins around their loins, and bows and arrows in their hands. Regarding this story, it may be remarked, in passing, that it has been told in substance by nearly all the early explorers of that region. La Condamine, the great French scientist, on his return home after a voyage of exploration in the Amazon country, wrote a pamphlet on the subject, expressing his belief in the existence of these women. He located their headquarters on the upper Rio Negro. Humboldt also seems to have believed in them, and tells in all seriousness the account given him by the Indians about a “community of women who made sarbacanas [blow-guns] and other weapons of war, and who once a year admitted to their society the men of the neighboring tribe, whom they sent back with presents of sarbacanas. All the male children of these women were killed in infancy.” Another authority says regarding them: ‘They are women of great valor, who have always kept themselves from ordinary intercourse with men; and even when these, according to agreement, come every year to their land, they receive them armed with bows and arrows, which they brandish for a time till assured that the men come peaceably; then throwing down their weapons, they rush to the canoes, and each one lays hold of a hammock, carrying it to her house along with its owner, who is to be her guest for a few days—after which the men are sent back to their own country, returning every year at the same time. The female children resulting from this union are brought up by the Amazons, the males being given to their fathers the next year or else killed.” Southey gives the following record of Orellana’s adventures with the Amazon women, and of a battle that took place in their territory: “Fray Gaspar affirmed that ten or twelve Amazon women fought at the head of these people, who were subject to their nation, and maintained the fight desperately, because anyone who fled in battle would be beaten to death by these female tyrants.” And then follows Orellana’s description of these women, said to have been obtained by questioning the Indians: ‘They lived after the manner of the Amazons of the ancients, and possessed gold and silver in abundance. There were in their dominions five temples of the sun, all covered with plates of gold; their houses were of stone, and their cities walled.” From which it would seem either that Orellana made a very “free translation” indeed of the Indians’ language, or that the Indians played extravagantly upon Orellana’s credulity. Dr. Barbosa Rodrigues, Director of the Botanical Gardens at Rio, relates a story that is still told in the region of the Jamunda River: “Long ago, some women who had abandoned the men of their tribe came down the river Jamunda. The men, discontented, followed them, but numberless obstacles barred their way so that they could never overtake the women: sometimes the thorns formed dense thickets in the forests; again, ferocious animals protected the flight of the fugitives, howling monkeys pelted their pursuers, ation) sd ON Yariv Del Rk ADITION 23 and curupira [spirit-voices] led them astray. At length, the women took pity on their husbands and lovers and received them,—but as vassals,—promising to admit them to their society once a year. these unions, only the by the mothers, and only dren were held worthy to cious talisman, a jade, or Amazon,’ which they called There is an interesting the manner in which the this sacred talisman. It is the year and during.a certain came to the lake near the a festival dedicated to the of the Amazon Stone,” who having purified themselves tival, which was expiatory, late at night when the moon received from this “ Mother Whatever shape they de- which hardened when ex- that it could not change. vasions that continually it was deemed necessary to ment in Brazil, and, in 1549, pointed governor-general, criminal. He founded the Bahia the same year, and to a bishopric, remaining the official residence of the gov- FOUNDATION STONE OF RIO DE JANEIRO. made during the four years of Souza’s government. Of the children born of females were to be retained the fathers of female chil- be presented with the pre- ‘sacred green stone of the the mutra-kitan.” tradition about the jade, and Amazon women secured said that at a certain time of quarter of the moon they Jamunda River to celebrate moon, and to the ‘“ Mother dwelt in this lake. After for some days by this fes- they dived into the water was reflected in the lake and of the Amazon Stone,” in sired, the precious — gem, posed to the sunlight, so In consequence of the in- threatened the new colony, establish a central govern- Thome de Souza was ap- with full powers, civil and city of Sado Salvador de two years later it was raised government capital and the “ernor-general for more than two hundred years, until transferred to Rio de Janeiro in 1762. Rapid progress was Sugar plantations were laid out in the vicinity of the capital, the city was substantially built up, and much good was accomplished both for the colonists and the natives. The moral and religious training of the Indians was 24 THESNEWSBRAAL confided to missionary priests of the Jesuit order, which had recently been founded by Ignatius Loyola, the most distinguished for their labors in this field being Fathers Anchieta and Nobrega, known as the “Apostles of Brazil.” Father Anchieta began his work in Bahia and Father Nobrega in Sao Vicente (where he established the Jesuit College of Sado Paulo, from which the present city of Sao Paulo received its name), but the two priests finally united their efforts in behalf of the Indians of Sdo Paulo and Minas Geraes. The first bishop of Brazil, Dom Pedro Fernandes Sardinha, arrived in Bahia January 1, 1552, and remained four years. Attempting to return to Lisbon he was shipwrecked, fell into the hands of cannibals, and was put to death. Tradition says that the scene of his martyrdom was reduced from a green and fertile spot to an arid place where nothing would grow. In 1553, Thomé de Souza was succeeded as governor-general of Brazil by Duarte de Costa, who, after five years, gave the reins of government to his successor, Mem de Sa, one of the most distinguished and capable of the Brazilian governors-general. During the rule of Mem de Sa, a colony of French Protestants was sent out by Admiral Coligny at the suggestion of a French adventurer, Villegaignon, who urged the advantages to accrue to Protestantism from the establishment of a colony on the beautiful bay of Rio de Janeiro, which should be a place of refuge, where all would have freedom and protection in the worship of God. Hundreds of Huguenots eagerly joined the expedition, which sailed for Brazil in search of religious liberty three-fourths of a century before the Pilgrim fathers embarked for the New England coast on a similar quest. Had Villegaignon been less despotic in his methods, or more sincere in his undertaking, results might have been vastly different. But he turned against his followers, many of whom went back to France in despair, arriving in time to prevent the exodus of ten thousand of their fellow country- men, who were ready to sail for Brazil. Mem de Sa seized the opportune moment in which to strike at the French stronghold on the island of Villegaigznon, and, reinforced by colonists from Sao Paulo, Sao Vicente, Espirito Santo, and Bahia, he succeeded in dislodging the enemy and driving them from the country. He then founded the city of Rio de Janeiro, the present capital of Brazil, in the year 1567. In 1572, Diogo Laurengo de Veiga became governor-general, and the colonies enjoyed a few years of prosperity, until the union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal by Philip I]. of Spain in 1580 made Brazil a Spanish possession, neglected and at the mercy of invading adventurers of all nations. From information furnished by Father Anchieta, in 1585, there were at this time in Brazil about 25,000 white persons: 12,000 at Bahia, 8,000 at Pernambuco, 250 at Itamarca, 1,500 at Porto Seguro, 750 at Espirito Santo, 750 at Rio, 1,500 at Séo Vicente. There were more than 13,000 negro slaves, and of that number 10,000 were in Pernambuco where the trade was introduced by the earliest colonists, 3,000 being at Bahia. The population of civilized Indians was estimated at about 19,000. The total population under colonial juris- diction was about 57,000. Sergipe, founded in 1590, and Para, in 1615, were among the capitanias settled at this period. ”* ‘Old dO YOUUVH AHL OL FAONVALNA BARRY auS LORY ANDS TRADITION 2 The indifference shown by Spain toward Brazil was chiefly due to the fact that this colony was not then producing such enormous mineral wealth as the colonies of Mexico and Peru,—especially Alto Peru, where the rich silver mines of Potosi were in the zenith of their production,—and all the mother-country’s attention was absorbed by her more pros- perous offspring. The result of this indifference was perhaps not so disastrous as a Selfish interest might have been, since the new colony gained in self-reliance what it lost in protection, and learned to fight its own battles. To this day there exist in Brazil evidences of the invasions of the period between 1580 and 1640, of which the most important in its influence upon the country was that of the Dutch, who first came over in 1624, were defeated in their efforts to hold Bahia, the Brazilian capital, and retired, but only to return in 1630, when they made a more Successful attack and took possession of Olinda and Recife (Pernambuco). The Brazilians, under General Mathias de Albuquerque, at once began a determined fight against them that lasted for twenty-four years, during which the Dutch added greatly to their possessions, though they were repeatedly checked by the Brazilians, who fought every inch of territory with unexampled bravery. Under the Dutch general Prince Maurice de Nassau, the invaders succeeded in extending their dominions from Rio Real at the south to Maranhao at the north, their leader founding on the island of San Antonio the town of Mauritzstadt, which became a flourishing centre, and is to-day one of the quarters of Recife. Prince Maurice was sincere and determined in his efforts to establish a successful Dutch colony in the new country, and invited thither many renowned artists and savants, the city of Olinda becoming quite a celebrated centre of learning, the seat of the university and a metropolis of wealth and fashion. But when liberty of commerce was secured from the States-General, limiting the West India Company’s monopoly to the importation of slaves and war ammunition and the exportation of dyewoods, the enemies of this measure began to plot for the prince’s downfall, and his great power became weakened through political strife. During this time Holland sent her greatest sailors to Brazil, among them Piet Heyn, who was defeated by the Brazilians in an effort to seize Victoria, in the province of Espirito Santo. When the Spanish union with Portugal was broken, in 1640, and the Duke of Braganza was proclaimed King of Portugal under the title of Dom Joao IV., an armistice was signed between Holland and Portugal. It did not, however, prevent the Brazilians from persisting in their efforts to drive out the invaders, and, in 1642, the people of Maranhdao rose in revolt, followed by the Pernambucans in 1645. During this war were fought the two famous battles of Guararapes, in 1648-1649, which were won by the Brazilians, who gained posses- sion of the main strongholds of the enemy and forced their leader, General van Schoppe, to capitulate, all the fortresses still occupied by the Dutch being by the terms of capitulation turned over to the King of Portugal. Many Brazilian soldiers distinguished themselves in this war. The battles of Guararapes were won under the ceneralship of Barreto de Menezes; Fernandes Vieira gained an important victory at Tabocos, and Vidal de Negreiros, 28 THE NEW BRAZIL at Casa Forte. Luiz Barbalho, the Indian Camardo, and the negro Henrique Dias were conspicuous for their heroism. Even the Brazilian woman had her share in the war. Donna Clara Camarao, wife of the brave chief, placed herself at the head of a company of heroic women, who fought nobly in defence of Pernam- buco, and rendered good ser- vice to their country in driving back the enemy. Portugal separated from Spain in 1640, and Brazil was divided into two great govern- -ments, called States; to the north was the State of Maran- hao, composed of Para and Maranhao, and to the south, the State of Brazil (with its capital at Bahia), taking in all the rest of the territory and including the governments of Pernambuco, Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro. The State of Brazil was made a viceroyalty in 1640, and about fifty years later, in 1694, the first mint was estab- lished at Bahia, after which it was removed to Rio, and still later to Pernambuco. It was in order to guarantee the safety of the money that it was coined at different places. It was not deemed advisable to send large amounts to any great distance, on account of the imperfect facilities for transportation, and so the plan was adopted of removing the mint to each capital in turn, until a sufficient supply had been coined for the whole country, after which the mint ceased to exist. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Paulistas, who were the pioneers of Brazil in the centre and south of the empire, advanced far into the interior in search of gold, and to extend their conquest over the Indians, whom they forced to labor on their plantations along the coast. In this way, they founded the provinces of Minas Geraes, Goyaz, Matto Grosso, Santa Catharina, and the northern part of Rio Grande do Sul. They drove out the Spanish Jesuits established in the east of Parana, and forced them to abandon DOM PEDRO II., EMPEROR OF BRAZIL. “ BARLEY SoISTORY ANDSTRADITION 29 their claims, and to take refuge with their confréres in the province of Tape (Rio Grande do Sul). Afterward the Jesuits were pursued even to this retreat, and made to evacuate their missions. Successful in these efforts, the victors then drove the Spaniards out of all the country east of the Uruguay, though the Jesuits afterward returned and established new missions. A long struggle ensued between the Paulistas and the Jesuits, the latter claiming the right to protect the Indians from slavery, while the former asserted that this right was used for purposes of profit by the Church. In 1640 the Paulistas seized the Indians working in the Jesuit college of Sao Paulo and expelled the order from that province. Bulls from the pope and orders from the king were alike ignored, and when called upon to swear allegiance to King Jodo IV., who had just been restored to the throne of Portugal, these redoubtable warriors, who had refused to submit to Spanish rule when the crowns of Spain and Portugal were united in 1580, declared their independence, and brought forward one Amador Bueno to be their king. He himself frustrated their purpose, however, at the moment of his proclamation, by calling out: “Long live King Joao IV., our rightful sover- eign!” The chief cause of this rebellious attitude of the Paulistas lay in their animosity toward the Jesuits, a feeling shared by the colonists of Para and Maranhao, who also RUSTIC BRIDGE IN THE GARDEN OF THE PRESIDENT’S PALACE, RIO DE JANEIRO. expelled the order; and in this course they had a powerful ally in the great prime minister of Portugal, the Marquis de Pombal, who awaited only a favorable opportunity to crush this 30 THE NEW BRAZIL priesthood, which he believed to be a menace to the best interests of the crown. The propitious hour came in connection with the settlement of a dispute regarding the Colonia CATTETE PALACE, RESIDENCE OF THE PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL. = do Sacramento, which had been founded by the Portuguese colonists in 1680 on the left bank of the river La Plata and which was the source of numerous quarrels with Spain, till finally, by the treaty of Madrid, in 1750, it was ceded by Portugal to Spain in exchange for the territory of the Jesuit missions on the left bank of the Uruguay River. The Jesuits were not satisfied with this arrangement and incited the Indians to resist it, with the result that a war was begun to reduce them to subjection. This gave the opportunity which the minister Pombal had long desired, and he ordered the expulsion of the whole order from Brazil in 1759. At the same time he secured the signature of King José I. to laws which put an end to the slave trade in Indians. The treaty of Madrid was afterward broken, and the dispute over the possession of the colony began again, lasting for some years, during which several battles were fought with varying results. Finally, an agreement was made by which Spain kept the colony, giving up certain lands that had been seized by her during the war, and renouncing claims to other territory within the disputed limits. With the discovery of her rich mines about the middle of the eighteenth century, Brazil entered upon a period of continuous development. The tide of the Portuguese immigration, which had hitherto been directed almost exclusively to Bahia, Pernambuco, and northern Pay t LOhY eANDe TRADITION aT Brazil, began to turn to Rio de Janeiro, through which lay the shortest route to the gold fields. Every ship brought out increasing numbers of fortune seekers; many came with their families, and Rio grew rapidly in social and commercial importance. In 1762 it became the colonial capital, an honor which Bahia had held from the time of the first appointment of a governor-general to Brazil in 1549. The division of the country into two States was abolished in 1775, when the State of Maranhao was joined to that of Brazil. In the original capitanias various changes had been made; Sao Paulo and Minas, which had been united in 1709, were separated in 1720; Santa Catharina became a province in 1738; Goyaz and also Matto Grosso, in 1748; and Rio Negro, in 1757. Parad and Maranhao, which had composed the northern State of Maranhdao, were separated in 1775. The condition of the colony improved constantly, and with the increasing wealth, which came as a result of great agricultural and mineral production, the people began to devote more attention to their political well-being. Throughout the entire country there were evidences of the discontent which is a sure sign of political growth. An important conspiracy for independence was discovered and crushed in Minas Geraes in 1789, the leaders being exiled, with the exception of one, Silva Xavier, “ Tiradentes,” who GRAND SALON, CATTETE PALACE, was executed. The history of this revolution is particularly interesting, as it not only shows the influence of the American and the French revolutions upon the patriotic spirits of Brazil, 32 THE NEW BRAZIL but also illustrates how much more effective was the Portuguese method of dealing with the malcontents than that adopted by the English and the French monarchies under similar circumstances. The immediate cause. of the conspiracy was the alarm awakened by measures which the government was taking to collect taxes that the people were unable to pay because of a falling off in the revenues of the mines, their chief source of income. In the midst of this crisis, there arrived from Portugal a young Minas student named José Alves Maciel, one of a group of ardent patriots, who, fired by the example of the French and the North Americans, had taken a solemn pledge to devote their lives to the cause of Brazilian liberty. One of his fellow students had gone so far as to address Thomas Jefferson, then American Minister to Paris, asking the support of the United States in the cause of Brazilian independence. Maciel took advantage of the situation in Minas to advance his theories regarding the necessity for the political regeneration of Brazil, having met in Tiradentes a kindred spirit, aflame with ideas of independence. The real leader of the plot was, however, a brother-in-law of Maciel named Francisco de Paula Freire de Andrada, though it is said the plan originated at the house of the poet, Thomas Antonio Gonzaga, from which it has been called “a dream of students and a conspiracy of poets.” It was chiefly through Freire de Andrada’s influence that the leading conspirators were saved from the gallows and that their sentence was commuted to exile, as he was connected with two of the noblest families of Portugal, high in favor at court.. The unfortunate Tiradentes was made the Scapegoat, and the full weight of the penalty fell upon him. He was beheaded and quartered, his head was exposed in the public square of Ouro Preto, his house was.burned to the ground, and his family disgraced to the third generation. He was only a secondary character in the forming of the plot, but he won immortal fame by his sufferings and death; and the name of “Tiradentes” is to-day inscribed in the annals of Brazilian history as belonging to one of her greatest heroes,—the first republican who shed his blood in the cause of Brazilian independence. A fitting menument to his memory marks the spot of his martyrdom, bear- ing on its pedestal his motto: “Libertas qua sera tamen,” and the dates 1789-1889, the year of the conspiracy and the year of the establishment of the present republic of. Brazil. Just a century later! The wise policy of the Portuguese government in dealing with this outburst against its authority, was shown by the remission of all the taxes claimed, and the abolition of a salt monopoly which had long been a special grievance. Had the home gov- ernment refused to grant any concessions to the discontented colonists and rested satisfied with having punished the conspirators, the outcome might have been a revolution as deter- mined and successful as that which won the independence of the United States and of France. Portugal secured the loyalty of her colonists by yielding to their just and righteous demands. . But the national sentiment was growing strong and determined in favor of less restrictive rule on the part of the mother-country. With increasing wealth arose the neces- sity for greater liberty of commerce; it began to be felt a great hardship that none but Portuguese ships were allowed in Brazilian waters, and that imported articles had to be BARD Vesdishory «44ND TRADITION yy paid for at such extravagant prices as to be beyond the means even of the wealthiest people. It was not unusual to find a home richly furnished with gold and silver plate, yet without such simple necessities as glass tumblers, steel knives and forks, books, stationery, and other articles of ordinary use. Such a condition of affairs was unbearable to a people who had contributed an important share of its wealth to the mother country, and who felt they had a right to a fuller recognition of their political importance. Just at the period when this sentiment was reaching its limit, and when a serious crisis threatened the peace of the country, an event of the greatest importance occurred, which changed the whole A RECEPTION ROOM IN CATTETE PALACE, RIO DE JANEIRO. aspect of the national politics and brought about, by the stroke of a pen, the great blessing of free commerce for which the people had been contending bitterly, and apparently hopelessly, for many years. When Napoleon’s army descended upon Portugal, in 1807, the prince regent, Dom Jodo, who ruled in the name of his mother, Queen Maria I., of Portugal, realizing the impossibility of offering successful resistance to the invading force, sought refuge, with all the royal family, in Brazil, and arrived at Rio de Janeiro on March 8, 1808. On two previous occa- sions, when disaster threatened, it had been suggested that the seat of the Portuguese government should be transferred to Brazil,—in 1736, by Dom Luiz da Cunha, and in 1761, 34 THE NEW BRAZIL by the Marquis de Pombal; but the danger having passed before arrangements were com- pleted, the change had been postponed. It came at the most opportune moment for Brazil. The prince regent, with the royal family and a large retinue, landed first at Bahia. He was a monarch of noble presence and by his conduct ever showed himself to be a worthy and. gracious prince deserving of the loyalty and love of his subjects. Gentle in disposition, he was just, tolerant in religion, and of high moral character. His first act endeared him to the colonists, who welcomed his coming with every demonstration of joy. He did not wait to reach the capital, but from Bahia issued the Carta Regia, dated January 28, 1808, in which it was decreed that the ports of Brazil were from that date opened to the trade of all nations, the home government to retain no more than a moderate duty on imports, while exports under any flag were permitted, of all articles except one or two, which were still reserved as royal monopolies. To Brazil this Carfa Regia meant the destruction of all fetters on industrial and commercial development and the opening up of glorious possibilities for the nation, which, within the century that has passed since that memorable event, it has amply realized. Not only did the prince regent open the Brazilian ports to foreign commerce, but he encouraged the free development of every kind of industry by all classes of Brazilians (under the colonial system permission was grudgingly given to manufacture a few articles of coarse quality, for slaves, from the cotton which grew in the country); established the printing-press, which had been inhibited in Brazil up to this time because of its supposed dangerous effects; built a gunpowder factory; established a royal treasury and a council of finance to regulate the receipts and expenditures of the national income; created the Bank of Brazil; instituted a school of anatomy, surgery, and medicine, annexed to the Royal Mili- tary Hospital; and founded a chemical laboratory, and a quarantine lazaretto for contagious diseases brought from foreign ports. About this time, vaccination was introduced by the Marquis de Barbacena, who made the first experiment on his own son (the Viscount de Barbacena, of Rio de Janeiro, who died recently at one hundred and four years of age, having seen his country develop as a province, a kingdom, an empire, and a republic). In 1814, the first national library was opened to the public, a new treasury and mint were completed, a new custom house was erected, and the city of Rio was built up, and beau- tified by parks and gardens. The following year, the royal decree was issued, naming the new seat of government the “Kingdom of Brazil,” forming, with the other possessions, the “United Kingdoms of Portugal, Brazil, and Algarves.” Just at this time, Queen Maria I. died, and, after a year’s mourning, the acclamation of Dom Jodo’s succession took place; the royal arms were adopted as suitable to designate the new kingdom, and by royal decree were added to those of Portugal and Algarves, consisting of an armillary sphere of gold in a field azure, with an escutcheon containing the Quinas of Portugal and the seven castles of Algarves placed on the sphere, surmounted by the royal crown. The acclamation ceremony took place on the sth of February, 1818. The mode of enthroning monarchs by acclamation was among the most ancient usages of the Portuguese Eee OMY eNO TRADITION 35 people, dating as far back as the early part of the twelfth century, when the first Affonso was acclaimed king by his soldiers after his victory over the Moors. The ceremony, in earlier times, consisted in the king standing on a shield which was_ then lifted above the heads of his soldiers, who pro- claimed him their king; but later the shield was dispensed with, and at the coronation of Dom Jodo VI. the ceremony was chiefly religious, the acclamation being made in a loud voice as the royal standard was un- furled after the celebra- tion of Mass in the chapel royal: “Royal, royal, royal, by the very high and very powerful Senhor, King Dom Jodo VI., our sovereign!” The acclamation was accompanied by the pealing of bells, the music of military bands, explosions of artillery, fire-works, and deafening vivas! Almost during the whole period of Dom Jodo’s residence in Brazil, his armies were engaged in war in the Banda Oriental. Finally, a succession of victories for his troops resulted in the demoralization of the Uruguayan forces and the flight of their leader into Paraguay. The Banda Oriental was then united by federation with the kingdom of Brazil, under the name of the “Cisplatine Province,” in 1821. . Meantime, there was trouble brewing in the mother-country. The commerce of Portugal was suffering in consequence of the opening of Brazilian ports, and there was considerable jealousy felt toward this young “upstart colony” which, since it had been raised to the dignity of a kingdom and had become the residence of the royal family, threatened to take away the laurels of the parent kingdom. Consequently, after the close of Napoleon’s wars, when Spain and Italy had set the example by demanding the organization of constitutional governments, the Portuguese followed in their lead and insisted on the convocation of the Cortes for the purpose of forming a constitutional charter. One of the first acts of this body was to publish a manifesto in which all the evils existing in the form of reduced revenues and a general retrograde movement in Portuguese affairs were traced to the residence of the royal family and court at Rio de Janeiro instead of at Lisbon, and the opening of the ports of Brazil to the vessels of all nations, which threatened the extinction of the manufactures and commerce of Portugal. The sympathies of the European residents and the military in Brazil were with the Cortes; and King Joao was induced through their influence to sign a decree stating that he SCENE IN THE GARDENS OF CATTETE PALACE, RIO DE JANEIRO. 36 POHESNEH SR RA AL would return to Portugal and leave the kingdom of Brazil in charge of his son, Dom Pedro, as regent, until the general constitution of the Portuguese nation should be established. But the Brazilians opposed the departure of the king, and having good reason to fear that the new constitution to be framed by the Cortes would be constructed in such a manner as to favor Portugal at the expense of Brazil, they decided that the Spanish constitution should be the one adopted, and sent a deputation to the king, requiring its immediate acceptance. King Joao gave his royal assent, anxious to conciliate all parties and having constantly in mind the unhappy fate of the French King Louis XVI. The day after he had received the Brazilian deputation, the king issued a decree annulling all that had been enacted the previous evening; conferred the dignity and attributes of regent on Dom Pedro, and formed a new ministry, in which the Count of Arcos, chief adviser and confidant of Dom Pedro, was made Minister of Foreign Affairs, and of the Interior and Justice. Two days afterward, King Joao embarked for Portugal, accompanied by a large suite. It is related that in the final interview with his son at the palace of S40 Christovdo, the king, who looked upon the independence of Brazil as already assured, thus counselled the young prince: “‘ Pedro, if such an event should occur, put the crown on thine own head before some adventurer lays hold of it.” And in one of a published collection of his letters, written during the war of independence, Dom Pedro reminds his father of this advice, and even recalls the place and the room where their conversation on this subject was held. Dom Pedro acted upon his father’s advice; but when he put on the crown of Brazil, it meant a new regime, which limited the power of the monarch and gave larger liberties to the people. STATUE OF DOM PEDRO I. 7 ioe r = tor 4 | | Bea) oe “” WONVUldA dO ATdld FHL NO ‘1IZVu¥d AO AONACNAdHGNI AHL SO NOILVWV100Ud CHAPTER II NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE STATUE OF THE VISCOUNT DE RIO-BRANCO. HE Prince Dom Pedro became regent of the empire at twenty-two years of age. He was handsome, active, energetic, fond of hunting and all outdoor sports, had a taste for mechanics, loved the arts, particularly music, in which he excelled. In 1818 he married the Archduchess Leopoldina of Aus- tria, and of this union there were two chil- dren, Dom Jodo Carlos, Prince de Beira, who died in childhood, and Donna Maria de Gloria, afterward Queen Maria I]. of Portugal. From the first establishment of the re- gency, the Portuguese element in the new country seems to have been in constant opposition to all liberal efforts on the part of the government in behalf of Brazil. It insisted on the dismissal of the Count of Arcos from the ministry, the placing of the army under the authority of a military com- mission, and the appointment of a junta responsible to the Cortes of Lisbon, without whose approbation no law should be pro- mulgated or any important business decided upon. Dom Pedro acceded to all these demands; but when, in addition, the Cortes of Lisbon passed a law that all the provinces should be detached from the central government at Rio, and made subject directly to the administration of Portugal, he became incensed by the efforts made to nullify his power and reduce Brazil again to the condition of a mere colony. Added to this was the trying 39 40 THE NEW BRAZIL dilemma in which he found himself in consequence of the financial embarrassment of the country. Notwithstanding its advantages, the establishment of the Portuguese court in Rio had not been an unmixed blessing. A host of impecunious followers had come over with the royal family, caring nothing for the progress of Brazil, regarding their stay as merely temporary, and desirous of enriching themselves at the expense of the Brazilian treasury. ~The extravagance of the court was enormous, and the household of the royal family alone cost the country annually over half a million pounds sterling. Besides this the king made many gifts to his followers, which had a depleting effect on the treasury. Then, when his Majesty returned to Portugal, accompanied by his entire suite, numbering about three thou- sand, they exchanged all the paper money in their possession for bullion, so that the Bank of Brazil was reduced to embarrassing straits, the government debt to the bank at that time amounting to considerably more than the actual capital of the institution. This financial stress was keenly felt by the regent, who wrote to his father: “There are no longer any funds, and I do not know how to obtain them.” The people of Brazil did not feel particularly friendly toward their Portuguese cousins, because of the arbitrary attitude which the latter assumed toward them; and when two despotic decrees, sent from Portugal by the Cortes, were received at Rio,—one of them commanding the organization of a provisional government which should reduce the country again to the condition of a province, and the other ordering the immediate return of the prince regent, Dom Pedro, to Portugal,—the spirit of rebellion blazed up in one consuming outburst; the newspapers were filled with revolutionary editorials and letters; and the people of Sado Paulo and Minas Geraes spoke in united voice against what was termed “an illegal, impious, and impolitic measure.” An address drawn up in the name of these two States by Dom José Bonifacio de Andrada, containing the following indignant protest, best shows the state of feeling that prevailed: ““How dare those deputies of Portugal, without deigning to wait for the concurrence of those of Brazil, legislate on a matter which involves the most sacred interests of the entire kingdom? How dare they deprive Brazil of her privy council, her court of conscience, her exchequer, her board of commerce, her court of requests, and so many other institutions just established among us, and which promised us such future benefits? Where now must the people apply in their civil and judicial concerns? Must they once more, after enjoying for twelve years the advantages of speedy justice, seek it in a foreign land, across two thousand leagues of ocean, amid the procrastina- tions and corruptions of Lisbon tribunals, where the oppressed suitor is abandoned by hope and lifer” This address concluded with an appeal to the prince to remain in Brazil, and not suffer himself to be “led about like a school-boy surrounded by masters and spies.” The prince regent’s reply was prompt and decided: “As it appears to be the general wish and for the general good, I will remain.” A new ministry was formed January 16, 1822, with Dom José Bonifacio de Andrada as Home Secretary and Minister for Foreign Affairs, his brother, Martim Francisco de Andrada, also becoming a member of the cabinet a few months later. It was the original intention to NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE AI preserve the union with Portugal, but to have a parliament at Rio. Deputies were sent to the Cortes to urge the adoption of this plan, and to voice the general sentiment against the demands of the Cortes, as contained in the decrees sent over to Brazil. The young prince showed himself to be possessed of great energy and decision of character, judging from his prompt method of dealing with affairs at this time. On the 16th of February, he issued a decree calling the chief iegislators of the provinces of Brazil to assemble in Rio de Janeiro. On the 25th of the same month, he issued another, declaring that no law promulgated by the parliament of Lisbon should be obeyed in Brazil without his sanction. When it was announced that there was opposition to his authority over Minas Geraes, he immediately went to that province, visited all the villages and towns, won the YPIRANGA, MONUMENT ON THE SITE OF THE PROCLAMATION OF BRAZILIAN INDEPENDENCE, SAO PAULO. loyalty of the whole people, and returned followed by acclamations. When public notices appeared of hostile measures taken. by the government of Portugal against Brazil, Dom Pedro accepted the title ‘“‘ Perpetual Defender of Brazil,” which, in the name of the people, was offered him, on the 13th of May, by the senate of the municipal chamber. Dom Pedro did not, at first, show any intention of seeking to establish an independent empire in Brazil. He declared only against the infringement of his rights as regent of the kingdom. In a proclamation issued August 17, 1822, he announces: “The dignity and power of regent of this vast empire, that the king, my august father, had granted to me, having been confirmed to me by the unanimous consent and spontaneous 42 THE NEW BRAZIL will of the people of Brazil, a dignity of which the Cortes of Lisbon, without any of the deputies of Brazil being heard, has dared to deprive me, as is notorious; and I, moreover, having accepted the title and duties of perpetual defender of this kingdom that the same people have so generously and so loyally conferred upon me; in obedience, therefore, to my sacred duties, and in gratitude for so much love and fidelity, which call upon me to take all the measures indispensable to the salvation of this greatest portion of the Portuguese mon- -archy, that has been confided to me, and whose rights I have sworn to preserve uninjured by any attack; and inasmuch as the Cortes of Lisbon continues in the same erroneous and evi- dently unjust system of recolo- nizing Brazil even by force of arms, notwithstanding that she has already proclaimed her INTERIOR VIEW OF YPIRANGA. political independence and has . gone so far that there is already convened, by my royal decree of the 3d of June last past, a general, constitutional and legislative assembly, at the request of all the chambers, thus proceeding with a formality that did not take place in Portugal, where the convening of the Congress was originally only an act of ‘secret and factious clubs; and I also considering his Majesty the king, Dom Joao VI., of whose name and authority the Cortes endeavors to avail itself for its own sinister purposes, as a prisoner in that kingdom, without any will of his own, and without that liberty of action that is given to the executive power in constitutional monarchies,—I | command, having first heard my council of State, all the provisional juntas of government, generals, military commandants, and all the constituted authorities to whom the execution of this decree may appertain, as follows: “|. That all and whatever troops that shall be sent from Portugal or elsewhere to Brazil without my previous consent, upon whatever pretext, be reputed enemies; but without interruption to the commercial and friendly relations between both kingdoms, for the preservation of the political union that I greatly desire to maintain. “ NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 43 “I. That if they arrive peaceably, they shall immediately return, furnished with provi- sions and supplies necessary for their voyage back. “III. That, in case said troops shall not obey these orders, and shall dare to land, they be driven back by force of arms, putting into execution, if necessary, all means to burn the vessels and sink the boats in which the troops may attempt to land. “TV. That if, notwithstanding all these efforts, it shall happen that the troops get pos- session of any port or part of Brazil, the inhabitants shall retire to the interior and carry on against them a war of posts and guerrillas until freed from the enemy. eve aaenit shall, ber the duty of all the competent mili- tary and civil authorities to for- tify all the ports of Brazil, under Strict and severe responsibility. “VI. The civil and military authorities to whom appertain the execution of this, my royal decree, are to fulfil it, and cause it to be fulfilled, with all due zeal, energy, and promptitude, under the responsibility of being guilty of high treason if they Shall fail to do so. “Palace of Rio de Janeiro, the 17th of August, one thou- sand eight hundred and twenty- two. By his Royal Highness the Prince Regent,” etc. In a manifesto signed “Prince Regent,” Dom Pedro calls upon the Brazilians to unite themselves “with inter- est, love, and hope; to com- mand the august Assembly of Brazil to manage the helm of State with justice and prudence. He urges: “Let no other shout be issued from your lips but ‘union’; let no other word be reiterated from the Amazon to La Plata but ‘independence’; let all our provinces be strongly chained in unanimity not to be broken by any force; let old prejudices be banished, substi- tuting in their place the love of the public good.” His closing words are full of enthusiastic CORRIDOR OF YPIRANGA. 44 THE NEW BRAZIL patriotism: “Brazilians! friends! let us unite ourselves; [am your companion, I am your defender; let us obtain, as the only reward of all our toils, the honor, glory, and prosperity of Brazil; for the accomplishment of which I shall always be at your front in the most dangerous places! Permit me to convince you that your felicity depends on mine. It is my glory to rule an upright, valiant, and free people. Give me the example of your virtues and of your union, and be assured that I shall be worthy of you.” This manifesto gave zest to the popular sentiment. It soon became evident that it would be impossible for Brazil to continue united with Portugal under existing conditions; and the crisis was precipitated, first, by the antagonistic and even insulting attitude maintained in the Cortes toward the Brazilian deputies, who were silenced ignominiously when they attempted to speak in behalf of their country’s cause; and, secondly, by the passage of a decree ignoring all Brazilian claims, and peremp- torily ordering the prince regent to Europe. The effect of this news upon the prince is well known, as recorded in the dramatic story of “Ypiranga,” the name of a little stream in the province of Sao Paulo, made famous in history as the birthplace of Brazilian independence. It was here that the prince, as he and his friends were returning from a hunting-party, received the dispatches containing news of the last act of the Cortes. Upon reading them, the prince called his followers to his side, and, with the watchword, “Independencia ou Morte!” declared that he would never leave Brazil, but would be her protector and defender against the wrongs that Portugal sought to heap upon her. This was on September 7, 1822, and on October 12, 1822, Dom Pedro was proclaimed Constitutional Emperor of Brazil, the ceremony of his inauguration taking place on the rst of the following December. The magnificent museum ‘of Ypiranga, which to-day marks the site of this famous occurrence in Brazilian history, is a fitting monument in honor of the great event. Upon his return to Rio a few days after the scene at Ypiranga, the prince appeared at the theatre, wearing on his arm a green badge, with the motto, in letters of gold, “Independencia ou Morte.” The people, as he entered, arose in a delirium of enthusiasm and greeted him with tumultuous applause. The coronation ceremony took place in the chapel attached to the palace, and was a brilliant affair. In the evening, the new emperor attended the grand opera, and his appear- ance was the signal for prolonged cheers and shouts of “Viva o Imperador!”” The empire. was established with comparatively little opposition. The Portuguese troops were soon dismissed from Rio; in July of the following year, they evacuated Bahia, and later in the same year capitulated at Maranhdo, at Para, and at Montevideo. Before the end of 1825, Portugal gave up the fight, and recognized the independence of Brazil, the new empire assuming, as the price of her freedom, debts. amounting to nearly ten million dollars. On the 2d of December, 1825, the Prince Dom Pedro, afterward Emperor Dom Pedro II., was born, at Rio de Janeiro. The following account of a Brazilian woman’s heroism makes an interesting addition to the history of this period. Donna Maria Quiteria de Jesus Medeiros, a Bahian girl, hearing NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 45 her father lament that he had no son to fight in the cause of Brazilian independence, dis- guised herself as a soldier and enlisted in the artillery. This proving too hard a service, she succeeded in changing to the light infantry called the ‘‘ Volunteers of the Prince,” and served until the end of the war. She led a troop of Bahian Amazons against the Lusitanians who were attempting to land near the mouth of the Paraguassu, and drove them back, for which heroic service she was knighted by Dom Pedro I., and decorated with the “Imperial Order of the Cruzeiro.” During the year previous to the final recognition of Brazilian independence by the mother country, the northern provinces, led by Pernambuco, revolted against the new PALACE OF DOM PEDRO II., NOW THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, SAO CHRISTOVAO, RIO DE JANEIRO. government and disclaimed its authority, which they asserted was being maintained in the interests of Portugal rather than of Brazil, and they declared their independence under an alliance entitled ‘The Federation of the Equator.’” Their chief leader was Manoel Carvalho Paes de Andrada, the elected president of Pernambuco, whom the central government had attempted to replace by one of the emperor’s favorites, but without success, the inhabitants of Pernambuco refusing to acknowledge any authority except that of their elected presi- dent. Carvalho led the revolutionists against the imperial forces with skill and bravery, engaging General Barreto’s army by land while a small naval force blockaded them by sea. Lord Cochrane was sent to codperate with Barreto’s troops and to blockade the city of 46 VHESNEVW SBIAZIL Pernambuco, and troops under General Lima were dispatched to reinforce those of Barreto. By their united efforts, the imperial forces finally succeeded in entering Pernambuco, and driving Carvalho back to the parish of- Recife, where, having burned the bridge connecting it with the city, he and his followers entrenched themselves and opened fire on the im- perialists. They were, however, defeated at last, and three of their number executed,— Ratcliff, Metrowich, and Loureiro; Carvalho escaped. The next year, 1825, the unpopular war in the Cisplatine province began, lasting three years and resulting in the independence of Uruguay. It created an important addition to the national debt of Brazil, which was already too burdensome to be borne by the people with- out many evidences of discontent and dissatisfaction. In 1826, by the death of King Dom Joao VI., Dom Pedro succeeded to the throne of Portugal, and immediately abdicated in favor of his daughter, Donna Maria. The Marquis de Barbacena was appointed to accompany the young princess, who had been created Duchess of Oporto, to Europe, where she was to be received at Genoa by her aunt, the ex-Empress of France, Marie Louise, and Count Leibzeltern, and taken to Vienna. Information obtained at Gibraltar, however, led to a change of these plans, and the princess was taken to England, returning soon afterward to Brazil. A scheme for her marriage to her uncle, Dom Miguel, with a view to uniting the rival claims to the Portuguese throne, was not carried out, and Dom Miguel seized the crown, though he was afterward forced to surrender it to Donna Maria, who became Queen Maria II. a few years later. Not long after the death of his royal father, and in the same year, 1826, the emperor sustained a second bereavement in the death of the Empress of Brazil. It was the occasion of national mourning, as the empress was greatly beloved for her generous charities and esteemed for many noble qualities. The emperor was in the south at the time of the empress’s death. He received the news with every demonstration of grief, and, the gossips Say, with some show of remorse; for the empress, though a faithful wife and an affectionate mother, had received very little consideration from her gay and pleasure-loving spouse. It is said that the emperor never forgave the Marquis de Barbacena, the diplomat who arranged his marriage, for not having brought him a more beautiful and fascinating princess. The Empress of Brazil presented a striking contrast in mind and morals to her sister Marie Louise, the second wife of Napoleon Bonaparte, being as serious and devout as the other was frivolous and worldly. The popularity which the emperor enjoyed when he ascended the throne was short- lived. From the first, his actions seem to have been open to the adverse criticism of the Liberal party, who strongly opposed his tendency to be guided by Portuguese influences and his high-handed methods of governing. Among his first unpopular acts were the dis- missal of the ministry of the Andradas, who had been the most staunch promoters and supporters of the independent movement; his appointment of the Paranaguaé ministry a few months later, composed of the extreme Conservative element; and his dissolution of parlia- ment the day after this appointment, when six deputies were made prisoners and banished NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 47 to Europe, among them the Andrada brothers. The ministry of Sao Leopoldo succeeded that of the Marquis of Paranagua, and was similar in character. The continual change of ministries which marked the entire course of Dom Pedro’s reign, together with the charge made by the Liberals, that he was trying to establish an ab- solute monarchy, is held re- sponsible for a large share of the popular dissatisfaction. On the 2oth of November, 1827, the ministry of the Marquis de Olinda took office, but difficul- ties growing out of the em- peror’s dismissal of the minister of war led to the resignation of its members, and a new cabinet was formed under Clemente Pereira. This, like its successor, the second ministry of the Mar- quis of Paranagua, encountered lively opposition in the Cham- ber of Deputies and in the press. Federalist and Repub- lican journals sprang up in in- creasing numbers and influence at this time, and played an im- portant part in politics. On the 19th of March, 1831, Dom Pedro appointed a lib- THE CROWN-PRINCESS ISABEL, REGENT OF THE EMPIRE. eral ministry; but this apparent effort to conciliate the opposing party failed. When this ministry was soon afterward dis- missed, and a cabinet composed exclusively of senators named to take its place, a popular uprising resulted, and the return of the dismissed ministry was demanded. It was a critical moment. The people had lost patience and their attitude left no room for doubt as to their final purpose. The emperor was ina most dangerous situation; the Imperial Guard deserted him, and his followers, against whom the popular clamor was especially directed, were obliged to look for a place of greater safety than the emperor’s palace, surrounded as it now was by an angry and threatening populace. To the honor of the Brazilian character be it said, no violence was offered to the emperor, under circumstances which would have impelled almost any popular mob to deeds of cowardice. The whole capital was in the hands of the people, the police and the soldiery were with them, the emperor was helpless 48 THE NEW BRAZIL in their power; yet, an innate appreciation of the dignity of human life and respect for the Constitution which, they claimed, was strong enough to secure them their inalienable rights, sufficed to keep them from committing a crime like that which blackens the annals of the French Revolution. Notwithstanding the apparently helpless position of the emperor, he at first indignantly refused to listen to any demands made by an angry and irresponsible populace. But finally realizing the strength of the opposition, and perhaps anxious to go to Portugal where his daughter’s right to the throne needed protection against the usurping Dom Miguel, he called back the messenger he had dismissed, and bade him wait while he wrote his last message to his Brazilian subjects. In the farewell proclamation, he said: “Availing myself of the right which the Constitution gives me, I declare that I have voluntarily abdicated in favor of my dearly beloved and esteemed son, Dom Pedro de Alcantara. TI shall retire to Europe, and leave a country that I have always loved and still love.” Dom Pedro I. died in 1834, having enjoyed the satisfaction of seeing his son received as Emperor of Brazil, and his daughter enthroned as Queen of Portugal. : The little prince Dom Pedro was only five years of age when he succeeded his father on the throne of Brazil as the Emperor Dom Pedro II. During his minority, the country was governed at first by a regency, composed of three members elected by the legislative chambers, and after- ward by a single regent chosen by all the electors in the same manner as the deputies. At this time, the councils of the provinces were replaced by legislative provincial assemblies. In 1835, Father Diogo Antonio Feij6, of Sdo Paulo, was chosen regent. He had previ- ously held the office of Prime Minister, and is described as “a man of iron will, prompt action, and unhesitating decision.” During his ministry, there were innumer- able disturbances throughout the country, the result of unsettled conditions following the abdication of Dom Pedro I. Many parties and cliques were organized, and there was an imperative demand for various rights and reforms. There were the “Restoradores,’ who wanted Dom Pedro I. back again; the “Moderate Lib- erals,” of which Vasconcellos and Evaristo da Veiga were the powerful chiefs; the “Liberal Exaltado,” com- posed largely of men holding republican principles; VISCOUNT DE RIO-BRANCO. _ the “Separatists”; the “Society of the Defenders of Liberty and National Independence,” and others. Civil _ war caused bloodshed in Pernambuco, Parad, Bahia, Maranhdo, and more especially in Rio Grande do Sul, where it lasted ten years. j “ NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 49 After two years as regent, FeijO resigned, and the Marquis de Olinda succeeded him. His rule failing to satisfy all parties, it was demanded that the young emperor should be given his majority, and, in 1840, in the fif- teenth year of his age, this event took place, his accession being hailed with general re- joicing. Two political parties were rivals for the ruling power all through the reign of Dom Pedro II., the Conservatives and the Liberals. At the time of the emperor’s accession, the Liberals held sway, but they were soon dis- placed by the Conservatives, the two parties afterward superseding each other in the polit- ical leadership at varying intervals of from four to eight years, though the Liberals gained ground constantly, and at one time there was a union of the two parties under their banner. This did not last long, however, but it was one of the “signs of the times.” The Liberal party became more thoroughly imbued with republican ideas and principles, and the Con- Servatives recognized the necessity of modi- fying their policy to meet the demands of the hour. There were many changes in both DR. ANTONIO DA SILVA PRADO, parties, Some former Conservatives allying themselves with the Liberals,and a few who had been prominent in the Liberal party going over to the Conservatives. It was the “leavening process” in the political progress of affairs. The civil war-in Rio Grande do Sul, which had lasted ten years, was terminated by General de Caxias, on March 1, 1845, and peace hovered over the banner of Brazil until some Six years later, when the government lent the assistance of her squadron and army to Uruguay in a fight against the Argentine dictator Rosas. Through an alliance negotiated by the Brazilian Minister for Foreign Affairs, Paula de Souza, the independence of Uruguay was again established, freedom of navigation in the tributaries of the river Plata being declared at the same time. In 1864, however, a dispute arose, and Brazil declared war against Uruguay. Under the commands of Generals Barreto and Flores and Admiral Tamandaré, her military and naval forces attacked Montevideo, and took Paysandu. One of the most terrible wars in history was that waged against the Paraguayan dictator, Lopez, by the allied forces of Brazil, the Argentine, and Uruguay. It began in 186s, and lasted until 1870, when scarcely a man was left of the whole Paraguayan population. The country was reduced to a deplorable condition, from which it is just now beginning to 50 THE NEW BRAZIL recover, after more than a quarter of a century. It has been called a war of national vindi- cation. Lopez had invaded the territory of all three of the countries forming the alliance, and in'sheer revenge (it is said because the emperor had refused him the hand of his daughter in marriage) he attacked a Brazilian vessel on its way up the river to Matto Grosso in November, 1864. The Triple Alliance determined to crush the lawless bandit, and on May 1, 1865, began a long and terrible war, of which Brazil supported the bulk of the burden. General Mitre, at that time President of the Argentine Republic, had command of the allied armies during the first years of the war. On the 7th of January, 1865, the Brazilian Prime Minister, Francisco José Furtado, issued the decree which called out the ‘“ Voluntarios da Patria,” and the splendid battalions that responded to his call paid a tribute to the wisdom of the distinguished statesman at once gratifying and deserved. The magnificent service of these troops in the field was a convincing proof of Brazilian bravery and patriotism. At the same time, the navy was reconstructed, and orders were given for the immediate building of the first Brazilian iron-clads in the naval arsenal of the capital. The Brazilians started out with the naval victory of Riachuelo, gained by Admiral Barroso over the Paraguayan squad- ron, which threatened at first to destroy that of Brazil by the superiority of its naval force, aided by batteries suddenly unmasked on the high bank of the river. The scene on board the Brazilian ship Parnahyba was one of fearful carnage, the quarter-deck being drenched with blood when the enemy boarded her from their four vessels, overwhelming her brave defenders. But the onslaught was as temporary as it had been sudden, and the power of the- Paraguayan fleet was effectually crushed by the Brazilians. A Paraguayan division which advanced on the right bank of the Uruguay was destroyed at Yatay by the allies under the command of General Flores, President of the Republic Oriental. Another branch of the army, which had penetrated into the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul, was besieged at Uruguayana and forced to lay down arms. The Emperor Dom Pedro II. then took command of the allies, and it was in this encampment that he received the minister Thornton, sent by England to arrange a renewal of diplomatic relations with Brazil which were broken in 1863. Lopez abandoned his position, and retired to meet his enemies on Paraguayan territory, behind the line of the Parana. In 1866, the allies succeeded in crossing this river and seizing the first outposts after three battles: Con- fluencia, in which the Brazilian general Osorio had command; Desterro Bellaco, led by Generals Flores and Osorio; and Tujuty, where Generals Mitre, Osorio, and Flores united their forces. They were obliged, however, to remain inactive, waiting for reinforcements, before the entrenchments of the enemy. At the same time, in the month of July, the allies attempted an attack on the coast of Sauce, but without success. When the first reinforce- ments arrived, the Brazilian general Porto Alegre took possession of Curuzi; but some days after, the same general and President Mitre failed in the assault of Curupaity. The Brazilian captain, Vital de Oliveira, commanding the iron-clad Sz/vado, was killed in this engagement. The next year, Brazil concentrated the command of her armies, by land and sea, under Marshal de Caxias, and nearly all the Argentine army retired to repress revolts and resistances NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE £1 among their provincial governors. After several months of forced inaction, owing to the ravages of cholera, and after the departure of General Mitre for Buenos Aires, Marshal de Caxias began operations against the fortifi- cations of Humayta. The Brazilian cuirassiers, under Admiral Inhauma, forced the passage of Curupaity in 1867, and that of Humayta in the following year, under Commodore Delphim de Carvalho. At the same time, - Marshal de Caxias seized all the defences raised on this side of the river, also those of Tebicuary, and proceeded northward to attack the lines of Angostura and Pikysyry, which covered the road to the capital. He gained the victories of Itérér6, Avay, and Lomas Valentinas, in the month of December, 1868, which gave to the allies possession of all the west part of the country. But Lopez had escaped to the interior, where he succeeded in organizing a new army. The last campaign of the war was con- ducted by the Count d’Eu, in 1869 and 1870, when the Brazilians took by assault the town of Piribebuy, crushed the greater part of the army of Lopez at the battle of Campo Grande, and pursued the vanquished in all directions, to the depths of the deserts and the forests of eastern and northern Paraguay. After several minor engagements, General Camara surprised the Lopez encampment at Cerro Cora, on a branch of the Aquidaban, March 1, 1870. The dictator, who had only a thousand men in his following, was killed while attempting to escape, and the war was brought to an end. The treaty of 1872 fixed the frontiers. During the reign of Dom Pedro II., the Crown-Princess Isabel was three times regent of the empire: from May 25, 1871, to March 30, 1872; frome March 26, 1876, to Septem- ber 25, 1877, during the emperor’s visit to the United States; and from June 30, 1887, to August 21, 1888. Under the last regency was effected one of the greatest reforms in the history of the nation, the emancipation of all slaves within Brazilian territory. It was not altogether an unforeseen event, as the gradual abolition of the slave traffic had been going on for many years, and it was only a question of a comparatively short time when the evil would have ceased to exist under the laws already in effect at the time of the princess regent’s proclamation. The number of slaves in Brazil had been reduced from two anda half millions in 1854 to a little over half a million in 1888. The signing of the emancipation bill was, nevertheless, an act requiring both courage and decision, especially in view of the DR. JOAO ALFREDO CORREA DE OLIVEIRA. 52 THE NEW BRAZIL circumstances. For it was well known that, in the event of her succession (the emperor’s abdication was regarded as an approaching certainty), Isabel would have to look for her chief support to that class whose interests she was imperilling by giving her consent to the liberation of the slaves. Indeed, it has been claimed that this act was responsible, in a great measure, for the absence of any support from among the friends of the empire in the hour of her direst need. Nevertheless, when this view of the case was afterward presented to the princess, she replied that she did not regret her action, but would do the same thing again under the same circumstances. Before giving the history of the final emancipation bill, it is necessary to record the various steps of the progress made toward this end, in order to appreciate the situation fully. The history of slave-traffic in Brazil dates back to the sixteenth century, the first contract for the importation of slaves having been signed in Rio de Janeiro in 1583. The question of emancipation was agitated early in the colonial days, Abbé Manoel Ribeiro Rocha, of Bahia, having published a work, in Lisbon, in 1758, called ‘‘Ethiope Resgatado,” pleading both for the liberation of slaves after a time of service sufficient to repay their masters for their Soe eae He HMA Aa) OHO EDAD JORDDE ORB OLD CARIOCA AQUEDUCT, RIO DE JANEIRO. purchase, and for the freedom of the children of slave women after reaching fifteen years of age. The Correo Bragiliense published articles in 1808-1822 urging the gradual NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 53 emancipation of slaves. In 1810, Velloso de Oliveira, of Sado Paulo, in a memorial to the Prince Regent Dom Jodo, spoke of granting freedom to the children of slave mothers. In 1822, a | | AAS a say OLD CARIOCA AQUEDUCT SEEN FROM BELOW proposition for the restriction of the slave-trade was presented to the Cortes at Lisbon by one of the Brazilian deputies, Borges de Barros, of Bahia, afterward Viscount de Pedra Branca; but as the Cortes was paying little heed to any suggestions from Brazil just at that particular time, nothing came of it. The importation of slaves was opposed by Domingos Moniz Barreto in 1814, and by Maciel da Costa in 1821. Dr. Antonio Ferreira Franca, deputy from Bahia, offered a project about this time for gradual abolition. Dom José Bonifacio de Andrada took up the question with his characteristic vigor, and in a memorial published in 1825 presented a plan for emancipation. During his exile in Europe, this great man, who has been called the ‘“‘ Father of Brazilian Independence,” continued to work for the abolition cause. He was permitted to return to his beloved country in 1829, and was appointed guardian to the second emperor, upon the abdication of Dom Pedro I. He exerted a powerful influence in behalf of emancipation, speaking and writing in its favor whenever the opportunity was presented. When he finally retired from public life and took up his residence on the picturesque island of Paqueta, where he spent the few remaining years of his life, he still took an interest in the great movement toward the freedom of the slaves. In 1830, the Chamber of Deputies was asked to consider a proposal for the gradual abolition of slavery, to be consummated by March 25, 1881; and, two years later, a project was 54 THE NEW BRAZIL submitted to their consideration which declared all new-born children free. But the Chamber was not ready for such radical measures, and refused to consider them. A law was, however, passed in 1830, making the importation of slaves illegal, but it was constantly evaded. In 1849, a circumstance occurred which gave a new impetus to the anti-slavery move- ment. The first case of yellow fever was brought over to Brazil that year in a slave-ship, and the ravages of the disease were more eloquent as arguments against the traffic than the most inspired speeches on the subject. Gradually, an abolition party was formed, and, as far as consistent with his constitutional obligations, the emperor was its protecting patron. Measures favorable to the slaves continued to be urged by prominent leaders from this time forward. In 1854, the minister Eusebio de Queiros secured the passage of a bill for sup- pressing the trade, which was rigorously enacted, and the old law of 1830, forbidding the importation of slaves, was no longer, in practice, a “dead letter.” Plans for gradual eman- cipation, presented to the emperor by the Marquis de Sado Vicenté, were examined by the Council of State, but action on them was delayed by the breaking-out of the Paraguayan war. AS soon as peace was restored, however, the question received renewed attention, and a project for gradual emancipation, proposed by Viscount de Cruzeiro, was drawn up by a committee of the Chamber of Deputies, August 15, 1870. The following year marked a great victory for the Abolition party, in the passage of the famous “ Rio-Branco” law, secured by the Prime Minister, J. M. da Silva Paranhos, Viscount de Rio-Branco, Septem- ber 28, 1871, after a parliamentary struggle of five months. This law abolished slavery in principle, declaring that all children should be born free, and remain only until their majority in the service of the masters of their mothers in order to pay for the expenses of rearing and education; and making it obligatory on all masters to register the nationality, birthplace, and age of their slaves. All slaves not registered in the annual census were considered free. The deathknell of slavery was really sounded by the passage of the Rio-Branco law, which effectively destroyed the sources of its vitality. The author, the Viscount de Rio- Branco, was one of the greatest statesmen in the history of Brazil and the central figure in Brazilian politics under the empire. As President of the Council, Minister of War, Minister of Finance, and three times Minister of Foreign Affairs, his services to his beloved country were distinguished by absolute devotion to its highest interests. His last term of office as Foreign Minister covered a period of seven years, from 1871 to 1878, being the longest time that any minister in Brazil has held this portfolio, with the single exception of the present chief of the Foreign Office, Baron de Rio-Branco, the son of that noble and illustrious states- man. The genius of Viscount de Rio-Branco was both profound and versatile, and his recognized loyalty and patriotism made him greatly beloved by all Brazilians. In his hands, diplomacy was a powerful instrument for peace and civilization, and the most flourishing period of the empire owed much of its advancement to his initiative and judgment. Viscount de Rio-Branco was born in Bahia, March 16, 1819, and died in Rio, November 1, 1880. A handsome monument by the renowned sculptor Felix Charpentier, which occupies a NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 55 prominent place in the capital, is a lasting evidence of the honor and esteem in which the eminent statesman’s memory is held by the nation. THE GAVEA. Slavery was now destroyed at its two sources,—importation and birth. Not satisfied, however, with this gradual process of stamping out the evil, a new abolition party was formed, in 1880, declaring for immediate emancipation. Among its champions were many leading politicians and journalists: Senators Jaguaribe, Octaviano, and Silveira da Motta, Deputy Joaquim Nabuco, and the well-known journalists Ferreira de Menezes, Gusmao Lobo, Patrocinio, Serra, Reboucgas, Vicente de Souza, and others. The principles of this party were first carried into effect in Amazonas and Ceara, where slaves were freed in 1884. The Rio-Branco law of 1871 was supplemented by a law passed in 1885, chiefly through the efforts of the ministers Saraiva and Cotegipe, and the distinguished Paulista Dr. Antonio da Silva Prado, declaring free all slaves over sixty years of age, on condition that they should serve their masters another three years; marking a scale of redemption prices that would at the end of twelve or thirteen years make the slaves of such little money value that the trade would cease to exist; the value of female slaves was considered one-quarter less than males. The first clause of this law caused a great deal of discussion because it threatened a serious complication, arising out of the false registrations of ages that had been going on since the passage of the Rio-Branco bill, in consequence of the necessity for concealing the previous 56 THE NEW BRAZIL illegal importation of slaves. This was contrary to the old law of 1830, which, as before mentioned, was evaded up to the year 1854. Slaves imported between 1830 and 1854, were, therefore, registered at an age that would admit of the supposition of their importation prior to 1830; as a result, the law of 1885 gave freedom to thousands of slaves actually less than fifty years of age, but “officially” over sixty. The abolition of slavery was now the vital question in Brazilian politics. The aboli- tionists of the north, where there were few slaves, joined with those of Sao Paulo, who, though the possessors of a great many slaves, were fighting for a principle, and together these forces advocated speedy abolition, while representatives from other provinces were opposed to any other method than a gradual emancipation. The Federal capital was the active centre of the abolition movement. In 1887, two chiefs of the Conservative party, Jodo Alfredo Corréa de Oliveira and Antonio da Silva Prado, declared themselves in favor of anew law. Senator Prado, a wealthy planter, and the owner of many hundreds of negroes, set the example of immediate emancipation by liberating all his slaves. Numerous other rich land-owners of this State followed his lead, popular sentiment being greatly influenced by such evidences of self-sacrifice for the sake of principle, not alone here, but throughout the neighboring provinces. Encouraged by the increasing efforts made in their favor, the Slaves on some of the plantations left em masse, and when their owners sought to recover t THE ISLAND OF PAQUETA, HOME OF DOM JOSE BONIFACIO DE ANDRADA. them by law and demanded that the militia should lend assistance, the abolitionists main- tained, as Senator Prado declared, that the army could not be called out against fugitive NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE 57 slaves who had committed no crime. The Provincial Assembly of Sao Paulo voted such a heavy tax on slaves, that it amounted practically to a prohibition, though the vote was not ratified by the president of the province. Finally, the Cotegipe ministry, which favored gradual emancipation, resigned, and the princess regent called upon Senator Corréa de Oliveira to form a new ministry, which came into power on the roth of March, 1888, Senator Antonio da Silva Prado being one of its members. These two leaders realized the importance of immediate action, and at once prepared a law which was presented to the chambers by Roderigo Silva in the name of the cabinet, and passed almost unanimously, granting imme- diate liberty to all slaves, without restriction, on the roth of May, 1888. Following upon the vote of the Senate, the princess regent gave the law her sanction on the same day, affixing her signature with a handsome gold pen which had been purchased by popular subscription and presented to her for this purpose. The whole population of Rio rose in enthusiastic manifestation of joy over the event, all the large cities of the empire joining in the celebra- tion, which extended throughout all America. France observed July 10, 1888, as a féte-day in honor of the event. In the speech from the throne at the opening of parliament on the 3d of May, 1888, the princess regent had urged the passage of a bill for immediate emancipation, in the following language: “To the honor of Brazil, under the influence of national sentiment and individual liberality, the extinction of the servile element has made such progress that it is to-day a hope acclaimed by all classes, with many admirable examples of self-sacrifice on the part of proprietors. Now that private interest itself has worked spontaneously to deliver Brazil from the unhappy heritage which the necessities of tillage bequeathed, | feel assured that you will not hesitate to efface from the national law the single exception which contrasts with the Christian and liberal spirit of our institutions.” And thus the suppression of slavery marked another great event in the progress of Brazil, a victory won entirely in the forum of debate, after a mighty clashing of moral forces, it is true, but without the stain of a single drop of blood. Advancing civilization recognizes the higher standard of politics which is expressed by means of logical and just argument rather than imposed by the barbarous might of the sword; and according to this standard Brazil affords a noble example to all other nations of the world. There have been economic difficulties to face in consequence of the sudden cutting-off of the labor supply on the coffee plantations, but every effort has been made to promote immi- gration, and thus remedy the deficiency; and if some of the former wealthy land-owners have been reduced to poverty by the change, it is as nothing compared with the sad condi- tion of financial affairs that followed the emancipation of slaves in the Southern States of the North American republic. The year following was not marked by any evidences of widespread discontent. Naturally, there was a feeling of bitterness among some of the former slave-owners at the sudden deprivation which they suffered from the law that took away from them what they considered rightful property. But there was no tendency toward open revolt; and 53 THE NEW BRAZIL when the emperor visited the province of Sao Paulo soon after the liberation of the slaves, he was received everywhere with demonstrations of the most friendly character. The love of the people for their sovereign was apparently equal to the severest test, that of self- interest, and in view of the generous welcome which was extended to him by those subjects who had sustained the greatest loss through the signing of the emancipation bill, it seems all the more difficult to imagine the combination of circumstances which was to cause the complete overthrow of his empire and his own banishment within a year from that time. SIR CHARLES STUART, THE BRITISH PLENIPOTENTIARY, DELIVERING TO DOM PEDRO I. HIS MAJESTY’S RECOGNITION OF THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. oF ‘OUMISNVF 9G Od “AYNLINDIUMOV AO AOV1Vd CHAPTER III THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE AND THE GENESIS OF THE REPUBLIC N order to appreciate the original causes that led to the downfall of the empire and the establishment of a republic in Brazil, it is neces- sary to trace the political history of the country back to colonial days. For the principles of republicanism that found their final triumph in the events of November, 1889, were rooted deep ‘in the Brazilian character, which has always been possessed of a goodly share of the New World spirit of independence. Even in the days of her swaddling clothes, her people manifested, in no uncertain manner, that “god-like discon- tent” with existing conditions which is one of the healthy signs of progress. As early as the middle of the sixteenth century, the crown of Portugal recognized as an independent State the territory then governed by Joao Ramalho in.the present State of Sdo Paulo, and gave it the name of Sdo André. It was really a republic in the midst of a royal colony and it thrived for more than a hundred years, until King Joao IV. ascended the throne of Portugal in 1640. The inhabitants had maintained their independence throughout the period of Spanish domination which had resulted from the union of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns in 1580, and they were prepared to refuse allegiance to the Portuguese king when the power of that monarchy was restored. They demanded that noblemen of disinterested Christian blood should be sent to govern them and refused to acknowledge any ruler who would not protect them in their rights. When called upon to swear allegiance to King Dom Jodo IV. of Portugal, they 61 MONUMENT OF THE DUKE DE CAXIAS. 62 THE NEW BRAZIL brought out a ruler of their own, and would have placed him in authority had he not defeated their purpose by proclaiming his allegiance to the king. This republic declined, without its originators suspecting that they had founded one, but the spirit of independence and enterprise exhibited itself in their descendants, and contributed to make the Paulistas the energetic and progressive people they have been in the development of their country, always among the foremost leaders in the political and educational advancement of Brazil. The republican conspiracy of 1789, while it amounted to little in actual results, was, nevertheless, a strong influence in the development of republican principles; it was one of those political “straws that show which way the wind blows.” Had it not been for the re- moval of the Portuguese court to Brazil, which resulted in raising the struggling and oppressed colony to the dignity and advantages of a kingdom, with its ports open to commerce and its industries free to development, it is more than likely that republicanism would have made progress earlier than it did, and the “Tiradentes” conspiracy would have marked more than the beginning of a determined struggle for constitutional liberty. Under the circum- stances, it was, no doubt, at that time best for Brazil that events occurred as they did, for the new country took a long stride forward during the few years that followed the establishment of the court at her capital, notwithstanding the evils which attended the benefits received; and during all this time the independent spirit of the nation was growing healthy and strong. The sentiment that sprang into living action when the Cortes tried to inflict arbitrary measures upon the young government in 1822, was the same in principle as that which caused the famous “Boston Tea Party” in the New England colony. That Brazil became an empire instead of a republic at the time, was due, in a great measure, to the peculiar circumstances of her position. Even as it was, an important advance was made toward the destined goal when her independence from Portugal was secured and a constitutional system of rule established by her own people. The history of the reign of the Emperor Dom Pedro I. is a record of persistent and determined struggles for national liberty as opposed to monarchical domination. The first emperor always maintained that he was governing within the rights granted him by the Constitution. The people did not accept his views, and he was forced to abdicate. They asked the second emperor to revise the Constitution, which he refused to do; and when his ministers took advantage of the authority it gave, and imposed unjust measures, especially through the centralizing system, which was responsible for so many abuses in the provinces, the people became more and more determined in their opposition to the monarchy. Republicanism grew rapidly and spread its influence through all parts of the empire, the government support became weaker and weaker, until there was no longer any question in the public mind regarding the inevitable outcome, which waited only for a favorable opportunity to become manifested. The revolution of 1889, accomplished without bloodshed, would seem to indicate a people obedient to law, not prone to violent action, essentially dissatisfied with the monarchical system and thoroughly imbued with the republican idea. As a matter of fact, the existence of the imperial government had been merely tolerated for some time, and it was only a FALL OF THE EMPIRE AND GENESIS.OF THE REPUBLIC 63 question of the fitness of the occasion when the change should be brought about. The ruling emperor, Dom Pedro II., was well beloved by his people, and it was generally understood that no steps would be taken to overthrow the empire during his lifetime, particularly as he was a man of advanced years and in failing health. But a succession of events occurred which led so unavoidably to the climax, that there was no possibility of pursuing any other course than the one chosen, which, resulted, in November, 1889, in the establishment of the republic and the banish- ment of the imperial family. The first signs of the approaching storm began to show them- Selves when it was ru- mored that the emperor intended to abdicate on the 2d of December, his. birthday, in favor of his ‘daughter, the Crown-Princess Donna Isabel, whose acces- sion to the throne was not considered desir- able. The Republican party, whose two chief strongholds consisted of the “Associated Republi- can Leagues,” organized mainly by Quintino Bo- cayuva, and the “Mili- THE STOCK EXCHANGE, RIO DE JANEIRO, tary Club,” founded by Deodoro da Fonseca at the close of the Paraswacan war, determined to thwart the imperial plans for the succession, and immediately began preparations toward that end. The army and navy were dissatisfied with the restrictions put upon their authority by the ministry, and the army was especially discontented because of the refusal of a petition for increased pay; so that the government had good reason to fear their opposition. _ In order to counter- act these adverse influences, the Count d’Eu, husband of the Princess Isabel, undertook to 64 Goh INS AVA GS ZVAGH create a strong Imperial Guard of Honor as a counterpoise to the power of the army, in case the latter should actively oppose the imperial claims of the crown-princess; and, in addition to this movement, arrangements were made to disperse the army over the remote provinces of the interior, so that military opposition would thereby be effectually weakened in any crisis that might arise. Everything was ready for the carrying out of these projects, and the 15th of November was the day set for the departure of the troops to the interior; on that day, the government suddenly found itself facing the revolution which overcame it and overthrew the empire in twenty-four hours. The members of the emperor’s cabinet at this time were: Imperial Prime Minister and Minister of Finance, Viscount de Ouro Preto; Minister of the Interior, Baron de Loreto; Minister of Justice, Senator Candido de Oliveira; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Diana; Minister of the Army, Viscount de Maralaj; Minister of the Navy, Baron de Ladoris; Minister of Agriculture, Laurencgo de Albuquerque. On the morning of the 15th of November, as Emperor Dom Pedro was leaving the imperial chapel at his summer residence in Petropolis after the service of Mass, he was handed a telegram from the prime minister, requesting him to come to Rio immediately, as insurgents had placed the city under siege, and artillery commanded the streets. The emperor at once complied with the request. On his arrival at the imperial palace in Rio, it was promptly surrounded by the revolutionary troops, and the following manifesto was read, proclaiming the republic: “Fellow-citizens: The people of the army and navy are in perfect accord with the sentiments of our fellow-citizens residing in the provinces. The fall of the imperial dynasty has just been decreed, and the consequent destruction of the monarchical system. As an immediate result of this national revolution, essentially patriotic in its character, there has just been established a provisional government whose principal mission is to guarantee the maintenance of public order and the protection of the liberty and rights of citizens. To carry on the government until the sovereign nation can, through its constitutional organization, Select a definite government, the undersigned citizens were appointed as the chief executive power of the nation. ‘“Fellow-citizens: The Provisional Government—simply the temporary agent of the national sovereignty—is the government of peace, liberty, fraternity, and order. It will use the attributes and extraordinary powers with which it is vested for the defence of the subjects of the country and of public order. The Provisional Government, by all the means at its command, promises to guarantee to all the inhabitants of Brazil, native and foreign, security of life and property, and to respect their rights, both individual and political, except when they require to be limited for the good of the country and for the legitimate defence of the government proclaimed by the people, by the army, and by the navy. “The ordinary functions of justice, as well as those of civil and military administration, will continue to be exercised by those bodies heretofore existing. In regard to those holding FALL OF THE EMPIRE AND GENESIS OF THE REPUBLIC 65 office, the rights acquired by each functionary will be respected. The abolition of the Senate is decreed, and also of the Council of State. The Chamber of Deputies is declared dissolved. “Fellow-citizens: The Provisional Government recognizes and acknowledges all the national engagements contracted by the former government: the treaties with foreign powers; the public debt, both in- ternal and foreign; the contracts now in force, and the obligations le- gally established.” This manifesto was signed by Marshal Deo- doro da Fonseca, chief of the Provisional Gov- ernment; Aristides da Silveira Lobo, Minister Of the: Interior; Ruy Barbosa, Minister of Finance and Justice; Benjamin Constant, Min- ister of War; Eduardo Wandenkolk, Minister of Marine; Quintino Boca- yuva, Minister of Foreign Affairs. After the reading of the manifesto, Dom Pedro held a meeting of his ministers and coun- cillors of State. He en- deavored to form a new ministry, with Saraiva at THE POST OFFICE, RIO DE JANEIRO. the head, but Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca objected to this, and sent the following message to the emperor: “The democratic sentiments of the nation, combined with resentment at the systematic repressive measures of the government against the army and navy, and the spoliation of their rights, have brought about the revolution. In the face of this situation, the presence of the imperial family is impossible. Yielding, therefore, to the exigencies of the national voice, the Provisional Government is compelled to request you to depart from Brazilian territory with your family within twenty-four hours. The government will provide 66 THE NEW BRAZIL at its own expense the proper means for transport, and will afford protection for the imperial family during their embarkation. The government will also continue the imperial dowry fixed by law until the constituted Assembly decides thereon. The country expects that you will know how to imitate the example set by the first emperor of Brazil on April 7, 1831.” Dom Pedro’s answer to this communication, which was promptly sent to Fonseca on the same day, was as follows: “Yielding to the imperiousness of circumstances, I have resolved to set out with my family to-morrow for Europe, leaving this country so dear to us all, and to which I have endeavored to give constant proofs of deep love during the nearly half a century in which I have discharged the office of chief of State. While thus leaving with my whole family, I shall ever retain for Brazil the most heartfelt affection and ardent good wishes for her prosperity.” On the same day, the Countess d’Eu, Princess Isabel, issued the following manifesto: “With a broken heart I part from my friends, from the whole people of Brazil, and from my country, which I have so loved and still do love, toward whose happiness I have done my best to contribute, and for which | shall ever entertain the most ardent good wishes.” The Count d’Eu wrote to the Minister of War, resigning command of the artillery, and requesting leave to go abroad, adding that he had loyally served Brazil, and that but for the circumstances which obliged him to quit the country, he would be ready to serve it under any form of government. At two o’clock in the morning of the following day, General Deodoro sent one of his officers and a detachment of soldiers with orders to the imperial family to embark forthwith, it being deemed unadvisable to wait until daylight lest some demonstration in the streets might lead to bloodshed. The Crown-Princess Isabel, the Count d’Eu, and their children walked to the quay, which was but a short distance from the Palace, followed immediately by the emperor and empress in a carriage guarded by troops. The party embarked on a steam-launch, and were taken on board a man-of-war which conveyed them to Ilha Grande (the present quarantine station, about sixty miles from the capital), where they remained until the afternoon, when they were transferred to the steamship Alagoas, accompanied by two lieutenants of the navy commissioned to see that the steamer went direct to Lisbon. The Alagoas was also convoyed a part of the way by the Brazilian ironclad Riachuelo. The first official notification of the revolution sent abroad was directed to the Brazilian legation in London, and read as follows: “ BRAZILIAN MINISTER, LONDON: “The government is constituted as the ‘Republic of the United States of Brazil,’ the monarchy is deposed, and the imperial family have left the country. Tranquillity and general satisfaction prevail. The executive power is intrusted to a Provisional Government, whose head is Marshal Deodoro, with myself as Finance Minister. The Republic respects all engagements, obligations, and contracts of the State. “Ruy BARBOSA, Finance Minister.” temo THES EMPIRETAND GENESIS-OF [HE REPUBLIC 67 It is a remarkable fact, and one without a parallel in history, that within a few days after the proclamation of the republic there was, in the general appearance of things, little to indicate that the empire had ever existed. The revolution was carried out with a sobriety, a coolness, an attention to detail, and a general finish about all the arrangements, which in all the circumstances of the case were really remarkable. Everything indicated that the leaders of the revolution did nothing more than peacefully enact a change upon which the heart of the country had long been set. In the carrying out of their programme, the republicans showed no animosity toward the old emperor, for whom, personally, there was a general feeling of regard. Their quarrel was not with the gentle scholar who represented in his person the monarchical government, but with the system itself and the constituted authorities who had abused its powers. Dom Pedro II. was a man of many good qualities, a student, and a lover of science. Agassiz once said of him: “Alas! Dom Pedro is a most unfortunate man ; ‘for, if he were not an emperor, he would be a scientist.” An impartial biographer describes him as “not a man born to rule millions.” Art, engineering, classic lore, nothing came amiss to him, and he talked equally well on all subjects, showing a remarkable memory and wonderful versatility. He was refined and courtly in manner, and scrupulously careful to avoid hurting the susceptibilities of others. He never refused to visit a school, a hospital, or institution of any kind; he was in his element in any international exhibition, equally interested in every department. He gave foreigners of culture a cordial welcome to his court, whatever might be their social position; and he expected every Brazilian to have tastes similar to his own. As a natural consequence, his court was noted for its culture and simplicity, and the Brazilian nobility were distinguished for intellectual accomplishments and refinement rather than for magnifi- cent display. Though Dom Pedro II. was not gifted with the more dominating qualities of a ruler he had the best royal blood of Europe in his veins. He was descended from the Hapsburgs, the Bourbons, and the Braganzas. By marriage, he was related to the royal and imperial families of England, France, Russia, Spain, and Italy, and his relatives ranked from the most despotic of rulers to the mildest of constitutional monarchs. He married, in 1843, the Princess Theresa Christina Maria, daughter of King Francis I. of the Sicilies, and their family consisted of two sons, who died in childhood, and two daughters, one of whom is still living and has her residence in Paris,—the Princess Isabel, wife of the Count d’Eu, and mother of three sons, Dom Pedro, Dom Luis, and Dom Antonio. The Princess Leopoldina, younger sister of the Princess Isabel, died in 1871, leaving four sons, of whom three are living,—Dom Pedro Auguste, Dom Auguste, and Dom Louis Gaston. Dom Pedro II. had three sisters, of whom the eldest was Queen Maria II. of Portugal; the others, Donna Januaria, who married Prince Louis of Bourbon, Count of Aquila; and Donna Francisca, who married the Prince de Joinville, son of Louis Philippe. Dom Pedro died at Paris, on the sth of December, 1891, and was buried in Lisbon, the home of his ancestors. Many causes have been suggested as having led to the fall of Dom Pedro and of the empire, and conservatives in Europe asserted that the Brazilian empire fell on account 68 THE NEW BRAZIL of its liberalism. But Castelar came nearer the true cause when he intimated that an empire surrounded by republics and unable to keep its great army continually amused by conquest and military glory had in it the element of death—the seed of a better life. “When the time came,” says Castelar, ‘‘a worn-out régime was supplanted by the fitting organism of contemporary democracy.” This seems to be about the real gist of the case; monarchy had run its course, and could no longer exist upon American soil. The rule of Dom Pedro was not particularly irksome; in fact, the monarch himself was well beloved, but during his reign the psychological moment arrived for the institution of a republic. It was nota MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL, RIO DE JANEIRO. question regarding the reigning sovereign; the handwriting was upon the wall, the people felt inspired to obey its mandates, and so the shadow of the crown passed away from Brazil forever. Other causes may have hastened a result that could not, in any event, have long been stayed. As Castelar says: “The hour had come.” And with that hour a new republic was created, almost without disturbing circumstances. Everything was ready and await- ing it, On January 29, 1890, the President of the United States of America formally recog- nized the Provisional Government by accepting the credentials of J. G. do Amaral Valente as Minister to the United States, and of Senhor Salvador de Mendonca as minister on a Special mission to the United States. Pe Ole AEeEMeIREVANDSGENESIS OF THE REPUBLIC 69 Among the first acts of the Provisional Government was the issuing of a decree granting the right of suffrage to every male Brazilian citizen who could read and write, unless deprived of his civil and political rights, the electoral process being left to the decision of the Minister of the Interior. A commission was next appointed, consisting of Dr. Joaquim Saldanho Marinho, president, and Dr. Americo Brasiliense de Almeida Mello, Dr. Antonio Luiz dos Santos Werneck, Dr. Francisco Rangel Pestana, and Dr. José Antonio Pereira de Magalhaes Castro, to prepare the draft of a Federal Constitution. On December 21st, a decree was issued naming September 15, 1890, as the time for holding a general election for delegates to the Constituent Assembly, and November 15, 1890, the anniversary of the revolution, as the date for its first session, which should take place at Rio de Janeiro. A confederation of twenty States, consisting of the former provinces, was formed, adding the Federal district of the capital. The separation of Church and State was declared, and State patronage of religious institutions abolished, though it was guaranteed to furnish ecclesiastical revenue and support for the actual personnel of the Catholic Church, and to subsidize the seminary professorships for one year. Titles of rank were abolished, though those who possessed them were allowed by courtesy to bear them still. An order of the Legion of Honor was created and the Military Cross was retained. All other orders were abolished. Officials who adhered to the monarchy were allowed to retire and a few were discharged. Public institutions, vessels of the navy, etc., which had been named in honor of the banished dynasty, were christened afresh, the crown emblems were everywhere replaced by stars, and a new national flag was adopted by a decree signed on. the 19th of November, 1889. This flag while changed in some respects from the emblem of the empire, preserves the old national colors, the government considering that, as they remind the people of many hard-fought battles and glorious victories of the army and navy in defence of their country, they should be retained to symbolize, inde- pendently of the form of government, the perpetuity and integrity of the country among the nations. Accordingly, the flag adopted by the republic maintains the tradition of the old national colors,—green and yellow,—having a yellow lozenge on a green ground, and in the centre a blue sphere crossed by a white zone descending obliquely from left to right, bearing the motto: Ordem e Progresso [order and progress]; in the blue sphere are twenty-one stars, including the famous “Southern Cross,” placed according to the correct astronomical situation, representing the twenty States of the Union and the Federal district. The decree authorizing the adoption of the new flag bears the signatures of the provisional President and his cabinet: Manoel Deodoro da Fonseca, Aristides da Silveira Lobo, Ruy Barbosa, Quintino Bocayuva, Manoel Ferraz de Campos Salles, Benjamin Constant, and Eduardo Wandenkolk. It was not to be expected that absolute harmony would reign from the beginning in all departments of the government under such a radical change in the whole order of things. Signs of discontent appeared when the governors and assemblies of the several provinces were dismissed and their places filled principally from the military ranks; when commissions 70 THE NEW BRAZIL were appointed to govern in the place of the city councils of Rio de Janeiro and Para; and more especially when prolonged delay occurred in calling the constitutional convention, which led to a suspicion that the new Constitution was to be promulgated by a decree without being submitted to the approval of the people. However, no very serious disturb- ance occurred, and when Congress met, its first efforts were directed to adopting or amending the provisions of the Constitution submitted for its approval by the commission that had : drafted it. When the articles were finally adopted, an elec- tion was held, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca was made Presi- dent, the first of the republic of Brazil, and members were elected to the Senate and House. of Representatives. At the first election under the new government, the Sen- ate had 63 members, 3 from each State and 3 from the Fed- eral district. The Chamber of. Deputies had 205 members, of which there were 37 from Minas Geraes; 22 from each of the two States of Sao Paulo and Bahia; 17 from each of the two States of Rio and Pernambuco; 16 from Rio Grande do Sul; 10 from Ceara; 10 from the Fed- eral district; 7 from each of the two States of Para and Maranhao; 6 from Alagoas; 5 ‘a from Parahyba; 4 from each RUA DO OUVIDOR, RIO DE JANEIRO. of the five States of Piauhy, Rio Grande do Norte, Sergipe, Parana, and Santa Catharina; 3 from Goyaz, and 2 from each of the States of Amazonas, Espirito Santo, and Matto Grosso. The creation of the new republic required the determined will and unswerving patriotism of her people; the preparation of a Constitution for her future government demanded not only these qualities, but, in addition, clear-headed judgment and executive genius in the leaders chosen to represent her interests. After years of trial, during which the new republic has encountered all the discouraging factors that invariably hamper the progress of the Peo Pe eLobeeMEiReed NDS GENESIS “Of ‘ 5 . oe i Fi +, Sas , . a ' ~t ~ t i ; ‘ +. es 25 2 Pye a vy - j £ 1 » =% : =¥ 1 THE LIBRARY th ede OF TES oa eae QAHVERSITY OF MLNOS SS eee , i f i 5 j * F r t : J v » 4 i >< i cn | +5 sc . CHAPTER 1V THE FIRST DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC HE inauguration of the republic of Brazil without bloodshed or serious disturb- ance must always be regarded as one of the most brilliant events in the history of the world. For the first time in the annals of nations, monarchical rule was overthrown and a republic established without the hor- rors of civil war.. Madame de Staél vainly hoped that France would have the honor of such a history, but Gallic liberties, and free and popular governments everywhere, save in Brazil, have been purchased with the price of blood. In terrible contrast with the record of this peaceful revolution are the bloody pages that tell how, amid a festival of carnage and crime, the crown and sceptre of the old régime passed away from France. Se The revolution in Brazil was really a gradual STATUE OF GENERAL OSORIO. evolution from the days when a sort of Magna Charta was obtained from Dom Pedro I. He was obliged to give the people a large measure of liberty in exchange for his crown, and he and his successor ruled by the consent of the governed, not by divine right. In the course of her political changes, Brazil has been singularly free from retrogressive steps. Every effort on the part of her monarchs to usurp undue authority has been met with determined resistance. é To those who did not appreciate the real condition of Brazil at the time of the banish- ment of the royal family, this act seemed unnecessarily harsh, and one that might have been 7g 80 THE NEW BRAZIL delayed until the death of Dom Pedro II. But a false, and generally entertained idea prevailed regarding the rule of Dom Pedro, based upon his really high moral qualities, but exaggerated by those whose admiration was bestowed rather upon the monarch than the man. In the eyes of Europe and America, Dom Pedro was esteemed the best possible ruler for the needs of Brazil. But those who live under a government are the best judges of its merits, and the people of Brazil chafed under the absorption of too much power by the crown in defiance of constitutional privileges which had been guaranteed them. The centralization of power was stifling the provinces in the political embrace of the court. This and other abuses, such as constant deficits in the budget, led a prominent revolu- tionist of the day to declare with bitterness that the error of the Brazilians had been in warming in their bosom the viper of monarchy, whose victim they had become.- Dom Pedro was an excellent monarch, but he represented an element that could not flourish upon American soil. There could be but one logical outcome to the long struggle between monarchical ‘and democratic principles. The latter accorded with New-World ideas, and naturally triumphed. A great law was behind them, the law of the “survival of the fittest.” There was a diversity of opinion at the time of,the first election under the republic as to the wisdom of choosing a military leader for the presidency, but the popular vote favored this course. That President Deodoro allowed military methods to govern his policy is not Surprising, and that mistakes were made by him through too great a confidence in the neces- sity of military discipline is no serious proof against his good intentions. Under the trying conditions that confronted the young republic, the great marvel is that matters progressed as favorably as they did. The first signs of discord appeared when Congress, immediately after the election, began to inquire into the actions of the Provisional Government. A dis- agreement arose between Congress and the executive; there was dissension in the cabinet; and the resignations followed of the Ministers of Agriculture, the Interior, Foreign Affairs, and Finance. Just at this time, the Minister of War, Benjamin Constant, died. In his death, Brazil lost one of her greatest men, and one of the prime movers in the creation of the republic. As a scholar and an educator, he was widely known and honored, devoting his attention especially to the science of mathematics, upon which he wrote several valuable treatises. As the head of the military academy at Rio, he had always exerted a powerful influence in political affairs, and his devotion to the republican cause had been shown in stirring speeches made to the students, urging them to defend the sacred principles of liberty at whatever cost, and to resist all measures aimed against their rights and privileges. In all his addresses he had advocated the establishment of a republican form of government, and thought the time propitious for striking a decisive blow against the monarchy. Opposing the idea, favored by so many of the republicans, of allowing the empire to remain until the death of the Emperor Dom Pedro II., he claimed that no man, however admirable his per- sonal character, should be permitted to stand in the way of national progress, or to delay, even for the shortest time, the establishment of right government in accordance with the sovereign will of the people. It was largely through his influence that events took Te eS DAYS OF HERERUBL/C 81 the course they did on the memorable Fifteenth of November, 1889; for, though he had secured the promise of Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca the night before, to call out the troops, it had not been the marshal’s intention to head a revolution against the empire, but only to demand the resignation of the ministry and the reform of certain abuses; it was too late to draw back, however, when the cry of “Viva a Republica!” was raised, and there was no alternative for the military commander but to accept the situation, and acknowledge the honor forced upon him as leader of the revolutionary movement against the monarchy and in favor of the republic. All this had been foreseen by Benjamin Constant, who realized the necessity of having a strong military power at the head of the revolution and afterward as leader of the new government, and for this reason, it is said, declined to become a candidate for the first presidency, though the people would perhaps have chosen him, had his name VIEW OF THE NATIONAL MINT, OVERLOOKING THE PRAGA DA REPUBLICA, RIO DE JANEIRO. been placed in nomination. As Secretary of War under the Provisional Government, his Services were of great value, and his unflinching opposition to all measures that he thought unjust or savoring of favoritism won him the approval of all classes. He reorganized the military schools, and when he left the war office to take charge of the new Department of Public Instruction, exercised his unbounded activities in reforms and improvements calcu- lated to raise this department of the government to the highest plane of usefulness. At his death, Congress voted a pension to his wife and daughters, the erection of a monument to his memory in the Praga da Republica, and a national funeral. He has been called the Father of the Republic. One of the chief causes of the disturbance of political harmony at this time was the existing state of financial affairs. In consequence of the exodus of negroes that followed emancipation, the question of securing labor on the plantations had become a serious one; 82 THE NEW BRAZIL and in order to improve these conditions, the Provisional Government voted large sums of money for immigration purposes. As the treasury had been greatly depleted under the empire by the expenses of the Paraguayan war, it was deemed advisable to raise the neces- sary funds by an issue of paper in excess of the proportion of gold formerly deposited as a basis, and this action resulted in a fall in exchange which alarmed Coneress and led it to pass a bill restricting the issue of paper money. A conflict followed between the President and Congress, and the President vetoed this and other bills passed by that body; in retalia- tion for which a measure was introduced to deprive the President of the vetoing power. On October 20, 1890, Senators Saraiva and Wandenkolk resigned their seats. They were both very influential men, Senator Saraiva having been one of the popular presidential possi- bilities when Deodoro was elected, and Senator Wandenkolk was formerly an admiral of the imperial navy, and the first Minister of Marine under the Provisional Government. Their resignations were intended as a protest against the existing order of things, and were designed to force an election for a new Congress. The crisis came when Congress sought to nullify the President’s veto by passing acts over his disapproval. The president of the Chamber of Deputies, Senhor Matto Machado, ruled that the vetoed bills could not be considered during the same session; the Chamber overruled his decision, and he resigned, Senhor Bernardino de Campos being elected in his place. On November 2d, an act was passed in the Senate, over the President’s veto, providing for a method of impeaching the President; and on the following morning the Senators and Deputies were prevented by a military force, with threats of arrest, from entering the chambers. The same day, the following decree was published: “The President of the Republic of the United States of Brazil, in view of what at this date he explains in a manifesto to the country, decrees the National Congress elected Sep- tember 15, 1890, hereby dissolved. The nation is convoked to choose new representatives at a date that will hereafter be designated. The new Congress will proceed to revise the Constitution of the 24th of February of the present year in points that will be made known in the decree of convocation. Let the minister of State of the affairs of the interior cause it to be executed. “MANOEL DEODORO DA FONSECA. “Federal Capital, November 3, 1891.” This was immediately followed by another decree declaring Rio de Janeiro in a state of siege, suspending constitutional guarantees, and appointing a commission to try persons proved to be enemies of the republic or disturbers of public order, with power to banish those found guilty. These edicts practically declared a dictatorship, as the President had no power constitutionally either to adjourn Congress or declare amendments to the Constitu- tion, nor, except in cases of revolt, to suspend legal procedure. The manifesto issued by the President, in justification of his course, did not meet with approval, and discontent broke ace ik eA SORE THERRECPUBLIG 83 out in open revolution. The State of Rio Grande do Sul, with Silveira Martins at its head, openly defied the authority of Deodoro, and declared its intention to secede from the republic, and similar threats came from Para and Pernambuco. The President ordered troops to Rio Grande do Sul to prevent the State authorities from carrying their declaration of independence into effect. The resistance was so powerful—an army of fifty thousand men having been raised with General Osorio at their head, “prepared to march on Rio and depose the dictator,’ as General Osorio’s manifesto threatened—that a dispatch was sent from the government saying that fair terms would be accepted in order to restore peace and tranquillity in the State; to which the revolutionary Junta, with Dr. Assis Brasil at its head, answered that the forces would not disarm until Deodoro should resign the presidency and Congress be reassembled at Rio de Janeiro. On November 21st, the Presi- dent issued a proclamation appointing Feb- ruary 29, 1892, as the date for the general election, and May 3d for the assembling of the a pakaapian ps aye he ae feel aleve a next Congress. He recommended that the Constitution should be amended to secure the independence of the judiciary and the execu- tive by introducing safeguards to uphold the President’s veto, by enlarging the powers of the executive, and limiting those of Congress, and by reducing the number of Representatives. But Deodoro’s downfall was assured, the navy and three-fourths of the army declaring against him; and when Admiral Wandenkolk and other leaders issued a military pronun- ciamento against him, which was followed, on November 23d, by a demand for his abdica- tion within twenty-four hours, “‘the dictator” realized the hopelessness of his position, and tendered his resignation through his Prime Minister and friend, Baron Lucena, issuing a manifesto announcing his retirement, and stating that his motive in so doing was to avoid bloodshed. As soon as President Deodoro resigned, the insurgents in Rio Grande do Sul laid down their arms. The first President of the republic was too much of a soldier to be a successful poli- tician, but Brazilians will readily forgive him the grave political blunder that endangered for a while the peace of their country, and will remember him with gratitude. Manoel Deodoro da Fonseca was a native of Rio Grande do Sul, where he was born in 1834. Educated at the Polytechnic School of Rio de Janeiro, he received an excellent military training, and 84 THE NEV BIA entered the army after graduating with honors. During the war with Paraguay, he distin- guished himself in the battle of Mossoro, being promoted on the field from lieutenant to major. At the close of the war, he was decorated by the Emperor Dom Pedro II. with the order of the Rose. He was afterward given charge of the government cartridge-factory and magazine at Rio de Janeiro, and raised to the rank of general. An enthusiastic republican, he organized, at the close of the Paraguayan war, the “Military Club,” which exerted a powerful influence in favor of republicanism in the army. He was the military chief of the revolution, though that position was not altogether voluntary, his friendship for the emperor and appreciation of many favors received from that high source making him reluctant to strike the blow that would fall with crushing effect upon his gracious benefactor. Once having accepted the responsibility, however, he was strong and determined in carrying out the plan arranged, as the events connected with it prove. A few months after his enforced resignation as President, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca died, on the 23d of August, 1892. In personal appearance, the first President was short, sinewy, and of dark complexion, with a gray moustache and beard. His eyes are described as having been remarkable for their brightness and keenness of expression, and his manner was vehement and impressive. Immediately after the resignation of President Deodoro da Fonseca, Marshal Floriano Peixoto, the Vice-President, was installed as President, with the following cabinet: Minister of Foreign Affairs, Fernando Lobo Leite Pereira; Minister of Agriculture, Antao de Faria; Minister of Justice, José Hygino Duarte Pereira; Minister of Marine, Admiral Custodio José de Mello; Minister of War, General Sim6es de Oliveira; Minister of Finance, Rodrigues Alves. In answer to a decree issued November 25, 1891, the Congress which had been dis- solved by President Deodoro reassembled on December 18, 1891, all the States being represented. The bills vetoed by the former President were passed over the veto. A new electoral law was enacted, one of the provisions of which stated that in case the presidency or the vice-presidency should become vacant within two years from the beginning of the term, a new election should be held within three months after the vacancy occurs. A delay in carrying out this provision soon caused discontent among the people, which was fostered and increased by an apparent disposition on the part of the President to interfere with the rights of the States by forcing them to accept governors not elected by them, but appointed under Federal authority. A manifesto was issued by some friends of the former President, condemning the methods of President Floriano, and calling upon him to “put an end to the disruption of the government by ordering a speedy election of a President, in accordance with the requirements of the Constitution and the last electoral law, free from all military pressure.” This declaration was treated as a military conspiracy, and the signers were banished. The State of Matto Grosso, resenting the attempt of the Federal authorities to remove its governor and put another in his place, rose in revolt, and in April, 1892, by the action of the State legislature, proclaimed itself an independent nation, under the name of the “Republica Transatlantica,” raising its standard of blue and green with a yellow star . in the centre. After a brief struggle, the revolt was quelled, and the insurgent leaders made Hee SOR eile REPUBLIC 85 their escape to Bolivia. In Rio Grande do Sul, the secession movement was revived, and bitter strife followed between the secessionists, or, as they were called, “Federalists,” and the State government. The central government intervened, and sent forces to defend the es- tablished authorities. This action was strongly opposed by the navy, and led to the resigna- tion of the Ministers of Finance and Marine, although Rear-Admiral Custodio de Mello had been the staunch friend and ally of Floriano in bringing about the downfall of the pre- vious administration. They were succeeded by Rear-Admiral Chaves as Minister of Marine, and Dr. Freire as Minister of Finance. The animosity of the navy was increased when a decree was issued declaring a trial by court- martial in the case of Admiral Wandenkolk, who had been sent by the central govern- ment to Rio Grande to report on the existing conditions, and had openly espoused the cause of the Federalists, joining General Silveira Mar- tins in an unsuccessful attempt to take. the city of Rio Grande, which had resulted in his capture. The navy also resented the growing power of the army, which threatened to eclipse its own. The “Historic Republicans,” an organization led by Ruy Barbosa and other members of the old Provisional Government, strongly opposed the President’s policy of interference with the internal affairs of the States, and joined the navy in a protest against court-martial trial for ex-Admiral Wandenkolk. The Senate, taking action in the matter, decided, by a small majority vote, that the trial should take place in the regular courts. This did not, however, alter the hostile attitude of the navy, and a revolution was the outcome. Although the navy’s course was declared to be based purely upon motives of patriotism, there were many who believed that Admiral Custodio de Mello’s real purpose in fostering a revolution was to succeed to the presidency himself. Other rumors accused him of plotting for the restoration of the monarchy. Whatever was his design, he had the navy with him in his efforts, and on the evening of the 5th of September, 1893, while the officers of the fleet anchored in the harbor of Rio were at the opera, the admiral, with several of his friends, went on board the Aguidaban and raised his flag, afterward going to the other vessels and completing arrangements by which every government ship in the harbor was under his orders. The following morning, he sent a message to General Peixoto demanding his resignation and the surrender of the government offices within six hours. MARSHAL FLORIANO PEIXOTO, SECOND PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL. 86 TOE NEV SBA General Peixoto defied the naval squadron, and immediately took measures to frustrate the revolution, Congress voting him legal authority and supplies. By authority of Congress, Rio and Nictheroy were declared in a state of siege, and the President was empowered to extend this declaration to any part of the country. The press was placed under rigorous censorship, and telegraphic communication was cut off between Rio and the rest of the world. To prevent a landing, about six thousand troops of the army were distributed in the fortifications and strategic points of the bay, and a considerable force of infantry and artillery was sent to Nictheroy, the capital of the State of Rio, on the opposite bank of the bay, in order to keep open communication with the fortress of Santa Cruz, which guarded the entrance to the harbor. Admiral Mello’s forces, including officers, marines, and Sailors, were not sufficient to attempt a landing on the well-guarded shores of the bay. Neither could the ships venture out to sea past the forts and torpedoes at the harbor’s entrance. The admiral had threatened to bombard the city if the forts fired on the ships; and as this was done, he opened fire on September 13th, first on the forts near Nictheroy, and afterward on the arsenal and public buildings facing the water-front in Rio. The port was blockaded to all Brazilian vessels, foreign vessels being allowed to enter and depart under protection of their country’s warships. On September 22d, a second bombardment took place, causing a panic among the citizens. Admiral Custodio de Mello issued a proclamation charging President Peixoto, “aided by corrupt Senators and venal Deputies,” with overriding the constitutional limits of his power and “introducing a régime of arbitrary tyranny”; and promising that, if successful in his stand for liberty, the government would be handed over to the same honorable men who had given freedom to the nation before. Four members of Congress who were on board the Aguidaban consti- tuted themselves a provisional government and issued a proclamation giving the command of the forces to Admiral Custodio de Mello for the purpose of restoring peace and reéstab- lishing law and order and republican principles. The President held his ground with determination. He obtained loans of four million dollars to meet the expenses of the government, and arranged to fit out a squadron to fight the rebels on the sea. On October 1oth, the bombardment of Rio was resumed because the shore batteries had not ceased firing on the fleet, and at the same time the admiral issued a new proclamation declaring that in the event of his success he would adhere to republican institutions (this in answer to the charge that he aimed at an imperial restoration), that none of the leaders of the rebellion aspired to power for their own benefit, but for the restoration of peace to the oppressed country, and for the liberation of a people who had been sacrificed by the want of patriotism and the reckless ambition of the head of the government. Meantime, President Floriano had provided himself with a fleet. He purchased some merchant vessels in the United States and converted them into warships, and secured the torpedo gun-boat Destroyer (which, however, never saw active service), besides nine torpedo-boats bought in Europe. The Nictheroy was armed with a pneumatic gun for THE FIRST DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC 87 dynamite bombs, invented by a United States army captain. The America was provided with an armament of heavy guns, and four torpedo-boats were fitted out and equipped with Hotchkiss guns. The /iradentes was put in working order, and manned by a crew under the command of Rear-Admiral Gongalvez. Two Brazilian merchant ships were transformed into gun-boats. Rear-Admiral Duarte was given command of a naval division at Bahia. In Rio Grande do Sul the Federalists gained ground for a time, and one town after another fell into their hands; and at Desterro, in the State of Santa Catharina, they effected a landing and placed troops in the field, which, however, were defeated, as well as a body of Federalists that came to join them from Rio Grande do Sul. General Saraiva and General Salgado were the leaders of the Federalists in the South. PRACA DA REPUBLICA, RIO DE JANEIRO. In November, Admiral Custodio de Mello succeeded in running out of Rio harbor with the Aquidaban and the armed transport Esperanga, under the fire of the forts, and Commo- dore Elisar Tavares, left in charge of the remaining naval force, was placed under the com- mand of Admiral Saldanha da Gama. The departure of Admiral Custodio de Mello from Rio harbor with the best ships of the insurgent navy at the very time when the government’s fleet was known to be concentrating there, was supposed by many to signify that his aims and purposes were not in harmony with those of Saldanha da Gama, who was known to be working for the restoration of the monarchy. Admiral Saldanha’s support came chiefly from the churchmen and the imperialists, with whom the Federalists of the South had nothing in common except hostility to the government of President Floriano Peixoto. 88 THE NEVE BRAZIL It was assumed that Admiral Custodio de Mello’s first desire was to save the cause in the South without regard to the situation at Rio. He hoped to succeed in establishing a provisional government in Santa Catharina, with the aid of the Federalist leaders of Rio Grande do Sul; international law requiring that a revolutionary government must administer some considerable portion of the territory before it can be recognized as a belligerent power, whereas the insurgents controlled, so far, only the little island of Santa Catharina. In the harbor of Rio the firing between the forts and the rebel ships became more frequent toward the end of the year 1893, the guns on both sides being: better managed than in the earlier engagements. The city suffered a great deal in consequence, and busi- ness was practically suspended for a time, people moving away to be out of range of the guns. Meantime, the necessity of placing a strong force in the southern country to combat the insurgents had resulted in weakening the central government’s defence of the Federal capital and the shores of the bay. Saldanha da Gama was reinforced, January 12, 1894, by the return of the Aguidaban, which enabled him to maintain his position in the bay, which had been seriously threatened, as the government troops had succeeded in compelling him to retire from his best strongholds. He now advanced so boldly that he was able to put a Stop to all commerce, until checked by the American admiral A. K. Benham, at that time commanding the South Atlantic Squadron in the harbor of Rio. The action of Admiral Benham in raising the blockade against American merchant ships in the harbor had a deterring effect upon the operations of the rebels. Admiral Benham objected to the order prohibiting foreign vessels from entering within the line of danger when no firing was in progress, claiming that it was an unjustifiable interruption of commerce, and promised the captain of an American merchant ship that if he would unload his cargo in lighters flying the American flag he would be protected. At first, the rebels forbade the landing; but Admiral Benham stood firm in the attitude he had taken, and they abandoned all efforts at resistance. On January 23d, Admiral Benham invited the insurgent commander to an informal conference on board the New York, and having already ascertained the views of President Peixoto, counselled Admiral da Gama to give up the struggle. Admiral da Gama demanded the unconditional surrender of Floriano Peixoto and a free vote throughout the country as to the form of government and representation in Congress. President Floriano, on his side, demanded that neither a military nor a naval man should be eligible for the next President, but that he must be a civilian. In the South, the revolutionary struggle continued in all its bitterness. In Parana, General Saraiva formed a junction with Admiral Custodio de Mello, and, with the codpera- tion of the sailors, they captured the port of Paranagua, took possession of the provincial capital of Curityba, and advanced to southern Sao Paulo. The outlook was not promising just at this time for the government, the President having angered some of his best friends by the severity of his military discipline. The acting Minister of War, General Galvdo, resigned because of his disapproval of the treatment of political prisoners. The confidence aie ey SOL HER EPOBLIC ; 89 of many faithful supporters was shaken by a suspicion of the clandestine issue of paper money by the government. The commander of the fort of Santa Cruz, General Macedo, was arrested on a charge of disloyalty because of the repeated successful attempts of the Aquidaban in putting in and out of the harbor. In view of these circumstances, added to the fact that most of the regular army had been sent to defend Sao Paulo against the attack of Saraiva and Custodio de Mello, Saldanha da Gama determined to make a bold strike for possession of the land defences. A battle took place on the gth of February, resulting in 550 killed and wounded of Peixoto’s men and 272 of Saldanha da Gama’s, the admiral himself MILITARY SCHOOL, RIO DE JANEIRO. being wounded in the neck and arm. Not long after this, the insurgents lost the warships Venus and Jupiter and the transport Mercurio, which were sunk by shells from the government forts. After Admiral Saldanha’s reverse, the commanders in the South determined to strike at Santos. A portion of the National Guard joined the rebel standard under General Saraiva, whose idea it was to invade the State of Sao Paulo, with the ultimate object of entering Rio de Janeiro, while General Salgado kept in check the government garrison at Porto Alegre, in Rio Grande do Sul, preventing it from moving northward. Sado Paulo was still strongly held by government troops and forces, which the State had put at the disposal of the central government, and Santos was strengthened against the expected rebel attack. go THE NEWS Bicd Zk This was the situation of affairs when the election, on March 1, 1894, was held for a President to succeed President Peixoto on the following November 15th. The rebels claimed that the election should have taken place in October, 1893; but the naval revolt and the declaration of martial law made an election at that time impracticable. Senators from most of the States had met in December, 1893, and nominated Dr. Prudente Moraes President. The state of siege was suspended, nominally in order that the election might take place under constitutional forms. The voting resulted in the election of Prudente Moraes for President and Manoel Victorino Pereira for Vice-President. In Rio Grande, Parana, and Santa Catharina, where the insurgents were in the ascendency, no election was held. After the election, the state of siege was prolonged until May. By a decree of February 234d, all crimes connected with the rebellion were made punishable by martial law, even if committed by civilians. Another decree, issued March 2d, authorized the Minister of War to raise regular troops by forcible conscription. Equipped with strong reinforcements, President Peixoto on March 11th gave forty-eight hours’ notice of a general engagement, and the people of Rio and the ships in the harbor were warned to get out of range. The next day, Admiral Saldanha offered, through the Portuguese Minister, to surrender on condition that immunity should be granted to all connected with the rebellion, that officers who were imprisoned should be pardoned, and all superior officers should be allowed to resign their commissions on prom- ising never again to take up arms against the government of Brazil. He then took refuge on a Portuguese man-of-war, and sent another message, demanding that the lives of private - insurgents should be spared. President Peixoto replied that no terms would be considered but unconditional surrender. ‘The rebels escaped on the Portuguese men-of-war, and when President Peixoto demanded their surrender, the commander refused to give them up without orders from his government. Most of the refugees finally made their escape. Meantime, Admiral Custodio de Mello, who had been directing all his energies to the cause of the Federalists in the South, had returned again to Santa Catharina, where he was joined by Salgado, and, reorganizing and assuming the presidency of the Provisional Goy- ernment there, had proceeded to appoint, in the place of the cabinet, a commission of three men representing the three revolted States. This had led to a quarrel in the rebel ranks, and the “Junta” at Desterro, under the leadership of Custodio de Mello, Saraiva, and Salgado, had been repudiated by the Federalists of Rio Grande do Sul. Early in April, Admiral Custodio de Mello and General Salgado attacked the city of Rio Grande do Sul by sea and land, but there was lack of harmony in their operations, and they were defeated. Mean- time, a fleet sent by the central government bombarded the forts at Desterro, and, after a brief naval engagement with the insurgents, succeeded in destroying the Aguidaban, which had been the mainstay of the revolt and the principal target of the government’s guns throughout the rebellion. After the loss of the Aquidaban, the forts and vessels at Desterro were abandoned by the insurgents, the rebel junta fled to the South, and General Saraiva’s forces retreated to the frontier. Admiral Custodio de Mello, after leaving General Salgado with 400 men on the Uruguayan territory, departed for Argentina, where he surrendered THE FIRST DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC 91 with his command of 1200 men, his five vessels, and his arms, on condition that they should not be delivered up to the Brazilian government. President Peixoto proclaimed pardon for all privates concerned in the rebel- lion, and on April 20, 1894, sent a communi- cation to the members of the diplomatic body informing them that the revolt was at an end. The guerrilla war in Rio Grande do Sul had been in progress for more than a year before the naval revolt began, the central gov- -ernment becoming in- volved in the contest by PICTURESQUE PATHWAY IN THE PASSEIO PUBLICO, RIO DE JANEIRO. extending its protection by force of arms to the ruling governor, General Julio Castilho. The struggle still continued after the surrender of Admiral Saldanha and the departure of Admiral Mello, General Saraiva assuming the leadership of the guerrillas after his retreat from Parana. In June, his forces were defeated by General Lima, and by the end of July the insurgents were exhausted, and General Saraiva was reported to be dead. This was not the end of the war, however, for, in the beginning of 1895, Admiral Saldanha da Gama put himself at the head of the rebels. In June, he met the government troops near Santa Anna, was defeated, and, after three hundred men were killed or wounded on both sides and most of his followers had abandoned the field, he ordered those who stood by him to retreat, and met his own death on the battlefield. On July 2d, General Galvao, commanding the government troops, arranged an armistice with General Tavares, the Federalist commander, and terms of peace were finally agreed upon, to which General Castilho, who had up to this time stood out for unconditional surrender, gave his assent. The terms were a free pardon to all who laid down their arms, with a guarantee of all civil rights to every person implicated in the revolution, including the right to appeal to the courts for the redress of injuries committed by the troops. General Castilho was to remain as provisional governor until the meeting of the State Congress, which was to alter the Constitution so as to make it conformable to the Constitutions of the other States. The amnesty bill was passed in September, after a sharp debate in both houses, with modifications debarring rebel officers from the army and navy for two years, and extending the amnesty to other political offenders and exiles. 92 THE NEW BRAZIL After the war was over, President Peixoto established the strictest military discipline, frequent changes were made in the cabinet, and all branches of the army were strengthened, the military force being increased from .14,000 to 24,000 men. Although bitter attacks had been made against the President in Congress, a resolution was finally passed approving his acts. It was recognized that he had successfully brought the country out of a period of agitation and revolt that threatened its very existence, and that he deserved the thanks of the people. At the same time, it was the general sentiment that in future the nation’s President should not be a military commander, but a civilian. A few months after giving the reins of government into other hands, Marshal Floriano Peixoto succumbed to an illness which proved fatal, his death occurring on the 29th of June, 1895. In many respects, the “Iron Marshal,” as he was popularly called, was a remarkable man. His firmness was unquestioned, his indomitable energy knew no bounds, and although he was regarded as a disciplinarian of over-strict methods, even this characteristic had its advantages when mild measures were perhaps not adequate to the exigencies of the times. The history of this unflinching leader shows him to have been thoroughly educated in military matters. He was a graduate of the Military Academy, an artillery officer, and distinguished himself in the Paraguayan war, receiving promotion to the rank of lieutenant-colonel for gallantry on the field, and upon his return at the close of the war, was advanced to the grade of colonel. In 1883, he was promoted to the general staff of the army. Under the empire, he had held the political office of president of Rio Grande do Sul, and in the cabinet of the Provisional Government had been Secretary of War, succeeding Benjamin Constant, who was transferred to the Department of Public Instruction. He resigned his position with other members of the cabinet who disagreed with President Deodoro. ‘OMISNWE FTG OF ‘AUNSVEUNL TVNOILYN AHL PCHARTER: V iemeolV ies PRESIDENTSSAND “EARLY (STATESMEN DR. PRUDENTE JOSE DE MORAES BARROS, FIRST CIVIL PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL, 1894-1808. Benjamin Vasques, War; and Admiral Elisario Moraes’s administration was one of rigid econ LL honor is due to the brave patriots who guided the fortunes of the new republic safely through the first threatening storms. Their genius shone brilliantly in the midst of the unsettled conditions which marked the beginning of the new régime, and illumined the pathway for their successors, who were called upon to meet the require- ments of a regularly constituted civil gov- ernment, such as the nation soon demanded. The institution of thoroughly republican ideals in Brazil may be said to have been realized by the election of Dr. Prudente José de Moraes Barros, the first president chosen from civilian ranks, and who was acceptable to all classes of people. Elected practi- cally without opposition, he was inaugurated President, November 15, 1894. His minis- ters were men of the highest probity and of recognized patriotism: Dr. Carlos Carvalho held the portfolio of Foreign Affairs; Dr. Rodrigues Alves that of Finance; Dr. Olyntho de Magalhdes, Industry and Public Works; Dr. Gongalves Ferreira, Interior; General Barbosa, Marine. The policy of President omy, looking especially to the diminution of the public debt, the restoration of a sound currency, reform in taxation, and a reduction of the 95 96 THE NEW BRAZIL expenses of the army and navy, the last being deemed especially called for, since military rule no longer existed. The cutting down of expenditures for military purposes was opposed by the army, and early the following year a movement, having its origin chiefly in the military school, was inaugurated for the restoration of Floriano Peixoto. President Moraes closed the school and expelled the students for attempting to arouse popular feeling against the existing government. The sudden death of Marshal Floriano, on June 29, 1895, put an end to such disturbances. During the first year of President Moraes’s administration, a dispute of long standing between Brazil and Argentina regarding the boundary line of the Missiones territory was settled, February 6, 1895, by arbitration of the President of the United States, Grover Cleveland, who decided in favor of Brazil, and established the boundary line on the rivers Pepiri-Guazu and San Antonio. In this controversy, Brazil was represented by the present Minister of Foreign Affairs, Baron de Rio-Branco, and Argentina by the present Minister of Foreign Affairs of that republic, Dr. Estanislao Zeballos. The transition from military to civil rule was marked by a careful and consistent effort to overcome the evils existing in consequence of the former, and to establish the latter on a firm foundation. No man in Brazil was better fitted to accomplish these purposes than President Prudente Moraes, who thoroughly realized the importance of the situation. There was at this time a widespread feeling of anxiety and uncertainty regarding the political future of the country, which was suffering from great commercial depression, consequent upon the fall in value of coffee, as well as from a continuous depreciation of the currency, and from financial embarrassment caused by the necessities of the previous presidency. In view of these difficulties, President Moraes, and the Vice-President, Dr. Manoel Victorino Pereira, who filled the chief executive office for several months during a serious illness of the President, devoted especial attention to financial matters, with the result that confidence in the new government was established and progress was assured. During the year 1897, the Federal government was called upon to assist the authorities of the State of Bahia in putting down an insurrection that had broken out in one of the interior districts at a place called Canudos, the stronghold of a large band of religious fanatics, led by one Antonio Maciel, whom they called “Conselheiro,” and worshipped as the Messiah. There is a mystery about the origin and purpose of this war. Some believe that it was an uprising for the restoration of the monarchy, with powerful support behind it, particularly as the rebels fought under the imperial flag and declared their mission to be a holy war against the existing government of Brazil, which they denounced as “atheistic, and undeserving of obedience, and doomed to be overthrown;”’ they also received, it is said, large quantities of arms and ammunition from unknown soutces, and assistance in every way that could further their plans. On the other hand, many people are of the opinion that it was nothing more than an outburst of fanatic enthusiasm, simply a “holy war,” as its leaders called it. The immediate causes of the rebellion are variously stated. One authority says that the Conselheiro accused a merchant of embezzling some money left with him to pay for Pope ILE PRESIDENTS AND EARLY STATESMEN 97 material for a church building in Canudos, and that when a demand was made for either the money or the material, the merchant complained to the State, declaring that the fanatics were threatening him. Police officers were sent to protect the merchant, and in an attack on the Conselheiro they were defeated and some of them killed. Reinforcements sent to their aid were driven back with great loss, and the State was obliged to call for the assistance of the Federal troops. Meantime, the Conselheiro’s supporters increased so rapidly that when the Federal army reached his stronghold it found an opposing force of about eight thousand well- trained mén prepared to meet it in battle. On March 3, 1897, an engagement took place, result- ing in a victory for the rebels, their superior numbers overcoming the small battalion of Fed- eral troops commanded by General Moreira Cesar and Major Francisco M. Beitto, who lost six hun- dred men and all their guns and ammunition. Sympathizers in other States followed the ex- ample of the Conselheiro, and insurrections ap- peared in Pernambuco, Minas Geraes, Sergipe, and Piauhy. The government found it necessary to increase the strength of its army, and after a bitter engagement, in which General Moreira Cesar was killed, a fresh force of seven thousand men was sent from Rio to Pernambuco, a large force of artillery being dispatched to Bahia at the same time, in charge of General Cantuzia. General Arthur Oscar took command of the troops on their arrival at Bahia, and attempted to march against the rebels’ stronghold, two hundred and fifty miles distant from the capital. It was two months before the army reached Canudos, progress having been delayed all along the line by hostile bands. In June, the Federal troops won a victory in which eight thousand of the rebels were defeated and about three hundred killed. Finally, after repeated engagements, resulting in alternate victory and defeat, the Conselheiro’s position was captured in October, Admiral Barbosa directing the final operation, during which the Conselheiro was slain, with thousands of his followers. While the victorious troops, returning from the Canudos war were being reviewed by the President, an attempt was made to carry out a plot for his assassination, the dastardly deed being frustrated only by the brave action of General Bittencourt, who threw himself in front of the President and received in his own breast the fatal wound. It was a noble sacrifice, and the nation holds in perpetual reverence the memory of this glorious hero. The assassin killed himself, and his accomplices were imprisoned. DR. MANOEL FERRAZ DE CAMPOS-SALLES, PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL, 1898-1902. 98 THE “NEW BRAZIL At the presidential election held March 1, 1898, Dr. Manoel Ferraz de Campos-Salles was chosen President; with Dr. Francisco Rosa e Silva as Vice-President. Dr. Olyntho de Magalhaes was appointed Foreign Minister; Dr. Joaquim Murtinho, Minister of Finance; Dr. Alfredo Maia, of Industry and Public Works; Dr. Epitacio da Silva Pessoa, Justice and Interior; General Mallet, War; and Admiral Pinto da Luz, Marine. The government of Dr. Prudente Moraes had been marked by a strict adherence to the Constitution and an honest and faithful discharge of his duties as chief executive. He retired from office with the plaudits of the nation ringing in his ears. In straightforwardness and unaffected simplicity he has been compared to Abraham Lincoln, and in staunch loyalty and patriotism his char- acter offers an example eminently worthy of the emulation of the Brazilian youth. A native of the State of Sao Paulo, Prudente José de Moraes Barros was born at Itu, one of the oldest towns of the State, on the 4th of October, 1841. He was educated at the city of Sao Paulo, and graduated with high honors in the law department of the University. From the earliest days of his career, he was a fearless advocate of republican principles, and as deputy to the Provincial Assembly of Sao Paulo spoke with frankness and fearlessness against the vexatious measures of the imperial government. When the republicans of Rio published their manifesto in 1870, he was among the first to give his support to the movement and he rendered important Services in spreading the new political creed in his native State. After the proclamation of the republic, he was elected a member of the provisional government of Sao Paulo, and he was the first governor of the State under the new régime. In October, 1890, he was elected to the Senate, and when the first Congress met he was called to preside over its deliberations, and had an important share in framing the new Constitution. The death, on December 3, 1902, of this great and dearly beloved statesman was an occasion of general mourning in every part of the republic, all classes feeling the loss of one who, throughout a noble career, had represented the highest ideals of democracy in all their purity and simplicity. The inauguration of President Campos-Salles, the second civil President, was celebrated on the 15th of November, 1898. The main features of his administration were the im- provement of the finances of the country and the extension of commercial relations. A statesman of sound principles and practical judgment he met the problems of his adminis- tration with remarkable ability, and under his government the country made notable progress. It must be understood that the financial difficulties from which Brazil suffered at this time did not date from the inauguration of the republic. Asa matter of fact the revenue and expenditure of the empire had not balanced in one single instance for thirty years previous to its fall, and the yearly deficit had been met by continual borrowing. The Para- guayan war was to blame for the permanent derangement of the country’s finances, which remained in a more or less hopeless condition during the first years of the republic. Under the new form of government, Brazil served a severe ten years’ apprenticeship. In the beginning, revolution followed revolution and enormous sums of money were spent with inadequate results. Blunders were committed in finances, in politics, and in the essentials THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS AND EARLY STATESMEN 9 of good government, with no apparent error of form. The staunchest republicans of the “old guard” invited criticism by the adoption of methods not consistent with the principles of republicanism; but with all this Brazil never quite reached the measure of folly and mis- government that characterized the early days of American independence, when the United States were said to be “drifting toward anarchy” and the currency had lost its purchasing power. Brazil, under less favorable circumstances, did better than that; and, once past the era of revolution, discord and conspiracy, which culminated in the attempted assassination of President Prudente Moraes and the martyrdom of brave General Bittencourt, the inherent good sense and patriotism of the nation, shocked by that terrible event, became aroused in a strong reaction against revolutions and the demagogues who incite them. As a result, Brazil entered upon a new phase of political life, as quiet and peaceful as it had before been agitated and bellicose. The whole nation became interested in the country’s progress and in the solution of all problems affecting its development. The policy of President Campos- Salles was in accord with the sentiment of the people, and by his tact, no less than by his rare talent, he was able to carry out an important programme of reform and progress. The inauguration of the twentieth century was celebrated with especial Significance in Brazil, as it marked the fourth centennial of the discovery. In the month of May, every city of the republic observed the anniversary with brilliant festivities. In Rio, the occasion was characterized by a magnificent dis- play. The Portuguese government, in - honor of the event, sent a special am- bassador, General Cunha, who arrived on the 3d of May in the cruiser Don Carlos, and was received with distin- guished honors. The ceremonies lasted several days, one of the most important events being the unveiling and dedi- cation of the monument to Cabral in ae DR. FRANCISCO DE PAULO RODRIGUES ALVES, the Praga Alvares Cabral. The Brazilian PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL, 1902-1906. sculptor Bernardelli is the author of the monument, which is a fine work of art, representing the famous Portuguese navigator with his companions, Caminha, the chronicler of the discovery, and Henrique the monk, the three founders of the wonderful country which they named ‘“‘ The Land of the Holy Cross.” 100 THE NEW BRAZIL The official reception on the second day in honor of the occasion was a memorable function, attended by Ambassador Cunha, the guest of honor, by the President of Brazil and members of his cabinet, the army and navy officials, the foreign diplomatic corps, and the represent- ative society of the capital. Eulogistic addresses were made by Dr. Olyntho de Magalhaes, Brazilian Minister of Foreign Affairs, and by the Portuguese ambassador; two distin- guished Brazilian poets, Senhor Luiz Guimaraes, Jr., and Olavo Bilac, contributed poems in honor of the event, and a grand ball gave the evening a brilliant termination. Before the close of the festivities, a numismatic exhibition took place, at which nearly ten thousand coins and medals were displayed, Brazil contributing a quarter of the number, among them nearly all the coins of the country used from the time of the discovery up to the present day. An exhibition of Arts and Industries, opened on the last day, was another feature that proved most interesting, and was highly creditable to the advancement and progress of Brazil. Illuminations, parades, military and naval reviews, banquets, excursions, in fact, a continuous succession of entertainments, made the week a memorable one in the history of the capital. Never had the sentiment of friendship toward the mother country been more beautifully shown by Brazil than it was on the four hundredth anniversary of its history, when the two countries celebrated, in this great event, the inalienable union of kinship, strengthened by bonds of mutual sympathies and respect. During the administration of President Campos-Salles was settled a boundary question that for three centuries had existed between Brazil and France. The southern limits of French Guiana formed the subject of dispute, but the long-standing differences having failed to be adjusted after numerous conferences, it was agreed, in 1897, to submit the question to a court of arbitration, the members of which were to be named by the Swiss govern- ment. The French government having modified its earlier demands, which included territory bounded on the south by the Amazon River, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by the Rio Branco, the contestants defined the disputed territory as comprising an area of about one hundred and fifty thousand square miles, of which, under the award, Brazil secured one hundred and forty-seven thousand square miles, and France three thousand square miles. It was decreed that the boundaries were to be the Oyapok River throughout its course, and the water-shed line of the Tumuc-Humac Mountains from the source of the Oyapok to the Dutch frontier. The successful settlement of this dispute was chiefly due to the efforts of the Baron de Rio-Branco, who represented Brazil in the famous controversy. As a result of the presidential election of 1902, Dr. Campos-Salles was succeeded by Dr. Rodrigues Alves. The notable progress which the country had enjoyed under the good government of Dr. Campos-Salles was apparent in all branches of the administration, and when he retired from the presidency he left a splendid record of executive genius and statesmanship. His name is held in great esteem in Brazil, and he is everywhere honored as an experienced statesman, an orator of exceptional power and eloquence, and a citizen of blameless character. Like his predecessor, he first saw the light in that cradle of patriots, THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS AND EARLY STATESMEN 101 Sado Paulo, having been born in Campinas in 1841. He began very early to shape his career, and while still a youth he was elected to the Provincial Assembly of Sado Paulo. When the question of the abolition of slaves came up for discussion, he urged the reform with eloquence, and though a land-owner himself, and depending upon slave-labor, he fought for the reform till it became law, free- ing his own slaves as an example and a proof of his sincerity. He was prominent in every administration of the republic from its inau- guration to his election as chief executive, and was president of Sao Paulo at the time of his nomination to the national presidency. His administration was based on high princi- ples and directed with courage and devotion. The government of President Rodrigues Alves may be said to mark the most eventful period in the transition from the old to the new Brazil. From the day of the President’s election to that of his retirement four years later, all the energy of his remarkable states- manship was directed toward the carrying out of the ambitious programme which he announced in his inaugural address, and which included the improvement of the sanitary condition of the Federal capital, the establishment of greater facilities for its commerce, and the advancement of Brazil’s foreign relations. The complete success with which an undertaking of such immense magnitude was accomplished is the wonder and admiration of the world, and will forever stand a noble monument to his talent and patriotism, commemorating the greatest victory yet won by Brazil under the banner of “Order and Progress.” In his stupendous enterprises, the President had the able codperation of the ministers of his cabinet: Baron de Rio-Branco, Minister of Foreign Affairs; Dr. José Leopoldo de Bulhoes, Finance Minister; Dr. Lauro Muller, Minister of Industry, Transportation, and Public Works; Dr. J. J. Seabra, of Interior and Justice, who resigned during the last year of the administration and was replaced by Dr. Gaspar de Barros Almeida; Marshal Argollo, War; and Admiral Julio Cesar de Noronha, Marine. With the exception of Dr. Seabra, all his ministers remained with the President throughout his term of office. Having chosen for his cabinet the men in whose ability and energy he had reason to place the greatest confidence, the President allowed all his ministers perfect liberty in their own department, receiving from each a loyal obedience to the plan of the government, while he gave in return an unequivocal demonstration of support and DR. NILO PECANHA, VICE-PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL 102 THE NEW BRAZIL confidence. The result was an administration remarkable for the harmony that existed in all departments, and for the effective character of the work accomplished through sympathetic and united effort. In order to improve the sanitary condition of the Federal capital, it was found neces- sary to transform a large portion of the city. Old streets, narrow and badly drained, with houses so built as not to admit of healthful ventilation, had to be destroyed, and the manner in which this great work was accomplished reflects credit on all who were identified with the plan and its execution. The most remarkable feature of the transformation was the construction of the Avenida Central, under the direction of the eminent Minister of Public Works, Dr. Lauro Muller. It was a courageous undertaking, as it meant the cutting of a broad, spacious boulevard through a labyrinth of narrow and tortuous streets, and required the destruction of a vast amount of property in the heart of the business section of the capital. In September, 1903, Dr. Lauro Muller named a special commission to prepare a project for the improvement of the port of Rio de Janeiro, and this commission was unani- mous in recommending, as one of the most necessary means toward accomplishing this end, the construction of a central thoroughfare through the lower part of the city from north to south, to cut across the section which forms a peninsula between the Prainha and the Praia da Lapa. The supervision of this vast enterprise was placed in the hands of a distinguished Brazilian engineer, Dr. Paulo de Frontin, to whose energy and ability much of the success is due. On the 8th of March, 1904, the workmen began to demolish the old edifices which blocked the greater part of the space destined for the Avenida. Eighteen months later, on the 15th of November, 1905, the Avenida Central was inaugurated, one of the finest thoroughfares in the world. No nation can show a more conspicuous example of modern energy and enterprise than is seen in the new Federal capital of Brazil. The Avenida, which is paved with asphalt, is six thousand feet long and. more than two hundred feet wide, and has a line of shade trees down the middle, alter- nating with ornamental posts for electric lights. Along the curb are shade trees and gaslight posts at regular intervals, so that the great avenue has a triple line of trees and is abundantly lighted. The cost of this work was more than twelve million five hundred thousand dollars in gold. The municipality of the Federal district united with the Federal government in the sanitation and beautifying of the capital, and under the direction of the prefect, Dr. Francisco Pereira Passos, many of the narrow streets were widened, notably the Rua Visconde de Inhauma and Rua Uruguayana, which were transformed into broad and handsome avenues. The Avenida Beira-Mar was laid out as a magnificent boulevard, connecting with the Avenida Central at the Praia da Lapa, and forming a splendid driveway along the shore of the bay to Botafogo and beyond, for a distance of six miles. More than a thousand houses were torn down to make room for the street improvements, and a new system of scientific and prac- . tical.sanitation was established. The improvement of the port for purposes of commerce was undertaken on the same gigantic lines as the work of rebuilding the city. In 1903, the Federal government gave to Popeater RESIDENTSTAND EARLY STATESMEN ~ 103 an English firm, Messrs. C. H. Walker & Co., the order for the construction of the port works, to include a stone quay ten thousand six hundred feet in length, extending along the bay westward from the Prainha to the Canal de Mangue, with warehouses, installation of all apparatus necessary to handle cargo, railways to receive and dispatch merchandise, and a channel alongside, nine hundred and ten feet wide and thirty feet deep at low tide. To cover the cost of this great work a special tax of two per cent in gold was imposed on all imports, so that the ordinary budget would not be overburdened. According to the terms of the contract, this great enterprise must be concluded by the 30th of June, 1910. The cost was covered by a loan of eight million five hundred thousand pounds sterling, negotiated in London in 1902. When this new work is finished, Rio will be one of the best equipped ports of the world, for the prompt loading and unloading of foreign merchandise. The government of President Rodrigues Alves was not only occupied with one of the greatest practical reforms in the nation’s history, the improvement of material conditions, but gave attention to many questions of political and financial importance upon which depended the future course of national progress. Under his administration the relations between the Federal union and the State governments were more clearly defined, the pres- ervation of the union being shown to depend upon the loyalty of the various States that compose it. The welfare of the whole nation was held to be of the first importance, while the interests of each State are sought in the interests of the entire republic. The question of States’ rights was particularly important, the acquisition of new territory having caused a dis- cussion as to whether such lands should be included within the juris- diction of the states on which they bordered, or should belong to the Fed- eral government, to be incorporated into new States, or departamentos, as was afterward done in the case of the Acre territory. By the treaty of Petropolis, which was signed between Brazil and Bolivia on the 17th of November, 1903, the dispute regarding the Acre territory, which lies in the richest rubber pro- ducing region of the world, was settled, and the line separating the two countries was satisfactorily established. The treaty pro- vided for an exchange of territory, and a further agreement on the part of Brazil to pay two million pounds sterling, and to construct the Madeira-Mamoreé railway, in consideration DR. JOAQUIM NABUCO, AMBASSADOR TO THE UNITED STATES. 104 THE NEW BRAZIL of the unequal extent of the territories exchanged.. This treaty is an evidence of the highest diplomacy and reflects credit upon the representatives of both governments. It was largely due to the statesmanship of the Brazilian representative, the Baron de Rio-Branco, Minister for Foreign Affairs, that the Acre affair was brought to a close amicably, as it had threatened at one time not only to disturb the relations between Brazil and Bolivia, but to involve all South America. The remoteness of the territory and the difficulty of governing it had been a source of trouble to both Brazil and Bolivia for years. When Bolivia decided to lease her part of it to the Bolivian Syndicate in 1901, hoping thus to secure its progress and development and to make it a source of greater revenue, Brazil objected on the ground that it meant the introduction of a foreign power, similar to the Chartered Companies which had held almost sovereign dominion in Asia and Africa, with dis- astrous results to the political supremacy of the countries they invaded. In view of the atti- tude taken by the South American countries, the Bolivian Syndicate withdrew, and on the 21st of March, 1903, Bolivia and Brazil entered into negotiations for the settlement of their respective claims in the Acre territory. The treaty of Petropolis was the result of these negotiations. An important feature of the exchange of territory, and indeed one of its chief motives, was the incorporation into Brazilian territory of that part of the Acre, formerly under Bolivian government, in which the Portuguese language is spoken, and the incorporation into Bolivian territory of the land, formerly Brazilian, in which the Spanish language is spoken. Brazil has since divided her newly acquired territory into three deparfamentos, Alto Acre, Alto Purus, and Alto Jurua, each governed by a Prefect. The urgent necessity for fixing the limits of the republic has led the Brazilian govern- ment to devote especial attention to this matter, and during President Rodrigues Alves’s administration, the boundaries were settled with four neighboring countries, Bolivia, Ecuador, and the British and the Dutch Guianas. The King of Italy arbitrated the question of the British Guiana boundary, the Brazilian claim being ably supported by Dr. Joaquim Nabuco, Ambassador to the United States. The Foreign Minister, Baron de Rio-Branco, on the 6th of May, 1904, signed a treaty establishing the boundary line between Brazil and Ecuador, and on the sth of May, another, with the Minister of the Netherlands, fixing the limits between Brazil and Dutch Guiana. DR. RUY BARBOSA. THE CIVIL PRESIDENTS AND. EARLY STATESMEN 105 An important part of the programme of President Alves, as he stated in the inaugural address, was to extend and strengthen the foreign relations of Brazil, and the success with which this plan was carried out is one of the memorable features of his administration. In addition tothe settlement of the boundary question referred to, international relations of extraordinary significance were promoted through the activity of the Foreign Office. Brazil was made to take a higher place than ever before in the congress of nations, by reason of the recognition received from leading powers. The most eminent scholars of Latin America met at the Brazilian capital in a Latin-American Scientific Congress, an event of unusual importance in the history of scientific research in the New World. By the reéstablishment of the Legation of Mexico, all the countries of America, with the single exception of Vene- zuela, were represented in the diplomatic corps of Brazil. The Legation of the United States was elevated to.an Embassy, Brazil being the first South American country to receive this distinguished recognition from the great republic-of the north. Ambassador Thompson was appointed to represent the United States at Rio, and Ambassador Joaquim Nabuco was sent in the same exalted capacity to represent Brazil at Washington. The precedence which Brazil enjoys among the religious congregations of South America was signalized by the appointment of Archbishop Arcoverde of Rio to the Sacred College of Cardinals, Brazil being the first South American country to be thus honored by the Holy See. The inauguration of a new era in the national life and progress of Brazil, was par- ticularly emphasized by the events of inter- national importance which marked the closing year of the administration of President Alves. For the first time in the history of the New World, a conference of the leading statesmen representing each of the republics of which it is composed was held in a South American capital; andwtor .theptirst time in. the. history of the republic of the United States, its Secretary of State paid an official visit to a foreign nation. The occasion was one of great political signifi- cance, and as such all the nations of the world regarded it. The attention of the great powers was directed to Brazil as never before, and their eyes were opened to the fact that in South America, as well as in North America, the spirit of western civilization has developed powerful and imposing factors in the control of the world’s politics. The reunion of the third Pan-American Congress at Rio, and the visit to that city of Secretary Elihu Root of the United States, were the natural consequences of a DR. QUINTINO BOCAYUVA, 106 THE NEW BRAZIL recognition of the united interest between the countries of North and South America which has been developing within recent years, and especially since the organization of the first Pan-American Congress. Within this time Brazil has changed her form of government from an empire to a republic, and the cordiality which marked her attitude toward the United States under the former régime has been strengthened under the new order of things. There is a natural bond between Brazil and the United States in their territorial greatness and their political destiny; and the friendship which exists between them can only be productive of good results. The welcome accorded to Mr. Root, the handsome demon- stration of goodwill made by the Brazilian people in his honor and that of the nation he represented, profoundly impressed the great statesman. The third Pan-American Congress held its sessions in the magnificent Monroe Palace, which occupies an ideal site overlooking the bay, at the junction of the Avenida Central and the Avenida Beira-Mar. The Congress was formally opened by the provisional president, Baron de Rio-Branco, who, with Secretary Root, was afterward elected honorary president, Ambassador Joaquim Nabuco, of Brazil, being called to the active presidency. In his inau- sural address, Baron de Rio-Branco defined the purpose of the Congress, which was not for the discussion of political differences, but for the mutual interchange of ideas to promote the common good, looking forward to the blessing of international fraternity. The welcome which he extended in the name of the Brazilian nation was characterized by the proverbial hospitality of its people. In the interval between the sessions, the visitors had an oppor- tunity to enjoy the charm of Brazilian life and to revel in the beauty of the most picturesque capital of the world. The deliberations of Congress were devoted to questions involving the general welfare of all the countries represented. Resolutions were adopted ratifying the adhesion of the Congress to the principle of arbitration, and recommending to the nations there represented that they give instructions to their delegates to the second Congress of the Hague to advocate, in that assembly, the celebration of a general convention of arbitra- tion so efficacious and definite that, by meriting the approbation of the civilized world, it may be accepted and placed in power by all nations. It was also resolved to continue the International Union of American Republics, created by the first Congress and confirmed by the second, and to reorganize the International Bureau of American Republics, which will represent the Union, having in its custody the archives of the Pan-American Congresses, and contributing by all means in its power, supported by the various republics, to further the purposes of the Union. Further resolutions treating of questions of Pan-American interest were passed, among which one of the most important related to the construction of the Pan-American railroad. It was resolved that each country should promote the construction of that part of the road to pass through its territory, organizing engineer corps to aid in necessary surveys, etc., and determining the concessions of lands, sub- sidies, guarantees on invested capital, and other matters bearing on the financial features of the enterprise, with a view to completing the work with the least possible delay and expense. The means of facilitating communication between the countries of America Poemen Lee RESIDENTS AND EARLY STATESMEN 107 received considerable attention, especially the question of steamship lines, telegraphs and postal service. An international board of jurists was formed, composed of one representa- tive from each of the American republics, appointed by the respective governments, for the purpose of preparing a project for an international code of laws, the first reunion of the board to meet in Rio de Janeiro in 1907. It was also resolved to recommend to the various governments the celebration of an International American (Zomierence at sao Paulo. to study the question of coffee production, which is of great economic importance to most of the countries of America. A revision of the monetary system of each of the republics was recommended, and a care- ful analysis of the information to be .gained about industrial, legal and financial conditions throughout the American con- tinent. The arrival of Mr. Root at the Congress was the occasion of an especial demonstration. The address of welcome in his honor was delivered by the president of the Congress, Ambassador Joaquim Nabuco, and Secretary Root responded in a memorable speech, which has since been published in the leading American and European periodicals. Special envoys from several European countries were sent to Brazil to be present on an occasion which was of importance to the whole civilized world. The Monroe Palace was the scene of great animation, the flags that floated over it signifying the cordial union of all the nations there represented. The Brazilian flag bore in its blue field twenty-two stars, one of which stood for the newly acquired territory of Acre. When the presidential term of President Alves expired, the nation had hardly had time to realize the magnitude of his services to the country, so rapidly had events passed before the eyes of the people during the activity and change which marked his administra- tion. The transformation of the capital had caused some doubts and fears, when rigid THE SUPREME COURT, RIO DE JANEIRO. 108 THE NEW BRAZIL sanitary methods disturbed the general comfort, and the tearing down of more than a thousand homes threatened all sorts of evils. The moment furnished an opportunity for political malcontents to stir up feeling against the President and his ministers on an unworthy pretext, and, led by General Travassos and Colonel Lauro Sodré, an armed force of more than one thousand men prepared to march on the palace. When warned that his life was in danger, and advised to seek safety, as the attack had come too suddenly to admit of its being met by adequate forces of the government, President Alves responded with characteristic firmness and decision: “My place is here, and only as a dead man will I be taken away.” Through the wonderful devotion and sang froid of the President, and through the loyalty and courage of General Hermes da Fonseca, who resisted the insur- gents’ attack on the military school of Realengo and sent the first warning to the palace, the threatened catastrophe was averted, the disturbance quelled and quiet restored. The leaders were imprisoned, General Travassos dying soon afterward from the effects of a wound received on the night of the attack. The Minister of War disarmed the military students implicated in the revolt and they were imprisoned. In Matto Grosso the authori- ties were obliged to call on the Federal government for troops to put down a political revolt, which lasted for several months. But these uprisings were of minor importance in the light of the lasting good accomplished in the history of this administration. Peace and tranquillity reigned in every part of the republic when President Alves retired from office. He left the public credit established on a firm basis. Important improve- ments in many States showed an awakened energy and enterprise which found expres- Sion in all sections. The new Federal capital stood as a splendid memorial to his genius. Yellow fever had been stamped out and a transformation effected, not only in the sanitation and hygiene of the city, but also in the management of its hospitals and asylums. New railways had been inaugurated, plans perfected for the investigation of important mineral resources, and the Caixa de Amortizagao inaugurated to prepare the way for the adoption of a gold standard of currency. In the war department, reforms had been introduced, military hospitals, quartels, and arsenals had been improved in management and equip- ment, and military education had been systematized according to more modern methods. In military reforms, the higher officials of the army codperated with the minister, the commander-in-chief, General Mendes de Moraes, who is one of Brazil’s most distinguished soldiers, giving special attention to the organization of the army. Increased importance had been assured to the marine defence by an arrangement for the purchase of new warships; naval instruction had been advanced through the establishment of modern technical schools and by a programme of naval visits to national and foreign ports in the interests of a broader naval education. Through the department of Foreign Affairs the exterior interests of Brazil had kept pace with its interior development, the foreign relation of the republic being promoted with such honor and glory to the nation that at the close of President Alves’s administration the country enjoyed greater prestige abroad than ever before. Babee eee SIOENTS AND EARLY STATESMEN 109 It is not surprising that the Brazilian people came to appreciate the greatness of their President, and that the national voice was unanimous in gratitude to him and his able and loyal ministers for the noble work that was accomplished in the behalf of their country through the stupendous efforts of his administration. Calm and serene in voice and manner, President Rodrigues Alves gave little suggestion in his gentle personality of the indomitable energy and unflinching courage which marked his character, yet his will was iron where the question of duty was involved, and all the powers of antagonism or persuasion could not shake him from a position taken in the belief that it was for the best interests of his beloved Brazil. And this firmness and patriotism have distinguished Dr. Rodrigues Alves not only as President but throughout his whole public career, which shows a record worthy of immortal fame. He was born in the State of Sao Paulo in the little city of Guaretingueta, July 7, 1849. His remarkable intellectual and moral quali- ties early attracted attention. He was one of the most promising students of the Law School, from which he was graduated while still in his teens, and when only twenty- two years of age he was elected a deputy to the Provincial Assembly of Sado Paulo. The campaign in favor of the abolition of slavery found in him an ardent and able champion, and he employed his talents both as an orator and a journal- ist in behalf of the cause, until its tri-+ umph was celebrated by the famous Emancipation Bill signed by the Prin- cess Regent in 1888. Dr. Rodrigues Alves was then president of the prov- ince of Sao Paulo, an honor which he held until the fall of the empire, when he was elected a deputy to the Con- stitutional Assembly of the Republic. His financial ability and administrative judgment were of the most eminent value to the new government. As Minister of Finance under President Floriano Peixoto and afterward under President Prudente Moraes, his ser- vices proved indispensable to the task of bringing order out of chaos in the financial affairs of the country during the first years of the republic. As Senator of the republic, and later, as President of the State of Sao Paulo, when by the choice of the nation he was called to the high office of President of Brazil, Dr. Rodrigues Alves always held the respect, esteem and DR. LAURO MULLER. 110 THE NEW BRAZIL affection of his people, who recognized in the qualities of their honored compatriot the best interpretation of the national character. When the mantle of state fell from the shoulders of Dr. Rodrigues Alves, the question of a worthy successor to the honor of the nation’s highest gift was solved by the election of Dr. Affonso Augusto Moreira Penna, who was inaugurated President of the republic on the 15th of November, 1906. President Penna was Vice-President during the administration of President Alves, and perfect accord and sympathy existed between these two great men, who had been companions and collaborators in political and literary journalism forty years before, when as students together in the Law School of Sao Paulo they were inspired by the same lofty sentiment of patriotism, and joined hands with equal ardor in the combat against political wrongs. President Affonso Penna was born at Santa Barbara, in the State of Minas Geraes, on the 30th of November, 1847, and is the first representative of that State to be elected Presi- dent of Brazil, though Minas has given many noble sons to the republic, statesmen and politicians, who. have contributed greatly toward making the government stable and pros- perous, as it is to-day, an honor and a credit to the nation. The present President brings to his high office the rich experience gained through a long period of political activity, first as a provincial deputy, in 1874, then as a deputy to the Imperial Chamber, and later as Minister of War, Minister of Agriculture, and Minister of Justice under the empire. Three years after the inauguration of the republic, he was elected President of the State of Minas Geraes. While in that office he transferred the capital of the State from Ouro Preto to the present seat of government, Bello Horizonte, which was planned and laid out under his direction, in an ideal locality, on the main line of the chief railroad of the State. The Law School of Minas Geraes was founded by President Penna, who is deeply interested in the progress of education in his country. When the term of his presidency of the State of Minas expired, Dr. Penna returned to his fazenda in Santa Barbara. He was not long permitted to remain in private life, however, his talents being demanded in the service of his country. Though he declined, first the honor of a chair in the Supreme Federal Tribunal, and later the appointment of Minister Plenipotentiary, he found himself obliged to yield to the urgent request of his old friend, Dr. Rodrigues Alves, when, as Minister of Finance in the government of Dr. Prudente Moraes, that statesman echoed the call of the President, appointing the illustrious Mineiro to the directorship of the Bank of the Republic. Upon his retirement three years later, Dr. Penna became Director of the Law School of Minas, and devoted his exclusive attention to its interests until 1903, when he was elected to the vice-presidency of the republic. In 1906 he retired from this office to assume the higher duties and responsibilities which devolve upon him as President of Brazil. In his exalted position as chief of the nation, President Penna has the unbounded confidence and esteem of his people, who know, from long acquaintance, his sterling character, and the rare quality of his genius as a statesman. When Dr. Penna assumed the presidency, Dr. Nilo Pecanha was elected Vice-President. Dr. Peganha, who represents the younger generation, began his public career with the a eee KLOIDENT SAND EARLY. STATESMEN at inauguration of the Republic, when, at twenty-two years of age he was elected a deputy to the Constitutional Assembly. Since that time he has rendered distinguished services to his country as Deputy, Senator and Governor of the State of Rio. He is one of the most gifted sons of the republic. | With characteristic energy and judg- ment, Dr. Penna prepared for his admin- istration by making a tour of the republic, in order to become familiar with the social, industrial, and political situation in the dif- ferent states. The importance of sucha trip could hardly be overestimated, and it was frequently referred to in the Presi- dent’s inaugural address, in which he ex- plained his programme of government, and revealed his determination to make the amelioration of economic conditions a leading feature of his administration. On this subject he said: “The economic activity so noticeable here and abroad is a Sure indication that we are entering ona period that promises well for the general welfare. To accompany this movement, which has already absorbed the attention fi an ADMIRAL JOAQUIM ANTONIO CORDOVIL MAURITY, of the rest of the civilized world, is in- COMMANDER OF THE FLEET. dispensable under penalty of seriously compromising the country’s future. This conviction is happily now general amongst us and has influenced the Governments of the different Brazilian States. “In modern times the question par excellence which occupies the attention of gov- ernments, statesmen, assemblies, and the press, is economic. Congresses assemble, inter- national treaties are celebrated, and conflicts menace the peace of nations, as the result of the economic question in its various and multiplied phases. “The high mission of the state is to guard the well-being and improve the condition of life among the people, exercising its beneficent action in the various branches of social activity wherever individual initiative, in its diverse forms, is shown to be powerless or insufficient.” Following the policy defined in the President’s programme, the present administration is promoting and stimulating agricultural and industrial production as a means toward securing greater prosperity and happiness among the whole people. With this object in view, the President recommends the encouragement of immigration, technical training iy THE NEW BRAZIL schools, reasonably protective customs tariffs, giving preference to national products for the consumption of public establishments; the lowering of freights by land and water, facilities for the loading and unloading of merchandise, the introduction of agricultural and manu- facturing machinery, the development of home and foreign commerce; and he adds that the field is sufficiently vast for the exercise of the best efforts of the government, aided by individual initiative. In his programme, the building of railways has an important place, because of its intimate relation to the question of immigration, which must be solved before the vast riches of the country can be efficiently developed. The reorganization of the monetary system is regarded as one of the most urgent problems, and the President gave it considerable attention in his inaugural message, endorsing the law of 1899 for the valorization of the currency, but advising precautions against the danger of too rapid reform, which must cause distress. In international relations, President Penna continues the policy of the pre- vious administration, which has been productive of so much honor and prestige to the country. He clearly stated in his inaugural speech that.on the American continent there can be emulation only in trade and industry, in moral-and material progress, and in the conquests of civilization, each nation endeavoring to draw the most benefit therefrom and from the gifts of bountiful Nature, to the advantage of humanity at large. Between Brazil and her sister republics of America there are no differences that cannot be easily solved without conflict. DR. FRANCISCO ROSA E SILVA. TRE BRAK ee segs OF THES: UNIVERSITY OF #LLINOIS ie THE PALMS IN THE GARDEN OF ITAMARATY PALACE, RIO DE JANEIRO. CHAPTER VI THE PRESIDENT’S CABINET le the appointment of the ministers of his Cabinet, President Affonso Penna has called to his council states- men eminently qualified to cooperate with him in the execution of his great plan for the continued development and well-being of Brazil. A spirit of active patriotism, expressed through practical judgment, broad knowledge, strong initiative, and remarkable ad- ministrative energy, pervades the circle : of advisers by whom His Excellency SMALL RECEPTION ROOM, ITAMARATY PALACE. is surrounded and loyally assisted in the chief executive office. The Department of Foreign Affairs, through which the power and reputation of Brazil abroad was advanced with unprecedented honor to the country during the last administra- tion, continues to reflect the diplomatic statesmanship of its illustrious chief, Baron de Rio- Branco, who retains this portfolio at/the request of President Penna, and in accordance with the sentiment of the whole nation. As elsewhere stated, it is the second time in the history of Brazil that the Minister of Foreign Affairs has held office through two successive administrations; the other instance having occurred under the empire, when Viscount de Rio-Branco, the father of the baron, was foreign minister. No name in Brazil is held in greater esteem and affection than that of Rio-Branco, which is identified not only with the triumph of liberal principles under the empire, but with the beginning of a new era in the aggrandizement of the republic. Born a “ Fluminense,” as the people of Rio are generally called, Baron de Rio-Branco was educated in his own country and in Europe, and began his diplomatic career at twenty-four years of age, when, in 1869, he went as secretary to Pus 116 THEONEY BRAZIL his father, who was then foreign minister, on a special mission to Argentina and Para- guay. The following year he was appointed secretary of a special mission to negotiate the YELLOW SALON OF ITAMARATY PALACE. final treaty of peace with Paraguay. Two years later, as deputy to the Imperial Chamber, the ardent young patriot made a strong campaign on the floor of the Chamber and in the columns of the Nagao, of which he was the editor, in favor of the Rio-Branco law for the suppression of slavery. From that time to the present he has continued to serve his country at home and abroad, and the record of his phenomenal success in adjusting differ- ences between Brazil and foreign countries, and especially in securing the favorable settle- ment of long-standing boundary claims, is unsurpassed in modern diplomacy. As minister plenipotentiary on a special mission to Washington in 1893 he secured for Brazil the favor- able decision of President Cleveland in the arbitration of the question of the Argentina boundary. As soon as this was settled his government commissioned him to prepare its case in the dispute over the boundary of French Guiana, in which he won a second triumph, the Swiss government deciding overwhelmingly in favor of Brazil. For his success in this mission, Congress conferred upon him the title of “ Benemerito Brasileiro,” with a life annuity, as an expression of the national gratitude, at the same time appointing him Minister to Berlin. From this post he was called by President Rodrigues Alves to be Minister of Foreign Affairs. By the settlement of boundary questions, including that of Acre, which was accomplished during the last administration, Baron de Rio-Branco has added to Brazilian territory nearly five hundred thousand square kilométres, thus, as an American POE SERESIDEN TS © CABINET: 117 ambassador said recently, “altering the map of the continent and increasing the geographical superficies of his country without recourse to war and even avoiding it.” With the conclu- sion of negotiations now in progress for the settlement of boundary claims with Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela, the Foreign Office will have finally disposed of the question of limits. Disputed boundaries have long been a source of trouble to the South American republics, constituting the most irritating obstacle to their international peace and friendship. As Brazil borders on all these countries except Chile, the establishment of her boundaries is an important step toward the final conclusion of the whole matter. The influence of the Foreign Office has never been so powerfully felt in the progress and advancement of the republic as under the administration of Baron de Rio-Branco, during which the country has received signal manifestations of international respect and friendship. The creation of a Brazilian cardinal, the appointment of an American ambas- sador and the official visit of a foreign secretary of state, afford culminating proofs of the policy of the Foreign Office, which aims at the constant development of foreign relations, believing they should be extended and strengthened to keep pace with interior progress and prosperity. It is this broad and liberal attitude toward foreign interests which has contributed most powerfully to give Brazil the importance abroad that its greatness merits, ¢ q | 3 ; GARDEN OF ITAMARATY PALACE and which has led the press of Europe to christen it “The Colossus of the South,” in contradistinction to the title which the United States bears among European statesmen, as “The Colossus of the North.” 118 THE NEW BRAZIL The great Brazilian chancellor stands high in the esteem of statesmen all over the world, as the most eminent man of his day in South American diplomacy. Every detail of the Foreign Office receives his personal atten- tion, or that of the distinguished Director- General, Dr. Federico Affonso de Carvalho, who has been connected with this depart- - ment for forty years, and possesses an in- valuable fund of knowledge in foreign affairs. The great activity that prevails under the present administration has tripled the corre- spondence, cablegrams, etc., which daily pass through its hands. At the present moment arrangements are being completed for the reception and entertainment of His Most Faithful Majesty, King Carlos of Portugal, who is to arrive in Rio in May, 1908, as the most noble and illustrious guest of the Brazilian nation. The occasion will be the celebration of the centennial anniversary of the opening of Brazilian ports to foreign commerce by King Dom Jodo VI. of Portu- gal, Brazil, and Algarves, the royal ancestor of the reigning monarch of Portugal. The visit of His Majesty will mark an epoch in international relations, as it will be the first time in the history of nations that the emancipated offspring of an Old World monarchy have had the honor of enter- taining the reigning majesty of the father- land in their New World republican home. It is another proof of the genius of her Minister of Foreign Affairs that Brazil thus sets the first example of a closer fraternity between the governments of the Old and the New World. The Itamaraty Palace is the official residence of the Foreign Minister and of the Depart- ment of Foreign Affairs. It is handsomely fitted up for the reception and entertainment of distinguished foreign guests. The spacious ballroom with furnishings of green and gold presents a magnificent spectacle on the occasion of a brilliant state function, when the effect- iveness of Parisian gowns is heightened by the rare old jewels which are brought out of caskets that have been heirlooms through generations, and have a history often both inter- esting and romantic. The gay uniforms which are seen at these balls give an additional note of color and brightness, those of the Brazilian officers being particularly handsome. The BARON DE RIO-BRANCO, MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS. ie LOLOL ND ee OADINET 119 yellow salon is the principal reception room, a spacious and elegantly furnished apartment; the walls are covered in yellow satin and hung with rich draperies of the same color. Adorning the wall is a famous allegorical painting by Pedro Americo, entitled “Paz e Con- cordia.” Bronze busts of noted statesmen of the empire and the republic are given a place of honor. The green and gold salon and the rose salon, where the Minister receives his guests, and where many important conferences take place, are arranged in exquisite harmony and good taste. A special feature of the Foreign Office is its library, a magnificent collection, which is installed in the most attractive room of the Palace on a broad and well lighted corridor overlooking the Palace garden, embowered in green and redolent of the perfume of rare flowers. During the festivities attending the various international meetings that have been held in Rio during the Baron de Rio-Branco’s administration of Foreign Affairs, the Itamaraty Palace has been the scene of princely hospitality. Receptions, dinners, banquets and balls were given to the delegates of the Pan-American Congress, to the members of the International Scientific Conference, to Secretary Root and his party, and to the distinguished GREEN AND GOLD SALON, ITAMARATY PALACE. ex-President of Argentina, General Julio Roca, who was entertained with sumptuous liber- ality during his last visit to Rio in 1907. The baron is an affable and thoughtful host, and 120 THE NEW BRAZIL dispenses the honors of his house with the same tact and consideration that have proved an open sesame in the case of so many diplomatic problems in the Foreign Office. The finance minister of the present administration, Dr. David Campista, is a thorough exponent of the prevailing sentiment of President Penna’s Cabinet in favor of strenuous effort, and his remarkable rec- ord as jurist, financier, author, and statesman, shows that he has few idle moments in his useful life. He has always been a patriotic republican, and his strong initiative was shown at the very beginning of his political career, when at ITAMARATY PALACE, THE FOREIGN OFFICE. twenty-four years of age, he organized a large republican party of which he was elected chief. This was in Ouro Preto, in 1887, and two years later he was unanimously elected deputy to the Provincial Assembly of Minas. After the procla- mation of the republic he went as deputy to the Constitutional Assembly, in which he was the leader of the radical group, and proved himself a power in debate by his forcible logic and eloquence. His exceptional administrative ability was discovered by President Penna fifteen years ago, when the present chief executive was president of the State of Minas, and Dr. Campista was his secretary of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works. Under the succeeding government, the minister was sent to Europe ona special mission from his State, in the interest of colonization, financial negotiations, and other state matters, and by the successful result of this mission, he proved his eminent ability as a financier, introducing fifty thousand immigrants at about half the expense that Brazil had always paid before. In 1898, Dr. Campista became Minister of Finance in the government of Minas, and during the four years that he occupied this post he contributed two important works to the literature of finance. While a deputy to the national legislature during the past three years, he made himself famous by his successful campaign in defence of a plan for the valorization of coffee and the fixing of the exchange. With the varied knowledge acquired in economic and financial affairs, and the success achieved in every branch of the public service to which his attention has been directed, the present Minister of Finance is particularly well equipped for the duties and responsibilities of his high office. The Caixa de Amortizacdo, or treasury building, in which are the offices of the Finance Minister, is an imposing edifice of granite and marble, occupying a square on the new Oe Ee ieee EN hoe CABINET . 121 Avenida Central. It is one of the handsomest public buildings of the capital and is con- spicuous in the long line of magnificent new buildings which make the Avenida unique as a modern, metropolitan thorough- fare. As the Department of Finance supervises all institutions connected with the income and expenditures of the government, its money and the public debt, the Caixa de Amortizagao is the headquarters of various offices dependent on this branch of the public service. As its name implies, the Caixa de Amortizagdo has charge of the sinking fund for the redemption of the government’s notes, and it is here that the conversion of the paper CORRIDOR LEADING TO THE LIBRARY, ITAMARATY PALACE. money is made. The constant with- drawal of paper money from circulation has been the chief cause of the steady rise in exchange, which in 1898 was as low as 6d. and is now over 15d. The paper money in circulation is 748,508,851 milreis, a reduction oe . of 196,159,283 milreis having been made in less than six years. According to Minister Campista’s ‘latest report, the public credit is better than ever before, the financial statistics showing that Brazil is amply provided to meet all her obligations. The President’s Cabinet is an evidence that the spirit of practical patriotism is strong among the younger generation of Brazilians, the Vice- President and three of the ministers being under _thirty-five, though possessing wide experience in’ affairs of State. Dr. Tavares de Lyra, the Minister of Interior and Justice, is a native of the little city of Macahyba, State of Rio Grande do Norte. Elected a Federal deputy at twenty- one years of age, he continued to represent his ae State in the National Chamber until he was esis | elected Governor of Rio Grande do Norte in DR. TAVARES DE LYRA, 1904, Which office he held when appointed Netw c ips Minister of the Interior and Justice in President Penna’s Cabinet. The influences that led to Dr. Tavares de Lyra’s appointment to a post of such great responsibility, are to be traced in the exceptional record of his services to his 122 THE NEW BRAZIL country while a Deputy of the Federal Chamber, when as Secretary of the House, and as a member of the most important commissions, he became noted through his valuable con- tributions to judicial affairs, especially by his collaboration in the project of the Civil Code, and his profound and patient study of all matters relating to law and justice. His adminis- tration as governor proved him to be not only a ruler of unlimited resource and initiative, but a conscientious and devoted patriot. The Department of Interior and Justice supervises the national interests as related to public order and tranquillity, directing the judicial institutions of the government; under its jurisdiction are maintained the various establishments for the promotion of public health and comfort. The reports to this department from the Director-General of Public Health, Dr. Oswaldo Cruz, show that wonderful results have been obtained through the sanitation of the Federal capital and the extinction of yellow fever and other diseases. The hygiene of private dwellings is being improved, and the question of proper ventilation more thor- oughly studied. The schools of correction, the correctional’ colony, insane asylums, and similar institutions are gov- erned through this department. The youngest Minister of the Cabinet, Dr. Miguel Calmon du Pin e Almeida holds the port- folio of Industry, Transporta- tion, and Public Works, one of the most important offices of the government. It comprises so many features, that the multiplicity of duties connected with it has led more than once in previous administrations to a solicitation for the creation of a new department. Yet Dr. Calmon has already proved himself such a capable and indefatig- able statesman, that the general sentiment is one of Supreme confidence in the wisdom of President Penna’s choice. Dr. Calmon, who was born in Bahia in September, 1879, is a son of Rear-Admiral Calmon, and a descendant of the great Marquis de Abrantes, who in 1827, at the same age, and bearing the same name as the present Minister, was Minister of Finance to Dom Pedro I. Although only twenty-eight years of age, Dr. Calmon has had nearly six years experience In an administrative capacity, as Secretary of Agriculture, Transportation, Industry and Public Works in the cabinet of the Governor of Bahia, with only a short interval, during which he went to the East on a special mission, visiting Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra, to study the culture of coffee, tobacco, sugar, and rubber in those countries. During it il - i = a za = a = 4 ie E 4 oe e Es FACADE OF THE LIBRARY, ITAMARATY PALACE. THERRRESIOEN 1S CABINE fF fee his administration in Bahia, Dr. Calmon_ reor- ganized the whole system of his department, introducing modern plans and adopting the most advanced measures for the improvement and development of the material wealth and pros- perity of his State. He created an agency for industrial and commercial propaganda, appointed itinerant teachers of practical agriculture, formed a mineralogical commission, under the direction of Dr. Orville A. Derby, an expert geologist, for the investigation of mining properties of the State; secured legislation in favor of the rubber indus- try of Bahia, by which he increased the rubber exports from fifty-two tons in rgo1 to one thou- sand one hundred and forty-two tons in 1905; and in addition to a number of measures which he introduced for the increase of agricultural production and mineral development, he amelio- DR. DAVID CAMPISTA, MINISTER OF “FINANCE. rated and extended the railway system of the State, and accomplished a multitude of minor improvements. His especial attention has recently been given to the question of mining laws, and in his official report to the Presi- dent of the State of Bahia in 1903, he con- tributed a valuable work on the subject, showing the result of a methodical study of the mining legislation of Brazil, and a careful examination of the difficulties in the way of necessary reform, with the means by which they may be overcome. In his present administration Dr. Calmon has created a Geological Survey Department, under the direction of Dr. Orville A. Derby for the especial study of the mineralogy of Brazil. Besides the enormous amount of work which he has been able to accomplish in an admin- istrative capacity, the young statesman has contributed articles to the press of Bahia, Rio, BRUSH ON Cie Beat MED TER OP and Paris on his favorite subjects and has INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION, AND PUBLIC WORKS. published more than thirty pamphlets within J 124 THE NEW BRAZIL the past three years, treating of mining, agriculture, and railways. With such a record for efficient and faithful service to his government, the Minister of Industry, Transportation, and Public Works assumes the important duties which the interests of the nation demand, giving his best talents to the economic problems of the country, as far as they are related to this department. The extension of railways, which is a part of the programme of President Penna’s government, is being promoted in every State of the union, the present railway systems covering an extent of fifteen thousand miles. The improvement of the port of Bahia is in progress and work has been started for the removal of the sand bar at the port of Rio Grande do Sul, as well as for the construction of a port at Massiambu, in the State of Santa Catharina. The telegraph and postal service, which was greatly improved under the last administration is INTERIOR OF THE LIBRARY, ITAMARATY PALACE. being made still more efficient and general; and the important problem of immigration is being solved in the most practical and satisfactory manner, through the efforts of this department. The appointment of Marshal Hermes da Fonseca to the Cabinet of President Penna, as Minister of War, was greeted with enthusiasm by the people of Brazil, who have great admir- ation for the noble soldier, and confidence in his ability to add lustre to the military prestige of Brazil by his administration. His record as an officer of the empire, and later, of the republic, shows him to have had the advantage of a wide experience, gained not only through military training, but also by means of that intuitive insight which characterizes successful leaders of men in every branch of public life. Marshal Hermes da Fonseca was born in 1855 and began his military training at sixteen. Five years later he was appointed second lieutenant of artillery, and his promotion followed rapidly to first lieutenant, captain, ; CoA Bee RESOEN 1S ACADINET major, lieutenant-colonel, brigadier-general, major-general, and marshal of Brazil, the last honor being conferred upon him on the 6th of November, 1906. He is a high authority on military education and has no superior in technical knowledge and executive ability, while his zealous patriotism and the high principles ‘which govern his actions make him worthy of the emulation of the military youth of Brazil. The active military force of the country is regulated by the legislature every year. At present the total land forces, including the Federal troops and the police force under military organization is about fifty thousand men. This does not include volunteer organi- zations or civilian guards and semi-military companies maintained in the different States. Military service is not compulsory in Brazil, and vacancies ‘are filled by volunteers, as In é | 3 = = 3 3 MARSHAL HERMES DA FONSECA, MINISTER OF WAR. the United States of America. A volunteer cannot enlist for less than three years, though he ADMIRAL ALEXANDRINO DE ALENCAR, MINISTER OF MARINE. may re-enlist at the end of that period, always for a three-years’ term. Although the organized army lacks reserves, yet the military police of the dif- ferent States practically constitutes such a force. Under the supervision of the Minister of War, the military government is divided into seven districts with headquarters in the principal cities and under the command of generals of the army. All the technical establishments, the military colleges, army hospitals, and a new military sanatorium now in construction, as well as the army library and similar institutions, are maintained out of the budget of the War Department. The Minister of Marine, Rear-Admiral Alexan- drino Faria de Alencar, is a son of the “Military State” of Rio Grande do Sul, which has given to Brazil great heroes both of the army and navy, at all periods of its history. His naval education began at sixteen when he entered the naval school 126 THE NEW BRAZIL as a cadet, in 1865. From his graduation three years later to his appointment to his present post of Minister of Marine, Admiral Alencar has served his country in every branch of the naval service, receiving the rank of rear-admiral in 1902. His technical training and his knowledge of naval tactics, as well as his administrative ability, are of recognized superiority. In accordance with the decision of the previous government, the naval power of Brazil has been augmented by the purchase of three ironclad battle ships of thirteen thousand tons; three cruisers of nine thousand seven hundred tons; six torpedo destroyers of four hundred tons; twelve torpedo gunboats, three submarine boats, a naval transport with capacity for six thousand tons of coal; a school ship with displacement not exceeding three thousand tons. A new marine arsenal is under construction. The present naval force of Brazil consists of a fleet of fifty-four ships, large and small, classified as seven battle ships, eight cruisers, three torpedo destroyers, nine torpedo boats, five gunboats, eight dispatch boats, three steamers, three tugboats, auxiliary steamers, a yacht, two brigs, and three pataches. The officers of the navy include: One admiral, two vice-admirals, ten rear-admirals, twenty captains, forty commanders, eighty lieutenant-commanders, one hundred and sixty first lieutenants, one hundred and fifty second lieutenants, and four hundred and sixty-three commissioned officers. Besides these, there are one hundred and twenty ensigns, one thou- sand five hundred naval apprentices, and two thousand five hundred naval workmen. In nearly every seaport there is an apprentice sailor school, a strictly Brazilian institution of great utility, partly civic and partly military in purpose. Although hardly a year has passed since the present administration began its work, notable progress has been made in every department of the government, in accordance with the aspiration of the President, who has the earnest and faithful co6peration of every member of his Cabinet. THE ROSE SALON, ITAMARATY PALACE, - ‘ 7 . = i i by , oe areas 7 Leg = = 3 z : _- ay ie 7a Bes, ‘OUISNVE ACG OW ‘AVA AHL ONOTY GUVAA INO ATW-XIS V “UVW-VUIEd VGINSAV AHL CHAPTER VII THE NEW FEDERAL CAPITAL S if in obedience to the wand of enchant- ment, a new Rio has risen out of the heart of the quaint old-fashioned city which visitors to Brazil knew less than half a dozen years ago. To-day the Brazilian metropolis is modern, picturesque, and altogether the most surprising capital of the world. In an incredibly short time, it has been transformed from a labyrinth of narrow streets and congested alleys into a hand- some city of broad boulevards and beautifully shaded avenues, paved with asphalt and lighted by a system of electricity as modern as that of New York or Paris. The evidence of western energy and enterprise is everywhere manifested in the bustle of traffic, the rapid transit of elec- tric cars, the “fon-fon” of hundreds of auto- ’ mobiles, and the general atmosphere of progress i SAGE Re and prosperity which pervades the new-made metropolis. In the history of Rio there have been many changes, and life has varied its aspects, to accord with the successive conditions of a city which has been, within the short space of a century, the capital of a province, a kingdom, an empire, and a republic; but no previous change has so completely and vitally affected its destiny as the recent metamorphosis. Formerly, when visiting Rio, enjoying its many charming and beautiful scenes, and the romantic interest of its curious old streets, the imagination involuntarily turned to the past; one lived in the past, and could not get away from mental pictures of bygone days constantly suggested by the old-fashioned architecture and the antiquated streets. Now, everything 129 130 THE NEW BRAZIL speaks the language of activity and energy, and the contemplation of the broad avenues and towering buildings makes one think rather of what is to be, than of what has been. MONROE PALACE, WHERE THE PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS WAS HELD, RIO. The same influence has made itself felt in the people themselves. The enthusiasm, hopefulness, and expression of purpose and enterprise in the attitude and movements of the “Fluminense” to-day indicate that he is looking forward, and that he sees greater glory and prestige for his beloved capital in the future than he had dreamed of in the old days. : Rio de Janeiro, a city of nearly a million inhabitants, is a capital worthy of the largest and richest-country of South America. It is a metropolis framed in such ideal environs as to entitle it to be classed with the world’s most fashionable resorts for health and pleasure. When the visitor, on arriving in port, leaves his steamer at the dock, he finds himself facing the magnificent Avenida Central, a stately thoroughfare more than a mile long, beautified by shade trees, while, overlooking it on each side, are great buildings of solid construction and modern architecture, giving it the metropolitan appearance characteristic of leading thoroughfares in the largest cities of the world. That such a splendid exam- ple of national enterprise could be the result of eighteen months’ work seems absolutely incredible. And each of the handsome edifices, some of them covering an entire square, which form a solid front from the beginning of the Avenida Central to its junction with the Avenida Beira-Mar, represents the expenditure of from half a million to five million dollars gold. The new municipal theatre with a capacity for twenty thousand persons, is equal in spacious dimensions and splendid appearance to the Paris Opera House; the Archbishop’s Palace and the new national library are magnificent and stately structures; the latter, built under the direction and according to the plans of the present prefect of Rio, ibe Emre ERALGA Pr LAL 131 General F. M. Souza Aguiar, is one the finest public buildings in America. The Caixa de Amortizagdo, or Treasury Building, commands especial attention by its imposing pro- portions and attractive style of architecture. Many lofty office buildings are eloquent in attesting the general business prosperity, notably those of the leading daily news- papers, represented by the fornal do Commercio, which occupies an immense seven-story building with a tower; the Jornal do Brazil, O Patz, and others. A variety of architecture prevents an appearance of monotony in the famous street, and distinguishes it in this respect from the usual business thoroughfare. The offices of the Santos Dock Company have massive doors of carved wood which suggest the entrance to a repository of classic lore rather than to a commercial establishment. Here also are located the Engineers’ Club, the Naval Club, and the Commercial Museum. The most conspicuous of the new buildings on the Avenida Central is the Monroe Palace, where the sessions of the Pan-American Congress were held in 1906. It is a reproduction of the Brazilian building at the St. Louis Exposition: the artistic design attracts universal admiration, and reflects great credit on the distinguished architect, General Souza Aguiar. ARRIVAL IN RIO OF MR. ROOT, SECRETARY OF STATE OF THE UNITED STATES. The name it bears is significant of the friendly relations which exist between Brazil and the United States. The Monroe Palace stands near the junction of the Avenida Central 132 THE NEVE BRAZIL BARON DE RIO-BRANCO, OPENING THE THIRD PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS AT RIO, JUNE 27. 1906. and the Avenida Beira-Mar, the angle of which is marked by a granite obelisk bearing the following commemorative inscription : “SENDO PRESIDENTE DA REPUBLICA SX St6 260 DON FRANCISCO bE PAULA RODRIGUES ALVES, Ministro da Industria, Viacd4o e Obras Publicas, QuR Keo eon. Dr. LAURO SEVERIANO MULLER, Foi decretada, construida e inaugurada A AVENIDA CENTRAL, Executando os trabalhos A Commissao Constructora Tendo como Engenheiro Chefe O Dr. ANDRE GUSTAVO PAULO bE FRONTIN. XV NOVEMBRO MCII. XV NOVEMBRO MCYI.” oR Dien EOE AIS CARI AL 133 On the remaining three sides of the column are inscriptions commemorating the decree, September 18, 1903; the initiation of the work, March 8, 1904; and the inauguration of the completed Avenida Central, November 15, 1905. When Mr. Root visited Rio he was charmed by its beautiful scenery and the hospitable spirit of its citizens, who greeted him with the most cordial demonstrations. The welcome he received on disembarking, and the v/vas which were heard on all sides, while he was being escorted by Baron de Rio-Branco, the Brazilian Foreign Minister, to the Palacete Abrantes,— which was placed at his disposal during his stay in Brazil,—won the heart of the American Statesman, who acknowledged, with smiling salutations, the evidences of geniality and good will. The Brazilian people entertained Mr. Root with magnificent hospitality, the Federal capital being the scene of brilliant and continuous festivities in his honor. In the transformation of the capital, the construction of the Avenida Central was only one feature of a vast system of improvements due to the genius of the former prefect, Dr. Pereira Passos, who accomplished wonderful reforms. The municipality of Rio, under his administration, built the splendid boulevard of Beira-Mar, which, beginning at the Lapa terminus of the Avenida Central, curves around the shore of the bay, along the Praia da Lapa, by the newly formed Praia do Russell, where part of the hill of the Gloria was cut away to afford space for the great driveway, and, passing the picturesque Praia do Flamengo, sweeps gracefully around the horseshoe curve of Botafogo to the furthest limit of that beauti- ful suburb. It is not an exaggeration to say that Avenida Beira-Mar is unsurpassed in picturesque beauty and variety by any driveway of equal length in the world. — It is an ideal promenade in an automobile, and one’can make the complete circuit of the city in a four A GLIMPSE OF AVENIDA BEIRA-MAR FROM THE PRAIA DA LAPA. 134 THE NEM eb eA Zi hours’ spin at a fair rate of speed. And what a charming passefo! Six miles along the Beira-Mar esplanade, and then through the enchanting ravine that leads to the Gavea, across THE NEW AVENIDA CENTRAL, RIO DE JANEIRO. the hills to Tijuca, always on a good road, enjoying in a few short hours the varying aspects of the sheltered bay, with its islands and ships at anchor, the Atlantic in broad expanse, the bracing hills with their wealth of varying landscapes, and the thousand tints of sea and sky reflected in their horizon. When the ex-President of Argentina, General Julio Roca, visited Rio in 1907, he was entertained with sumptuous hospitality, among the fiestas arranged in his honor being a Venetian regatta in the bay of Botafogo. It was a superb spectacle. The Avenida Beira-Mar was illuminated throughout the whole length, and the Praia do Botafogo was a fairyland of light and color. The fiesta opened with a magnificent display of fireworks in imitation of a volcano in eruption; the regatta followed, a procession of hundreds of launches, yachts, and small boats in the bay, so fancifully decorated and illuminated as to produce an effect at once weird and enchanting. In the spectators’ pavilion, the beauty and fashion of Rio were assembled. From the distance was wafted on the clear night air the music of mandolins and guitars, mingling with songs and choruses. At intervals, bands of music played on board the barcas and launches, nine military bands taking part in the Wee Eee EDC AUSCALLIEAL 135 programme. Seldom, if ever, has a more picturesque display been witnessed than the Festa Veneziana in Botafogo, where the natural romance of the surroundings lent poetry to a marvellously effective scene. Dr. Passos continued with indefatigable zeal and energy, the improvement of the capital, begun in the Avenida Central and in the extension of Beira-Mar. A dozen or more streets were widened and built up in accordance with the plans of the government, and the magnificent Avenida de Mangue was added to the many beautiful promenades of the city. The organization of a sanitary corps, the modernizing of the drainage system, and efficient cooperation in all the Federal government’s plans for the perfection of the hygiene and com- fort of the city were evidence of his zeal and activity in behalf of progress. In accordance with the plans of the former Minister of Interior, Dr. Gaspar, a hospital was founded for the treatment of tuberculosis, which is one of the most notable sanitary institutions in South America. An important factor in the establishment of this hospital was the unremitting labor and devotion of the Anti-Tuberculosis Leagues of Rio, Sao Paulo, Bahia, Pernambuco, and other cities, organized for the noble purpose of combating this terrible scourge. The League of Rio is composed of leading citizens, and its work is. facilitated by a subsidy from the Federal government and another from the municipality, secured through an extra tax on alcoholic. drinks and tobacco. Its efforts are directed toward the better sanitation and ventila- tion of the homes of the poor, and to a propaganda of hygienic education. The various hospital associations and charities are cooperating with the league in favorof healthandcomfort. The Department of Public Health, under the able direction of Dr. Oswaldo Cruz, has brought about great improvements in the hospitals of Sao Sebas- tiao and Paula Candido and in the lazaretto of Ilha Grande, AVENIDA CENTRAL, LOOKING TOWARD BEIRA-MAR. which are provided with the most modern appliances for disinfection and sanitation. The Strangers’ Hospital, chiefly supported by foreigners, has also introduced the latest hygienic methods in its management. 136 THE NEW BRAZIL The Service of Hygiene maintains not only a disinfecting establishment in Botafogo, but a small fleet of about a dozen vessels in the harbor, each equipped with Clayton apparatus for the disinfection of vessels that arrive from ports of contagion. In addition to the complete eradication of yellow fever, the scourge of small- pox has been effectively combated by obligatory vaccination, which has been established not only in Rio but throughout the republic. The illustrious president of the National Academy of Medicine, Dr. A. de Azevedo Sodré, codperating with the movement toward better health conditions, has introduced many reforms in the régime of that venerable institution, which was founded seventy- eight years ago, during the reign of Dom Pedro I., and is one of the best equipped establishments in the world. The asylums, closely related to the hospitals in their beneficent purpose, have been greatly improved, the Insane Asylum of Rio having been completely reorganized in conformity Ses rate eats ea with the needs of the present day. In addition to the public institutions of this kind, there are about fifty private charitable associations, principally working in connection with the churches and maintaining religious hospitals and asylums. The largest hospital in South America, Santa Casa da Misericordia, was founded by the Sisters of Mercy in 1545; the building it now occupies was completed in 1840, having been thirty years under construction. It is a beautiful specimen of classic architecture, and has a capacity for the accommodation of one thousand five hundred patients. Within the past five years it has been completely reorganized and remodelled in accordance with the best modern methods, and in sanitation, hygiene, and medical treatment it ranks to-day among the best in the world. The sisterhood has in charge not only the general hospital and its annexes, but also an asylum for foundlings, a convent for orphans, a Pasteur institute, and a funeral directorate. A notable feature of the asylum for foundlings is the revolving Wheel, in which a cradle is so arranged, that when an infant is laid in it, the wheel turns round, carrying the little stranger inside, where it is sheltered and cared for until old enough to go out to service. The girls enter the convent of Santa Theresa, where they are educated. The cradle is said to be an effective preventative of infanticide. As social conditions advance and education progresses, recourse to this method of disposing of unwelcome offspring becomes rarer, recent years showing a marked diminution in the number of foundlings. Among other important charities maintained by private enterprise are the Real e Benemerita Sociedade Portugueza de Beneficencia, and the Real e Benemerita Caixa de Soccorros POE eNE ere DERALS CALI TAL 137 D. Pedro V., both of which are, as the title indicates, Portuguese institutions. The Sociedade supports an excellent hospital, attended by a staff of able specialists. Numerous other Portuguese societies for the relief of the infirm and the poor exist in various sections, among them the Centro Benemerito D. Amelia Rainha de Portugal, and the Congregagdo dos Filhos do Trabalho D. Carlos I. Rei de Portugal, thus showing the affection which the subjects of Portugal, residing in Brazil, feel for their sovereigns. In all the charitable institutions of the capital, one of the important features has been the effort to improve social conditions through education, and the influence of this purpose is manifested not only in the amelioration of the unfortunate poor, but in a higher standard of instruction among all classes. The practical system by which, from the first day of entering school, girls are taught not only to read and write but to sew and to become expert In housekeeping, and boys are trained in mechanical practice, owes its origin to the charitable organizations of the city. In this method of instruction, the public schools of Brazil are far ahead of those of the United States, which are only beginning to adopt the system. A comparison between the statistics of 1896 and those of 1906, show. that the average attendance at the primary schools has more than doubled within that time, CORCOVADO, SEEN FROM AVENIDA BEIRA-MAR, IN BOTAFOGO. the last report giving an attendance of thirty-eight thousand pupils. In secondary, and particularly in technical instruction, the increased attendance also shows great advancement. 138 THE, NEVOBRAZIL The Polytechnic School of Rio is one of the best educational institutions of its kind. Originally this school was connected with the Military Academy, which was founded during RUA URUGUAYANA, A RECENTLY TRANSFORMED THOROUGHFARE, the reign of King Dom Jodo VI., on the site of the present Polytechnic School in the Largo do Sao Francisco. In 1874 the separation of the military courses of study from those of the natural and physical sciences led to the removal of the former branch of instruction to the Praia Vermelha, where the Escola de Applicagao had been established years before. The Military Academy was then reorganized, its buildings enlarged, and the curriculum extended. The present buildings are large and well-equipped with gymnasium, infirmaries, and all necessary conveniences; the instruction is thorough and in accordance with the most modern military methods. When the Military Academy was detached from the institution in the Largo do Sao Fran- cisco, the original institution was reorganized under the name of Escola Polptechnica, and devoted to the higher instruction in natural, physical, and mathematical science, the Viscount de Rio-Branco taking charge as its first director. A general course, and special courses in physical and natural science, civil engineering, mines, and arts and manufactures, cover the subjects now treated in this college. The course in civil engineering receives particular attention, and its graduates are prepared to take their place among leaders of the profession anywhere in the world. Night classes, which have been organized in nine of the primary Phe NEW SPEDERAL CARITAL 139 schools and in the technical schools, for the benefit of adults, are contributing materially to reduce the percentage of illiteracy. The blind are educated in the Benjamin Constant Institute, and there is also an Institute for Deaf Mutes. The Normal School occupies a handsome and spacious building facing the Praga da Republica, and ranks among the best in South America. The new Escola Rodrigues Alves, next to the President’s Palace in the Cattete, is a beautiful monument to the great Brazilian for whom it is named. While the social and educational advancement of Brazil is an evidence of the modern spirit of progress which to-day more than ever animates its people, there is a prevailing determination to abolish old systems which hamper the development of the city, and to introduce modern methods in every branch of the public service. New enterprises are con- stantly being inaugurated by public and private initiative. One of the greatest of these, the Rio de Janeiro Tramway, Light, and Power Company, incorporated in the year 1904 in Canada, with a capital of fifty million dollars, has undertaken to develop and utilize, for the purpose of electricity, the water power which is so abundant in the neighborhood of Rio. Two large water powers have been acquired, one on the Parahyba River, eighty miles from Rio, capable of producing one hundred thousand horse-power, and another on the Lages River, fifty miles from the capital, where forty thousand horse-power is being developed, PRAIA DA GLORIA, SHOWING STATUE OF VISCOUNT DE RIO-BRANCO. which can be increased to one hundred thousand when necessity demands. From the Lages River, temporary installation is supplied for the present electric lighting and power of 140 THE NEW BRAZIL Rio. This whole river passes through a narrow gate, formed by massive granite rocks only three hundred and twenty feet wide, and this aperture has been dammed up, the river being MUNICIPAL THEATRE, RIO. forced into a lake fifteen miles long, by seven and a half miles wide, which, when the dam is completed will have an impounding capacity of two hundred and twenty-two million cubic metres. Lighting and power distribution in the city was inaugurated by the company in March, 1907. Before this could be done, two hundred and twenty miles of tunnels were built, through which the power and lighting wires are conducted. Within the next three years the Carris Urbanos and the Sado Christovao Street Railways, the only remaining horse-car lines of the city, will be transformed into electric systems, as well equipped as are at present those of the Jardim Botanico and the Carioca electric lines. New electric car lines are also being added to the railway service established from Rio to Tijuca and Corcovado. In view of the transformation already effected, and the improvements being made, one involuntarily wonders whether any of the old capital with its traditions will remain. There is so much in the historic city that it would be vandalism to destroy. The leaders of reform recognized this fact when they spared the Ouvidor, that charming little alley which has been the fashionable thoroughfare of Rio for a century or more. It remains to form a con- necting link between the new city, with its modern activity and energy, and the old capital, with the legacy of innumerable historical traditions. It is still, as it has always been, a popular Poe Pee PEDERALT CAPITAL 141 resort for idlers, fashionable shoppers, club-men and politicians, occupying a conspicuous place as the centre of gossip, social, political andeven commercial. The passing of old Carioca marks a more than ordinarily interesting epoch in the city’s transformation. The “Fluminense” of the old school looks with regret upon the anni- hilation of his antiquated treasures, and even while recognizing the importance of the reform, finds it hard to forgive innovations which take the life and spirit out of some of his most cherished traditions. ‘ Fluminense,” the name applied to a native of Rio, is a survival of an error made by the earlier discoverers, who thought the bay of Rio was a river, and named it Rio de Janeiro, “River of January;” the word “Fluminense” signifies belonging to ariver. “Diario Fluminense,” and “Collegio Fluminense,” are instances of the popular use of the expression. A “Carioca” is a native of Rio born within a certain radius of Carioca Square and the fountain which supplies the famous water from the surrounding hills; and, as the origin of the London cockney’s title from Bow Bells is woven about with interesting stories, so there are traditions many and varied relating to the Carioca; the Indians ascribed mar- vellous powers to this water, and attributed to it the gift of poetry and oratory, with which it inspired those who drank of it, just as the “Castalian fount” of the Greek supplied the divine gifts of the Muses. The “Carioca” of to-day, the representative of a nation of orators, exemplifies the appropriateness of this tradition. The Brazilian loves his Rio for its'asso- ciations and traditions. To him, every foot of ground tells a story of hard-fought battles in the cause of freedom and victories won often against terrible opposition. He loves the parks and plazas because they com- memorate glorious events in the annals of his country; he points with pride to the monuments that immortalize the bravery of the nation’s heroes; every street and alley is dear to him, recalling by its name or asso- ciations some decisive struggle in the cause of liberty; even the majestic encircling hills and the sun-kissed islands of the bay appeal to him rather for the memory of heroic deeds wrought in their midst and of great men they have sheltered than for their far-famed GENERAL F. M. DE SOUZA AGUIAR, PREFECT OF RIO. beauty; Sao Christovao, Santa Theresa, Tijuca, are names of deeper significance for the historical incidents that belong to them than for their picturesqueness; Paqueta claims more honor as the last residence of the “Father 142 THE NEW BRAZIL of Brazilian independence” than as the most beautiful island in the finest harbor of the world. Every feature of the old city bears the impress of epoch-making; in passing along its streets, visiting the places of interest, and listening to its history, one is reading the heart of the nation. For nearly two centuries, as the chief seat of government, it has been the central scene in all the great political Struggles, pulsating with excitement in every crisis, gay and brilliant with the rejoicings of every victory, vitally identified with the national life in all the changes through which the country has passed. It still shows sur- viving features of the colonial days, when neither vast wealth nor great leisure permitted luxurious living, though much was accom- plished of an important and lasting character; among other things, the construction of the famous Carioca aqueduct, a monument of architectural grandeur, which is as solid to-day as when first built, one hundred and fifty years ago; the Sao Sebastiado church, built in 1567, in honor of the city’s patron saint, now the oldest church in Brazil, within whose walls rest the ashes of the city’s founder, Estacio de S4; and the church of Candelaria, built in 1600, rebuilt in 1775, and completely remodelled at the close of the last [nineteenth] century, a magnificent edifice to-day. Evidences still exist of the transformation that followed the arrival of the royal court, the elevation of an insignificant province to a powerful kingdom, and the change from a provincial capital to the chief seat of royalty, with all the pomp, splendor, and gayety attending the presence of a rich and extravagant court; many of the city’s finest institutions, theatres, churches, schools, and parks, date from this period, to which belongs the origin of the National Museum, the National Library, the Military Academy, the celebrated Botanical Gardens; the Church of Sacramento, for which, as the story goes, part of the necessary funds were secured by King Jodo’s chief cook, who offered delicious stews in return for donations; the old theatre, which was burned as a judgment upon the builder, who stole the stones intended for the construction of a cathedral; also a number of hospitals, asylums, and other charities. The dramatic incidents connected with the establish- ment of the empire are perpetuated in the street names of “Ypiranga,” “ Sete de Setembro,” and the “Praga d’Acclamagdo”’ [recently changed to Praga da Republica], respectively com- memorating the place where the independence of Brazil had its birth, the date of that event, and the formal acclamation of Dom Pedro I. as emperor; an equestrian statue of Dom Pedro in the Praga Constituigéo [now Praca Tiradentes] represents him in the act of shouting the watchword ‘Independencia ou Morte!” after having read the arbitrary message of the Cortes at Lisbon. The statue of the great liberator, José Bonifacio de Andrada, in the Praca Sado Francisco de Paula, also recalls that eventful period. The Conservatory of Music, the AVENIDA OF PALMS ON THE CANAL DO MANGUE. ROE MNEMSEEDERAL CAL] LAL 143 Astronomical Observatory, the Naval Academy, and many colleges were established during the time of the second emperor, though all these institutions have been reorganized and improved within recent years. The hand- some monument to the Duke de Caxias, which adorns the public garden named in honor of that hero, commemorates his splendid generalship in the Paraguayan war. The “Rua Riachuelo” preserves the name of the most glorious battle of the war. And the “Rua Voluntarios da Patria,” one of the principal streets of Botafogo, is a lasting re- minder of the brave company of the “ coun- try’s volunteers”: who won the laurels of military glory for Brazil against the dictator Lopez. The most important point of interest from its relation to the events of the last revolution is the Praga da Republica, the chief theatre of action on that memorable . Wa BUR BALE. day which witnessed a few bold strokes so well directed that their aim accomplished the downfall of one government and the successful proclamation of another within twenty-four hours,—a record for which the world offers no parallel. The history of the city of Rio, or, to give its full name, Sao Sebastiao do Rio de Janeiro, dates from 1566, when Estacio de Sa, nephew of the governor-general of Brazil at that time, effected a landing with a few colonists at a place near the Sugar-Loaf Mountain and fortified a small settlement which he called Villa Velha [‘“‘Old Town” ]. The next year, the governor- general transferred the town to the present site, and gave it the name of Sao Sebastido, in honor of the King of Portugal. He erected a citadel, or castfello, on the hill now called Morro do Castello, and placed there a commemorative tablet on which was carved the royal arms of Portugal. The first church of S40 Sebastiao was built beside this stone, which still remains as a relic of the city’s foundation. The older section of the city is constructed according to Portuguese ideas of architecture, in narrow streets, not broad enough for vehicles to pass each other; but this section is so rapidly disappearing that now only a few of these narrow thoroughfares remain. It is possible to go to almost any part of the city in a street-car, or “bond” as it is popularly called—a name given by the common people, who, having heard a great deal about “bonds” in connection with the inauguration of the street-car system in Rio, hailed the cars when they finally appeared, as “those American bonds,” and the name has clung to them ever since. Automobiles have been brought into use in Rio since the trans- formation of the city, but they have not quite usurped the place of the old-fashioned tilbury, which seems indispensable to the “Fluminense,” who hails one as he is leaving home vie THE NEW BRAZIL for his place of business in the morning, and while the covered two-wheeler whisks along at a lively rate, comfortably devotes his attention to the morning paper or his mail-bag, or to the beauties of the bay along the shore of which he passes on his way to “the city.” Only one passenger, who sits beside the driver, is permitted to ride in a tilbury ata time, and it is seldom that a lady makes use of this method of transit. An amusing episode which occurred in Rio during a sojourn there of two American ladies proves how jealously the tilbury fraternity guard their rights. The two ladies had arrived from Petropolis in a pouring rain and found all the carriages at the Rio landing already engaged; only a solitary tilbury stood at the curb. The driver was signalled, and agreed to take them to their hotel; and they, ignorant of the law, crowded into the rather circumscribed space which the vehicle afforded, and were conveyed to their destination. Imagine their dismay, on arriving at the hotel, to see the horse’s bridle seized by a policeman, the driver surrounded by angry and gesticulating jehus, and behind them an imposing line of tilburies that had been increasing in number all along the route from the landing, and soon filled the court of the hotel, their owners joining in the hubbub until peace was finally restored by the payment of two fares, or rather the hire of two tilburies. A visitor to Rio is first charmed by its picturesque beauty, then attracted by the modern appearance of the city generally, and finally interested in its history and the public institu- tions which have been established at various periods of its existence. The National Museum is daily visited by many strangers to Rio. It is one of the oldest institutions of the capital and was founded during the reign of King Dom Joao VI. It was the original intention to make it a museum of natural history, but the present collection includes all kinds of rare objects of scientific or historical interest. Foreign naturalists have contributed largely to its Stores, in addition to the valuable specimens furnished by Brazilian explorers. The museum is constantly increasing the number and value of its different departments, which afford an excellent opportunity for the student to become acquainted with the anthropological and archeological discoveries made within recent years in this part of the globe. In 1876, the National Museum began the publication of its archives, several volumes of which have already appeared. Among these papers are important contributions from the late Professor Hartt on the archeology and ethnology of the Amazons, from Drs. Lacerda and Peixoto on Indian crania, from Drs. Ladislau Netto and Ferreira Penna on Brazilian archeology, from Professor Orville A. Derby on geology, from Dr. Lacerda on the physiological action of snake- poisons, and from Professor Fritz Miller on insects and crustaceans. Dr. C. A. White, of the National Museum at Washington, has contributed a splendid monograph on the crustaceous invertebrate fossils, numbering over two hundred species, mostly new, collected by the geological commission, and Messrs. Derby and Rathbun have added monographs on the car- boniferous and Devonian fauna. Dr. Barbosa Rodrigues, the present director of the Botanical Gardens at Rio, has written many important works on his discoveries of new varieties of palms and orchids, of which he has made a specialty, as well as on his studies in ethnology in the fertile field of the Amazons. Among the curiosities at the museum, the Brazilian PHEeNEVeREDEKAL CAPITAL 145 meteorite “Bendigo” has a very important place. It weighs nearly five tons, and was discovered first, in 1781, by a farmer, near Canudos, in the interior of Bahia, while looking for his cattle. After many unsuccessful attempts to move the mass, it was finally trans- ported to Rio, nearly a year being required for the work of conveying it to the port of Bahia for shipment. Professor Derby, an American, and a recognized authority on such matters, says it may be five or six centuries old. Next to the National Museum, the greatest scientific interest attaches to the National Library, which contains a splendid collection of more than four hundred thousand books, manuscripts, and other important documents, and has been a valued possession of the capital for nearly a hundred years, having been founded by King Jodo VI. soon after his CANAL DO MANGUE. arrival in Brazil, the nucleus consisting of a valuable collection of books from the Ajuda palace, in Lisbon. On the establishment of the empire, an enormous indemnity was demanded by the Portuguese government for the Ajuda books, which was afterward paid. Additions from time to time have brought the library up to its present standard, prominent among the contributions being the library of Dom José Bonifacio de Andrada._ The library collection has been removed to the new building, which is one of the handsomest edifices on the Avenida Central. The Casa da Moeda (mint) of Rio is another institution of particular interest and impor- tance. In addition to the coinage of money, the revenue and postage stamps are printed here. Its numismatic collection is unique and valuable. The government printing-office, or 146 THE NEW BRAZIL “Typographia Nacional,” occupies one of the handsomest buildings in the city. It was three years under construction, and cost half a million dollarsin gold. The architecture is attractive and appropriate, and the ornamentation harmonizes with the purposes of the establishment, the facade having statues of Gutenberg, Faust, Schoeffer; and Coster. The offices, com- posing-rooms, press-rooms, and other departments are spacious and conveniently arranged, having all modern requirements, including machinery for type-setting, stereotyping, and lithographing. On the upper floor are large halls for exhibitions and lectures. The post- office and the stock-exchange on the Rua Primeiro do Marco are handsome buildings, and were the forerunners of the present modern style of architecture which is everywhere Seen in the new Rio. The municipality of Rio is governed by a Prefect, who is appointed by a decree of the President of the Republic. The present Prefect, General F. M. de Souza Aguiar, succeeded Dr. Pereira Passos, taking up, with the energy and ability for which he is eminently distin- guished, the unfinished work of beautifying and improving the city; he is adding many new reforms as the progress of the capital makes it necessary. Codperating with the Prefect are six Directorates: the Directorate of Patrimony has charge of the properties of the munici- pality, Supervising purchases and sales, leases, donations, and similar matters; the Directorate of Public Works and Transportation attends to the public improvements, the construction and repair of buildings, and everything relating to the lighting, water works, railways, and street- cars of the city; the Directorate of Hygiene and Public Assistance, as the name indicates, superintends sanitary work and the hospital and asylum organizations; the Directorate of Instruction has charge of municipal schools, organizing and regulating these establishments; the Directorate of Finance and the Directorate of Police direct the affairs of these depart- ments. There are also Inspectors of Gardens, Arborization, etc., whose duty it is to keep in order the beautiful pragas and boulevards of the city; and Superintendents of Street-Cleaning, who Keep the thoroughfares free from rubbish and. provide for the speedy removal of any obstacles to traffic. The Minister of Justice is the General Superintendent of the Police of the Federal District, though the government appoints also a Chief of Police, who has the codperation of three auxiliary delegates. In addition to these officials the police service has an army of assistants for the preservation of public safety. The policing of the city is executed by a Military Brigade, a Civil Guard anda corps of agents of the Public Safety. The Correctional School, Correctional Colony, and similar institutions are under the jurisdiction of the Police Department. The Correctional School is an admirable institution, having as its object the reclaiming of children over nine and under fourteen years of age, either orphans who are in danger of becoming bad citizens through lack of parental restraint and training, or children of parents who do not exercise proper authority over them. The school occupies a spacious building in Sao Christovao Street, and has two dependencies in the suburbs, with suitable grounds, for boys and girls respectively. The girl inmates are taught domestic duties, and the boys, outdoor work, such as gardening, etc. The Correctional Colony is Pore Eee DER ALD GAP TAL 147 designed to meet the difficulty of dealing with that class comprising habitual drunkards, gamesters, vagrants, and thieves, so well-known in all cities, and who constitute a menace to the peace and well-being of the community. The Colony is located on Grand Island, outside of the bay, occupying the plantation known as Dois Rios, which is rich in coffee trees. The inmates of the Colony are put to work in the coffee fields or in some of the numerous establish- ments connected with this industry on the island. The Fire Department of Rio is one of the most important institu- tions for the protection of public and private property. It is composed of a POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. central station and six sub-stations, one of which is located on the shore of the bay and has two large steamboats fitted up for the purpose of extinguishing fires on board of any ships in the harbor. Alarm boxes are placed at the street corners, and the service is So well arranged that only twenty seconds are required to get the engines, wagons, etc., out of the fire-hall. At the central station, which is a handsome modern building, are manufacturing and repair shops for the use of the department, all the work being done by the firemen, six hundred in number. The Prefect, General F. M. de Souza Aguiar, was for six years the Chief of the Fire Department, and during this time introduced many improvements. According to the last census the population of Rio is eight hundred and eleven thousand two hundred and sixty-five, and it is rapidly increasing, as a consequence of the healthful conditions which prevail and the many advantages it offers as a desirable place of residence. The climate is delightful, there is no longer a terror for the foreigner in the idea, always exaggerated, that Rio was the favorite home of yellow fever and other contagious diseases. It is the most picturesque capital of the world and an ideal resort, with charming social life and everything that contributes to an enjoyable existence. The Cassino Fluminense, the principal social club of the capital, has among its members the most distinguished men of Brazil, and the functions given under its patronage are occasions of the highest social importance. All distinguished visitors to Brazil are entertained by this club. The foreigners of Rio, including Portuguese, English, American, French, German, and Italian residents, also have their clubs. The Rio Yacht Club, and several boating clubs, entertain lavishly with the most charming fiestas, and there is no season of the year when Rio is not a desir- able place of residence. The diplomatic corps, who have had their official residence in Petropolis ever since the time of the empire, when an epidemic of yellow fever in Rio 148 THE NEW BRAZIL led them to petition their governments for this privilege, appreciate the many advantages which Rio now offers, since yellow fever no longer exists as a menace to health, and a movement is on foot to have the official residence removed again to the Federal capital. The favorite site for residences is now the Beira-Mar, and many palatial homes are situated on this magnificent boulevard overlooking the bay, particularly along the driveway through the picturesque quarter of Botafogo. With its many charming scenes and the glory of its tropical skies, with its handsome palacetes, the luxuriance of its gardens, the attractiveness of its avenues and their modern edifices, Rio is the ideal City Beautiful of the New World. PRACA DA GLORIA. i tag? : ‘ * bd ath £ £ i : ; Batu ' THE LIBRARY a NOE INE A UVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ‘AULSAATAS WOU ‘OGVAODYOO CHAPTER VIII THE SUBURBS OF RIO AND THE BOTANICAL GARDEN DR. JOSE BARBOSA RODRIGUES, DIRECTOR OF THE BOTANICAL GARDEN. twin peaks, “ Dois Irmdos,” close to the sea. O describe the beautiful suburbs of Rio, one should take a leaf from an Oriental poem, rich in the glowing phrases of the Eastern imagination; for only superlatives are adequate to express the picturesque charm, romantic and captivating, that lies in the hills and valleys, islands, inlets, and waterfalls of the fascinating environs of the capital. The landscape presents a thousand varied aspects, and whether viewed from the bay or from the mountains the scene is one of enchantment. Rome and Byzantium boast of their seven hills, but Rio has seven times as many noble summits on watchful guard around her. Little imagination is evoked in picturing as her “perpetual defenders” these lofty peaks that surround her in towering majesty. The well-named “hunchback,” Corcovado, stands close to the city, a famous monster. Vying with each other in grenadier service are the The weather-beaten Gavea looks as if it had faced the elements in storm and calm for untold ages. Santa Theresa, like a guardian angel, bends close to the heart of the city, taking its children in her sheltering arms when mid- summer comes, fanning them with her breeze-laden trees and bathing them in her cooling streams: very comforting and refreshing are the ministrations of Good Santa Theresa. And Tijuca! In strong contrast to the uncompromising outlines of the Gavea, sweeps the graceful 151 52 THE NEW BRAZIL contour of this suburban giant, with a saucy parrot’s beak, “Bico do Papagaio,” peeping over one shoulder, and a whole Brobdingnagian retinue in attendance. With head high among the clouds, the splendid colossus appears inaccessible; but in the summer season there is no better friend of Rio than this haughty aristocrat, gorgeously arrayed in rich tropical foliage, sparkling with the jewels that flash from innumerable waterfalls; sometimes with darkened brow frowning in sullen gloom as if under a terrible threat of the storm-king’s thunder, and again smiling frank and bold in the face of the sunshine. The Sugar-Loaf, “Pao de Assucar,” guarding one side of the narrow entrance to the bay, offers an zesthetic nibble to the imagination and a splendid promise of the feast that lies within the harbor’s portals. With the charm of her beautiful environment, Rio possesses unrivalled attractions as a most delightful place of residence. Electric street-car systems make the remote suburbs easily accessible, and even during the oppressive season of the year a half hour’s ride will take the resident into an atmosphere of delicious coolness. From the Largo Carioca, an inclined railway connects with Santa Theresa, the route offering one of the most picturesque views imaginable; the summit presents a succession of terraces, with villas looking invit- ingly out among the trees. The old Carioca aqueduct runs along the side of the road, a connecting link between modern and medizval industry. In the distance may be seen Tijuca and the Tingua Mountains. The old Santa Theresa convent, which occupies the eastern side of Santa Theresa Mountain and at first belonged to an order of Carmelite nuns, was founded in 1742, though it was not until 1781 that the recluses were permitted to take the veil of Santa Theresa, and then only twenty-one were admitted. During the early days, it was quite customary for husbands, before leaving the city on a military expedition, to place their wives in this convent for safe-keeping. There are two routes to the summit of Corcovado; one is by way of Santa Theresa, and Paineiras, and the other direct from the city, by a railway of the Riggenbach system, which goes to the top of the peak. The direct road from the Cosme Velho station, in Larangeiras, to the summit of Corcovado is about two miles and a half long, and the actual ascent is two thousand and eighty feet, or about one in six. Corcovado is the great show- place of Brazil, and it is doubtful if anywhere in the world Nature offers a grander treat. From the point where the train leaves the station at its base there is a constant feast of the beautiful; and when the enraptured traveller reaches the little pavilion that crowns the mountain’s summit, he is speechless before the lavish splendor of this garden of the gods. No language is adequate to describe the view, one of thrilling charm, so impressive that it remains forever engraven on the memory of the beholder. The hills are grouped around in solemn grandeur; the picturesque islands appear like pretty naiads decked for a holiday; the blue skies with their floating white clouds are mirrored in the clear depths of the bay; the city lies just below, radiant in the sunshine. . The suburb of Tijuca is about six miles from the business centre of the city, with which it is connected by a street railway. Many people of Rio have their summer homes at Tijuca, and it is a desirable residence locality all the year round. A fine view is obtained Popes BUKD SSO men OmaNOVTHE BOTANICAL GARDEN 153 from various points along the road which leads to the summit of this peak, three thousand three hundred and sixty-two feet above sea level, the highest point in the immediate vicinity of the capital. Very beautiful features of the scenery are the sylvan pathways, having all the charm of the forest, and leaping cascades that dazzle the eyes as they splash over the rocks in sun-kissed showers. With the recent transformation of the Federal Capital, many improvements have been made in the suburban attractions, and Sumaré is one of the newest acquisitions to the picturesque view points from which the city and harbor are seen to the best advantage. In the vicinity of the Gavea, at the summit of the pass that separates THE SUMMIT OF CORCOVADO. it from Corcovado, is the famous “Chinese view” (so called because the road from that point down to the Botanical Garden was built by Chinese labor), from which a superb picture of the ocean is seen, and the “praia,” or beach, of Botafogo; the road runs through a bit of virgin forest, and gives charming glimpses of scenery along its course. The Gavea and Copacabana are reached by street-cars on what is known as the Botanical Garden line, the oldest system of street railways in South America, constructed and opened to traffic, in 1868, by an American company. ‘“Gavea”’ signifies a topsail, and from its sail-like shape the huge mass takes its name, which is also applied to the suburb at its foot, one of the most popular of the capital, and a favorite resort on holidays. 154 THE NEW BRAZIL Besides the attractions of her neighboring hills, Rio has, in the beautiful islands that dot the harbor, possessions of the greatest charm and interest. Not only are many of them desirable places of residence for the beauty of their scenery, but their salubrious climate gives them even a higher value. The most famous of these, both for its ‘picturesqueness and the delicious purity of its atmosphere, is the island of Paqueta, the chosen health resort of many invalids from the capital, and for several years, from 1832 to 1838, the home of the great Brazilian statesman, Dom José Bonifacio de Andrada. A handsome service of porcelain, made from the kaolin of this island, was presented to King Dom Joao VI., in 1815, during the residence of the Portuguese court in Brazil. Paqueta is the second largest of all the islands in the bay, Governador having first place in this respect. “Ilha do Governador,” or Governor’s Island, is about fifty miles in circumference, and derives special impor- tance as the site of large brick and tile fac- tories, and because of the location here of the Sailors’ Hospital. During the residence SCENE EN ROUTE TO CORCOVADO. of the Portuguese court in Brazil, a large portion of the island was reserved for the royal hunting-grounds. Ilha das Cobras, also called Madeira in the early days when it supplied the wood for building the city of Rio de Janeiro, lies at that point of the bay close to the commercial centre of the city. It was fortified in colonial days, and in its prison have been incarcerated many of the notable men of Brazilian history, among others, the leaders of the republican revolt in 1789, including “Tiradentes.” Between the islands Governador and Cobras lies the Bom Jesus, where King Dom Jodo VI. delighted to spend a part of each year during his stay in Brazil, and where the fiesta of Sao Francisco de Assis was annually celebrated at his expense. The magnificent ceremony attending the occasion of the birth of the king’s first granddaughter, Donna Maria da Gloria, afterward Queen Maria II. of Portugal, which was performed on this island, was one of the important events of his reign. In the chapel of a military museum on the island rest the remains of General Osorio, the great leader of the Brazilian army in the Paraguayan war. The total number of islands in the bay is estimated at nearly a hundred. The contour of the bay is marked by picturesque inlets and peninsulas; just outside of the harbor, Popes RBSeO sido. ANOS HE BOTANICAL GARDEN 155 Copacabana juts into the sea, forming one of the most delightful resorts, famous for its cool sea breeze and its splendid beach. A picturesque little chapel is built on a small knoll looking out over the sea. Ipanema and Leme also overlook the sea. Near Copa- cabana is the Lake Rodrigo de Freitas, which is separated from the ocean only by a narrow strip of land, a mere sandbank over which the water sometimes cuts a passage. Along the street which follows the shore of the lake are some interesting old country- houses and many handsome modern villas. The view from this point is very attractive, the Gavea, Tijuca, Dois Irmaos, and the famous Avenue of Palms in the Botanical Garden being in plain view. The Botanical Garden occupies a beautiful site on the border of the Lake Rodrigo de Freitas. The spacious grounds cover an area of two thousand acres, extending to the base of the frowning Gavea and looking up to the near peaks of Corcovado and Dios Irmaos. The main entrance, erected in 1893, is a handsome gateway ornamented on each side with splendid specimens of the //ichia and the carrapeteira, and opening to the Garden through a vista of surpassing loveliness. An ancient portico, surmounted GRAND CASCADE OF TIJUCA. by the royal arms of Portugal, which belonged to the grounds when used for a powder- factory in colonial days, is still in an excellent state of preservation, and presents one of 156 THE NEW BRAZIL the very attractive features of the Garden. A magnificent avenue of royal palms extends from the main entrance for a distance of nearly half a mile across the grounds, numbering one hundred and fifty trees of uniform height, and presenting the appearance of a grand colon- nade supporting a delicate arch of green nearly a hundred feet from the ground; an alley of palms crosses it at right angles, extending two thousand feet and numbering one hundred and forty-two trees of a uniform height of seventy-five feet. An artistic fountain ornaments the open space formed by the cross- ing of the two avenues. Fol- lowing the pathway on the left of the entrance, one is suddenly surprised to find himself in a grove of bamboos, a delightful retreat, and so popular among visitors that it has received the name of the Bamboo Salon. This section of the Garden is devoted chiefly to the cultiva- A PATHWAY IN SYLVESTRE. tion of exotics, and choice speci- mens from every country are found here. The “traveller’s tree” of Madagascar, which secretes pure cold water that is extracted by plunging a knife into it, attracts much attention. Cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, and other trees bearing products of the East Indian archipelago, grown from tiny seeds planted nearly a century ago, waft their heavy incense through the air. But though the specimens of foreign origin are of great interest, and often present rare individual types that attract attention and sometimes awaken the greatest enthusiasm, it is the trees and plants native to the country that offer most in the way of novelty or extravagance of size, form, and color. There is nothing in the whole foreign collec- tion to compare in beauty and marvellous dimensions with the Victoria Regia, a giant water lily, named by Lindley in honor of the English queen, though the natives of Matto Grosso, where it is found in the greatest abundance, call it the ‘“‘Uapé Japona.”’ Its leaves measure from ten to twenty feet in circumference, the upper surface being a dark, glossy green, while the under side is dark red in color; the flowers often grow as high as half TAPES OBURBSSOF*KIOVAND THE BOTANICAL GARDEN £57 a foot above the water, measuring four feet around when full blown. A singular charac- teristic of this wonderful plant is seen in the unfolding of its petals, which, from a delicate rose tint at first opening, pass gradually, in the course of twenty- four hours, to a bright red hue. During the first day’s blooming they are very fragrant, but after two or three days they wither and fall to pieces. Nor is there any imported curiosity of the vegetable world more remarkable than the specimens brought from the region of the Amazon. ‘The rubber-tree, yielding a white, milk-like sap that coagulates almost immediately into amass of elastic rubber, is a native of Para and Amazonas, where the Indians for centuries have known how to make use of its water-tight properties. The Candelabra-tree is chiefly interesting for its appear- ance, which perfectly resembles an immense candelabra ready for illumination. The mighty pirijao is a pitiful example of the good friend betrayed, strangling slowly ae in the embrace of the cruel liana, TIJUCA FOREST. that clinging about the tall giant and receiving his protection and sustenance until grown vigorous from his imparted strength, still feeds on the friend that saved its useless life, squeezing his last drop of blood into greedy veins ;—“ parasite” well named is this vegetable vampire of the forest. The patrician orchid, independent of all sustenance that is of the earth earthy, blends its delicate velvet bloom with the dark hues of clambering vines and the gay colors of forest birds; the orchid is found nowhere else in the world in such profusion and variety as in Brazil, and on the trees growing in the Botanical Garden it is permitted to revel in its forest freedom undis- turbed by hunters. Little glimpses of the virgin forest are seen, too, where in some dense thicket the trees are twined and wreathed with garlands of vines, looped among the branches in great festoons that sweep the ground in a graceful curtain of green. The flaming crimson of the poncetta, the dark, glossy green of the orange-tree, the beautiful tree-fern, and the wonderful papaw-tree, with such valuable properties for medicinal 158 THE NEW BRAZIL purposes, all charm the eye and appeal to the imagination. Taller than the royal palms are some of the great trees from the Amazon country, that reach a height of from one hun- dred and fifty to two hundred feet,—one hundred feet from the ground to the lowest branches,—and sometimes measuring fifty feet in circumference. One species of these trees is particularly noticeable for the buttress-like projection at its base, as if the “‘muscles” were stretched and strained by holding so heavy and tall a body in an erect position; and this is really the case: they are the roots of the sapling that have gradually raised themselves out of the ground as the increasing height of the tree needed their support. Sometimes the spaces between these “buttresses” are large enough to hold six people, and give the base of the tree a deeply fluted, pyramidal shape. The ‘“‘cow-tree,”’ so called because it produces a kind of milk, is also a native of the Amazon region, where it is considered a valuable commercial factor; too strong for drinking purposes, the milk is very quickly converted into glue after being exposed to the air, and makes a useful cement; while the bark after being treated by a certain process produces an excellent red dye for cloth. A cow-tree making red rags does seem an insult to bovine traditions! Aside from the miscellaneous collection of trees and plants gathered from all sources, the “Botanical Garden at Rio contains nearly three thousand specimens regularly classified. HOTEL INTERNACIONAL AT SANTA THERESA, IN THE SUBURBS OF RIO. The visitor can be provided with a catalogue, if desired, and by this means may learn everything needful with regard to any particular species or variety that appears on the PabeSOBURBSSOF RIO“ AND THE BOTANICAL GARDEN 159 published list. There is a library in connection with the institution, also a museum, a national herbarium, an aquarium, a hot-house, and other accessories. The present director VISTAS AT MSV EVES DRE: of the Garden is Dr. J. Barbosa Rodrigues, a scientist of international fame and a writer on scientific subjects, whose works are regarded as standard authority by eminent naturalists and ethnologists, and who is a member of the principal scientific societies of the world, including the royal botanical societies of Edinburgh, Vienna, and Marseilles, the Royal Anthropological and Ethnological Society of Florence, the Royal Academy of Science in Lisbon, the Society of Naturalists in Freiburg, the Geographical Society in Paris, and every important scientific society in Brazil. Dr. Barbosa has discovered and classified one hundred and thirty-four different species of palms, and his researches in the Amazon country have brought results to the scientific world of the highest value. Shortly after he assumed the management of the Botanical Garden, in 1890, the institution was completely reorganized, and under his direction it has been rearranged according to a regular system of classification, while the area under cultivation has been very much extended and the number of rare specimens greatly increased. The Botanical Garden was founded a century ago. Soon after his arrival in Brazil, King Dom Jodo VI., at that time regent, issued a decree, June 13, 1808, in which he 160 THEENEV BRAZIL commanded that the necessary land be prepared for a Jardim de Acclimacdo, designed to introduce into Brazil the culture of East Indian species. By a decree of October 11th in the same year, a director was appointed to take charge of the new enterprise, and it was named the Real Horto. An interesting story is related in connection with the first contribution made to this garden. The frigate Princega do Brazil having been wrecked just at this time off the coast of Goa, her officers, of whom the chief was Luiz de Abreu Vieira e Silva, embarked on a small brig, the Conceicao, intending to make the Cape of Good Hope, with the ultimate object of reaching Brazil. Before arriving at their destination, they were taken prisoners by the French and sent to the Isle de France. Here, in the garden Gabrielle, was a valuable botanical collection, introduced by Poivre and Menouvilles; Luiz de Abreu, who had successfully arranged a plan of escape, managed, with the aid of friends, to secure a number of fine specimens, which, after many dangers and sacrifices, he trans- ported to Rio, offering them as a gift to the Regent Dom Joao, who ordered them to be planted in the Real Horto. Most important among the varieties of this collection was the seed of the royal palm. With elaborate ceremony the Regent planted the first royal STREET LEADING TO THE BOTANICAL GARDEN. palm tree in Brazil, from the seed of which originated all the trees of this species that now grow in Brazilian parks and gardens. This tree is still a conspicuous feature of the Pipes UbURDStOherniO”AND- THE BOTANICAL GARDEN 161 Garden, a tall, slender shaft one hundred and twenty-five feet high, with a pretty tuft of green capping its summit. In 1812, the first experiment was made in raising tea, the seeds having been brought into the country by Captain Joaquim Epiphanio de Vasconcellos, of the ship Vulcano. A tea plantation was started on a large scale, Dom Joao introducing a Chinese colony to teach the proper cultivation of this product. When Brazil was made a kingdom, the Real Horto was renamed the Real Jardim Botanico, and annexed to the National Museum, under the administration of which it remained until 1822, when it was transferred to the Depart- ment of the Interior and afterward to the “Ministerio do Imperio.” In 1860, it passed into the hands of the “Instituto Fluminense de Agricultura.” The decree instituting the Real Jardim Botanico announced its adminis- tration to be a charge upon the royal treas- ury. At the same time, in order to extend the work of acclimatization, affiliated gar- dens were established in Pernambuco, Bahia, Minas Geraes, and Sado Paulo, the direction of the garden in Sao Paulo being given to Dr. Joao Baptista Badaré, a celebrated bota- SCENE IN THE BOTANICAL GARDEN. nist of Geneva, who had made scientific studies and excursions in Lombardy, Sardinia, and Mont Cenis. The Emperor Dom Pedro I. continued the work so admirably begun by his father, and appointed as the first botanical director of the Garden Friar Leandro do Sacramento, a learned botanist of international repute, who made a complete catalogue of the plants, and in other ways systematized and improved the methods of the institution. Such careful attention was given to the cultivation of tea, that for a time the Jardim Botanico furnished all the tea that was used in the city of Rio de Janeiro. He extended the area of the Garden under cultivation, filled up the hollow places of the ground, fashioned the beautiful. lake so attractive to visitors to-day, also the cascades; laid out the broad avenues and embowered alleys, constructed artificial mounds and grottoes; distributed plants and seeds to the gardens of Para, Pernam- buco, and Bahia, and exchanged with the Botanical Garden of Cambridge, England, several important specimens. A handsome monument, erected in memory of this great man, occupies a prominent place in the garden. When the Botanical Garden was placed in charge of the Agricultural Society, in 1860, efforts were immediately directed toward enlarg- ing the scope of the institution, and Dr. Karl Glasl, professor of agriculture in Vienna, Austria, 162 THESNEW BRAZIL was invited to direct a school of agriculture and a normal fazenda to be founded in con- nection with it, the Fazenda do Macaco in the vicinity being appropriated for the latter purpose. A chemical laboratory was also established, and a magazine, the Revista Agricola, was published by the Agricultural Society. The library of the Botanical Garden is enriched from year to year by the acquisition of valuable works on botany and horticulture, many of them being contributed by Dr. Barbosa Rodrigues, whose indefatigable studies of the flora of his country has already been noticed. Pamphlets relating to the culture and care of plants are scattered throughout the country, and, during the year 1906, not only were large quantities of seeds sent out to the agricul- tural communities, but thousands of fruit trees, shade trees, and ornamental plants were distributed by the administration. One hundred thousand people visit the Botanical Garden annually. THE BAMBOOS, BOTANICAL GARDEN. ome UNIVERSITY | ,. o ae - re ‘OOIMAWV OUGHd AG ONILNIVd TWOIMODRTIV (MUOONOD,GNY doOVvad ea CHAPTER IX MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE STATUE OF JOSE BONIFACIO DE ANDRADA. RAZIL has reason to be proud of her contribution to the sum of intellectual accomplishment in the western hemisphere, Which has produced no greater composer than Carlos Gomes, no greater sculptor than Rodolpho Bernardelli, no greater dramatist than José Alencar. None of the American poets have sung sweeter songs to softer music than the gifted but unfortunate Gon- calves Dias. Whether in music, art, or liter- ature, Brazil is equally prepared to establish her right to an honorable position. Music is a passion with the Brazilians, who are gifted with exceptional talent in musical composi- tion and its interpretation. They are particu- larly devoted to the Italian masters. The librettos of the operas of Carlos Gomes are in Italian, and Italian opera furnishes the favorite subjects in all the theatres throughout the country. Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Bahia, Pernambuco, Para, and Mandos have grand-opera houses visited every season by noted European artists. The first great musical composer on the American continent, Carlos Gomes, the creator of the Brazilian opera, achieved a distinction among the living masters of musical composi- tion sufficient to place his name in the same rank as Rossini, Verdi, Meyerbeer, Bellini, and Donizetti. The story of his life is similar to the record of many men of genius who have earned the laurels of fame at the cost of much privation and sacrifice. A Brazilian, as were his ancestors for several generations, the distinguished composer was a Paulista by birth, his 165 166 LAHESNEW SBA LIL native city being Campinas. He was born in 1839, and at a very early age gave evidence of wonderful genius, which was fostered and encouraged by his father, a musician. and composer. Before reaching fifteen years of age, he was a favorite in the musical entertain- ments of his native town, where his excellent interpretation of the best composers.and his splendid soprano voice won enthusiastic praises. It is said that the inspiration to compose music came to him upon seeing, for the first time, the opera // Trovatore. As soon as an opportunity presented itself, he entered the Musical Conservatory at Rio, where he became an indefatigable student. At the age of twenty, he composed the music for a college song written by one of the students of the University of Sao Paulo, Senhor Bittencourt Sampaio, which has been popular ever since; he also wrote several modinhas that are still sung everywhere in Brazil. In 1867, at La Scala in Milan, he gave to the world his masterpiece, the grand opera O Guarany, taken from Alencar’s celebrated romance of the same name, which presents a story of the Indians of Brazil, that, for thrilling interest, compares favor- ably with Verdi’s Aida. So great was the fame of the young composer in the years that followed the appearance of his chef-d’ceuvre, that some of his operas took precedence in popular favor for a time over those of the greatest living masters in Europe. His Fosca was performed fifteen times during the grand-opera season of 1872 at Milan, whereas Verdi's Aida was presented on but six occasions; his Salvator Rosa and Maria Tudor have been counted among the greatest successes in Italian opera. He was the composer of the triumphal hymn for the United States Centennial Exposition. Though he may be said to follow the Italian school, there is a certain flavor of western freshness and novelty in his treatment that does not belong to the European masters. Returning to his native land, after triumphs that had made him famous throughout two continents, Carlos Gomes took charge of the Musical Conservatory of Para, where he died in 1898. Brazil, however, had produced, nearly a century before the birth of Carlos Gomes, a musical genius in the person of José Mauricio Nunes Garcia. He was first brought into prominence after the arrival of King Dom Jodo VI. in Brazil. In the royal retinue was the musician and composer, Marcos Portugal, author of the composition known in all lands as the Portuguese Hymn. This distinguished celebrity came as royal chapel-master to the king, who was very fond of music, and much given to the celebration of pompous religious ceremonies, and it was through the maestro’s influence that the young Brazilian was first presented to the king, who immediately recognized his wonderful gift. From the accounts of his biographers, José Mauricio was a self-educated musician and composer, having enjoyed few, if any, of the advantages of instruction. He was too poor to provide himself with a harpsichord, and it is said that when giving lessons, by which he earned.a livelihood, he was at first obliged to accompany the solfeggios with a banjo arranged with metallic strings. His financial affairs were, however, improved considerably by his appointment to the office of musical director of the cathedral in Rio, though he continued his teaching, giving lessons at home to a class of free pupils for thirty-eight years. His students used to wear a red and blue cockade in their hats, and were exempt from military service. When MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE 167 the king returned to Lisbon, he invited José Mauricio to accompany him, but the musician would not leave his native land. He composed some notable pieces of sacred music, among them the Funeral Symphony,—which was executed at his own burial,—Reqguiem, Te Deum, and other works. He was born in the State of Minas Geraes about 1742, and died in Rio in 1831. A pupil of José Mauricio, Francisco Manoel da Silva, was the founder of the Conserva- tory of Music at Rio. His compositions were very popular, and he had the good fortune to number among his pupils the great musician and composer Carlos Gomes. The National Conservatory of Music in Rio, founded in 1833, has been an important factor in the educa- tion of Brazilian musicians. It is now called the National Institute of Music and-is in a more flourishing condition than at any previous time in its history. Henrique Oswaldo, until THE BRAZILIAN ACADEMY OF LETTERS. recently director, is a composer of international reputation, whose musical education began in Sao Paulo and was completed in Florence, Italy, under Grozzoni, of the Florentine Musical Institute. His composition // Neige, won the prize in an international contest held in Paris, in which six hundred composers competed; the decision in its favor was without a dissenting vote, Saint-Saens being the most enthusiastic of the judges in conferring. upon this exquisite gem the premium of superiority. The musical genius of Henrique Oswaldo is versatile, his compositions are about fifty in number, and include sonatas, concertos, symphonies for grand orchestra, and a great variety of pieces for stringed instruments, as well as for the piano. The present director of the National Institute of Music, Alberto Nepomuceno, is one of the greatest composers of America, a worthy successor to the immortal Carlos Gomes. His operas Electra, Riberto, and Artemis have proved notable successes in Europe and Brazil, 168 TAEPN EI EBRAZIE Electra having been performed in Paris, A/berto in Vienna and Artemis in Rio. | Alberto Nepomuceno is a native of Ceara, where he was born in 1864, the son of a well-known Brazilian musician, Victor Nepomuceno. In addition to his operas, the author has written many charming morceaux for the piano and a number of compositions for the orchestra. By the recent death of Leopoldo Miguez, the Institute lost one of its most brilliant members, who was director for several years, and contributed greatly to its ad- vancement and prestige. He was a com- poser of rare and powerful genius. A Brazilian musician, Francisco Braga, is the author of the new opera, /upyra, which was recently performed with notable suc- cess in the Imperial Theatre of Munich. Meneleo Campos, the successor of Carlos Gomes as director of the Para Conserva- tory, has made valuable contributions to Brazilian music, among others a funeral march dedicated to the memory of his illustrious predecessor. The composers Carlos de Mesquita, Francisco Alfredo Bev- ilaqua, as Well as the inspired violinist, José Augusto de Souza Lima, and the famous pianist, Donna Fanny Guimaraes, are noted musicians who have contributed greatly to the advancement of musical culture in Brazil. In comic opera, no composer has won greater popularity than Abdon Milanez, a native of Parahyba, whose music is heard in every city and town of the republic. His muse is essentially gay and lively, and the titles of his operas suggest the spirit in which they are composed. The librettos, written by well-known Brazilian poets, are replete with wit and satire. A Loteria do Amor (The Lottery of Love), Donzella Theodora, A Dama de Espadas, (The Queen of Spades), O Bico de Papagaio, (The Parrot’s Beak), and at least a dozen more, are as familiar to Brazilian playgoers as are The Mikado and The Belle of New York to English and American audiences. Music and ‘painting have flourished side by side in Brazil, the history of both dating from about the same period, that of the establishment of the Portuguese Court at Rio, early in the nineteenth century. Soon after his arrival, King Dom Jodo VI. gave his royal sanction to the organization of a school of fine arts under the direction of some of the most celebrated teachers in Europe. Prior to that time, only a few works of art had been produced to which Brazil could point with pride. Among the earliest of these were the landscapes of two GONGALVES DIAS. MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE 169 Dutch painters who flourished during the seventeenth century while the northern part of Brazil was in possession of Holland. In the eighteenth century, José Leandro de Carvalho, born at Rio, was the first Brazilian artist of note, succeeded by José de Oliveira, Joao de Sousa, Raymundo da Costa, Manoel Dias de Oliveira Braziliense, and others. The founding of the school of fine arts at Rio de Janeiro contributed greatly to the development of artistic talent. Among the distinguished pupils of this school were Simplicio de Sa, painting-master to the Emperor Dom Pedro II., and Corréa de Lima, whose pupils numbered some of the greatest painters of Brazil, including the celebrated historical painter De Mello Corte-Real, Victor Meirelles, who painted The First Mass in Bragil, The First Battle of Guararapes, The Naval Battle of Riachuelo, Passage of Humayta, and other famous canvases, and Pedro Americo de Figueiredo, to whose genius Brazil owes several of her best creations on canvas. This institution, now known under the name of the Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes, has among its present members the famous sculptor Rodolpho Bernardelli, who is its president; and whose works are known and admired both in Europe and America, the handsomest monuments of Rio being evidences of his genius. He is best known abroad through his Christ and the Sinning Woman and The Coquette. The monument of Pedro Alvares Cabral and the statues of the Duke de Caxias, General Osorio, and José de Alencar, are among his best works. Corréa Lima, a pupil of Bernardelli, is a young sculptor of great promise, who has already produced striking evidences of superior talent ina number of groups and figures. His Mater Dolorosa, Remorse, and St. John the Baptist, reveal his strong individuality and true genius. Donna Nicolina de Assis, of Sado Paulo, is a sculp- tress of undeniable genius and power. In painting, Henrique Bernardelli, the brother of the sculptor, has achieved distinc- tion as the author of several works of exceptional merit. José Mauricio before the King, Madonna, Extasis, and Cumutlos are paintings which indicate not THE OLD NATIONAL LIBRARY, FOUNDED BY KING DOM JOAO VI. only power but great versatility. In the painting of historical and allegorical subjects, no artist of the New World excelled the illustrious Brazilian, Pedro Americo de Figueiredo, whose death at Florence, 170 THE NEHA BRAAL Italy, October 7, 1905, was a calamity not only to the nation honored through his genius, but to the world of art, represented in all lands, which loses in him one of its most gifted THE NEW NATIONAL LIBRARY IN THE AVENIDA CENTRAL. sons. His last great work was the allegorical painting Paz e Concordia (Peace and Concord), which has been purchased by the Brazilian government and now hangs in a salon of Itamaraty Palace, the Foreign Office. The allegory is conveyed with artistic effect. In front of the temple Paz e Concordia, a figure representing the Brazilian nation advances in the pathway illumined by civilization, to meet the principal nations of the world that come to honor her, led by the United States, the strongest and most enlightened power of America. Vestals sing a chorus of peace, history records a memorable date (the arbitration treaty of Berne), poetry celebrates the joyous occasion with her lyre, and the arts, repre- sented by. painting and sculpture, in suppliant attitude, attract the attention of the gracious arbiter of their fortune. In the last-named figures, the heart of the painter is revealed, his greatest aspiration having been to advance the interests of art in his beloved country, by stimulating in the Brazilian people a high appreciation of artistic culture. Among other paintings which have contributed to the renown of Pedro Americo are his’ Honor and Country and Ypiranga, the latter representing the scene on the hunting-ground near Sao Paulo, when Dom Pedro I. made the famous proclamation of the independence of Brazil, raising his sword with the battle cry, “Independencia ou Morte!” As a painter of historical, and particularly of Biblical subjects, Rodolpho Amoedo has produced several famous pictures, especially O Tamoyo, The Departure of Jacob, The Death of Abel, and The Story of Philetus, in which he has expressed great dramatic force and artistic appreciation. Pedro Weingartner, a native of Rio Grande do Sul, is unsurpassed in genre, his Oblique Lines having a touch of humor which gives additional effectiveness to MO SiGwAn IeAND] LITERATURE 171 the study of character, while his Cowntry Ball is charming in its natural expression. Modesto Brocos is one of the most versatile of artists, producing portraits, landscapes, and figures, as well as genre, his painting Manioc, an excellent composition, demonstrating both artistic judgment and sound academical training. D’Almeida, author of During the Rest, has painted a delightful study in pose and ex- pression, the model enjoying a little coquetry during the relaxation, which seems thor- oughly appreciated by the artist. Decio Vil- lares, Baptista da Costa, Maria da Cunha Vasco, Antonio Parreiras, Arsenio da Silva, Aurelio de Figueiredo, Agostinho da Motta, Abigail de Andrade, and Bertha Worms, are prominent artists whose paintings are well known to connoisseurs and have won pre- miums in the great salons. The Academy has a rich collection of celebrated paintings, more than five hundred, both ancient and modern; the most valuable of these include canvases by Velasquez, Van Dyck, Michael Angelo, Correggio, and Paul Veronese. While the intellectual culture of Brazil has found expression in the development of a high standard of expression in music and art, it is in her literature more particularly that the mode of thought and the sentiment of the nation are to be divined and appre- ciated. In the course of the centuries the evolution of Brazilian literature has been marked by various influences, native and foreign. In the early colonial days it was distinctively Portuguese in character, with scarcely a touch of Brazilian coloring. Bento Teixeira Pinto was the first Brazilian writer of note; he flourished in the latter part of the sixteenth century, and published many works in both poetry and prose. In the seventeenth century, the brothers Euzebio BERNARDELLI MODELLING THE BUST OF DR. PASSOS. and Gregorio de Mattos, of Bahia, wrote a number of important works, the latter being known as the “Brazilian Rabelais.” Among their contemporaries were Botelho de Oliveira, PEDRO AMERICO. LEB ANETMB ICAL Diogo Gomes Carneiro, who enjoyed a royal pension as the chronicler-general of Brazil, Rocha Pitta, the first historian of note, and the dramatist José Borges de Barros. The eighteenth century produced the famous dramatist Antonio José da Silva, who was born at Rio de Janeiro, in 1705, but early removed to Lisbon, where he became the principal humorous writer for the Portu- guese theatre during his day. He fell a victim to the Inquisition in 1739. The first writers to develop a distinctively Brazilian character in their productions were the poets of the “Arcadia Ultramarina,” a literary society founded during the last quarter of the eighteenth century, at, Rio de Janeiro, by José Basilio da Gama and Silva Alva- renga, the latter a protégé of the viceroy Dom Luiz de Vasconcellos e Souza, whose kindness, aided by the efforts of Bishop Castello Branco, had made it possible to es- tablish such an institution. Modelled after similar societies in Europe, it was an influential organization in the early history of Brazilian literature, num- bering among its members all the writers of talent in Rio during that period, and the leading poets of Minas Geraes, José de Santa Rita Durdo, Claudio Manoel da Costa, Alvarenga Peixoto, and Thomaz Antonio Gon- zaga—the Minas poets forming also a celebrated literary society known as the Escola de Minas, or the Minas school of poets. The little group of Minas poets includes many names famous in Bra- zilian history, not alone for their con- tributions to its poetry, but also for their share in its first effort for inde- pendence. In the Minas school of poets was born the first purely na- tional and patriotic poetry in Brazil. HONOR AND COUNTRY. BY PEDRO AMERICO. MOSICMAKRT VANDAL TERA TURE ie) Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, best known under the poetic name of “Dirceu,” the Brazilian Petrarch, was the chief of the Minas poets. His impas- sioned verses to “Marilia” are known by heart to every lover of poetry in Brazil. In the charm of their imagery, their loving tone, the harmony of diction, and the beauty of versification revealed in them, these poems of Dirceu to Marilia rank with the most charming in the Portuguese language. Brazilian literature is especially rich in poetry and romance. Sentiments of patriotism, friend- ship, love, or sorrow are expressed with thrilling feeling in its impassioned verse. The Song of the Exile, written by the best known and best loved of Brazilian poets, Goncalves Dias, is a poetic gem of rare beauty. It is the Home, Sweet Home! of the Brazilian people, and is quoted oftener than any other poem in the language. No translation PEDRO WEINGARTNER. has been made which in any sense reveals the exquisite delicacy of touch in the original or its plaintive rhythmic melody, though many attempts have been made to put it into English and other languages. Throughout the six stanzas of which it is composed, the little poem voices a heart cry of homesickness, or, as the Brazilian would say, of saudades. After recounting, with childlike simplicity, the charm of his native land, its palm trees, and the sweet-voiced sabia, the favorite songbird of Brazil, he prays with touching pathos to be spared to return, that he may once more see its glorious palms and hear the sabia sing. The first two stanzas are particularly musical: “Minha terra tem palmeiras Onde canta o sabia; AS aves que aqui gorgeam Nao gorgeam como la: ““Nosso céo tem mais estrellas, Nossas varzeas tem mais flores, Nossas flores tem mais vida, Nossa vida mais amores.”’ Gongalves Dias was born in the town of Caxias, State of Maranhdo, on the 2d of August, 1824; he was educated at Coimbra University, in Portugal, and graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Laws. At the time of the appearance of his first collection of poems, he occupied the chair of Brazilian history in the Imperial College of. Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro. In these poems many incidents in the history of Brazil were used as material, and 174 THE NEW BRAZIL most of them have a distinctively American character. They were received by the Brazilian and the European public with immediate appreciation, the celebrated Portuguese author Herculano especially praising one of them, entitled Her Eyes, as “the most delicious lyrical composition which I have read in my life.” Recognizing his literary ability, the Brazilian government sent the poet to Europe, commissioned to collect manuscripts and documents relative to the history of Brazil. During his stay abroad, he wrote Os 7ymbiras, published in Leipzig, and sixteen new poems, afterward collected and published in a second volume of verse. He also wrote a Dictionary of the Tupy Language. On his return to Brazil, he THE COUNTRY BALL. BY PEDRO WEINGARTNER. joined a scientific commission of exploration, and made a voyage up the Amazon, gathering much valuable material, but at the expense of his health, which was completely broken down when he returned to Rio the following year. He never recovered strength from that time, though he lived for three years longer, a constant sufferer, but an indefatigable worker as long as it was possible for him to hold a pen. As a last hope, a second voyage to Europe was decided upon by his friends and medical advisers, and in 1862 he sailed from Pernam- buco for Lisbon. While in Lisbon, he translated Schiller’s Bride of Messina and added ten cantos to his poem Os Tymbiras. But his strength rapidly failing, he begged to be taken home to his native land, that he might die among her “palmeiras,” within the sound of the PMCSiC@aAKRINAND LITERATORE 175 “sabia’s song,” under the blue skies of his be- loved Brazil. The inspired poet seems to have had a prophetic vision of the fate that awaited him, for in one of his poems he wrote: ‘“‘Adieu to my friends of Maranhao! so departs the exile; some day the waves will toss his remains up on the sands of the beloved shore whence so lately he has taken his departure, and where the cold ashes seek a resting-place.” And the mournful prediction was verified. The vessel in which he took passage was wrecked, and when the cap- tain went to the cabin to rescue the poet, he found that he had expired. The ship sank on November 3, 1864, carrying to the mysterious depths of the sea the mortal remains of one of THE BERNARDELLI BROTHERS, the most gifted poets of his day. “ Of poets contemporary with Gongalves Dias, several names stand out prominently among the many successful writers of this period: Domingos MANIOC, BY MODESTO BROCOS. 176 THE NEW BRAZIL José Gongalves de Magal- hades wrote verses distin- guished for their lofty patriotic sentiment; Araujo Porto-Alegre, Baron of San Angelo, is best known by his epic on Columbus; Castro Alves, a Bahian, has been compared to Hugo for the vigor and fire of his style when portraying the misfortunes of the slaves and the evils of serf- dom; Alvares de Azevedo and Casimiro de Abreu DURING THE REST. BY FERRAZ D'ALMEIDA. are counted among the best lyric poets of the Portuguese language; Odorico Mendes made excellent translations of Homer and Virgil. Some of the chief political leaders under the empire contributed also to the national poetry. Dom José Bonifacio de Andrada wrote a masterpiece in Poesias Avulsas de Americo Elysio, which was published during his exile in France in 1825. Although the printing press was established in Brazil in 1808, its use was for a long time limited to the royal patronage, and the works pub- lished were chiefly official documents, educational works, religious pam- phlets, and poetry. Journalism of an independent character dates only from the time when the great national agi- tation began in favor of independence; and it was not until 1838, when the Brazilian Historical and Geographical Institute was founded, and its Review established, that the literature of the CARLOS GOMES. MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE 177 country began to develop on a broad basis of culture, largely due to the efforts of this association, which for three-fourths of a century has con- tinued to exert a beneficent influence on the intellectual life of the nation. Taking history and geography as the main subjects of study, the Institute embraced in its purpose a knowledge of everything relating to Brazil, in- cluding its ethnology and sociology. This opened the pathway for literary enterprise of the most ambitious Scope, and within a few years the national literature began to be en- riched by prose works of great value. Prior to this time, the most important scientific work by a Brazilian author was the Flora Fluminense, written toward the close of the eighteenth century, by the celebrated botanist, _ Friar Velloso. This work has been DR. MACHADO DE ASSIS. universally quoted by botanists in treating of South American plants. About the same time, Moraes e Silva gave to the people his Dictionary of the Portuguese Language. The Historical and Geographical Institute has always counted among its active members the most eminent scholars of Brazil, its asso- ciate members including geographers and historians from all lands who have contributed to the advancement of its interests by exploration and study in Brazil. The present presi- dent, the Marquis de Paranagua, was one of the leading statesmen of the empire. He is a Scientist of international reputation. Prominent among Brazilian historians are the well-known authorities, Francisco Adolpho de Varnhagen, Viscount de Porto-Seguro, whose General History of Brazil is regarded as a complete and impartial work; the Baron de Rio-Branco, the greatest living authority on Brazilian history; Macedo, author of the most popular history of Brazil; Joaquim Caetano da Silva, Teixeira de Mello, Candido Mendes, Homem de Mello, Moreira Pinto, Pereira da _ Silva, Jodo Lisboa, Mello Moraes, and Joaquim Norberto, writers who have contributed invaluable works to historical literature, not only of importance to Brazil, but to the whole world, which reaps the benefit of their study and research. Valuable contributions to scientific literature have also been made by Dr. Couto de Magalhdes, author of many learned treatises on ethnology and archeology, who has few superiors in scientific knowledge in 178 THE NEW (BRAZIL any country; by Dr. Barbosa Rodrigues, director of the Botanical Garden at Rio, author of important works on anthropology, ethnology, and botany; and Dr. Jodo Baptista da Lacerda, director of the National Museum. Ferreira Penna, Ladislao Netto, Sotero dos Reis, Julio Ribeiro, and Peixoto are among the well-known writers on science and philosophy. The literature of fiction did not develop in Brazil until toward the middle of the last century a group of writers devoted their talent to prose romance and the drama, in addition to poetry. The most cele- brated of these romancists were José de Alencar and Joaquim de Macedo. The Guarany of Alencar has passed through several editions, has been translated into many _ lan- guages, and was, as has been said previously, the Subject of Carlos Gomes’s famous opera O Guarany. Both his Guaranyp and his celebrated prose poem /ra- cema are based upon Indian lore. Alencar made a great reputation aS a romancist, dramatist, jour- nalist, and polit- ical orator, and a statue to his memory stands in one of the promi- nent squares of Rio. He was born OFFICE OF THE ‘‘JORNAL DO COMMERCIO,” AVENIDA CENTRAL, RIO. at Ceara in 1829, and died in 1877. Macedo’s The Brunette is said to have had the largest sale of any book published in Brazil; besides numerous romances, he also wrote some dramatic pieces, and a poem, MOS Cm ed NOPLILERA LORE 179 A Nebulosa. Bernardo Guimaraes, in the romances O Garimpeiro [the diamond-seeker], O Seminarista, and A Escrava [zaura, has portrayed in clear coloring the life and manners of the State of Minas Geraes. In the novel 4s Memorias de um Sargento de Milicias, Manoel de Almeida has given an interesting national romance of the colonial period. Martim Penna is entitled to the honor of having created the national comedy. He lived from 1815 to 1848, and though only thirty-three years of age at the time of his death, was the author of thirty comedies, most of which were presented in the theatre of Rio between 1840 and 1846. The poets Magalhdaes, Alencar, Goncalves Dias, Agrario de Menezes, Pinheiro Guimaraes, and Franklin Tavora all contributed to the drama. The greatest living novelist, and, indeed, the most distinguished figure in Brazilian literature to-day, is Dr. Machado de Assis, the President of the Brazilian Academy of Letters, who began his literary career as a poet, contemporary with Casimiro de Abreu, Bernardo Guimaraes, and Castro Alves, his first volume of poems, Chrpsalidas, appearing in 1864. From that time to the present, he has occupied a conspicuous place among Brazilian authors as poet, romancist, essayist and short-story writer. His novels bray Cubas, Quincas Borba, Dom Casmurro, Yaya Garcia and Resurrei¢do, are among the most popular in the Portuguese language, the portrayal of national life and character which he presents, with charming frankness and humor, revealing rare intuition and true artistic appreciation. His style is harmonious, and in certain features of his art there is something which reminds one of the North American novelist, William Dean Howells, though the two writers are of entirely different temperament. The election of Dr. Machado de Assis to the presidency of the Brazilian Academy was a unanimous recognition of his eminent talents, and of the high value placed upon his contributions to the literature of his country. The Academy was founded in 1896, through the efforts of leading /térateurs, prominent among whom were Dr. Machado de Assis, Lucio de Mendonga, Arthur Azevedo, Coelho Netto, Graca Aranha, Olavo Bilac, José Verissimo, Araripe Junior, Filinto de Almeida, Guimaraes Passos, Inglez de Sousa, Joaquim Nabuco, José de Patrocinio, Luiz Murat, Rodrigo Octavio, Medeiros e Albuquerque, Pedro Rabello, Silva Ramos, Teixeira de Mello, Baron de Loreto, and the Viscount de Taunay. The membership is limited to forty, and includes, in addition to its founders, already named, the well-known writers, Baron de Rio-Branco, Ruy Barbosa, Clovis Bevilaqua, Affonso Celso Junior, Sylvio Romero, Alberto de Oliveira, Alcindo Guanabara, Carlos de Laet, Garcia Redondo, Aluizio Azevedo, Domicio da Gama, Jodo Ribeiro, Magalhaes de Azeredo, Oliveira Lima, Raymundo Corréa, Salvador de Mendonca, Euclydes da Cunha, Affonso Arinos, Augusto de Lima, and Martins Junior, the last named having been elected to fill the chair left vacant by the death of the Viscount de Taunay. The Academy represents in its mem- bership the standard of literary culture in Brazil, though there are many writers not named among the “Forty,” whose works entitle them to immortal fame. By the death of the Viscount de Taunay, in 1899, the Academy lost one of its most brilliant members, and Brazil one of her greatest prose writers. The author of /nnocencia and A Retirada da 180 THE NEW BRAZIL Laguna held a high place among novelists in both America and Europe, his works having been translated into several languages. A number of the Academy’s members are renowned not only as authors, but as statesmen, jurists, and scientists of international reputation. Ruy Barbosa, one of the greatest statesmen of Brazil, has contributed to the literature of his country some of its rarest gems; he has also achieved renown as an authority on international law and ethics. Baron de Rio-Branco, a master of literary expression, and Ambassador Joaquim Nabuco, whose poetic and graceful style are seen in everything that flows from his pen, are statesmen of world-wide reputation. Lucio de Mendonga, one of Brazil’s most gifted poets, is a judge of the Supreme Court, and Clovis Bevilaqua, a writer of prolific genius, is a recognized authority on jurisprudence, having recently completed the task of writing the Civil Code of Brazil. Few writers of Brazil have devoted themselves exclusively to the profession of author- ship, though in some instances it is difficult to imagine, in view of their numerous contri- butions to literature, how they could find time for any other occupation. The Brazilian muse is fertile in production, and it is not unusual to find a poet who has published more than one volume of verse, or a novel- ist whose books are counted by the score. » The palm in this*respect vis generally conceded to the celebrated Maranhao novelist, Coelho Netto, who has written romances, poems, come- dies, essays, and critical reviews, with marvellous versatility and brilliancy of style, his genius appearing to be inex- haustible in resource and of abundant vitality. Affonso Celso is another novelist of prolific genius, though the number of his yearly productions falls far behind the annual list of Coelho Netto’s works. An exception to the rule of nu- merous literary progeny appears in the case of the celebrated author of Cha- naan, Dr. Graca Aranha. He has written few books, but the success of Chanaan is an abundant proof of his genius. It is regarded by the critics as marking an epoch in the national romance, and has been styled “the novel of immigration,” the plot developing out of the circumstances which surround a foreign colonist who settles near Victoria, in the State DR. JOSE CARLOS RODRIGUES, EDITOR-IN-CHIEF OF THE “JORNAL DO COMMERCIO.” MOUS CeAhimeANDAE PERATORE 181 of Espirito Santo. Few novels have been accorded a more popular welcome than Chanaan. Aluizio Azevedo ranks among the popular romancists, his novel O Mulato having run through several editions. He has also written dramas, though, in this field, the most successful Brazilian author is Arthur Azevedo, who has produced not less than fifty plays, alone or in collaboration with Aluizio Azevedo, Moreira Sampaio, and other popular dramatists. His latest play, O Dote, a comedy in three acts, was performed for the first time at Rio, during the season of 1907, and was a brilliant success. It is dedicated to Donna Julia Lopes de Almeida, a Brazilian writer of note, whose Reflec- tions of a Husband suggested the plot of the play. Poetry is still, as it has always been, the favorite medium of literary expression among Brazilian authors, and a few writers of verse have con- tributed gems of invaluable worth and beauty to the national literature. Among the leading poets of Brazil, DR. OLAVO BILAC. Olavo Bilac is distinguished for the brilliancy of his imagination and the exquisite purity of his style. He is compared to Gongalves Dias in sentiment and expression. His poem A Morte de Tapir suggests Os Tymbiras, and in his Via-Lactea there is much of the grace and beauty characteristic of the best verse of his great predecessor. Raymundo Corréa, a poet of rare talent, is the author of As Pombas, one of the most popular short poems in the language, the charm of which is felt equally in its beautiful sentiment and in the rhythm of its perfect lines. Luiz Guima- raes, whose facility in verse-making is phenomenal, has published seven. volumes of poems, some of them being among the most beautiful in the Portuguese language. Pedras Pre- closas (Precious Stones), Ave Maria, and Paulo e Virginia are considered the best. Donna Presciliana Duarte de Almeida is the author of a charming book of poems called Sombras, which the critics have pronounced worthy of a high place in poetical literature, and another Brazilian poetess, Donna Julia Cortines, has written gems of verse in a little volume entitled Vibragoes. Donna Emilia Bandeira de Mello, “Carmen Dolores,” is a: favorite poetess, as well as a prose writer of distinction. 182 LA EEN EVRA Ze Many of the best writers of Brazil began their career as poets and journalists, and later took up other lines of literary work. Mello Moraes Filho, the celebrated chronicler of Brazilian traditions and folklore, is a poet of merit and a successful journalist as well as a historian. Sylvio Romero, who is best known through his History of Brazilian Literature and his Popular Songs of Brazil is an indefatigable worker, and his field of activity is appar- ently unlimited. He has written poetry, art criticisms, literary reviews, folklore, and books on philosophy, ethnology, politics and jurisprudence, besides a number of biographical Studies. Sylvino Gurgel do Amaral, Counsellor of the Brazilian embassy at Washington, has given to the public an interesting study of the life and works of Grotius, and has in preparation an important work on the diplomatic history of the neutrality of the Powers during the war of Secession in the United States, 1860-1865. Euclydes da Cunha, a diplomatist and scientist as (a re well as a poet, is the author of | many notable works. Rodrigo Octavio, who is a poet and prose writer of great talent, has recently published a fascinat- ing story of colonial days, Felisberto Caldeira, a historical romance, having as its subject the descendant of John III., Duke of Brabant, who was the father of the Marquis de Barbacena, and one of the most conspicuous figures of the empire, a Beau Brummel in dress and a_ recognized leader among the statesmen of his day. Poetry and journalism have been closely associated in their influence on the literature of Brazil, and in this country, more than in others, the press has been a powerful factor in the development of literary cul- OFFICE OF THE NEWSPAPER “‘O PAIZ,” AVENIDA CENTRAL, RIO. ture. The primary raison @étre of the Brazilian newspaper was not that of a purveyor of news; it was as a medium for political oratory and debate that the first journals were established. Nearly every political leader under the empire MUSIC, ART, AND LITERATURE 183 wrote for the press, and his contributions were prepared with a view to attracting readers to their literary style as well as to the principles advocated therein. The chief editors of these early newspapers were men prominent in the State and distinguished for literary culture. Many of them were political orators of renown. Dom José Bonifacio de Andrada, Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcellos, who was one of the directing powers in the framing of the criminal code of Brazil; Antonio Fran- cisco de Paula e Hollanda Cavalcanti de Albuquerque, Prime Minister and Minister of Finance during the minority of Dom Pedro II.; the Regent Feijo; the Marquis de Parana, who controlled the politics of Brazil for a time as leader of the united Conservative and Liberal parties during the empire; the Viscount de Caravellas and Paulo e Souza, who were called “the invincible fortresses of the Liberal party’; Miguel Calmon, Marquis d’Abrantes, -a minister of the empire who was known as the “canary” from his eloquent and pleasing speech; and Rodrigues dos Santos, Souza Franco, Ferreira Guimaraes, Justiniano Rocha, DR. RODRIGO OCTAVIO, Francisco Octaviano, and Antonio Ferreira Vianna, are names connected with the best journalism of the empire as well as with its political life and progress. The first newspaper established in Brazil was the Gazeta do Rio, in 1808. The /dade de Ouro was founded in Bahia in 1811. Pernambuco had a newspaper in 1817, and at Maranhao the Conciliador was established about the same time. In 1824 the Spectator was founded at Rio, and changed in 1827 to the Jornal do Commercio, the leading newspaper of Brazil to-day. The greatest statesmen and politicians of the empire were among the con- tributors to this daily, which published speeches, essays, poems, and stories as well as news. The Viscount de Rio-Branco, who was a gifted writer, published articles on political and other subjects in its columns. The present management of the paper is under the direction of Dr. José Carlos Rodrigues, a prominent figure in national affairs and a scholar of wide reputation. Other successful dailies of the capital are O Par?, Jornal do Brasil, Gazeta de Noticias, Correo da Manha, A Noticia and A Tribuna. An English weekly, the Brazilian Review is the most important Brazilian journal published in a foreign language. The Revista Braziletra, edited by José Verissimo, is the leading literary magazine of Brazil, and the official organ of the Brazilian Academy. Among its contributors are the best writers of 184 LEN EVA DIGAZ LE Brazil; the editor is an author of distinction, who is generally recognized as the best literary critic of South America. Araripe Junior is also a noted critic, excelling as a keen analyst and a sympathetic reader of character. . The periodical literature of Brazil has been greatly increased during the past few years, and its illustrated magazines and journals are both interesting and artistic. Kosmos is the title of a handsomely illustrated weekly to which the best writers of the day contribute stories, poems, and various articles. Renascenga is also an illustrated weekly of artistic design and purpose. Chief among the annuals is the Almanaque Brazileiro Garnier, which is a collection of interesting information for the year, relating to statistics, politics, literature and the fine arts, etc., arranged in entertaining style by the editor, Jodo Ribeiro, one of the most noted prose writers of Brazil. So evident is the influence of mental culture upon the life and manners of a people, and so important is its relation to human progress and development, that no adequate idea of the real advancement of a nation can be gained without a knowledge of its achievements in this direction. The musical schools, art-galleries, and great libraries of Europe bear witness to the steady march of civilization in those countries covering centuries; and, in proportion to the high character of similar institutions in the New World, it is possible to trace the growth of national improvement on this side of the Atlantic. Brazil has made wonderful progress in the production of good literature, some of her writers ranking with the best in the world; and there are musical composers and painters of Brazil worthy to be named with the great masters of the Old World. STATUE OF JOSE DE ALENCAR, Ma Fae HE LIBRARY “SITOdOULdd DR. ALFREDO BACKER, .- PRESIDENT OF THE STATE OF RIO. CHAR IBReX THE STATE OF RIO N describing the political and intellectual progress of Brazil, as well as in treating of its commercial advancement, the State of Rio claims especial atten- tion, having been the chief centre of national activity from the time when the colonial capital was removed to the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1762 to the present day. It was not until 1834 that the Federal district was set apart as a neutral municipality, and placed under a sepa- rate administration from that of the province of Rio; and even then the political change did not alter the social and intellectual conditions which have always distinguished what is pop- ularly called the “Fluminense State.” Under the empire, the atmosphere of the court spread its influence to the smallest hamlet of the province, where the social life-of the capital was faithfully reflected. Some of the greatest statesmen of Brazil, as well as many of her leading poets, musicians, and artists, were born in this province, which gave to the nation such renowned heroes as the Duke de Caxias, Admiral Saldanha da Gama, and Viscount de Itaborahy, the first president of the prov- ince, after the separation of the neutral municipality of the capital; it was the birthplace of the poets, Casimiro de Abreu, Goncalves de Magalhdes, and Luiz Guimaraes Junior; of the famous musicians, José Mauricio and Leopoldo Miguez; and of Joao Caetano, the greatest tragedian of Brazil. 187 188 THE NEW BRAZIL From. many standpoints the State of Rio presents exceptional features of interest. Amid its picturesque hills have been established several foreign colonies which have grown to be thriving towns; its railways provide the only outlet for over- land traffic to the port of Rio, the most important commercial cen- tre of the republic; and its indus- tries, particularly those of coffee growing and sugar cane culture, provide an increasing share of the national revenue. Situated in a fertile region, and possessing the advantages of a moderate climate, favored alike by the mountain air and the sea breeze, the State surrounds one of the most beautiful harbors of the world, and enjoys every natural advantage for the development of a rich and populous common- wealth. Its area is about thirty thousand square miles, and the length of its coast-line a little more than five hundred miles. Several ranges of mountains cross the State, of which the chief are ROUTE TO PETROPOLIS. the Serra dos Orgaos and the Serra da Estrella; the river Para- hyba is the principal waterway in the northern part, for some distance marking the dividing-line between Rio and Minas Geraes. Although there is considerable forest land, the territory under cultivation is quite extensive, coffee being grown everywhere in the State, on the plains as well as along the sloping hillsides. Rio coffee grown in this State is of prime quality, and the yield sometimes reaches an average of five or six pounds to the tree, amounting to a million sacks annually. Sugar and cotton plantations are numerous and under profitable cultivation. With the increasing network of railways, the commercial facilities of the State are constantly improving; while a rapid growth in population is assured in consequence of the opportunities offered to immigrant colonies of an industrious class. The present administration of the State of Rio is devoting especial attention to coloniza- tion, and lands for this purpose have been set aside in the municipalities of Santa Maria iNahel SWUZO AS Oyo al@. 189 Magdalena and Sado Francisco de Paula in the northeastern part of the State, and near Therezopolis, in the Serra dos Orgdos. These localities are salubrious and fertile, offering excellent opportunities for the farmer and fruit grower. The president of the State, Dr. Alfredo Backer, in his last annual message to the legislative assembly, presented in August, 1907, particularly urged the necessity of bringing to the State foreign colonists of the same industrious character as those who settled the now prosperous cities of Petropolis . and Nova Friburgo. The resources of the State can only be fully developed through the labor of a sufficiently large population to cover the whole territory. The opportunities offered to colonists are singularly inviting, as not only are the colonization lands located in favorable regions from the standpoint of health and fertility, but they are easily accessible by railway, the various lines that traverse the State con- necting these munici- palities with the capital of the State and with the Federal capital. The State of Rio has the oldest. rail- way in Brazil, the first track having been laid in 1854 at Maua, the landing for boats tak- ing passengers to and from Rio across the bay to connect with conveyances between that point and Pe- tropolis. The line was opened to traffic in 1856, running, at first, only from the land- ing to the foot of the mountains, though it THE SUMMER PALACE OF EMPEROR DOM PEDRO II, PETROPOLIS. has since been ex- tended up the mountain and beyond Petropolis, now forming a part of the -Leopoldina system. In honor of its promoter, Viscount de Mauda, the pioneer of railroad building in 190 THE NEW BRAZIL Brazil, this line was called the Mauda Railway. The Leopoldina system, one of the most extensive in Brazil, crosses the State by means of two separate lines, one of which has THE AMERICAN EMBASSY, PETROPOLIS. its chief terminus in the city of Rio de Janeiro, extending thence northward and passing through the towns of Iguassu, Magé, and the city of Petropolis, to the northern boundary of the State at Parahyba do Sul. The other line starts from Nictheroy, the capital of the State of Rio, and, dividing into two branches, from which there are several shorter lines diverging to form a complete network of railways, this division of the system crosses the State to its farthest limits, passing through all the important cities and towns. Besides the Leopoldina system, which is a private enterprise, owned by an English company, and the Central Rail- way, which belongs to the Federal government, there are several shorter lines; among these are the Therezopolis Railway, connecting that mountain city with the seacoast; the Sapucahy, Marica, Rio de Ouro, Unido Valenciana, Rio das Flores, and others. While advancing the interests of the State by promoting its industrial and commercial welfare, the government has not neglected educational matters. Many new reforms have been introduced in accordance with recent decrees of the State, and the attendance, as well as the standard of instruction, has notably improved within a few years. In the primary schools the number of pupils enrolled at the beginning of the last school year was nineteen thousand five hundred and fifty, as against seven thousand six hundred and forty pupils enrolled in- 1903; the average attendance increased from five thousand one hundred and — thirty in 1903 to twelve thousand five hundred and ninety-one in 1906. The new lyceum JOSS SIOADIE WOO Tae, 191 of Campos, which was established in conformity with the government decree, Septem- ber 11, 1906, has one hundred pupils on the roll call; the Petropolis lyceum has one hundred and thirty pupils; in each of these schools a night class is maintained under the direction of a professional teacher. The Normal School of Nictheroy has an attendance of one hundred and forty-one students, and that of Campos seventy-four. In addition to schools for primary and secondary instruction, there are technical schools and colleges in all the large towns. Anchieta College of Nova Friburgo is one of the most flourishing institutions of the State; and in the Salesian College of Santa Rosa, Nictheroy, the arts and crafts are taught with eminently satisfactory results. In the development of its cities and towns, Rio has many advantages, not only because of excellent railway communication, and the inviting charm of natural beauty, but also through its proximity to the Federal capital and the great harbor to which ships of all nations come; so that residents are constantly in touch with the outside world, living, so to speak, on the great highway of ocean travel. The climate of the State is, naturally, much more delightful and pure in the mountains than on the lowlands along the coast; A MOUNTAIN DRIVEWAY IN PETROPOLIS. but, taken altogether, it is of average healthfulness. Yellow fever, which is popularly Supposed to be endemic in Rio, made its first appearance, as stated in a previous chapter, 192 THEINEW BRAAIE in 1849, on a slave-ship, and was totally extinguished ten years later, not visiting the State again until 1869, when it was brought in by an Italian ship, the Creola del Plata. It has THE PUBLIC LIBRARY, PETROPOLIS. never been the constant scourge which foreigners have supposed it to be, and since the adoption of modern methods of sanitation it has become practically a plague of the past. When the national capital and district were separated from the State of Rio by a decree of the Constitution, the city of Nictheroy was made the State capital, and it has continued to have that distinction, except during an interval of nine years, from 1894 to 1903, When Petropolis was the chief seat of government. Nictheroy is a busy city of thirty thousand people, lying on the eastern shore of the bay of Rio, opposite to the Federal capital. Nictheroy, an Indian name signifying “hidden water,’ was an Indian settlement at the time of the discovery of Brazil. By a charter of May 10, 1819, the name Villa Real da Praia Grande was given to this city, which it retained until 1834, when it was made the provincial capital, with its present title. The municipality includes the six parishes, Joao Baptista, S. Lourengo, Nossa Senhora da Conceicgao da Jurujuba, Sao Sebastido de Itaipu, S. Goncalo, and Nossa Senhora da Conceicaéo de Cordeiros. Several public squares, or pragas, ornament the city, of which the Pinto Lima, with its verdure-clad garden, is one of the most attractive. The streets are broad, well paved, well lighted, and traversed by a complete system of street railways, or ‘“‘bonds.” The city is divided into three wards, or districts: Praia Grande, the business section; S. Domingos, where the old palace of the government is situated, as well as a number Pate STEN Ge: COP Ia 8. 193 of picturesque villas and chacaras; and the magnificent suburb Icarahy, famed for its baths, beautiful drives, and enchanting scenery. Many handsome public buildings have been constructed, including the new government palace, the charity hospital, Asylo de Santa Leopoldina, the new marine hospital of Santa Isabel, in Jurujuba, the municipal chambers, hospital of SAo Jodo Baptista, Normal School, theatres, and churches. The Barcas ferry connects Nictheroy with Rio de Janeiro, and the trip across the bay is delightful. The inauguration of this line of ferry boats was due to the patriotism and enterprise of the Viscount de Moraes, a citizen of Nictheroy, who for many years has devoted his efforts to the progress of that city, and especially to the development of plans by which it might be brought into closer relations with the Federal capital. Not only by his enterprise in connection with the ferry system, has the Viscount de Moraes promoted the best interests of his beloved city, but by his progressive methods in other works that he has undertaken. Through his initiative a system of electric street rail- ways has been established, and the line, of which he is the owner, runs from the centre A RIVER SCENE IN PETROPOLIS. of the city to the picturesque suburbs of Icarahy, and Sacco do Sao Francisco, on the Shore of the bay of Rio, or Guanabara, as it is sometimes called in remembrance of its 194 THE NEW BRAZIL Indian traditions. The electric street railway to the suburbs is a great convenience, and every evening the cars are filled with people seeking the picturesque Sacco do Sao Francisco or the praia of Icarahy. A tourist hotel and a casino are being built at Sado Fran- cisco, which has a beach rivalling that of Trouville, and which promises one day to be one of the favor- ite resorts of Rio. Already the foreign colony, and es- pecially the athletic element devoted to the pastime of boating, yachting, etc., is represented in considerable number on this side of the bay. The municipal govern- ment is active in promoting the interests of foreign and THE GERMAN LEGATION, PETROPOLIS. native citizens with equal consideration, the Prefect, Dr. Pereira Ferraz, devoting especial attention to all reforms which tend to increase the value of property and to improve the comfort of citizens. For those who prefer mountain air and scenery to the attractions of the coast, the city of Petropolis is a paradise of beauty and charm. Situated in the Serra da Estrella, it presents an enchanting picture in the variety and charm of its Alpine effects. It is particularly attractive in the first blush of morning, when, as some one has described it, “the sun rises in all his splendor above the seven hill-tops, lighting up the dull, grassy green of the orange-groves, the tall, feathery crests of the graceful palms, the huge banner-like leaves of the banana, the spiky columns of the cactus, the great rocks that stand isled in the sea of vegetation, and the rainbow plumage of the humming-birds and butterflies that hover enjoy- ingly on the warm, voluptuous air, till all above and below isa dazzling blaze of glory.” One can imagine nothing more delightful than in the early morning hours to take a horse- back ride along the smooth road, with all the glories of tropical vegetation poured out like a flood over the great mountain walls on each side; to see the little river dancing and leaping among the black, broken rocks below, now flashing its foam in the sunlight, now slinking shyly away beneath the shadow of overhanging trees; to watch the broadening sunshine roll across the endless range of woods, tree-top after tree-top catching the glow till the whole forest is one sea of splendor; to feel the fresh mountain breeze stirring your blood till it leaps through your veins, making mere existence an enjoyment. Any one who has Wale SIEGHBS (Ole 1@) 195 seen the place will readily recognize a description of that picturesque path, with its over- arching leaves of brightest crimson, crumbling walls alive with glittering lizards, and great boulders of black rock down which the living green of the trailing fern pours itself in a silent waterfall, and huge bell-like convolvuli twining lovingly round the maimed stumps of the felled trees. The journey from Rio to Petropolis includes a trip across the bay to the Maua landing, from which a railway train conveys passengers to the summit of the serra. The changing spectacle presented by innumerable turns and curves of the bay and the constantly varying aspect of the islands that are passed is a source of zesthetic delight to all nature-worshippers, and the view that spreads out in ever-increasing charm and splendor as the railway train plods its way up the steep slope of the mountain-side has an exhilarating effect upon the imagination, filling the soul with its beauty. At times, the entire bay is seen, glistening in the sunlight, or covered with foamy mist, the islands and rocks that mottle its surface possessing each a separate claim to favor. Along the route, glimpses of the most gorgeous tropical vegetation appear; trailing vines, feathery ferns, and damp clinging mosses making an effective setting for the delicate coloring of the orchid and the rich glow of more brilliant blossoms. Great blocks of granite poised precariously on the verge of towering cliffs, and Swift mountain streams which in rainy weather swell to roaring torrents, give that element of recklessness which is characteristic of Nature in her wildest moods. The Serra da Estrella is a part of the chain of Orgdos, or Organ Mountains, which includes also the Serra Tingua, connecting with the Coast Range:that extends under different names throughout the whole coast country of Brazil. PRAIA DE ICARAHY, NICTHEROY. Orchid hunters find an everlasting source of interest in the treasures of Petropolis. The beautiful ground orchids with names that no one but an “orchidologist” can remember: 196 THE NEW BRAZIL the Lelia Tenebrosa, the Lelia Perrini, and many other Leelias are found in the enchanting recesses of the Petropolis hills. Sophonites, red orchids of exquisite delicacy in color and form, and Epidendrums of many varieties, are gathered by eager orchid hunters. A very suc- cessful collector in this field is Mr. John O. Hall, of Buenos Aires, who has carried off some rare specimens for his con- servatory, in which he has many of the choicest varieties of orchids in the world. During the social season, which is from December to ANCHIETA COLLEGE, NOVA FRIBURGO. May, Petropolis is the scene of continued gaiety, its drives thronged with carriages and its homes brilliant with various festivities. Originally founded in 1845, as an agricultural colony with a small German population, the city has grown to be the Versailles of the Brazilian capital; as the favorite resort of wealth and fashion, and an important educational centre, it has some advantages above all other Brazilian cities. It is unique as the only city outside of a national capital that is the permanent residence of the foreign diplomatic corps. As previously stated, this distinction was first gained when, in consequence of a yellow-fever epidemic in Rio de Janeiro, the diplomatic body sought shelter in this beautiful spot, twenty-eight miles from the capital and three thousand feet above its level. At first, only nine months of the year were spent here, during which daily visits were made to and from the city; but this routine being very tiresome, the chiefs of diplomatic missions petitioned their governments to authorize the establishment of perma- nent residence in Petropolis. It is likely, however, that the official home of the foreign diplomatic corps will soon be removed again to the national capital. As the headquarters of about twenty foreign diplomatic representatives, Petropolis is ‘one of the most important small cities in the world. In the midst of rich tropical verdure, with an endless variety of effects in landscape and architecture, its beauties present an additional charm in the legation villas, which, as a rule, are located most attractively, over- looking luxuriant gardens and well-trimmed lawns. The American embassy, of which Hon. Irving B. Dudley is the diplomatic chief, is established in a beautiful mansion, with broad verandas and surrounded by spacious grounds. The Portuguese minister to Brazil, Dr. Joao de Oliveira SA Camelo Lampreia, has his official residence in the Rua Paysandu, Rio, in a beautiful palacete of the Portuguese style of architecture. The Legation of Ger- many, the official home of the German minister, Baron von Reichnau, and the Mexican Legation, of which Dr. Lizardi is chief, are among the most attractive residences of the THE STATE OF RIO 197 foreign representatives. The ladies of the diplomatic corps entertain with charming hospi- tality, and social life in the mountain city is always enjoyable, although during the winter months of June and July the weather is sometimes quite cold. Ona beautiful site stands the palace once the summer residence of the Emperor Dom Pedro II.; it is now the property of the Countess d’Eu and is used for a young ladies’ seminary. There are several foreign schools in Petropolis, the most important being the German college for boys and the American school for girls. In addition to the interest that attaches to the summer capital as a fashionable resort, as the seat of foreign diplomatic missions, and as an educational centre, are its many commercial enterprises in the nature of large spinning-mills, factories, and breweries. The population numbers about twenty-five thousand. From Petropolis an old turnpike-road extends to Juiz de Fora, in the State of Minas, a distance of nearly one hundred and fifty miles, a high- way which was fiist opened after the construction of the Maua railway, for the purpose of bringing down the produce of the interior. Although the Central Railway now carries all this traffic, the road is still a favorite drive-way. Many flourishing towns throughout the State reflect the life and customs of the larger cities. Campos, with a population of about twenty-five thousand is one of the largest of these towns. It is situated on a plain over which the sea-breeze blows with refreshing coolness. Three railroads respectively connect it with the Federal capital, the State of Minas Geraes, and the State of Espirito Santo. The municipal building is a neat edifice, containing, among other important features, a valuable library, besides which there are two smaller libraries open to the public, the property of private societies. The town is situated on the banks of the Parahyba, an iron bridge crossing the river at this point. By means of a grand canal, Campos is con- nected with the seaport Macahé, a railway also uniting the two ~ towns. Among the successful institutions of Campos are the Society of Agriculture, vari- ous benevolent societies, three hospitals, the Jockey Club, and musical, dramatic, and dancing societies. Three newspapers are published here, and the professions are well represented. The town is lighted with electricity, has street car lines, waterworks, and drainage. The region around Campos is well suited to cattle raising, and LYCEUM AND NORMAL SCHOOL, CAMPOS. 198 THE NEW BRAZIL cattle are shipped from this place to supply neighboring markets. This section also produces fruits in abun- dance, and in the vicinity are valua- ble deposits of cement, kaolin, and other clays for ceramic purposes. Macahé is a seaport of con- siderable importance, having a regu- lar line of steamers that connect it with Rio de Janeiro and near coast towns; it is an enterprising town, and the centre of a fertile district WATERFALL AT THEREZOPOLIS. where coffee, sugar, and fedjao [the black bean] are grown in great quantities. The Quissaman sugar factory in this municipality produces about forty thou- sand bags of sugar a season, and one of the growing industries is the manufacture of bricks. The Swiss colony of Nova Friburgo is the oldest immigrant settlement in Brazil, having been established, in 1819, on the site of the present progressive little city of that name. The location of the colony could not have been better chosen, as the climate is perfect, the soil rich and fertile, and the scenery indescribably beautiful, the approach by railway rivalling in some aspects the marvellous grandeur of the route to Petropolis. The feats of engineering accomplished on the line of the Leopoldina in this vicinity are remarkable; the Fell system is used in making the ascent of the serra for a distance of about ten miles, and an elevation of nearly four thousand feet is reached at the highest point, or Alto da Serra, from which the town is scarcely ten miles distant, with an_alti- tude of about three thousand feet. Nova Friburgo is the centre of a productive coffee district, and within easy dis- tance of the. Federal capital, where many of its wealthy proprietors spend the winter Season. At an altitude of three thousand feet above the level of the sea, and in the midst of scenery of unrivalled beauty, THREE-RAIL TRACK ON LEOPOLDINA RAILROAD, STATE OF RIO. THE STATE OF RIO 199 Therezopolis occupies a site that commands a magnificent view of the ravines and cascades of the Serra dos Orgdos, and in the distance the bay of Rio in all its glory. Sao Joao da Barra, named from a church erected at this place by the Portuguese settlers at the beginning of the seventeenth century and dedicated to Saint John the Baptist, is a growing town of about ten thousand inhabitants, situated on a tongue of land about a mile square, at the mouth of the Parahyba River. The large sugar refineries of the Usina Barcellos give additional importance to its manufacturing industries, which include severai mills and other enterprises. To Sao Jodo da Barra belongs the honor of having nurtured one of the great poets of Brazil, Casimiro de Abreu. Itaborahy, a little town not far from Nictheroy, is famous as the birthplace of the distinguished romancist Joaquim Manoel de SACCO DE SAO FRANCISCO, A SUBURB OF NICTHEROY. Macedo. Rezende, named in honor of the viceroy Count de Rezende, under whose administration the town was founded a hundred years ago, is built on the right bank of the Parahyba, in one of the most beautiful locations imaginable; three surrounding hills, upon the summit of each of which a pretty little church has been erected, give a charming effect to the scene. On the opposite bank of the river is the suburb of Campos Elyseos, with its neat little railway station on the line of the Central. There are innumerable growing towns and villages along the line of the various railroads of the State: Cabo Frio, Angra dos Reis, and Paraty are important towns on the coast and centres of growing industry, Cabo Frio being noted for its granite, which is of great value for building purposes; S. Fidelis, in the northeast, has rich deposits of graphite in its vicinity; gold mines exist near the prosperous little town of Cantagallo; Parahyba do 200 THE NEW BRAZIL Sul, Magé, Vassouras, Valenca, Pirahy, Barra Mansa, Sapucaia, Rio Claro, Itaperuna, Padua, Bom Jardim, Santa Maria Magdalena, Sumidouro, Marica, Capivary, and other towns are connected by railway with each other and with the capital. In every town the progress is more marked from year to year, and throughout the State the spirit of enterprise is felt in every branch of endeavor, political, social, and commercial; many notable improvements are due to the activity of the present administration, under the leadership of President Alfredo Backer, a statesman of keen judgment and noted executive ability, who is assisted by the secretary general of the State, Dr. Jodo Damasceno Ferreira, and a cabinet of able officials in the various departments. DR. J. DAMASCENO FERREIRA, SECRETARY OF GOVERNMENT, STATE OF RIO. ite ‘aa : ; , Pe 7 - - : T ot i nh hy : See ee ee 1 THE LIBRARY A. ib Aste eee ee OF THES, | eee he UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS = ‘O1TNVd OYS ‘AYVNOS AOVIVWd AHL NI MAIADYN AUVLITIW V Cie lsvet HERG SAO PAULO AO PAULO has had such an important share in the patriotic struggles and tri- umphs which have attended the growth and advancement of Brazil, that its history is inseparably connected with the proudest annals of the nation. Especially in central and southern Brazil, the civilization and de- velopment of the country were chiefly due to the sturdy and energetic Mamelucos, as the pioneer Paulistas were called. Under the government.of the redoubtable Ramalho they rendered valuable assistance to Martim Affonso in settling the present State of Sado Paulo, which took its name from a mission founded by the Paulist priests on the site of the present State capital. The early Paulistas had for their motto, “Conquer or die!” and in the history of Sao ape pene Paulo the influence of such unyielding deter- PRESIDENT OF THE STATE OF SAO PAULO. mination is abundantly shown. Overcoming every obstacle, this great State has grown and prospered under all conditions, and to-day it occupies a distinguished place as the most important of the Brazilian union. Possessing extraordinary interest as the richest coffee growing region of the world, it is further renowned as the great educational centre of Brazil, and as having a political constituency of the most important influence. The State of Sao Paulo covers an area of seventy-five thousand square miles, having a coast line two hundred and fifty miles long, and extending inland for four hundred miles. 203 204 THE NEW BRAZIL It borders the Atlantic Ocean on the southeast, the State of Rio on the east, Minas Geraes on the northeast and north, Matto Grosso on the west, and Parana on the south. The western boundary is marked by the river Parana, and the northern and southern boundaries by its tributaries, the Rio Grande and the Rio Paranapanema, respectively. A natural division of the State is made by the Coast Range, or Serra do Mar, which rises to an altitude of three thousand feet, and crosses it near the southeastern border, parallel with the seacoast, toward which it descends abruptly, leaving only a narrow strip of lowland between. This range is known in different sections as the Paranapiacaba, Cubatao, Ubatuba and Paraty, and has several offshoots, as the Bocaina, Quebra-Congalha and Jambeiro. A second range, the Serra da Mantiqueira crosses the State farther inland and parallel to the Serra do Mar, and has a greater altitude, its highest summits, the Itapeva and Marins being between seven thousand and eight thousand feet above sea-level. This range is broken at intervals and is known under the names of Serra da Cantareira, Juguery, and others. Between the Serra da Mantiqueira and the Serra do Mar lies a fertile plateau, which is drained by the river Parahyba, flowing northeast to the Atlantic Ocean. With the exception of this river and of the Ribeira de Iguape with its tributaries, which flows southeast from the Serra do Mar to the Atlantic, all the rivers flow from the Serra northwestward to join the Parana. The entire State is drained by vast tributaries of this mighty river; not only do the Rio Grande and Rio Paranapanema, with their extensive affluents, fertilize the northern and southern regions, but the great Tieté, with innumerable branches, crosses the middle of the State from the Serra do Mar to the extreme northwestern boundary, over a course nearly four hundred miles in length. This magnificent stream with its main affluent, the Piracicaba, is navigable for only about one hundred and fifty miles, because of the great number of cataracts interrupting its course, Some of which are capable of furnishing suffi- cient motive power for the largest engineering enterprises. The Itapura fall, on this river, has a width of one thousand five hundred feet and a height of forty feet, and the Avan- handava fall is fifty feet high. The fall at Parnahyba, a few miles from the capital of the State, supplies power for one hundred miles of street cars, several large mills, factories, and electric light installations. The possession of unlimited water power is one of the most valuable resources of this great State, all its rivers having tremendous cataracts. _ The Parana rivals every other river of the world in this respect, with half a dozen magnificent waterfalls lending a picturesque beauty and grandeur to its scenery, unsurpassed elsewhere. The Salto dos Patos, the Urubupunga, the Salto das Sete Quedas, and the greater Niagara known as the Salto do Iguassu, present a succession of marvellous scenes, well worth a visit to South America to enjoy. The falls of the Rio Grande and the Rio Paranapanema will be utilized in the development of large enterprises in the newly explored regions of the west. All the rivers are navigable over a part of their course, the Ribeira de Iguape having a navigable course of more than one hundred and fifty miles. In addition to the advantages afforded by a splendid river system for the agricultural, pastoral and industrial development which is now progressing rapidly in the State of Sao SAO PAULO 205 Paulo, the climate also constitutes a most favorable influence, as it is uniformly mild and temperate, except in the warm zone that extends along the narrow strip of lowland on the coast, and near the lower water courses. On the plateau and the sloping hillsides of the central region, the climate is like that of southern Europe; for although in the latitude of the tropics, the altitude is such as to modify the climatic conditions of a tropical country. The population of the State is two million six hundred thousand, living chiefly in the eastern and central sections. Sado Paulo, the capital of the State, occupies an ideal situation on the plateau, between the Serra da Cantareira, from which it receives its splendid water supply, and the Serra do Mar, which separates it from the seacoast. The city is the second in importance in Brazil, and has three hundred thousand inhabitants, being one of the most populous and flourish- ing cities of South America. Its prosperity is due entirely to the progressive character of the Paulistas, who are not only distinguished for their practical ability and energetic enterprise, but are particularly esteemed among their compatriots for their social and intellectual culture, and the possession of those sterling qualities which belong to the best type of Brazilians. It may be, as Secretary Root said during his visit to the city in 1906, that “there is something in the air of SA4o Paulo which makes strong and vigorous men”; certainly, the healthful climate and the open-air occupations in which the greatest and noblest men of the State developed PALACE OF AGRICULTURE AND STATE TREASURY, SAO PAULO. their genius, are to be taken into consideration in looking for the causes which have led to the progress of the State, the wealth and importance of which is reflected in its beautiful capital. 206 THE NEWS BRAZIL Like the Federal capital, Sao Paulo has been transformed within a few years, and though the change has not been so sudden nor so radical as in Rio, it has still been of sufficient importance to leave its im- press upon every feature of the old Sao Paulo of the empire, which is rapidly fading out of recognition in the modern Sao Paulo of the republic. But, while appreciating the advantages of the new régime in the advance- ment of the State and its capital, ‘it must not be forgotten that perhaps the most important step toward this agerandizement was made when the unfaltering hand of the Princess- Regent of Brazil signed the decree for the emancipation of the slaves, prepared by the noble Paulistas, Dr. Antonio Prado and Dr. Joao Al- fredo. This act had the most power- ful influence in stimulating the energy and enterprise which are to-day so characteristic of the Sado Paulo people, who needed just such a test to bring out their best abilities. | Resolutely they faced the new problems and solved them with courage and perse- verance, under the leadership of such renowned patriots as Dr. Prudente Moraes, Dr. Campos- Salles, Dr. Rodrigues Alves, and the present illustrious president of the State, Dr. Jorge Tibiriga, whose name has been prominently identified with its political progress for thirty years, ever Since, as a young graduate of the University of Zurich, he returned to his native land, fired with the republican sentiments and principles which a Helvetian education instils in every breast. As deputy, senator, minister of government, and president of the State, he has devoted, with brilliant success, his great talents to the welfare of his beloved country. The present administration is constantly adding prestige to the reputation of the State by notable reforms and improvements. The president, the vice-president, Colonel Joao Baptista de Mello Oliveira, and the secretaries, Dr. Gustavo de Oliveira Godoy, of interior; Dr. Wash- ington Luiz Pereira de Souza, of justice; Dr. Manoel Joaquim de Albuquerque Lins, of finance; and Dr. Carlos José Botelho, of agriculture, are united in their efforts for the highest good of the State. The important task of reorganizing the courts of law and the police service of the State has been undertaken, with most promising results, by Dr. Washington Luiz Pereira DR. CARLOS JOSE BOTELHO, SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, SAO PAULO. SAO PAULO 207 de Souza. Dr. Manoel Joaquim de Albuquerque Lins continues his notable policy as declared in the purchase of the Sorocabana railway and the financial transactions for enhancing the price of coffee. The progress in the departments of the interior and agriculture may be seen from subsequent chapters. The general revenue of the State, according to the last budget, is about 50,000,000 milreis, which is equivalent to sixteen million dollars gold, and the expen- diture is nearly the same amount, disbursed through the different departments. The exports last year amounted to 219,605,652 milreis and the imports to 78,372,959 milreis. With the wisdom of good government, the money of the State has been employed in improving the sanitary conditions of the less favored localities, with the happy result that a host of country towns, formerly decimated by fevers as a result of bad drainage, are now absolutely free from such diseases. Even where the work has been only partially completed the per- centage of mortality has been materially reduced, the vital statistics of the State showing it to be less than two per cent of the population, per annum. As the chief seat of sxovernment of the State, Sao Paulo is the place of residence of many distinguished statesmen and politicians; as a great educational centre, it attracts the leading scholars; and as the cen- tral distributing point for the vast industries of the interior, it is the home of a number of Sao Paulo’s rich “captains of in- dustry.” The palaces of the government, the various institutions of the municipality, and a great number of es- tablishments represent- ing private enterprise and philanthropy, give a metropolitan aspect to the capital, which is further noted in the appearance and bearing of the people. The name of Sao Paulo, first bestowed by the Jesuits on their college, which was inaugurated on the fast day commemorative of the conversion of St. Paul, was legally RUA DIREITA, SAO PAULO. 208 THE NEW BRAZIL given to the city by Mem de Sa, Governor-General of Brazil, in 1560, when it was christened Sao Paulo de Piratininga. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the capitania of Sao Vicente, in which Sao Paulo was sit- uated, was separated from Rio de Janeiro and took the name of the capitania of Sao Paulo; and in 1815, when the capitanias were abolished, the city became the capital of the province of Sao Paulo. Its subse- quent history is well known, and the record of its glorious share in the victories of freedom and the names of its great heroes are preserved in the monuments, public parks and avenues which adorn the city. An important point of interest for all vis- itors to the city is Ypiranga, the splen- did monument erected, in 1885, on the spot where the proclamation of the independence of Brazil was made in 1822; it is one of the finest works of architecture in Brazil, designed not only to commemorate this glorious event, but also to serve as an insti- DR. MANOEL JOAQUIM DE ALBUQUERQUE LINS, SECRETARY tution of learning. The architect of OF FINANCE, SAO PAULO. this noble edifice is Cavaliere Tom- maso G. Bezzi, whose genius is demonstrated in the beauty of its design and the perfect harmony of its magnificent proportions. The museum of Ypiranga contains treasures of great historical and scientific interest, many curious and valuable relics, also some of the finest paintings of Brazilian artists. In the department of taxidermy are preserved more than six hundred specimens of humming-birds, those dainty little exquisites of the forest that build their nests so very tiny that they are obliged gradually to spread it out as the nestlings grow, until, by the time the little ones are ready to take flight, it is perfectly flat. The Louvadeus [Praise God] grasshopper, that regularly makes its way to the top of a bush or tree and puts up its feelers in an attitude of prayer, is another curiosity of which many specimens are preserved in this museum; and of butterflies the collection is appar- ently endless in variety. Curiosities of the mineral as well as of the animal kingdom have been culled from every available source, the classification being so systematically arranged as greatly to facilitate inspection. The action of the red sand of this district on the marble of the edifice has given it something of the appearance of old ivory, SAO PAULO 209 greatly enhancing its effectiveness. From the porticoes of Ypiranga a splendid view of the city is presented, with its spires and towers gleaming in the sunlight. In the improvement and beauti- fying of the capital, the magnificent new Praca da Republica, the Avenida Paulista, Avenida Tiradentes, Avenida Rangel Pestana, the Alameda Antonio Prado, Rua Visconde do Rio-Branco, and others bear titles which show how very dear to the hearts of the people is the memory of their patriotic triumphs and of the statesmen who have represented the highest ideals of liberty. In the utilitarian tendencies of modern cities, there is, unfortunately, a growing disposition to abandon this beautiful custom of preserving the names of the country’s heroes on the map of the capital. In the new suburbs, famous names are commem- orated, as in the Villa Prudente, Villa Deodoro, and others. Some of the older streets present a very attractive appearance, though narrower and less pretentious than their more modern DR. WASHINGTON LUIZ PEREIRA DE SOUZA, SECRETARY , : OF JUSTICE, SAO PAULO. rivals. The Rua Sao Bento, Rua Quinze de Novembro, and Rua Direita are busy thoroughfares, and occupy an important place in the “Triangle,” as the commercial centre of the city is called. From the Rua Direita, a viaduct, eight hundred feet long and fifty feet in width, connects the old with the new city; it is know as the Viaducto Cha, or “tea viaduct,” because extensive tea gardens were formerly cultivated in the valley beneath, though this space is now devoted to fruit growing and gardening. The Government Palace and the chief offices of the administration are situated overlook- ing the Largo do Palacio, in the centre of the city, from which, branching out in all directions, extend the principal thoroughfares. Throughout the city are to be found many handsome public buildings, institutions of the State or of the municipality. The Municipal Palace over- looks the Praga Municipal, with its flower gardens and fountains, and in the vicinity is the handsome new Municipal Theatre, occupying a commanding site on one of the hills of the city, at the extremity of the Viaducto Cha. It is an edifice of imposing architecture and costly construction, the work of a Sao Paulo architect, Dr. Ramos de Azevedo, who has 210 TOE PNEVAGRAZLE designed several of the city’s most attractive buildings. In appearance and capacity it com- pares with the best theatres of Europe and North America. The cost is estimated at a million dollars, gold. The Palace of Congress, the Post Office, Exchange, Chamber of Commerce, Public Library, the Cathedral, and many of the churches and convents, of which there are about thirty in the city, are among the public buildings notable for their importance. In the northern part of the city is situated the beautiful Jardim Publico, or Jardim da Luz, the oldest park of the capital, which was originally created by royal charter in 1790, though not com- pleted until 1825, when it was opened to the public by order of the first president of the province, the Viscount de Congonhas do Campo. Overlooking this park is the magnificent Estagao da Luz, of the Sao Paulo railway, one of the largest and most modern railway AVENIDA TIRADENTES, SAO PAULO. stations of the world. The Lyceum of Arts and Trades and the Prudente de Moraes School also overlook the Jardim da Luz, and near at hand are the House of Correction and the immense quartel of the police department. The police force of Sao Paulo is one of the best organized in Brazil. It is a military institution, under the supervision of the Secretary of Justice, and is composed of two battal- ions of infantry, a cavalry company, a fire company, and a civil guard. A corps of hospital nurses and an ambulance service are also at the call of the police department to render public aid when needed. There are five thousand men on the force, under the command of a colonel of the Federal army. The Civil Guard performs ordinary police duty, unarmed, wearing only the uniform of the service and a police badge. In the correctional colony, established at Pig Island, near Ubatuba, prisoners are set to work on the farms of the State, in many cases being transferred from solitary con- finement when good conduct warrants the change. Sdo Paulo is the first State of the Union to test on a large scale this provision of the penal code. The northern limit of the capital is marked by the tort- uous course of the Tieté, and beyond lies the Serra da Can- tareira, from which an abun- dant water supply is brought SAO PAULO 211 MUNICIPAL THEATRE, SAO PAULO. to the city. By the energy and enterprise of the government, a magnificent system has been installed for this service; and through the especial efforts of Dr. Carlos Botelho, the large water supply already assured, amounting to thirty-five million litres daily, has recently been further increased by impounding the waters below the Cabucti and on the confines of the Engordador and Guarahu, to furnish an additional supply of forty million litres a day. The light and power company of Sao Paulo have had charge of many of the notable PALACETE ELIAS CHAVES, WHERE SECRETARY ROOT RESIDED DURING HIS VISIT TO SAO PAULO. ae THE NEW BRAZIL improvements made in the city within the past few years, such as establishing the electric street railway system, and lighting the metropolis by electricity. The city has now about one hundred and fifty arc lights and more than five thousand incandescent lights, as well as five thousand gas lamps for use in emergency. The Avenida Tiradentes crosses the northern part of the city, extending as far as the river Tieté; a trip in one of the rapid electric street cars affords a charming prospect, with a view of some of the city’s important public institutions, which are in this locality. The Avenida Rangel Pestana, extends from the centre of the city eastward, passing through the busy district of Braz and by the Largo da Concordia, with its interesting market place. In the southern district, the Rua da Liberdade, Rua Santo Amaro, and Rua da Consolacdo AVENIDA PAULISTA, SAO PAULO. lead to the magnificent Avenida Paulista, the most beautiful boulevard of the capital, on which some of the handsomest residences are located. The Avenida is adorned by hundreds of shade trees, is paved with asphalt, as is all the modern part of the capital, and lighted by electricity, with which the entire city is so well supplied. Near one extremity of the Avenida is the Jardim da Acclimagdo, or botanical garden, and from the other may be seen the charming suburban Villa Cerquiera Cesar. The suburbs of Sao Paulo are picturesque in scenery and attractive in the variety and elegance of their many handsome residences. A drive out to Santa Cecilia and Palmeiras, along the beautiful Rua das Palmeiras, or to Villa Buarque and Hygienopolis, is a charming passeio. Here several of the millionaires of Sao Paulo have palatial homes, unsurpassed in splendor and luxury by the great mansions of Europe. At Hygienopolis is the beautiful home of Count de Penteado, and a number of other handsome villas. This part of the city SAO PAULO 213 is almost entirely occupied by residences of wealthy Paulistas, and its broad driveways and shaded promenades make it one of the city’s most popular suburban districts. Counsellor Antonio Prado is now the Prefect of Sdo Paulo. It was by invitation of this distinguished Paulista that Secretary Root visited Sao Paulo during his stay in Brazil. He was handsomely entertained by the Sao Paulo people; and one of the most elegant and beautiful homes of the capital, the Palacete Chaves, was placed at his disposal through the gracious hospitality of Senhora Anesia da Silva Prado e Chaves. The Palacete Carvalho, the residence of the Prefect, is one of the. largest and most imposing of the many stately homes of Sao Paulo. The pro- gressive spirit shown in every department of the municipal govern- ment under the direction of Counsellor Antonio Prado, is the reflection of that eminent states- man’s genius and patri- otism. The indefatigable energy necessary to ac- complish all the im- provements which have taken place during his administration is re- markable. Sado Paulo is to-day a thoroughly modern metropolis, with rapid transit, electric light and power, and miles of asphalt pavements, its broad avenues presenting an animated appearance during the favorite hours of recreation, when a great many smart equipages, automobiles, etc., are to be seen. Along with these material advantages the best conditions prevail for the health and happiness of a great community. The sanitation of the city is under the supervision of the Secretary of the Interior, Dr. Gustavo de Godoy, who gives it constant and careful attention. The management of this branch of his department is in the hands of a Board of Sanitary Service, which is RUA SAO BENTO, A BUSY THOROUGHFARE OF SAO PAULO. 214 LHE NEW BRAZIL organized for the scientific study of all questions relating to public health; to the nature, cause, treatment, and prevention of contagious diseases; to the best methods for securing defensive and preventative safeguards against disease by sanitary vigilance, hospital aid, isolation, and disinfection ; and to medical and pharmaceutical inspection. In the various institu- tions which are conducted under the management of the Board, every possible phase of the question of public health receives especial care and study. The Bacteriological In- stitute is organized, as the name im- plies, for the purpose of studying bacteriology in general; but its par- ticular object is to find out the causes of the epidemic, endemic, and epizootic diseases most frequently occurring in A MODERN OFFICE BUILDING, SAO PAULO. the State, and to make microscopic examinations when necessary to aid in clinical diagnoses. In the Laboratory of Analysis all food products, drugs, medical pre- parations, and everything of this character which affects the public health, are analysed, thus providing against harmful adulterations. The Vaccinogenic and Serumtherapic Insti- tutes prepare and distribute the vaccine to be used against smallpox, and the serums which are so efficacious in counteracting pests and similar evils. A pharmaceutical laboratory is supported by the Board, in which prescriptions are filled, drugs and disinfectants supplied to public establishments, and ambulances prepared for use in the interior of the State. Lazarettos, or pest hospitals, are maintained for the treatment of infectious diseases, and a complete and thoroughly modern disinfecting service has charge of the hygiene of all places in which such diseases have been found. Vaccination is obligatory, and many people are vaccinated daily in the central office, while sanitary inspectors perform this duty in the districts over which they preside. In the central office there is a room set apart for the inspection of wet nurses and also for the treatment of nursing infants of paupers, in which daily consultations are given free of charge. In accordance with a government decree issued in 1906 the whole State has been divided into fourteen sanitary districts under inspectors, forming a complete sanitary police service of the highest efficiency. ; Not only has the State a wonderful system of sanitary service, but this is supplemented by similar enterprises, supported partly by the government and partly by private philan- thropy. The Pasteur Institute of S40 Paulo is one of the most notable institutions of Brazil. It was founded in 1903 by a few philanthropic men, who were aided in their noble purpose SAO PAULO 215 by a public subscription, which, added to their individual contributions, provided a fund of about ten thousand dollars gold for its establishment and maintenance. The Institute is now supported by a subsidy from the Federal government, a State sub- sidy, by private gifts, and by the sale of its products. Although only three years old, more than one thousand two hundred patients have been treated without a single failure. In addition to inoculation against rabies, the Institute prepares anti-diphtheric, anti-tetanic, and other serums, makes a special study. of tropical diseases, and has classes in the study of bac- teriology as applied to medicine and hygiene. Dr. A. Carini, a professor from Berne University, Switzerland, A PICTURESQUE SCENE IN THE JARDIM DA LUZ, SAO. PAULO. is the director, assisted by three Bra- zilian physicians. A great deal of original work has been done in the Institute laboratory, some of which has attracted the attention of foreign scientists. The benefits of a perfect sanitary condition of the city, and special attention to the health of the people, have made the citizens themselves more careful in the construction of their homes to provide good ventilation and drainage, and to seek the protection offered by the State in cases of infection. There is entire sympathy with the efforts of the authori- ties; the desire to promote the general welfare is a particular characteristic of Sao Paulo people and they greet new improvements with interest and appreciation, which is an import- ant feature in municipal advancement. Among other modern conveniences, Sado Paulo has complete telephone communication, not only in the capital but with the seaport of Santos, and with many of the fazendas in the interior. The mail delivery is well es- tablished, and the city has the best uniformed district messenger Service in Brazil. There are several manufacturing industries in S40 Paulo, among others THE VACCINE INSTITUTE, SAO PAULO. a factory producing the finest quality of crystal and cut glass. Three paper factories have grown into prosperous conditions since the inauguration of the republic, and there are several spinning, jute, and cotton mills, as well as foundries and other enterprises. 216 THEGNEYWA BRAZIL In the intellectual development of Sao Paulo, nothing has been neglected which could advance the interests of social culture. The Instituto Historico e Geographico of Sao Paulo is affiliated with leading scientific societies of Europe and America in study and research. The Society of Ethnography and Civilization of the Indians is devoting attention to studies especially relating to the ethnology and anthropology of Brazil, to which some of its distin- guished members have devoted careful and extended research. The Centre of Science, Literature and Art, of Campinas, is one of the important institutions of the State. Indeed, there is no branch of intellectual activity, in which the people of Sado Paulo have not contributed something to the archives of their country. The Geographical and Geological Commission of So Paulo has done service of particular importance, not only to science, but to the more material interests of the State. Through arrangement by the govern- ment, and under the direc- tion of the distinguished chief _ of the Commission, Dr. Jodo Pedro Cardoso, explorations and surveys have recently been made in the extreme west of the State, and important knowl- edge has been gained of its geography and geology, of the character of the soil, the mineral resources of the country, and the possibilities of economic development. A botanical gar- den has been established in GATEWAY TO THE QUARTEL, SAO PAULO. connection with the work of the Commission, in which are exhibited specimens of the flora and fauna of the republic. Experiments in the culture of various plants are made in its nurseries and conservatories, and the Commission recently introduced a department of pisciculture. About a hundred specimens of carp were brought from the United States, of which thirteen arrived in perfect condition and were placed in the tank of the garden. A meteorological service has been installed, which is doing excel- lent work, and the Commission has placed at the service of the public a valuable library of works on natural science. The amount of money spent by the government of Sao Paulo in the interest of science is greater than that of any other State of the Union. Every year a great number of pamphlets are distributed by the Secretary of Agriculture to all parts of the State, containing information and instruction on a great variety of industrial matters. About forty newspapers and magazines are published regularly in the capital, and nearly three hundred in the various SAO PAULO 217 towns of the State. Every town has its public library, and the number of readers in Sao Paulo exceeds that in any other State of Brazil. Next to the Federal capital, Sao Paulo has the greatest number of book stores and the largest book sales in the republic. Its people are generally well informed on the topics of the day both at home and abroad, as the daily newspapers are supplied with associated press dispatches from all over the world. Among the distinguished names which are preserved in the archives of the nation as worthy of immortal memory are many belonging to noble Paulistas. The great patriot, José Bonifacio de Andrada, was born in this State, which also gave to Brazil the renowned statesman, Antonio Diogo Feij6, regent of the empire during the minority of Dom Pedro II., and more popularly known by his ecclesiastical title, Father Feijo. He was a successful RESIDENCE OF COUNT ALVARES PENTEADO, SAO PAULO. public leader, and began his career as a priest and a teacher in the towns of Campinas and Ita, in the State of Sao Paulo, where he was born. His first entrance into the arena of politics was made when he was elected Deputy from Sao Paulo to the Cortes at Lisbon, in 1821, where he attracted attention by a powerful and fearless speech in defence of Brazilian rights. He was afterward elected to the national legislature of Brazil, taking his seat among the members of the Liberal opposition. At the first session, he created a sensation by proposing the abolition of clerical celibacy, and the next year published his reasons in a pamphlet on the subject. He was appointed regent of the empire in 1835, the highest office in the government at that time, refusing, on the day before this appointment, the bishopric of Marianna. When Vasconcellos deserted the Liberals, and formed the new Conservative party opposed to the regency, he attacked Father Feijo with the most powerful weapons 218 THE NEW BRAZIL of the parliament and the press, and the regent resigned, rather than compromise in any particular under the pressure put upon him, and retired to Sdo Paulo, where he died in 1843. Carlos Gomes, the composer, was born in this State, as were the noted botanist, Joaquim Corréa de Mello, and the poet, Manoel A. Alvares de Azevedo. Three presidents of the republic, Dr. Prudente Moraes, Dr. Campos-Salles, and Dr. Rodrigues Alves, first learned the principles of patsiotism in a Sdo Paulo home. It was in this State that the propagandists of republicanism made their most ardent campaign, the Convention of Itu, which was held in 1873, marking the initial step toward the accomplishment of the great purpose that found its final triumph in the national event of November 15, 1889. SANTA CECILIA, A SUBURB OF SAO PAULO. » here. ee Oe PARK OF THE EPISCOPAL SEMINARY, SAO PAULO. CHAPTER XII SCHOOLS AND CHARITIES OF SAO PAULO DR. GUSTAVO DE GODOY, SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR, SAO PAULO. N no State of the Brazilian Union has the question of education received greater attention than in Sado Paulo, where the schools are conducted according to a thor- oughly modern system of instruction, from the kindergarten to the university. The State government has always made this department the object of especial zeal and solicitude; and within the past few years, a remarkable impulse has been given to pop- ular education, which has been productive of notable results. Under the present administration, im- provements have been introduced and bene- ficial methods adopted in every branch of instruction, with the constant approval of the public. Not only are all the schools attended to their full capacity, but the demand for such institutions is so urgent that the gov- ernment has deemed it necessary to levy a special tax for the formation of an educational fund in order to meet the growing necessities of public instruction. New preliminary schools have recently been established; “single,” or ungraded, schools, and “school groups,” or graded schools, have been installed in the capital and in the towns of the interior; the Sao Joao group in the capital, and those of Cacapava, Avaré, Cambucy, Porto Feliz, and Capivary in the interior, are among the recent acquisitions. An adequate system of instruction has been arranged for these institutions, with a programme of studies which 221 222 THE NEW BRAZIL is practicable and suited to their special needs; a new school for secondary instruction has been recently opened, the Gymnasium of Ribeirao Preto; better school organization has been accomplished, and a more Suitable classification made of separate or ungraded schools. The system of public education in Brazil is divided into primary, secondary, and superior instruction. In Sao Paulo, primary instruction consists of two courses, preliminary and complementary; preliminary training is given in ungraded schools, in night schools, in graded schools, and in the model school. Ungraded schools are established in every locality which has from twenty to forty children of school age, as many of this kind being installed as necessary, with a proportion of forty pupils in each. When a locality has more than two schools, well attended, these may be taught in the same building, with the name of “united schools.” There are in the State of Sdo Paulo about four thousand ungraded schools for both sexes. In order to provide the blessings of instruction to a class who from poverty or neglect have grown up to adult age without learning to read and write, the State has established night schools in all places where a probable attendance of thirty adult pupils may be secured; in localities where there are factories, these schools have proved a great benefit; in the factory towns both day and night schools are conducted for the instruction of boys and girls. Fortunately, the government has not yet had to face the terrible problem of child labor which is so seriously occupying the attention of educators in the crowded cities of Europe and North America. But if that day come, there is no doubt that the government of Sao Paulo will be prepared to meet it successfully, as every administration brings forward some measure calculated to afford better protection to the helpless poor and to defenceless childhood. Graded schools, or school groups, as they are called in Brazil, are formed in every locality in which the school census shows that there are two hundred pupils of each sex; towns of considerable population may have two or more school groups. In the various towns and cities of the State there are seventy-seven school groups, sixteen of which are in the capital, and two in each of the cities of Santos, Campinas, Jundiahy, Amparo, and Piracicaba. The new Escola de Moraes Barros in Piracicaba is a handsome modern institution. Model Schools are conducted in connection with the Normal School, and serve as the type, or model, for school groups as to organization, methods, and plans of teaching. Their especial object is to afford practical experience in teaching and in school management to the pupils of the Normal School. The Model Schools of the districts of Braz and Luz, as well as those in the more central part of the city, are installed in large and commodious buildings. It is both interesting and entertaining to visit these Model Schools and to see the children at their lessons, which they seem to enjoy thoroughly and to have great facility in learning. Brazilian children are, as a rule, very teachable and are easily disciplined through an appeal to their self-respect and dignity. In aid of their ready acquisition of knowledge they possess a wonderful command of language in expressing their ideas. ~The course of training in the preliminary classes extends over four years. In ungraded schools and night classes, the year SCHOOLS AND CHARITIES OF SAO PAULO 2 i) ww begins on January 25th and closes on December 23d; in the school groups and the Model Schools, the school year lasts from February rst to November 30th. The “Seminario de EPISCOPAL SEMINARY, SAO PAULO. Educandas”’ is the name given to a boarding school for destitute orphan girls which is maintained by the government for the protection, instruction, and moral training of these unfortunate children. In this excellent institution they are brought up with proper care, and are taught the domestic duties appropriate to their sex and condition. In a beautiful building, which occupies a favored locality on the extensive grounds of the State Normal School, the Jardim da Infancia, or kindergarten of Sado Paulo is established. It is annexed to the Normal School, and is under the direction of the teachers of that institution. Two hundred children of both sexes, from four to six years of age, receive daily instruction here, according to the Froebel system of kindergarten training. It is one of the best equipped institutions of the capital and is equal to the best of its kind in Europe or America. The school rooms are perfectly fitted up for the accommodation of their small occupants. The complementary course of primary instruction is given in what are called comple- mentary schools, and is equivalent to a primary normal course. Pupils of both sexes. are trained in these institutions, the course requiring four years of practical training. There are five complementary, or primary normal, schools in the State, one in each of the cities of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Campinas, Itapetininga and Guaratingueta. Each of these has its library, cabinet of physics, chemical laboratory and collections of natural history. Overlooking the beautiful Praga da Republica and occupying a whole square in the central part of the city, the Normal School of Sao Paulo is in appearance the most imposing 224 THE NEW BRAZIL educational institution of the capital. It was founded during the administration of Dr. Prudente Moraes, and has proved of invaluable service in the training of teachers for the various schools of the State. The normal course extends over four years, the practical teaching beginning each year on the 1st of March and ending on the 30th of November. The spacious rooms of this school are airy and well ventilated, the furniture is of the most convenient and modern design; everything is arranged in such a way as to facilitate the teacher’s work, and the various departments are fitted up with all that a teacher requires, either for study or practice. The library contains more than twelve thousand volumes, there is a cabinet of physics and one of natural history, a chemical laboratory, and a pedagogical museum; rooms are provided for manual work, for the storage of teaching apparatus, and for gymnastic and military exercises. Probably no Normal School in America is better equipped or more handsomely installed than the Sao Paulo school, which calls forth the admiration of all educators who visit it. Secondary instruction is given in three institutions which are supported by the State; the gymnasium of the capital, the gymnasium of Campinas and the gymnasium of Ribeirdo Preto. The course in a gymnasium of Brazil is equivalent to that of an English grammar school or an American high school. The course covers six years and the yearly term begins April 15th and closes December 15th. The graduate of this school receives the degree or diploma of Bachelor of Sciences and Letters, which entitles him to matriculate in any of the schools for superior instruction. The gymnasiums are provided with libraries, cabinets of physics, and of natural history, a chemical laboratory and materials. NORMAL SCHOOL SAO PAULO. For superior instruction, the Faculty of Law of Sao Paulo is maintained by the Federal government and the Polytechnic School is supported out of the funds of the State. SCHOOLS AND CHARITIES OF SAO PAULO 225 The law course covers five years, the yearly period of instruction being from the 1st of April to the 14th of November. The graduate receives the degree of Doctor of Legal and KINDERGARTEN, SAO PAULO. Social Science, entitling him to pursue the career of lawyer, magistrate, public minister, notary, diplomatic official or consular representative. The faculty possesses a most valuable library, of nearly fifty thousand volumes, which is free to the public. An academic review is published by the faculty annually. The Polytechnic School of Sao Paulo is the pride of the State, and its graduates are constantly attaining prominent positions at home and abroad, as a result of the splendid system of training which is here given. Instruction is provided in two fundamental and nine special courses, beginning each year on the 1st of September and closing on the 31st of May. The diplomas conferred on the graduates of this institution are recognized officially throughout the republic. A new course in electricity has recently been added to the curriculum of studies. The school is equipped with all necessary cabinets, laboratories, machinery, apparatus, instruments, specimens and utensils required for practical instruction in the various courses. It is provided also with a “field for experiment,” in which practical teaching is given in agronomics. An excellent review is published annually by the school, called the “Annuario da Escola Polytechnica de Sao Paulo.” ) In connection with popular education, the State maintains a public library, in which are many valuable scientific and literary works of great merit, as well as a number of maps, charts, manuscripts, and periodicals. The collection embraces about fifty thousand volumes. 226 TH EANEVEBRAZIL Besides the library, a gallery of paintings is owned by the State, and kept open for the public. The Paulista museum, installed at Ypiranga, which was referred to in a previous chapter, has recently added specimens of world-wide interest to its ethnographic and archeologic collections, which are of extraordinary value. A review of the museum has been published annually for the past six years. The Lyceum of Arts and Crafts, which occupies a spacious building on the east side of the magnificent Jardim Publico, is one of the many important educational institutions of the State which devote especial attention to practical instruction for the laboring classes. In this school all the trades are taught, such as tailoring, shoemaking, carpenter’s work, the work of foundries, machine shops, etc., as well as printing, bookbinding and similar crafts. Closely identified in purpose and in practice are the educational and charitable institu- tions of the State. In addition to the schools maintained by the government there are many establishments of in- struction, primary, Secondary, and superior, which are sup- ported by philanthropic individ- uals and benevolent societies, as well as by religious orders. Among these, the Associacado Feminina Beneficente e In- Sstructiva is particularly worthy of mention, as it maintains about fifty primary schools. It has also in charge a lyceum for. girls, a refuge for fallen women, a creche for the chil- PRUDENTE MORAES SCHOOL, SAO PAULO. , dren of poor working women, a printing office, and workshops for seamstresses and flower venders. The wide scope of this institution, which is both educational and charitable, makes it one of the greatest powers for good in the State. The Collegio D. Carolina Tamandaré, and the Instituto D. Anna Rosa, have similar purposes, nobly seeking to elevate the poor and abandoned children of misfortune, by giving them shelter, providing for their moral and mental training, and preparing them to earn an honest living and to become worthy citizens. The Salesian fathers maintain a lyceum for the primary and technical instruction of poor boys, which provides for both boarding and day pupils. Mackenzie College, which is one of the important educational establishments of Sao Paulo, is a North American institution, maintained under the direction of Dr. Horace Lane, who has lived many years in Sao Paulo, and has had the satisfaction of seeing a number of the graduates of this college fill positions of the greatest prominence in their own and SCHOOLS AND CHARITIES OF SAO PAULO 710%} foreign countries. The Escola Americana, of Piracicaba, is also a North American school, in which the method of instruction taught by the Normal Schools of the United States has been successfully practised for more than twenty years. The Episcopal Seminary, which stands on the corner of the square facing the Jardim Publico, is one of the beautiful edifices of Sao Paulo. It Is dedicated to the purpose of preparing candidates for an ecclesiastical career; annexed to the seminary is the Dioc- esan College, of secondary in- struction, for the study of the POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, SAO PAULO, liberal arts, but which also furnishes a course in primary training. A practical school of commerce and a free school of pharmacy are among the useful institutions for training in business and professional knowledge. Besides these there are, in the State, innumerable MODEL SCHOOL OF BRAZ, SAO PAULO. private schools and colleges, among others, the Gymnasio Macedo Soares, Collegio Modelo Inglez, Hyde-Croft College, Gymnasio de S4o Bento, Instituto de Sciencias e Letras, Asylo 228 THEENEW BRAZIL Sao Jodo, Externato Vautier, Orphanato Christovam Colombo, Abrigo Santa Maria, Exter- nato Sao José, Collegio de Sido, Kingston College, Orphanato de Santa Anna, Asylo de Orphans do Ypiranga (in the Capital); Collegio de Sao Luiz and Collegio do Patrocinio, in Ytu; Collegio Nossa Senhora do Carmo and Collegio Sado José, in Guaratingueta; Collegio Sao Joaquim, in Lorena; Gymnasio Nogueira da Gama, in Jacarehy; Atheneu Jahuense, in Jahu; Escola do Povo, in Sao Vicente, etc. The government of Sao Paulo is not only liberal in the matter of education, for which millions are spent every year,—the department of primary instruction alone costing more than two million dollars gold, annually,—but the interests of the poor and the helpless also receive especial care and generous attention. The Insane Asylum, of Juquery, near the city at ee BU igi aha COLLEGE OF LAW, SAO PAULO. of Sado Paulo, is established on the most liberal basis, and according to the best system known to science for the treatment of the insane. It occupies a large and commodious building, and is conducted in the manner of an asylum colony, having a farm in con- nection with it, where the patients have employment out of doors, and at the same time receive the mental benefits derived from occupation. Those for whom farm work is not Suitable, have lighter employment in the fruit and flower gardens which belong to the asylum. Women are employed in the kitchen and the laundry. In addition to the general division into male and female wards, the asylum is also arranged so that the various grades of lunatics are separated and cared for according to individual needs. Those who are less violent are allowed as much freedom as possible, and all the patients are SCHOOLS AND CHARITIES OF SAO PAULO 229 taken daily into the open air for exercise and to enjoy the restorative effects of sunlight and nature’s glorious scenery. The situation of the asylum is picturesque and healthful. The Maternity Hospital, which is beautifully installed in a handsome modern building, near the Avenida Paulista, is another useful charity protected by the government and noted for the admirable condition in which it is maintained, the excellent management given to its affairs, and the great value of the services rendered. The Military Hospital, located in the vicinity of the quartel, in the Luz district, provides for the care of ill and wounded soldiers. The hospital and the spacious grounds surrounding it occupy a large square near the picturesque Jardim Publico, in which its convalescents may frequently be seen enjoying a promenade. | MORAES BARROS SCHOOL, SAO PAULO. Under the name of “ Dispensarios,” the government maintains sanatory offices, or posfos, in various places, for the treatment of consumptives of the poorest class. The dispensarios “Clemente Ferreira” and ‘“‘ Dr. Claudio de Souza” are two of the most important of these institutions. The Minister of Interior is giving particular attention, and with gratifying success, to the eradication of a troublesome disease which. was brought over from Europe about twenty years ago, called trachites (conjunctivitis granulosis), and which spread over the interior towns. The chief feature of the malady is, as its name indicates, a granular formation in the eyes which causes great inflammation. It rarely assumes a chronic form, and under the present systematic measures of combating the evil, it is rapidly disappearing. The Sociedade de Bene- ficencia Portugueza, is one of the most important charitable organizations of the State, ma- terially aiding the government in the care of the poor and destitute in all the principal ot oS ne towns. In the capital, a Portu- MACKENZIE COLLEGE, SAO PAULO. guese hospital has been estab- lished with the funds of this society; it occupies a large modern building in the central district, and is equipped with the latest appliances for hospital service, and provides accommodation for hundreds of patients annually. The Hospital Umberto I. is maintained by the Italian residents. It is 230 i TALANEI ABRAZO a spacious and handsomely constructed edifice, situated near the Avenida Paulista, in the picturesque western district of the city. The Santa Casa da Misericordia is the oldest charitable institution of the State and the most celebrated for the noble benefactions which it has rendered to the suffering and unfortunate. Not only are patients received in this hospital and its branches in every part of the State, but they are admitted also from neighboring states. The history of this remarkable charity is almost as ancient as that of the capital, and its benefactions are recorded in old books and manuscripts dating back to the seventeenth century. In 1825 the hospital was installed in a chacara in the Rua da Gloria, where it remained until trans- ferred to the present site,a few years ago. This stately edifice, which covers an entire Square in the picturesque Villa Buarque, on the avenue leading to Hygienopolis, is the MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL, SAO PAULO. largest hospital in the State, and one of the largest in Brazil. The average number of patients treated daily in the Santa Casa da Misericordia is between five hundred and fifty and six hundred, and the demand for accommodation being greater than the. institution can supply, it is probable the building will be still further enlarged. In the Foundling Asylum, which is connected with the hospital and its farm colonies, about three hundred children are being cared for; the Santa Casa provides for and educates these little ones, keeping them until they are old enough to go out to service. A comparison between the expenses of the institution in 1874, when they amounted to 28,000 milreis, and in 1904 when the disbursement was 722,000 milreis, affords an idea of the increasing usefulness of this great charity. The Santa Casa da Misericordia was founded by the Sisters of Mercy, and is still maintained by them, with such aid as the benevolent public render in the form of donations. The medical staff of the hospital includes the most skilful and scientific SCHOOLS MAND CAARI IES surgeons and physicians of the State. The director of the hospital clinic is Dr. Arnaldo Vieira de Car- valho, who is also president of the Society of Physi- cians and Surgeons of Sao Paulo. Dr. Vieira has achieved considerable distinction in Europe through his successful surgical operations, especially in gas- troectomy, in which he made the third and most notable on record, his patient living for two years after the removal of the stomach. The administra- tion of the Santa Casa is under the direction of Dr. Alberto da Silva e Souza, to whose manage- ment is due the admirable system that prevails in every department of the large establishment. A Statement of the hospital for the year 1906 shows that, out of seven thousand two hundred and sixty- OF ASAOUPAULO 231 CORRIDOR OF MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL, SAO PAULO. nine patients brought to the hospital during the year, one hundred and fifty-one entered in a dying condition, one hundred and sixteen were in an advanced state of tuberculosis, and ninety-four per cent of the remaining cases were cured. Many of the church societies support charities for the poor, the aged and infirm, and helpless children. The Samaritan Hospital, the Asylum of the Good Shepherd, the Asylum for Foundlings, and other institutions aré beautiful evidences of the kind hearts and open hands which are constantly ready to meet and answer the appeal of charity. Progress in a nation may be measured in a great degree by the character and develop- ment of its schools and charities. As the home is the chief bulwark of the State, the school is the great elevating and improving influence upon the home. Without the refining power ap fied r Fat cot | SRC iS aT INSANE ASYLUM AT JUQUERY, SAO PAULO. THE NEW BRAZIL Ww Ww Nv of education, the family degenerates, and through the family the nation. But where schools flourish and children grow up in an atmosphere of mental culture the national vigor is stimulated and increasing strength assured. It is always an encouraging sign when the government of a country is seriously occupied with the question of educational advance- ment. Scarcely less important than its schools as an index to the real spirit and genuine worth of a people is the attitude of the State toward its poor and helpless wards. Institu- tions of charity, hospitals, asylums for the aged and infirm, indicate the humanitarian principles that guide the noble and great of all times and conditions. Without schools and charities, civilization would remain a weak and ill-nourished infant, incapable of sturdy growth or development. More especially since the inauguration of the republic has the government of Sado Paulo devoted unremitting attention to the interests of education and the improvement of charitable institutions under State protection. Recognizing the neces- Sity for increasing the opportunities offered to the poorer classes for a useful and practical training during childhood, before they are forced to take a place among wage-earners, and to begin the struggle for self-support, and realizing the importance of sheltering the unfortu- nate and invalid poor, it has been the constant aim of the successive administrations to build up and thoroughly equip the educational and charitable institutions, which are the pride and honor of the State. MILITARY HOSPITAL, SAO PAULO. os 7 x er sales cnalh é Ree a. pies a Ag. Nee “UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS , “TRE LIBRARY ; | ; ‘OTNVd OVS AO ALVIS VaVOIOVdld LV “AUNLINOIYDY AO TOOHDS ZOUISNO 4d ZINN % Cloke tiblee Sul AGRICULTURE AND COLONIZATION IN SAO PAULO HE State of Sao Paulo possesses every advan- tage that nature can bestow to make it the richest agricultural country of the globe. A favorable geographical position, a healthful and an invigorating climate, an extremely fertile soil, and a magnificent river system combine to constitute it an ideal land of natural production. In coffee growing, the indus- try which has received special attention, this State has excelled all competitors, so completely that they might drop out of the race without their absence being felt in the markets of the world. And as the people are now more generally also devoting their energy and enterprise to other branches of agriculture, it is safe to predict that, within a few years, the records of foreign trade will show important statements re- aa garding Sao Paulo’s exports of sugar, cotton, tobacco, PIRACICABA CASCADE, SAO PAULO. rice, cocoa, wine, and fruits. At present the cultiva- tion of the sugar cane is developing with greatest success in that part of the State which lies within the Tropic of Capricorn, especially in the central region around Piracicaba, and farther north, in the section of which Ribeirao Preto is the chief centre. It is also a very profitable industry in the southeastern section within the tropics, along the course of the Parahyba River. South of the tropical line, which crosses the State, passing through the city of Sao Paulo, very little sugar is cultivated, though it grows exuberantly wherever planted in the coast district, and especially along the course of the Ribeira de Iguape and its tributaries. On the plateau west of the Serra do Mar, the land is not so suitable for sugar culture, but is particularly adapted to cattle raising, as it embraces some of the best pasture lands of the State. Although so little attention has been given to 235 236 THE NEW BRAZIL sugar planting in the coast region, the largest plantations being located along the course of the great tributaries of the Parana and their affluents, yet the future promises immense wealth from the sugar cane of the coast, when this district shall be made to yield the enormous harvests which the favorable conditions of its soil and climate make possible. A great advantage in the establishment of large sugar plantations and refineries in the coast district lies in the greater facilities afforded for export, as there are good harbors all along the coast, where ships of considerable tonnage can enter. But although sugar growing has never received the full attention it deserves, it is not a recently established industry, since history records that as early as 1533 Martim Affonso de Souza planted, on the island of Sado Vicente, near Santos, sugar cane brought from Madeira, and established there the first sugar mill in Brazil. The culture of sugar began to be neglected, as were all other branches of agriculture except coffee, when the latter became the source of the State’s greatest wealth. Only within recent years has the production of sugar been given increased attention and value. In Piracicaba, which has one of the largest sugar nlantauone of the State, a company with the imposing title of the “Companhia Niagara Paulista” was founded in 1883 by the Baron de Rezende, for the purpose of using the falls of Piracicaba as the motive force fora sugar mill. The company cultivated large plantations with great success, obtaining as their first harvest eight thousand tons of cane. Fourteen years later the harvest reached twenty- one thousand tons, under the management of Dr. Cicero Bastos, who greatly improved the value of the lands by advancing funds to the colonists for the purchase of good implements and machinery. As a result of his liberal policy, the Piracicaba farmers prospered greatly, many of them being able, in a few years, to purchase their farms. In 1900, the company transferred its interests to a French syndicate, and the property is now owned by its representative, the Companhia Assucareira de Piracicaba, with a capital of half a million dollars gold, having headquarters in Paris. The sugar lands of this company are situated at an average altitude of about one thousand and eight hundred feet above sea-level, the plantation of Santa Roza, which produces in one field as much as forty-eight tons to the acre, being the most fertile. Few sugar plantations are capable of producing more than forty-eight to fifty tons to the acre, even with the most careful cultivation. The sugar plantations of Piracicaba are cultivated almost exclusively by colonists, about eight hundred families, chiefly Italians, being supported by this industry. They receive their houses gratis; but as the five hundred or more which the company own are not sufficient to meet the increasing demand, each new colonist is given the materials for con- structing his house, which shall belong to the company in case of his leaving the colony. It is the rule in this colony to plant in August and September, and if the growth is advanced by a few heavy rains, and continues favorable until the rainy season of November, the harvest may be gathered within the year, though such quick growth does not produce the sweetest sugar. The process of planting is simple. The first step is the clearing of the matta, or wooded land, then the irrigating furrows are hoed, and the cane is planted; AGRICOLTORE AND COLONIZATION IN SAO PAULO 237) in the cultivation of lands already cleared, the farmers use ploughs and other implements which best serve their purpose. The company has about twenty miles of railway for the transportation of the cane to the mill. More than half a million litres of aguardente (alcohol) are manufactured annually in the engenho, or sugar mill, of Piracicaba. The centre of this industry, the beautiful and picturesque little city of Piracicaba, is one of the most important of the State. It occupies an attractive site on the banks of the Piracicaba river, a branch of the Tieté, and possesses the most salubrious and healthful climate imaginable. One of the chief features of its charming scenery is the cascade, which offers a special attraction to those who seek this lovely spot for health or pleasure. The name “Pira-ci-caba” is of Indian origin and means “the fish stops here;” and it is not CLASS AT WORK, SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, PIRACICABA. inappropriate, as the river abounds in fish of the most delicate flavor. The population of the municipality is about thirty-five thousand; the city has many beautiful parks and pragas, churches, schools and hospitals. It is situated on the main line of the Sao Paulo railway and has daily communication with the capital and the port of Santos. It is the home of some of Brazil’s most distinguished men, and was the birthplace of the first civil president of Brazil, Dr. José Prudente de Moraes. Near Piracicaba the plantation and factory of Monte Alegre are situated. Both sugar and aguardente are manufactured from the product of the fazenda. The newly awakened interest in sugar culture has been practically demonstrated by the establishment of engenhos in various sections within the past few years. One 238 DHERNEVV SB ied 21. of the most important of these enterprises is the London Engenho, the property of Dr. Henrique Dumont, which is located on the left margin of the Rio Pardo, about fifteen A PINEAPPLE PLANTATION IN THE STATE OF SAO PAULO. miles from the station of Santos Dumont on the Mogyana railway. The sugar produced in this section is of an excellent quality, some of the lower and more fertile fields growing cane ten feet in height. Three thousand acres are planted in sugar cane on the London fazenda, the greater part of which is newly cleared land. About thirty thousand tons were harvested last year. A large quantity of aguardente is made in the London factory, and this product, as well as the sugar, is sold direct to consumers by the travelling agents of the establishment. The sugar factory of Funil, which is one of the most recent acquisitions to the industry, was established in 1905, and has already contributed largely to the sugar statistics of Sado Paulo. The fazenda of Funil is situated a few miles distant from Campinas, in the central part of the State; it covers nearly twice as much territory as the Piracicaba fazendas, and is the most extensive in southern Brazil, comprising about twenty-five thousand acres. Senores Nogueira, the proprietors of this enterprise, are making patriotic efforts to encourage the culture of sugar by offering large premiums in money for the delivery of quantities greater than five hundred tons of cane, to be treated in their engenho, the prize for five thousand tons being 4ooo milreis, equivalent to about thirteen hundred dollars gold. Their sugar factory is constructed according to the best modern ideas, and fitted up with the newest models of machinery, all of which is served by electric motive force, generated by means of a turbine wheel, which a neighboring cascade keeps in motion. Not all of their vast AGRICULTURE AND COLONIZATION IN SAO PAULO 239 fazenda is yet planted, but the work is progressing satisfactorily on what promises to be one of the most productive sugar plantations of the State. Prosperous sugar plantations are established at Cachoeira, near the station of Restinga; also at Freitas, near Araraquara, and at Pimentel, in the jurisdiction of Jaboticabal, near the station of Graminha. The engenho of Pimentel was founded in 1903, and within the first year one thousand two hundred tons of sugar cane were treated. The lands are fertile and produce excellent sugar and a good quality of aguardente. In Sertaosinho, Jardinopolis, Santa Barbara and Villa Americana, sugar plantations are annually producing an increasing amount. Several important sugar fazendas and mills are owned by the French syndicate already referred to. In Villa Raffard, at Capivary, a few miles to the southeast of Piracicaba, one of the companies belonging to this syndicate owns three fazendas and operates a sugar mill with a capacity for seven thousand tons per month. Neighboring fazendas of Itapéva supply some of the cane for this fac- tory, which has a line of rail- way six miles long from the Itapéva fazendas to the en- genho, and another of about equal length to traverse its own fields, to collect the cane. The same French syndicate is represented in a company which owns sugar lands and mills at Porto Feliz on the Tieté River, south of Capivary, as well as in another company, the proprietors of the engenho of Lorena, near the town of the same name, within a few miles of the border between the States of Sdo Paulo and Rio, and on the line of the Cen- tral railway. From the train an excellent view may be had of the fazendas of Lorena, which occupy a beautiful site on the margin of the Parahyba River at an altitude of one thousand six hundred feet above the sea level, covering A MANGO ORCHARD ON THE SCHMIDT FAZENDA AT RIBEIRAO PRETO, STATE OF SAO PAULO. 240 THE NEW BRAZIL about five thousand acres of fertile land. The capacity of the engenho is equal to the manufacture of forty thousand sacks of sugar each season, which would correspond to a production of thirty thousand tons of cane, though the har- vest so far has not exceeded half that amount. Throughout the State there are twelve central sugar fac- tories and large distilleries; two hundred sugar mills in connec- tion with important fazendas; and two thousand small fac- tories and distilleries. The government, through the pro- gressive energy of the Minis- GRAPE CULTURE IN THE SCHOOL OF AGRONOMICS, CAMPINAS. ter of Agriculture, Dr. Carlos Botelho, keeps minutely in- formed regarding the conditions which prevail in agricultural districts; and whenever an opportunity occurs to introduce something of benefit to the farmer, it is made the subject of especial investigation. Just at present, the new preparation, Molascuit, which is made from the husks and molasses of the cane, after extracting the sugar, and which is recommended as a food for cattle, is being tested on several fazendas, at the suggestion of the agricultural department, pamphlets on the subject having been distributed to all the sugar growers. The advantages that Sao Paulo offers for the cultivation of sugar are unsurpassed. First of all, the climate is more healthful and invigorating than in other sugar growing regions, such as Guiana, with its pestilential marshes, Java with its miry bogs, and even the banks of the lower Mississippi, where malaria reigns. Sado Paulo’s sugar lands are also free from inundations, cyclones, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes, which in some countries transform a prosper- ous sugar estate into a waste place without warning. A soil especially suited to the culture RICE GROWING ON A SAO PAULO PLANTATION. makes the return for labor satis- factory and not too dearly earned; and, finally, the increasing local demand furnishes a home market for the product, which offers an excellent opportunity to the enterprising planter. AGRICULTURE AND COLONIZATION IN SAO PAULO 241 Cotton culture, which is now receiving more attention than it has had for many years, was at one time in such a flourishing condition, from 1866 to 1876, that not only did the product supply the home demand, but from seven million to eight million kilograms were exported annually. The decadence of the industry was chiefly owing to the emancipation of the slaves, imported labor proving insufficient and unsatisfactory in the cotton field, where no workmen have proved so useful as the negroes. At present the production of cotton in the State is hardly enough to supply the well-developed weaving industry. Within the past eight years, however, a new impetus has been given to cotton culture, chiefly through the efforts of the government, and the present annual harvest of the product is twelve million kilograms, or nearly double what it was in 1900. The centre of cotton production is situated in the Sorocabana district, west of Sdo Paulo, though cotton grows with little cultivation in various sections of the State. The town of Sorocaba occupies a very advantageous locality on the summit of a hill, from which the whole country around for several miles is in plain view. A short dis- tance from the town the picturesque waterfall of the Sorocaba River adds attractiveness to a landscape of sin- gular beauty. Not only is this city the centre of the cotton growing in- dustry, and of large factories, such as the Sta. Rozalia, and others, but it is also noted for its vineyards, for the quality and quantity of its cereals, for its excellent pasturage, and for the valuable iron mines in the vicinity, A WATERFALL NEAR BROTAS, SAO PAULO. Where the foundry of Ypanema is located. A few leagues distant from Sorocaba lies the town of Itapetininga, also in the “cotton belt,’ and like Sorocaba, noted also for its splendid. pasturage, and its mineral production, as gold mines exist in this neighborhood. Many textiles besides cotton grow in the State. Aramina is cultivated on a large scale, and is used in the manufacture of coarse goods for bags, twine, carpeting, etc., for which it is better suited than hemp. A new fibre, called Canhamo Brasileiro Perini, is attracting a great deal of attention among agriculturists. It was discovered by Dr. V. A. Perini, of Campinas, while engaged in botanical work in the northern part of Minas Geraes, where he came upon it at an altitude of about three thousand five hundred feet above sea-level. According to the best authorities, the plant is unlike any specimen hitherto classified in botany. It will undoubtedly furnish a new hemp industry of great importance. The culture of tobacco promises to be one of the important sources of revenue of Sao Paulo when immigration brings to the State a sufficient number of colonists to develop the 242 TAEINE VS BRAZIL extensive lands which are particularly suitable to the growth of this product. At present the most prosperous tobacco plantations are situated in the valley of the Parahyba and in the municipalities of Santa Branca, Parahybuna, and Sdo Luis de Parahytinga. Small quantities of tobacco are raised in other sections, about fifty municipalities counting it as one of their products. About twelve million kilograms are harvested annually, hardly enough to supply the market of the State. The rice fields of Sao Paulo are growing in number and importance every year, as the adaptability of the soil for the development of this industry is being better realized. Not only does rice grow in prolific abundance in the southern part of the coast region, principally along the course of the Ribeira de Iguape, but it thrives well in the western coffee districts, especially those of Jahu, Santa Rita and Pitangueiras. About fifty million litres of rice are harvested annually, but this does not represent a tithe of the amount which could be produced if colonists were settled in the fertile and untilled valleys of the far west, to cultivate this product, for which the soil and climate are so perfectly adapted. In consideration of the extraordinary results which have been obtained in the United States by the employment of flooding or irrigation as a means of rice culture, the government of the State of Sao Paulo has engaged an expert in this method, Mr. Welman Bradford, who has been placed in charge of an experimental station situated at Pindamonhangaba, in the valley of the Parahyba River. In addition to this station, others are being established with a view to giving general demonstration of the best methods of rice growing. Cereals, such as corn and wheat, are grown all over the State, and the fruits of this zone yield an enormous harvest. Pineapple plantations are a familiar sight, and present an attractive picture at harvest time, when great fields of the luscious fruit are ready for the pickers. The mango trees, wonderful in size and of thick, glossy foliage, bear large quanti- ties of this fibrous, yellow fruit. The mango depends greatly for its flavor as well as size upon the cultivation it receives; and on some of the fruit farms of western Sado Paulo, as on the plantation of Colonel Francisco Schmidt, at Ribeiraéo Preto, especial care is given to this fruit, the trees being powdered with insecticide to keep them free from attack. At Villa Americana, near Piracicaba, where a colony of North Americans from the southern part of the United States is settled, the culture of watermelons is a prosperous industry, the fruit POWDERING MANGO TREES WITH INSECTICIDE. AGRICULTURE AND COLONIZATION IN SAO PAULO 243 growing to splendid size, and having a delicious flavor. The silkworm industry thrives in the State, but the market is limited. Experiments have proved that the soil and climate of Sao Paulo are well suited to grape culture and to the production of a superior quality of wine. For about twenty years, efforts have been made to secure satisfactory results in viticulture, and very gratifying success has been achieved in this enterprise by Dr. Nicolau Vergueiro of Sorocaba, who makes excellent wine from the American grapes “Black July” and “Norton Virginia,” as well as by Dr. Luiz Pereira Barretto, who has produced a vine especially adapted to the climatic conditions of the State, resisting all the vine diseases. The production of chocolate, which should be one of the most prosperous industries of the State is beginning to gain ground, as well as the culture of the manigoba rubber tree, which grows rapidly and produces a good latex in the humid soil of the Iguape valley. The general activity, hopefulness, expansion, and the disposition toward improvement, which mark the Sao Paulo agriculturist of to-day are to be traced directly to the constant and unremitting purpose of the government, as interpreted by the department of agriculture, which by all possible efforts seeks to stimulate the desire for better agricultural conditions, oreater development, and more satisfactory results for capital and labor invested. Especially has the present Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. Carlos Botelho, worked with zeal and efficiency to reorganize the agricultural system of the State and to establish it on a foundation of modern enterprise and endeavor. In every branch of his department, which supervises CUTTING SUGAR CANE, SAO PAULO. not only all matters relating to agriculture but also the commerce, railways and public works of the State, Dr. Botelho has accomplished important improvements, introducing 244 THE NEW BRAZIL measures for the benefit of the State, and with equal solicitude for all its inhabitants, whether they be of native or foreign birth. It is the high and noble aim of the government WATERMELONS READY FOR SHIPMENT AT THE AMERICAN VILLAGE, SAO PAULO. to make the State of Sdo Paulo a happy home for its people in everything which that beautiful expression implies, a home of peace and plenty for all who place themselves under its protection. Of the great work which Dr. Carlos Botelho has done and is doing, the complete results can only be appreciated in the course of time. But the influence of his progressive spirit is seen every day. With the determination to bring about desirable improvements, he has secured a reduction of the railway tariff on sugar cane destined to the sugar indus- tries, on cotton, and on agricultural machines and implements; he has inaugurated agricul- tural fairs to encourage competition; he has increased the distribution of seeds and plants, and has scattered broadcast among the farmers books and pamphlets of agricultural propaganda; he has prepared, for the first time in the history of the State, complete agricul- tural and zoétechnic statistics; he has organized, with the pecuniary aid of the State, a stud farm for the importation and breeding of pedigree animals; and through his initiative a scientific commission was recently sent to explore the unknown regions of the western part of the State, the result of whose efforts is the final erasure from the map of the vast “unexplored territory;” no land of the State remains any longer in that category. The question of agricultural training has received Dr. Botelho’s especial attention, and under his supervision the existing agricultural schools have been reorganized and new ones AGRICULTURE AND COLONIZATION IN SAO PAULO 245 established. If he had accomplished no other work, this alone should suffice to make his administration memorable, of such great importance is it to the State’s industrial welfare. The Agricultural College, called the Escola Agricola Practica “Luiz de Queiroz,” and the “Fazenda Modelo” or Model Farm of the State of Sdo Paulo, were organized by Dr. Tibiriga, when Secretary of Agriculture, for the purpose of giving to the farming com- munity both theoretical and practical instruction in agriculture. They are situated at Piracicaba, at the head of navigation on the Piracicaba_ River, about one hundred and fifty miles northwest of the city of Sado Paulo. The college is the largest and best : . 3 5 : es GLIMPSE OF A SAO PAULO FOREST, SHOWING TREES equipped institution of its kind in ENTWINED. WITH LIANAS: South America, and furnishes a com- plete course in the agricultural sciences, while the students receive instruction in farm practice on the large and well tilled fazenda connected with it. The college already has an average attendance of one hundred students; and the staff consists of nine professors and instructors. Located in a commodious and spacious building on the outskirts of the city, the college is an edifice of recent construction, equipped, at considerable cost, with all the re- quirements of a modern agricultural institution, and surrounded by a large and beautiful park, with orchards and kitchen garden in the rear. The main college building measures three hun- dred and fifty feet by one hundred and twenty, and is two stories in height. The ceilings are lofty and the rooms admirably lighted and ventilated. The Fazenda Modelo covers an area of eight hundred acres, of which about two hun- dred acres are in cultivation, the remainder being in permanent pasture and second growth timber. The principal crops are corn, rice, beans, sugar cane, and cotton, and splendid yields are harvested. A small plantation of ten thousand coffee trees has been planted on newly OFFICE OF COLONIZATION, SAO PAULO. 246 LOEB SNES EB RAZIL cleared ground. Among other field crops that are grown on quite an extensive scale are: mandioca, or cassava, Irish and sweet potatoes, arrowroot, oats, Canada field peas, sorghum, alfalfa, broom-corn, and peanuts. About fifty men are employed on the fazenda, as it is the desire to get much of the land into cultivation at once and to avoid the growth of shrubs and bushes, which spring up rapidly if the soil remains untilled. The Fazenda Modelo is equipped with modern farm implements, the demand for which is constantly becoming more general among Sado Paulo farmers. A large number of plot experiments are being carried on to test the value of new plant introductions, improved cultural methods, and the use of special fertilizers in the production of certain crops. In the truck garden all the common vegetables are grown, except the tomato, which is attacked by something like the wilt disease, now causing so much damage to the plant in some parts of North America. This does not apply to the small yellow and red plum tomatoes, which grow wild and are exempt from attack, a fact suggesting the possibilities of science to produce a new and resistant variety. In the dry winter season the hardy vegetables, such as cabbage, cauli- flower, onions, beets, carrots, and garden peas grow in abundance, and the fazenda is demonstrating the value of irrigation during the dry season to produce green vegetables the year round. Tropical and sub-tropical fruits, such as oranges, lemons, mangoes, mamo6es (tree melons), and pineapples are either planted in permanent orchards of the fazenda or are waiting their turn in the nursery rows. A vineyard of five hundred vines is bearing a fine quality of grapes, and efforts are being made to grow the apples, pears, peaches, and cherries of colder climates. Strawberries yield well, and are in season about three months. Most of the live stock of the Fazenda Modelo is of native origin, and is being improved by the importation of pure bred stock from Europe, the government of the State giving particular attention to the development of the best possible breeds of horses, cattle and Sheep, which are desirable to stock its immense pasture lands, eventually to enter into competition in the best markets of the world. At present, the live stock of the Fazenda averages about seventy-five head, some of them imported and unacclimated animals, the healthfulness of the country for their breeding being shown by the fact that during the past two years only one has died. The Fazenda has ample tool houses, corn-cribs, and com- plete milling machinery, such as cotton-gin, etc. The Fazenda Modelo, which is annexed to the Escola Agricola, is under the direction of Mr. J. William Hart, an experienced agricul- turist from the United States, through whose courtesy much valuable information was obtained for the purposes of this chapter. Both the Escola Agricola and the Fazenda Modelo are liberally supported by the State government, the grant for the year 1907 being equivalent to twenty-five thousand dollars gold to each institution for running expenses. This is in addition to the large sums which are being spent in building and furnishing, and in acquisitions that are paid for out of other government funds. The purpose of the college, as explained in the government decree for its reorganization, which was issued February 18, 1905, is to spread among the youth AGRICULTURE AND COLONIZATION IN SAO PAULO 247 of the farming communities scientific ideas and practical knowledge regarding agricultural in- dustries. The general curriculum of the college is divided into four courses: the elementary, which prepares pupils for ordinary farm work; the intermediate, which gives the instruction HOTEL FOR IMMIGRANTS, SAO PAULO. necessary for farm managers; the superior course, for administrators of estates, industrial agents, professors of agriculture, etc.; and the course of recapitulation, after which the pupil is graduated with an understanding of the whole realm of agriculture, as an industry, an art and a science. The applicant for admission to the elementary course must be at least sixteen years of age, must know how to read, write and calculate, and must pay a matricu- lation tax of fifty milreis. For the higher courses additional educational requirements are imposed. Among the important features of this institution are the excursions made by the pupils in company with the teachers, during the vacation, to various agricultural establish- ments, factories, engenhos, etc., in order to study their methods and to profit by the suggestions made for greater improvement. Last year, classes visited the Piracicaba sugar mills and the immense coffee fazendas of Ribeirao Preto. In addition to the agricultural college, the government has also established, as agricul- tural schools for apprentices, the Aprendizado Agricola “Dr. Bernardino de Campos,” in 248 THE@NEV) BRAZIL Iguape, and the Aprendizado Agricola “Jodo Tibiriga” in Sado Sebastido, in the coast district. At Cubatado, the Horto Agrario Tropical, a tropical garden, has been established, in which agricultural education relating exclusively to the tropical zone of the coast region is taught. Here the culture of cacao, for the manufacture of chocolate, is receiving espe- cial attention. The Instituto Agronomico of Campinas renders invaluable service to the State by the experiments made in all branches of agriculture; in its laboratories are studied all the various evils which attack the plantations, such as insects, etc., with a view to their eradication; and the perfection of agriculture in all its branches is made a constant object. The Institute occupies an ideal situation, and presents the attractive aspect of a model farm. Believing firmly in the advantages of State fairs as a means of encour- aging the farmer, Dr. Botelho has devoted considerable attention to these exhibitions, and live stock shows have been held at Campinas, Pindamonhangaba, Sao Carlos do Pinhal, Itapetininga, and Batataes; a cotton exhibition recently opened at Campinas was A CHEERFUL GROUP OF IMMIGRANTS, SAO PAULO. a great success; anda central zootechnic exhibition, held at the Mooga, in the State capital, attracted many visitors. While every effort which progressive energy and enterprise can accomplish is being put forth to improve the agricultural conditions of Sado Paulo by instruction and encouragement, AGRICULTURE AND COLONIZATION IN SAO PAULO 249 the question of increasing the population by immigration is receiving the attention its importance demands. Lands have been set apart for the colonists who are constantly arriving, and who will add to the development and prosperity of the State by helping to cultivate those products which are the richest sources of revenue in the more settled parts of the State, as well as to open up new regions in the remote interior. During the first six months of Dr. Carlos Botelho’s administration as Secretary of Agriculture, seven thousand immigrants were given homes in the most healthful zone of the State and provided with the means to earn a livelihood. Since then, about fifty thou- sand immigrants have arrived. A feature of the immigration which is producing good results is the government’s arrangement A COLONIST’S HOUSE, STATE OF SAO PAULO. by which colonists living in Sao Paulo can bring out their relatives free of cost, thus insuring a desirable class of colonists. In order to be prepared for the accommodation of large numbers of immigrants the government has founded the agricultural centres of “Nova Odessa” and “Jorge Tibiricga,” both of which are situated on the line of, the Paulista railway, and offer favorable opportuni- ties to colonists, not only by their locality and the excellent quality of the land, but by the liberal arrangements provided. Another agricultural centre, the “Campos-Salles,” has been enlarged and the railway extended to reach it. In Nova Odessa, one hundred and twenty- five acres of the land are reserved for a demonstration field to be maintained by the government; one hundred and twenty-five acres more are reserved for the municipal offices and schools; and the remainder is divided into lots of sixty-five acres, maximum, at prices varying from sixteen to twenty-four milreis ($5.50 to $8.00) per acre, according to area, situation and quality of lands. One-fifth of the price is payable when the colonist receives the provisional title, the second payment is made the second year, and a payment follows annually until the final settlement, in the fifth payment, after which the colonist receives the deed of full possession. The government provides lodging gratis, until the colonist can construct a dwelling, (the time not to exceed one year), and facilitates the building of his house, as well as the securing of machinery, horses and all necessaries. Colonies similar to that of Nova Odessa have been founded at Piaguhy, Sabatna, Sao Bernardo, and other places. More than two thousand two hundred acres of State land have been marked out for colonization in the coast district, northeast of Santos, and work has been begun on a colonist centre to be established near Sado Sebastido. More than fifteen thousand acres in the central part of the State have been obtained by purchase and gift from Counsellor Gaviéo Peixoto, on which three new colonist settlements have 250 THE NEW BRAZIL been founded, Nova Europa, Nova Paulicéa, and Gaviado Peixoto, all of which will be traversed by the extension of the Dourado railway from Boa Esperanga, beyond Sao Carlos. Near Ubatuba, north of Sao Sebastiao, on the coast, a colony is to be established on a site recently ceded to the government, called Conde do Pinhal. An official agency of Colonization and Labor has been established by the government to facilitate the locating of immigrants and to look after their interests in their newly adopted land. Through its efforts four thousand families have been introduced, and two hundred Settled in colonies, in addition to about one hundred single men. During the harvest one thousand were drafted onto plantations. Besides this agency the government maintains an Inspecting Board at the port of Santos and a Board of Lands, Colonization and Immi- gration, whose duty it is to attend to all the special details of this service. The Hospedaria de Immigrantes, or Immigrants Hotel, is also maintained by the gov- ernment. An agent of the Inspector of Lands and Colonization, who speaks the language of the immigrants, receives them as they land, extending, in the name of the government, the hospitality of the State, while another official directs them to their temporary lodgings and explains the rules of the establishment. The history of immigration in S4o Paulo began during the time of the Empire, when Count de Parnahyba was president of the province. He was a statesman of great ability and recognized the importance of bringing in foreign colonists to help to develop the vast resources of this rich territory. The Hospedaria de Immigrantes was built during his administration, and many colonies were established which are to-day among the most flourishing communities of the State. Whatever tends to invite capital and labor and thus to increase the means of developing any territory of Brazil is to be regarded with favor; for growth and prosperity can come only through the energetic work of many hands, united in ambitious and hopeful endeavor. FIRST GLIMPSE OF THEIR ADOPTED LAND. » @ os CAL TRE TIBRARY ¥ esr itty UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Lon” oe Sr : f se ‘ > a ' Pi ‘ =~ oe | - = Ie gure hal ° » ani bi) i" ‘ é iy) : a4 7 . « * i eat 3 ial a ’ De > , i AT ® a PY de a, 7 ad hs é KS 7 a ‘ i : r ‘ . * + i ¢ e. ve : . . ‘ . F te 4 =e 4 + '- | * Pai p: ‘ ha. \e i & ‘ Ae Fi, . ean * as is - 4 e P ‘ ' 1 " ’ : ‘ a { - piace : ' v4 5 re rys p 7 i} . Md ah eS v' . ars : re he » Phe a (@f on = ary as ; ; rd , las 7 1S Tee ates : + Tha ay as ¢. me 0 been Le alee ny aed PY 2 * ,Y a : Ain , i \ Fi 2 Pe ‘ : A Tobby 9 © yar ! 19 a ate f ; ra : 5 “~ - 7 "1 7 ae id! ® ine | Ape ay | ae 1) ae S (abe ? ‘O1NVd OYS ‘VUVNOVAVAV LV dOYND AdsSdOO SHL ONILSAAYUVH CHAPTER XIV GOELEE Fegan than mines of gold and silver are the dark red stretches of the ferra roxa of Brazil, which occur at intervals throughout the country from Ceara southward to Santa Catharina, and mark the locality of the most valuable coffee fields in the world. Of the entire harvest of coffee for 1906, amounting to sixteen million one hundred and twenty-five thousand bags, Brazil produced thirteen million one hundred and twenty-five thou- sand bags, or more than three-fourths of the total. The centre of this vast coffee growing re- gion lies in the State of Sao Paulo, which is richer in coffee lands than all other countries put together, yielding annually ten million bags, from plantations which represent less than half of the actual area under cultivation. in the State for the production of coffee. Nearly seven hundred million coffee trees of all ages adorn the sunny hillsides of central Sao Paulo, extending from the Parahyba valley in the southeast to the border of the State of Minas in the north; and the plantations are reaching farther and farther westward as the railroads push their lines to the remote limits. Imagination can picture no more beautiful sight than that which is presented by a vast plantation of coffee trees, seen from an eminence on the approach to one of the great fazendas. Like a sea of green, the surface rippling in the breeze, each wave defined by the regular spacing of the trees, the great panorama spreads out on all sides, till it seems to touch the blue sky at the horizon, or, nearer, to bathe in its verdure the base of distant mountains. A visit to the immense fazendas of Monte Alegre, at Ribeirdo Preto, which are owned by 253 A COFFEE TREE AT HARVEST TIME. 254 THEGNEW BRAZIL the “coffee king” of Sao Paulo, Colonel Francisco Schmidt, not only impresses one by the picturesque charm of a sight that is unique in landscapes, but gives an idea of the vast importance of so great an enterprise. Francisco Schmidt came to Sao Paulo as a colonist, and is very proud of the success which he has achieved in his adopted land, as the architect of his own fortunes. Mr. Schmidt has seven million five hundred and twenty-eight thou- sand coffee trees on his fazendas, which extend over twelve thousand alquieres of land; large paved terraces, covering thousands of square feet, are equipped with modern arrange- ments for drying and shipping the coffee, sixteen machines being in use for the various processes. Nearly a thousand horses and mules are employed in working the plantations, and about two thousand head of cattle belong to the estate. The colonists who cultivate the fazendas are provided with houses, and appear to be well contented and prosperous. They number eight thousand or more, and constitute quite an important community. On each plantation a free school is kept open during the summer, and the children of the colonists are obliged to attend; during harvest time, which is in winter, the school is closed. There are other schools open all the year round for children who are not employed. This enormous property is not devoted to coffee culture only, but is divided into plantations for various agricultural products. As elsewhere stated, one of the most important sugar factories of the State is located here. Another large coffee estate at Ribeirdo Preto belongs to the heirs of the Count de Pinhal, one of the noted men of Sao Paulo, who did much during a long and useful life to promote the industrial interests of his native State. On the fazendas of this estate about two million coffee trees are under cultivation, the annual production amounting to about sixty thousand bags, each bag weighing sixty kilograms. The area planted in trees is ten thou- sand acres; the whole property is traversed by a railway, and the various establishments are lighted with electricity. Four thousand colonists work on the fazendas of the company, the annual expenses of which amount to about a quarter of a million dollars gold. The great “Dumont” fazenda, which belongs to a wealthy English syndicate, contains more than a hundred thousand acres of the best lands in the State of Sao Paulo, and has six million coffee trees under cultivation. The profits of this enormous enterprise exceed the sum of seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars in gold annually. The plantation has its own private railway connecting with the main line sixteen miles away. It gives support to more than a thousand families. The Palmeiras fazenda contains more than three hundred thou- sand acres, comprising a territory forty miles long by thirty miles wide. The vast planta- tions at Araraquara are among the richest in Sao Paulo, the northern central region of the State vying with the older coffee districts near the capital in the abundance and quality of their harvests. No other country shows such vast areas planted in coffee as does Sado Paulo, and in no other country is the production of coffee per acre equal to that yielded by the wonderful farms of this State. Even those plantations which do not cover an enormous extent, are important because of the prolific abundance of their harvests. The beautiful fazenda of COFFEE 255 = Santa Cruz, which is situated in the municipality of Araras, about six hours’ journey by railway from the capital of the State, comprises two thousand acres of rich land, planted in FOREIGN VISITORS ENJOYING THE NOVELTY OF PICKING COFFEE. a half a million coffee trees, the last harvest of which yielded twenty thousand bags. Secretary Elihu Root visited this fazenda, in company with Dr. Antonio Prado, Dr. Carlos Botelho and others, during his stay in Sdo Paulo in 1906 and had the pleasure of seeing a modern fazenda in harvest time and of “picking coffee.” The estate is one of the most prosperous in the State. In the midst of a tropical park stands a typical Brazilian country house of modern style, from the verandahs of which may be seen a picturesque lake, partly encircled by a plantation of gigantic bamboos. Not far away extends a forest of almost impenetrable depth, in which Brazilian vegetation runs riot in all its luxuriance, from the minute palms to the gigantic Jequitiba. This estate is the property of Senhora Donna Anesia da Silva Prado e Chaves. Many of the coffee estates present attractive features aside from their commercial importance, and most of them have associations that lend the charm of sentiment to their surroundings and history. Near the town of Campinas the fazenda of Baron Geraldo de Rezende, with half a million coffee trees adorning its fertile hillsides, presents an aesthetic aspect in its magnificent “casa” and gardens, inviting envy by the wonderful collection of rare orchids and the eight hundred different varieties of roses that bloom in its flower beds. 256 THE GNEVCeBRAZIE Campinas is one of the oldest and most prosperous cities of the State, and has a population of forty-five thousand. It is beautifully situated on the Paulista railway, about eighty miles from the capital. Its schools are among the best in the State and it has a large and beautiful cathedral and many churches, as well as hospitals and other charitable institutions. It is lighted with electricity, is well paved and has a good sanitarium, and is noted as the birthplace of the composer Carlos Gomes, and of ex-president Campos-Salles. The broad acres of the Prado estate as well as other plantations possess an especial interest through their intimate relation to the dramatic scenes of abolition days; for when the famous decree of emancipation was put into effect, in 1888, there were whole sections where planters were already paying wages for the labor on their farms. Since the emancipation of the slaves, Italian laborers have been employed in large num- bers on the coffee fazendas, and, as a rule, they give perfect satisfaction, readily acquiring the language and finding the climate altogether agreeable. The demand for labor is always greater than the supply, but the constant efforts which are made to increase immigration and to colonize the coffee and other agricultural districts of the States are rapidly bearing fruit, and increasing numbers of foreign laborers find their way to the fazendas every year. Next to Ribeirao Preto and Campinas, which produce more coffee than any other municipalities of the State, Sao Carlos and Amparo rank as the richest coffee growing A TYPICAL COFFEE FAZENDA, SHOWING MILLIONS OF TREES. centres. Sao Carlos do Pinhal, as it is called, is situated on the Rio Claro section of the Paulista railway in the northern central district. It has been a municipality since 1865, and now has a population of fifteen thousand within the city limits, and of sixty thousand in CORTE 257 the municipality. Amparo is a progressive city of twenty thousand inhabitants, situated one hundred miles north of the city of Sao Paulo, on the Mogyana railway, and in the midst of very picturesque scenery. The municipality is rich and prosperous, more than three hundred and fifty thousand sacks of coffee being annually harvested on its fazendas. Among the impor- tant northern fazendas is that of Sao Martinho, a few leagues south of Ribeirdo Preto, and on the line of the Paulista railway. About fourteen thousand alquieres be- long to the proprietors, Senhora Donna Veridi- anow.brado, and “sons, and of this, one thousand A FAMILIAR SCENE ON A COFFEE PLANTATION. three hundred alquieres ; are planted in coffee trees, of which there are two million three hundred thousand in culti- vation, producing an average of fifty-eight thousand sacks of coffee, at a cost of three dollars, gold, each sack. During harvest about two thousand employees are engaged in the work of the fazenda, the proprietors providing four hundred houses for the colonists, who are also given the advantage of schools and churches, and of free medical attendance and drugs. The machinery for the drying and hulling of the coffee is modern and complete, and is capable of preparing five hundred sacks in twelve hours. In addition to coffee culture, cattle raising is an important industry of the fazenda. Batataes, Descalvado, Sertaosinho, Jahu, Santa Rita, So Simao, Cravinhos, Jaboticabal, all situated in the northern half of the State, are among the richest coffee producing centres of the country. They are all thriving towns, having good schools, churches, hospitals and other public buildings, and well constructed dwellings. The municipality of Sd4o Manoel, which, with the neighboring town of Botucatu, represents a large and enormously valuable coffee producing territory, founded within the past twenty-five years, has made remarkable progress, and is to-day one of the most advanced of the far western towns. Its schools and churches are commo- dious buildings, the streets are paved, and with the new railway line of the Sorocabana passing through the town, easy communication is assured with the capital. Although the coffee district of the Parahyba River does not represent such abundant wealth as that of the more recently developed plantations of the northern part of the State, yet rich harvests are gathered on the fazendas of Taubaté, Pindamonhangaba, Guaratingueta, 258 THE NEW BRAZIL and other places in this vicinity. The historic old city of Taubaté,—which has recently come into renown in consequence of the convention held there to arrange the project for the valorization of coffee,—has been exporting this product for more than half a century, having been one of the first towns of the State to promote its culture. During colonial days Taubaté was a very important settlement and its people played a prominent part in the history of early Paulista explorations and conquests. To-day it is a city of thirty thousand inhabitants, with broad streets, well paved, with handsome public buildings, a splendid system of waterworks, street cars, gasworks for the city lighting, etc. From beginnings so small as to seem utterly insignificant, the coffee culture of Brazil, and especially of Sdo Paulo, has grown to eclipse all competition, being sufficient now to meet the demand of the whole world, which, within less than two centuries, has increased from a single wagon load to about forty thousand car loads. Although of comparatively recent fame, the history of this now universal beverage is very ancient, Abyssinia and Ethiopia DRYING COFFEE. having used it as a medicine apparently from time immemorial, introducing it into Persia during the ninth century and into Arabia about the beginning of the fifteenth century. The Arabians seem to have been the first to drink coffee as a beverage, their writers of the end of the fifteenth century referring to it as a popular refreshment among the brain-workers in COPEEE 259 the city of Aden. From the Orient it gradually became known elsewhere, being offered for sale in Constantinople in 1554, and in Germany in 1582. About the middle of the seventeenth century the first coffee house was opened in England, and by the middle of the eighteenth century the culture of coffee was making good progress in America, having been begun first at Martinique, in the West Indies; a few years later at Para, Brazil; and after- ward in Rio, Sao Paulo, and other southern States of this country. The history of coffee ex- port from Brazil begins in 1817 with the shipment of about sixty thousand bags, though two bags are said to have been sent to a foreign market as early as the first year of the nine- teenth century. The rapid de- cline of coffee planting in the West Indies and its failure in Ceylon and other parts of the East leave Brazil with few strong competitors, and open up possibilities there for the for- elgn investor which can hardly be offered elsewhere. To the ambitious farmer the opportu- nity is worth consideration. It is Said that a small coffee or- A STREET IN CAMPINAS, THE CENTRE OF A RICH COFFEE chard of from five thousand to eR ee ee ten thousand trees may be made to yield a splendid income by the cultivation of other crops at the same time, not interfering with the success of the principal product. Under proper management coffee can be produced, as has been proved by some of the large companies that have investments in Brazil, at a greater profit than the western American farmer realizes on his corn at thirty cents, or his wheat at eighty cents a bushel. It is a singular fact that, while North American capital has been looking up the coffee in the Far East, Englishmen and Germans have invested in Brazil with eminently satisfactory results. The epicure who sips his café noir with critical fastidiousness can hardly imagine or appreciate the care and delicacy of treatment which are necessary to bring about perfect results, from the time the little seed is planted in the red soil of sunny southern hillsides to 260 DHEGNEIV DRA LIES, the important moment when the delicious beverage is served up to his cultivated palate in a style according to the highest traditions of the caterer’s art. Perhaps it would give zest to enjoyment if he could call up in imagination the graceful little green coffee trees nodding to the sway of soft breezes under the sapphire skies of their native land; the picture of peasant groups, with their “homely joys and destiny obscure”; the luxury and extravagance of the rich homes where fazendeiros live like princes; the whir and din of the factory which converts the red berries into the coffee of commerce; the eager mart of traders and shippers, and the busy wharves where great ships wait to carry a precious burden across the seas. Every detail of the evolution of this delicious beverage possesses a distinctive charm. The nature and development of coffee affords material for description worthy of the most gifted pen. First, from the seed-beds where only the choicest beans are planted, the little shoot springs up, rapidly clothing itself with the richest verdure; every month it grows and WEIGHING COFFEE FOR SHIPMENT, IN THE WAREHOUSE AT SANTOS. spreads a little, until it has reached a couple of feet in height, when it is ready to be transplanted and to begin its career as a full-fledged tree. The coffee tree is an evergreen, growing to a height of from five to twenty feet, accord- ing to variety, usually having a single trunk, though in Brazil it is often found growing from Six or seven stalks. The leaves are long, smooth, and dark green in color, the blossoms COFFEE 261 growing in fragrant white bunches in the axils of the branches. The fruit grows in clusters varying from half a dozen to a dozen, and having very short stems or none at all. When ripe, it resembles a medium-sized cranberry. The coffee bean of commerce is the seed of this fruit, every berry having two seeds or beans, shaped like irregular half-spheres, lying imbedded in its yellow, sweetish pulp, with their flat surfaces together so as to form almost LOADING COFFEE AT SANTOS. a perfect sphere, separated only by a thin “parchment skin.” . When the berry is dried, the pulp hardens into a shell or pod. There is seldom a time of the year when blossoms are entirely absent, and sometimes the fruit in all its stages, from the blossom to maturity, is found on the same tree. Coffee may be grown in climates free from frost, where the soil is neither too dry nor too moist, these extremes being fatal to its culture. It is usually planted on the mountain slopes, a thousand feet or more above sea level, but it has been successfully grown also on fertile, flat lands properly drained. The trees begin to bear when from three to five years old. The “Bourbon” variety will produce a good crop the third year, and the “Java,” planted on the same land, will yield a satisfactory crop the fourth year. From the sixth year abundant harvests may be gathered up to the twentieth, after which the yield is less, until the fortieth, or, in some instances, the fiftieth year, when production ceases altogether. The average crop of a healthy tree from five 262 THE NEW BRAZIL to fifteen years old is about four pounds to a tree, though some plantations in favorable years have grown six and even ten pounds to a tree. An idea of the natural advantages which Brazil possesses as a coffee growing country may be gained by comparing these averages with the records of some other coffee countries where the yield is little more than a pound per tree. During the harvest, a coffee plantation is the scene of constant activity. The trees begin to blossom in September, and by April or May the fruit is ripe and ready for the pickers, who present a business-like appearance with their great baskets strapped on their shoulders, apparently eager to enter the arena of competition, where, like “pickers” the world over, they work for reputation, as well as money, the fame of being “the fastest picker in the State” having a charm no less potent to their limited ambition than are the superlatives that attract their fellowmen in higher fields of human endeavor. An honest incentive that lightens labor and offers a happy goal to human effort gives dignity to any toiler, however humble his position. In large plantations, the space necessary for the various processes of treating the coffee from the time itis gathered and taken to the lerreiro until ready for market embraces a surface of several acres, with mills, warehouses, Stables, and machine shops. The employees of the farm and factory include hundreds of families. The larger cafezales have a complete outfit for drying, shelling, and sacking the coffee. Nearly all the processes of preparation seek first the removal of the outer pulp by maceration in water, then the drying of the seeds, and finally the removal of the thin parchment-like skin that still envelops them after the outer pulp has been taken off. By an additional process, the coffee is divided into classes according to form and size, as ‘‘Mocha,” “Martinique,” and other “sorts.” The cafezale of a large fazenda is one of the most interesting establishments imaginable when converted into a hive of industry by the arrival of a harvest of the precious fruit. The first operation to which the berries are sub- mitted is known as pulping, which is done by a machine that consists of a revolving iron cylinder set with teeth and covered on one side by a curved sheet of metal against which it impinges as it turns, the bottom of the cylinder being perforated so that the beans fall through, when free from the pulp, into a canal of flowing water that carries them into the fermenting tanks for the removal of the saccharine matter that must be washed off before they can be dried. There are usually three of these tanks, of which two are receiving cisterns, each large enough to accommodate the greatest possible daily gathering, and the third a cleansing tank, nearly as large as the other two combined; a good sized outlet is provided with a sieve fine enough to retain the beans when the water is drawn off, without becoming clogged with the saccharine scum. After fermentation, the coffee passes into the cleansing tank, where the last trace of the saccharine matter is removed, and the beans are prepared for the drying process. All Brazilian fazendas have drying terraces made of cement, where the coffee is spread out in thin layers so as to have the full benefit of the sun’s heat. Men with rakes are kept constantly busy turning the beans, to hasten the drying, which sometimes requires several weeks. An artificial method is occasionally employed by means of steam heat, but COarEEE 263 it is said that no other process is so satisfactory as the sun’s rays. When the beans are dry the parchment skin is removed by passing them between heavy rollers arranged for the purpose, the chaff being cleared away by a winnowing process. The coffee is afterward separated into different grades, this operation being performed by women and girls, who work at a long table arranged for the pur- pose. Then the coffee is put up in coarse sacks, and sent to the nearest station for shipment to the seaport. Rio de Janeiro and Santos are the principal shipping ports for Brazilian coffee, from which they receive the names “Rio” and “Santos” coffees. In the busy season the warehouses have amively sappeaiaice | dies StrectS7 00 tlie shipping quarter of the seaport are blockaded with wagons loaded with coffee; scores of broad-shouldered carriers hurry back and forth, carrying the sacks on their heads from the wagons to the warehouse, while darting in and out among the wagons are women who scoop up with sieves the beans spilled on the ground in unloading, their little hoard in many cases realizing quite a considerable sum. In the warehouses the coffee is emptied out in great piles, and repacked in bags of : : : : SENHOR DOM FRANCISCO SCHMIDT, THE COFFEE uniform weight, sometimes by machinery, ae cornet nit a though generally by hand, the men employed in this work attaining great dexterity. At the wharves, carriers are busy unloading from the cars to the ships, while policemen patrol the landing to guard against any infringement of the law. Fighting is of rare occurrence, the disposition of the Brazilians, even among the lowest classes, being peaceable and good-natured. The best coffees known to commerce are “Mocha” and “Java,” specified as “mild” coffees. The beans of the Arabian Mocha are small and of a dark yellow color, while those of Java are larger and pale yellow, or brown, the brown Java beans being older and more valuable. Brazilian coffee is divided, commercially, into many grades, the fine grade con- sisting of regular-sized beans, free from hulls or extraneous matters, while the lowest grade is not carefully assorted and may contain broken and defective beans as well as hulls, sticks, and other rubbish, which give it a cheap value in the market. In view of the con- stant effort of the government of Brazil to maintain a high standard of excellence in the culture of coffee, it is discouraging to know that while the true origin of inferior grades is recognized abroad, the best qualities of the Brazilian product are frequently sold as Arabian 264 THES NEVASBRAZIE Mocha, Java, or other Oriental coffees, sometimes even being shipped from Europe to Egypt, and thence to Arabia, for repacking in Mocha fashion, with the result that good Santos coffee, first sold in Brazil at five cents per pound, brings a retail price of forty-five cents a pound in foreign markets, after its transformation into “real Arabian Mocha.” In the raw state in which it is shipped the coffee has little flavor, the caffeine, a peculiar brown oil which gives coffee its characteristic aroma, being developed by the process of roasting. The Brazilians, who understand perfectly the nature of coffee, say that its quality, its flavor and aroma, cannot be enjoyed to the full measure of its possibilities unless it is kept several years before using, always in a perfectly dry atmosphere. Some connois- Seurs maintain that coffee is at its best after being kept eight years in this way. To make a good cup of coffee, the bean should be roasted and ground afresh each time, and never boiled, but reduced to fine powder and compressed in a woollen bag through which hot water is poured, so that a percolation rather than a decoction is the result. Coffee that has been gathered at least two years is used in preference to new coffee. The varied operations through which the coffee passes before it can be said to have “arrived” are altogether in keeping with the character of its destiny,—the important rdle it plays in the progress of human affairs. “Coffee and pistols” has passed into a proverb significant of the close association of this beverage with the supreme moments of life; the “coffee- house” and the “café” have always been famous as the rendezvous of great men and the favorite resort of cabals; the dainty little coffee service in every home is intimately related to the sweetest and bitterest memories of life, and hearts have throbbed with courage or broken in despair under whispered words punctuating the pauses between sips of the divine nectar. In the homes of Brazil, where hospitality finds its sweetest expression, every guest is invited to enjoy a cup of coffee so perfectly prepared as to realize the famous formula of the immortal Talleyrand: “Noir comme le diable, chaud comme l’enfer, pur comme un ange, doux comme l'amour.” AN AVENUE OF COFFEE TREES ON SAO MARTINHO FAZENDA. a 2 Sw us 2 THE SAO PAULO RAILWAY STATION “LUZ,” CITY OF SAO PAULO. CHAPTER XV RAILWAY TRAVEL IN SAO PAULO OT only does Sao Paulo occupy a leading place among the Brazilian States in edu- cation and industrial advancement, but it is also first in railway enterprise, having three thou- sand five hundred miles of railways already built, and two thousand miles of extensions now under construction. From Rio de Janeiro to the city of Sao Paulo the journey by railway is made in ten hours over a branch of the Cen- tral system, which is owned by the Federal government, and is one of the most important lines in the republic. Most travellers who go to Rio, make a trip to Sao Paulo, as it offers not only the enjoyment of magnificent scenery and a glorious climate, but also the opportunity to visit the greatest coffee growing country in the world. Soon after leaving the Federal capital, the train climbs the steep slopes of the Serra do Mar, reaching its heights by a series of tunnels and viaducts which are marvels of engineering skill. The tropical verdure of this beautiful range lends a particular charm to its scenery, clothing its jagged cliffs and precipi- tous gorges in velvety foliage, and giving added beauty to the sparkling streams which thread their way down the green slopes, brightened by the varying hues of gorgeous blossoms. After leaving the Serra do Mar, the route lies along the valley of the Parahyba River, the train crossing the border between the States of Rio and Sado Paulo near the pretty little town of Queluz, which is built on both banks of the river, and is surrounded by thriving plantations of sugar and coffee. It is the custom among Brazilians to take a small cup of black coffee at every station where the train stops long enough to give the opportunity, and nowhere in the world is the delicious beverage better prepared than in this land of its 267 VIEW OF THE CITY AND HARBOR OF SANTOS. 268 THE NEW BRAZIL greatest production. Passing the flourishing cities of Lorena, Guaratingueta, Pindamon- hangaba, Taubaté, Cagapava, Sao José dos Campos, Mogy das Cruzes, and others, the route leads through coffee fazendas, sugar -plantations, rice fields, and vineyards, presenting glimpses of country life that are both attractive and entertaining. Two trains daily each way connect the cities of Rio and Sao Paulo, the mocturnos, or night trains, having through sleeping car service, with modern accommodation. Travellers who go to Sado Paulo via Santos, reach the capital of the State after two hours’ journey from the seaport over the Sao Paulo railway, making the ascent of the Serra do Mar on such a steep grade that an altitude of two thousand six hundred feet is attained within a distance of five miles. The ascent is divided into four inclines of equal length, the trains being pulled up and down by cables, operated by stationary engines. The scenery along this road is unsurpassed in picturesque beauty and grandeur, and in the varied aspects of Nature, produced by a climate which changes within two hours from tropical heat and humidity to the cool, dry atmosphere of the temperate zone. The summit of the Serra is sometimes enshrouded in mist, the effect being indescribably weird, as the train moves apparently in mid-air, offering only an occasional glimpse of the chasm below. This railway is one of the richest in the world, and has at times paid dividends as high as fifty per cent. It extends from Santos to Jundiahy, a distance of one hundred miles, and passes through the city of Sdo Paulo, midway between these two stations. A short branch runs from Campo Limpo, near Jundiahy, to Braganga. The road, which is broad gauge and has four tracks, has recently been greatly improved by the construction of new bridges, tunnels, and viaducts. All the exports of the State are carried over the Sado Paulo railway to the port of Santos, the various lines of the interior connecting with this great artery of traffic either at Jundiahy or at Sao Paulo. The handsome station “Luz” at Sado Paulo is the property of the Sao Paulo Railway Company; it is the largest and most costly railway station in South America, and one of the finest in the world. Excursions to the interior over the various systems of railway which cross the State in all directions are very popular. They are arranged so that it is possible for one to visit the great fazendas and see the industrial progress of the State, while at the same time enjoying the wonders of its scenery and the charm of its glorious climate. The Paulista, Mogyana, and Sorocabana systems, not including a number of smaller lines in the coast dis- trict, form a complete network of railways, crossing the serras, spreading over the plateaux, and stretching westward and northward to the confines of the State, and, in some cases, beyond. The Paulista railway was built by local enterprise, and is one of the most prosperous lines in the State. It extends from Jundiahy northward, and, with its various branches, passes through rich coffee and sugar growing sections. A trip over this route takes one into the heart of the ferra roxa, where the blood-red soil dyes everything its own color. The trees are powdered with its sand, the houses have a rosy tint, and even the children playing in the streets are crimson-clothed by mother earth. At Campinas, thirty miles north of RAILWAY TRAVEL IN SAO PAULO 269 Jundiahy, the railroad passes through vast coffee fazendas, spreading out to the horizon in all directions. From Campinas, two railway systems, the Paulista and the Mogyana, run northward, the Paulista branching out both to the north and the west. Along this route are the flourishing cities of Rio Claro, Ribeirao Bonito, and Brotas, with its picturesque waterfall, its rich pastures, and prosperous coffee fazendas; Jahu at the terminus of one of the most important branches of the line; Sao Carlos, Araraquara, Sao Martinho, Ribeirdosinho, Jaboticabal, and Bebedouro, surrounded by leagues of coffee fazendas, marking the chief stopping points of another section which extends almost to the border of the State of Minas; and Araras, Pirassununga, Descalvado, and Santa Rita, on the main line that runs almost due north, from Campinas through Limeira and Cordeiro to Santa Cruz and Santa Veridiana, through a salubrious and picturesque region, rich in coffee fazendas and sugar - plantations. The Paulista system of railways covers eight hundred miles and transports more than a million tons of freight, annually, chiefly coffee. The Mogyana railway crosses the State from Campinas north to the border of Minas, two branches terminating at the stations of Santa Rita do Paraizo and Jaguara, on the THE NEW VIADUCT ON THE SERRA BETWEEN SAO PAULO AND SANTOS. dividing line between the two States, defined by the course of the Rio Grande. The Mogyana railway is being extended through Minas to the State of Goyaz. The flourishing 270 THE NEW BRAZIL fazendas of Amparo, Mogy-Mirim, Sado Joao de Boda Vista, Casa Branca, Sao José, Mocéca, Sdo Simao, Ribeirao Preto, Batataes, and Franca are situated on this railway. The mileage CABLE ROAD BETWEEN SAO PAULO AND SANTOS. of the Mogyana railway is nearly equal to that of the Paulista, though not entirely within the limits of the State of Sdo Paulo. The scenery along the Mogyana route is often picturesque, the railway crossing many beautiful streams as it winds along the fertile valleys of the Rio Pardo and its tributaries. The great Sorocabana system of railways, consisting of two distinct sections, the Sorocabana and the Ituana, traverses the State from the city of Sao Paulo to the remote western and northern boundaries.. It was founded in 1892 with the object of forming a complete system to connect the interior directly with the port of Santos. The Ituana section extends from Jundiahy to Sao Pedro, through the rich agricultural districts of Itaicy, Capivary, Piracicaba, It@ and Porto Feliz, an intersecting railway joining the Ituana and Sorocabana lines at Itaicy and Mayrink. Mayrink, on the main line, is a pretty little town, and the Sorocabana workshops are located there. The operatives have comfortable homes, RAILWAY TRAVEL IN SAO PAULO 271 and in the neighborhood are thriving farms and gardens, which supply them with an abundance of products. Mayrink is sixty miles west of Sao Paulo, Barra Funda, Sao Jodo, Pinheirinhos and other new stations of the line lying between it and the capital. The scene at Barra Funda, on the outskirts of the city of Sao Paulo is particularly animated while the work of construction continues, the movement of material for the extension of the lines in the west being made chiefly at this point, where the central freight station of the line is located. Itu, on the intersecting line between Itaicy and Mayrink, is a historic old city, famous as the cradle of the Empire, in honor of which Dom Pedro I. bestowed on it the title of “Fidelissima.” Its schools are noted throughout the State, especially the Jesuit College, Sdo Luiz Gonzaga, where many great men of Brazil have been educated. Iti was the birthplace of the Regent Feij6. The waterfalls of the Tieté, which occur in this locality, furnish abundant motive power and several cotton mills and factories have been success- fully established, though the most productive cotton region is farther south, along the main line of the Sorocabana railway. While the Ituana is a regional railway, serving only the traffic of a limited territory, the main line of the Sorocabana forms a great artery of transportation, extending, with its various branches, to the confines of the State. At Itararé, on the Parana border, it connects with the Sao Paulo and Rio Grande system in a vast interstate line of railways through Parana, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul, traversing the entire southern part of the VIEW ON THE SAO PAULO RAILWAY. republic. Toward the northwest the Sorocabana is being extended from Baurt to provide a direct outlet for traffic between Cuyaba, in the State of Matto Grosso, and the seaport 292 THE NEW BRAZIL of Santos. Westward, an extension of the line from Salto Grande and Tibagy, on the Paranapanema River (the dividing line between Sao Paulo and Parana) is under con- struction to establish com- munication through southern Matto Grosso, northern Para- guay, and the State of Sdo Paulo. Already the Sorocabana system covers eight hundred miles under traffic, its lines passing through the rich cotton growing districts of Sorocaba, from which the railroad takes its name; across the pasture lands of Aracassu and Faxina; STATION OF THE LIGHT AND POWER COMPANY, PARNAHYBA. and into the heart of the coffee region of Botucatu, Sao Manoel, and Sado Paulo dos Agudos. Near Botucatu the road divides, one branch going to Salto Grande and the other to Baurt. The Itararé branch leaves the main line at Boituva, one hundred and twenty miles west of the capital. Throughout the country traversed by the Sorocabana railway, the climate is salubrious and the soil fertile. The annual transportation of coffee over this road amounts to two million sacks, and that of cotton to eight million kilograms. When the system is completed it will carry the traffic from the heart of the continent to the coast. It thus constitutes one of the most important factors in facilitating the industrial development of a great part of southern Brazil. The State of S40 Paulo owns the Sorocabana system, which was originally the property of a company, but was taken-over by the Federal government in 1904, the company having forfeited its concession. The government of the State purchased the railway in January 1905, under the administration of President Tibirica, paying the sum of three million eight hundred thousand pounds sterling. The income for the year 1906 was sufficient to cover the interest on the capital invested and to leave a surplus of six per cent which was used for improvements and new construction on the road. In addition to the Sorocabana, the State also owns the Funileiro railway which connects Guanabara with the colony of Campos- Salles, a distance of thirty-five miles, and the Cantareira Tramway, twenty miles in length, which connects the city of Sdo Paulo with the Serra da Cantareira, at Parnahyba, the Light and Power Company’s headquarters. For the purpose of securing a railway service in districts not able to support a line, the State has contributed large sums, and liberal loans have been made to companies engaged in extending lines that are now in operation. The Dourado Railway Company has received government assistance in extending the line from Boa Esperanca westward, and the Araraquara Railway Company obtained similar aid in RAILWAY TRAVEL IN SAO PAULO 273 constructing a line from Ribeiraosinho to Sao Jodo do Rio Preto. The government also voted a sum of money to complete the Pitangueiras railway to the rice-growing district of Viradouro, in the valley of the Mogy-Guassu. A number of short lines belonging to private companies make connection with the more important systems of railway. In the coast region new railways have recently been constructed to facilitate traffic with the interior, and between various ports. The State government has taken the initiative in a work of great importance, the construction of a system of lines tributary to the port of Sao Sebastido. A railway now in construction from Sado Sebastiao to Mogy das Cruzes, on the line of the Central, will enter into competition with the Sado Paulo line by furnishing a more direct outlet to the seacoast for the products of a large section of country. Various lines are projected from the ports of Cananea, Iguape, and other coast cities to connect them with the capital and other points, and facilitate the transportation of the products of this region. At present all the railroads of the State carry their freight for export over the Sao Paulo line to the port of Santos, from which it is shipped to all parts of the globe. Santos is one of the best maritime ports of the world, and one of the most important. More than a thousand steamers, not counting sailing vessels call during the year at this port, anchoring alongside the quay, which extends for more than two miles, from the terminal station of the Sado Paulo railway to the suburb of Outeirinhos, on the water front facing the island of Santo Amaro. The splendid system of docks at Santos was built by the Docas de Santos TERMINUS OF THE SAO PAULO RAILWAY AT SANTOS, SHOWING THE DOCKS. Company, which undertook the enterprise in 1892, constructing a great sea wall of granite, five feet above the high-water mark, on a solid base varying in thickness from ten to twenty 274 THE NEW BRAZIL feet. The docks are provided with hydraulic and other machinery for the loading and unloading of vessels, and the largest ocean liners may be seen receiving and discharging MAYRINK, WHERE THE SOROCABANA RAILWAY WORKSHOPS ARE LOCATED, SHOWING WORKMEN’S HOMES. freight here. The commerce of the port of Santos is increasing year by year, the report of the Secretary of Agriculture showing that in 1906 the imports amounted to thirty-three million dollars gold and the exports to one hundred million dollars gold, one-third more than they were during the previous year. The port of Santos, formerly thought to be one of the most insalubrious ports of the tropics, though the prevalence of epidemics was always exaggerated, has now become one of the most healthfuland least visited by disease. The sanitation of the city and the port has been effected through the persistent and constant effort of the government. Santos now has perfect drainage and a complete waterworks system; and the hygienic measures adopted in the interests of public health promise most satisfactory results. The water supply amounts to fifteen million litres daily, a quantity quite adequate to the needs of the population, which numbers thirty-five thousand. But although Santos is essentially a commercial centre, and there is little in its busy streets, lined with warehouses, its docks crowded with shipping, or its business-like populace, to indicate the haunts of the scholar, or the sentiment of tradition, yet this RAILWAY TRAVEL IN SAO PAULO 275 bustling city possesses the proud distinction of having been the cradle of some of Brazil’s greatest men, and in some of its historic landmarks are to be read the legends of the earliest civilization in Brazil. The town was founded by Braz Cubas in the middle of the sixteenth century, and re- ceived its name from a hospital established by the founder in 1544, the first charitable insti- tution in Brazil, which was called Todos os Santos, or All Saints, the name “Santos” being gradually used to desig- nate the town. Braz Cubas =r spent fe greater part ate atts VIEW ON THE SES ee er aad SAO JOAO AND life in Brazil, died at an ad- vanced age and was buried in the chapel of the hospital which he had founded. From the neighboring hill of Montserrat, on the summit of which is one of the oldest shrines of Brazil, Nossa Senhora de Montserrat, a superb panorama of the city and harbor of Santos is presented to view. The city of Santos is situated on the northern shore of the island of Sado Vicente, a small strip of land lying so close to the mainland as to form a peninsula in the dry season, when the river Sao Vicente, on the western boundary, carries no water. A deep channel sepa- rates the island of Sao Vicente from the larger one of Santo Amaro, and this channel forms the chief entrance to the port of Santos. The bay of Santos is very picturesque, the sur- rounding hills sloping down to the water’s edge, clothed in the beautiful verdure of the tropics. At the western extremity of the island lies the old town of Sdo Vicente, which is con- nected with Santos by railway. Along the southern shore ex- tends the Praia José Menino, and the Praia do Embare, popu- lar summer resorts, not only SOROCABANA STATION OF BARRA FUNDA, SHOWING MATERIAL FOR CONSTRUCTION OF THE LINE TO MATTO GROSSO. for the people of Santos, but for those of Sao Paulo and other interior cities. At the entrance to the channel on the east, the fortress of Barra Grande serves as a protection to the port. Opposite the fortress, the suburb of Barra presents 276 THE NEW BRAZIL an attractive appearance with many pretty country homes and shaded driveways. After entering the channel from the open bay, the scene becomes even more picturesque, the landscape on both sides being varied and charming. Midway up the channel the quay begins, at Outeirinhos, continuing to the landing place, which is marked by a long line of steamers that press close to the docks. From the landing place the city of Santos spreads out, at first through narrow and tortuous streets, then extending southward to the more modern part of the city, where broader thoroughfares mark the progress of wealth and enterprise. Street cars run in all directions, presenting their busiest spectacle at the close of business hours, when they carry the tired throng out to the suburbs. Two broad and well-paved avenues, three miles in length, Avenida Nebias and Avenida Anna Costa, connect the city with the bay side resort of José Menino, forming beautiful promenades in automobile or carriage. Across the bay from Santos is situated one of the most delightful resorts in Brazil, the seaside city of Guaruja on the island of Santo Amaro. It is built upon a huge knoll, shaped like half an orange, overlooking the ocean, and surrounded by high hills covered with virgin forests. From the seaport of Santos there are steamers daily to Rio de Janeiro, the passage taking from twelve to fifteen hours. All the large passenger as well as freight steamers call at Santos, and it is quite usual for passengers to disembark at Santos, take a train over the Sao Paulo railway to the city of Sao Paulo, enjoy the magnificent trip over the Serra do Mar, and then, after a day’s sojourn in the State capital, continue their journey to Rio by the Central railway, through the beautiful Parahyba valley and once more across the Serra do Mar, to the Federal capital. By the extension of its railways, the State of Sao Paulo is opening the way for the greatest possible development of its vast resources. With railway communication it is easy to attract foreign settlers, and colonies established along the high- ways of travel flourish and increase in number and prosperity, while manufacturing industries grow in proportion to the increase in facilities for transportation. SCENE ON THE RIVER TIETE, VIEWED FROM THE RAILWAY TRAIN. ‘SAVUaIO SANIW AO JLVLS ‘ALNOZIMOH O11494 LV FJOVIVd LNAWNYSAOD FHL CHAPTER XVI DR. JOAO PINHEIRO DA SILVA, PRESIDENT OF MINAS GERAES. MINAS GERAES O the State of Minas Geraes belongs the honor of having sheltered the first mar- tyrs of the Republican cause in Brazil, and of having been the chief centre of many political victories in the history of the empire, as well as the home of some of the noblest patriots and statesmen whose deeds embel- lish the national annals from the colonial period to the present day. Minas Geraes, like Sdo Paulo, wields an important influ- ence in national affairs and is, not only politically, but also socially and industrially, one of the greatest States of the Union. As capitanias, Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo were united under one government from 1709 until 1720, and even after they be- came separated remained closely allied in adherence to the principles of progress and independence, always standing together as leaders in the promotion of their coun- try’s highest interests. The State of Minas Geraes is larger than the republic of France. It covers an area of two hundred and fifty thousand square miles, the greater portion of which is an elevated plateau, forming part of the vast central tableland of Brazil. It lies in the heart of a rich mineral and agricultural region, and its boundary line is marked by six important States: on the south are Sao Paulo and Rio, the latter also extending to form part of the eastern boundary, which further includes Espirito Santos and a narrow strip of southern Bahia; on 279 280 THE NEW BRAZIL the north, the whole length of the State is bordered by Bahia; and the western limit is defined by the States of Goyaz and Matto Grosso, though the latter merely touches the extrerne western point where the confluence of the Rio Grande and Paranahyba forms the Parana River. Crossing the State from north to south is the mountain chain of Serra da Mantiqueira, which takes various names according to the district it traverses, as Serra do Espinhaco, Serra Branca, Serra das Canastras, the last-named being especially noted as the source of the great Sdo Francisco River, while the Serra do Espinhaco is remarkable as the source of the Rio das Velhas and the Rio Doce, which drain the most important gold and diamond lands of Brazil. Although Minas Geraes is one of the interior States, easy access to the port of Rio de Janeiro and excellent railway facilities afford every advantage in the promo- tion of trade relations; while in climate and fertility there is no State of Brazil more favored. Minas Geraes has a population of four million five hundred thousand inhabitants, which is greater than that of any other State of Brazil and is equal to that of some of the largest States of the United States. It is a notable fact that in this well-populated State, there are no very large cities, the population being distributed over all sections, in one hundred and seventeen cities of from five thousand to forty thousand inhabitants, besides innumerable small towns and villages. There are few evidences of enormous wealth, and none of extreme poverty, the general appearance being that of a prosperous and contented people, of wholesome tastes and modest living, who are noted for integrity and hospitality, and are little given to speculation or extravagance. The Mineiro, as a native of Minas Geraes is called, is a great lover of country life, possessed of the spirit of independence, always patriotic and an admirer of hardy courage and industry. His philosophy leads him to enjoy the simple life, and to seek happiness in the home circle. The library of a Mineiro of culture reveals his tendency to study the classics, and it is not unusual to find here the masterpieces of ancient and modern thought. One frequently meets children named in honor of some grand old hero of philosophy, and there is more than one “Benjamin Franklin” in the State; for “Poor Richard” has many sincere and affectionate admirers in the mountain villages of Minas Geraes, which has been called the Switzerland of Brazil, and deserves the title as much for the freedom-loving character of its people as for the picturesque attractiveness of its scenery. But if the cities of Minas Geraes are not crowded centres of population, they have the advantage of beautiful location and a healthful climate, as well as the charm of a sympa- thetic and genial social life. The capital of the State is Bello Horizonte, a new and flourishing city of twenty thousand inhabitants, and a conspicuous example of the spirit of progress and enterprise which animates the Brazilian of to-day, not only in Minas Geraes and in the Federal district but throughout the republic. It is not more than ten years since the site of the present city was selected for the capital of the State. Within such a remarkably short time the work of construction has been completed with so much efficiency and good taste that the new capital presents the appearance of a model city, laid out in broad, well paved avenues, lined with shade trees and crossed at right angles by straight and carefully graded MINAS GERAES 281 streets, having many handsome public edifices, and modern-looking residences, which in some instances are set in the midst of beautiful gardens. Bello Horizonte is built in a lovely valley surrounded by hills, and throughout its length runs a small river, a branch of the Rio das Velhas, with a number of pretty cascades at intervals to brighten its rippling course. A magnificent park extends along both sides of the stream, beautified by great branching trees, shrubs and clinging vines. A broad driveway leads through the park, and picturesque by-paths make it a delightful place for a promenade. In extent and natural beauty it rivals all other city parks of Brazil. The city is distinguished for its wide shaded avenues and the uniformly modern architecture of its buildings. The principal avenue, named after the present president of Brazil, who was also the founder of Bello Horizonte, “Affonso Penna,” extends through the central part of the city for a distance of two miles. This avenue is one hundred and fifty feet broad and has three rows of shade trees throughout its length. While driving through Bello Horizonte one is constantly reminded of the beautifully shaded avenues of Washington, the Capital of the United States, though the latter lacks the picturesque effect of the surrounding hills PALACE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR, STATE OF MINAS GERAES, in which the long straight streets of Bello Horizonte seem to lose themselves. More than ten thousand trees embellish the city’s thoroughfares. At the head of the Avenida Affonso 282 THE NEW BRAZIL Penna, surrounding one of the principal squares of the.city, are situated the palaces of the president, and of the secretaries of interior, finance, and agriculture. The president’s palace is the handsomest State capital in Brazil, and was erected ata cost of half a million dollars gold. The artistic architecture of the interior, especially the effective design of the grand Staircase and gallery leading to the president’s apartments, and the appearance of the lofty dome, richly ornamented with paintings, which surmounts the central hall, are notably attract- ive. The motto of the State, “Libertas quae sera lamen,” STREET SCENE IN BELLO HORIZONTE. appears in relief over the main entrance on the State coat-of- arms, which also bears allegorical figures representing agriculture and mining. The motto is the heritage left to his native State by the martyr Tiradentes and his followers, who adopted as their ensign a green triangle on a white ground, emblematic of the Trinity, having the above words from Virgil surrounding the three sides. Not only is the city of Bello Horizonte well paved and lighted, provided with a complete system of electric street railways, and supplied daily with fifteen million litres of water from four surrounding reservoirs, as well as furnished with modern drainage facilities, but it is centrally located in the State, on the principal line of railway, the Central, only four hundred miles from the Federal capital. As the chief seat of the State government, Bello Horizonte is the residence of the president, Dr. Jodo Pinheiro da Silva, and of the sec- retaries of the various departments. Dr. Pinheiro has been twice president of Minas, having filled this office during the first years of the republic as the successor to Cesario Alvim. His well-known republican principles, and the patriotic and disinterested character of his Services to his country have always given him a high place in the esteem of his fellow countrymen. During the present administration, progress has been particularly notable in educational and industrial affairs, the reports of the secretaries of these departments, Dr. Manoel Thomas de Carvalho Britto and Dr. Jodo Braulio showing that marked develop- ment has resulted from the judicious efforts devoted to these branches of the government. Public instruction in Minas Geraes has steadily advanced in scope and efficiency since the inauguration of the republic, especial attention being given to primary training, which is the basis of general education in any country. As early as 1850, Minas had its Horace Mann in the person of Canon Bhering, who was instrumental in filling the public schools MINAS GERAES 283 and in bringing about an era of development in the history of education in this State which left its impress upon the succeeding generation, and may still be noted in the Mineiro’s appre- ciation of educational advantages. From motives of economy, however, the work so well begun by Canon Bhering was allowed to fall behind, and it was not until twenty years later that education recovered from this drawback and became again a subject of the government’s most serious consideration. At that time the Normal School of Ouro Preto (then the capital of the province) was founded, followed the next year by the inauguration of the Normal School of Campanha. The number of schools was increased and a larger average attend- ance secured. But at no period in the history of the State was the attendance so large as it has been within the past fifteen years, and the outlook is especially favorable for its growth since the reorganization of the school system, which has been effected during the present administration. The attendance for the year 1906 was ninety-six thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven pupils in the primary schools, the average attendance at each school being sixty- four pupils. The budget for primary school expenses reaches about a million dollars gold annually. There are nine school groups, or graded schools in the State, of which two are located in the capital, two in Juiz de Fora, one each in Sao Joao Nepomuceno, Arassuahy, Lavras, Oliveira, and Passa Quatro, the attendance in these schools numbering four thousand pupils. Tuition is free and compulsory by law. Minas Geraes has many public-spirited citizens, who, although not able, like a Stanford or a Vanderbilt, to endow great universities, have contributed liberally to public instruction. Colonel Francisco Fernandes de Andrade e Silva, a capitalist of the city of Oliveira, paid out of his private funds for the site and building of the school in Oliveira; and an Instruction League has raised funds by popular subscription for the same purpose in Ouro Fino. Private initiative has se- cured the necessary land and buildings for school groups in Uberaba, Rio Pardo, and Theo- philo Ottoni, and the munici- palities are aiding every effort put forth in this way to pro- mote the cause of education. In Sabara, Itabira do Matto Dentro, Sado Caetano da Vargem Grande, Guaranesia, Rio Novo, Pitanguy, Aguas Virtuosas, Bar- bacena, Cataguazes, and Villa Santa Quiteria, new buildings have been secured for school groups. Everywhere in the State, interest in education is shown by a willing acquiescence on the part of the people PALACE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BELLO HORIZONTE. 284 THE NEW BRAZIL in the various reforms made by the government. An important feature of the educational methods employed in this State is the pedagogical conference held annually at the capital COLLEGE OF LAW, BELLO HORIZONTE. as a means of stimulating endeavor among the teachers in the more remote districts, and also for the purpose of affording them the benefits of association with their fellow-workers. Lectures are given on these occasions by a distinguished educator in primary work, Miss Maria Guilhermina Loureiro de Andrade, who was trained in the Normal Schools of New York, and has been identified with the inauguration of primary schools in Sado Paulo, Rio, and Minas Geraes, and who is now director of the second school group of Bello Horizonte. Under the Department of Superior Instruction, the Free School of Law was established in 1892, and also an advanced School of Pharmacy; the secondary courses are taught in the Gymnasio Mineiro, modelled after the Gymnasio Nacional, and having dependencies in Ouro Preto and.in Barbacena. In addition to the Normal Schools, several institutions exist under the charge of the Department of Special Instruction, such as the School of Mines, the Collegio Mineiro, Lyceu de Artes e Officios, Seminario de Marianna, Collegio das Irmas de Caridade [College of the Sisters of Charity], and others. As the future greatness of the State of Minas depends largely upon its agricultural and mineral development, especial attention is given to instruction in these branches, which are incorporated in the course of study from the primary school to the university. Agricultural schools and model farms have been established, the school of Madeiro and the model farm of Gamelleira, four miles from Bello Horizonte, having been purchased by the State for this MINAS GERAES 285 purpose. In connection with the agricultural schools, the government has installed apparatus for sinking artesian wells, for purposes of irrigation. In these institutions the most improved and modern methods of agriculture are taught and practical demonstrations made by classes in the field, where all the work of a farm is carried on during the school term. The fertility of the soil of Minas Geraes permits the cultivation of all kinds of products, and upon the grassy plains of the upper plateaus cattle raising is particularly favored by the conditions of climate and vegetation. Even in the high serras, the sheltered valleys produce sugar cane, Indian corn, rice, and bananas. Agriculture flourishes with little labor. Since the introduction of modern implements and machinery, harvests of all kinds have been greatly increased, though even in remote districts where agriculture is carried on in the most primitive fashion, bountiful crops of Indian corn are gathered from farms which have had no other preparation than simply burning off the underbrush from a new piece of land, making holes with a sharpened stick, and dropping into them the seed, leaving to nature all further responsibility as to results. Sugar cane also grows without cultivation. The Sado Francisco valley yields large crops of tobacco, Indian corn, sugar cane, cotton, rice, mandioca, yams, Sweet potatoes, and black beans, or feéjées ; Irish potatoes, rye, barley, and vanilla are also grown; and fruit is plentiful, of excellent quality and great variety. The entire State is watered by the Sao Francisco and its tributaries; by the Rio Doce, the Jequitinhonha (celebrated for the diamonds and other precious stones found along its course), and the Mucury, all of which flow into the Atlantic Ocean; and by the Rio Grande, Paranahyba, and other branches of the Parana, that drain the southwestern part of the PALACE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE, BELLO HORIZONTE. State. The course of the Sao Francisco is almost due north, from its source near the southern border of Minas Geraes throughout the entire State, receiving from both sides 286 THE, NEV BRAZIL large tributaries, navigable at intervals; their course, like that of the main stream, being interrupted by waterfalls which are capable of supplying motive force for the largest manufacturing enterprises. The cascades of the Sao Francisco River are among the most picturesque in the world, and several of these occur within the State of Minas Geraes. The first leap is made by the Casca d’Auta over a precipice of one hundred feet into a narrow channel between high perpen- dicular walls, through which the current rushes madly, plunging into the cascade Pira- pora, and receiving imme- diately afterward its proud confluent, the Rio das Velhas, THE BIRTHPLACE OF PRESIDENT AFFONSO PENNA, SANTA BARBARA, ; STATE OF MINAS GERAES. as it pours out a turbulent flood into the great stream. The course of this river extends for more than two thousand miles, draining, with its tribu- taries, the States of Minas Geraes, Bahia, Pernambuco, Sergipe, and Alagoas. The valley of the Sao Francisco is unsurpassed in fertility, furnishing one of the richest sources of revenue to the State, though its enormous productiveness has not yet been thoroughly exploited. The chief agricultural product of the State of Minas is coffee, which is grown on a large scale in the southern section, the export for 1906 amounting to one hundred and forty-three million two hundred and fifty-four thousand four hundred and ninety-eight kilograms. Extensive fazendas stretch along the valleys of the Parahybuna, a branch of the Parahyba River, and the Sapucahy, a branch of the Rio Grande. But though coffee culture occupies the principal share of attention, other products are gaining in importance annually, especially sugar cane, rice, cotton and cereals. In order to encourage the culture of cereals, the State has adopted a protective tariff on all imported cereals that can be grown on its soil. It is the constant effort of the government to promote agricultural industry in every possible way, and, in addition to the special schools and the protective tariff, a system of agricul- tural credit has been established, enabling farmers to pass through a bad season safely or to withstand the misfortunes of an over-productive harvest with its attendant low prices. Recently a North American company with a capital of half a million dollars, was formed in the State, having secured the concession for a large tract of land on which to cultivate hemp and other fibres, under a guarantee to plant, within four years, not less than a million trees. North American experts have also been engaged by the government to cultivate rice according to the most approved modern methods, and under agreement to employ not less than ten apprentices annually, who shall have an opportunity to study the system used. MINAS GERAES 287 The rice exported in 1906 amounted to four million one hundred and twenty-two thousand seven hundred and eight kilograms, five times the quantity harvested the year previous. In the north and west of the State extend vast pasture lands, the principal wealth of this region arising from cattle raising and dairy products. The exports of cattle from Minas Geraes during the year 1906 was two hundred and nine thousand four hundred and sixty-four head, valued at seven million dollars gold. Dairy produce has grown to be one of the most important exports. ‘‘Minas butter” is especially noted for its quality, and bears an international record, having secured the highest premium at the World’s Exposition of St. Louis in 1904. The export of this product has increased within the past six years from thirty thousand to one million five hundred thousand kilograms annually. ‘Minas cheese,” “Minas eggs,” and “fresh Minas milk” are familiar signs in the stores of Rio de Janeiro, which gets its chief dairy supply from this source. The manufacture of wine is a growing industry in Minas Geraes, the demand for home consumption increasing with the supply; grapes of several distinct varieties are cultivated, of which the “Isabella” is the most popular for wine manufacturing purposes. According to the best authorities, the ferruginous nature of the soil and the abundance of gravel adapt it especially to the needs of viticulture, which promises to be one of the most successful industries in Brazil. In various localities, principally in Barbacena and Itabira de Matto Dentro, the silkworm industry is an important source of revenue. The favor- able climate and the success with which the mulberry tree is planted in any part of the State, promise a great future for this product, which requires little labor and is cultivated chiefly by the women of the community. There are unlimited oppor- tunities for the small farmer in Minas Geraes, and the foreign colonies of the State are pros- perous and growing in impor- tance. The State government has recently set apart eight colonial centres, divided into one thousand and twenty- seven lots, covering an area of about twenty-five thousand acres. These centres are: Rod- rigo Silva, situated in the muni- ; CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES, BELLO HORIZONTE. cipal district of Barbacena; Nova-Baden, in that of Aguas Virtuosas; Francisco Salles in Pouso Alegre; and Affonso Penna, Bias Fortes, Carlos Prates, Adalberto Ferraz and Americo Werneck in the neighbor- hood of the capital. There are three thousand colonists in these settlements, chiefly Italians, 288 THE NEW BRAZIL Portuguese, Austrians, French, and Germans. The older colonies, established years ago, have grown to be flourishing towns, especially those settled by the Germans, Theophilo Ottoni in the north and Juiz de Fora in the south. The city of Juiz de Fora, in the southern part of the State, is an im- portant industrial and commercial centre, containing twenty thousand inhabitants. It is located on the main line of the Central railway, in a region of great productiveness, and is blessed- with a climate of mild and salubrious character. It is of comparatively mod- ern growth, dating from the middle of the nineteenth century; its streets and buildings are of substantial and hand- some appearance, its numerous edu- cational and charitable institutions are in a flourishing condition, and the municipality enjoys the advantages of such modern improvements as electric lighting, good pavements, a street car system, and waterworks. One of , the most important establishments is WATERFALL IN THE PARK, BELLO HORIZONTE. the immigrant station, which provides | every convenience for the foreign colonist until he is finally settled in the land as a permanent resident. Among the chief manu- facturing industries of Juiz de Fora are cotton mills, agricultural implement factories, machine shops, foundries, and various other important enterprises. Juiz de Fora is connected by rail- way with Rio de Janeiro, two hundred miles away, and with the chief towns of the State. Railways traverse the State of Minas in every direction, covering an extent of three thousand miles. The longest road is the Minas Western, seven hundred miles in extent, which begins at Sitio, a station on the Central railway, and runs northward and westward, passing through the populous and thriving town of Sao Jodo d’El Rei in the fertile valley of the Rio das Mortes, one of the most important educational and industrial centres of the State; through Lavras, in a rich agricultural region, drained by the Rio Grande; passing many beautiful, picturesque towns, noted for a salubrious climate and great fertility of soil, such as Oliveira, Bom Successo, Itapecerica, Pitanguy; and reaching its northern terminus near Abaeté, in the pastoral district of the State, and celebrated for the discovery of some of the largest diamonds taken out of Brazil. The Leopoldina system of railways extends into MINAS GERAES 289 the State of Minas and covers more than six hundred miles with its various branches, running northward from Serraria, a station on the Central railway near the southern border, to Saude, through a fertile coffee growing region. On this line is located the city of Rio Novo, celebrated for its agriculture, especially coffee growing. It lies in the valley of the Piau River, and is one of the stations on the Juiz de Fora and Piau railway, a short line which traverses this rich coffee growing region. Leopoldina, Pomba, Cataguazes, Visconde do Rio-Branco, and Ponte Nova are important towns on the Leopoldina railway, all producing an abundance of coffee as well as of sugar and cereals. The Central railway of Brazil has six hundred miles of road in the State of Minas Geraes, which it enters near Serraria in the valley of the Parahyba River, extending north to Curvello. Many of the larger cities of the State are situated on this line, which passes through Juiz de Fora, Barbacena, a picturesque and progressive city, five thousand feet above sea level, with a population of fifteen thousand, and through an important pastoral centre, Queluz, Sabara, and Bello Horizonte. A branch line of this system runs to Ouro Preto. OURO PRETO, THE FORMER CAPITAL OF THE STATE OF MINAS GERAES. The former capital of the State, Ouro Preto, is a picturesque mountain town of twenty thousand inhabitants, situated on the slope of one of the mountains of the Serra de Ouro Preto at a height of about four thousand feet above the level of the sea, in the basin of the 290 THE NEW BRAZIL Rio Doce, and not far from the headwaters of the Rio das Velhas. It is one of the oldest cities of Brazil, having been an important centre of government when Minas Geraes was a JUIZ DE FORA, A PROSPEROUS CITY OF MINAS GERAES. capitania of Portugal and, as the possessor of enormous wealth, one of the mother-country’s most carefully guarded strongholds. But the chief interest attaching to this quaint old town is derived from its share in the memorable events connected with the Tiradentes conspiracy, and the fate of the little company of poets whose dream of liberty was so ruthlessly shattered by the cruel sentence of a rigorous court. In the principal public square, appro- priately named “Praga da Independencia,” a marble column, surmounted by a statue of the martyred Tiradentes, commemorates the execution of the patriot; the pedestal of the monument is the original stone which was used as a pillory for the condemned, and to , which he was bound when publicly scourged upon the very spot now marked by the splendid column. Many historic places formerly belonging to celebrated Mineiros are preserved because of their associations; the house of Claudio Manoel da Costa is still to be seen, with the very balcony on which were gathered the enthusiastic plotters for liberty on so many occasions; also the Casa dos Contos, where he was arrested. The Casa dos Ouvidores, where “Dirceu” wrote his impassioned verses to “Marilia,” and the modest little house where Marilia knelt at the window for long hours in the hope of seeing again her MINAS GERAES 291 banished lover, are among the sights interesting to all visitors who know the story of the city’s past; and the locality where once stood the home of Tiradentes, which was destroyed, is guarded as sacredly as the public square that was the scene of his execution, and where his head was exposed on a pike as a warning to all rebellious spirits. This city was the home of the great statesman Vasconcellos and of the poet Guimaraes, and is the birthplace of many prominent Brazilians of to-day. In addition to its buildings of exclusively historic interest, Ouro Preto has several churches and schools of importance. The School of Mines is one of the best institutions of the kind in existence, besides which the city has the Lyceu Mineiro, Escola de Pharmacia, and other educational establishments. A few miles distant from Ouro Preto is situated the picturesque town of Santa Barbara, which possesses espe- cial interest as the birthplace of President Affonso Penna. Caethé, in the same section, is a thriving centre of- industry, particularly noted for its ceramic factory, the largest in the State. The Sapucahy railway stands next to the Central in mileage, having an extension of three hundred miles from Baependy, the centre of a fertile agricultural district near the border of the State of Sdo Paulo, westward to Sapucahy, where it forms a junction with the Mogyana railway in western Minas. The Mogyana line is being extended to enter the State of Goyaz, and provide an outlet for its rich harvests. On this route is the flourishing little city of Uberaba, well paved and lighted with electricity, having one of the best colleges of the State, as well as numerous churches, hospitals, and grammar schools. Other impor- tant roads are the Bahia and Minas, the. Minas and Rio, the Guaxupé and the Paraopeba lines. The principal cities along the route of the Sapucahy are Ouro Fino, Pouso Alegre, Affonso Penna, Itajuba, Chris- tina, Soledade, and Caxambu, the last-named being situated near the Baependy terminus. Caxambu is famous for its mineral springs, which annually attract a large number of health- seekers not only from every part of Brazil but from other South American countries. The springs are located near the base of the hill of Caxambut, and the Six principal founts, which have been analyzed and found to contain therapeutic properties of the highest value, are named “Dom Pedro,” “Dona Theresa,” “Isabel Princeza” (Condessa d’Eu), “Conde d’Eu,” “Dona Leopoldina,” and “Duque de Saxe.” In their composition, the Caxambu waters resemble those of Baden, Falkenhalde, THE NATIONAL CERAMIC FACTORY OF CAETHE, MINAS GERAES. 292 THE NEW BRAZIL and Spa, though they have the advantage of being within the reach of moderate means, and less subject to counterfeit imitations than the productions of the more renowned watering places. The use of the Caxambu waters is of comparatively recent date, though they are THE PARK OF CAXAMBU, STATE OF MINAS GERAES. supposed to have been discovered a century ago by some farmers of the village near by, and were later tested by a German traveller who pronounced them of great value. In 1873 a Scientific commission, appointed by Counsellor Joao Alfredo, then a minister of the empire, made a complete analysis of the waters, and since that time their fame has steadily increased, especially as regards the virtues of the springs “Isabel Princeza” and “Duque de Saxe,” the latter being particularly popular, for its sulphurous, ferruginous, and gaseous properties. The ‘Dona Leopoldina” spring is magnesian, and the “Isabel Princeza” ferru- ginous and gaseous. Both supply an abundance of water. In the waters of all the Caxambu springs there are properties which make them notably efficacious in the treatment of rheu- matism, nervous troubles, dyspepsia, anemia, and similar maladies. The town of Caxambu occupies an ideal location among the mountains, at an altitude of three thousand feet above sea level, and during the summer season (which in the southern hemisphere is at its height in January and February), the hotels and sanatoriums are crowded with guests. Pretty little chalets look out from bowers of green, and refreshing streams bubble out of hidden recesses in the rocks, tumbling down the hillsides in sparkling eagerness. A beau- tiful park, in which are fountains and lakes, the haunt of aquatic birds of varied species, is a favorite resort in the evening; and in the early morning joyous cavalcades of young people may be seen on their way to some neighboring town, as Baependy, or Cascata, or, perhaps, MINAS GERAES 293 riding off to lose sight of mundane things in quiet mountain glens, where the imagination has free play, to dream its sweetest dream of romance, undisturbed by the reality. To be restored to health in the midst of such charming surroundings should be more pleasing to the invalid than to be placed in the midst of a crowd of suffer- ing people, hemmed in at every turn and oppressed by the in- evitable sense of being but an atom in the great throng that surges back and forth at the fashionable health resorts of Europe. In this peaceful retreat the virgin forest is still near, and many songbirds come from its shady depths to flit among the trees of Caxambt park, trilling their sweet melodies. At present the mineral springs of Caxambu, as well as those of Lambary and Cambu- quiry, are being exploited by the Caxambu, Lambary, and Cambuquiry Company, under a contract with the government of the State of Minas Geraes, and many important improve- ments are being introduced, not only in the service of the bathing establishments but in the beautifying of the three resorts. Like those of Caxambu, the springs of Villa de Aguas Virtuosas de Lambary and of Cambuquiry are very accessible, being on the Musambinho railway, which connects with the Minas and Rio line. The analysis of the Lambary and Cambuquiry waters was made at the same time as those of Caxambu, and during the past thirty years they have been known and used for their wonderful curative properties. Even those who have never been to Caxambu and Lambary are-well acquainted with the mineral waters which bear these names, the “Lambary” being a particularly excellent water, preferred to the most cele- brated foreign brands by many connoisseurs of table waters. ‘““Caxambu” and “Lambary” THE MINERAL SPRING ‘‘ DUQUE DE SAXE,” AT CAXAMBU. are to be found in all the South American countries of the Atlantic coast, and can be obtained on board steamers visiting these ports, their palatable quality and therapeutic value having made them popular wherever tested. It is possible that Minas may yet be as famous for her mineral waters as are the States of Europe and America that have produced the THE MINERAL SPRING “ISABEL PRINCEZA,” AT CAXAMBU. 294 THE NEW BRAZIL waters of Vichy and Saratoga. Other mineral springs of great value exist at Villa de Pocos de Caldas and at Sao Lourengo, where bathing establishments have been installed according to modern plans, and hotels have been erected to accommodate the season’s guests. Minas Geraes ranks third among the Brazilian States in the amount of its revenue, which for the year 1907 reached the sum of five million five hundred thousand dollars gold, and is exceeded only by those of Sao Paulo and Amazonas. With the favorable conditions for rapid development which the State enjoys under the present administration, the future promises unlimited increase in every branch of industry. The president of the State is elected every four years and may appoint four secretaries to his cabinet. The State has three bishoprics, those of Diamantina (since 1863), Marianna (since 1896), and Pouso-Alegre. Congress is composed of two houses, the Chamber of Deputies numbering forty-eight mem- bers, elected for four years, and the Senate twenty-four members, serving for eight years, half of the latter being elected every four years. The progress of the State has always been of a character to commend the judgment and patriotism of her people. Bold and fearless as pioneers when the country needed men of such mettle to open up the unknown regions of the vast interior and civilize their savage inhabitants, the Mineiros have shown equally noble characteristics in the more peaceful tasks of Social and political life. There has never been an occasion in the history of Brazil when the natives of this grand old State have faltered in the face of their country’s need, or hesitated to risk all that life holds dearest in the loyal, faithful, unflinching, patriotic discharge of duty. From the earliest days of their history they have been devoted adherents to the principles of political independence, and have shown a proud and determined resistance to every effort to infringe upon their heaven-born rights, or to treat their sacred privileges with contempt. They have ever been apprecia- tive of the advantages of intellectual training, and the results are apparent in the literary advancement of this State, to which Brazil owes many of its greatest statesmen and poets. In the future greatness of the republic, Minas Geraes will occupy an important place, socially and industrially, with its wonderful store of natural riches, the delights of its sunny skies and fragrant atmosphere; the incomparable blessing of its abundant rivers, ample forests, and “the cattle upon a thousand hills.” THE POST OFFICE, BELLO HORIZONTE. :? ae , | - shod’ © Lo oa § : » WW, eee Bet. i hoa * Te > 34 he a be a ae » ah Je a 7 QUARRY AT MORRO VELHO, MINAS GERAES. CHAPTER XVII THE MINES OF MINAS GERAES EW countries can boast such an abun- dance and variety of mineral resources as Minas Geraes, which derives its name, signifying ‘General Mines,” from the indus- try that gave it existence, and which owes to this powerful attraction the preponderance of its population among the States of Brazil. The glitter of gold and the flash of gems have possessed a singular fascination for mankind from time immemorial, and the AN intimate relation which these treasures bear an ea a to the joys and sorrows of the human family furnishes the subject of many enchanting myths, traditions, and romances. Human nature has not greatly changed throughout the ages in its predilections, the same instinct that was illustrated in the sacred guarding of the treasure in the garden of the Hesperides still existing in the motive of the twentieth- century miser; the “golden apple” is as invaluable an aid in securing the good offices of Venus nowadays as it was when Paris won Helen of Troy; the irresistible magnetism of costly jewels is as potent with the modern belle as it was with the distinguished guest of King Solomon; and, in various guises, the popular idol of society is, as it has always been, no other than the much-worshipped golden calf of Israel’s camp. This universal attraction toward the precious product of the mines has given to the gold and the diamond fields a special charm; and every epidemic of the “fever” which invariably follows gold discovery has had the inevitable accompaniment of prodigal waste and barbaric display. Of all the fabulous tales related of silver kings and bonanza princes, the palm for extravagance belongs to the history of early: mining days in Brazil, when horses were shod with gold; when lawyers supported their pleadings before the judge with gifts of what appeared at first sight 297 298 THE NEW BRAZIL to be the choicest oranges and bananas, but proved to be solid gold imitations of these fruits; when guests were entertained at dinner by the discovery of gold pebbles in their DIAMANTINA, THE CENTRE OF THE DIAMOND MINING INDUSTRY IN MINAS GERAES. soup instead of grains of corn; when a nugget was the most convenient medium of exchange in the money market. Tradition has woven a very interesting story about the first discovery of the precious metal in Brazil, with a touch of the supernatural that entirely rescues this important event from the unattractive realm of the commonplace. It is, that, as early as the sixteenth century, a serfanejo, or backwoodsman, of Sao Paulo, having heard that gold and precious stones were to be found in the remote interior, organized a band of followers and proceeded as far as the headwaters of the Parana River, where he encountered several Indians decked out in gorgeous array and wearing costly gold ornaments. He demanded of them to be taken to the place where the gold had been found; and upon their refusal to give up the secret, the serfanejo, with a great display of anger, took from his pouch a flask of rum, poured out a quantity, and set fire to it, exclaiming, in a voice of thunder: “See! Thus I will burn up all your rivers, if you do not show me where your gold is to be found!” The Indians were panic-stricken at this sight, and cried out, in superstitious terror: “Anhan- guera!l Anhanguera!” meaning “wizard.” Their leader was brought to terms without further difficulty, a guide was secured, and the party proceeded at once to the place, where they obtained a large amount of the precious metal. From authentic sources it is learned that gold was discovered in the seventeenth century in the State of Minas Geraes. About the middle of the eighteenth century, the gold output THE MINES OF MINAS GERAES 299 was at its height, the revenue from this product being enormous. It is said that, in a certain district, five thousand pounds’ weight was panned from placers within the area of a square mile in one year, and from another region a hundred pounds’ weight was collected in one night. In the year 1792, the gold registered in Rio de Janeiro was three hundred and sixty thousand pounds in weight, and, from recent researches among old archives, an English authority has put the total amount of the gold output of Minas Geraes at the enormous value of two hundred million pounds sterling. Although gold is found in nearly every State of Brazil, the most important mines are those of Minas Geraes, which, even under the primitive processes of mining that pre- vailed a century ago, never ceased to be profitable. The industry did not yield such enormous returns during the nineteenth century as during the earlier period of its exploita- tion; but that was not due to the exhaustion of the mines, but to the fact that they were worked only superficially by the wasteful methods followed at that time, and when a more Scientific system became necessary there was general discouragement, which was increased by the heavy taxation imposed, the uncertainty about property rights, and the confusion of the mining laws. Since these evils have, happily, been remedied, a revival of gold mining has taken place, and the outlook is favorable for increased prosperity. The oldest gold mine in actual opera- tion, not only in Brazil but in the world, is that of Morro Velho, situated near the main line of the Central railway, about midway between Ouro Preto, the former capital of Minas Geraes, and Bello Horizonte, its pres- ent capital. Morro Velho is the property of the Sao Joao del Rey Gold Mining Company, an English corporation, which began the exploitation of the mine in 1834, though it had been worked in a primitive way ever since colonial times. Modern machinery is now used in the mine and many costly improvements have recently been intro- duced. The ore yields an ounce to the ton and the annual production averages eighty thousand ounces. The Passagem mine, sit- uated in the vicinity of the historic old town A CHARITY HOSPITAL OF DIAMANTINA, COLONIAL PERIOD. of Marianna, a few leagues to the southeast of Ouro Preto, ranks next to Morro Velho in importance, having an annual output of twenty- three thousand ounces of gold; this mine and the S40 Bento mine of Santa Barbara, the 300 LH EeNEV BRA Ze third in production in the State, are also owned by English companies. The Santa Quiteria mine near Santa Barbara and the Descoberto, Juca Vieira, Cuyaba, and Vira Copos mines of A STREET SCENE IN DIAMANTINA. Caethé are prosperous centres of the gold mining industry. In the northern part of the State rich gold fields have been discovered at Minas Novas, Itabira, Serro, Conceicdo, and in other localities. Minas Novas is picturesquely situated among the mountains of the Serra do Chipre in the valley of the Arassuahy River, a tributary of the gold and diamond- bearing Jequitinhonha, which, with the Rio Doce, drains the most valuable mining region of the State. The diamond mines of the Jequitinhonha valley have been famous for nearly two centuries, and the story of their discovery is related in various ways. According to some authorities, the diamonds were found by the gold miners, who at first regarded them as mere curiosities, and used them as counters in gambling, until a worthy friar, happening to observe this base use of Fortune’s favorite bauble, informed the governor of the province, who imme- diately notified the king. The discovery was first officially reported in Lisbon in 1729, and the first gems were sent to Rome by Jodo V. as a present to the pope. Several of the most celebrated diamonds of the world have since been found in Brazilian mines. ‘The “‘Braganza,” the most highly prized of the crown jewels of Portugal, was taken from Caethé, about the middle of the eighteenth century. Connoisseurs differ as to its value, and its weight has been variously stated, but it is world-renowned as a rare and beautiful gem. The “Regent,” named in honor of Dom Jodo VI., and worn by him on all great occasions, was found in 1791, THE MINES OF MINAS GERAES 301 under circumstances of peculiar interest. Three men, convicted of a capital offence, had been condemned to spend the remainder of their days in the far west of Minas, and were forbidden, under penalty of death, to enter a city. After wandering about for several years, searching for treasure in the apparently vain hope of some day being able to purchase their pardon, they suddenly came upon this diamond, weighing nearly an ounce. Recognizing its great value, and eager to test its power as a means of securing their pardon, they told their secret to a priest, begging him to accompany them to the city and to intercede for them with the governor, to whom they submitted the precious stone they had found. As a result they were granted their pardon and permitted to return to their homes, though they received no further reward. The “Estrella do Sul,” also a product of Minas Geraes, and now the valued possession of an Oriental potentate, the Rajah of Baroda, has a history similar to that of the “ Regent.”” It was picked up at Bagagem, in the western part of the State, by a poor negro slave, who gave it to her master as the price of her freedom. It afterward proved to A CONDUIT FOR DIAMOND MINING PURPOSES. be worth fifteen million dollars, and still ranks among the most costly gems in existence. Aside from its intrinsic worth, it possesses a unique value as representing the highest price 302 THE NEW BRAZIL WASHING DIAMONDS. ever paid for the blessed boon of human liberty. In the rough state, this precious stone weighed two hundred and fifty carats, and, when cut, about half as heavy. It was discovered in the year 1854. | The history of diamond mining in Brazil and the modern processes of the industry present many interesting features. The great centre of the diamond district is a town of ten thousand inhabitants, situated in the State of Minas, about six hundred miles from Rio de Janeiro, and named, from its chief product, Diamantina. It was originally a gold mining camp, until the discovery of diamonds early in the eighteenth century transformed it in appearance and character. For a century after their discovery, diamonds were mined in Brazil as a monopoly of the crown, all diamond mines being declared State property by the king of Portugal; and it was only after the abdication of the first emperor of Brazil that private diamond mining was legalized by the national government, in the year 1832. The methods of mining pursued by the government officials in charge of this valuable property of the State were extremely careless and shortsighted, the main object, apparently, being to get with the least delay the greatest amount of treasure possible. As a result, there are large deposits of diamond-bearing gravel which can never be mined because buried under the detritus of other workings. Diamond-bearing gravel is usually found in the interstices of the rocks and boulders that block the current of the mountain streams in their first steep descent down the narrow _ THE MINES OF MINAS GERAES 303 ravines near the summit of the serra, before they reach the broader bed of the river below. An experienced miner easily recognizes it by the presence of certain other minerals which are found only where the diamond is indicated. There are four different methods of diamond mining practised in the Diamantina district, according to the locality in which the precious stones are found. The first method consists of a process of concentration, by which the diamond-bearing gravel that has been washed down from the high serra into the stream and separated from the other detritus by its greater weight (the specific gravity of the diamond being about 3.6, much greater than that of ordinary rock), is collected and worked up through an operation similar to the old- fashioned gold-panning. The lighter stones are separated from the diamond-bearing rock by repeated washing and shaking about in the batea (a curious wooden dish about two feet in diameter and having a sort of hollow at the bottom), after which it is an easy task for the miner to pick out thé remaining diamonds, their lustre making them easily recognizable. The second method, practised in the beds of larger streams, is more expensive and uncertain than the first, though, when successful, it sometimes brings a richer reward for the labor expended. By this method, the miner first chooses a spot where the bed_ of the river is supposed to contain diamonds, and not to have been worked before. A dam is built a short distance above this place with a sluice around it, through which the waters are turned, leaving dry the former bed of the river. Then the work of mining is begun, the first task being to clear away the sand that covers the bed rock, sometimes to a depth of thirty or SCENE NEAR MORRO VELHO, IN THE GOLD MINING DISTRICT OF MINAS GERAES. 304 | THE NEW BRAZIL PICTURESQUE CASCADE IN THE VICINITY OF BELLO HORIZONTE. forty feet. This part of the work has to be done during the dry season, as the first heavy rains of September wash away the dam and fill up the excavation. When bed rock is finally reached, the diamond- bearing gravel is carried out and placed in piles to be washed during the wet season, labor in the river bed being then impossi- ble. If the ground prove to be virgin, the miner may reap a precious harvest of dia- monds, but if, as sometimes happens, it turns out to have been washed before, all his labor is lost. The third system of dia- mond mining is employed in treating de- posits of gravel found on the lower slopes and along the sides of valleys. Some of these deposits, or grupiaras, as they are called, have proved very rich, especially in the Itacolomy district and other valleys of eastern Minas Geraes. A grupiara of “Lava- pés,” covering less than one thousand square feet, yielded one hundred thousand carats in one season. The fourth process is that used in taking out diamonds from beds of rock high up in the serra, popularly called chapada mining. It consists of first collect- ing rainwater in pools on the top of the plateau and then conducting a stream to the site of the deposit, where great gullies are cut so that the water may be given the im- petus necessary to loosen and carry along the diamond-bearing gravel, which is finally treated in the same way as that found in the river beds. Within recent years modern scientific methods have been applied to diamond mining in Brazil with eminently satisfactory results. The Companhia da Boa Vista, com- posed of Brazilian, French, and Belgian capitalists, was the first to instal expensive modern appliances, for the equipment of one of the most important diamond mining establishments in the world. The works are located a few miles from Diamantina in the Jequitinhonha THE MINES OF MINAS GERAES 305 valley. The Agua Suja Mining Company, Limited, has also introduced modern methods in the development of its mines, which are situated near Bagagem, or, as the town is now called in honor of the great dia- mond discovery made there half a century ago, Estrella do Sul. Other companies have followed these, and the exploration of the diamond region is carried on more systematically and successfully than ever before. The Brazilian Diamond and Exploration Company, Limited, an English enterprise, the Bra- zilian Diamond, Gold, and De- veloping Company, organized by North American capitalists, and the Victor Nothman Com- ARASSUAHY, MINING DISTRICT FOR AMETHYSTS, AQUAMARINES, ETC. pany, are among the principal corporations engaged in diamond mining in the State. The output of diamonds is difficult to calculate, on account of the facility with which the precious stones are smuggled out of the country to avoid the payment of duties; the annual export, on which duties are paid, averages about ten thousand carats. Formerly all Brazilian diamonds were exported uncut, but within the past few years lapidaries have established themselves in the chief diamond producing centres. In Diaman- tina there are nineteen lapidaries, employing one hundred and fifty workmen and cutting four hundred and sixty carats of diamonds per month. In Serro and Jequitahy, and at Terra Branca, where the black diamond is found, local lapidaries cut most of the stones. Carbonates, stones used for diamond drills, are found in the diamond mining region. Closely allied to the diamond industry is the mining for other precious stones, such as amethysts, tourmalines (known as “Brazilian emeralds”), topazes, aquamarines, garnets, chrysolites, etc., which the miners designate pedras coradas, “colored stones.” The development of this branch of mining is quite recent, dating only from about five years ago, when some German prospectors appeared in the town of Arassuahy, and offered to pay seven hundred dollars per kilogram for pedras coradas ofa certain size and color. The miners were delighted to have an opportunity to make money so easily out of stones that had hitherto been looked upon as of no value, and the collection of these gems became a regular business. In Arassuahy, Pecanha, Minas Novas, Salinas, Grao Mogol, Tremedal, and throughout the entire mining region, are found beautiful specimens of these stones, which are constantly increasing in value in the foreign market. Black tourmalines are quite common in some sections, and the green, blue, and red varieties are found in abundance in 306 THE NEW BRAZIL Arassuahy, Pecanha, and Salinas. The chrysolites of Arassuahy are very beautiful stones and find a ready market. Topazes of the ordinary yellow hue, as well as the rarer rose- tinted specimen, are chiefly found in the district of Ouro Preto, which is so rich in various kinds of mineral production. Ouro Preto is the centre of the manganese industry in Brazil. Though rich deposits exist in other States they have not yet been developed to the same extent as in Minas Geraes, which exports the richest quality of manganese in the world, the ore yielding from fifty to fifty-five per cent of metallic manganese. . The first shipment of manganese from Brazil was made only twelve years ago, when six thousand seven hundred and sixty-five tons were exported from Minas Geraes. The output has increased since that time to two hundred and fifty thousand tons annually. This valuable product exists in abundance in the district lying between Ouro Preto and Lafayette, on the Central railway, its locality being easily distinguished by the leaden color and glistening appearance of the soil. The Stations of Miguel Burnier and Lafayette, on the Central railway, are the chief shipping points for the industry, the cargo being carried by this line down to the seaport of Rio de Janeiro, for final export. The manganese deposits of the Burnier district are found in the metamor- phic rocks, and are associated with iron ores and limestones; while the manganese of the Queluz mines, in the Lafayette region, appears associated with eruptive rocks containing spersatine, rhodonite, or manganese silicates, and is characterized by the complete absence of iron ore or limestones. The former are worked by underground operations while the latter is mined on the surface. The Usina Wigg is the principal establishment of the MINAS NOVAS, IN THE HEART OF A RICH MINING DISTRICT, MINAS GERAES. Burnier district and the Morro da Mina is the most important manganese property of Lafayette, and both are supported by Brazilian capital. The value of the manganese exported annually from Minas Geraes amounts to about two million dollars gold. Tae eVvINES@Or MINAS POLRALES 307 Iron is found in every part of Minas Geraes, and is abundant in the region of the moun- tains that surround Bello Horizonte, in Morro Velho, Itabira, and Morro do Pilar, which is a mountain of iron, and throughout the Serra do Espinago from Barbacena to Grado Mogol. For MINAS NOVAS, LOOKING TOWARD THE CHAPEL DE GRACA, MINAS GERAES. lack of mineral fuel, the iron industry has not been exploited, but when electricity can be em- ployed in the manufacture of this metal, no country will offer better advantages for its devel- opment, not only because of the abundance and good quality of the ores, but because the State has unlimited sources of water power in its countless mountain streams and cascades. A visit to the School of Mines of Ouro Preto affords the best opportunity for judging of the wonderful variety of the minerals which are found in the State of Minas Geraes. This school, which ranks among the best in the world, was organized by a decree of President Floriano Peixoto, September 18, 1903. It is devoted to the free instruction of students who, having the necessary general education, purpose to pursue the career of mining and mining engineering. The school is established in the old colonial governors’ palace built early in the eighteenth century. The library and museum contain rare collections, some specimens of the amethyst, topaz, and diamond deposits in the State being especially interesting and valuable. With the new discoveries that are constantly being made the possessions of the school are rapidly increasing, and its cabinets contain specimens of every product of the mineral kingdom. The director of the school is Dr. Joaquim Candido da Costa Sena, a scholar of high reputa- tion, who is an accepted authority on mining matters of Brazil. Dr. Alcides Medrado, the editor of the Brazilian Engineering and Mining Review, has charge of the library of the school, to which he has contributed a number of valuable works on mineralogy. The existence of platinum has been discovered recently in Minas Geraes, in the Serro district, in alluvial deposits at Itabira do Campo, in the neighborhood of Ouro Preto, and in 308 THE NEY EBRAZIE the river Abaeté, a famous diamond-bearing stream of western Minas. The varieties of granite and marble of all colors and grains which are found in Minas Geraes, are remark- ably numerous. Agates, onyx, and rock crystal of the first water are found in the greatest abundance and are largely used in architecture in the various cities of the State. Rich deposits of mica, graphite, cinnabar and asbestos await development. In the mining towns of Pecanha, Diamantina, Minas Novas, Arassuahy, Salinas, and elsewhere, a newly aroused spirit of enterprise is manifested under the encouragement given by the liberal policy of the present government. A further decided impetus has been given to the mining industry of Brazil by the recent Federal legislation favoring its development. The government has removed the heavy import duties on machinery, implements, and other accessories used in mining works, placing, instead, a tax of five per cent ad valorem on these imports. In addition, the State of Minas Geraes has reduced the export tax on gold and promulgated a law to define more clearly the regulations affecting prospecting and mining concessions in connection with land under State control. In regard to the acquirement of mining property, the law is liberal, and restrictions are few and reasonable. The owner of land has the first right to the mineral, but if he fails to exercise his privilege others may explore after giving notice. The discoverer of the mineral is entitled to four lots of fifty metres square, with ground neces- sary for working. Claims are transferable, but no single person or company may own more than a hundred contiguous lots. But, in order to accomplish the best results in the development of Brazilian mines, the investment of much capital is necessary, and the establishment of enterprises working upon a scientific and systematic basis. Under such conditions, it is not difficult to picture a future rivalling in prosperity the mineral regions of Australia and Kimberley. COLLEGE OF OUR LADY OF SORROWS, DIAMANTINA. UNIVERSITY OF LinoIs ‘VNVUVd YAAIN FHL dO Adis NVITIZVUG AHL WOUd GAMGIA ‘NSSVNDSI dO STIV4A FHL CHAPTER XVIII PARANA RIGINALLY forming a part of the capi- tania of Sao Paulo, the present State of Parana was peopled by sturdy pioneers of the same character as those who inhabited its sister provinces, SA€o Paulo and Minas Geraes. But, being more remote from the centre of activity in the early days, its gen- eral development received little attention until about half a century ago, when it be- came an independent province, in the year 1853, under the administration of the illus- trious statesman, Conselheiro Zacarias de Vasconcellos, afterward a senator of the empire. From that date the progress of THE GYMNASIUM, CURYTIBA. the territory began to march more rapidly; steamers visited its ports, its rivers were explored, telegraph lines were built; the educational interests of the State received special attention, the press became an important social and political factor, public charities were insti- tuted, and social and political clubs were organized, the chief of which, the Club Coritibano, still wields an important influence in the politics of the State: With the general develop- ment came a realization of greater possibilities to be accomplished through the more complete opening up of the country, and new roads began to be built to the vast unsettled plains of the interior, colonization was encouraged, and the nucleus of the present thriving rural population was established. Possessing an area nearly equal to that of Great Britain, its territory covering eighty-six thousand square miles, the State of Parana has two distinct zones. The littoral, consisting of a strip of low land along the coast, is semi-tropical and produces all the fruits and 311 312 PHEONEVWODRAAZLE vegetables of a climate perennially warm; the plateaus, extending from the Coast Range, or Serra do Mar, to the river Parana on the western boundary, have the climate and soil of the RUA QUINZE DE NOVEMBRO, CURYTIBA. temperate zone and yield the products usually harvested in such latitudes. But though the Serra do Mar is the dividing line between the low hot region of the coast and the tablelands of the interior, it constitutes only one of many mountain chains which separate the State into different sections, varying in altitude from five hundred to five thousand feet. The plateau which stretches westward from the Serra do Mar to the Serrinha, or “little Serra,” an extension of the Paranapiacaba range from Sao Paulo, is the most thickly populated section of the interior, and is in a flourishing state of cultivation; the State capital, Curytiba, and the farming communities of Campo Largo and Lapa are situated on this tableland. From the Serrinha westward to the Serra da Esperanga, and stretching far northward, lies a vast territory of forest and plain known as the “Campo Geraes,” which is rich in agricul- tural and mineral resources and offers a good prospect to the investor and the colonist. Ponta Grossa, Palmeira, and Castro are situated in the southern part of this region, which promises to be the great distributing point for the whole interior of the State, when the system of railways now under construction is completed. Beyond the Serra da Esperanga extends the plateau of Guarapava, famous for its cattle ranges, while along the western border of the State are innumerable beautiful valleys, watered by the tributaries of the PARANA 313 Parana, the Ivahy, or Rio dos Patos, the Piquiry, Iguassu, and others, and awaiting only the advent of an enterprising immigration to yield vast fortunes in the products of their forests of hardwood, medicinal plants, and abundant fruits. With the Parana River marking its western, the Paranapanema its northern, and the Iguassu its southern boundary line, the entire State is watered by the great river and its tributaries. The Iguassu marks the limit between Parana and Santa Catharina at the south, pending the settlement of a boundary question. There are no rivers of importance flowing into the Atlantic, which forms the eastern boundary, along with part of the State of Sd4o Paulo. The scenery along the Parana and its tributaries is magnificent, some of the waterfalls, such as the Salto das Sete Quedas, Salto do Osorio, and Salto do Rio dos Patos, which mark the descent of the Parana, the Iuassu, and the Ivahy, respectively, being unsurpassed in picturesque grandeur; the channel of the Itararé, a branch of the Paranapanema, is subterranean at several intervals along its course. All the rivers are navigable for a considerable distance, facilitating transportation in the districts which are not traversed by railway lines. The section of the State which lies along the seashore is, generally, flat and marshy, and the climate less agreeable than in the interior, the temperature varying from ten degrees THE GOVERNMENT PALACE, CURYTIBA. to thirty-five degrees centigrade; on the plateaus and in the mountainous regions of the State the climate is salubrious, and the temperature ranges from four degrees to thirty 314 ) THE NEW BRAZIL degrees centigrade, with a mean annual register of Seventeen degrees. The varying altitude of the tablelands affords a variety of conditions of soil and climate suitable to the de- velopment of all kinds of agri- cultural crops. From the prolific rice fields of the coast country to the vast cattle plains of the interior, the industries of the State include the cultivation of most of the products of tropical and. temperate zones. PROVIDENCE COLLEGE, CURYTIBA. It is of paramount impor- tance that this wonderful State, which possesses the area and the resources sufficient for the maintenance of a population of many millions, should attract to its shores an increasing tide of immigration, in order that a greater number of agricultural communities may be established throughout its vast territory to cultivate the fertile soil and harvest the abundant wealth of its pastures and forests. The degree of progress and prosperity of the entire State depends only on the increase of population, which at present does not exceed five hundred thousand, chiefly settled in the eastern section. Through the enterprise of the State government, a number of foreign colonies were established some years ago on the plateau, in the valley of the Iguassu, and near the coast. They have prospered greatly and their scattered settlements have grown into flourishing towns. They are principally populated by Poles, Italians, and Germans. The Poles are the most numerous, about fifty thou- sand thrifty farmers of this nationality having established themselves in the communi- ties of Sdo Matheus and Rio Claro, in the Iguassu valley; at Thomaz Coelho, Lamenha Lins, and Abranches, near Curytiba; at Lucena and Antonio Olintho, near the Rio Negro, and at Prudentopolis on the Guarapuava road. The last-named is a town of considerable impor- tance, the centre of a rich agricultural community. The Italian colonies represent a popula- tion of thirty thousand or more, the principal settlement being at Colombo, about ten miles from Curytiba. There are not more than fifteen thousand Germans in the State, of whom the greater number are engaged in mercantile business. The English colony, too, is small, though it has grown considerably since the inauguration of improved railway facilities and the consequently promising outlook for great industrial and commercial growth. In travelling through the State one is constantly impressed by the opportunities offered to enterprising and active farmers in the natural resources, fruitful soil, and splendid climate of this favored region. From Paranagua, the seaport through which the main traffic of Parana is conducted, and at which passengers are landed upon their arrival in the State, a railway train leaves daily for the interior. The journey takes one across a stretch of country wonderfully varied in climate and picturesque charm, and immensely rich in productive- ness. Paranagua itself is a flourishing town, with a popu- lation of about ten thousand, situated on one of the largest PARANA 315 PRACA GENERAL OSORIO, CURYTIBA. harbors of the Brazilian coast. The streets of the town are well-paved and clean; its public buildings are of solid structure and many of them are modern edifices; there are six pracas, or parks, of which the principal one, Praca Fernando Amaro, is beautifully ornamented with Shade trees, shrubs, and flower beds; and the whole aspect of the place indicates that the municipality is well-governed and in happy circumstances. The port is visited regularly abists HOUSE OF CONGRESS, CURYTIBA. 316 THE NEW BRAZIL twice a week by steamers of the Lloyd-Brazileiro and the Costeiro lines, and more than a hundred steamers on an average call there annually on trips between Rio and Buenos Aires. Paranagua is the chief centre of trade for the coast district, which sends to this port the harvests from its rice and cotton fields, its fruit farms and vegetable gardens. Next in importance to Paranagua as a shipping port is the picturesque little city of Antonina, which is also situated on the bay of Paranagua, a magnificent harbor of thirty miles in extent. Although of comparatively recent growth, Antonina is rapidly becoming noted for its indus- trial enterprise and commercial activity. Its chief exports are bananas, oranges, Sugar cane, A PUBLIC GARDEN IN CURYTIBA. rice, and yerba maté, the last-named being brought down from higher altitudes and much of it prepared for market in the maté mills of this port. Iron mines of immense value and of easy access exist in the neighborhood, which is rich in various mineral products, such as manganese, mica, and other ores. The journey from Paranagua and Antonina to Curytiba is made by train, over the Parana railway, a masterpiece of engineering, which surmounts the range without the aid of cogs or cables, by means of trestles, tunnels, bridges and curves. There are seventeen tunnels in all piercing the sides of the Serra do Mar along this route. The road was built by a Belgian company and was opened to traffic in 1883. Not only does a trip over this line PARANA 317 afford a view of unparalleled magnificence in the richness and variety of natural scenery which is unfolded to the sight at every turn, but the evidence of industrial progress and development may be seen in the flourishing aspect of the various towns along the route. Saw mills, factories, breweries, and similar enterprises manifest the business activity and demonstrate the existence of general prosperity. After four hours’ journey from Paranagua the traveller arrives at Curytiba, the capital of Parana, a city of fifty thousand inhabitants, situated on the plateau, sixty miles from the coast, and at an elevation of three thousand feet above sea level. It is one of the largest cities of southern Brazil and its progress within the past ten years has been remarkable. It is now a thoroughly modern capital, with spacious and well paved streets, lighted with electricity and traversed in all directions THE CATHEDRAL, CURYTIBA. by street cars; handsome public buildings, among which are the governor’s palace, the palace of congress, the municipal building, the hospital, the penitentiary, the post office and a number of fine school buildings, are evidences of economic progress. Education receives adequate attention, the State supporting more than four hundred schools. Among these, the primary schools occupy an important place, as it is the constant aim of the government to increase the facilities by which all-classes may enjoy the privilege of free instruction. In Curytiba the profession of teaching is learned in the Escola Normal. Special instruction is given in a kindergarten, a school of fine arts, a school of crafts and industries, called the Escola Carvalho, and a technical school, known as the Gymnasio Paranaense. The Escola Americana is a very successful boarding and day school, conducted by two North Americans, Miss Dascomb and Miss Kuhl, who are greatly esteemed in their adopted country. In the 318 THE NEW BRAZIL interest of general education the government authorities have established an excellent public library and a museum at Curytiba. The needs of the poor and unfortunate have not been neglected, the hospital, Santa Casa da Miseri- cordia, responding to the demands of the suffering, and the insane asylum affording a shelter for the mentally afflicted. For recrea- tion, the city offers many attractions in the social clubs, the theatres, and several beauti- ful pracas for the purposes of a promenade, of which the Jardim Botanico is the most popu- lar, as it is not only a charming passeio, but a place affording much interesting instruction. Together with its surrounding colonias, Curytiba extends over a considerable area, within which almost every industry of a temperate zone is developed. Barley, oats, wheat, rye, Indian corn, and potatoes are cultivated, and within the past few years a new industry, that of wine growing, has been undertaken with very: satisfactory re- sults. In the Poplade, Moura, and Amaral : eS vineyards, more than fifty thousand vines SDUCh Ce aan ee have been planted, and a very good quality of wine is produced, which is greatly in demand for the market of the northern States. The annual shipment amounts to about ten thousand barrels, and the outlook is favorable for an extensive commerce in Parana wines. On the tablelands, especially in the districts of Lapa, Palmeira, Ponta Grossa, and westward to Guarapava, extensive ranges afford pasture for cattle and sheep, which thrive wonderfully in this favorable climate. In addition to the wealth which has been produced in the State through the develop- ment of agriculture and cattle raising, rich revenues have resulted from the exploitation of the unlimited treasures of its forests and mines, though as yet the value and extent of these resources have never been properly investigated. Large fortunes have been made in the yerba maté forests, which flourish throughout the State wherever the altitude reaches two thousand feet, being especially abundant along the course of the Iguassu River and its tributaries. The /lex paraguayensis, as the yerba maté tree is known to science, has grown so rapidly in importance of recent years, since the introduction of its beverage product into European and North American homes, that the latter forms one of the chief articles of export in Parana, and more than twenty large mills for preparing the maté for market have been established in various cities of the State. Next in importance to the yerba maté as an ~ PARANA 319 article of export from the Paranda forests are the splendid hardwoods which they yield in almost endless variety, though the trade in this product has not yet been developed to meet the full demand, owing to the difficulties of trans- portation. The Parana pine, or Araucaria bra- siliensts, is one of the prominent features of the landscape in this State, where it some- times grows to a height of one hundred and twenty-five feet, with a diameter of six feet; it is exported to all the States of Brazil for building pur- poses, as Well as for vari- ous other uses to which pine isespecially adapted; the fruit is very nutri- tious; the resin contains turpentine, pitch, and a gum similar to gum arabic, which give it great therapeutic value, and the nuts are extensively used in the manufacture of buttons. It is estimated that there are eighty million pine trees in the State. In addition to the pine, the cedar and the imbuia are ex- ported in large quantities; the latter being in great demand because of the beautiful grain and the splendid polish it will take. It is calculated that the annual export of Parana woods is about one hundred thousand cubic metres. The abundance of wood easily obtainable has contributed toward the success THE POST OFFICE, CURYTIBA. of many important enterprises, notably that of the Curytiba match factory, which is one of the largest manufacturing industries in southern Brazil. The extent of Parana’s mineral resources is as yet unknown, though the investigations already VIEW ALONG THE PARANA RAILWAY BETWEEN PARANAGUA AND CURYTIBA. 320 THE NEW BRAZIL made show that there is enormous wealth hidden in her mountains and streams. Gold is found in some districts of the southeastern part of the State, between Curytiba and the southern border, as well as in the upper streams of the Tibagy; in the Tibagy and Jordao Rivers diamonds have been discovered. Alum is found in Ponta Grossa, mercury in Palmeira, and in many sections are marble, granite, and slate. At Imbituba, between Ponta Grossa and Guarapava, a valuable coal mine was found recently; and every exploring party THE AMERICAN CHURCH, CURYTIBA. that goes into the interior returns with some of the many ores found in the serras of that rich and extensive region. Of prime importance in the industrial and commercial development of Parana, as of every other State of Brazil, is the extension of the railway systems. In Parana the railroads are comprised under two lines: the Parana railway, of which the main line connects the Seaport of Paranagua with the capital, Curytiba, extends west to Ponta Grossa, one hundred and eighty miles, the branches connecting Antonina with Morretes, a distance of ten miles, Serrinha with Rio Negro, of fifty miles, and.Restinga with Port Amazones, of six miles; and the Sado Paulo and Rio Grande railroad which extends across the State from northeast to southwest, leaving Jaguariahyva, near the southern border of Sao Paulo and reaching the PARANA 321 border of Santa Catharina at Porto da Unido on the Iguassu River, covering a distance of two hundred and fifty-two miles. This road is now in exploitation, traversing a territory of varied aspect. The headquarters of the railway company are at Ponta Grossa, the second city inthe State in population. From this point north to Jaguaria- hyva, a distance of ninety-three miles, the line passes through the town of Castro, and, with an ascent of about a thousand feel; crosses) a spur of the Paranapiacaba_ range, sloping gradually to the great tableland from which the town takes its name. Most of the land along this route is particularly well adapted to pasturage, and there is ample provision for vast herds of cattle on the. rolling plains and sloping hillsides. At present only a few ranches are seen, the chief enterprises of this kind being in the neighborhood of Castro, which is situated on the river Iapo, a branch of the Tibagy. From Ponta Grossa south to Porto da Unido, a distance of one hundred and fifty-nine miles, the railroad crosses a country covered with immense forests of pine trees, Separated at intervals by extensive clearings which show the result of industrious labor on the part of the colonists settled in this region. Rio Claro, with a population of ten thousand, is the commercial centre of a community of prosperous Polish farmers, who cultivate the fertile soil with excellent results, harvesting barley, rye, beans, potatoes, and other prod- ucts. The freight carried by this road is principally yerba maté, hardwoods, and farm produce. Comprised in the great Sao Paulo and Rio Grande system, the railroad from Jagua- riahyva to Porto da Unido is part of a trunk line which is now under construction at ; : various points for the purpose of establish- STREET SCENE IN PARANAGUA. ing complete railway transportation from the Federal capital southward through the States of Sado Paulo, Parana, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul, to the limits of the republic. From Jaguariahyva north to Itararé, a distance of sixty miles, the line is being THE VINEYARD OF DR. MOURA, NEAR CURYTIBA. 322 THE NEW BRAZIL extended to establish connection with the Sorocabana railway of Sao Paulo. In addition to the main line which is on the point of completion from the northern to the southern border of Parana, the Sao Paulo and Rio Grande Railway Company have now under construction in this State, or have made surveys and plans for their construction, more than a thousand miles of railways. From Jaguariahyva a branch line will run north to Salto Grande on the Paranapanema River, touching the Sao Paulo frontier; a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, all of which is surveyed, and about half of it is under construction. A line is also being built from Parana to the port of Sao Francisco in the State of Santa Catharina, about seven hundred miles (one thousand two hundred kilometres) in length, one hundred miles of which is completed, and the remainder is in course of construction. This line will enter the State of Parana near Rio Claro, and, crossing the main line, will pass through Guara- pava to its western terminus at the Falls of Iguassu, which are destined one day to be the great scenic attraction of South America, as Niagara Falls have been that of North America for a century or more. Both States will reap the vast benefits to accrue from such an enterprise, which will serve as a connect- ing link in their social, indus- trial, and commercial progress. When all the lines now being built, or which are projected, are put in operation, Parana will have such a network of THE MUNICIPAL CHAMBER, PARANAGUA. railways as will facilitate trans- portation in every part of the State. The Sado Paulo and Rio Grande Railway Company is directed by men of the greatest skill in railroad enterprise. Among its directors is Sir William C. Van Horne, of Montreal, Canada, the president of one of the greatest triumphs in ‘modern railroad science, the Canadian Pacific system. The construction is in charge of able managers under the presidency of Mr. Percival Farquhar, and the company’s offices and shops at Ponta Grossa present an aspect of bustling activity. The wood of the country, especially the imbuia, is well adapted for the construction of cars, samples of which have been made in the Ponta Grossa car shops. The history of industrial development in every country of the New World has been intimately related to the increase of its facilities for transportation, and one of the greatest influences in attracting immigration to the western States of the United States during the past fifty years has been the possibilities for rapid and secure transportation of the farmers’ products to the best markets, as well as the greater social advantages afforded by facilities for communication. By the construction of a complete railway system, Parana will increase PARANA 323 many times the present value of its vast territory. The rail- ways now in operation have contributed greatly toward the extension of commerce, and many enterprises which could not have been successfully es- tablished without the necessary railway facilities for distributing their products have grown up within recent years and are rapidly increasing in impor- ss oes tance and wealth. A prosper- RUA GENERAL CARNEIRO, PARANAGUA. ous trade exists with Argentina and Chile in barbecua, or meat dried over the fire by a process which protects it from any taste of smoke. Yerba maté, as will be seen from the next chapter, is the chief source of revenue to the State, though other industries are increasing in number annually. Parana ranks eighth among the twenty-two States of Brazil in the value of its export trade, which amounts to ten million milreis, gold, annually. The financial condition of the State has never been more prosperous than now, and the government is in the hands of statesmen of ability and patriotism, who devote every effort toward its aggrandizement. The president, Dr. Joao Can- dido Ferreira, had valuable experience in government affairs before his election to the highest office of the State, having occupied several important posts under previous administrations. He was vice-president in the government. of the late President Vicente Machado, and filled the a Oa office of chief executive *e til na ne ae | during the visit of the antl) i wii th if NAW MN os HS ease president to Europe in a . | 2 Se gee vain effort to regain his health. Upon the death of that distinguished statesman, the unani- mous voice of the people welcomed Dr. Candido Ferreira as his successor. Dr. Vicente Machado was a native Paranaense, RAILROAD BRIDGE OF CASTRO, STATE OF PARANA. and a graduate of the 324 THE NEW BRAZIL Sao Paulo Law School. He occupied several important official positions under the empire, and was elected first president of Parana under the republic; he did good service for the Federal government during the naval revolution, and, after 1895, as a Senator of the republic, he continued to take an active interest in the affairs of his State. Among other leaders in the political, commercial, and educational advancement of Parana, one of the best known, especially through his important scientific articles on the subject of yerba mate, is Dr. Victor Ferreira do Amaral, a physician of high standing and the president of the State Society of Agri- culture, which in 1goo held an exposition in Curytiba that attracted many thousands of visitors. In accordance with the constitution of Parana, the president of the State is elected every four years. The legislative power is delegated to the State congress, which is composed of thirty deputies, elected for two years. The judicial power is exercised by a superior tribunal of justice, district judges, and minor courts of law. The State is divided into thirty- nine municipalities, each of which has its municipal chamber and a prefect elected for four years. It also constitutes a diocese, the bishop of which is the Very Reverend Dom Duarte Leopoldo, who resides in Curytiba, where the cathedral, a beautiful new edifice, occupies a prominent site overlooking the Praga Tiradentes. The picturesque scenery and salubrious climate of the State of Parana are attractions excelled only by the more substantial advantages of a fertile soil and abundant natural wealth. Tourists who now crowd the various mountain resorts of Europe will some day discover that in the serras of Parana are more magnificent vistas, richer color effects in foliage and blossoms, more wonderful contrasts in the light and shade that envelop alternately the sunny crests of the mountains and their unfathomable gorges, than in many of the Old World’s most famous highlands. There is much to encourage immigration in the statement of Saint- Hilaire respecting Parana: “Of all the States of Brazil, none offers greater advantages to the European farmers; they find here a temperate climate, pure air, the fruits of their country, a land in which they can raise all the produce that may be grown in their own country.” PONTA GROSSA, PARANA THE ‘LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS WATERFALL NEAR CURYTIBA, PARANA. CHAPTER AIX THE YERBA MATE OF PARANA NV ee the disciples of Igna- tius Loyola entered upon their labors as missionaries among the Indians of Brazil, in the mid- dle of the sixteenth century, they were surprised to find that the Guarany tribes were able to withstand all kinds of hardships and to go without solid food for days at a time, by chewing the leaves of a native shrub which they called cad. The holy fathers experimented with the herb, and found it so good that they established plantations and taught the Indians to cultivate it, giving it the name of yerba maté. In the early days of the industry, every mission had its yerbale under cultivation, the Jesuits directing the labors of the Indians, who were carefully drilled in their work, dividing attention between the cad mini, or best quality, and the cad nana, of inferior worth. Later, immense maté forests, or verbales, were discovered in all the southern States of Brazil, the most valuable being those of Parana, which are to-day the great sources of the yerba maté supply for the markets of the world, though the territory within which the plant will grow may be said to extend from Minas Geraes to Rio Grande do Sul and from the Paraguay River to the Atlantic Ocean. Travellers and explorers in South American countries long ago learned the good qualities of yerba maté as a refreshing and invigorating beverage. Darwin thoroughly appreciated its value, and in letters to his friends, as well as in the pages of his Journal of Researches, written after his South American journey, he lauds it as an “ideal drink.” The yerba maté is not an herb, but a shrub, even a tree, about the size of an 327 “A RIVER BOAT LOADED WITH YERBA MATE. 328 THE NEW BRAZIL orange tree, though its boughs are more slender. It sometimes grows to the height of twenty-five feet, the trunk measuring over three feet in circumference. The principal wh INDIANS CARRYING YERBA MATE TO THE MILL. yerbales are situated in the remote country districts, far from towns, and the yerbateiros, or maté-gatherers, are obliged to make a long trip across the country before reaching their destination. The time for collecting maté usually begins in December, and continues until August. The yerbateiros set out with their provisions, tools, and cattle, prepared to establish a camp for the season in the maté forest. The picking, drying, and packing were previously performed on the grounds, but since the perfection of machinery suitable for the process of drying and packing, this part of the work has been done in large central mills to which the product of an entire district is taken. Under the old system, the yerbateiros usually travelled in companies of twenty or thirty, forming quite a little settlement wherever they erected their huts. Their first work consisted in preparing an open space about six feet square, after which they beat the ground hard and smooth with mallets. Then they cut the maté and placed it in the clearing, building a fire around it to give it a preliminary roasting, after which it was arranged on a framework of poles with a fire underneath for a second roasting, this process requiring great care, as the aroma of the maté depended upon it; the required amount of heat was only learned by long experience. After two or three days of drying, the leaves were reduced to coarse powder, and packed in serons, or bags of raw hide, which shrank when exposed to the sun, thus completing the preparation of the maté for shipment. The preliminary roasting is still done on some of the yerbales in large copper pans over a slow fire, after which the THE YERBA MATE OF PARANA 329 maté is put in bags and stored away until it is shipped to the harbor of export in wagons drawn by long trains of mules or in the river boats that carry this freight in great quantities. More than twenty million people in South America drink maté daily, and find it a more desirable beverage than tea or coffee, having none of the deleterious effects of these drinks even when taken to excess, but, on the contrary, promoting digestion, soothing the nerves, and giving immediate activity to the brain. According to high scientific authority, it is the only beverage which leaves absolutely no bad after-effects upon those who drink it in large or small quantities. Its dynamic value is enormous; by its use the cowboys of the plains and soldiers in battle are enabled to endure the most terrible fatigue and even to live for days without solid food. During the Paraguayan war, it was an indispensable agent in preserving the lives of the fever-stricken armies, and many times it formed the sole means of sustenance during long and wearisome marches. The importance of this fact has been So impressed upon government officials in foreign countries that extensive experiments are YERBA MATE TREES. now being made with this drink in the armies of France and Germany, with satisfactory results, it is said, and it has been recommended to the United States government by some 330 THE NEW BRAZIL of its officials in South America as a valuable drink for its soldiers in the hot climates of Cuba and the Philippines. As a safeguard against insomnia, it is highly spoken of, and in those countries where it is a con- stant beverage such affections as gout and indigestion are unknown. As a beverage, yerba mate is especially beneficial to those of sedentary habits and to brain- workers who find the use of coffee or tea harmful to the nervous sys- tem. In certain parts of South America, where mate is the only drink, the people present an ap- pearance of healthy activity, fresh- ness, and good physical condition which cannot be attributed solely to the influence of climate or cir- cumstances, but seem rather to be the result, ina great measure, of abstemious habits, fostered by an absolute freedom from the use of intoxicants—which are seldom in demand among maté-drinkers—or of tea or coffee, so harmful under some conditions, and the bene- fit resulting from the therapeutic qualities of the yerba maté, which they drink in unlimited quantities. Gauchos, guanaco hunters, miners, and soldiers are contented with rations that include nothing more than a piece of hard bread or a bit of dried beef, providing they are well sup- plied with maté. In every sphere of life and in every circle of society the South Americans enjoy this excellent beverage. In some homes it is the custom to take maté several times a day, sipping it from the cya through a bombilla. The cuya is a diminutive calabash, usually about the size of an orange, with a small opening, through which the maté is put in and hot water poured over it, often not larger than just sufficient to admit the bowl of the bombilla. Cuyas are of every shape and size, some richly ornamented and others of the most primitive manufacture. The bombillas, or, as the name signifies, “little pumps,” are utilized similarly to the “straws” through which North Americans sip their lemonade, though they are quite different in appearance, being usually made of metal, with a small perforated bulb or strainer at the end, in order that the THE CATARACT “ VISCONDE DE RIO-BRANCO,” STATE OF PARANA. THE YERBA MATE OF PARANA 331 tea may be imbibed without any of the maté leaves being drawn into the mouth. There is wide latitude for the indulgence of individual taste in the selection of a cuya and bombilla, some of which are very handsome and elaborate, beautifully carved, and mounted in silver or gold. After every few sips, a fresh supply of hot water must be poured over the tea leaves, to which sugar and cream are added, if preferred. In most homes of the better class, a neat little servant stands ready to replenish the cuya as required. An old custom of the maté countries, which is symbolic of the most cordial hospitality, though not now so general as formerly, consists in passing the cuya around, so that every one present may partake of the beverage through the same bombilla, after the manner of the “pipe of peace.” Foreigners soon learn to enjoy the maté, sometimes following the native custom of taking it from the cuya, but quite as often using a cup and saucer in “five-o’clock” style. MAMMOTH ROCKS AT VILLA VELHA, PARANA. Although it is an acquired taste to some extent, there are few who do not become mateé- drinkers after a few trials of the beverage, and the most enthusiastic native is not louder in praise of its wonderful qualities than the newly-won advocate from across the seas. The 332 THE NEW BRAZIL amount of maté used in preparing the drink varies according to individual taste. An ounce of the yerba to a quart of water is generally the proportion used, the tea being strained and ready for serving after steeping ten or fifteen minutes. It may be sweet- ened to taste and a little milk or rum added, if pre- ferred. Iron uten- sils should be avoided, as they give a dark color to. the beverage. Sometimes the maté is put into a bag and hot water poured over it, thus obviating the necessity of straining when serving it in the cup and _ saucer TRANSPORTING YERBA MATE FOR SHIPMENT. style, though the majority of “con- firmed” maté-drinkers prefer the cuya and bombilla of South American custom on all occasions, and certainly there is the element of the picturesque in this quaint fashion. A chemist of world-wide reputation, who has had years of experience in ana- lyzing teas in London, says: ‘“Yerba-maté tea must be considered a most valuable beverage. It is especially beneficial to the stomach and nerves. It has great sustain- ing power, but does not irritate. Its effect is soothing and quieting, with no deleterious consequences of any kind. Maté may be freely drunk after it has stood forty-eight hours, without any unpleasant disturbances, even in strong decoction. It remains just as healthful as when freshly made.” Dr. Mante- gazza, the great Italian physician, says that maté is especially good for those who live under MATE BLOSSOMS. THE YERBA MATE OF PARANA 333 severe mental strain, whose labors are chiefly intellectual. The exports of yerba maté from Parana last year amounted to fifty thousand tons, valued at a million pounds sterling. Some of the large maté companies own vast estates and have mate mills equipped with the best modern conven- ' iences for treating the ; maté when it comes from eee ema the yerbales, and for pre- paring it for shipment. The Tibagy factory, which was founded in 1869 by the Baron de Serro Azul, is one of the best equipped maté establishments of the State. It is provided with modern presses and other machinery, and has its own repairing shops, and is lighted entirely with electricity. The Santa Graga factory at Curytiba, and the maté mills of Villa Guimaraes at Paranagua ship large quantities of yerba maté to all parts of South America and an increasing supply annually to the markets of Europe and the United States. The process of treating the mateé leaves is quite simple. When the maté is taken to one of these mills, it is first triturated and separated from the stems and dust by means of mechanical crushers, sifters, and ventilators; when sufficiently pulverized, it is passed through troughs into a second grinder, the twigs being again sifted and broken, after which they are separated and classified, some being used as fuel, and the rest forming an indispensable part of the maté sent to consumers. Within THE PLANT THAT SUPPLIES HIS FAVORITE BEVERAGE. BRIDGE OVER THE IGUASSU RIVER. recent years its cultivation has received every attention, especially since the Paraguayan war, when the great demand for it resulted in the accumulation of several fortunes among 334 THE NEW BRAZIL the yerba maté proprietors, the profits reaching a hundred per cent clear of all expenses in some cases, So great was the demand. THE RAILWAY STATION AT PONTA GROSSA, A SHIPPING POINT FOR YERBA MATE. Brazil distinguished herself during the nineteenth century among the commercial nations of the world by making her coffee an almost universal beverage, and it is not too much to predict that results as wonderful will be accomplished during the present century with her tea, the yerba mate, which is rapidly winning favor in the homes of North America and Europe, and may even find its way to the Orient, the home of its Chinese rival. THE PINES OF PARANA. THE ‘LIBRARY “OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 7. ‘VNIUVHLVO VINVS AO ALVLS JO WLIdVO AHL ‘SITOdONVINOTA CHAPTER XX SANTA CATHARINA MAIN STAIRWAY, GOVERNMENT PALACE, FLORIANOPOLIS. ANTA CATHARINA was one of the first points of discovery on the South Amer- ican coast, the navigator Juan Dias de Solis having visited it in 1515 and Sebastian Cabot in 1525, though it was not settled until 1650, when Francisco Dias Velho Monteiro and his four sons established themselves on the island which extends along the coast mid- way between the northern and the southern limits of the present State for a distance of about twenty-five miles. Monteiro gave to the island the name of Santa Catharina in honor of his daughter, and at once erected a chapel to Nossa Senhora do Desterro [Our Lady of Exile] upon the site of the present capital, Florianopolis. The mainland remained unsettled until about the end of the seven- teenth century, when the Paulistas founded an agricultural colony first known as Prageres, from the church of Nossa Senhora dos Prazeres [Our Lady of Joys] erected at this place, though afterward the name was changed to Villa dos Lages, by which it is known to-day as one of the thriving towns of the State. There was no extensive colonization of the State until the eighteenth century, when King Jodo V. sent out families from the Azores to settle the mainland and the island. In 1813, the present limits were established, and in 1824 the territory became a province of the empire, the first president being Joao Rodrigo de Carvalho. From this date, the settlement of the country progressed gradually, until, in 1849, anew impetus was given to its growth by the establishment of the colony of Joinville 337 338 THE NEW BRAZIL in the northeastern part of the State, a few miles inland from the bay of Sao Francisco, which is one of the best harbors along the South American coast. The Duke de Joinville, THE GOVERNMENT PALACE, FLORIANOPOLIS. son of Louis Philippe, founded this colony principally with German settlers, on a tract of land which had been put aside for the purpose out of the marriage dot of his wife, Princess Donna Francisco, sister of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. Circumstances were favorable to its development at that time when there was a general exodus of Germans from the fatherland in consequence of political discontent, and within a few years after its inauguration it became one of the most prosperous towns to be found in southern Brazil; broad, shaded streets fronting pretty cottages and even more pretentious residences, and attractive gardens beautified with shrubs and flowers, gave to the town an appearance of prosperity in keeping with the advancement made, which was gratifying to both the founder and the colonists. Joinville now has a population of about thirty thousand inhabitants, nearly all Brazilian citizens, and it is the chief town of a rich agricultural district, as well as a manufacturing centre of importance. Hundreds of wagon loads of yerba maté pass through the city to the seaport of Sao Francisco for shipment; tobacco, wheat, rye, bariey, and dairy products are grown in this district; manufacturing enterprises of every kind have been established, numbering about two hundred, and including a sugar factory in the suburb of Pirabeiraba, a rice mill, five large establishments for the treatment of yerba maté, four cotton spinning mills, fifteen saw mills, and a number of foundries, breweries and other enterprises. The municipal authorities are wide awake to the importance of general education, and the town supports fifty schools with an average attendance of three thousand pupils. SN Aeod ARINA 339 Possessing the simple tastes and frugal habits that distinguish the German farmer in his own land, and which the German-Brazilian inherits from his colonist ancestors, these thrifty people have developed also the characteristics of their Brazilian parents, and are generous in hospitality, ready in enterprise, and optimistic in temperament. The salubrious climate and fertile soil of the State of Santa Catharina make it especially adapted to the purposes of colonization, and nowhere in Brazil have the foreign commun- ities enjoyed better opportunities for progress than here. About a year after the colony of Joinville was settled, Dr. Blumenau founded the German colony which still bears his name, and chose as a site for its location a tract of land in the most fertile region of the State, bordering on the river Itajahy, southwest of Joinville and northwest of Florianopolis, about equidistant between these two ports. Blumenau has developed rapidly; it now numbers about fifty thousand inhabitants, and has many important manufactories. Its chief port is Itajahy, a picturesque town of twenty thousand inhabitants, situated at the mouth of the river of the same name. Itajahy has an especial claim to renown as the birthplace of one of Brazil’s greatest statesmen, Dr. Lauro Muller. It takes importance as the nearest point of export for rich mineral products, manganese, mica, etc., which have THE PRINCIPAL PARK OF FLORIANOPOLIS. recently been discovered in the vicinity. The Itajahy River, varying in width from five hundred feet to a quarter of a mile between Blumenau and the seaport, is navigable by 340 TELE ON EVI ALLL small vessels for thirty miles. The exports of Blumenau include tobacco, sugar, wheat and dairy products. It is one of the most picturesque of the many attractive towns of Santa Catharina, and the predominance of Teutonic types and customs gives it an appearance more German than Brazilian, though the inhabitants are loyal to the land of their adoption, and take pride in everything which advances its interests and welfare. Blumenau is the centre of a rich agri- cultural district which has been indus- triously developed, and yields splendid harvests annually. The production from the tobacco plantations alone represents an important revenue, about ten million cigars being exported every year to supply the markets of Hamburg and Bremen. The dairy products fur- nish another valuable source of wealth, about five hundred tons of butter being shipped annually, in addition to large quantities of cheese, ham, fruits, and other articles. In the neighborhood of Blumenau, on the northern bank of the Itajahy, there is an abundance of granite and marble of a superior quality, which awaits exploitation by enterprising capitalists. Although no railroads have yet been completed to connect this city with the coast and with other interior towns, the municipality maintains in good condition about one thousand five hundred miles of wagon roads. Blumenau is connected with the port of Itajahy by steamer. Another flourishing German colony, Brusque, situated on the Itajahy, between Blum- enau and the port, is especially noted for its manufacturing enterprises. A new railway line is projected from Blumenau to Hamonia, which is the centre of a Hanseatic colony established a few years ago, and from this line branches will be extended to the Rio Negro on the north and to Curytibanos at the southwest. This enterprise is in the hands of German capitalists, and is not connected with the proposed system of the Sao Paulo and Rio Grande Railway Company, which is not only constructing a line to cross the State from the Parana boundary at Porto da Unido to the northern border of Rio Grande do Sul, as part of the trunk line from Rio to the southern limits of the republic, but is also at work on the line from the port of Sao Francisco to the Falls of Iguassu, as previously stated. Already one may go by railway from Sao Francisco to Joinville, ten miles away, AYSTREETSOFR THE CAPITAL: eV Edm AINA 341 and the line is being rapidly extended inland. Other routes have been surveyed, by the construction of which the whole interior will be crossed by a network of railways. One of THE MARKET PLACE, FLORIANOPOLIS. the oldest towns of the interior is Lages, the centre of rich pasture lands in the southern part of the high plateau which extends across the State from north to south, and which, in Santa Catharina, as in Sao Paulo and Parana, is separated from the coast region by the Serra do Mar, or Coast Range. In addition to cattle raising, the people cultivate the soil with profitable results, producing good harvests of fruits and cereals. Wine growing is a promising industry, and maté is exported from the forests. Another town of great promise is Curytibanos, which takes its name from the fact that the founders were natives of Cury- tiba in Parana, soldiers who made this their resting place on their marches between the national capital and their head- quarters in the south. Curyti- banos is situated at the junction of two roads which cross the State from the northern to the BOCAYUVA AVENUE, FLORIANOPOLIS, 342 THE NEW BRAZIL southern boundary, and in the centre of a fertile agricultural region. Its products are similar to those of Lages, as the natural conditions governing the two places are practically the same. The discovery in this locality of valuable deposits of clay suitable for the manufacture of cement has led to the organization of a company to exploit this industry, which is of vast importance, as the various port improvements now under way require the employment of immense quantities of cement. Experiments and analyses made by a skilful expert of the laboratory of Zurich, Switzerland, resulted in a report so favorable that capital was at once THE MUNICIPAL CHAMBER, FLORIANOPOLIS. subscribed for the establishment of cement works with a capacity of three hundred barrels daily, which are in operation at a point situated between the municipalities of Brusque and Lages. Especial attention has recently been attracted to the coast region in the southern part of the State, where the coal mines of Tubardo have been explored with promising results. The Donna Theresa Christina railroad, which was built a few years ago to connect these mines with the seaport of Imbituba, and which passes through the town of Tubardo, now has a short branch running along the coast south from Imbituba to Laguna, and is being extended northward from Imbituba to Massiambu, while another branch is under construction from Tubardo south to Ararangua near the boundary of Rio Grande do Sul. All these towns are SANTA CATHARINA 343 Situated in a fertile zone, and under favor- able circumstances are destined to become rich and prosperous cities. Laguna has a population of about twenty-five thousand, and is well situated, overlooking Laguna Bay on one side and the Atlantic Ocean on the other. It appears to have been the Site of a very ancient population, judging from the immense shell-mound, or sam- baqui, of prehistoric construction which is piled up near the ocean. All along the coast of Santa Catharina similar formations are found, notably at the picturesque little harbor of Porto Bello, about thirty miles south of Itajahy, which has further. inter- est for the archeologist because of the peculiar hieroglyphics that mark the sea- THE CATHEDRAL, FLORIANOPOLIS. front of the little rocky island of Joao de Cunha in this harbor. A few miles north of Massiambt is situated the city of Sao José, immediately opposite the State capital of Florianopolis with which it is connected by ferry boat, as are also the towns of Palhoca, Biguassu, Tijucas, and other coast ports. as Caldas da Imperatriz. Near Palhoga are the thermal springs known VIEW OF FLORIANOPOLIS FROM THE BAY. 344 THE NEW BRAZIL Florianopolis, the capital of the State of Santa Catharina, is one of the most picturesque cities of Brazil. It is situated on the island of Santa Catharina, under the shelter of a back- ground of hills, green with verdure and presenting varied aspects, as they rise gracefully from the water’s edge to a height of from one thousand to three thousand feet, under the clearest of skies and surrounded by the blue waters of the Atlantic. The city faces the mainland, from which it is separated by a strait about five miles in width. The entire island is a garden of beauty, its sunny hillsides bright with the blossoms of many fruits, its valleys rich in the varied hues of flowers and shrubs, its lanes shaded by the branches of towering trees and redo- lent of the perfume from bor- dering hedges. A drive from the city to the island’s south- ern limits is a pleasure never to be forgotten, so beautiful is the scenery, so charming is every expression of nature in this’ favored’ spot) |The «city, has a population of thirty thou- sand people and is well laid out, with paved streets, parks and houses of solid construc- tion. The palace of the gov- ernor is a handsome modern structure of white stone, the interior finished in hardwood from native forests and har- moniously and elegantly fur- nished. The Charity Hospital, THE STATE TREASURY, FLORIANOPOLIS. “Santa Casa,” is a spacious and well-appointed institution, occupying a favorable site on the hillside in full view of the harbor. In addition to the hospital there are many charities maintained by benevolent societies connected with the churches. A beautiful sentiment inspired the ladies of Florianopolis to found an ‘‘Associacgao das Damas de Caridad” on May 5, 1907, for the purpose of supplying medicine and food to the sick poor, of clothing indigent children and of meeting other demands of the helpless and suffering who are not reached through the established charities. The city has a cathe- dral and several beautiful churches, a theatre, and many schools for primary and secondary instruction, with colleges for more advanced courses. A well-furnished public library SANTA CATHARINA 345 is one of its progressive institutions. In the residence section are many beautiful private houses, some of them picturesquely situated in the midst of luxuriant verdure, surrounded by gardens and overlooking the sea. As the chief seat of gov- ernment, Florianopolis is the most important city of the State. It is the headquarters for foreign commerce and : ell Dit ships from all countries visit seats SS is .pons, we Steamers. Ol) the Lloyd Brazileiro and the Cos- teira lines call twice a week each way, and European steam- ers of the Hamburg-American and other lines are frequently THE CUSTOM HOUSE, FLORIANOPOLIS. seen in this harbor. As yet the country has not reaped the full benefit of its wonderful resources, though the annual exports are valued at nearly three million dollars gold and the imports at half that total, the custom house receipts amounting to half a million dollars annually. Within the past few years the State of Santa Catharina, as well as the rest of Brazil, has begun a new era of progress and enterprise, and the result is seen in every branch of public interest, Social, industrial, and commercial. Ever since the inauguration of the republic this State has been developing in political and commercial importance, due to the patriotic efforts of its great men, among whom its first republican governor, Dr. Lauro Muller LAKE AT BLUMENAU, SANTA CATHARINA. holds a place of especial honor, not only for what he has done for his own State but for all Brazil. The present chief executive is Dr. Gustavo Richard, a statesman of high 346 THE NEW BRAZIL A PICTURESQUE CASCADE IN SANTA CATHARINA. principles and good judgment, whose administration is marked by continued progress and advancement. His efforts have been directed with equal interest and determination to every department of the government, and the reports of his secretaries show that this activity has been productive of good results to the political, educational, and industrial welfare of Uileoe tare: DR. BLUMENAU STREET, SHOWING THE NEW PUBLIC SCHOOL, BLUMENAU. THE ‘LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ‘“AULVAHL GNV ONIGTING AYNSVAYL ONIMOHS ‘FYOR TV OLYOd “ONOGOSd TWYENAD VOVUd CHAPTER XXI RIO GRANDE DO SUL Ee IO GRANDE DO SUL is one of the most important States of the Brazilian Union, and none has been more prominent in the political affairs of the nation than this border province, which covers an area of nine thousand square leagues, bounded on the north and west by the Uruguay River, by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and by the republic of Uruguay on the south. Originally this territory belonged to the disputed pos- sessions on the banks of the Uruguay which were claimed by both Spain and Portugal, and it was the scene of continued warfare for many years. During these troublous e: i periods, the people developed a spirit of A CHURCH IN PORTO ALEGRE. military valor and unyielding independence that found expression in many noble deeds of patriotism. Many of the nation’s most distinguished generals were cradled in this State, which gave to Brazil the immortal hero General Bittencourt, and the invincible leader General Osorio. For many years the records of military glory eclipsed the annals of more prosaic achievements in industrial development, though in the intervals of quiet that marked the history of the country after it became a province of the empire in 1822, and especially during the government of its first president, Viscount de Sao Leopoldo, great advancement was made in colonization, education, and the charitable associations that are always indicative of social progress. The greatest development of the vast resources of this State has been accomplished within a comparatively short time. -At the present rate of progress there is no limit to the growth and prosperity in store for the enterprising people 349 350 THE NEW BRAZIL GENERAL VIEW OF PORTO ALEGRE, CAPITAL OF THE STATE OF RIO GRANDE DO SUL. who now control an important share of the commercial interests of Brazil and are annually extending the trade of their State. Rio Grande do Sul is the southernmost State of the republic. The Serra do Mar, or Serra Geral, as this coast range is called in the more southern sections of Brazil, divides the interior from the coast as in all the States through which it passes; but the coast region of INTERIOR OF THE GOVERNMENT PALACE, PORTO ALEGRE. Rio Grande do Sul differs from that of the more northern States, for it consists largely of lakes and lagoons; the principal of these, the Lagoa dos Patos, is about a hundred and fifty miles long by thirty miles wide, and is navigable by ocean ves- Sels, though at some seasons, when the tide is low, delays are occasioned by the sand- banks. Picturesquely situated in this lagoon stands the Ita- poan lighthouse to guide the pilots taking ships to the vari- ous ports. In addition to the range that extends along the coast, there is a series of serras crossing the State from the Serra do Mar, at a point near the northern extremity of the Lagoa dos Patos, to the western boundary; this range divides the interior of the State into two natural regions: the north- ern, which is watered by in- numerable tributaries flowing northward into the river Uru- guay, which marks the State boundary line; and the south- ern, traversed by the lower tributaries that flow west to join the Uruguay, and also by the rivers that flow east into RIOSCGKANDE DO@SOL 351 THE DOCKS AT PORTO ALEGRE. the Lagoa dos Patos, principally the Jacuhy, Taquary, and Camaquam. The northern section of the State is covered with vast and fertile campos, or plains, and sertées, or woodlands. Valuable mineral deposits have been located in this region which is, however, THE MUNICIPAL THEATRE, PORTO ALEGRE. 352 THE NEW BRAZIL particularly adapted to the purposes of cattle raising and wheat growing. The southern part of the State has heretofore possessed more available conditions for industrial growth than the northern districts, and is generally cultivated. Two lines of railway cross it from the sea coast to the Uruguay River, and numerous agricultural colonies have been established in the most favorable localities. The State is rich in all kinds of minerals; though the coal mines in the southeast, and the copper, gold, and other minerals, have been worked only to a limited extent. Gold has been found at Lavras and Sdo Sepe, in the southern region, a few leagues from the capital, and in the rivers that water these districts. A STREET SCENE IN THE CAPITAL. Copper abounds in the Serra de Cagapava, a spur of the coast range which runs east and west through the central section. Silver and lead are among the minerals taken by the Vista Alegre Gold Mining Company from their mines at Lavras. In the Serra do Herval, which forms part of the range that extends westward from the Serra do Mar, under the names Cacgapava, Encruzilada and Herval, rich deposits of mica have been discovered, and in the Serra da Cruzilada there are large quantities of manganese. Nickel has been found at San Luiz and cobalt at Passo Fundo, in the north. Near Porto Alegre, at Arroio dos Ratos, coal mines have been worked on a small scale for many years, and in 1896 the output was more than sixteen thousand tons. But the mines have never been thoroughly explored, nor have they been worked to their full present (LORGRANDERDO SUL “71 capacity. Petroleum has also been discovered in this vicinity, and with the investment of sufficient capital to develop the industry, it would prove one of the most important interests of Brazil. Precious stones are found in the northern region, including diamonds, on the Ijuhy River, a branch of the Uruguay; amethysts at Passo Fundo; and an abundance of agates, onyx, jasper, and chalcedony in various districts. These stones are shipped to Germany for lapidation. Marble in abundance and of a superb quality is found in the valleys of the Caca- pava and Encruzilada range, and in the Jaguardo valley near the southern border of the State. The chief revenue of the State of Rio Grande do Sul is derived from the pasture lands, upon which graze thousands of herds. The “Rio Grandense,” as a native of this State is THE MUNICIPAL CHAMBER, PORTO ALEGRE. called, is, like the typical Texan of the United States, first of alla ranchman. His vast cattle ranges cover the southern campos; and although the foreign colonies have invaded all other sections of the State, they are few in number in this region, which is divided up into estancias or ranches for cattle raising purposes exclusively. The campos or prairie lands cover nearly two-thirds of the area of the State, and an estancia varies in extent from one to Six square leagues. The great xarqueados, or slaughtering establishments where the dried beef, called xarque, is prepared for market, present an interesting, though uninviting appearance, when the beef- drying process is going on. All xarque is dried in the sun, and an extensive area is covered 354 THE NEW BRAZIL with the racks on which the beef is suspended until ready for shipment. The dried beef exports amount annually to more than six million dollars in value, the town of Pelotas alone THE PORTUGUESE HOSPITAL AND CHURCH, PORTO ALEGRE. disposing of half a million head of cattle for this purpose. In addition to the wealth derived from the cattle ranches, the State receives a large revenue from the export of tobacco, leather, wool, cotton, fruits, and vegetables. . The climate of Rio Grande do Sul is moderate and agreeable, the four seasons being sufficiently pronounced to affect the process of agriculture, as in all temperate zones. Summer is at its height in January, February and March; autumn begins in April and lasts till June; then winter sets in and extends through July, August and September; the spring season is from October to December. In winter the cold wind from the Andes causes freezing weather, and in the more elevated regions of the State the winter is intensely cold, the lakes freeze over, and snow falls; in summer the heat is extreme, especially in the northern sections, the temperature sometimes rising to forty degrees centigrade. The State is renowned for the salubrity of its climate, malaria being practically unknown even in the vicinity of the lakes and rivers. RIO- GRANDE DO SUL 355 Rio Grande do Sul has one million five hundred thousand inhabitants, being the fifth among the Brazilian States in density of population, though only the tenth in-area.» The State is traversed by several lines of railway, the most important being the Porto Alegre and Uru- guayana, which extends from Porto Alegre, the capital of the State, westward to the Uruguay River, and has a branch line southward from the station of Cacequy to the city of Bagé, covering, in all, a distance of several hundred miles. A trip over this line takes one through the central part of the State and affords an opportunity to judge of the advantages for success- ful colonization which are pre- sented in the healthful climate and fertile soil of this favored region. Prosperous farming communities are located at various points along this railway between Porto Alegre and Bageé and also along the Santa Maria and Uruguay railway, which extends northward from the Station of Santa Maria, on the main line of the Porto Alegre and Uruguayana to Cruz Alta and Passo Fundo, a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. From Passo Fundo this line is being constructed to the north- ern border of the State, where it will meet the extension of the Sao Paulo and Rio Grande railway and form a section of the great southern Brazilian system. From Bagé to the port of Rio Grande do Sul, railway facilities are afforded by the Rio Grande and Bagé line, which connects these two cities, two hundred miles apart. Shorter lines connect the capital with important colonies. The Porto Alegre and Novo Hamburgo line, which is the chief means of transportation between Porto Alegre and the colonies of S40 Leopoldo and Novo Hamburgo, THE LYCEUM AND PUBLIC LIBRARY, PORTO ALEGRE. RUA MARECHAL PEIXOTO, PORTO ALEGRE. 356 THES NEWABRAZIE is the oldest railway in the State, having been opened to traffic in 1874. An extension of this line to Taquara, thirty miles beyond, was recently built by an association of Porto Alegre capitalists. The Quarahy and Uruguayana railway extends along the bank of the Uruguay River for a distance of one hundred and fifty miles. All these railways have a gauge of one metre, and the cars and locomotives are of North American manufacture. The State has a thousand miles of railways in operation and new lines are under construction. Porto Alegre is one of the largest and most important cities of southern Brazil. Situated on the left bank of the Guahyba River, near the northern extremity of the Lagoa dos Patos, or Duck Lagoon, the capital is the commercial and industrial centre of a fertile territory covering thousands of square miles. It is built on a picturesque promontory jutting out into the river from the eastern bank and facing a narrow passage at the estuary formed by the confluence of the Jacuhy and the Guahyba rivers. The lagoon is one hundred and fifty miles long and thirty miles wide, and owing to a number of barras, or shallow places, it is navigable only for steamers of light draught; but with the sys- tem of dredging which the government is inaugurating, it will be kept in such a condi- tion that all ships that call at the port of Rio Grande do Sul may pass on up the lagoon to the State capital. This trip is very interesting and agreeable to travellers, who thus have an opportunity to see something of the country. After leaving the city of Rio Grande do Sul, at the entrance to the lagoon, the steamer iss bound for Porto Alegre makes its only inter- THE SCHOOL OF ENGIRECRING] PORTO tet: mediate call at Pelotas, which is also situated at the southern extremity of the lake, near the mouth of the river Sdo Gongalo. Leaving Pelotas, the view for a considerable distance : is confined to flat fields on which are the various establishments for the preparation of xarque. Row after row, the strips into which the beef is cut when hung to dry in the sun extend for miles along the border of the river. As the steamer continues northward, the green pasture lands may be seen, with the Serra do Mar to the west. Belem Novo, Belem Velho, and Tristeza are picturesque suburbs of Porto Alegre that appear to view as the steamer approaches the port, after having passed the Itapoan lighthouse and the pretty little port of Pedras Brancas, on the opposite side of the lagoon. The city of Porto Alegre was originally settled, in 1742, by colonists from the Azores, who gave it the name of Porto dos Casaes, which was changed thirty years later to its present name, Porto Alegre [the Joyful Port]. The foundation of its commercial prosperity was laid when large colonies of Germans were established there after the Prussian revolution of 1848. The city numbers a hundred thousand inhabitants, of whom nearly one-fourth are of German descent. It is HIOSGRANDE DO VSUL 357 metropolitan in appearance, having broad, well-paved streets, handsome public build- ings, large business houses, and attractive resi- dences and parks; electricity and gas are used for lighting purposes, and the waterworks system is excellent. Two street car lines connect the central district with the suburbs, and a new electric car system is under con- struction, which, when completed, will give to the city a street car service unsurpassed for comfort and rapid transit facilities. The spirit of enterprise is especially to be seen in the modern public buildings, which are among the finest in Brazil. The Municipal Chamber, or City Hall, is a magnificent struc- ture occupying a favorable site in the central part of the city and facing the public square. A CENTRAL THOROUGHFARE OF PELOTAS, STATE OF RIO GRANDE DO SUL. It stands close to the river bank and is one of the attractive features of the city as seen from the harbor. Built of the stone of the country, its beautiful facade is supported and ornamented with marble pillars hewn from native quarries. The School of Engineering, the ENTRANCE TO THE PARK, PELOTAS. 358 THE NEW BRAZIL Catholic Seminary, the Military School, the Portuguese Hospital, and the Public Library are among the more important institutions. The cathedral isa handsome edifice, and the munici- pal theatre is spacious and of modern construction. Not only is Porto Alegre the largest city of the State and important as the political centre, but its industrial progress is notable. The commerce of the State is conducted chiefly through large firms of Porto Alegre who have branch houses in the northern parts of Brazil, in Argentina and in Europe. Trade is regulated by Chambers of Commerce in the principal cities, the leading merchants meeting therein to discuss business and fix current prices. The Banco da Provincia and the Banco do Com- mercio of Porto Alegre, with branches in Rio Grande do Sul and Pelotas, are the most impor- tant financial institutions, though in the capital are also branch establishments of the London and Brazilian Bank, Limited, and the German Bank, which have headquarters at Rio Grande do Sul. Complete telegraphic communication is maintained between the capital and all towns of importance, the system covering three thou- sand miles, and connecting sixty stations. The tele- phone has become one of the necessities not only of Porto Alegre but of all the other important cities, and long distance lines connect them with each other and with neighboring colonies. The chief seaport of the State is Rio Grande do Sul, Situated at the southern ex- tremity of the Lagoa dos Patos, where a narrow strait connects the lagoon with the ocean. It lies on a sandy peninsula and is the port of entrance for all vessels to Pelotas and Porto Alegre. Two lines of coasting steamers furnish a weekly service between Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre, the Lloyd Brazileiro and the Costeira, though the coasting ships of the former are too large to make the trip up the lagoon from Rio Grande to Porto Alegre, so the passengers are transferred at the seaport to a small lake steamer. Besides these two lines passengers are also carried by many companies engaged in the coast trade, though they have no regular itinerary. Foreign steamships of the Hamburg-American and other lines make regular trips to this port, though the sand-bar at the mouth of the harbor has long been a drawback to the foreign trade of the State. Fortunately, owing to the activity of the government and the progressive policy that makes itself felt in every branch of the administration, the work of securing a passage thirty-three feet deep THE QUARTEL AND INTENDENCIA, CITY OF RIO GRANDE DO SUL. MiOSGKANDEVDOVSUL 359 over the bar, in order to afford entrance to ships of large ton- nage at all times of the year, has been placed in the hands of expert harbor engineers, who have begun the operations and will carry them to completion without delay. When this great enterprise is finished the com- merce of the State and the im- portance of the seaport of Rio Grande do Sul will be greatly augmented. The city has a population of twenty-five thou- sand, is beautified by several parks, and the streets, though generally narrow, following the old Portuguese style, are well-paved and excellently lighted. A street car line connects the city with its suburbs. In the Praga Tamandaré, the most beautiful public garden of the State, a marble column commemorates the emancipation of the slaves in Brazil. Facing this garden are some of the important public buildings, the Intendencia, the Quartel, the Post Office, the Custom House, the Beneficencia Portuguesa, and the Public Library, with its spacious reading room and its corridors filled with books, numbering be- tween thirty thousand and forty thousand volumes. Probably no city south of Sdo Paulo has a library so well selected and arranged, and possessing so many books of great value. Visitors to Rio Grande enjoy a halt in this interesting place, where they find not only a fine collection of books but also all the leading periodicals of the day. The founder of the library was Dr. Joao Barbosa Coelho, and the Viscount Pinto da Rocha contributed most liberally toward its maintenance out of his large fortune. A very valuable and rare work is the complete set, sixty volumes, of Flora Brasiliensis by Martius. A numismatic collection is one of the interesting features of the library. The director, Dr. Carlos Alberto Miller, is a biblio- THE LANDING PLACE, PORT OF RIO GRANDE DO SUL. A VIEW OF THE PUBLIC GARDEN, RIO GRANDE DO SUL. phile and a littérateur. 360 THESNEV BIGAAILE The churches, schools and charitable institutions of the city occupy spacious and com- modious buildings which speak well for the character of the community. Although the Roman Catholic is the popular form of worship in this State, yet there is the utmost religious freedom, and churches of various denominations are established in the different towns. The Protestant Episcopal Church has many communicants and the Presbyterians and Methodists are also well represented. The Roman Catholic Church maintains several noble charities, which occupy much of the time of the ladies. The hospital Santa Casa de Miser- cordia, under the direction of the Sisters of S. Francisco de Assis, takes charge of a thousand patients during the year, and the Orphans’ Asylum, which is directed by the Sisters of the Heart of Mary, a Brazilian order, provides a home and instruction to the unfortunates for whom it is intended. Under the present administration, the interests of education have been greatly advanced, the Intendente, Dr. Juvenal Octaviano Miller, devoting especial attention to public instruction. The industrial progress of the city is shown by the flourishing condition of its various manufacturing enterprises, especially its woollen mills, which are among the most important in Brazil. Pelotas, the second city of the State in population, has forty thousand inhabitants, and is only a few miles distant from the seaport of Rio Grande do Sul, with which it is connected by railway. It is a rich and prosperous city, with handsome public buildings, fine residences, and beautiful parks, and presents a general appearance of well-being and comfort. Its greatest source of revenue is the «argue, though it has factories of various kinds, and its breweries are the best in Brazil. A very important enterprise is the patent medicine establishment owned by the Viscount de Souza Soares, located near the entrance to the Parque Pelotense, which is his handsome gift to the city of Pelotas. The park covers an extensive area and is a favorite resort, being easily reached by street car from any part of the city. The clubs of Pelotas are features of social life which by their elegance and comfort afford additional evi- dence of its prosperity. The oldest foreign colony, which, however, is no longer foreign, as its ten thousand in- habitants are principally of Bra- zilian birth and in many cases : of Brazilian parentage, is the MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL, RIO GRANDE DO SUL. prosperous municipality of Sao Leopoldo, twenty miles from the State capital, on the line of the New Hamburg railway, and in the heart of one of the richest districts in the State. It supports several industries, and is an attractive place of RIO GRANDE DO SUL 361 residence; its two colleges, the Collegio Sado José, founded in 1869, which has three hundred boys in attendance, and a girls’ school, established in 1872, which has two hundred and fifty pupils, are among the best edu- cational institutions in the State. The colony was founded in 1824, and was peopled by Ger- man immigrants, who brought to their new home the frugal — and industrious habits learned in the fatherland. Most of the colonies are either of German or Italian ori- gin. Bento Gon¢alves, a settle- ment covering forty thousand acres, and peopled chiefly by Italians, exports annually a mil- lion dollars’ worth of agricultural products. It has a population of twenty thousand and is TAMANDARE PARK, RIO GRANDE DO SUL. srowing rapidly. Jaguary, in the western part of the State, covering, thirty thousand acres, and having a population of fifteen thousand, exports cereals annually to the value of half a million dollars; and Guaporé, which was founded in 1go0, produced as its second year’s harvest cereals, etc., valued at four hundred and sixty thousand dollars. With increased railway facilities the agricultural com- munities are not only gaining wealth, but are enjoying the advantages of more general social intercourse, with its refining and broadening influence. The progress of some of the most important towns of the State began with the inauguration of the railway, which stimulated enterprise and competition between cities formerly so widely separated from each other and so inaccessible from the seaport, as to have little incentive for enterprising endeavor. Uru- guayana, situated on the western frontier, has developed greatly since the extension of the railway from Porto Alegre and Alegrete; and Bagé, the most important city of the interior, has multiplied its industry and commerce many times over since the establishment of the railway from Porto.Alegre to Pelotas and Rio Grande do Sul has given service to this city, which has many important public buildings, churches, and hospitals, and a population of eighteen thousand. Public instruction in Rio Grande, as in most Brazilian States, is under the supervision of a general inspector assisted by a number of district inspectors. The school population is about fifty thousand, the primary schools numbering one thousand, and providing instruc- tion for thirty-eight thousand children of both sexes. There is.a growing tendency to devote the greatest amount of attention to primary schools with a view to broadening the 362 THE NEW BRAZIL scope of educational work and giving to all classes a share in the blessings of instruction. The government of the State of Rio Grande do Sul is carried on in accordance with the principles of liberty as expressed in the State constitution, promulgated in 1891. The president is elected for five years by direct general vote, and the vice-president is chosen and nominated by the president. Three secretaries assist the president as heads of the Departments of Finance, the Interior, and Public Works, respectively. The first constitutional president of the State was Dr. Julio Prates de Castilhos, one of the greatest men this State has given to the republic; he was inaugurated in January 1893, and to his efforts the successful political organization of the State was largely due. In his death on October 24, 1903, Brazil was called to mourn one of her greatest and most capable statesmen. The present President, Dr. Antonio Augusto Borges de Medeiros, was elected in 1898 to succeed Dr. Castilhos, and his government proved so satisfactory that he was reelected in 1903 by the unanimous vote of the people. Under his administration, the progress of the State has been uninterrupted, and its industries and trade have notably increased. The State of Rio Grande do Sul, while making-rapid strides forward in com- mercial importance, is not neglectful of the intellectual graces that give to society its finest charm. Not only have great generals claimed as their native place the green hillsides and flourishing groves of this Brazilian southland, but giants in the arena of mental contest have been proud to point to this favored country as their beloved home. Statesmen, orators, jurists, celebrated educators, and renowned journalists have gone out from the Joyful Port to fight the battle of life with proud purpose and steady principle, and have won the applause of a grateful nation for contributions to science surpassing in value even the more dazzling accomplishments of military glory. In the arts of peace, a spirit of determination and a clear-headed grasp of the situation are making these people successful in achieving the greatest industrial prosperity for the Prairie State of Brazil. LIGHTHOUSE OF ITAPOAN, NEAR PORTO ALEGRE. THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ‘9941 QHHSITAVLSA ‘YSILNOYA NVIANYAd FHL NO TZVUd dO LSOd AUVLITIW LSVT AHL ‘VONILVEVL CHAPTER XxXIl THE NATIONAL REVENUE, COMMERCE, AND TRANSPORTATION HE increasing development of the re- sources of Brazil, the improvement of trade relations, and the extension of com- merce are reflected in the growing importance of the nation’s financial affairs, the greater quantity and variety of merchandise passing through its ports annually and the rapid in- crease of its transportation facilities. Accord- ing to the budget of 1907, the revenue of Brazil amounts, in milreis, to eighty-four million gold and two hundred and fifty million = : paper, the expenditure being fifty million gold OBSERVATION ENGINE. and three hundred million paper. The princi- pal receipts are derived from duties on imports, inland revenue, and sundry or “extraordinary” revenue, in addition to the redemption, guar- antee, and sinking funds. The expenditure of the six ministries is: finance, forty million gold and one hundred million paper; public works, six million gold and eighty million paper; the navy, one million gold and thirty-five million paper; foreign affairs, two million gold and one million five hundred thousand paper; war, one hundred thousand gold and sixty million paper; and justice and interior, ten thousand gold and thirty million paper. The greatest expenses are those of the finance department and the department of public works, the former having in charge all negotiations relating to the payment of the national debt, which amounts to a hundred million pounds sterling. More than one-fourth of this amount was borrowed under the empire, and of the remainder, eight million five hundred thousand pounds were borrowed in 1903 and 1905 for the port works and sanitary improvements of Rio, the balance being chiefly moneys obtained to enable the Federal government to secure the control of railways already built, and to construct new lines, as well as to promote other 305 366 THE NEW BRAZIL public works necessary to the economic development of the country. The flourishing condition of national industries and the extension of commercial relations resulting from these operations have placed the government in a position to meet all obligations without embarrassment, and to enjoy permanent progress on the broad basis of national enterprise. The most important institution of credit in the country is the Bank of Brazil, which was founded by King Dom Jodo VI. in 1808. After passing through various changes and vicissitudes, it was finally reorganized under the administration of President Rodrigues Alves, whose finance minister, Dr. Leopoldo Bulhdes, established it as a mixed institution, man- aged by a board composed of a chairman and four directors. The chairman and one of. the directors are appointed by the Federal government and the three other directors are elected by the shareholders. The director elected by the government is in charge of the exchange department. The capital of the bank is seventy million milreis, of which one-third is owned by the government. The Bank of Brazil has the monopoly of the emission of gold cheques for payment of duties at the custom houses throughout Brazil, amounting to more than twelve million pounds sterling, annually. Besides the Bank of Brazil there are Brazilian, Portuguese, English, German, and Italian banks of considerable importance. There is no North American bank in Brazil, though the increasing commerce between the two countries would lead one to suppose it would be almost a necessity. Although the products of Brazilian forests and mines have been famous ever since the discovery of its rich dyewood gave a name to the country and legends of eldorado brought adventurers to its wilds from all parts of the globe, yet it is only within a century that Brazilian commerce has competed with that of other countries, its trade having been exclusively with Portugal up to the year 1808, when the Regent Dom Joao VI. issued the edict which opened Brazilian ports to the commerce of all nations. During the early period that followed the settlement of the capitanias, and while the first efforts were being made toward industrial development, ships for trading in Brazil were sent out from the mother country in fleets, under the protection of men-of-war. Later, in the Seventeenth century, a powerful company was formed in Lisbon and given practically the monopoly of Brazilian trade; and with armed vessels and marine regiments of infantry and artillery, this company sent each year a large fleet, which started out from Lisbon and Oporto, went first to Recife (Pernambuco), then to Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, and returned to Lisbon with gold, sugar, hides, tobacco, and other products of the colony. In consequence of complaints made against this monopoly by merchants of Brazil, the company was suppressed in 1720, and although others were subsequently formed, they finally met the same fate, because of the many evils they had wrought through an extortionate monopoly. An idea of the enormous wealth secured by these companies may be obtained from the statistics of that period, which show that in the year 1800 the value of Brazilian exports was twenty million dollars gold (equal to those of the United States at the close of the war of Independence), and the imports reached ten million dollars in value. NATIONAL REVENUE, COMMERCE, AND TRANSPORTATION 367 In view of the conditions which governed the politics of Europe a century ago, the Carta Regia of 1808 was an extremely liberal decree, and it merits especial consideration ENTRANCE HALL, ROYAL MAIL STEAMER ‘‘ARAGUAYA.” from the fact that it was issued seventeen years before Great Britain gave the right of international commerce to her subjects in the New World. The Portuguese sovereign mani- fested the greatest desire to promote the welfare of his American subjects, and the Carta Regia was followed by royal decrees protecting native industries and seeking to increase the wealth of the country. Further decrees announcing that the Inquisition should never be established in Brazil, and that commerce in slaves should be restricted with a view to its final abolition, are evidences of the benign spirit and lofty sentiment which governed his political ideas. The restriction of the coasting trade to national vessels, still a law of the country, having been adopted by the Republican Constitution, was decreed by Dom Jodo VI. in 1816, and confirmed by the Emperor Dom Pedro I. in 1826. Although many difficulties had to be surmounted before the decree of 1808 produced the benefits for which it was intended, and it was only by the constitution of the empire that absolute commercial and industrial liberty was secured to Brazil, yet this act marked the inauguration of much better conditions than had previously existed, and opened the way toward the great national progress and development which is to-day attracting the attention of the civilized world. A great impetus was given to the commerce of the country during the first years of the empire when the export of coffee began to assume importance, and again in the early sixties when Brazilian cotton was an article greatly in demand in foreign markets. By the 368 THE NEW BRAZIL opening of the Amazon and its tributaries to the merchant ships of all nations in 1867, the Emperor Dom Pedro II., carried out the last provision of the famous Carta Regia of 1808, and greatly stimulated foreign trade in that region. Since 1862 the exports of Brazil have exceeded its imports annually, and both have grown rapidly within the past twenty years. According to the statistics of 1906, Brazil now exports goods to the value of two hundred and sixty million dollars gold, annually, the imports amounting to one hundred and sixty-three million dollars gold. The best market for Brazilian products is the United States, which, in 1906, was a purchaser to the value of ninety-two million dollars gold. On the other hand, the United States takes only third place among the countries supplying the Brazilian market, Great Britain ranking first and Germany second. During the year 1906, Brazilian merchandise imported from Great Britain amounted in value to- forty-five million dollars gold, and that imported from Germany to twenty-four million dollars gold, while the imports from the United States amounted to but twenty million dollars gold in value. Although coffee, rubber, and yerba maté at present represent eighty per cent of the total exports of Brazil, yet there is an annual increase in the amount and variety of other products, due largely to the constant extension and improvement of transportation facilities. Hides, tobacco, cotton, cacao, sugar, and mineral products are exported in greater quantities every year, and the development of these industries is progressing rapidly, as new lands are opened up to colonization and cultivation. Competition for Brazilian trade is close between the United States and Argentina; the Brazilian imports from the United States exceeded in value those from Argentina by only two million dollars in 1906, while in 1905 Argentina supplied to Brazil two million dollars’ worth of goods more than was purchased from her North American competitor. Brazil imports wheat and flour from the United States and Argentina, though the establishment of the milling industry at home is lessening the amount of flour imported. Wines are imported from France, Portugal, Spain and Italy, the native vineyards supplying only a very small percentage of the quantity consumed. Brazilian cotton and woollen mills are constantly reducing the amount of imported goods of this class, though silk, linen, etc., are imported in larger quantities each year. Electric machinery and materials for railway construction, including locomotives, rails, cars, etc., are purchased chiefly in the United States, which also supplies an important share of the arms and ammunition used by Brazil, though Belgium, England, and France also compete for this trade. England supplies most of the coal used in Brazil, though the United States is a rising competitor, the quantity of American coal sold to Brazil having more than doubled within the past few years. Rich coal fields have been discovered in southern Brazil which promise to. be an important source of supply for the home market. France is the favorite market for the purchase of fashionable articles of apparel, and paper of various kinds. Argentina competes with the United States in supplying canned goods, though France leads in furnishing many food preparations. The United States sends half a million cases of kerosene to Brazil annually, having almost a monopoly of the Brazilian trade in this product. NATIONAL REVENUE, COMMERCE, AND TRANSPORTATION 369 The countries that have secured the largest share of Brazilian trade have established banks in Brazil under their own control, built their own steamship lines, and opened in various Brazilian cities business houses under the management of their own merchants. In building up a business in Brazil, the most successful foreign merchant is the one who establishes a branch house there and supplies it with the goods which experience proves to be most salable according to Brazilian ideas and tastes. One advantage which the estab- lished merchant possesses over the travelling salesman is in the dispatching of goods through the custom houses, the merchants being permitted to have their own clerks dispatch their ROYAL MAIL STEAMER ‘‘ARAGUAYA,”’ LEAVING SOUTHAMPTON FOR SOUTH AMERICA. goods, while, in other cases, an authorized despachante [a sworn custom house broker], working at an established tariff of charges, must be employed. A grave obstacle to American competition with European exporters to Brazil heretofore has been the fact that freight rates to Brazil were higher from the United States than from European ports, merchants claiming that it was cheaper to ship from North America via Europe than direct to Brazil. The recent establishment of the Lloyd Brasileiro line of steamers between New York and Rio de Janeiro has changed this aspect of affairs and American exporters are looking forward to an increase of trade between the United States and Brazil as a result of Brazilian initiative and enterprise in this direction. Within the past few months three large passenger steamers the Acre, Ceara; and Para, have been placed on the Rio and New York service and four more, the Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, 370 THE NEW BRAZIL Minas Geraes, and Bahia, are under construction for the same trade. In addition to the new steamers intended especially for the service to North America, the Lloyd Brazileiro Company is building thirteen new ships for the coasting and river service of Brazil. The largest steamers are of seven thousand tons, have an average speed of sixteen knots an hour, and are from the best British shipyards. The seven steamers destined for service between New York and Rio are very attractive, and if not so palatial in size as the new liners which the Royal Mail Steamship Company has recently put on the route from South- ampton to Rio and Buenos Aires, they are models in artistic decoration and modern style. They are provided with electric lights, electric fans, and all the comforts required on a voyage through the tropics. The cabins and saloons are spacious, and ample decks afford the opportunity for plenty of exercise. The grand salon, the music room, and the smoking room are furnished elegantly and tastefully, and the cabins de Juxe, consisting of parlor, bedroom, and bath are most luxurious and attractive. The inauguration of the first three of the new “liners” took place in the harbor of Rio on September 2, 1907, and was an event of great importance in the history of the merchant marine of Brazil. In response to an invitation from Dr. Buarque de Macedo, the director of the Lloyd Brasileiro Company, the President of Brazil, Dr. Affonso Penna, the ministers of his cabinet, and the members of the diplomatic corps, as well as the representative society of the Brazilian capital, went on board the new steamers, which were “dressed” for the occasion, presenting a beautiful spectacle. The Acre started on its first trip to New York two days later, calling at Bahia, Pernambuco and Para, and carrying to New York a large party of tourists. Many North Americans made a trip to Brazil by this steamer on its return voyage. Tourists who now flock to Europe for the summer will no doubt take advantage of the opportunity afforded to visit Rio de Janeiro, especially as the summer months of northern latitudes correspond to those of winter in the southern continent, and Rio in winter is a paradise. The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company began its service to Brazil in 1851, and in 1872 doubled the number of trips annually, again increasing them as the demand warranted it, until at present a weekly service is maintained between Southampton and Brazilian ports, some of the company’s steamers being among the finest afloat. The steamer ‘Avon, of eleven thousand tons, is the latest acquisition to the fleet, which has also the Araguaya, ten thou- sand five hundred and thirty-seven tons register, the Amazon, ten thousand and thirty-six tons, and the Aragon, all new vessels, twin-screw, built according to the most approved plans, and furnished elegantly, with the idea of comfort paramount in all the arrangements. The Araguaya, which was christened by the Countess of Aberdeen and launched under peculiarly auspicious circumstances from the Belfast shipyard in 1906, is, in its way, as notable a departure in the history of transatlantic navigation as is the great Lusitania, since on its maiden voyage it surpassed all previous records between Southampton and South American ports and was at that time the largest steamer ever sent to South America, though the Avon now enjoys that distinction. The company’s entire fleet is composed of forty- two steamers, and its service is divided into four routes: the South American, with weekly NATIONAL REVENUE, COMMERCE, AND TRANSPORTATION 271 steamers from Southampton calling at Cherbourg, Corufia, Vigo, Oporto, Lisbon, Madeira, St. Vincent, Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Montevideo, and Buenos Aires; the Ott si be i =e eo i page es _ UIT tnt — sail ' & = RIO STATION, CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL. West Indian service fortnightly from Southampton to the West Indies, Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama, returning via Jamaica and New York; the Cuba and Mexico line from South- ampton to Havana, Vera Cruz, and Tampico; and the Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand line fortnightly from London and Plymouth, calling at Gibraltar, Marseilles, Naples, Port Said, and Colombo; moreover, “round the world” trips are arranged by various routes. Social life on board these steamers is particularly enjoyable. As the calm seas of the south Atlantic are conducive to general comfort and well-being, everyone feels disposed to take part in the various entertainments provided. Formerly it was the prevailing impression that only on the Oriental route were social customs observed de rigueur, but anyone who has made the trip from Europe to Brazil on a Royal Mail steamer must agree that the balls, concerts, bridge parties, tennis, etc., which make the voyage a round of pleasure, are occasions as distinguished for their social features as are those of the famous lines to India and Australia. The trip across the north Atlantic is dull and commonplace by comparison. The two weeks passed on board during a voyage from Southampton to Brazil are spent generally on a calm sea, under clear skies. Arrangements have been made between the Royal Mail and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, whereby passengers to Chile or Peru, wishing to make part of the trip by the 272 THE NEW BRAZIL Royal Mail service, may take the Pacific Company’s steamer at any port of call and continue the voyage to their destination. The Pacific steamers leave Liverpool fortnightly, calling at French, Spanish, and Portuguese ports and carrying passengers to Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio, Montevideo, and all the principal seaports of the west coast. In addition to this service, the company has a monthly service from Liverpool to Rio, calling only at Havre. A special train from Paris connects with the fortnightly steamer from La Rochelle. This company, like the Royal Mail, has greatly added to its fleet recently, four vessels on its transatlantic service being twin-screw steamers of ten thousand five hundred tons, while those for the Pacific coast trade alone register six thousand tons. The Hamburg-American has three separate routes: the North Brazil, Central Brazil, and South Brazil, and has just added new steamers of seven thou- sand tons register. The Lamport and Holt steamers make trips monthly between England and Brazil and fortnightly between New York and Brazil, this line having been the pioneer in the - South American trade. Anew steamer, the Voltaire, has been added to this service. The Booth and Red Cross lines have six steamers monthly to northern Brazil, three of their boats leaving BOA VISTA BRIDGE ON THE CENTRAL RAILWAY. Liverpool via Lisbon and Havre for Para, Mandos, Ceara, and Maranhdao, and returning to New York via the West Indies, while three start from New York for the Amazon, returning NATIONAL REVENUE, COMMERCE, AND TRANSPORTATION 573 to Liverpool. The growing importance of Brazilian trade is nowhere more conspicuously evident than in the rapid increase of merchant vessels plying between its ports and those of Europe and North America. On an average, about twenty thou- sand ships of all nations visit the ports of Brazil annually. Besides the facilities exist- ing for foreign trade, Brazil has ample accommodation for com- merce between the home ports, its merchant marine ranking seventh among the nations. With a navigable system of waterways covering fifty thou- sand miles, the principal method of transportation between the various points of her immense territory is by steamer, though extensive railway facilities meet all requirements where a water- way is not available. The main artery of navigation in Brazil is the mighty Amazon, the first system having been established, in 1853, between Mandaos and Para, but it now extends up the river as far as the Peruvian border. A steamboat ascends OFFICES OF THE LLOYD BRAZILEIRO STEAMSHIP COMPANY, RIO DE JANEIRO. the Amazon in a fortnight, while a sailing vessel requires from three to four months going up and about two months returning. The principal ports along the river from Para are Santarem, Obydos, Manaos, and Teffé. The city of Manaos, the rapidly growing and prosperous capital of Amazonas, has had direct service with Liverpool since 1874, with New York since 1882, and with Rio de Janeiro since 1884. The main tributaries of the Amazon are navigable over a great part of their course. Vessels can ascend the Madeira as far as the falls of Santo Antonio,» and again beyond them to the interior of Matto Grosso, this being the popular means of communication with outside ports for western Matto Grosso and eastern Bolivia; the distance from Para to Matto Grosso over this route is about two thousand miles. The tributary Purus is navigable about a thousand miles, as far as the Acre. The Rio Negro carries vessels for three hundred miles, up to the town of Santa Izabel. The Tocantins, Xingu, and Tapajos 374 THE NEW BRAZIL are navigable for hundreds of miles, interrupted, however, by cascades. Since September 7, 1867, the Amazon has been open to merchant ships of all nations. The usual route for transportation from southeast Matto Grosso to outside ports is by the Paraguay River and its tributaries, navigation being uninterrupted from Buenos Aires to Cuyaba, the capital of Matto Grosso, a distance of about two thousand miles. In 1858 the river Paraguay was opened to foreign merchant ships. Steamers of the Lloyd Brasileiro Company run regularly between Rio de Janeiro and Corumba, in Matto Grosso, via Montevideo, Buenos Aires and the Para- guay River, and these connect at Corumba with smaller steamers for Cuyaba, the capital of the State of Matto Grosso. In addition to the New York and Rio line, and the line to Matto Grosso, the Lloyd Brasileiro Company has a first class service between Rio and Mandos, the capital of the State of Amazonas, a route extending more than three thousand miles, of which eight hundred miles is on the Amazon River. Another Brazilian line, the Navegacgdo Costeira, under the proprietorship of the Messrs. Lage Brothers, connects Rio de Janeiro with all southern Brazilian ports, including Santos, Paranagua (the seaport of Curytiba), Florianopolis, Rio Grande do Sul, and Porto Alegre. The boats of this line are very commodious, comfortable, and clean, having well-supplied tables, and officers thoroughly acquainted with the obligations of their position. The Iquitos Steamship Company, Limited, has a line of mail steamers making monthly trips from Liverpool to Iquitos, Peru, on the upper Amazon, and from New York to the same port, calling at Para and Manaos. They have eight steamers in the service, of which the Manco is the largest, with accommoda- tions for sixty first-class passengers. Besides the larger waterways, there are boats plying up and down all the smaller rivers and streams. For the purposes of overland traffic Brazil has in operation fifteen thousand miles of railway, while twenty thousand miles of new railway have been projected and half of it is already under construction. The railway mileage of Brazil signifies more labor and expense than is the case in ordinary railway building, as every line from the coast to the interior represents an engineering feat of extraordinary importance, due to the diffi- culties of crossing the Serra do Mar, or coast range of mountains. The first national railway, constructed by Brazilian enterprise and engineering skill, was the Central Railway of Brazil. In 1858, a section of railroad was opened from Rio de Janeiro to the town of Belem, about thirty miles; a few years later, the government bought it, and completed the work across the mountains of the Serra do Mar, giving the railroad the name “Dom Pedro II.,” by which it was known until rechristened under the republic the ‘Central Railway of Brazil.” The “Central,” as it is familiarly called, now connects the Federal capital with the chief cities of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes, has a trackage of more than a thousand miles, extending to the heart of the richest gold mining region, is the most important railroad in Brazil, with the largest income and expenditure, and enjoys a monopoly of the terminal facilities at the port of Rio. It also controls most of the suburban traffic of the capital. The estimated cost of this system to the government was about one hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars, gold, per mile. It has three tracks for ten miles out of Rio, and a double NATIONAL REVENUE, COMMERCE, AND TRANSPORTATION is track three miles farther. Besides suburban trains every few minutes, seven trains a day run as far as the junction of the Sao Paulo and Minas divisions, two trains a day leave for the end of the Minas line, four trains daily reach Juiz de Fora and Barbacena, in the State of Minas, and there are two trains a day to and from Sao Paulo. The passenger coaches are modern in Style and very comfortable, the sleeping cars being fitted up with all necessary conveniences. The Grand Central Station in Rio is a handsome modern depot, metropolitan in appearance and complete in arrangement. Railroad fares are cheaper than in some other countries, but baggage is charged extra, except small hand-bags. The Federal government owns the Central railway, as well as other lines, of which a description is given in the chapters treating SALON OF THE ROYAL MAIL STEAMER ‘‘ ARAGUAYA.” of the industry and commerce of the various States. Notwithstanding the almost insur- mountable difficulties of construction, railroads now cross all the principal mountain ranges, the engineering work on some of the lines being most remarkable. The highest point of altitude reached by railway in this country is at Ouro Preto, in the State of Minas Geraes, five thousand feet above the sea. There are several imposing railway viaducts, notably the one crossing the Paraguassu between Cachoeira and Sdo Felix, in Bahia, and another, more than a mile long, where the coal mines of Tubardo, in Santa Catharina, are located. Complete telegraph and submarine cable systems connect the chief towns and cities of Brazil. The government telegraph lines have a total length of twelve thousand miles, with 376 THE NEVE BRAZIL twenty-five thousand miles of wire. A submarine cable of about three thousand miles ex- tends from Para to Montevideo, another cable connecting Brazil with Europe via Cape Verde and Lisbon. By the proposed inaugura- tion of the new system of docks in the port of Rio, which is to take place with formal cere- TRANSPORTATION ON THE RIO NEGRO, STATE OF AMAZONAS. mony on the centennial anni- versary of the opening of the ports, the government of Brazil will remove the last material obstacle in the way of com- mercial development, thus solving a problem which King Dom Jodo VI. recognized, and which occupied the attention of the first emperor as early as 1828, though he was unable to Solve it except by the adoption of a system of transhipment in lighters and barges, such as have been employed for the purpose from that time to the present, but which will be unnecessary after the construction of the docks. A national exhibition of the industrial, pastoral, and art products will also be held in celebration of this centennial anniversary; the exhibition to open July 15, 1908, and close September 7th of the same year. The presence of the king of Portugal and other great personages from foreign lands will give such éclat to the event as its importance deserves, and serve still further to make it memorable in the annals of the country as the beginning of a new epoch in national development. THE JANGADA, PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION IN THE TROPICS. THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS (ts z = A AMAZONAS THEATRE, MANAOS. CHAPTER XXIII AMAZONAS pete foreign commerce of Brazil owes its development chiefly to the industries derived from its two principal products, coffee and rubber; and as the former has made the “Imperial State” of Sdo Paulo one of the rich- est sections of the globe, so the latter has been the means of bringing world-wide renown as a treasure house of wealth to Amazonas, the great State of the Sea-River,—a name given to the mighty Amazon by the early discoverers, who were amazed at its vast expanse. Amazonas, the largest State of Brazil, covers a territory of eight hundred thousand Square miles, equal in area to all that part of the United States which lies east of the Mississippi River. It is situated in the heart of the equatorial region, extending from the fifth degree north latitude to the tenth de- gree south and from the fifty-fourth to the = seventy-seventh degree west longitude. It Sr GE OF LENREIRO: ARAN is bounded on the east by the State of Para, on the north by Venezuela and Guiana, on the west by Colombia and Peru, and on the south by Bolivia and the State of Matto Grosso. Unique in the character of its history and the apparent greatness of its destiny, the State of Amazonas has reversed the order of progress in other civilized countries of the globe, having been the favored haunt of the scientist and the scholar centuries before the commercial world awoke to a realization of its industrial possibilities. The record of its earlier days is 379 380 THE NEW BRAZIL filled with anecdotes of world-wide celebrities who visited its shores, buried themselves in its forests, and found it a terrestrial paradise. The little home where Agassiz spent many happy years is still pointed out among the chief attractions of the city of Mandaos; scholars whose names are honored in the proudest capitals of the world are remem- bered here with many familiar little incidents that marked their visit. While the plodding centres of Eu- rope have been busy with the problems of commerce, the gentle students of nature have found, over and over again, but without being able to convince their more “practical ’ “brethren, the= sichest country toward which the eager emissaries of .trade have ever set their faces. Humboldt said long azo, in respect to commerce, which successively crowded the ports of the Ganges, the Euphrates, and the Nile, that it would find on the Ama- zon the greatest wealth of all, de- COLONEL CONSTANTINO NERY, GOVERNOR OF AMAZONAS. claring eit is there that one day, sooner or later, will concentrate the civilization of the globe.” The first sign of this coming greatness appeared when steamships were employed to carry its products to foreign lands and when the mighty river was opened to free navigation; especially was the last act a boon to the country, well deserving of the commemoration it has received from the State by the recent erection of a handsome monu- ment in one of the prominent squares of the city of Mandos, the State capital. Everything favors a great future for Amazonas, which is rich in animal, vegetable, and mineral wealth, and accessible in every part of its vast territory by means of the most extensive waterway in the world. From an impetuous little mountain stream sixteen thousand feet above the sea, watering the Peruvian valley of Huantar between the Cordilleras of the Andes less than a hundred miles from Lima, the majestic Amazon broadens into a spacious river two thousand miles above its entrance to the sea, toward which, after leaving the Andes, it flows with leisurely movement, receiving tribute from left and right in the currents of innumerable affluents, and gradually widening throughout its course until it forms an estuary more than two hundred AMAZONAS 381 miles wide at its mouth. This mighty and peerless river is the natural link between the Atlantic and the Pacific seaboards of the southern hemisphere; while through its tributaries, the Negro from Venezuela, the Madeira from Bolivia, the Jurua, Purts, and Javary from Peru, the Iga and Japura from Colombia, the Nap6o from Ecuador, the Tocantins from Goyaz, and the Tapajos from Matto Grosso, it affords the requisite means of transportation to develop the region through which it makes its stately progress to the sea as the most important commercial waterway of the western world. The Brazilians still call the Amazon the Rio-Mar, or “sea-river,” and the various explorers who have given accounts of its vast expanse and wonderful volume have referred to it as an inland sea, the Mediterranean of America, or similar titles indicative of its immensity. To the north, the basin of the Amazon is united with that of the Orinoco by the Cassiquiare River, which flows either into the Rio Negro or into the Orinoco according to the strength and direction of the tide; and to the south, in the State of Matto Grosso, the Amazon plain joins that of La Plata. With the construction of a few short canals, water communication would be uninterrupted from the Caribbean coast down through the heart PALACE OF JUSTICE, MANAOS. of the continent to the estuary of La Plata. The entire basin of this mighty river covers an area of seven million square kilometres, of which a part belongs to Peru, Ecuador, and 382 THE NEW BRAZIL Bolivia. At its source, the river is named the Marajion; on the border of Brazil, it takes the name Solimées; and after its confluence with the Madeira, it becomes known as the Amazon. It is three thousand five hundred miles in length, and so level is its flow that throughout two-thirds of its course the channel slopes little more than two hundred feet. It is wider and deeper than any other river in the world. Although the surface is placid, showing little apparent current, the average depth is from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet, and in some places it has a depth of two hundred and fifty feet; the width varies from a mile and a half at Tabatinga, on the Peru- vian border of Brazil, to four miles at the mouth of the Ma- deira, and, again, to less than a mile as it passes the “narrows” at Obydos, though it is twelve miles wide below Santarem, where it receives the tributary Tapajos. According to gener- ally accepted authorities, the estuary of the Amazon encloses the island of Marajé, and has a total width of two hundred and fifty miles. Some authorities claim that the real mouth of the Amazon is north of Marajo Island, the river forming an archipelago just below the con- fluence of the Xingu, and emptying into the sea through three channels, which are not much used for navigation. A succession of narrow channels connects the main river with the Para estuary south of Marajé Island, the last of these, the Breves, being scarcely one hundred and fifty feet wide, and almost completely embowered in overhanging foliage. So great is the conflict between the current of the river at its mouth and the incoming tide of the ocean, that great billows ten to fifteen feet high surge in especially at the northern entrance, follow- ing each other with deafening noise, particularly during the time of the equinoctial gales, when the current is strongest; and this tide is perceptible in the river as far as Obydos, VESTIBULE OF THE PALACE OF JUSTICE, MANAOS. AMAZONAS 383 about five hundred miles. Throughout the lower course of the river are innumerable channels forming islands close to the shore, which during the dry season are the favorite haunt of the beautiful herons and other birds native to this region; these low-lying lands are called varzeas, or “flood-plains,” and they disappear during the rainy season when the tides are high. The principal rise of the tide takes place in February on the Solimdes, in April on the Amazon proper, and in June on the Para. The level then falls until October, when a second rise of less importance begins, which lasts until January. These rises correspond with the rainy seasons of the regions watered by the great river and its tribu- taries, the equatorial rains of the northern latitude recurring at a different time of the year from those of the south. A learned professor very beautifully expresses it: “In this oceanic river the tidal action has an annual instead of a daily ebb and flow; it obeys a larger orb, and is ruled by the sun and not by the moon.” During the rainy season on the upper Amazon, the tide sometimes rises to a height of from forty to fifty feet, submerging the forests and converting a vast territory into an inland sea. The Amazon basin receives more rain during the year than any other region of the same extent on the globe, and the volume of water it carries to the ocean is estimated by Martius at the enormous quantity of two hundred and fifty million cubic meters per hour, the water of the great stream coloring the Atlantic for hundreds of miles from its mouth. The dull opaque yellow of the main current is tinged with various mixtures as it receives its immense tributaries, of which there are a dozen that extend each over a course of more than a thousand miles: the largest of these enter the river from the south, such-as the Tocantins, Xingu, and Tapajos, in the State of Para, and the Madeira, Purts, Jurua, and Javary, in Amazonas; the last four, which have an average length of sixteen hundred miles, watering a territory im- mensely rich in rubber trees. The Madeira is the greatest Southern tribu- tary, having a length of more than two thousand miles from its head- waters in Bolivia, one branch rising near the border of Chile and the other close to the Argen- tine boundary; it passes through a country rich PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR, MANAOS. in tubber, sand is the great natural highway of traffic between the interior and the North Atlantic seaboard; for about six hundred miles navigation is uninterrupted, then a succession of rapids obstructs it 384 TOHERNEVSBRAZIL for about a hundred and fifty miles, after which there are no further obstacles to vessels going by this route to Bolivia and Matto Grosso. A railway is under construction to provide PENITENTIARY, MANAOS, overland transportation where the rapids cut off navigation of the river. The water of the Madeira is of a milky color, and at its junction with the Amazon it has a width of about two miles and a depth of seventy feet, making quite a perceptible change in the flow of the current where it enters the river, a few miles below the city of Manaos. The Purts is nearly as long as the Madeira, and is navigable to its source, a distance of about nineteen hundred miles; it is said to be the fabled Amarumayu, or “serpent river,” of the Incas. The Javary marks part of the boundary between Amazonas and Peru, and is about fourteen hundred miles long. Of the northern tributaries, the Rio Negro is the largest and most important, having a length of fifteen hundred miles and an average breadth of nearly two miles for the first half of its course, and of from ten to fifteen miles for the remainder, which is channelled with islands; the name of this river, which takes its rise in the moun- tains of Colombia, is singularly appropriate, the water having a rich dark chocolate color which is not changed even at the confluence of the Rio Branco, whose milk-white tide is quickly lost in the greater current. The water of the Rio Negro is light golden when placed in a white vessel, and has a delightfully satiny feeling that makes bathing in it an especial luxury and overcomes any prejudice against its color, which, though decided, does not inter- fere with its perfect transparency. This river constitutes the chief highway of commerce AMAZONAS 385 between Brazil, Venezuela, and Guiana. The second in importance of the Amazon’s northern tributaries is the Japura, a thousand miles long, and, although the principal mouth is only three hundred feet wide, its delta connects it with the Amazon by a series of small channels for two hundred miles; it, also, rises in the mountains of Colombia, and passes through a territory rich in dyewoods, medicinal plants, cacao, castanha-nuts, and minerals. The Iga, another northern tributary of importance, is very rich in gold and other precious minerals. The principal tributaries that enter the Marafion division of the Amazon are the Ucayali, Huallaga, Pastassa, and Napd. There are numerous minor branches large enough to be considered of importance in any other river system, but they are lost by comparison with the immensity of contiguous rivals. It is almost impossible to gain, from a description or from figures, an adequate idea of this wonder of the natural world, which is just now begin- ning to awaken, universal interest in its unlimited possibilities, and to change the grim stare of incredulity into the clear sight of serious appreciation. There is no country on the globe that has a more promising outlook for commercial development than that of Amazonas. The climate is equable, and although the temperature is high, yet, owing to the constant evaporation due to the plentiful rains and the prevalent trade-winds, the actual heat is not so great as the latitude and the comparatively low land RUA MUNICIPAL, MANAOS. would lead one to suppose. Professor Agassiz was enthusiastic in his praises of the climate and the country, of which he wrote a friend: “I have the pleasure to repeat, in 386 THE NEW BRAZIL spite of all that may be said to the contrary, that | know of no country in the world so full of attractions, more fertile, more salubrious, and more fitted to be the focus of an immense immigration than the magnificent valley of Amazonas.” THE CATHEDRAL, MANAOS. That part of the State which lies to the north of the Amazon is considerably higher and less marshy than the territory to the south; in the extreme north and west are mountainous regions, rich in mineral products, and on the banks of the Rio Branco, near its headwaters, are extensive grassy plains suitable for cattle raising. The southern half of the State is regarded as the more valuable commercially, as it is in this region that the famous rubber- trees which supply the markets of the world with their product are most abundant and of the best quality. The wealth represented by this valuable resource offers such alluring reward to the investor, that the people of the State have become absorbed in its develop- ment almost to the exclusion of other enterprises. And yet, although the revenue from this resource is enormous, as shown elsewhere, there are other products which, if given equal attention, would yield very handsome returns. The chief difficulty is found in securing sufficient labor to develop the country, the present population of Amazonas being scarcely half a million inhabitants, of whom more than a tenth are residents of the city of Manaos. Yet the inducements to immigrants, especially of the agricultural class, are excel- lent; the climate and soil favor the growth of every kind of cereal, and are remarkably well- adapted to the cultivation of rice, sugar, tobacco, beans, and similar products. The fertile region AMAZONAS 387 of the Nile enjoys no greater natural advantages in the periodical overflow that serves the double purpose of irrigation and fertilization than does the vast alluvial plain of the Amazon, periodically inundated by floods which cover a large area with a vegetable deposit at regular intervals. The absence of droughts or of insect plagues, from which some of the best farming regions of the world suffer, is an additional blessing. But until the population increases materially it is not likely that the attention of the people will be diverted from the rubber trade and the commercial interests represented by various other natural products. Of these, the castanhas, or “Brazil nuts” are among the more important; in the Amazon country they are collected on much the same plan as that followed by the rubber-gatherer. The forest is marked out by paths, or estradas, which lead past three or four hundred trees, two men generally working a path together, and collecting on an average a thousand barrels a season, though the production varies greatly from year to year. Cacao grows wild in this State and promises to be one of its most valuable industries. The various hardwoods, dyewoods, and medicinal herbs are among its valuable productions, besides which it is rich.in tropical fruits, Birds, heron plumes, and orchids are found in abundance and of glorious beauty. The orchids of the Amazon region are of great attractiveness, especially the Sobralia, Stanhopea, THE GYMNASIUM, MANAOS. Renanthéra and similar varieties. In a small lake on a branch of the Rio Negro, below Mandos, the Victoria Regia is found in wonderful abundance. Only small canoes can ascend the stream to the spot where the royal lily grows in all its magnificence, the first 388 THE NEW BRAZIL view showing a mirror-like surface, half a mile long and nearly as wide, literally sprinkled with huge green leaves, that lie flat on the water, the lilies standing out among them, like AVENIDA EDUARDO RIBEIRO, MANAOS. white stars with a pinkish centre, some fifteen inches in diameter. There is practically no limit to the wealth of Amazonas, and the remarkable advancement made within the past few years is, in some respects, unparalleled in the history of States. Although the State of Amazonas lies within the equatorial region, the soil and climate are suitable for the cultivation of semi-tropical products and, in the mountainous districts, those of the temperate zone. Vast tracts of land are covered with rich pasturage, and the conditions are favorable for raising sheep, cattle, and horses. In the extreme north of the State, on the frontier of Venezuela and British Guiana, and especially in the valleys of the upper Rio Branco, thousands of square miles are covered with pasturage of the richest kind, and on the slopes of the mountains of this region excellent farm lands are located, suitable for growing wheat, corn, and other products. Under the present adminis- tration, special attention is being given to these industries, and fine stock is imported from Argentina for breeding purposes. A railway is also projected to overcome the obstacle to transportation caused by the-Rio Branco falls, which impede navigation for a short distance between Mandaos and the northern frontier. When this railway is completed, some of the finest cattle ranges of Brazil will be brought within two days’ journey from Mandos. At present, the industry is in its infancy, though the Sao Marcos ranch, occupying fifty square AMAZONAS 389 leagues or more, is well-stocked with fine herds. To stimulate agriculture and stock raising, the government pays a premium of two thousand milreis to farmers or stock raisers, on terms which encourage their special efforts toward developing these industries. The youth of the farming communities receive practical training in the Instituto Affonso Penna, which has a model farm and a stock breeding station connected with the school. Not only is the cattle industry most promising, but the government is doing all in its power to encourage the fisheries; for the Amazon abounds in fish and turtles. The péraruci, weighing from one hundred to two hundred pounds, is the silver king of these waters, and, like the famous tarpon of North America, it is caught with hook and line, harpooned, or shot with bow and arrow, though more valuable than the tarpon, which is hunted only for sport, and is not edible. The piraruct is a favorite dish with the Brazilians, being dried and shipped from Mandaos to all parts of the country. The courbina is a fish well known throughout Brazil, and it is found in great abundance in Amazonas. A curious feature of the courbina is its coarse, hard tongue, which, when dried, serves the purpose of a grater. The peixe-bol (cow-fish) resembles a gigantic cow, but has the fins and tail of an ungainly-looking fish; about five thousand species of this amphibious monster are found in the Amazon River, their sole habitat. The puraqué, or electric fish, is another curiosity of this river. A curious phenomenon of the Amazon country, is known to the natives as the “Frost of Saint John.” It occurs usually during the. last week of June, and is noticeable as SYLVERIO NERY SCHOOL, MANAOS. far down the river as Manaos, being ushered in with a rain-storm during which the thermometer drops to about fifteen degrees Fahrenheit, and the water of the Amazon is so 390 THE NEW BRAZIL cold that the fish die by hundreds. According to one theory, this cold weather is due to the descent of large quantities of ice and snow from the Upper Andes, accompanied by high winds. During the few days that this frost con- tinues, the people wear overcoats and wraps, and among the poor there is great discomfort, as the change of from sixty to seventy degrees is so rapid that the effects are naturally very marked on the system, unprepared for such@aeshockassltsIs as keenly felt as a “bliz- zard”’ in colder climates. On the other hand, it Serves a good purpose in destroying the germs of fever, which cannot sur- vive such a lowering of the temperature. Navigation on the Amazon River was first established through the enterprise of a Brazilian, the Baron de Maua, who organized the Amazon Navigation Company in 1852. The commerce of MONUMENT IN MANAOS COMMEMORATING THE OPENING OF NAVIGATION Has oo to-day Is ol ON THE AMAZON TO ALL NATIONS. ried in ships of all nations; three million tons of mer- chandise being brought down the river and its tributaries annually to the port of Mandaos. Hundreds of steamers, steam launches, barges, and sailing vessels ply up and down the Amazon constantly, and the immigration from other Brazilian States increases yearly. Immigrants from Italy and other countries of Southern Europe arrive in greater number every year, and find the opportunities excellent for farming and especially for fruit growing, in which the Italian secures particularly congenial employment. In the vicinity of the capital, Manaos, several truck farms have been cultivated with success, and the poultry is of an AMAZONAS 391 excellent quality. As the needs of a rapidly growing city become more imperative, the various enterprises branch out on a larger scale. Manaos, situated on the left bank of the Rio Negro, eight miles from the Amazon and a thousand miles from the Atlantic coast, is a conspicuous example of the rapid progress of Amazonas. It is the social, educational, political, and commercial centre of the State, and in appearance is one of the most attractive of cities. Its streets are broad and well paved, the principal ones with asphalt blocks, and the others with granite cubes. It is lighted with electricity, and hundreds of private houses have installations. Five hundred and twenty- Seven arc lights, of two thousand candle-power each, illuminate the public thoroughfares. An excellent system of waterworks is in use, the property of the government, ten million litres being supplied daily. The principal streets are traversed by an electric street railway, fifteen miles in extent, having a loop line that runs around the city through the picturesque suburbs of Cachoeirinha, Flores, and other resorts, along the road to which the car passes through beautiful arbors of green, dense thickets of the richest tropical foliage, and avenues of magnificent palms, and over two handsome iron bridges that cross the river on the PUBLIC ARCHIVES AND LIBRARY MANAOS. outskirts of the city, offering the most attractive of sylvan scenes. This railway is as thoroughly equipped as any trolley road in South America, the cars being of modern style 392 THE NEW BRAZIL and construction, the power house and car sheds of steel structure, and the entire system a credit in every way to the progress of the community. Within the past few years the city has grown greatly in population, and the number of handsome public buildings and private residences has notably increased. Some cf the State buildings, erected at a cost of millions of dollars, are unsurpassed in size and attractive- ness by any other government buildings of the country. The Palace of Justice, situated on one of the main avenues, is a stately edi- fice of white marble representing an enor- mous expenditure. The Theatro Amazonas is one of the handsomest in America; it was built at a cost of two million dollars gold, and is a particularly striking evidence of the great Shane material prosperity of the State and the capi- a: tal. Occupying a commanding site on the Avenida Eduardo kibeiro, it is one of the most conspicuous features of the landscape as viewed from the harbor, when the sun gilds its magnificent dome, lighting up the national colors which are worked into the ornamental tiles that cover it like a bandeira. The theatre is built of stone, the entrances and the supporting pillars are finished in Italian marble, and the interior is decorated in the MONUMENT OF BARON SANTA ANNA NERY. richest fashion, the allegorical paintings that ornament the ceilings of the foyer and the auditorium being the work of the celebrated Italian artist De Angelis. The various churches of the city are built principally in the Jesuit style of architecture. The educational institu- tions, most of which have spacious and modern buildings, are equipped with the latest conveniences for school purposes, especially the Gymnasio, a capacious stone edifice with marble portico and finishings, which has large recitation halls, gymnasium, and other desirable features; and the Benjamin Constant Institute for girls. The public library con- tains about ten thousand volumes in Portuguese, French, and English. The museum is particularly interesting for its varied collection of Amazonian curiosities, in the form of Indian weapons, Indian musical instruments made of beetles’ wings, animals’ teeth, etc., and countless antiquarian specimens. The public market is one of the substantial buildings in the shopping district; it is spacious, cool, and well-ventilated, a prime necessity in this climate. A favorite resort in the evenings is the Jardim Publico, where an orchestra furnishes music from six o’clock until midnight. AMAZONAS 393 Public order is maintained by an efficient police department, having its headquarters in a large two-story building overlooking the Praga Constituigao. The first floor is divided into living-rooms for the police companies, storerooms for weapons, etc., and on the second floor are fencing halls, library, officers’ apartments, etc. The State penitentiary is a spacious new building erected during the present administration, and covers an area of fifteen thousand square metres. In its modern arrangement and appointments it is one of many proofs of the progressive spirit in enterprise and social affairs that prevails in every depart- ment of the public service. The State militia is a particularly creditable organization. It is composed of two battalions of infantry of five hundred men each, commanded by majors of the regular army, and a cavalry corps of forty men. The military bands belonging to these battalions are noted for their excellent training and talent. Life in Mandos is not so subject to unfavorable climatic conditions as might be supposed. Though an equatorial city, it is a desirable place of residence. The citizens enjoy many luxuries; electric fans are installed in all public offices as well as in private homes, and the supply of ice is practically unlimited, there being several establishments for its manufacture. Boating and bathing are enjoyable pastimes, and the city is well provided with carriages for the evening passeio, and with good horses for those who like equestrian exercises. The press is well repre- sented, and there are half a dozen wide-awake dailies in charge of active and well-informed jour- nalists; the newsboys are as progressive as any of their metropolitan con- fréres, and have all the airs of the London or Paris newspaper vendor of tender years and wide experience. There are Several factories and machine shops which are constantly increas- ing the number of em- ployees in proportion to BENJAMIN CONSTANT INSTITUTE, MANAOS. their growing business. The capital is remarkably free from sickness: fevers occur only in a sporadic form, and the usual complaints of a hot climate are not common. Ina great measure this healthfulness is due to careful attention on the part of the government, which has provided a good system of drainage, as well as a garbage crematory of modern manufacture, a valuable agency in 394 THE NEW BRAZIL disposing of the city’s rubbish. By a decree of November 12, 1906, the sanitary system of the capital was reorganized, the service being divided into three sections; the general board, the section of analysis and bacteriology, and that of disinfection and isolation. Two hos- pitals have been imported from New York and set up in the most convenient locality for their purpose. There is no branch of public improvement in which the activity of the government is not shown with conspicuous results. The port works of Mandos have been completed recently, adding enormously to the facilities for commercial interchange, and placing this port among the best equipped in South America for the handling of merchandise. The contract for the improvements was made with the Manaos Harbor Company, Limited, an LANDING FLOAT, MANAOS HARBOR. English concern, and the docks were planned and practically constructed under the direc- tion of Dr. A. de Lavandeyra, a Cuban engineer. The work was inaugurated in August, 1902, and within less than ten months the company had built a power house having two Corliss engines and electric power for running three Lidgerwood cableways, and had constructed six iron warehouses covering an area of six thousand square metres, with a platform in front of them, over the river, three thousand square metres in area, all built of pine logs imported from the United States; a floating pontoon had also been built capable of taking alongside two ocean steamers; it lies in front of the platform, four hundred feet distant, and on it are three towers, corresponding to three on the platform, connected by Lidgerwood cableways; the capacity for unloading and carrying merchandise from steamers to the warehouses is at the rate of six tons in two minutes. An additional ware- house covering about a thousand square metres was completed, and in May, 1903, the AMAZONAS ; 395 company began to take charge of the traffic of the harbor of Mandos. Since that time, new warehouses have been added, and a floating roadway has been built, extending from the recess in the key wall out into the river; this roadway rises and falls with the river, the level of which varies fifteen metres between the rainy and the dry seasons. At the end of the roadway is another large pontoon with two warehouses, passengers’ waiting room and baggage room; this pontoon will support one thousand tons and accommodates two ocean steamers alongside. While the commerce of the State is benefited by the new port works, the sanitation of the capital is guaranteed through the government’s far-seeing policy in placing the contract for the perfection of the waterworks and drainage systems in the hands of experienced engineers. The Manaos Improvements Company, Limited, has charge of this important MILITARY QUARTEL, MANAOS, enterprise. In May, 1906, the work of sanitation was begun, and it has progressed with remarkable rapidity, the State facilitating the efforts of the company in every detail. Colonel Antonio Constantino Nery, governor of Amazonas, belongs to one of the most noted families of Brazil, a family whose name is prominent in statecraft and letters. His own career has been one of eminent service to his beloved country, as deputy, senator, and governor. In accepting the chief executive office of his State, Dr. Constantino Nery succeeded his brother, Dr. Sylverio Nery. One of the names most highly esteemed in the literary circles of Brazil is that of Baron Santa Anna Nery, another brother of the governor, who died a few years ago in Paris, in the midst of a career of unusual promise and brilliancy. Governor Constantino Nery is held in high esteem, not only for his superior mental gifts, but also because, in the exercise of his authority as ruler of the State, he constantly 396 THE NEW BRAZIL demonstrates that it is his purpose to promote the happiness of his people in every way. During his administration, the number of schools has increased and in some sections the DR. MANOEL F. SA ANTUNES, SECRETARY OF STATE, AMAZONAS. average attendance is double what it was a few years ago. Inthe capital, the new Constantino Nery School, the Sylverio Nery groups, and others, have been added to the institutions of instruction, with gratifying results. The governor has ordered the construction of several school buildings in the interior of the State, Humayta, . Manicoré, and Parintins being among the towns Selected for the location of new school groups. As may be seen from the illustrations of this chapter,— made from photographs by the artist and traveller, Mr. George Huebner, who has a most interesting col- lection of Amazon views,—the school buildings of Manaos are among the handsomest and most sub- stantial in the republic. It is very instructive to compare the wealth of this great State to-day, represented by a revenue of more than five million dollars gold, annually, with the amount of its income half a century ago, when the founder of the province and its first President, Tenreiro Aranha, announced that the annual receipts did not exceed one thousand dollars. The following chapter on the Acre and other sections of the rubber country will afford an idea of the circumstances which have combined to make this State one of the richest regions of the globe. PATIO OF THE AFFONSO PENNA INSTITUTE, MANAOS. CHAPTER XAIV THE ACRE TERRITORY AND THE RUBBER INDUSTRY Te richest rubber-producing region of Brazil derives its name from a small tributary of the Purus, one of the Amazon’s great southern affluents. The Acre River (pronounced Ack’-ray) has long been celebrated for the vast quantity and superior quality of rubber collected from the trees along its course, and the region drained by this river has gradually come to be known as “the Acre,” a synonym for rich rub- ber lands. The Acre territory occupies that part of the national domain lying between the upper Madeira and the Peruvian border which is formed by a triangle having its apex at the source of the Javary and its base on the boundary line between Brazil and Bolivia, from the Peruvian boundary, near the source of the Acre River, northeastward to the confluence of the Madeira and the Abuna rivers, as defined in the Treaty of Petropolis. The three departamentos into which the Acre is divided, viz., the Alto Acre, Alto Purtis, and Alto Jurua, are all enormously productive regions. Alto Acre includes the district drained by the Abuna, Rapirran, Iquiry, Aquiry or Acre, and Alto-Antimary rivers, all flowing through forests where rubber trees abound. Along their course are to be seen the establishments of the various companies engaged in the rubber trade, and also the huts of the rubber gatherers. Here and there at intervals are the headquarters of various missions established by the Catholic Church for the purpose of civilizing the Indians of these regions. Every- where, little rafts, gatolas and rowboats are navigating the rivers and streams, carrying merchandise between ports. The forest is gay with the brilliant plumage of macaws, 307 HUT OF A SERINGUEIRO, ACRE. 398 THEPNEMASBRAZIE toucans, and other birds of the tropics. The climate varies, being more healthful near the headwaters of the various rivers, which all take their rise in the foothills of the Andes. The low lands, where the humidity is very great, are subject to conditions that make malaria a prevalent malady. The Departamento of Alto Purus comprises the tract lying northwest of Alto Acre which is watered by the Yaco and the Purts, with the tributaries of the latter, including the Chandless, the Curanja, and the Curinja. This region has been comparatively well- explored, all the great naturalists who have studied the flora and fauna of Amazonas having visited the upper Purus. The descriptions given by these travellers vary chiefly according to the time of year in which they made their explorations and the locality where their stay was most prolonged. In some sections along the margin of the Purus the mosquitoes assail the traveller in battalions and their attacks are most venomous; while, in more favored parts, there are few insects and the climate is altogether agreeable. Alto Jurua, the name given to that section of the Acre which is drained by the Jurua River and its affluents, extends to the western limit of Brazilian territory, and is noted for its delightful climate, with the exception of those tracts of land which lie in the lower levels, along the main stream. There are few cases of malarial fevers, and these of a mild nature, the general condition being healthful and pleasant. The aspect of the rubber country is quite unlike that of any other region. There is little to indicate that it is the centre of an industry of world-wide importance as one ascends the river in one of the small steamers that call at the different barracdes, or rubber establish- ments, that are built on the river bank, and constitute the chief settlements in these remote forests. The manager usually lives in a comfortable and often spacious house built of wood, sometimes two stories in height, roofed with zinc or a thatch of Pachiuba leaves, the rubber gatherer being content with a less pretentious abode of light framework covered with palm leaves. The scenery of this tropical region is, as a rule, limited to a view of the river banks, the forest reaching to the water’s edge in a dense and tangled maze of intertwining branches and vines, riotous in profusion and of wonderful size. Nature, indolent and drowsy, seems to breathe only in the faintest zephyrs, hardly stirring the embowered forest and never bringing a ripple to the surface of the silent streams. Monkeys chatter in the trees and parrots Scream their piercing notes, but their noise soon becomes so familiar to the ear as to make no impression in the midst of the prevailing stillness that overpowers by its enveloping spell. Since the Acre territory became a part of Brazil, the government has devoted especial attention to its development, and not only has the question of its industrial possibilities occupied the administration, but plans have been adopted for the improvement of social conditions by the establishment of schools, churches, etc. Each of the three departamentos is governed by a prefect, who is appointed by the President of the republic, and whose duty it is to supervise the affairs of his district in all branches of the public service. Although the soil and climate of the Acre are adapted to agriculture, at least in a large part of the territory, yet it is from the rubber trees that its entire revenue is derived and will Ti EPA belek) LORY eH NOSTHECRUBBERTINDUS ERY 399 continue to be, at least until immigration peoples this section with farming communities. The history of the development of the rubber trade is interesting and of comparatively recent origin. Not until 1736, when the famous scientist La Condamine introduced rubber into Europe, was this product of the Amazon forest known to the civilized world, and about MANAOS, FROM CONSTANTINOPOLIS. thirty years later it was first put into practical use by one of the great artists of England. For half a century its sphere of usefulness was limited to the erasure of pencil-marks, from which it took the name “rubber”; until the celebrated invention of Mackintosh marked the beginning of a new era in its history, which Goodyear’s discovery of the vulcanizing process, in 1843, has since made one of unlimited importance. It may now be regarded as of universal necessity, and indispensable to the comfort of millions of people, so quickly and to so many purposes have its advantages been applied in the course of modern inven- tion. A failure of the rubber crop would be one of the greatest disasters that could overtake the commercial world, and yet, only half a century ago, rubber was counted among the luxuries, outside of Brazil. Long before the civilized people of Europe and America knew anything of the uses of rubber, especially of its water-tight properties, the Amazon Indians employed-it to make bottles and other vessels for holding liquids, as the names seringa and borracha, by which rubber is called in the Amazon country, indicate; though borracha, meaning a bottle, is said also to refer to the shape in which it is exported. The rubber 400 THE NEW BRAZIL trees are known to the natives as seringueiras, and rubber gatherers are popularly called seringuciros. The botanical name Hevea gutanensis was given to the plant, in 1775, by the French scientist Aublet, who studied it in Guiana, reporting that the natives there knew it by the name /évé, the Indians of other sections calling it ser¢nga and caout-chouc. About the beginning of the nineteenth century, the English and German botanists gave the name siphonia to the rubber trees of Para, though the present botanical appellation is Hevea brasiliensis. In general appearance, the rubber tree of the Amazon forest is altogether different from the Ficus elastica of India, with its glossy dark-green leaves, and resembles rather the European ash in both bark and foliage. It grows to a height ranging from fifty to a hundred feet, and has an average girth, at a metre above the ground, of about five feet, the trunk being free from branches for almost half its height. The blossoming season is August, and in December and January the seeds ripen and fall, earlier in the case of old than of young trees. The seeds grow, sometimes three or four together, in a hard shell STEAM LAUNCHES IN THE ALTO PURUS, ACRE. that hangs by a short stalk from the upper and outer branches and explodes with a loud noise when ripe, scattering its contents in all directions. Of the many varieties of the TO EeACKER ER LOmeAaNOD THE KUBBER INDUSTRY 401 seringuetra, the most valuable to commerce is known in rubber districts as casca preta [black bark], and grows in those forests that are neither permanently flooded nor yet on RUBBER GATHERERS IN THE AMAZON COUNTRY. high land, but where a great amount of atmospheric moisture exists, as along the rain-drenched banks of the Amazon tributaries, especially in the south, where are found the richest rubber- producing regions at present Known. On the river Acre the trees are so prolific that one hundred of them will furnish as much as a ton of rubber per annum. North of the Amazon, the Rio Negro and Rio Branco tributaries yield a considerable quantity. Brazilian territory at present known to produce rubber covers over a million square miles, and it is believed that further exploration will prove this estimate to be far below the actual area. With such an extensive field to draw from, it is not likely that much will be done for some time toward planting and cultivating rubber, particularly as the tree requires from fifteen to twenty years to reach maturity, which is a long time for capital to lie idle; although companies have already been formed with such a project in view. In its wild state the rubber tree grows among other trees of the forest promiscuously, not in clusters or groves of its own. One of its peculiarities is that it will not grow satisfactorily on cleared and open ground, as it requires the shade of other trees and the still air from the 402 THE NEW BRAZIL time its growth begins until it is an adult tree. Not only is the quality of the milk affected by a lack of these advantages, but the tree itself has been known to die soon after a clearing of the ground around it. The milk of the rubber tree, or, as it is scientifically known, the Jatex, is quite different from the sap, and is only of nutritive value when used as a reserve of water in cases of drought, its extraction not being in any way harmful to the life of the tree, as is sometimes reported. If allowed to rest a few years, even a completely exhausted tree will recover itself, and instances are known where trees that have been tapped at intervals for fifty years still yield an abundance of milk. The rubber is collected in the dry season, between July and January, the processes of extraction and curing being particularly interesting because of their very primitive character. The “tapping” of the tree marks the beginning of the seringueiro’s work. Having built his little hut and equipped himself with the neces- sary utensils, consisting of an axe, a knife, cups, clay, and a calabash, he starts out for the rubber tree, sometimes cutting his way through dense undergrowth and again sinking knee-deep in mud or up to his waist in water. Arrived at his destination, he attaches the cup to the tree, and with his axe makes a gash in the bark, being careful not to penetrate the wood. The axe used for this purpose is very small, less than an inch wide, and wedge- shaped in order to prevent its making too deep a cut in the tree; usually an upward blow is given, making an oblique incision about six feet above the base of the trunk. This operation is repeated at intervals of about a foot in a line all round the tree until five or six cups have been placed, into which the milk flows slowly. The next day a row of incisions is made just below the first, and so on day by day until the ground is reached, when the same pro- gramme is begun again, this time between the former rows. A good tree will yield to a height of twenty feet or more. Each day an experienced seringueiro can tap aS many as a hundred trees, provided they are comparatively close together. Some gatherers tap in the morning and return to collect the milk in the evening, while others tap in the evening and collect in the morning. An expert collector will gather as much as seven pounds of rubber a day in the lower Amazon region, but about three times that amount in the richest districts of the upper Amazon. Rubber trees differ greatly in their yielding capacity, some being very quickly exhausted, while others continue to produce for many years; from some the daily yield is much greater than from others, and some do not yield to their full capacity when first tapped. A systematic division of labor is made on all the great rubber estates by which each collector has his hut and utensils provided anda given territory to work, the trees being connected by paths, or estradas, which pass a hundred heveas or more, forming a loop that takes the collector back to his starting point when his allotted share of the day’s tapping is finished. As the Jafex exudes from the tree, it resembles milk both in color and consistency, the caoutchouc corresponding to the butter properties in milk; the fluid part of it consists of water with very small quantities of albuminous matter, organic acids, and phosphates in solution. The seringueiro usually begins tapping about daybreak, after a cup of coffee, which serves his needs until nine or ten o’clock, when this part of his work is Po ea Chea rErRhi LOR YeAaND eLHE RUBBER INDUSTRY 403 done and he is ready for breakfast. After breakfast, he returns to his estrada, taking with him a bucket into which he empties the cups from each tree, getting back again to his hut about noon or a little later, when he proceeds to prepare his day’s collection for the market by a process of evaporation which, though primitive, has been proved to be the best and least expensive yet discovered for freeing the rubber from those elements that, if allowed to remain, would cause putrefaction and destroy its elastic properties, making it worthless as an article of commerce. If the /afex is left standing over night even, it loses some of its value by fermentation and has to be sold as second-class, so that it is a regular part of the CUTTING AND CLASSIFYING RUBBER FOR EXPORT FROM MANAOS. day’s work to smoke the rubber each day as it is collected. A fire is built of palm nuts, the urucuri being the best for the purpose, though if the nuts are not obtainable ordinary wood chips are made to serve instead; a funnel-shaped chimney is then placed over the fire, through which the hot smoke rises in a dense column, and the operator, seating himself beside a bucketful of the /atex, pours some of it over a paddle-shaped stick which he then holds in the smoke, turning it round and round until it dries, repeating the operation until a large baJl has been formed. Sometimes a pivot is arranged and a rotary motion secured which does faster work than the operator in smoking the balls; but the paddle-smoked rubber is preferred because it is usually more thoroughly dried and cured, although this 404 THE NEW BRAZIL method is very injurious to the eyes, total blindness being known to result from it in some cases. An expert man will be able to work two estradas a day, having four estradas in his territory which he works on alternate days; it is said that such a workman can collect as much as a ton of rubber a year. The season for collecting rubber lasts only about five or six months at the longest, though during the intervening months employment may be secured in gathering brazil nuts, sarsaparilla, and other products of the forest, that are marketed during this time. Most of these laborers, however, spend in the winter what they make in the summer. It is not an uncommon sight on the steamers plying up and down the Amazon to find a seringueiro transformed after a few months’ work into “a gentleman of means,” though half a year later will usually find him again penniless on his way to the rubber camp, so improvident are these hard-working children of the forest. No doubt the irresistible attractions of the city, long denied, prove too much even for the stoutest purse, and, like their seafaring brethren after a long absence from port, they fall easy victims to the sharpers who are constantly on the lookout for such prey, and part with their hard-earned money before appreciating the value of “ Poor Richard’s” warning against paying too dearly for their whistle. On the other hand, instances are related of poor laborers going into the rubber district without a penny and earning enough in the course of time to enable them to purchase property and establish themselves in business. So much depends upon the man in any sphere of life. The demand for labor is so far in excess of the supply in these regions, that the proprietors of large estates find great difficulty in filling the requirements of the markets. There are usually three distinct qualities of rubber sold to commerce: the fine, which — has been thoroughly dried and smoked and is free from putrefaction; the medium, or entre- fine, which has either been burnt during the smoking process or has been insufficiently smoked and in consequence has putrefied; and the sernambi, which consists of scraps mixed with peelings from the bark of the tree and miscellaneous sorts. The raw rubber is subject to a loss of weight during its transportation that is frequently a source of annoyance to shippers. This loss is so variable that no exact figures can be made a reliable basis of calculation, and unless the consignor and consignee have perfect faith in each other’s integ- rity, there is often occasion for doubt regarding the actual weight of the shipment, which is sure to be different from the invoiced statement of the amount as it left the shipper’s hands. Rubber that is kept in the camps in remote sections and shipped only once a year loses but about a tenth of the weight that is lost by newly-made rubber shipped as soon as cured. Three or foyr per cent is quoted as the average loss in shipments from Mandaos to foreign ports. Some of the best qualities do not show so great a reduction, while there are inferior kinds of rubber that double that percentage of lost weight in transit. Brazil practically controls the rubber trade of the world, reaping a revenue from this source that reaches an average of fifty million dollars a year. The States of Amazonas and Para are the great rubber-producing regions, and their supply is practically inexhaustible, though the scarcity of labor limits the amount exported, so that as the demand increases the TOE ACREe TERRITORY SAND |] HECRUBBER INDUSTRY: 405 price is raised, being nearly double to-day what it was twenty years ago, notwithstanding that the supply has increased enormously within that time, so great is the universal call for “more rubber.” The amount of rubber exported by the State of Amazonas during the year 1906 was nineteen thousand tons, or about one-third of the world’s total supply. The State govern- ment encourages the industry by awarding premiums for the best quality of rubber, and for the best process of curing the /atex. The purpose of this plan is to promote experiments which may result in the discovery of a better system for the treatment of the product than that which is used at present. The largest shipments of rubber are from the Acre, Purus, THE SAO VICENTE. Jurua, and Madeira Rivers. The Jurua, though comparatively a recent fiéld of exploitation, yields more than three thousand tons annually, the amount being still larger from the Acre and the Purts rivers. The entire exports of rubber from the Amazon countries for 1906 amounted to forty-three thousand tons, of which three thousand passed through the port of Iquitos, and twenty-one thousand through the port of Para, in addition to the shipments through the port of Mandaos as previously stated. The outlook for the Amazon country has never been so promising as it is at the present time. The Acre territory with its great wealth of rubber and the possibilities that exist for its development as one of the richest provinces of Brazil agriculturally, make one more dis- posed than ever to credit the judgment of the men of science who have pronounced this 406 THE NEW BRAZIL the garden spot of the tropics. As to the general climate of the State, the English naturalist Wallace, says: “During my residence in the Amazon country, the thermometer never rose above eighty-seven degrees Fahrenheit at midday and never went lower than seventy- four degrees at night;” and the explorer Herbert Smith writes: “1 travelled through the Amazon country for four years and never had a fever, but I caught one in Ohio, where I remained less than a month.” Present prospects indicate that the next decade will see marvellous progress in the valley of the Amazon, and especially in that part of it which has been least explored. Rubber has been called the “Cinderella of civilization;” crowded into obscurity by her more gaily decked sisters of the forest, she eclipses them all in real worth, the fairy Prince of Commerce seeking in vain elsewhere for a queen so admirably fitted to wear the crystal emblem of universal travel and unique destiny. TRANSPORTING RUBBER FROM THE ACRE. THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ‘VuVd “OONVUE-OlN AG ACGNOOSIA VOVUd mah | ‘ HLELLELIIDE CHAPTER XXV PARA \ X J HATEVER fruits in different climes are found, That proudly rise or humbly court the ground,—- Whatever blooms in torrid tracts appear, Whose bright succession decks the varied year,— Whatever sweets salute the northern sky With vernal lives that blossom but to die,— These here disporting own their kindred soil, Nor ask luxuriance from the planter’s toil: While sea-born gales their gelid wings expand, To winnow fragrance round the smiling land. GOLDSMITH: The Traveller. In the heart of a rich territory, unsur- passed in the variety and abundance of its resources, watered by that great inland sea, the Amazon, and nurtured under the sunniest of skies, Para possesses everything that nature can bestow to make it a land of hap- piness and prosperity. The State is the third largest of Brazil, being exceeded in extent only by Amazonas and Matto Grosso; it Pe eee rar cononicn bine covers more than a million square kilometres, or a territory sufficient to accommodate more than half the population of Europe. By the recent settlement of the Guiana boundary question, the area of the State has been greatly increased. It is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, being separated from the Guianas by the Oyapoc River, the Serra do Tumuc-Humac, and the Serra do Acarahy; on the east by the States of Maranhdo and Goyaz; on the south by Matto Grosso, and on the west by Amazonas. In the southeastern part of the State are the highlands belonging to the great central. tableland of Brazil; here the climate is temperate, and only in the low and marshy lands is there great heat and 409 410 THE NEW BRAZIL humidity. According to Humboldt, the climate is ‘more equable than that of any other ob- served part of the New World.” The temperature varies but little from twenty-five degrees centigrade; the trade-winds and the rains cool the atmosphere, making the nights very pleasant all the year round. The forest wealth of this region iS enormous; but its present development, already a most significant factor in world- commerce, is merely a trifle of its potential value. And who shall fitly describe the Brazilian forest? No language could be deemed extravagant in extol- ling its splendor—the magnifi- cent woods, venerable trees, saplings, vines, parasites, orchids, and ferns—from the tiny spire of grass to the giant branching monarch—are here grouped, massed, and interwoven in a bewildering picture of beauty that is almost without parallel! The latest claim of this region to universal attention was established a few years ago when the increasing commercial value of Para rubber made this portion of the vast Brazilian territory a great emporium of.trade, sought by eager purchasers from all parts of the world. The State of Para was among the last to receive the attention of the Portuguese government, which permitted the French to establish settlements in all the northern ports until about the year 1615, when Alexandre de Moura was sent to govern this territory. He drove out the French from Maranhdo, at the same time sending Castello Branco as commander- in-chief of the government forces to Para, where he was successful in gaining posses- sion of the forts, and soon afterward laid the foundation of the present capital city of the State, which is familiarly called Belém, or Para, though the correct title is Santa Maria de Nazareth de Belém do Grado Para, in honor of the patron saint, Our Lady of Nazareth. Following Castello Branco, the most notable of the early governors was Pedro Teixeira, to whom belongs the great honor of extending the limits of Portuguese possessions in Brazil to the river Nap6, one of the remote tributaries of the Amazon, and also the distinction of giving to science the first geographical map of the Amazon region, with scientific notes of the great river. His voyage, begun in 1637, lasted two years, and after the return of the expedition Teixeira took charge of the government, in 1640. Expeditions up the Amazon during the eighteenth century brought many scientific celebrities to Para, and their writings are filled with enthusiastic praise of this wonderful country. La Condamine, who made the voyage in 1741, returned to his native land and wrote important scientific works concerning this region, giving to Europe the first information regarding its most important BOULEVARD DA REPUBLICA, PARA. PARA Atl natural products, including rubber. Gaspar de Lima discovered quinine in the country about this time, and gold was found in the Tapajos River; Jodo de Azevedo explored the Tapajos River from Matto Grosso, thus establishing communication between the two States. A few years later, under the administration of Governor Mendonca Furtado, who was a brother of the Marquis de Pombal, a system of military colonization was introduced, and the military settlements Araguaya and Araguary were established. The handsome palace of the governor, among the finest of the public buildings in Brazil, was constructed from the design of the celebrated architect, Lande; and the first industrial establishments of the State were founded about the same time. As early as 1760, arrangements were completed for constructing the navy yard, in which, during recent years, have been built some of Brazil’s best men-of-war and gunboats. The first census was taken in 1880, showing a population of eighty thousand inhabitants, of which twelve thousand belonged to the capital city; the present population of the State is seven hundred thousand, and the capital has more than one hundred thousand inhabitants. The inauguration of steam navigation on the Amazon River in 1852 and the opening of the Amazon to ships of all nations in 1867 were powerful influences in the development of the State. When the republic was formally proclaimed in 1889, Para was among the first to accept the new régime; a governmental junta was elected, PROCESSION, FEAST OF NAZARETH. and Para was declared a Federal State. Of all the Brazilian States, Para has the greatest extent of seacoast, nearly seven hundred miles. Numerous lighthouses along the coast 412 THESNEVSBRAZIL and on the river-bars protect the pilots in these waters. It is said that only the most experienced river pilot, and one who has been especially trained for the Amazon can safely be relied upon to manage the course of a steamer on this river, in consequence GOVERNMENT PALACE, PARA. of the constantly shifting river-bed, the islands that form and disappear mysteriously, and the unaccountable frequency of the sandbanks, especially at low tide. Its geographical position and the extent of its navigable rivers, afford the State of Para an outlet for much of the trade of northern Brazil and of the republics of Bolivia, Peru, and Venezuela. The State is watered by innumerable rivers and small streams [igarapés] that find an outlet in the great Amazon. One of the most important of these is the Trombetas, which rises in the Serra do Acarahy, in Guiana, and enters the Amazon near the western boundary of the State, at a place called Obydos, a flourishing port and the centre of a rich agricultural section. The Trombetas is navigable for a hundred and fifty miles, and has several tribu- taries, of which the largest are the Jamunda, marking part of the boundary-line between the States of Para and Amazonas, and the Cuminan, which comes from the highlands of Brazilian Guiana and dashes down over the highest cataracts found in this region. The rivers Tapajos, Xingu, and Tocantins, which flow into the Amazon from the south, water the entire southern portion of the State, as well as Goyaz and Matto Grosso, where they take their rise. These rivers are obstructed by rapids in the higher courses, though navigable at intervals almost throughout their whole extent. The Tocantins, with a length of sixteen hundred miles, is the most important of the three as a highway for traffic; it is fringed with PARA 413 forests of castanha trees, and the cacao and rubber industries are extensively carried on in this region. In the upper courses of the river the climate is practically delightful, and the mineral wealth is abundant. The Xingu frequently widens in its course, forming great lakes, and in the upper waters it doubles back on itself in a huge curve, forming rapids and cataracts that interrupt navigation at this point. Though much shorter than the Tapajos or the Tocantins, its navigable distance, excepting the falls just referred to, is greater. The Tapajés enters the Amazon a few miles below the mouth of the Trombetas, at the port of Santarem, a prosperous shipping centre and the residence of many North Americans who settled there after the war of the Confederacy. The Xingu forms, at its mouth, part of the estuary of the Amazon, and the Tocantins enters the Para River south of Marajé Island, forming, according to some authorities, a river system entirely separate from that of the Amazon and its tributaries. Marajé Island covers an area of more than forty thousand square kilometres, being from east to west one hundred and thirty miles, and from north to south one hundred miles; it THEATRE DA PAZ, PARA. contains a number of towns and villages, its pasture lands support three hundred cattle ranches, and from its forests are taken some of the best qualities of Para rubber, though its rubber trees have been overworked because of their easy access to the shipping port. 414 THE NEW BRAZIL The receipts of the State government are nearly five million dollars annually. Rubber alone contributes to the State and municipal incomes nearly twenty-five per cent of their total, the annual crop gathered in this State amounting to twelve thousand tons, valued at sixteen million dollars gold. Next to rubber, the culture of cacao is one of the most im- portant sources of revenue. Along the margins of the Ama- zon and the Tocantins the cacao crops are most abundant; the development of the product _ offers especial inducements, as the planting is easy, and in this region the tree bears fruit after three years’ growth, continuing to produce, for fifty years or more, two crops annually, if kept clean. The annual export of cacao averages three thousand tons. Brazil nuts are exported in large quantities, and the supply is practically unlimited. Mandioca is cultivated in every part of the State, the farinha constituting an important article of food. An increas- ing tendency is shown by agriculturists to vary the products grown on their plantations; and the State encourages this disposition by every possible means. The old system of confining all efforts to the production of one kind of harvest has proved undesirable from many standpoints, and as Para has a soil and climate so varied in different sections as to make it possible to grow everything tropical and semi-tropical, there is no apparent reason why its farms should not supply the home market, and even provide other States, with many food products which are now imported from Europe and North America. An encouraging sign of industrial enterprise is shown by the statistics of 1906 which state that more than three million pounds of tobacco were produced during that year, and that four million litres of cachaga, a native alcohol, were manufactured. The fisheries of the State furnish a considerable revenue, and stock raising is constantly growing in import- ance. Twenty thousand head of cattle were shipped from the interior to the capital last year, and this amount represents only about half of the total production. Through the activity of the present administration, an experimental station for practical agriculture was founded April 10, 1907, for the purpose of stimulating the study of tropical farming, improv- ing the methods now in vogue, and introducing scientific processes into the work of the farm. The institution provides a practical education in farming to a class of poor boys, who are cared for, fed and clothed by the State; and, annexed to the experimental station is a plot of land marked off in one hundred lots of sixty acres each, all of them ceded gratui- tously to Brazilian settlers. A stock-breeding station and a meteorological bureau are LAURO SODRE INSTITUTE, PARA. PARA 415 connected with the establishment. The government has also enjoyed the services of an expert bacteriologist to study the maladies to which cattle and horses bred in the State are subject. A post has been established on the island of Marajé, where experiments are made with a view to improving the native live stock by importing fine horses and cattle from other countries. Marajé is the chief centre of the cattle raising industry, though there are also good pasture lands in the southern part of the State. From the forests of Para many of the finest qualities of hardwood are exported for cabinet purposes, and this industry is still in its infancy; the abundance and variety of this product must sooner or later attract the attention of commerce to the extent of increasing the demand and providing ways and means to introduce it ona more extensive scale to the markets of the world. From the palms that abound here, delicate fibres that are as fine as silk and stronger than linen are extracted, which are used for hammocks, mats, baskets, and hats, though the full range of their usefulness has never been measured. The medic- inal plants, dyewoods, gums, and oils found in the State are sufficient to meet the greatest demand. Clays of beautiful and varied colors, suitable for fine pottery, are found through- out the Amazon district. Gold and precious stones have been found in the high land, also marble, slate, and clays fitted for ornamental purposes. The manufacturing industries of Para include sugar-refineries, Saw-mills, etc. The social, educational, and commercial centre of the State is its capital city, Belém, or as it is more generally called by foreigners, Para. There is an alliterative proverb with BITTENCOURT INSTITUTE, PARA. respect to Para indicative of the fascinating charm which the city possesses for strangers: “Quem vat para Pardé para,” which is interpreted: “Who goes to Para stays there.” Another 416 THE NEW BRAZIL version of the same saying signifies: “Who comes to Para is glad to stay; who drinks assai goes never away.” The assai is a native beverage made from the fruit of the assai palm, which produces large black ber- ries resembling grapes; it is very refreshing, and is one of the most popular drinks of this region. _ This picturesque and charming city offers many attractions to the foreign visitor in its beautiful tropical gardens and broad avenues shaded by trees of apparently impenetrable foliage; while the delight of its spacious bay fanned by cool breezes most inviting to the beach or the boating party makes life very pleasant in this rich equatorial city. The wealth that has poured into Para within re- twenty years from a quiet city of fifty thou- sand to a modern metropolis of more than twice that number of inhabitants. It is one of the most delightful places of residence in northern Brazil; the mean annual temperature is about eighty degrees Fahrenheit, and it is an agreeable fact that during the time of day when the heat is greatest the cooling sea breeze is strongest; also, during the hottest months of the year there are afternoon showers, lasting about an hour, that cool the atmosphere. During the day, the parks, avenues, and drives are deserted, and the only evidence of activity is seen in the commercial streets and along the docks and wharves; but in the evening the city puts on holiday dress, and all is gaiety and pleasure. In the Praga da Republica, and the Praga Visconde de Rio-Branco, which are among the beautiful parks ornamenting the city, an orchestra plays two or three evenings a week. The leading opera house, Theatro da Paz, is one of the finest in South America and over- looks the Praga da Republica; large and fashionable audiences attend nightly, and excellent European companies are engaged every season by the government to give a Series of operas. Handsomely dressed women may be Seen promenading in the Praca in company with their escorts, who are always relatives, and a long line of elegant carriages stands every evening in front’of the fashionable social clubs, one of which is the “Sport Club,” situated in the most attractive section of the city, where the members pass away the evening at billiards, bowling, gymnastics, fencing, or the more restful entertainment of cards or books. On the ladies’ evenings the club rooms are transformed into reception rooms, decorated with flowers and vines, and a programme of music usually takes the place of more athletic DR. ANTONIO LEMOS, INTENDENTE OF PARA. cent years has resulted in changing it within - PARA 417 pastimes. In the library and reading room the principal foreign as well as Brazilian maga- zines and newspapers are on file. For visitors there is a unique attraction in the museum and the botanical garden, which differ in many respects from similar institutions elsewhere, particularly in the great variety of rare specimens which belong exclusively to the Amazon regions, especially of the animal world. Nowhere are to be seen reptiles larger or of more variegated coloring; and it is impossible to imagine anything more gorgeous than the plumage of the araras, toucans, and parrots that are as much at home here as in the freedom of their forest haunts; the luxuriance and brilliant coloring of foliage and blossoms seen in the botanical garden are typical of the prodigality of Nature in everything that grows in this favored zone. In the public buildings, as well as other government improvements, the city gives proof of large expenditure, but at the same time judi- cious investment; some of the handsomest structures have been erected for edu- cational purposes. Public instruction comprises pri- mary, Secondary, normal, technical, and professional courses. The first is given in the State elementary and primary schools, which have an average attendance of fifteen thousand pupils, in the Outeiro Orphan Asylum, and in the Insti- tutes of Prata and Ourém; secondary instruction is given at the Para Lyceum, in three courses, includ- ing a course organized ac- cording to the plan of instruction of the Gym- nasio Nacional, a course of surveying, and a commer- cial course; technical and oi s professional instruction is THE BOSOUE, PARA. given in the Para Institute of Mechanical Arts, which is a free boarding-school for minors, under military conditions, where gratuitous instruction in mechanical arts is given. There are five workshops in 418 THE NEW) BRAZIL connection with the Institute, equipped respectively for the work of carpenters, blacksmiths, tailors, tinsmiths, and, under one roof, shoemakers, curriers, and tanners. When the pupil’s education is finished, he serves a term in the State militia, after which he obtains his discharge or is promoted. The school buildings are creditable to the city, and several are particularly hand- some establishments. When Secretary Root visited Para in 1906 he was especially impressed with the admirable sys- tem of public instruction which prevails in this Sp State, and the extraordi- OFFICE OF THE NEWSPAPER “A PROVINCIA.” nary degree of protection and aid extended to the poorer classes. He spent hours in the various institutions, and was enthusiastic in praise of them all. The Lauro Sodré Institute, which is one of the best technical schools in South America, wins eulogies from all who have occasion to pay a visit to its various departments. It is installed with one hundred and ten machines for various purposes, such as printing, engraving, bookbinding, etc., and free industrial training is given to four hundred boarding pupils, who are provided with lodging, food, clothing, and instruction, as well as to one hundred day pupils, who study agriculture. The course of training includes all the trades, such as printing, bookbinding, decorating and painting, carpentry, boilermaking, tanning, tailoring, and similar branches, as well as practical farming. All the furniture used in the schools of the capital is made by pupils of the Lauro Sodré Institute, who also make all the uniforms for the State troops. The students’ brass band is well-organized and is a credit to the Institute. The General Bittencourt Institute and the Benjamin Constant Lyceum are industrial schools of high standing, and the State Normal School shows increased attendance annually, with continued improvement in the standard of training acquired. For higher education the Para Law School, the School of Pharmacy, and other institutions have been established. The government spends nearly a million dollars annually for public instruction, and subsidizes a pedagogic publication, 4 Escola, one of the best in South America. The governor of the State, Dr. Augusto Montenegro, is zealous in his determination to advance the State in everything that relates to the well-being of its people, both intellectually ve PARA 419 and materially. Not only has his attention been directed to the importance of developing the great natural resources of his State, but, appreciating his responsibility toward the rising generation of Para, he has devoted his talents to the solution of the prob- lems that touch the future as well as the present of one of the greatest States of Brazil. Dr. Montenegro en- tered on his high official duties at the beginning of the present century. He has been a prominent figure in polit- ical life from the first days of his public career, and, as he is still a young man, the future offers particu- larly brilliant prospects for the realiza- tion of his highest aspiration. No other arena of activity presents better SMALL SALA IN THE MUNICIPAL BUILDING. advantages for the fulfilment of noble aims and the reward of earnest endeavor than are to be found by the youth of Para in their native State, which has already given to Brazil many of her great scientists, statesmen, orators, and journalists. Cooperating with the State government in all its progressive movements for the benefit of the country, the Intendente of the Municipality of Belém, Senator Antonio Lemos, merits the exalted position he holds among the great men of his State as a political leader of unblemished patriotism and an executive chief whose ability and good judgment are seen in every feature of the municipal administration. He has done everything to improve the State capital, giving especial attention to its sanitary condition and to the hygiene of the various institu- tions of charity, the hospitals, schools, etc. The police are well-drilled and efficient in their duties and public order is perfectly maintained. The churches and hospitals are worthy of especial mention, particularly the old cathedral, and the hospitals Santa Casa and Beneficiencia Portugueza. The last-named takes care of about two hundred patients on an average, and is one of the model institutions of the kind. Electric tramways connect every part of the city, which is lighted with electricity and has complete telephonic and telegraphic communi- cation. A favorite passeio of Para is the beautiful “ Bosque,” which has been made an ideal resort through the efforts of Dr. Lemos; its shaded driveways, winding footpaths, fountains, flowers, and rich tropical foliage giving evidence of the artistic taste of the Intendente, who has designed this park as a bower of enchantment. It is not surprising that such a public- spirited leader should have won the esteem and affection of the citizens, which is shown in many ways. Dr. Lemos has been for many years the editor of 4 Provincia do Para, the chief newspaper of northern Brazil, and one of the most important in the republic, and the citizens have presented him with a handsome new office building, a solid and 420 THE NEW BRAZIL commodious edifice, fitted up with all the modern conveniences of a newspaper plant, including cases, linotype machines, and complete office furniture. The building occupies a central locality and is a fitting monument to the genius of the man whose pen, no less than his eloquent voice, has been constantly employed in behalf of liberty and progress. O Jornal is one of the important daily newspapers, having a circulation of fifteen thousand copies, and there are several weekly periodicals of note. The public buildings of Para are substantial and some of them are very handsome edifices. The old palace of the governor, built during Pombal’s time, is still one of the attractive edifices of the city, though the new palace adjoining it, used by the legislative assembly and the municipal officials, is also an ornament to the capital. The Alfandega, or custom house, one of the modern additions to the commercial quarter of the city, presents a favorable aspect from the bay. A splendid public library ranks among the community’s intellectual attractions. A charming feature of the city of Para is the magnificence of the vegetation in the tropical forests which surround it, and the picturesque view that stretches ESTRADA DE SAO JERONYMO, PARA. out before it in the broad open harbor with its busy traffic. The city lies on flat land, and seen for the first time from the steamer entering the harbor the impression predominating is PARA 421 one of color rather than form; it is “the white city” before one has had time to decide whether it is large or small, old-fashioned or modern. A nearer view modifies this impression, and reveals a busy commercial sea- port, with evidences of Portuguese architecture in the houses characteristically decorated with ornamental tiles, though the streets have been broadened and beautified under the present ad- ministration. The spacious pracas, and the towering trees that ornament the broader and more modern avenues of the city, heighten the picturesque general effectiveness. Para is the seat of the bishopric of Belém, and the episcopal palace is one of the most important edifices of the capital. Arrangements have been completed for the improvement of the port of Para, and work will begin at once. The enterprise is in charge of Sir Weetman Pearson, of the English firm of Pearson and Company, under whose direction ree : By were built the great docks of Vera Cruz, Mexico, A ESIDENCR GRIGOVERNOGTMONTERRGRO. and many other public improvements effected in that progressive republic. Every year Para presents a more modern appearance, in keeping with the advancement that is being made in every department. Governor Montenegro has greatly improved the railways of the State and has made several important extensions. Besides the capital, the State has two thriving ports on the Amazon, Santarem and Obydos, and a number of other growing cities. Santarem, situated at the mouth of the Tapajos River, is the chief shipping centre for an extensive region, most of the exports of northern Matto Grosso, as well as those of southwestern Para, being carried through this port. The city has many large public buildings, the municipal palace, which occupies the centre of Sao Sebastian square, being one of the most important edifices. A theatre, built by private citizens and presented to the municipality in 1897, a new market place, several schools, and churches are among the prominent buildings. Santarem is the seat of the bishopric of Lower Amazonas, which was created in 1904.. It is a manufacturing centre, several steam saw mills, distilleries, and factories of various kinds being located in the city. Braganga, connected with the capital by railway, is a prosperous town of twenty thousand people; it is situated on the Gurupy River, which divides the State of Para from that of Maranhao, and is near the northern seacoast. Braganga occuples a picturesque site on a sloping hillside and is beautified by many shade trees. Its pracas and avenidas are well- paved, six public gardens being filled with trees and flowers. The municipal palace is in Deodoro da Fonseca praca, which is surrounded by many beautiful residences as well. 422 THE NEW BRAZIL Cameta, near the mouth of the Tocantins, has an important trade in castanha nuts, cacao, and other products; Monte Alegre is noted for the salubrity of its climate; Pinheiro is a favorite suburb of Belém, with which it is to be connected by railway, and there are several other towns of rising importance. The immigration bureau of the State is making judicious efforts to attract foreign colonies, and the outlook for desirable immigration is favorable. Apropos of this subject, one is reminded of the incisive and eloquent language of Coudreau: “Progress is indefinite; no race is its perpetual keeper. It is like a legacy, bequeathed by the race which disappears to the one which succeeds. Its course is onward; it has already moved westward toward Europe; it has already actually moved from Europe to America. Why should not centuries to come see upon the banks of the Amazon their most magnifi- cent flourishing, as early centuries saw their manifestations upon the banks of the rivers of Egypt and IndiaP” CUSTOM HOUSE, PARA CHAPTER XXVI MARANHAO CNS an area of nearly two hundred thou- sand square miles, Maranhao ranks sixth in size among the Brazilian States, and is one of the most important in political and intellectual advancement. Its history reveals in bright colors the brave spirit and unwavering patriotism of a people who have given to Brazil some of its most distinguished leaders, ‘and to whom is due the successful issue of many of its severest struggles against invasion and oppres- sion in the early days of its history. The territory of Maranhdo was originally bestowed on the Portu- guese historian and statesman, Joao de Barros, in 1534; but two expeditions sent out by him to colo- nize the capitania were shipwrecked, and the attempt was abandoned. The first successful effort to estab- of lish a settlement was made by the French under the STATUE OF GONCALVES DIAZ. direction of La Ravardiére, in 1612, on the island of Sao Luiz, where the present State capital is situated, named Sado Luiz in nengr of King Louis XIII. of France, though it has always been more commonly known as Maranhado. The French were expelled a few years later by the intrepid Brazilian warrior, Jeronymo de Albuquerque Maranhao, a nephew of Duarte Coelho, of Pernambuco. In recognition of his services, the brave soldier was appointed capitdo-mor by the Portuguese governor-general Alexandre de Moura, under whose administration the division of the Brazilian government into the two States of Maranhao and Brazil was made in 1624, during the union of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns. The governor-general of the State of Maranhao, which comprised the capitanias of Ceara, Piauhy, Para, and other north Brazilian provinces, afterward removed his residence 423 424 THE NEW BRAZIL to Para, leaving the capitao-mor to govern in Maranhao, until, in 1754, subordinate governors were appointed under a capitdo-general, and the subsequent separation of the States, as else- where mentioned, was followed by the division of the whole country into provinces, a AAVENIDA MARANHENSE, SHOWING GOVERNOR'S PALACE ON THE RIGHT. system which remained in force throughout the imperial régime. During the Dutch invasion, Maranhdo was the scene of many heroic conflicts, one of her greatest leaders in this war being the brave captain Antonio Teixeira de Mello, whose memory is still honored in the annals of Maranhao. The State is mountainous in the southern part, gradually sloping northward, and forming extensive plains along the seacoast. Several large rivers drain the territory. The eastern boundary is defined by the Parnahyba, which takes its rise in the Tabatinga Moun- tains at the junction of the four States of Goyaz, Bahia, Piauhy, and Maranhdo; the western border is marked partly by the Tocantins and partly by the Gurupy. In the interior of the . State the chief rivers are the Mearim, navigable in winter for two hundred miles, with Several important tributaries; the Itapicuru, navigable for five hundred miles; the Monim, Tury-assa, Uru, and Cururupt. The most populous sections of the State are along the coast and in the vicinity of the navigable rivers, the reason being apparent in the greater facilities provided in these districts for the transportation of products. The climate is healthful, except in some of the low lands, where intermittent fevers are prevalent during the rainy season. The soil is fertile and yields profitable harvests of cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, and cereals. Cattle raising flourishes on the plateaus of the interior. The social and industrial progress of the State has been as creditable as the record of its political advancement. MARANHAO 425 Several steamship lines ply up and down the coast and along the river routes of the State. A coast line, belonging to the Maranhao Steam Navigation Company, is subsidized by the Federal government to facilitate traffic between Maranhao and other States of northern Brazil. Its steamers are new and well-built, five of them having recently arrived from the British builder’s shipyard. The same company has a number of smaller boats for river trade, though the Companhia Fluvial Maranhense has a subsidy from the State govern- ment for service on the rivers, and has five steamers engaged in this navigation. The extent of navigable rivers makes the question of overland transportation one of secondary importance, though there is a railway line in operation between the river ports Caxias on the Itapucura, and Cajazeiras on the Parnahyba. A railway has been projected to con- nect Caxias with Porto Franco on the western boundary of the State. The construction of this railway will greatly facilitate the development of the rich resources of the interior, and especially the mineral wealth, which is abundant. Gold has been found in large quantities, and valuable copper and iron ores exist in the vicinity of Grajahu and else- where; and granite of a very fine quality was discovered recently by the present governor, Dr. Benedicto Leite. The annual exports of the State amount to more than two million dollars in value. The population of Maranhdo is seven hundred thousand, the capital city PRAGA JOAO LISBOA. of Sao Luiz having fifty thousand inhabitants. The city is located on the island of Sao Luiz, and is one of the most attractive in northern Brazil. It has been called “a city of little palaces,” from the modest size but solid structure of its edifices, which are remarkable both 426 THE NEW BRAZIL for their substantial appearance and their architectural beauty. The chalet of Dr. Carlos Coelho is an ideal tropical residence, with its broad verandahs and large windows, over- looking a beautiful garden filled with flowers and ferns. The Maranhense dispenses RUA DO SOL. hospitality with charming grace and liberality. The city is beautified by broad, shaded streets and many pracas, of which the handsomest is that of Carmo, the site of the historic church and convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo, which is honored as the last resting-place of the distinguished journalist Joao Lisboa, who, as the editor of the Jornal de Timon, won national fame among the political writers of the empire. The Praca do Palacio, in which are situated the palace of the president, the bishop’s palace, the municipal buildings, and other legislative offices, overlooks the old fort of Sado Luiz, better known as the baluarte, or great bastion, divided into two parts, named respectively Sado Cosme and Sao Damido. The governor, Dr. Benedicto Leite, has so beautified this public garden that it is one of the most picturesque pracas of the capital. In the Praga dos Remedios stands a handsome monument, erected to the memory of one of Maranhao’s most illustrious sons, the great lyric poet of Brazil, Antonio Goncalves Dias. It is a marble column representing the palm tree, which the poet loved so well, the capital of the column carrying out the design in a tuft of palm leaves wrought in the sculptor’s best art; the height of the monument is about seventy-five feet. On the four sides of the pedestal are medallions of the famous Maranhenses, Jodo Lisboa, Sotero dos Reis, Gomes de Souza, and Odorico Mendes. Near to the Praia da Trinidade stands the cathedral, one of the largest in Brazil, in the crypt of which lie buried all the past bishops of Maranhao and many of the presidents; the convent of Santo Antonio, situated near the MARANHAO 427 cathedral, is famous as having been the scene of the inspired offices of many noted friars, and is honored as the last resting-place of the renowned botanist Dr. Corréa de Lacerda. The educational and charitable institutions are numerous, among the most important being COTTON MILLS, MARANHAO. the Escola Popular Onze de Agosto, the Lyceu Maranhense, Casa da Misericordia, Asylo de Meninas Desvalidas [orphans’ asylum], Hospital Beneficencia Portugueza, and numerous seminaries. The Model School, which was founded by the governor, is one of the best institutions of its kind in Brazil. The manufacturing interests of the capital are various, the most important being the .cotton mills of the Companhia Fabril Maranhense, the present director of which is Senhor J. M. A. Santos. Their two factories have seven hundred looms, and employment is furnished for a thousand operatives. There are several other cotton mills of importance, this industry being one of the chief sources of revenue to the State. The second city of importance in the State is Caxias, the birthplace of Gongalves Dias, a prosperous city of thirty thousand inhabitants. Situated on the banks of the Itapicura River, and commanding a large share of the commerce of the interior, especially in cotton, tropical plants, and cattle, Alcantara, a city of twenty thousand inhabitants, lies on the north- western shore of the bay of Sado José, which separates the. island Sao Luiz from the mainland. It is a seaport, and is especially famous for the exportation of fine cocoanuts. 428 THE NEW BRAZIL Moncao, on the river Pindaré, is a thriving market for the cattle brought in from the interior plateaus, and even from the valley of the Tocantins. Itapicurt-mirim is also a growing cattle market. The port of Bareirinhas, in the eastern part of the State, is gaining importance through the extensive manufacture of brandies. Vianna is a rich agricultural centre. A new era of progress has opened for Maranhao in common with all the States of Brazil. The awakening of its people to the opportunities afforded for great industrial development under conditions that are constantly improving, has resulted in the establish- ment of new enterprises and in general commercial expansion. Lloyd Brazilian steamers call here en route to and from New York, and vessels belonging to English, American, and German companies make regular trips between this port and Europe or North America. The recent harbor improvements have greatly increased its commercial facilities. In the march of progress, the destinies of Maranhao have been directed by statesmen of courage and foresight, who have devoted their energies to promoting its best interests. The present governor, Dr. Benedicto Leite, has been untiring in his efforts to improve existing conditions and to bring still greater honor and credit to Maranhdo, the State which has always been famous for the refinement and intellectuality of its people. It is here that the purest Portu- suese is spoken in Brazil, and here the social life is most charming. The press is represented by newspapers which have literary as well as news interest, the Revista del Norte being one of the best periodicals of northern Brazil. Under the present administration, a new impetus has been given to every feature of progressive endeavor, and the results are seen not only in the development of the State at large, but also in the transformation of its capital, which is progressing steadily along the lines of public and private conveniences while acquiring added beauty and enhanced civic pride. AVENIDA SILVA MAYO. CHAPTER XXVII MATTO GROSSO, GOYAZ, AND PIAUHY EARLY one-third of the whole territory of Brazil lies in the three States of Matto Grosso, Goyaz, and Piauhy, bordering on the northern group, Amazonas, Para, and Maranhao, to which they are similar in natural resources and climate. Matto Grosso and Goyaz extend over an important part of the central tableland of Brazil and mark the dividing line between the two gigantic river systems of the South American continent,—the Amazon and La Plata,—while Piauhy, stretching inland from the northern coast and bordering Maranhao on the west, and Ceara, Pernambuco, and Bahia on the east, combines the characteristics of both the northern and the eastern coast States, having also in the extreme south, where it borders on Goyaz, some of the features that prevail in the central Brazilian States. The history of the discovery and develop- ment of Matto Grosso and Goyaz is a record of early adventure, followed by the steady progress that attends a more regular system of industrial enterprise. The Paulistas were the first to penetrate the depths of their forests and to navigate their innumerable rivers in an effort to settle the country; but the discovery of gold in these States in the eighteenth century, brought in its train hosts of eager gold hunters and diamond seekers, whose number continually increased until the more accessible mines of Bahia and Minas Geraes turned the gold hunter’s attention to those regions. Both States originally belonged to Sao Paulo, until, about the middle of the eighteenth century, each was made an independent capitania; 429 430 TEN EVV Broa Ze Matto Grosso under the administration of Rolim de Moura, and Goyaz under Marcos de Noronha, afterward Count of Arcos. According to excellent authority, the gold secured toward the close of the eighteenth century from the locality now occupied by the city of Cuyaba, in Matto Grosso, amounted in one month to twelve thousand pounds’ weight, taken from diggings of less than three feet in depth, and equally astonishing discoveries were made in Goyaz, at about the same period. The mining of those pioneers was attended with the greatest danger, in consequence of the hostility of the Indians, who destroyed whole settlements of the gold diggers, and effectually checked the industry. Now that modern enterprise is opening up this rich territory by the construction of railroads to traverse even the most remote sections, the prospect is excellent for a revival of mining on a larger scale, and perhaps with even more astonishing results. Both Matto Grosso and Goyaz have an extensive area of mountainous regions and plateaus, and in each there are low lying tracts of land along some of the river courses. Goyaz extends farther north than Matto Grosso, though not so far south, and its area is less, covering twenty thousand square leagues, while Matto Grosso has fifty thousand square leagues. The outline of the two States, which together occupy the most central position on the map of South America, is heart-shaped; the apex is formed by the southern part of Matto Grosso where it touches the boundaries of Sado Paulo, Parana, and the republic of Paraguay; Goyaz touches the western limits of Minas Geraes, Bahia, Piauhy, and Maranhao; Matto Grosso marks the eastern boundary of Bolivia and the southern boundary of Amazonas; and both States extend north as far as the southern boundary of Para. The mineral wealth of Matto Grosso includes gold, iron, silver, platinum, copper, lead, diamonds, agates, mica, limestone, fine qualities of plastic clay, granite, and marbles. Hard- woods used for cabinet purposes, dyewoods, medicinal plants, and rubber are exported in increasing quantities annually. Sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, rice, and other staple articles crow with little cultivation. Immense herds of cattle graze on the plateaus and hillsides, and the exportation of hides forms one of the chief sources of revenue. Yerba maté of a fine quality comes from this State. Although the principal means of transportation from Matto Grosso at present is either va La Plata River and its tributaries or the Madeira and the Amazon, yet every indication points to the early completion of railway communication between Matto Grosso and Rio de Janeiro, which will greatly facilitate the export trade. Steamers that make the voyage to Matto Grosso via La Plata stop at Corumba on the south- western frontier, where the business of the custom house, or alfandega, of the State, is transacted. Corumba is a busy little town, occupying a picturesque site on the brow of a hill overlooking the river; it is the chief shipping port for a large territory, and has a thriving trade with the interior towns and villages. From Corumba to the State capital, Cuyaba, a distance of several hundred miles, the trip is made by smaller steamers via the Sao Lourengo branch of the Paraguay River. The scenery along this route is intensely tropical, and vegetation presents the most exaggerated specimens to be found on the face of the globe; the same is true of the Guaporé River banks, where, according to scientific MAT [OSGROSSOSGOY AZ, AND PIAUHY 431 authority, a commission appointed by the government to explore this region, in 1875, discov- ered a climbing palm, belonging to the Calamus procumbens variety, which measured seven hundred feet in length and was scarcely half an inch thick. The foliage ef trees and vines of every description grows to incredible proportions; nowhere are more beautiful water- lilies to be found than the Victoria Regia of these regions; the cotton tree, from the long silky fibre of whose blossoms is obtained a most admirable substitute for feathers in filling pillows or cushions, grows wild here. Cuyaba, the capital of Matto Grosso, is a city of about thirty thousand inhabitants, Situated in the central part of the State, a mile or two from the steamboat landing, with which it is connected by street cars. The city was founded soon after the discovery of CHURCH IN CUYABA, CAPITAL OF MATTO GROSSO. gold, early in the eighteenth century, upon the site of the richest deposit. It lies between the hills of Boa Morte and Prainha, and is traversed by a small stream, an affluent of the Sado Lourenco. So rich in gold is this region that specimens of the precious metal are frequently found in the streets after a heavy rain. The city has many modern improve- ments, such as street car lines, waterworks, a very beautiful praca, overlooking which are the government buildings and the palace of the bishop; excellent schools, including the Lyceu Cuyabano and the Collegio Sao Joao Baptisto, and a number of charitable institu- tions, one of which is an orphan asylum for boys, sheltering three hundred beneficiaries. Considering its great distance from the large centres of population and industry, it is surprising that the State of Matto Grosso has so greatly developed in commercial impor- tance, and that its cities and towns present a modern and enterprising aspect. The voyage 432. THE NEW BRAZIL from Rio de Janeiro to Cuyaba via Buenos Aires, requires a month, and this is quite the quickest route, though a railway is under construction which will make the distance no more than three days’ journey. The value of products exported annually from this State is more than two million dollars gold. — Goyaz, as well as Matto Grosso, has a great future in prospect, not alone through the development of its mines, but through the promotion of agricultural industries. The soil and climate are adapted to the cultivation of a variety of products, especially tobacco, sugar, cotton, and cereals, though cattle raising and mining are at present the chief sources of wealth. Wine growing is an increasing industry in the southern part of the State. The chief highways of traffic between Goyaz and the outside markets are the Tocantins and the Araguaya rivers, which connect it with the seaport of Para, and the Paranahyba River and its tributaries, which carry the products of the southern districts to the ports of the Parana River. The climate of Goyaz is dry and moderate, and generally healthful; the State is traversed by several mountain ranges and watered by large rivers. In the heart of the chief mountain range a territory has been surveyed for the future national capital, though it is not likely that a change will be made from the present site until more satisfactory railway communication has been established, at least between the most important points. Dr. Cruls, director of the Rio de Janeiro Observatory and late chief of the Commission which surveyed the district just mentioned, presented a complete and extremely interesting report, in which he calls special attention to the splendid natural advantages of the country and its suitability as a site for the future capital of the Union. The data given in that report are the most exact and satisfactory which exist at present on the southern zone of Goyaz. A company, which has been formed to navigate the Tocantins and the Araguaya rivers, is constructing railways at the points where waterfalls make river traffic impracticable, and, when these lines are completed, direct and rapid communication will be established v/a Para to the Atlantic. The Great Western of Brazil Railway Company has just completed surveys for carrying its system from the south of Pernambuco to the Tocantins, and the Federal government proposes establishing communication between the north of Goyaz and the States of Bahia, Sergipe, Pernambuco, and Piauhy, connecting the town of Pedro Affonzo, in Goyaz, on the banks of the Tocantins, with the railroad system about to be built in those States. The Goyaz railway, which is being built from Formiga in Minas Geraes to Leopoldina on the right bank of the Araguaya River, will cross several populous districts in south- eastern Goyaz, passing through the State capital, Goyaz, the famous Villa Boa of early gold mining days. Even a short visit to the State would be sufficient to convince one of the splendid future which lies before it. The prospect of the improvements above referred to is already attract- ing the attention of capitalists and others to Goyaz, where they perceive a rich and ample field for their operations in the enormous natural resources and the productive capacity of this privileged State. MATTO GROSSO, GOYAZ, AND PIAUHY 433 Goyaz is picturesquely situated in the valley of the Araguaya, the twin confluent of the Tocantins, near its source in the nigh mountains of the Serra Dourado, where it is separated only by a narrow ridge from the source of the Tocantins, the two streams watering different valleys through the whole length of the State until joined in a single current at its extreme northern limit. The city is the centre of the cattle industry, of important wine manufacturing interests, and of the chief culture of tobacco, of which this State produces a very superior quality. The population of the State is about three hundred thousand, and of the capital, twenty thousand inhabitants. The peaceful and hospitable character of its people is noteworthy. Public instruction is provided at the Academy of Law, the Lyceum, and the Normal School in the capital and in primary schools throughout the interior. ; Piauhy has the shortest coast line of any Brazilian State that borders on the Atlantic Ocean; but it has a good port, Tutoya, at the mouth of the river. Parnahyba, through which the foreign trade of the State is carried. Tutoya is situated in Maranhdo, the river forming a delta between the two States, though the privileges of the port are held in common, and all coast steamers of the Lloyd-Brazileiro line, as well as those of several foreign companies, call regularly with cargoes for both Maranhao and Piauhy. Within a short distance of Tutoya, on the boundary line between Piauhy and Ceara, and at the mouth of another branch of the Parnahyba delta, is situated the port of Amarragdo. A few leagues up the Parnahyba, which is navigable for steamers, the capital of the State, Therezina, occupies a picturesque location on the right bank of the river. It has a population of twenty thousand, and is the largest city of Piauhy, though Parnahyba, on the delta, is a growing centre of industry, with sixteen thousand inhabitants. The resources of the State have never been thoroughly explored, though it is especially adapted to stock raising; more than a million head of cattle roam over its extensive pasture lands. The annual exports of this State are valued at nearly a million dollars gold; cotton, leather, Manicoba rubber, and cattle are the chief sources of revenue. The pastoral industry is in its infancy, and no attempt has yet been made to establish dairy enterprises, though conditions are especially favorable for their development. The proposed extension of railways through the State will undoubtedly stimulate industrial activity, by bringing immigration to its vast unpeopled serfées. The area of Piauhy is three hundred and two thousand square kilometres, and the population is three hundred thousand, or less than one person to a square kilometre. Its territory is rich in woods used for cabinet purposes, yet there is not one saw mill in the State. Gold, silver, copper, saltpetre, and alum have been discovered, the abundance of the last-named product offering especial inducements for the establishment of tanneries. Many small cities are scattered throughout the State, among others, Amarante, with a population of ten thousand, the commercial centre of a large district; Unido, noted for its cotton industry; Floriano, in the Manicoba rubber region, all flourishing ports on the river Parnahyba. In the interior, connected by public roads are: Oeiras, the former capital; Picos, a market for hides and rubber; and Piracuruca, in the mining district. yy) _THE NEW BRAZIL The history of Piauhy dates from the seventeenth century, when a native of Sao Paulo, named Domingos Jorge, and a Portuguese, named Domingos Affonso Mafrense, found their way into its serfoes in search of Indian slaves. They made a settlement and established Several cattle ranches. After their death, these ranches passed into the possession of the Jesuit fathers, and when the Order was expelled from Brazil the ranches became the property of the crown. They were leased by the crown to an enterprising engineer, Dom Antonio José de Sampaio, who built up an extensive cattle raising industry, forming the basis of the chief product of the State to-day. Under the colonial government, Piauhy belonged first to Maranhdao, then to Pernambuco and Bahia, and later to all these capitanias at the same time; until, in 1811, it was declared a separate capitania and, in 1824, a province of.the empire. Since the inauguration of the republic, Piauhy has been a State of the Union. It is the purpose of the State government to encourage Immigration, in order that the vast territory may be peopled by energetic and industrious citizens, who will develop its wealth and contribute to its social as well as commercial progress. OX TEAM, PIAUHY. CHAPTER XXVIII CEARA Deace. colonial days, after the Dutch were defeated and driven out of north- ern Brazil, the capitania of Pernambuco in- cluded all the territory now comprised in the neighboring States of Alagoas, Parahyba, Rio Grande do Norte, and Ceara. Ceara remained a part of this capitania until 1799, when it was declared independent, being even then important for its social and commercial posi- tion among the territories of northern Brazil. This distinction has always been conserved, not only under the empire,—when, as a province, it was the first to solemnize the emancipation of slaves, in 1884, four years before the national abolition law was put into effect,—but also since the inauguration of the republic, with the success of which its leading statesmen have been prominently identified. The Cearenses, as the natives of this State are called, are distinguished for energy and industry, characteristics not generally supposed to belong to the inhabitants of an equatorial zone. But though the State lies entirely within eight degrees of south latitude, yet the climate is so tempered by sea breezes and by the altitude of its interior serras and plateaus that it is unsurpassed in healthfulness, and is the favorite sanitarium of the republic, especially recommended for consumptives. Though the narrow stretch of land along the coast is equatorial in climate and vegetation, yet a few hours’ journey by rail carries one to the serfao, one of the most salubrious regions of the globe. Centenarians are numerous in this State, and hundreds of people pass their four score and ten years in the placid enjoy- ment that a healthy old age ensures. The bracing air of the plateaus develops a spirit of enterprise and initiative in the Cearenses, and these qualities have been shown when they have made their home in other States, as was the case when Ceara was visited by a very 435 LEGISLATIVE CHAMBER, FORTALEZA, CEARA. 436 THE NEW BRAZIL dry season in 1879, and a great number emigrated to Para and Amazonas, where their energy was felt in many improvements that followed their arrival: to their industry and intelligence was largely due the development of the great rubber interests of these States; they were the first to open up to traffic the Purds, Acre, Javary, and other rivers of the richest rubber regions. The area of Ceara is about five thousand square leagues, and the length of the coast line one hundred and twenty leagues. On the eastern boundary the State adjoins Rio Grande do Norte and Parahyba; on the south it is bordered by Pernambuco; the western limit is marked by a chain of serras separating it from Piauhy. Three natural divisions of the State influence its climate and productions,—the coast land, the slopes of the serras, and the interior plateaus. The coast region, extending from ten to fifteen miles inland, is subject to moist sea breezes, and the soil is particularly adapted to the cultivation of cotton, the fibre of which here possesses superior silky qualities, with singular flexibility and resistance. This part of the State is also suited to the cultivation of sugar cane, which, in the valley of Aracape, between the capital and Baturité, reaches the extraordinary height of from twenty to thirty feet, measuring three inches in diameter; in some districts sugar plantations last ten years or more without being replanted. Corn and manioc, or mandioca, thrive in various kinds of soil, especially the former, which is planted with good results in the clayey covering of the rocks as well as in the soft sand, and produces enormous crops, growing most abundantly in the Serra Grande. In some years the harvests of corn are so much greater than the facilities for moving the crop that immense quantities are abandoned to animals. Mandioca, which develops its highest value when grown in soft, porous, and somewhat deep soils, humid and alkaline, warmed by the strongest rays of a tropical sun, is produced in the best qualities in Ceara. In the neighborhood of lagoons and marshes rice grows abundantly. The soil and climate of the serras are suited admirably to the needs of the coffee plant, and tobacco grows in this State along the sandy borders of rivers where the land is just washed by the overflow; soil already exhausted by the cultivation of sugar cane will produce good tobacco. The vege- tation on the serras and extended interior tablelands is abundant, including the most valuable dyewoods, medicinal plants, woods for ornamental purposes, fibrous, resinous, oleaginous, and other varieties, and constitutes an important source of revenue. The carnatba grows here in abundance, the extraction of carnauba wax being one of the most prosperous industries. The chief wealth of the interior districts of Ceara is derived from the cattle trade, which thrives wonderfully under the influences of a salubrious climate, an even temperature, and freedom from pestilential marshes. From the earliest days, this industry has been success- fully engaged in, which no doubt accounts for the peculiar fact that the inland plateaus were settled long before the coast territory. The extent of the mineral wealth is unknown, but it is unquestionably great. In 1866, direct lines of steamers were established between Fortaleza, the capital, and Liverpool, and vessels now call at its ports from all parts of the world. Ceara is only two weeks’ voyage from New York, and the trip could be made ina week by fast steamers. CEARA 437 Two railways transport the products of the interior to the seacoast; the Baturité railway connects the capital with the town of Senador Pompeu, two hundred miles distant, and the Sobral line provides transportation facilities for a productive region between the seaport of Camocin, near the extreme western boundary and the interior town of Ipu, covering a distance of one hundred and fifty miles. The government gives especial attention to the problem of overcoming the bad effects of droughts which visit the country from time to time; to this end, irrigating ditches, reservoirs, and other systems for securing water for the plantations in the dry season have been constructed. The foreign business relations of the State are carefully fostered by the Commercial Association of Ceara, a wide-awake and progressive organization, which seeks to extend the RAILROAD DEPOT, CEARA. external trade by every possible means. Manufacturing interests are not neglected, there being several iron foundries, brick and tile works, wineries, and cotton mills. Lacemaking is an important industry. There are several cotton factories in the capital, and at Baturité and other large cities of the State. Education receives increasing attention, and every town sel importance is provided with free public reading rooms and libraries, usually under the direction .of literary societies. The public library of the capital contains ten thousand volumes. The chief scientific society of the State is the /nstituto Historico do Ceara, which publishes a magazine devoted to Scientific knowledge. The State maintains a normal school and four Latin schools, a lyceum, and four hundred primary and secondary schools. The State has about a million inhabitants, Fortaleza having a population of sixty thousand. 438 TAHENEVVSBRIAALL The capital is well paved and lighted and has fifteen pragas. The public buildings are attractive and commodious, solidly built, and centrally located. The Governor’s Palace is constructed with a view to the needs of atropical climate, with airy sa/as and an attractive patio surrounded by broad, cool verandahs. The charity hospital, or Casa da Misericordia, inaugu- rated, in 1862, is a handsome building, with capacity for five hundred patients. There is also an insane asylum, under State protection, as well as an asylum for mendicants. The college buildings, especially the Law Academy, founded in 1903, and the Lyceum, are well equipped with all necessary appurtenances, and the churches of the city present a creditable appear- ance. Three street car systems connect the business centre of the capital with its suburbs; telegraph communication links all the chief towns of the State with the capital, and, through it, with every State of the Union; and a complete telephone system facilitates business throughout the city. The Prefect, Colonel Guilherme C. da Rocha is an active, energetic, and progressive leader, and his efforts in behalf of the municipality are apparent in its many modern improvements. Other important towns of the State are Baturité, the centre of a rich and salubrious region; Aracaty, on the eastern bank of the Jaguaribe River, a pros- perous little city of thirty thousand inhabitants; Crato, Granja, Maranguape, Quixeramobin, and Sobral; Camocim, an excellent seaport, connected with Sobral by railway; and a number of smaller towns are rapidly growing in importance and population. The little town of Mecejana, about ten miles from the State capital, is especially honored as having been the birthplace of the great Brazilian dramatist and romancist, José de Alencar. RAILROAD BRIDGE OF ACARAHU, CEARA. CHAPTER XXIX RIO GRANDE DO NORTE HE State of Rio Grande do Norte occupies a unique position on the map of the world, marking the most easterly point of the continent of America. On the north and east, it borders the Atlantic Ocean, which gives it an extensive coast line; on the west it is bounded by Ceara, and on the south by Parahyba. No State in Brazil has made more marked in- dustrial progress within the past ten years than Rio Grande do Norte, whose people have devel- oped a spirit of energy and enterprise not gener- ally credited to the inhabitants of tropical countries. Though this State lies between the fifth and Seventh degrees south latitude, close to the equa- tor, its climate is so modified by the sea breeze and the altitude of the serras which traverse it in all directions that the heat is never excessive, MUO EON ASSEAES BEEN even in midsummer. On the coast the land is low and sandy, great stretches of saline deposits extending inland for miles along the northern shore. One hundred thousand tons of salt are shipped annually from this part of the State to southern ports of Brazil. The chief centre of the salt industry is Mossor0, situated on the river of the same name, which drains the western part of the State and empties into the Atlantic Ocean through an estuary that divides Rio Grande do Norte from Ceara. In addition to the Mossor6, the State is watered by the Piranhas, a broad river which has its source in the State of Parahyba, and after receiving the waters of numerous tributaries, crosses the two States 439 440 TA EMNEVW AERA in its course to the Atlantic. Many small streams flow eastward from the serras and empty into the Atlantic Ocean, the Cear4-Mirim being the most important of these. The Serra da Borborema, which extends through the eastern region, with its numerous spurs and _ off- shoots, is the principal mountain chain of the State, though Joao do Valle, Luiz Gomez, and Mar- tins are serras of considerable altitude in the west, the two mountain systems being divided by the valley of the Piranhas. The construction of the railway which now connects Natal, the capital of Rio Grande do Norte, with several important interior towns of the State, and, through them, with the neighboring States of Parahyba and Pernambuco, has greatly stimulated commercial activity; and industrial development is showing constant advancement under the improved conditions which better transportation facilities have brought about. Not only has the railway contributed to the “new awaken- ing,” but the completion of the port works of the capital has placed this city on the highway of ocean traffic, and steamers of the Lloyd-Brazileiro and other lines,—which formerly anchored far out to avoid the turbulent surf that dashed over all barriers and made disem- barkation during some parts of the year almost an impossibility,—now enter the port and unload alongside the new docks. The enterprising spirit which reigns in every part of Brazil is particularly noticeable, as has already been remarked, in this State, which, though always advanced in social and educational matters, has not hitherto been conspicuous for industrial and commercial progress, a fact easily explained by the difficulties that had to be overcome before railway communication was established and ocean traffic encouraged to seek its ports. Now, the conditions are exceptionally favorable for a rapid increase of wealth and prosperity. The government has devoted especial attention to the improvement of the interior districts of the State, which, a few years ago, suffered from a severe drouth. In order to provide against a recurrence of the disaster and to insure protection to the inhabitants of the dry zone, plans have been adopted for the sinking of artesian wells, the building of dams and reservoirs, and other enterprises designed to improve existing conditions. Premiums are also paid by the government to citizens who construct reservoirs, artesian wells, etc., on their properties. New railways are under construction to connect the remote interior with the coast, so that the industrial districts may be placed within easy communication with the best markets. The Ceara-Mirim and other railways will carry the products of the interior to the seaport, RUA SENADOR JOSE BONIFACIO, NATAL. RIO GRANDE DO NORTE 441 and lines are being built to cross the State and reach the serfoes of the west. The chief railway now in operation belongs to the Great Western of Brazil and comprises one hundred CONVENT OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, VILLA DE ESTREMOZ. and fifty miles within the State, extending from Natal on the east coast, to Guarabira on the southern boundary, and passing through the towns of Sao José de Mipibu, Nova Cruz, and others. In this region the cultivation of sugar and cotton yields an important revenue, while @arther inland are fine pasture lands. The soil and climate of the serra makes this part of the State particularly adapted to cattle raising and the dairy industry, though neither of these interests has been thoroughly exploited. Immigration is desirable, not only to provide the labor necessary to conduct enterprises of great magnitude, but also to establish communities that will develop the resources of the State permanently and satisfactorily. At present, the chief wealth is derived from sugar cane and cotton in the eastern coast district, essential oils, resins, medicinal plants, and the products of the carnauba tree in the sertées, and cattle raising on the serras. The area of Rio Grande do Norte is thirty thousand square miles, and its population half a million. The value of the products exported annually through the capital amounts to nearly a million dollars gold. Under the administration of Dr. Antonio José de Mello Souza, who succeeded Dr. Augusto Tavares de Lyra as governor when the latter was called to the cabinet of President Affonso Penna, the progress of the State has continued to reflect the liberal and judicious policy of a government which seeks to promote its development socially, industrially, and commercially. The governor is chosen every four years, the newly elected executive, whose inauguration will take place in 1908, being Dr. Alberto Maranhao, known as a statesman not only in his own State, but in the highest councils of the nation. 442 THE NEW BRAZIL In educational advancement Rio Grande do Norte has always held its own among the States of Brazil, the people taking especial pride in their schools and charitable institutions. Within recent years the school system has been reorganized, and primary instruction now receives more attention than ever. Public sentiment is now favoring the children of the poor with advantages in early education equal to those enjoyed by the well-to-do. The capital and chief seaport of Rio Grande do Norte is Natal, situated on the east coast near the mouth of the Rio Grande do Norte, or North River, which is formed by the con- fluence of the Potengy and the Jundiahy rivers. Natal has a population of twenty-five thousand and is divided into two sections, or bairros: the upper city, where many of the public buildings are located, and the riverside, or Ribeira, the commercial centre, in which are the custom house, warehouses, importing establishments, etc. The city has several churches, some of which have historic as well as architectural interest, convents, an excellent hospital,—the Santa Casa da Misericordia,—theatres, public gardens, clubs, and other institutions. The Commercial Association of Natal is an enterprising corporation which was organized some years ago for the purpose of promoting the industries and trade of the State. Through its efforts, seconding those of the government, agricultural and manufacturing interests have been advanced, and the number of spinning and cotton factories, sugar mills, and similar enterprises have greatly increased. Natal was founded in the sixteenth century by Jeronymo de Albuquerque, and it was the scene of some of the most interesting episodes in the early history of Brazil. One of the most celebrated heroes of the war against the Dutch, in the early part of the seven- teenth century was a son of Rio Grande do Norte, the Indian Camardo; and some of the greatest men of the empire as well as leaders in political and intellectual activity under the present government were born in the old capital, which, however, is rapidly losing its antiquated features under the influence of modern energy and enterprise. QUARTEL, NATAL. GHAPTER XAXX PARAHYBA AND SERGIPE li the coast tropical region, which extends from the mouth of the Amazon to the Tropic of Capricorn, the natural resources are even more abundant than in the Amazon coun- try. From Ceara eastward and southward the flat, low plain which lies along the coast, really constituting an extension of the Amazon basin, gradually vanishes, becoming merely a narrow strip of land, from which the country slopes up to the region of the plateaus. In the low- lands are cultivated sugar, rice, cocoa, fruits, etc.; on the plateaus, cotton and tobacco thrive, and there are particularly good pasture lands, the climate being similar to that of Australia. Parahyba is one of the chief cotton grow- ing States of Brazil. Its climate is generally hot and dry, though tempered by sea breezes. In the interior the conditions are favorable for cattle raising, and, near the coast, cotton, sugar, and cereals are extensively grown. The southern part of the State is watered by the river Parahyba do Norte, and the western sec- tion by the Rio das Piranhas and its tributaries. The Serra da Borborema divides the river basins of these waterways. The capital city, Parahyba, is situated on a hill overlooking the estuary of the Parahyba River, and connected with its seaport, Cabedello, by railway. It has several attractive public buildings, among others the State president’s palace, municipal buildings, and many churches. The heavily thatched straw huts of Cabedello give this little port a distinctively tropical appearance. The Conde d’Eu railway connects the capital with the principal interior towns, and, through them, with the adjoining States of Pernambuco on the south and Rio Grande do Norte on the north. This railway is a part of the system 443 ey * 9 ge aE a INTERIOR OF CARMO CHURCH, PARAHYBA. 444 THE NEW BRAZIL leased by the Federal government to the Great Western of Brazil Company. Other lines of railway have been projected, some of them being already under construction, to extend from PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR, ARACAJU. the capital to the sertdo in the western part of the State. Besides Parahyba and its seaport, there are several towns of growing importance: Areia, Cajazeiras, Mamanguape, Sousa, Pombal, and Campina Grande. Parahyba is noted as the birthplace of Brazil’s greatest painter, Pedro Americo. The State occupies part of the territory which was originally bestowed by the king of Portugal on Pero Lopes de Sousa, under the name of the capitania of Itamaraca, and which was first permanently settled by the Portuguese in 1586. It was the battleground of many engagements in the war against the Dutch, and, later, was the Scene of political contests in 1817 and in 1824, when the North became involved in an attempt to establish “The Confederation of the Equator.” Since the inauguration of the republic, Parahyba has made considerable progress in industrial activity and commercial importance. Sergipe is the smallest of the Brazilian States, covering an area of fifteen thousand Square miles, but it is very productive, has a good climate, and supports four hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants. The land lying along the coast is low and sandy, while in the interior it is elevated, drained by numerous rivers, and wonderfully fertile in agri- cultural products, especially sugar and cotton, while the sertaéo of the west provides pasture for large herds of cattle. The annual exports of Sergipe amount to two million dollars in value. The government is under the direction of the executive, legislative, and judiciary powers, as in all the States of the Union. The president, Dr. Guilherme Campos, is an able and experienced executive who has done much toward developing the progress of his PARAHYBA AND SERGIPE 445 State in every way. More attention is given to educational matters than ever before, and public improvements have been inaugurated in every part of the State. A railway is under construction to connect the State capital, Aracaju, with Larangeiras on the line of the Timb6é and Propria_ railway, which is being built from the State of Bahia across Sergipe to the Sado Francisco River. The Larangeiras branch will also be< extended inland to the indus- trial centres of Lagarto and Simao. Dias. Aracaju, the State capital, is a city of twenty-five thou- sand inhabitants, situated on CATHEDRAL, ARACAJU. the coast at the mouth of the Cotinguiba River. It is a typical town of the tropics, set in a background of towering trees and adorned with beautiful pragas, or public gardens, in which the gorgeous hues of tropical flowers and foliase may be seen in all their splendor. The streets are broad, straight, and well paved, and the public buildings are of solid construction and harmonious architecture. The president’s palace occupies a beautiful location overlooking the prin- cipal praga. Among the more important institutions are the charity hospital of Nossa Senhora da Conceic¢do, the Atheneu Sergipense, which was inaugurated in 1871, the Gabi- nete de Leitura, Normal School, and several churches of historic interest. The cotton mills are among the noted features of the State. The principal towns are found in the districts where the cotton and sugar industries are chiefly developed. Sao Christovdo lies a few miles south of Aracaju, on the coast, near the mouth of the Irapiranga River, the largest waterway of the State. In the north several flourishing towns are situated on the Sdo Francisco River, Propria, Villa Nova, and Curral de Pedras being the shipping ports of a rich agricultural region. Larangeiras, Riachuelo, Santa Luzia, Estancia, and Maroim are important centres of the sugar industry. The history of this State is contemporary with that of Bahia, as the territory now known as Sergipe was a part of the capitania of Bahia, granted by King Jodo III. to Francisco Pereira Coutinho in 1534. The earliest settlement was made at Sao Christovam in 1590, though it was sacked and destroyed by the Dutch under the celebrated Van Schoppe in 1637. The Portuguese regained possession of the territory a few years later, but it was the scene of continued warfare until the final retirement of the Dutch in 1640. Sergipe was made an independent capitania in 1820 in recognition of the aid its people gave the king in quelling the revolution in Pernambuco. With the establishment of the empire the capitania became 446 THE NEW BRAZIL a province, having as its first president General Fernandes da Silveira, who was elected to office in 1824. In 1855 the site of the capital was changed from Sado Christovado to the present city of Aracaju, and from that time’ the progress of the province advanced more notably than during any previous period. The news of the proclamation of the republic arrived at Aracaju on the 17th of November, 1889, during the presidency of Dr. Thomaz Rodrigues da Cruz, and a junta was at once formed, which received the adherence of the municipal chambers of the province and governed until the appointment of an executive; a constitution was promulgated by the State Assembly in 1892, Dr. José Calasans being elected the first governor of the new State. The philosopher and poet, Tobias Barreto, and the famous orator, José Goncalves Barroso, were natives of Sergipe. COTTON MILLS, SERGIPE. CHAPTER XXXl PERNAMBUCO LTHOUGH one of the smaller States of Brazil, Pernambuco covers an area of fifty thousand Square miles, and is as large as the State of New York in the United States. Nowhere does the glowing sun of the tropics shed its radiance more brightly than upon the fruitful forests and fields of this favored zone, drawing from the rich greens of the luxuriant foltage their deepest tones, and bathing the gorgeous blossoms in a flood of dazzling brilliance. Under the bluest of skies the fair land smiles in the midst of the rich treasures that Nature has bestowed with lavish abundance. Situated on the coast in the most fertile region of the tropics, and extending inland for a distance of more than five hundred miles, Pernambuco is divided into three natural zones: the matta, or wooded region of the coast; the agreste or catinga of the higher mid- dle zone, covered with shrubs and bushes, like those which grow in the coast regions of the Mediterranean ; and the sertdo, or “backwoods,” still farther inland, where, along the water courses, are large cattle ranges, though the pasturage is more abundant in the catinga region. The sertao of Pernambuco is especially noted for its precious gums, essential oils, and aromatic herbs; here also grows the wonderful carnattba tree, which is proof against the severest drouths; its roots have the same medicinal effect as sarsaparilla; the terminal bud, when young, is used as a food, and also to make wine, vinegar, and starch; the fruit of the tree is savory and the seed produces a useful oil; from the stem a kind of flour is made, and the dried fibrous bark yields a material that is used in making hats, brooms, baskets, etc.; 447 DR. SIGISMUNDO ANTONIO GONCALVES. GOVERNOR OF PERNAMBUCO. 448 THE NEW BRAZIL the leaves are pressed to produce a kind of candle wax. Not only in Pernambuco but throughout the sertdes of all the northern States, this valuable tree is an important source of revenue. The State is drained by the northern tributaries of the great Sao Francisco river, which forms part of its southern boundary, and by the Capiberibe, Serinhaem, Pirangy, and other small streams that flow into the Atlantic. The northern boundary is marked by a chain of Serras which divides Pernambuco from Parahyba and Ceara; to the west another mountain range Separates the State from that of Piauhy; to the south are the States of Bahia and Alagoas, while the eastern boundary is marked by the Atlantic Ocean. The most fertile agricultural lands lie in the coast region, which is low and flat and especially adapted to the culture of rice and sugar; about fifteen miles inland the land becomes hilly, and is more Suitable for the growth of tobacco, coffee, and cotton; on the extensive tablelands that cover the remote interior, cattle raising is the chief industry. Sugar is the most important source of revenue to the State. At one time, it constituted the principal article of export from Brazil, and the outlook is favorable for a future of great prosperity for this industry. The government is paying especial attention to its development and recently appropriated a large sum of money to be used in introducing new processes of sugar culture and in improving the methods of refining the sugar. Three hundred million pounds of sugar are produced in the State annually, the amount of cane treated in the two thousand factories that are established in the sugar-growing districts being estimated at three million tons. About fifty of the sugar factories are installed with modern machinery, operated by steam and hydraulic power, the remainder being chiefly the old-fashioned sugar mills, worked on primitive plans; though within the past few years the introduction of new machinery has been constantly increasing. The sugar plantations cover extensive areas, and are traversed by private railways, which carry the cane from the fields to the factory, and transport the manufactured product to the nearest station to be taken on a through line to the seaport. Three hundred miles of these private railways connect the plantations with the Great Western of Brazil system, which includes the most important lines of the State. Although sugar is the staple product of Pernambuco, yet its cotton industry is of considerable importance, the exports of this commodity being greater from this State than from any other part of Brazil. The amount produced annually has more than doubled within the past three years, the export in 1904 being four million seven hundred and sixty-one thousand eight hundred and eighty-five kilograms, while in 1905 it amounted to nine million three hundred and fifty-two thousand two hundred and sixty-seven kilo- grams, and last year exceeded ten million kilograms. The southern States of North America are the only strong competitors in the European cotton market, the State of Texas alone producing eight hundred million kilograms annually in a territory five times larger than that of Pernambuco. The agricultural possibilities of the State have not been fully developed, owing to a tendency to confine all effort to the culture of one or two products, such as sugar and PERNAMBUCO 449 cotton, which grow with little labor and bring good prices in the market. But the awakening of the whole nation to a new sense of its importance in the commercial world, and to the responsibilities devolving on a people who control such vast natural resources as belong to this country, has stimulated enterprise and endeavor in every State, and the result is seen more conspicuously every year in the industrial statistics. In Pernambuco, a greater variety of products is grown this year than ever before, and in increased quantities. Rice promises to be an important source of revenue, as the culture of this product receives the attention it merits, the harvest showing improved conditions every year. Tobacco grows well in many localities; and cinnamon, indigo, and other exotic plants, which were propagated from the Specimens grown in the Botanical Garden of Olinda during the eighteenth century, are cultivated to a sufficient extent to form important articles of export. From the same source originated many of the fruits that are now shipped from Pernambuco. The pineapple of this region is particularly noted for its delicious flavor, which is superior to that of any other locality. The mango is also found here in excellent quality; it is not a fruit that lends itself readily to zsthetic preparation by the fastidious, presenting many difficulties in the process of paring and eating its juicy, fibrous, cling-stone conglomerate, but the Brazilians know how to serve it in the best style. Itamaracga, separated from the mainland by a narrow PUBLIC SQUARE, SETE DE SETEMBRO. strait, and lying a few miles north of Recife, is famous for the abundance and fine flavor of its mangoes. Oranges, bananas, grapes, and cajii also comprise fruits in the production of which the State has acquired an enviable celebrity. 450 THE NEW BRAZIL The customs’ receipts at the port of Pernambuco amount annually to five million dollars. The facilities for foreign trade are unsurpassed, as this port is nearer to Europe than any other point on the American continent, and ships from every part of the globe call here to receive and discharge mer- chandise. All the large transatlantic vessels that ply between Europe and South America call at the port of Per- nambuco, and the Lloyd-Brazileiro steamers—both the Rio and New York and the Coast lines—have an impor- tant trade here. A local enterprise, the Pernambuco Navigation Company, has ten steamers engaged in the coast service, the northern line carrying passengers and merchandise between Pernambuco and Ceara, while the southern line trades between Pernam- buco and Bahia. Monthly trips are made by steamers of this company to the island of Fernando de Noronha, which is situated off the northwestern coast, about a hundred miles from the capital. A national penal settlement is AN IMPORTANT BUSINESS STREET IN PERNAMBUCO. established here, and the island is a source of revenue to the government through its valuable phosphate deposits. The island is fortified and furnished with heavy guns for protective purposes. Frequent voyages are also made to Mandaos and Santos. An average of a thousand vessels call at this port every year. The Federal government intends to improve the port works of Pernambuco, engineers having been engaged to dredge the channel between the mainland and the great recéfe, or reef, which forms a natural breakwater in front of the port. The approach to the “Brazilian Venice,” as the city of Pernambuco is called because of its dividing canals, is guarded by a magnificent natural reef of coralline origin; the busy little builders having abandoned their labor when the surface of the water was reached, the interstices of the beautiful fabric became choked with sand and broken shells, which, in time, growing incorporated with the reef itself, have given the structure its present appear- ance of rough sandstone. The reef, from which the city takes its name, “ Recife,” extends, at a distance of about five hundred feet from the shore, along the whole front of the city and for several miles beyond, making it a safe anchorage for ships. At all times, the harbor is a busy scene, and its picturesque features are enhanced by the peculiar appearance of PERNAMBUCO 451 some of the small craft plying in and out among the more important vessels; the curious little “jangadas,” which look like tiny rafts with huge sails, are particularly interesting, the astonishing size and nature of the cargoes intrusted to their seeming frailty giving a shock to the uninitiated, though their experienced managers find no cause for alarm even when the surf drenches the raft and the wind violently lashes the sails, seeming to threaten instant destruction. The jangada is a feature of the maritime delivery system of the coast trade in these parts. The chief industrial centres of the interior are connected with the seaport by several lines of railways, chiefly under the management of the Great Western of Brazil Railway Company, which leased them from the government in 1904. Since that time they have been greatly extended, and various improvements have been inaugurated, especially the Southern, the Central, and the Recife and Sao Francisco lines. As a result of the work already accomplished, through traffic is now carried on between Maceio, the capital of Alagoas, which lies south of Pernambuco, and Natal, the capital of Rio Grande do Norte, on the northern boundary of Brazil, covering a distance of six hundred miles. It is the inten- tion of the Brazilian government to construct a chain of railways along the coast from the Amazon to La Plata, as well as to establish complete rail connection with the interior of its vast domain; and the gigantic undertaking is being carried out by various companies RAMOS QUAY. working in different parts of the country. In addition to the railways already mentioned, there are several shorter lines and suburban systems which connect the capital with its picturesque environs. 452 LOE ONEWS BRAZIL The capital of the State is one of the most interesting cities of the New World, both on account of its extraordinary history and its peculiar construction. It consists of four sections, Recife being the name particularly given to the commercial part of the city, which SANTA ISABEL BRIDGE, PERNAMBUCO. is divided from the other three by the channels of the Beberibe and Capibaribe rivers, which further divide the two sections of Santo Antonio and Sado José, on the island of Antonio Vaz, from the quarter of Boa Vista on the mainland. The different parts of the city are connected by handsome bridges which give it an attractiveness that is entirely distinct from that of other Brazilian cities. In addition to the commercial features of the Recife section, there are several fine old churches and a number of pragas that beautify it. The Praca do Commercio, on the “Lingueta,” as the extreme end of the peninsula is called, is particularly interesting in appearance and general character. It is the Wall Street of stockbrokers and capitalists; the market of hucksters; the favorite stamping-ground of traders; the resort of idlers, and the popular haunt of political aspirants. Nothing is of either too great or too little importance for a place on the Lingueta, whether it be the arrival of a world-wide celebrity or the final escape of an abused cur; the loss of money, jewels, children, or friends is never an assured fact until a barren search of the Lingueta proves it to be so. In the beautiful quarter of Santo Antonio, formerly Mauritz- Stadt, is situated the Governor’s Palace, overlooking a spacious park. It is built on the site of the palace that was occupied by Prince Maurice de Nassau, when the Dutch ruled PERNAMBUCO 453 northern Brazil. At a short distance away are the handsome buildings of the Municipal Chambers, the theatre, the Archzological and Geographical Institute, the Normal School and the Lyceum, the Casa da Misericordia, and the war arsenal, a number of large churches and schools, and the umbrageous gardens of the Campo das Princezas and Praga Dom Pedro II. In Sao José are many of the public works, railroad stations, the public market, and several historic churches. Boa Vista is the favorite residence quarter of the capital, and the location of the higher colleges, hospitals, and asylums. The population of the city is about two hundred thousand. It ranks fifth among Brazilian cities, and has the advantages of such modern improvements as electric and gas lighting facilities, good waterworks system, drainage, street car service, and telegraph and telephone communication. The cable service of Pernambuco is exceptionally fine, connecting the cities of South America with every part of the world. It has no less than ten cable lines to foreign parts. A few miles from the city, in a mountainous district, watered by the Beberibe River, and connected with the capital by a railroad, lies the picturesque old city of Olinda, ‘“‘the beautiful,” as the name implies. Previous to the Dutch conquest, the city of Olinda, which is now the principal suburb of the State capital, was the centre of wealth and fashion in Brazil, and its university was the chief seat of learning in America. The Dutch invaders destroyed this city, though their governor, Maurice de Nassau, who established his colonial capital at Mauritzstadt, devoted particular attention to the intellectual development of the country, inviting the leading scholars and artists of Europe to visit his Brazilian possessions, and bestowing liberal patronage upon institutions for educational advancement. The influence of Maurice de Nassau’s government was beneficial from this standpoint, and no doubt contributed to make Pernambuco the progressive State that it is, and always has been, intellectually. Education receives especial consideration, fourteen per cent of the total disbursements of the State being applied to purposes of public instruction. The Law School of Pernam- buco is one of the most important educational institutions of Brazil, and among its graduates are some of the most distinguished scholars and statesmen of the republic. Senator Francisco Rosa e Silva, one of the political leaders of the State and author of the national elections reform bill which has recently gone into effect, and Dr. Epitacio Pessoa, Minister of Justice in the cabinet of President Campos-Salles, were graduated from the Pernambuco Law School. The Arts and Trades Lyceum is a flourishing institution, conducted on the same principle as the Arts and Trades Schools of Rio, Sao Paulo, Minas, Bahia, and other cities. It occupies a handsome building in which day and night classes are taught the mechanical and liberal arts free of charge. The museum and library of the Lyceum contain valuable Scientific collections. The Gymnasium, the College of Engineering, the Commercial College, and the State Normal School are also among the more important educational institutions maintained by public and private enterprise. The State and municipalities maintain six hundred primary and secondary schools, and in addition to these, instruction is given in numerous private schools. 454 THE NEW BRAZIL The educational progress of the State is due in a large measure to the efforts of the government, Dr. Sigismundo Antonio Gongalves, the chief executive, being particularly in- terested in this branch of the administration. A graduate of the Law School of Pernambuco, and formerly chief judge of the State tribunal, Dr. Gongalves has made a careful study of social questions, especially as related to education. The intellectual advancement of the State is due not only to the liberal methods of the administration, but also to the public-spirited efforts of its leading men, to whom various educational institutions owe a great measure of their success. By the organization of the Archzeological and Geographical Institute of Per- nambuco, distinguished scholars have lent valuable aid to the government in collecting important material relating to the history of the State. The library of the Institute contains five thousand volumes, and furnishes in the form of documents, pictures, and interesting relics, a complete record. The largest library of the State is that of the government, con- taining some forty thousand volumes, though the Law College and the Gabinete Portuguez de Leitura have well-selected libraries of twenty thousand volumes or more, while some private collections are of great value. . Charitable institutions are maintained by the government and by church societies. The city hospital for nearly half a century has served as an asylum for the invalid. Several new hospitals have since been built, and asylums for the poor and the insane have been added to the State’s charities, which expand as the need arises for increased accommodation. Travellers who visit Pernambuco are charmed with the hospitality of the people, their cosmopolitan interests, and the many pleasing features of their social customs. Life is not such a “rough-and-tumble” fight for the necessaries as it is in less favored climates, and consequently there is more leisure for real enjoyment in the observance of social amenities. HALL OF CONGRESS, PERNAMBUCO. CHAPTER XXXlIl ALAGOAS° @)REE forming a part of the original capitania of Pernambuco, the present State of Alagoas has had an important share in the social and political development of the northern coast region of Brazil, and has been the scene of many patriotic struggles in the nation’s history, its people being noted for their independent and freedom- loving spirit.. Although it is one of the smaller States of Brazil, Alagoas covers an area nearly equal to that of Ireland, and is among the most productive of the twenty-one territorial divisions of the Union. The fertility of its soil is phenomenal, everything that belongs to a tropical land being grown here with little cultivation. Alagoas is traversed by several serras—low mountain ranges which form part of the great coast range of Brazil—and is drained by a number of small rivers flowing into the Atlantic and by many tributaries of the great Sdo Francisco, which forms the southern boundary, separating this State from Bahia and Sergipe. At the point where it turns southeastward between Alagoas and Bahia, the course of this river, one thousand eight hundred miles long, is interrupted by the stupendous waterfall known as the Cachoeira de Paulo Affonso. At the Sobradinha begins a succession of foaming rapids that tumble the impetuous ~ torrent into a deep gorge walled by enormous perpendicular rocks, from which it is crowded over the mighty Cachoeira de Paulo Affonso. This grand waterfall is superior in height and volume to Niagara itself, having nearly twice the descent, though presenting a totally different aspect, permitting a closer view without lessening the effect of the ensemble. The rapids that lead from the Sobradinha to the great fall are numerous, and enclosed between towering walls of granite, more than a dozen being named, of which six are 455 RUA COMMERCIO, MACEIO. 456 THE NEW BRAZIL counted within a distance of fifty miles. Before making the great fall, the river glides along in the midst of a labyrinth of islands, rocks, and pebbles, which at low tide may be used as | stepping-stones from one bank to the other, although the volume of water passing this point is more than a thousand cubic metres per second, while at high tide it is five times as great. At the verge of the cataract three islands separate the current, which is, however, united in the final plunge down to the abyss nearly three hundred feet below. In times of great flood this majestic volume of water is PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR, MACEIO. carried in one grand sweep clear to the bottom, but under ordinary conditions there are three cascades, the first with a fall of about fifty feet, the second seventy-five, and the third reaching the river-bed below. While the stupendous grandeur of the scene is magnified by the single fall, the picturesque beauty is enhanced by the graduated cataract, with its columns of spray rising like incense as it hesitates on each of the jutting ledges of the cliff. There is no waterfall in the world presenting a more marvellous variety of aspects than the Paulo Affonso. The great river pours out a yellow flood into the Atlantic which is colored for miles from its mouth, the rate of its discharge being estimated at about three thousand cubic metres per.second. From Piranhas, a few leagues below the cataract, to the mouth of the river, navigation is carried on with small steamers. Penedo is the name of the seaport, and ocean vessels call here regularly to receive and deliver merchandise. The scenery along the river is very beautiful, each curve of the channel revealing a new aspect of tropical luxuriance. Less pleasing is the knowledge that terrible man-eating fishes, known as piranhas live in this river. Though very small, they are deadly in their attacks on the unfortunate swimmer or capsized boatman who falls into their midst; for they go in shoals of thousands, and it is the combined onslaught of their long sharp teeth, set in double rows like those of the shark, which makes it impossible to escape. Many thrilling stories are related of the piranhas’ victims. In Alagoas, as in Pernambuco, the coast region is known as the matta, and is covered with tropical forests, in which are found valuable medicinal plants, hardwoods, textile fibres, resins, fruits, and other arboreous products. In this section are many large lakes, the most ALAGOAS 457 important being A Lagoa do Norte, on which the capital of the State, Maceio, is situated. The name “Alagoas” is derived from this feature of the country. Maceio is not only the capital, but also the chief seaport and the commercial centre of the State. The products of the matta, of the agricultural zone, and of the cattle ranges of the west, are brought to Maceio for shipment, and railroads are being extended in all directions to place the State capital in close communica- tion with its various centres of industrial activity. The Central Alagoana railway connects the capital and its port, which is called Jara- gua, with the towns in the northern section, and joins the Pernambuco line at the boundary, forming a_ part of the system leased by the Great Western of Brazil GENERAL VIEW OE MACEIO. Company. A branch of this railway extends from Jaragua to the icity town of Vigosa. The government maintains another line, from Piranhas on the Sao Francisco River to Jatoba, in the State of Pernambuco, constructed for transportation purposes between the points where navigation is interrupted by the Falls of Paulo Affonso. New railways are being built from the capital to the Falls of Paulo Affonso, and to the northeastern boundary. The chief agricultural products of Alagoas are sugar and cotton, this State lying in the richest section of the Brazilian “cotton belt”; large quantities of dyewoods are exported annually, and the commerce of the State is steadily increasing. Its manufacturing indus- tries are gaining in importance and include sugar refineries; establishments for the manu- facture of vinegar; tobacco and cigar works; factories for making alcohol : cotton factories; pottery works; saw mills; and an increasing number of smaller factories for making shoes, furniture, leather, and various other articles. The exports amount to three million dollars gold annually, the greater part of the State revenue being derived from sugar and cotton. Although small in area, Alagoas is one of the most populous States of Brazil, having eight hundred thousand inhabitants, or thirty-two to the square mile, which is more than any other Brazilian State can claim, outside of the Federal district and the State of Rio. The governor is Dr. Euclydes Vieira Malta, a progressive and public-spirited executive. The State capital has a population of forty thousand and is divided into four sections, or bairros: Maceio is the city proper, in which are located the governor’s palace, and other 4 458 THE NEW BRAZIL public buildings as well as most of the residences; in this section are the churches, the theatre, the lyceum and other schools, the post office, market, etc. Jaragua, the seaport, connected by street car with Maceio, is the commercial section, where the docks, the custom house, consular agencies, importing houses, and banks are to be found. Levada and Jacu- tinga are residence suburbs; in the former are located the insane asylum, the cemetery, and the military quartel. The schools and charitable institutions of the capital, and throughout the State, are maintained as liberally as funds will allow. Within the past few years primary school methods have been greatly improved and the average attendance has considerably increased. The colleges of Maceio and Penedo, the Normal Schools, and the Lyceums of Arts and Crafts in various towns are well attended. The Instituto Alagoano is one of the most important edu- cational institutions of the State. It was founded in 1901, as a boarding and day school, its curriculum being the same as that of the National Gymnasium and the Lyceum of Alagoas. The oldest institution of its kind in Alagoas is the Archzological and Geographical Institute, which was founded in 1869, for the purpose of collecting historical documents and preserving ancient monuments, inscriptions, etc., found in the State, as well as to encourage literary and Scientific research. Some valuable fossils have been secured through the activity of the Insti- tute, and have been placed in the National Museum of Rio. The library of the Institute, as well as the Public Library of Maceio, contains an important collection of volumes relating to the history and geography of Brazil, and having especial bearing on Alagoas, many of which have been donated by public-spirited men of wealth or bequeathed by scientists of the State. Alagoas has given many great leaders to Brazil,—soldiers, statesmen, and men of letters. Marshal Floriano Peixoto was a native of this State, also Tavares Bastos, one of the most noted orators and writers of the empire, Dr. Mello Moraes, the eminent historian, Ladislao Netto, the great naturalist, and others whose life-work has made their names famous in Europe as well as in Brazil. BUSINESS STREET, MACEIO THE ‘LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS “ALIO UdddN FHL WOUs MIA “VIHVd MONUMENT DOIS DE JULHO. CHAPTER XXXIlII BAHIA HE same benign destiny that directed the ships of Pedro Alvares Cabral to the shores of Brazil led to his disem- barkation at a point where nature had showered upon the earth the greatest abundance of her blessings. Unlike the Puritan Settlers who landed a century later on the bleak coast of New England, the discoverers of the “Island of the True Cross” and their successors agreed in declaring that they had found a para- dise on earth. It was about a year after the first dis- covery of Brazil that the Portuguese fleet, accompanied by Americus Vespucius, and commanded by Christovao Jacques, entered the magnificent harbor of Bahia, which was named by the discoverers, in honor of the feast day on which it was first seen, ‘‘ Bahia de Todos os Santos” [Bay of All Saints]. The settlement of the new territory began a few years later, and the present city of Bahia was founded in 1549, thirty-five years earlier than the foundation of St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States of America. Bahia was the chief seat of colonial power from 1549 to 1762, and during that time was the official residence of all the high functionaries representing the crown: the governor-general, the ovvidor, the supervisor of the exchequer, and the capitao-mor, or overseer of the coast. When the colonial capital was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in 1762, the progress of Bahia was not retarded by the change, develop- ment being rapid and uninterrupted everywhere in the territory, which even at that day 461 462 THE NEW BRAZIL had a world-wide commercial importance as the centre of rich mineral wealth and of great agricultural resources. The State of Bahia enjoys many natural advantages. It has an area of nearly two hundred thousand square miles, with seven hundred miles of coast line, and its climate is generally healthful and moderate, a great extent of the territory being mountainous, with plateaus two thousand feet above sea level, while the whole State is intersected by magnifi- cent rivers that drain every part of it. On the coast the weather is warm all the year round, the hottest months being from December to April, when this locality is subject to malarial diseases; in the interior the climate is far more temperate, and fevers are unknown, the natural conditions being similar to those existing in the adjoining States of Goyaz, Minas Geraes, and Piauhy; its coast climate resembles that of Espirito Santo to the south, and Sergipe, Alagoas, and Pernambuco to the north. The State is rich in vegetation, the commercial products from this source including various kinds of hardwood for cabinet purposes and fancy woods; the medicinal plant manaca, from the leaves, roots, and stems of which a vegetable mercury is extracted; araroba, furnishing an excellent caustic powder, sold in England under the name of Goa powder; the balsam of the capahtba; and several kinds of oil, resin, and wax. The coquilla nut palm furnishes the fibre used in the manufacture of brushes and brooms. The nuts are shipped in enormous quantities to the Orient, where they are carved and ornamented to furnish the rosary beads and crosses sold in all parts of the world; the kernel of the nut yields a fine quality of lubricating oil; and from the fibre of the leaf stalks the brooms and ropes of commerce are made; the seeds, which are called coquilla nuts, grow in clusters, in a similar fashion to the banana fruit, and are three or four inches long, brown in color, very hard, and of sufficient thickness to be turned into various ornaments, such as beads and crosses, for which they are largely used. The agricultural industries of the State are in a flourishing condition, and the arduous labor that is necessary to ensure a Satisfactory harvest in less favored zones is practically unknown in this “smiling land.” The Sado Francisco River, with its great tributaries, drains all the central and western region of the State as it flows northward to the boundary between Bahia and Pernambuco, where it turns abruptly to the southeast, separating Bahia from the State of Alagoas. The valley of this river is one of the most fertile regions of the globe, and so enormously productive that crops are gathered year after year with hardly any other labor than that of planting the seed and taking in the harvest. Tobacco is produced in large quantities, twenty-five thousand tons being exported annually to the value of five million dollars gold, and the cigar and cigarette factories employ thousands of men, women, and children. Coffee is an important source of revenue, the receipts from this industry amounting to two million dollars annually. Rubber is exported in increasing quantities every year, the interior of the State containing vast forests with an abundance of rubber trees which will Yield rich harvests as soon as the difficulties of transportation have been overcome sufficiently to make this source of wealth available. Cotton is grown with little BAHIA 463 cultivation, and the cotton factories of the State furnish employment to thousands of workmen. The sugar plantations are in good condition, and several refineries exist in various parts of the State, the revenue from this industry amounting to nearly a million dollars gold. The cultivation of cacao has prospered notably in the southern districts from Valenca to Alcobaga, especially in Ilhéos, Cannavieiras, and Belmonte. The nature of the plant requires a damp soil, containing a considerable amount of clay and having a thick layer of vegetable mould. The exportation of this product reaches thousands of tons, and is increasing annually. STREET SCENE IN THE UPPER CITY BAHIA. Mandioca is grown in every part of the State, chiefly for the home market, which it has supplied extensively ever since colonial days, when the cultivation of the product was made obligatory by law. The fertility of the soil guarantees the best results from the cultivation of all kinds of cereals, from truck gardening and fruit growing; the yield of mangoes is larger than that of any other State. Cattle and hides are shipped from Bahia in large quantities, the value of the trade in hides reaching half a million dollars annually. The manufactures of the State include, besides extensive cotton mills and tobacco works, several match factories, tanneries, saw mills, foundries, and other enterprises. 464 THE NEW BRAZIL An important syndicate has recently been formed in this State for the purpose of pro- moting industrial and agricultural interests, and especially to develop the trade in textile fibres, which the forests of the State produce in abundance, and which, under the names of barbantina, cambrayna, etc., are recognized as valuable for the manufacture of woven goods, twine, rope, and similar articles. Bahia is rich in mineral resources, and new discoveries are constantly being made as the extension of railways through the interior leads to the opening up of hitherto unex- plored regions. Diamonds are found in several different sections of the State, especially along the course of the Rio de Contas and in the basin of the Rio Pardo, both rivers flowing from the coast range to the Atlantic. All the rivers that drain the coast region—which is divided from the interior plateaus by numerous serras that together form the great chain generally known as the Serra do Mar—pass through districts in which gold, copper, manga- nese, or precious stones have been found. Besides those already named, the Itapicurt, Paraguassu, Jaguaribe, and Jequitinhonha are the most important. The largest diamond carbonate ever found was discovered in the basin of the Rio de Contas, near the town of Lengoes, in 1895. It weighed more than three thousand carats, and was sold by the miner for twenty thousand dollars; it was afterward sent to Paris and divided into smaller stones. In the Rio Pardo basin are the rich diamondiferous placers of Cannavieiras, and in the Paraguassu are found diamonds of peculiar brilliancy though not so perfect as those of Cannavieiras. In. the district called Lavras Diamantinas, diamond mining is the chief industry, and many valuable stones have been discovered. Topazes, amethysts, beryls, tourmalines, aquamarines, etc., are found in abundance. Near the town of Prado in the southern part of the State, an American mining engineer recently found valuable deposits of monazite sand, rich in thorium silicate, which is now being exported in large quantities to Germany and Austria, where the thorium is prepared that fills an important place in the manufacture of incandescent lights. This sand is estimated to be worth a hundred dollars a ton. Chiefly through the efforts of the present Minister of Industry, Railways, and Public Works of Brazil, Dr. Miguel Calmon du Pin e Almeida, who was formerly minister of the Same department in the State of Bahia, a new mining law has been established in this State, according to which the position, rights, and duties of companies or individuals engaged in mining are clearly defined. The conditions under which mining may be carried on, the taxes to which the industry is subject, and the rights and privileges of the discoverer of new fields are explained so that there need be no difficulty in learning what the law requires. The exploitation of the mines of Bahia depends largely upon the facilities of transporta- tion, and not only are the diamond mines being developed more satisfactorily as railways are extended to reach the headquarters of this industry, but gold, manganese, copper, and monazite are mined with better results when within easy communication with the centres of trade. The principal railways of the State are: the Bahia and Sao Francisco line from the capital to the city of Juazeiro on the Sdo Francisco river, where it marks the boundary of BAHIA 465 Pernambuco; the Bahia Central, from the State capital west to Machado Portella, in the mining district; the Caravellas Railway in the south, and several shorter lines. In addition to the railways, there are several steamship lines connecting the various ports on the coast and along the navigable course of the rivers. A new steamship line, the “ Navegacdo Bahiana,” which is subsidized by the State government, has been established for transporta- tion between Bahia and Pernambuco and the intermediate ports of Aracaju, Penedo, and Maceio. The governor of Bahia, Dr. José Marcelino de Sousa, takes especial interest in this line, which has added greatly to the comfort and pleasure of travel on the coast. The steamers are of modern construction and are elegantly fitted up for the convenience of passengers; many tourists find it particularly enjoyable to go by this route to visit the famous Paulo Affonso Falls, taking small steamers up the river from Penedo to Piranhas, near the foot of the cataract. The Bahia Southern covers an itinerary of three hundred GENERAL VIEW OF BAHIA. and fifty miles along the coast from the capital southward, and its steamers call regularly at the ports of Ilhéos, Cannavieiras, Belmonte, Santa Cruz, Porto Seguro, Prado, Alcobaca, Caravellas, and Sao José. A steamship line navigates the Sao Francisco River from Joazeiro to Pirapora, a distance of nearly a thousand miles. Steamers also ply between the city of Bahia and the various ports of the great bay of Todos os Santos, or All Saints. The Bay of All Saints is about the size of Rio Harbor, and, like that beautiful sheet of water, has many bright emerald “pompons” here and there, decorating its broad surface. Itapariga is the principal island in the bay, and its clear outlines are among the first features of the landscape presented within the harbor enclosure, which is protected on all sides by fortifications. Like a luxurious Oriental, the capital city, Bahia, is stretched out on her feathery couch of green, apparently enjoying her reflection in the waters below. All along the shore a high bluff extends, dividing the city into two parts connected by inclined rail- ways and electric elevators. Many beautiful suburbs increase the attractiveness of the 466 THE NEW BRAZIL picture. The pretty little village of Rio Vermelho, looking directly out upon the sea, is especially popular among the Bahians as a place of summer residence. Romantic nooks and verdure-clad ravines ornament the hillocks that extend along the northern margin of the bay, and from the peninsula of Bomfim, on a pretty knoll of which is situated a historic church, a perfect view of both the harbor and the city is to be had. The city of Sado Salvador da Bahia, or, as it is popularly called, Bahia, is the social, educational, and com- mercial metropolis of the State, toward which the interests of the whole population, numbering throughout the State about two and a half millions, naturally gravitate, as to the chief centre of wealth. The city is divided into two sections,—the Cidade Baixa, or “lower city,” lying close to the bay, where the commercial houses, custom house, public markets, warehouses, the arsenals of war and marine, the post office, and several fac- tories are located, as well as some of the charitable institutions; and the Cidade Alia, or “upper city,” which is the residence section, beautified by parks, avenues, and suburban driveways, and particularly noted for the important public buildings located in this part of the capital. The Governor’s Palace is situated in the upper city, near the entrance to the Lacerda elevator, and within a few minutes’ ride of the lower city. It is a modern building of attractive architectural design and spacious dimensions. The Senate building and the municipal building occupy commanding sites in the upper city. There are nearly a hundred churches and church institutions, among which the Cathedral possesses particular claims to attention as one of the oldest buildings in America, having been originally erected as a Jesuit college in the sixteenth century, though rebuilt and improved at various times since. As stated elsewhere, several of the churches of Bahia are celebrated for their costly interiors as well as for their historic associations. Among other important public buildings is that of the Faculty of Medicine, one of the oldest and most noted institutions of Brazil, having been established when the Regent Dom Joao VI. visited Bahia in 1808. A Brazilian physician who accompanied the royal family was the founder of the Collegio Medico-Cirurgico, as it was originally named, the first lectures being delivered in the Military Hospital of Bahia. A few years later the plan of the institution was, by royal charter, improved and extended, and in 1832 it was given its present name, and installed in a suitable edifice, the course of studies being amplified and directed according to more strict regulations. It was not, however, until 1882 that the faculty began to win renown as one of the best medical institutions in South America. During that year it was completely reorganized by the emperor, seven new chairs were created, making the whole number twenty-six, new laboratories were opened, and medical and surgical training was inaugurated according to more practical methods than those hitherto employed. In 1901 a chair of bacteriology was created, and a laboratory for experiment in this important study was established. The curriculum is divided into twelve sections, which embrace every branch of medicine, and the course of study extends over six years, especial attention being paid to clinical lectures, which are given in the Misericordia BAHIA 467 and other hospitals, as well as in the Clinic Institute of the Faculty. The building is lighted with electricity and equipped with all modern conveniences. Bahia contributes large sums annually for educational purposes, the State and munici- palities maintaining more than a thousand schools, of which nine hundred are devoted to primary instruction. The Law College, which was founded in 1891, occupies a handsome building in a beautiful location, and has a large average attendance. An Agricultural Insti- tute, located in the district of Sao Bento de Lages, at a short distance from the capital, provides practical training in farm management. The State Normal School, which has a kindergarten annexed to it, is conducted according to the best system of pedagogical training, and its graduates are to be found in the highest positions open to the profession. One of the best schools of Bahia is the Lyceum of Arts and Trades, which was founded in FACULTY OF MEDICINE, BAHIA 1872; it has day and night classes, workshops for manual training, and class rooms for lectures. About two thousand five hundred pupils attend this school, and the course of instruction includes every branch of practical work. A fine library, a picture gallery, and a museum of architecture are at the disposal of the students, who seem to enjoy their work- ing hours as thoroughly as they do the intermission. They have organized a band of music and frequently give concerts to the public. Among other important schools are the gym- nasium, the ecclesiastical seminary, the Salesian College, the school of Santa Theresa, and many private institutions. The Public Library, which was founded in 1811 by the Count of Arcos, contains thirty thousand volumes and is installed in a handsome edifice. There is also a valuable collection of twenty thousand volumes in the Municipal Library, and another of about fifteen thousand volumes in the Gabinete Portuguez, besides other libraries belonging to colleges, convents, and clubs. 468 THE NEW BRAZIL The Historical and Geographical Institute is one of the principal intellectual centres of the capital, which has always been famous for its brilliant scholars, poets, and statesmen. Castro Alves, the poet; Marquis d’Abrantes, the silver-tongued orator; Zacarias de Vascon- cellos, the statesman; the illustrious Viscount de Rio-Branco; Alves Branco, Gregorio de Mattos, Baron de Cotegipe, Nabuco de Araujo, and Agrario de Menezes, are among the distinguished Brazilian names in literature, statecraft, and journalism belonging to patriots and scholars cradled in the luxuriance which Nature lavishes with a free hand upon the smiling fields and forests of Bahia. The numerous charitable institutions of Bahia are well supported and sanitation and hygiene have been greatly improved within the past few years, the Central Board of Health having charge of the lazarettos, the disinfection department of the city service, and the vaccine institute. The same system of sanitation is practised in Bahia as in Rio and Sado Paulo, every precaution being observed in order that the capital may be kept free from epidemics. Misericordia Hospital, the Insane Asylum, the Military Hospital, and the Maternity Home are among the most important charities supported by the government. The ladies of Bahia have taken the greatest interest in the Maternity Home, of which Senhora Maria Cerquiera de Conde is the president. The poorhouse is a very attractive looking home, situated in the suburb of Boa Viagem, and surrounded with gardens of flowers. The city is beautified by many public squares, prag¢as, and largos, of which the principal is the Praga da Constituigdo, containing the Governor’s Palace and other administrative offices. In the Largo Quinze de Novembro the Cathedral is situated, also the Faculty of Medicine, the famous convent of Sado Francisco, and several other churches; the Nazareth praca, beautified by the handsome new charity hospital erected here a few years ago; the Praca dos Martyres; Largo Duque de Caxias, in the midst of which stands the majestic monument of white Carrara marble and bronze, a hundred feet in height, named Dois de Julho [second of July], which commemorates the date of the country’s political independ- ence; the Largo da Graca, where the ancient monastery of that name is situated; the square named for the celebrated Bahian poet, Castro Alves; the Praca do Riachuelo, with the hand- some edifice of the Commercial Association overlooking it, and in the centre a stately bronze monument on a pedestal of marble, capped with eight volutes upholding a sphere on which stands the figure of Victory, bearing a palm in one hand and a laurel in the other, symbolizing the victory of the Brazilian armies in the Paraguayan war, which the monument commem- orates. Surpassing all the other parks of the city in extent and luxuriance of foliage, in variety of attractive and entertaining accessories, and as a popular resort on feast days and other holidays, is the beautiful garden in the parish of Victoria, overlooking the sea, the Passeio Publico, which contains, among other interesting features, a magnificent marble monolith, set up to commemorate the opening of Brazilian ports to foreign commerce in 1808. Four systems of street railway traverse the city, connecting it with the picturesque suburbs of Rio Vermelho, Itapagipe, Barra, Plata, Forma, and Retiro. The shrine of Nosso Senhor do Bomfim, which attracts thousands of visitors annually, is situated in the suburb of BAHIA 469 Itapagipe, on the crest of a beautiful hill overlooking the sea. The State is dotted with innumerable small towns and cities, rapidly growing in size and number. The principal cities of more than fifty thousand inhabitants are Feira de Santa Anna, especially noted for its cattle market; Bomfim, a thriving commercial town in territory particularly adapted to wine growing, cacao culture, and wheat farming; and Maragogipe, about thirty miles from the State capital, the centre of a rich coffee district, and of valuable mines of gold and iron. There are several busy little cities of twenty thousand and upward in population, such as Santo Amaro, situated about ten miles inland from the harbor of Bahia, and noted for its tobacco factories and distilleries; Alagoinhas, an important railroad terminus and the com- mercial centre of a large district; Cachoeira, on the bank of the Paraguasst River, not far from the capital, a flourishing city with cotton and spinning mills, and united by a bridge with the neighboring town of Sado Felix, which has one of the best cigar factories in the State; Jacobina, rich in gold mines and having extensive cotton fields and yerba maté plan- tations, and also famous for the manufacture of gotbada, or guava jelly; and Ilhéos, from which are exported large quantities of coffee and cacao, the surrounding territory being also rich in petroleum and other products. Nazareth, Valenca, Caetité, and Joazeiro, on the Sao Francisco River, connected by railway with the city of Bahia, and Lengoes, are pros- perous commercial and manufacturing towns. The future holds out the promise of great wealth to this prosperous and growing State, which now ranks fifth in the value of its export trade, the Federal district, Sdo Paulo, Ama- zonas, and Para being its only rivals in commercial importance. The city of Bahia is lighted with electricity and provided with ample means of trans- portation in three electric street car lines, as well as a suburban railway system between the city and Ondina, a seaside resort for residents of the capital New port works are under construction, which, when completed, will greatly facilitate trade and improve the aspect of the lower city, by making its landing place a more attractive feature of the otherwise beautiful landscape. The governor is untiring in his efforts for the progress of the State, and he is aided by a corps of able assistants in the secretaries of his cabinet. Bahia is the archiepiscopal see, His Grace Archbishop Jeronymo Thomé da Silva being head of the diocese. Social life is very charming in Bahia; in no city of Brazil are more beautiful homes to be found, and nowhere is gracious hospitality dispensed with more pleasing com- pliment. European custom prevails in social life to a certain extent, though the same spirit of New World freedom which has set its impress upon the political and commercial institu- tions of the country is to be observed in a growing tendency toward social emancipation. It is no longer forbidden to ladies to go shopping or visiting unattended; and even young ladies are sometimes seen alone on the streets, though the chaperon system Is so thoroughly rooted in the social life of all Latin nations that changes in this respect are necessarily con- servative. Nothing can be more delightful than the social occasions graced by the presence of representative Bahian society. The little téte-d-tétes between dances, that so greatly facilitate the archery of Cupid in North American drawing rooms, are almost unknown in 470 THE NEW BRAZIL Brazil; yet eyes may speak the universal language of youth and love regardless of the tongue’s limitation, so that these gatherings are always in favor with the young people, particularly as the opportunity for mutual converse is even still more restricted in the quiet home circle, where the whole family must share the secret of every expression. Among the poorer classes the flesfa is the great opportunity for social display, and to the visitor the scenes that attend these anniversaries are particularly captivating for their unique charm. Bahia possesses many Social characteristics sw generis, and in this respect also it is like the Crescent City of North America. The city has a population of two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants. SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS, BAHIA. CHAPTER XXXIV ESPIRITO SANTO N few States of the Brazilian Union are the natural conditions more favorable for indus- trial development than in Espirito Santo, which lies just north of the State of Rio, east of Minas Geraes, and south of Bahia. Occupying a strip of fertile land along the coast, two hundred and fifty miles long and eighty miles wide, it is capable of yielding all the products of a tropical, and, on the plateau of the interior, many of those of semi-tropical and even temperate zones. In the northern and eastern parts of the State are flat plains covered with luxuriant vegetation and having innumerable small lakes and marshes, on the borders of which grow various palms, myr- tles, and cacti. Beyond this low land, which skirts the coast line as far south as the Rio Doce, POR ce ee aN et IN IS! dividing the State into two regions, extend high PRESIDENT OF ESPIRITO SANTO. serras branching off from the main chain of the Mantiquiera and taking various names in different sections. The climate is moist and very warm along the coast, but agreeable in the interior, where the thermometer never registers above twenty-four degrees nor below six degrees centigrade, and it is generally healthful. The forests supply the most valuable woods of commerce, such as rosewood; the peroba, much used in cabinet work and in shipbuilding; the genipapo, a very elastic wood of a peculiar lilac color; the dapicuri, having the appearance of rosewood seamed with yellow fibres; and many other varieties for general building purposes. The soil is particularly adapted to the cultivation of coffee, sugar, cotton, cereals, mandioca, cacao, and fruits. The State is abundantly watered, being 471 472 | THE NEW BRAZIL traversed by the Rio Doce, a large river that rises near Ouro Preto, in the neighboring State of Minas Geraes and is noted for the gold, precious stones, and diamond-bearing VICTORIA, CAPITAL OF THE STATE OF ESPIRITO SANTO. gravel found in its upper streams; by the Itauna, San Domingos, and San Matheus in the north, and by the Timbuhy, Santa Maria, Jucu, Itapemirim, Itabapoana, and smaller rivers, with their tributaries, in the middle and southern regions. Although the agricultural possibilities of the State have not been fully developed, owing chiefly to lack of population, yet the principal industries, coffee growing and sugar culture, produce large revenues. This little State ranks third in the Union in the quantity of coffee which it ships annually to foreign ports, amounting to nearly half a million bags, the greater part consigned to the United States. The culture of sugar cane is one of the most productive industries, and rice growing promises to be a valuable source of revenue, the only drawback being in the lack of sufficient laborers to till the ground and gather in the harvests. The State has now two hundred and ten thousand inhabitants, though its fertile soil could easily support ten times that population. In accordance with the economic policy announced by the President on the occasion of his inauguration, the government is devoting especial attention to the extension of railways, the construction of good roads, and to those public improvements which tend to encourage immigration of the most desirable character. The first colonies in the State were introduced during the time of the empire, when, in 1856, Santa Leopoldina was established on the banks of the Santa Maria River, Transylvania on the Rio Doce, and, later, Cachoeiro, Timbuhy, and Santa Cruz. All these colonies, as well as others more recently established, are in a prosperous condition. ESI GARC) SVAVKIEO) 473 A Board of Public Lands and Colonization, under the supervision of the Department of Public Works of the State, has charge of all matters relating to immigration and the appor- tionment of lands to national and foreign settlers. It is the especial duty of this Board to promote colonization through suitable propaganda, and to arrange for the reception of immigrants and for their transportation to the locality for which they are bound. Under the name of Hospedaria Central, an immigrant’s hotel has been established at Pedra d’Agua, and placed in charge of an administrador, or manager, and his assistants, a physician, an interpreter, clerks, and guards, who attend to the needs of the newcomers, and give them information about the country, etc.; the physician is required to inspect vessels carrying immigrants and to report to the Board the sanitary condition of the ships and their pas- Sengers before disembarkation is permitted. A list of the names of all immigrants is made on their arrival by clerks employed for this purpose, and necessary information is secured regarding their antecedents and their proposed destination. The interpreter hears any complaints made by the newcomers and reports to the proper authorities, and it is his duty to look after the comfort of the immigrants and to see that their food and lodgings are Satisfactory. By a decree issued on the 28th of August, 1906, President Henrique da Silva Cou- tinho,—under whose administration the progress of the State is seen throughout every branch of the public service,—has divided the territory into five territorial districts, appointing to each a commission, composed of a chief engineer, assistant engineer, attorney, and clerks, PICTURESQUE APPROACH TO VICTORIA. whose duty it is to provide the government, through the Department of Public Works, with full information regarding the public lands of the State, their area, the nature of the soil 474 THE NEW BRAZIL and climate, etc., in order that the necessary preparations for colonization and public improvements may be thereby facilitated. Recognizing the importance of good roads and increased railway transportation, the government has spared no effort to improve and extend the various means of communica- tion within the State, and rapid progress has been made in the construction of new highways and the extension of inter- state lines, such as the Victoria and Diamantina railway, which traverses the State from the port of Victoria, the capital, to the border of Minas Geraes, climbing the serra and cross- ing a fertile plateau on which are located several prosperous colonies. When this railway is completed to the diamond city, it will open up direct com- munication with some of the richest mining towns of the in- terior of Brazil, and will make Victoria the nearest seaport for the traffic of a vast section of : northern Minas, as well as of all A LAKE SCENE NEAR VICTORIA. the central districts of Espirito Santo. The recent completion of the Southern railway from Victoria to Cachoeiro de Itapemirim places the State capital in communication by rail with the neighboring State of Rio and with the Federal capital. While the work of railway construction is being pushed with vigor, the question of improving the harbor of Victoria is also occupying the attention of the chief authorities. The Federal government has undertaken the task of improving all the harbors of Brazil, and the required work in the port of Victoria will, it is estimated, cost one million pounds Sterling. The preliminary investigation has already been made. A bridge will connect the State capital, which is situated on an island, with the mainland at a point near the railway terminals of the two lines previously named, and an extensive system of docks and warehouses will be built on a foundation of solid rock. Victoria occupies an ideal loca- tion in one of the most picturesque harbors of Brazil. Though it has but a small popu- lation of twenty thousand, it is important not only as the capital of the State, but as one of the chief coffee exporting centres of Brazil. Viewed from the harbor it is a quaint-looking ESPIRITO SANTO 475 city stretching along the shore and crowding close to the hills that lie behind it and encircle the island-dotted bay, which is one of nature’s masterpieces. Here and there the white walls and turrets of a historic old convent gleam among the trees or stand out in clear relief against the green background, adding the charm of tradition to that of natural beauty. In the opinion of many, the harbor of Espirito Santo is unrivalled, and though much smaller than that of Rio, it presents some picturesque effects that are not seen in the famous “Guanabara.” The trip up the harbor from its entrance to the port of Victoria, which is guarded by the Santa Luzia and Francez lighthouses, is a succession of scenic surprises, enchanting and romantic. Overhanging cliffs and sloping hillsides, verdant islets and Sheltered coves where sea fowl gather, unexpected turnings and narrow passages between vine-covered banks—the beauty of it all is indescribable. With the greater commerce which will inevitably result from the present increase of railways and the construction of new docks, Victoria will become a stopping place for steamers of all lines, and tourists will find here one of the most beautiful spots in the world. The authorities are putting forth every effort to improve the city and to make it the attractive place it ought to be, as the capital of a prosperous State. New pavements have been laid on the principal streets, the lighting, waterworks system, and drainage have been improved, and a street car line connects the business centre of the city with the suburbs. Among the chief public buildings are the presi- dent’s palace, the House of Congress, several churches, a theatre, and a hospital. Although Victoria is one of the oldest cities of Brazil, having been founded during the first half of the sixteenth century by the grantee of the capitania of Espirito Santo, Vasco Fernandes Coutinho, yet its progress and development were continually interrupted or retarded during the early years of its history, first by the Indians, who in this section were of a particularly ferocious nature, and later by the attacks of the Dutch, though these invaders were repeatedly defeated and were finally obliged to retire. It was not until 1800, under the administration of the first governor appointed by the crown, Antonio Pires da Silva Ponte Leme, that the town and the capitania entered on an era of peace and progress. When Brazil became an empire, Victoria was raised to the dignity of a city, the capital of a province; and in 1889, upon the proclamation of the republic, it was made the capital of the State of Espirito Santo. Along the route of the Southern railway are several growing towns, the most important being Itapemirim, the centre of a rich coffee growing district. It is built on both banks of the Itapemirim River, an iron bridge connecting the two divisions of the town. The population of the municipal district, which comprises a number of agricultural communities as well as the town itself, is twenty thousand. Cachoeiro is the largest town on the line of the Victoria and Diamantina railway, though all the colonies along this route are growing in wealth and importance. The plateaus of the interior, stretching for hundreds of leagues, offer grand opportunities for industrial development, and in the near future will undoubtedly be dotted with prosperous farming communities. Along the coast the chief towns are: Conceicao da Barra and Sado Matheus in the north, and Guarapary, Anchieta, and Benevente in the south. Benevente is.important as the last resting-place of the celebrated 476 THE NEW BRAZIL Jesuit teacher Father Anchieta, who died there in 1597, after a life of wonderful devotion and self-sacrifice to the work of civilizing the Indians. When Espirito Santo became a State: of the Union, its constitution——promulgated on May 2, 1892,—was framed on liberal principles, in accord with the high purpose of the national government. Among other provisions, it guarantees free primary instruction, “the State to strive always for the improvement of educational conditions”; liberty of worship, so long as morals, customs, and public order are not offended, “the State recognizing that religion is the basis of social existence;” non-interference in any way in the propaganda of any faith, assuring liberty to all; freedom of the press and of public opinion; while aptitude, probity, and a good reputation are held to be the determining factors in the choice of a public official. The freedom accorded to municipalities under the constitution places them in a position to advance their interests untrammelled by repressive laws. The government is in the hands of executive, legislative, and judicial authorities, the president, who holds the chief executive power, being elected every four years by an absolute majority of votes and direct suffrage of the State. Congress is composed of twenty-five members elected for three years, and the judiciary consists of local judges and a court of justice, the latter having its seat in the capital of the State. PALHA, A SUBURB OF VICTORIA. THE ‘LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ad TL Ay 5 SS ae wy WOOD-CARVING OF THE BAHIA. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. ? INTERIOR OF THE FRANCISCAN CHURCH CHAPTER XXXV OLD CHURCHES AND SHRINES See the inauguration of the republic, Church and State have been separate in Brazil, and, though, as in all Latin countries, the prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic, yet absolute freedom of worship is assured to every citizen, and churches of all denomi- nations are found in the various cities and towns. The power and influence of the Catholic Church have lost nothing by the change, the more liberal conditions that exist under the republic having proved no obstacle to its growth and development. pee: : = A proof of the high esteem in which the SHRINE OF BOMFIM, BAHIA. Brazilian congregation is held by the Holy See was recently shown in the appointment of a Brazilian prelate to the sacred College of Cardinals. The honor thus conferred marks an epoch in the history of the Church in South America, as it is the first time that the red hat has been bestowed on one of its ecclesiastics. His Eminence Cardinal Arcoverde is a member of the distinguished Pernambucan family of Albuquerque Cavalcanti. He was Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro when appointed to the Sacred College, and his life has been consecrated to the service of the Church since his earliest years. At sixteen, he entered the Collegio Pio Latino-Americano at Rome, in the year 1866, to prepare for the priesthood, and even at that youthful age gave promise of the remarkable gifts which distinguish him as a prince of the Church. Through the devoted efforts of the eminent prelate many important reforms have been inaugurated in the Church in Brazil, institutions of charity have been reorganized and improved, and various church societies have been formed for purposes of Christian benevolence, to which His Eminence gives particular attention. He 479 480 THE NEW BRAZIL has been an honored personage in the councils of the Vatican on several occasions; in 1899, when the Latin-American Plenary Council met in Rome, he presided, as apostolic delegate, over the sessions of that venerable congress. Cardinal Arcoverde was consecrated a prince of the Holy Roman Church on the 14th of December, 1905, in the public consistory, when he received the cardinal’s hat; on the 14th of January, 1906, he was invested with his title of St. Alexius, the ceremony being one of great solemnity. Even under the empire, when the Roman Catholic was the estab- lished church, Brazil was distinguished among all the Latin countries for its independence of church ruling in secular matters or when such ruling did not accord with the national view of religious affairs. On several occasions, measures were adopted by the State to curtail ecclesiastical authority; during the regency, it was once proposed to establish the Brazilian Church independent of Rome; and at another time, the papal nuncio in Brazil . was censured through the press for utterances not consistent with the dignity of his office; and when certain bishops tried to override the civil law by issuing decrees to forbid the burial of Freemasons, they were arrested, tried, and condemned to imprisonment, with hard labor. In early colonial days, however, the Church was almost absolute in power; its mission- aries exerted a widespread influence in the new country. The order of the Jesuits, which was founded just about the time of the first colonization of Brazil, sent out two apostles who devoted their lives to the cause of Christianity in this benighted land,—Father Nobrega and Father Anchieta; the story of their labors fills many an interesting page in Brazilian history, and may be read in some of the greatest institutions now flourishing in the name of charity, as well as in the ruins of edifices built centuries ago and dedicated to religious worship. The church which first served as the episcopal see in Brazil was built by these priests, and named the “Ajuda,” in the same year that the first governor-general, Thomé de Souza, landed in Bahia and founded the city. A few years later they began the construction of the first Jesuit college in America, which was endowed by King Dom Sebastian in 1564, though not completed until about ten years later. When Pombal expelled the Jesuits from Brazil, the college, by royal decree, was made a cathedral, and this prerogative was never with- drawn. The old edifice is one of the interesting sights of Bahia. In this city also is the chapel of Gracga; it was erected by Catherine Alvares Paraguassu, who made it over by deed of gift to the Benedictines in 1582; it was converted into a monastery, and rebuilt, nearly two centuries later, by Abbot Peixoto. An interesting story is related regarding the building of this chapel. It is said that upon the return of her husband, Caramurt, from a shipwrecked vessel where he had been rendering aid to the unfortunate, Paraguassu entreated him to go back and save a woman whom she had seen in a vision and who was at that moment among the Indians, praying that she would send for her and build her a place of shelter. Caramurd obediently set out in quest of the woman, but failing to find her after a third search, he was returning, quite discouraged, when his glance suddenly rested upon an image of the Virgin that an Indian had found on OLOSCUCRCHES@ANDESHRINES 481 the shore and had thrown into a corner of his hut; this image Caramuri took home. Paraguassu was Satisfied with this fulfilment of her vision, and ordered the chapel to be built and the image to be placed therein, where it was greatly venerated as “Our Lady of Graca.” Paraguassu lies buried in this chapel, and the following epitaph still marks her last resting-place: “Tomb of Dona Catharina Alvares Para- guassu, Lady that was of the Capitania of Bahia, which she and her husband Diogo Alvares Corréa gave to the King of Portugal, having built this chapel of Nossa Senhora da Graca, which she gave, with the ground annexed, to the Patriarch Sao Bento, in the year 1582.” The ancient abbey of Montserrat, which is still one of the picturesque features of the neckland of Itapagipe, Bahia, was built early in the seventeenth century, though by whom is a mystery. Its origin is attributed by some authorities to a Spaniard, but this is also. said to apply to another abbey of Montserrat, in the town of Santos. One of the most im- portant of these early churches, from the magnificence of its present appearance, its HIS EMINENCE JOAQUIM ARCOVERDE, THE FIRST , ; CARDINAL IN SOUTH AMERICA. wonderfully ornamented interior, and the costliness of its gilded carvings is the Franciscan monastery of Bahia. It was built by Franciscan friars, the first of the Order having come from Portugal in 1585, in response to an invitation from the donatorio of Pernambuco, and, after founding the convent of Our Lady of Olinda, they removed to Bahia. The foundation stone of the present mon- astery was laid in 1686, and the building of the church in connection with it was begun in 1708 and finished in 1713. All the ornaments of the church were finished in 1723. The cloister is built with thirty-six arches, every pillar being made of a single stone. Around the walls are ornamental tiles representing scenes in ancient sacred and profane history. The wonderful carving in the interior of the church is the work of a Franciscan monk. The church has seven elaborately carved and gilded altars, on which, in accordance with the obligations of the Order, seven thousand three hundred and fifty-eight Masses were said every year until 1754. About fifty Franciscans lived in the monastery up to the year 1856, when the emperor prohibited the admission of novices, and the Order 482 THE NEW BRAZIL declined until, in 1892, it was recruited by the arrival of several monks. At present, its occupants number thirty-five, among others the scholarly and courteous Friar Bahlmann, from whom the description of the monastery was obtained. The most remarkable feature of the building is the dado of Dutch tiles that surrounds the cloister, and which may be seen from the patio. Fabulous sums have been offered by curio hunters for these tiles, which are of Delft porcelain, each tile having been painted and finished separately, but so carefully that the general design was perfect when the tiles were placed in position. The tiles sur- rounding the lower walls represent a Succession of scenes from the works of Homer and other ancient writers, while those of the upper gallery represent Biblical scenes. It is probably the only work of the kind in existence in America. A shrine of great antiquity and interest is that of Bomfim, in the suburb of Itapagipe, Bahia, erected in 1754, and one of the most popular shrines in Brazil to-day. In it are preserved many curious relics and symbols, such as are found in similar churches in Europe. Although Bahia was the great centre of religious worship in earlier days, and is still the stronghold of the Catholic Church in Brazil, the erection of places of worship began simultaneously with the discovery of the country, in every territory of the dominion. In Rio de Janeiro many old churches still exist that were built in the seventeenth and eight- eenth centuries, as those of S40 Sebastido, Sado Bento, and the Candelaria. In Pernambuco, Sao Paulo, Ceara, and Maranhdo there are to be found several chapels that date from the eighteenth century. In every State of the Union church fiestas are celebrated, which are the survival of those earlier days, and preserve, in a wonderful degree, the traditions and history of their inauguration. The fiestas celebrated at Bomfim are renowned for their magnificence and for the thousands of participants who assemble on these occasions, when the devoutly religious practise the greatest humility, entering the sacred chapel on their knees and performing numerous rites that prove their desire to be rid of the sins of the flesh. A very picturesque fiesta is celebrated in Bahia by the donkey-drivers and water- carriers, who form a procession, sometimes a mile long, on their way to the church, the chief feature being the donkeys, which are gorgeously decorated with flowers and foliage. The most elaborate religious fiesta cele- brated at the present day in Brazil is that of “Nossa Senhora de Nazareth,” in the city of Para. It occurs in the month of October, and attracts thousands of visitors to the city, CHAPEL OF NOSSA SENHORA DA GRAGA, BAHIA, : D BUILIEY Bint ouicG: and lasts about two weeks, during which the place is given up to religious and social enter- tainments. The origin of this shrine and its attendant observances is similar to the history of other celebrated shrines throughout the world. It is described by various writers, and OLDECAHGRGHES AND” SHRINES 48 3 related by the people of that region, without important deviations in the main points of the tradition. One day, about noon, two hunters, fatigued by their chase through the forests in the neighborhood of Para, sought rest under the shade of a tree. They were discontented and dis- gusted not to have found so much as a toucan in the woods where game of all kinds abounded. Their dogs, tired out like themselves, were stretched out under the same tree. In afew minutes they were asleep, overcome by exhaustion. During his sleep, one of the hunters was Visited in his dreams by a woman who spoke to him and told him to search a thicket close by, where he would find an image of the Virgin of Nazareth. On wak- ing, he went at once to the mysterious place, and while he searched the thicket, his dogs, plunging into the midst of a cluster of palms, began to bark excitedly. He ran to them, and to his great sur- prise discovered near the trunk of the oldest palm a beautiful statue. | Happier than if they had killed a thousand deer, the hunters took their way back to the town, carrying with them the glorious image, which they hastened to present to the - CHURCH OF THE CANDELARIA, RIO DE JANEIRO. 484 THE NEW BRAZIL governor, who placed it in the chapel of his palace. The news of this discovery spread throughout the town. The faithful prayed the governor to expose to the veneration of the people this sacred image of Our Lady, the patron of the town, and it was decided that the next day the doors of the chapel should be opened to the public. But, alas! the next day, when they opened the chapel, the image had disappeared. The poor hunters who had started the news were grieved because they feared they would be taken for liars. They went again to the thicket, and were overjoyed to find the statue in the same spot where they had first seen it. The governor and the people also went to the thicket, and the image was taken back to the palace with great pomp. The next day it had disappeared again, and again they found it in the same place and carried it back to the town. Three or four times the same miracle took place. Then the bishop, with the consent of the governor, decided that they should erect a little chapel on the spot where they had found the statue and place it therein. The chapel was built, and the altar marked the location of the mysterious bush. The faithful gathered from all parts. Miracles were so numerous that soon the little chapel was replaced by a large church, with a covered vestibule for pilgrims. Every year afterward, great popular pilgrimages celebrated the fiesta of the Virgin of Nazareth. The pilgrimage is still continued to this day, though the forest has been transformed into broad avenues and the shrine is situated in a fashionable quarter of a large city which has grown up around it. Each year, in remembrance of the ancient miracle, the holy image is carried from the chapel of the president’s palace to the church of Nazareth. Everyone takes part in this procession; some, it is true, out of curiosity or to enjoy the spectacle, but many out of religious fervor, desirous of offering public proofs of their gratitude to the holy Virgin, to whose intercession they attribute miraculous cures, or a rescue from death, or whose answers to their prayers for loved ones in danger have wrought miracles in their behalf. First in the procession is a car, representing a fortress, from which fireworks and rockets are exploded with great éclat. Then follows a cavalcade, and next in line a series of floats, which represent miracles performed by Our Lady of Nazareth, and these in turn are followed by horsemen bearing bright oriflammes with the dates of miracles and the names under which these miracles are known. Carriages, filled with members of the best families in the city, are a conspicuous feature of the procession, the last of these being the coach of the governor, accompanied by his secretary and his aide-de-camp, who are followed by the bishop. The procession closes with a fairy-like coach, shaped something like a royal crown, all purple and gold, in the centre of which stands the venerated image of the Holy Virgin. The coach is guarded on both sides by the directors of the fiesta, and the populace, taking hold of the long ribbons of red silk attached to the vehicle, draw it along with great respect and venera- tion, esteeming it a great honor to have this privilege. Many interesting instances of devotion are presented at these processions. Sometimes delicately nurtured women will follow in the long line of worshippers, having their feet bare and wearing a gown of sackcloth or other coarse material. Some enthusiasts have been known to crawl on their knees the whole distance from the palace to the chapel, about a mile. The city garrison, artillery and infantry, OLD CHURCHES AND SHRINES 485 end the procession proper, though an interminable throng follows, crowding and pushing, to get a sight of the image, or to receive the bishop’s blessing as his coach stops now and then in the course of the march. Each of these followers carries an offering for the altar em- blematic of the nature of the particular cure for which there is special reason to be grateful to the blessed Virgin. It may be a wax arm, showing in ghastly red where a mortal wound had been made, and signifying that the bearer had been miraculously saved from the fatal effects of a terrible injury to the arm. Wax heads, spotted in red to indicate eruptions, or little wax figures covered with an imitation of CHURCH OF NOSSA SENHORA DE NAZARETH, PARA. Small-pox marks, typify the particular form of disease overcome through the intercession of Our Lady of Nazareth. So dense is the throng during this procession, and so frequent are the delays, that it often requires three or four hours for it to pass a certain point. The best view is always to be had on the Avenida da Republica, where the crowd is thickest, the street broadest, and the delay most prolonged. During the remaining days of the fiesta, there are daily amusements of all sorts, the fund collected going into the treasury of the church for charitable purposes. At Cuyaba, in the province of Matto Grosso, the fiestas of Pentecost are sumptuously Opserved=sluerdirector of the testa is chosen by lots On the eve oivthe day to be celebrated, he sallies forth accompanied by a band of music and some friends, and carrying the insignia of his office,—a silver crown, sceptre, and banner.. He goes to solicit offerings, which usually amount to about a thousand dollars, sometimes more. -The day of the ceremony, this leader, who takes the title of Emperor, proceeds to the church in the centre of a square made by four planks of wood, the ends of which are carried on the shoulders of the most distinguished personages of the town; on a silver plate the sceptre and crown are borne, the banner preceding the procession. In the evening, there is a grand illumination, including fireworks, extending all along the route from the door of the church to that of the “Emperor,” where a rich altar is raised. After the religious ceremony, there is a free distribu- tion of food and drink for the poor, and even small cakes for everybody. The authorities receive special gifts, consisting of immense cakes ornamented with flowers and ribbons. Then there are bull fights, balls, plays,—everything at the expense of the “Emperor,” who sometimes pays aS much as two thousand dollars or more for the entertainment. At 486 THE NEV SBRAZIL Cuyaba, it is said, the episcopal church possesses a miraculous image of the “Senhor Bom Jesus.” It was found on the island of Manoel-Homem, on the Rio Grande, two hundred and twenty-five leagues from the capital where it is worshipped to-day. The island takes its name from a noted criminal, Manoel Homem, who took refuge there. He found there the sacred image, and guarded it with devotion. After several efforts to remove it, it finally reached its present place of honor in the cathedral. The chapel of “Senhor dos Passos,” in Florianopolis, Santa Catharina, has an interesting history, and its fiestas are attended with great religious demonstrations. It was built in 1765 by Donna Joanna de Gusmao, a sister of the renowned aéronaut, in accordance with a vow made while on a pilgrimage to the shrine of Our Lady of Neves, on the shores of the Izuape River, where she was miraculously cured of a dreadful illness. Donna Joanna made a pilgrimage on foot, and unattended, throughout the whole of southern Brazil, seeking alms with which to build this chapel and to institute the Sisterhood of the Passos, until, at the age of eighty, her pilgrimage having succeeded in its purpose, she became the directress of the institution, where she died in 1780. But although the observance of traditional religious customs remains to a certain extent, there is a growing and widespread freedom of sentiment. At present, the attitude of the government and the people is one of the greatest tolerance, even encouragement, to all reli- gious institutions, regardless of creed. Handsome churches of all denominations have been erected in the larger cities, and there is scarcely a village without schools and hospitals under the charge of more than one denomination. In southern Brazil the Protestant Episcopal Church has more than five hundred communicants, and is growing in strength and influence through the zealous labors of its honored bishop, Right Reverend Lucien Lee Kinsolving, S.T.D., who was chosen for this position by the American House of Bishops and consecrated in Saint Bartholomew’s Church, New York, January 6, 1899. The Presby- terian Church is well represented in the principal cities, and the Methodists have many churches and schools. RUINS OF CARMELITE CONVENT IN OLINDA, PERNAMBUCO. L°ENVOI HOEVER has visited Brazil and learned to appreciate its many attractions, the glories of its scenery and the charm of its kind and gracious people, can understand very well the feeling of regret with which one bids adieu, whether from the deck of an outgoing steamer, or, in imagination, upon laying aside, at the last chapter, the pen which has been agreeably occupied in recording pleasant recollections. There is a word which Brazilians love, for the associations it recalls, the deep meaning it expresses, and the fact that it has no equivalent in any other tongue: saudade. It embodies all the words in the English language that con- vey the idea of homesickness, loving remembrance of absent ones, fond recol- lections of past experiences, regrets at parting, love, friendship, sympathy,—it A POND OF VICTORIA REGIA LILIES. reaches the gamut of a thousand tender ; Sentiments of regard and devotion,—it is the only word in any language which gives to speech the unabridged vocabulary of the heart. And this word rises involuntarily to the lips as the gaze of the departing traveller rests for the last time on those beautiful shores, and the farewell hand clasp is given to those gentle people whose hospitality, like their country, is an expression of all that is beautiful, genial, and abundant. 487 488 THE NEW BRAZIL What land compares with Brazil in beauty and natural wealthe From the Guianas to La Plata and from the Andes to the sea, Nature here revels in the joy of perfect abandon. Her beauty is bewitchingly revealed in the graceful curves of sunlit hills, her smile allures in the favoring mirror of matchless rivers, her brow is decked with the rich and variegated garland of prismatic forests, on her breast glows the iridescent lustre of countless birds and butterflies of uncommon beauty. She is a reigning queen in this summer land, and her court is perennially gay and brilliant. Her manifold attractions present unlimited aspects, varying in every possible degree from the equatorial luxuriance of the Amazon plain to the rugged severity of the southern serras. Preeminent in picturesque grandeur, the island-gemmed and summit-crowned bay of Rio appeals to the worshipper of Nature with an irresistible fascination. Surpassing Naples and rivalling the claims of Sydney, it ranks among the most famous harbors. The painter’s inspiration and the poet’s ecstasy have found in its enchanting beauty a subject worthy of the best labor of the most exalted genius. When the brief twilight of the tropics softens the effect of the general outlines of the bay, and a “dim religious light” hallows it, giving a cathedral-like aspect to the picture, its sublimity is most impressive. In solemn stateliness the gigantic Pao de Assucar guards the vestibule of this sanctuary of the gods; the surrounding hills support on their lofty peaks its celestial dome; under the shadow of their mighty columns, the great city, with its myriad tapers, lights up a magnificent altar; far back in the darker recesses the huge organ-pipes of the Serra dos Orgaos suggest the sublime harmonies that Pythagoras might have fancied in “the music of the spheres”; above all, pointing heavenward, as if to indicate the Infinite Source of so noble a creation, the Dedo de Deus [Finger of God] seems to call upon all the world to bow in reverence before the majesty and power of the Divine Author. Upon the first approach to the harbor of Rio, the attention is attracted to “the Sleeping giant,” a colossal figure outlined by the mountain summits against the sky, and recalling in its clear-cut profile the lineaments of the great father of American liberty. It is formed partly by the suburban hills of Rio and partly by the peaks of the Serra dos Orgaos, in the midst of which lies the charming city of Theresopolis. The city is reached through a great gap in the range, from which a panorama presents itself that in picturesque variety beggars description. The traveller who has enjoyed the scene can never forget the thrill of emotion excited by a first glimpse of the Brazilian Trosachs from this “airy point,” when, stretched out below, the splendid harbor “In all her length far-winding lay With promontory, creek, and bay, And islands that empurpled bright Floated amid the livelier light, And mountains that like giants stand To sentinel enchanted land.’’ L’ENVOI 489 Nearer, the wild, rugged beauty of lichen-covered rocks and leaping cascades, huge granite masses of fantastic shape hanging over narrow cliffs, and fossil débris blocking fathomless abysses, further recalls Scott’s famous description of the Trosachs, with ‘Crags, knolls, and mounds confusedly hurled, The fragments of an earlier world.” In some respects more interesting than the road to Theresopolis is the picturesque ascent of the Serra da Estrella, in the valley of which, at a height of three thousand feet, is Situated the beautiful city of Petropolis, so often called the Versailles of the Brazilian capital, and especially noted as the summer home of the foreign diplomatic corps in Brazil. It has been the chosen place of residence of many distinguished foreigners who have visited Brazil, and few cities in any country have more claims to agreeable remembrance. Although AFTER THE HUNT. the recent transformation of Rio promises the permanent removal of the foreign legations to the Federal capital, yet the charm of its past glory will long remain to give this mountain city a unique individuality. It was here that some of the most elaborate social functions were held during the empire, when the court spent several months of the year in its summer palaces, set like jewels among the hills; and here from the inauguration of the republic society has shone in its most radiant form and finest attire at various entertainments of leading statesmen and diplomats. Those who were privileged to enjoy the diplomatic courtesies of a few years ago can never forget the charming hospitality dispensed by Colonel Charles Page Bryan, now American minister to Portugal, when, as chief of the American legation in Petropolis, he was one of the most widely known and best beloved of all the foreigners in Brazil, and did much toward awakening in the people of the United States a better understanding of Brazilian life and progress. It was his frequent prediction that the twentieth century would see the aggrandizement of Brazil to rank among the greatest nations of modern times, and events point to the speedy realization of his confident belief. 490 THE NEW BRAZIL But even the bay of Rio, with its capital and the beautiful environs that make it an ideal social resort, does not represent all that there is of natural wonder and enchantment in Brazilian scenery; nor do the social customs and prevailing ideas of one locality reflect the life of the entire nation. There is variety in every feature, no less in the character of the people than in the appearance of the scenery, according to the influences which govern them. The serras and cataracts of the central and southern region awaken the enthusiastic admiration of every visitor to Brazil; but they are not more picturesque and wonderful than the great waterfall of the Sado Francisco River, the magnificent harbor of Bahia, and the approach to Recife, with its natural breakwater, against which the great waves dash incessantly, and break in clouds of fleecy foam. In striking contrast to the barred entrance to Pernambuco is the broad open bay, or estuary, of Para, the memory of which imme- diately recalls the curious sailing craft that dot the harbor, and are known as “vampiros” from the shape and size of their sails, red, blue, yellow, green, or brown, according to the owner’s fancy. Recollection easily brings to view also the Amazon region and its varying scenes; the ponds in which grow the wonderful Victoria Regia lilies; the forests aglow with bright-plumaged araras, parrots, and the great toucan, which has a beak half a foot long and two inches wide, and which chews the cud as complacently as any of the bovine species. Hunting is one of the favorite sports in Brazil, and the chase offers many remarkable features to the foreign hunter. Duck shooting is plentiful in the southern States; along the Rio Doce, tapir-hunting is rare sport; and everywhere angling attracts its votaries. Social life in the various latitudes that are comprised in this vast country is marked by certain characteristics which are as indicative of the climate and locality as are the different features of the landscape. The effect of a mingling of nationalities is seen in every State of the Union, although, until the beginning of the nineteenth century, Portugal permitted no foreign immigration into Brazil, sending every year large colonies from her own territory to establish themselves in the new province and increase the power and influence of the mother country. But as soon as the foreigners gained a foothold, their presence was felt in the national life and progress, and consequently in the national temper. The Germans have given to the extreme south of Brazil certain manners and customs that distinguish it from other sections; where Italian colonization has predominated, the characteristics of that nationality have gradually influenced the existing civilization; French modes and fashions have been engrafted on the social life of Brazil wherever the relations between these two countries have been most noticeable, particularly in Rio de Janeiro; though, everywhere the salient characteristics of the Brazilian character, intuition, and imagination are inherited from the three predominating sources of the population: the Portuguese, the Indian, and the African. Among the Brazilians, the emotional qualities which belong essentially to the poetic children of southern climes are associated with the more intellectual traits that find expression in ready wit, delicate perception, and imaginative power. The Brazilians are LPENVO!I . 491 pleasing conversationalists, and understand well the art of entertaining. They are, as a rule, very conservative and exclusive; but within the domestic circle, the hospitality is charming and the association most agreeable. The home life of Brazil is beautiful in A CONTENTED SON OF THE FOREST. its unity and harmony. Divorces are unknown, and there are very few bachelors in the land, facts which argue great confidence in the home-making abilities of Brazilian girls and pay a graceful compliment to their womanly qualities. An educated and well-bred Brazilian woman of the best society speaks three or four languages, and it is not unusual to find her familiar with half a dozen; as a rule, she has enjoyed the advantages of foreign travel, and is a graduate of an excellent school in Paris or Lisbon. Music is a social accomplishment that always forms an important feature in a young Brazilian girl’s education. Family connections are held in high esteem in Brazil, and birthday reunions are impor- tant functions; the “birthday book” is one of the most valued possessions of a Brazilian household, and in it is kept a faithful record of the birthday anniversaries of all relatives, friends, and acquaintances. It is unpardonable, in Brazil, to forget the anniversary of a friend’s birthday, or neglect to extend congratulations and felicitations upon so happy an occasion. Usually a “card” appears in the newspaper, expressing the good wishes of some friend in the most complimentary language, or a poem written by an enthusiastic admirer who takes this opportunity to declare his devotion, and dedicates the effusion to the queen of his heart in honor of her natal day. Brazilian children are not like the emancipated nestlings that hold the reins in the average North American household; they are gentle, reserved, obedient little folk, with a reverence for the older relatives that is most attractive, especially as expressed in the 492 THE NEW BRAZIL prevailing custom by which the children of each generation kiss the hand of the older in salutation; no matter what the age or position, this courtesy is observed, the father of a grown-up family bending over his mother’s hand in the same respectful attitude that marks his own children’s greetings. The most thoughtless of play-loving romps will not fail in the observance of this rule; and if an aunt or other relative appear on the scene in the midst of their games, the children stop playing, and run to pay their devoirs in this way. When grown people meet each other, their greeting is an embrace, whether in the house or on the street; and in the rush of business affairs, the sight of men hugging one another in cordial good-will is a continual reminder of the brotherhood of humanity, and must surely help to keep the heart warm in its sympathies and tender in its attachments. ) The foreigner in Brazil observes many customs that are different from anything seen at home. Sometimes he counts them as defects, criticising only from one point of view, and failing to recognize that the differences due to national characteristics are not neces- sarily faults, either in the Latin or the Anglo-Saxon. But if his purpose be to learn something of the land and its people, he will find much that is both interesting and attractive, and will carry away souvenirs that cannot fail to call to mind long afterward A GOOD DAY’S SPORT, TAPIR HUNTING IN THE RIO DOCE COUNTRY many agreeable reminiscences. It is very pleasant to recall the delightful everyday life of a Brazilian home. The day begins with the cup of coffee, and the beverage is to be had at any hour of the twenty-four. Coffee is served every day in the Chambers, when Congress is L’ENVOI 493 in session; it is offered as a mark of courtesy to distinguished guests, when received by State officials or church dignitaries; in private houses it is never omitted, whether the occa- Sion be an informal call or an important social function; from the President’s palace to the humblest home in the land, the universal custom is to offer a demi-fasse of café noir. In the offices of professional men, it is not unusual to have coffee served to clients, especially during a long and important interview. Members of the different professions in Brazil are distinguished by a jewelled ring worn on the index finger, a lawyer wearing the garnet, a doctor of medicine the emerald, a pharmacist the topaz, and a doctor of engineering the sapphire. The life of the country people is very simple, especially among the poorer classes, who, however, seem quite content with their modest possessions, and happy, so long as there is farinha to eat and wine to drink; for no family is too poor to afford these Brazilian necessaries. Farinha is to them what flour is to the North Americans, and is used in as many different preparations of food. The drink of the poor as well as the rich, at meals, is wine, the quality, of course, varying according to the means of the purchaser; the servant in the kitchen of a family is allowed wine with meals, though drinking at any other time of the day is not customary, the Brazilians being a very temperate people, and drunkenness practically unknown among them. In some districts they still refer to one of their com- rades who has been drinking too much, and is intoxicated, as ‘bem Inglez,” which means “quite English.” The amusements of the poorer classes are principally of a sentimental character, some of the native dances being very popular at their “fiestas,” as is also the music of their modinhas, or ballads. The “lundu” is a dance of negro origin, which is known in all parts of the country. The song that accompanies it is teasing, impudent, and daring, with frequent appeals to Saint Anthony, who is the accepted guardian of the negro’s affairs. Most pleasing of all to one who loves Brazil is the return after a few years’ absence to find that optimistic prophecies have been more than fulfilled, and that the country and its twenty-five million people have awakened universal interest, foreign powers recognizing as never before the high destiny in evidence for this great nation. Statesmen who have visited Brazil and studied its political and social conditions are united in expressions of confidence regarding its promising future. Hon. John Barrett, the Director of the Inter- national Bureau of American Republics, is enthusiastic over the progress this country has made in recent years, and his residence in South America especially qualifies him to speak with authority. Every foréign visitor of distinction has words in praise of the social qualities of the Brazilian people. Courtesy finds its gentlest expression here; hospitality knows no more congenial atmosphere; and there does not exist in all the world a better example of what politeness signifies than is to be seen in the manner and speech of a typical Brazilian lady or gentleman. The inspired patriot and poet exile who pined in foreign countries for a glimpse of his own beautiful blue skies gives the fairest picture of her charms in the Song of the Exile, 404 THE NEW BRAZIL which has been translated into English by an exile from another land; the full significance of its beautiful and touching sentiment is felt by everyone who knows and loves Brazil: ‘* Mine is the country where the palm trees rear Their stately heads toward the azure sky, And where, in accents ever soft and clear, The sabia sings her hymn of melody; Here, in my exile, say what warblers rare Can with the sabia’s notes their own compare? *“Our skies are strewn with stars, our fields with flowers, Our woods resound with bird and insect life, Our life’s a dream of love in fairy bowers, Where -Nature’s lavish gifts are ever rife: Bright land of palms! where the sweet sabia sings, The exile’s heart to thee still fondly clings.” THE AMAZON. %9 j oe) oe aus (¥ ;* Vr eee (ae eg a Fay ip oe x Paras 4) i : % ‘ ‘ ( a ' id , \y [Ty~ =4 he * ‘ ul Ride ke oY? wp et bi F ‘ © “eet 7 ’ oi x f 4 at ‘ 7 J $4, j uf an ae |: i ; 1 P ee ts 1} i 2 : i 4 a PA L 7 liga hs Ss oe A i 7 7 ve ay : - 7 , (AU oe PS AOE OS ON aT a \ wb 4 To wer = te, ll iN ll 3 0112 076144192 | | | ® ie} = 4 = a —— > = 7] x ui > | | PAR ene p te ane 2: Gexsnd sgacsne ts eaters. 2 235% eenenieeaa