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BOORO CERAM : se + . v5 fey N D *** | TIMOR LAUT = ALBATROSS mt - RODRIGUEZ dnarivo MAURITIUS +. a) Y a S . ee a lei a a fs |. 8 iV ahpier-Arch : TROPIC OF /CAPRICORN | ~~~ mouth GS< 4 SS — i adrw . M { — st. PAULSMSTERDAM I, / | Miles = | ga.4.600 = 7 \ Cape Town to Kg. Georg) : / / =— \*7 CROZET|IS I | | / Se: ON ts aber | \ WARO \ pERSEESEION ———— See EN j Zi / PRED Aion ar | Piven pool to Mel ss \ _MC.DONNELLS Is, / —— | | a —— see =— = \ oun \ — \ ourne 12.700 Miles \ — A \ LIBRAR) Digitized oyithe!Intérmet'Archive in 2022 with¥funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign https://archive.org/details/internationalcycO1 unse_0 LIVEPELTY ¢ LLP EL mh | THE INTERNATIONAL CYCLOP-EDIA A COMPENDIUM OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE REVISED WITH LARGE ADDITIONS EDITOR-IN-CHIEF HST. PECK, Ph.D., L-H.D. Professor in Columbia University ASSOCIATE EDITORS SELIM H. PEABODY, Ph.D., LL.D. CHARLES F. RICHARDSON, A.M. Late President of the University of Illinois Professor in Dartmouth College IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES Vol. | NEW YORK DODD, MEAD & COMPANY 1898 CopyriGHtT, 1885, CoPyYRIGHT, 1889, CopyRIGHT, 1891, COPYRIGHT, 1894, CopyvrIGHT, 1895, COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY Dopp, Mgap & ComMpaANy BY Dopp, Meap & CoMPANY BY Dopp, Mreap & ComMpPpANy BY Dopp, Mgap & ComMPpANY BY Dopp, Meap & ComMpaANy BY Dopp, Mrap & Company Anihersity WBress s Joun WILSON AND SON, CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. "= THE WORLD, - ; AFGHANISTAN, . : F : 5 AFRICA, A ‘ fi : ° ALABAMA, : ‘ : * y ALASKA, ; ! ; : ‘“ > AMERICA, NORTH, i Z - : =.f8 <, America, SouTH, . ; ; ‘ 4 ANTILLES, : . - ° ‘ Ned sy Arctic CrrcLE (PoLAR REGIONS), P ARIZONA, : : ‘ é = ARKANSAS, . ° ° . : heen) SASTASe < : , : ° EBEUSP RATION Se EN ~~ AFRICA, : : . ‘“ AGRICULTURE, . . S$ ALASKA, : ; : AMERICA, NORTH, i) AMERICA, SOUTH, ANATOMY, “- . * \\ ANGLING (FIsHine FLIES, COLORED), “ANTELOPES, ETC., ARCH Z0OLOGY, : pe ARCHITECTURE, ") ARCHITECTURE (COLORED), ARMOR, : ; ASIA, : : ATHENS, - _.~, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, q | LS0859 MAPS NSyOn. C @ 3 © ° ° 8 ° ° % ° e ° ° e @ e ° ° ° ° VOL. e e 2 ° ° ° e ° e ® e e e ° e e e ° e . e © e ° e > ° e e a PAGE FRONTISPIECE 130 182 - eles LOU) PAGE 3 188 164 ° 202 . 9864 . 364 420 462 504 616 636 . 638 714 : 796 856 ° 868 eee nf “Uitte vo PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. THE present edition of the INTERNATIONAL CrYcLOPaDIA preserves in their entirety those features that in the past have won the commendation of all who have fairly tried it by the criterion of practical utility. At the same time, the work as a whole, in receiving the very large additions made necessary by the recent progress of the sciences, has undergone such essential modifications of its scope and plan as to have become in many of its most prominent details a new encyclopedia. For this reason, and in order that it may be judged by the standard of its own ideal, it seems desir- able to indicate the purpose that its editors have had before them, and to state as concisely as possible the general plan and method that have been adopted. Historically, there have been developed two definite and distinct conceptions of the ideal encyclopedic treatment. The so-called phtiosophic method, of which the elab- orate Encyclopedia Metropolitana may be taken as a type, arranges the topics ac- cording to the department of knowledge to which each most properly belongs. Thus, one volume would contain all the articles relating to Pure Science, a second those relating to Applied Science, a third those relating to Biography and History, a fourth those relating to Geography, and other subjects in like manner. The lexicographi- cal or alphabetic method, on the other hand, discards the arrangement by subjects, in favor of the much simpler, though less scientific grouping under a single alpha- bet. It is evident that the extreme convenience and simplicity of the alphabetic method, render it the only one that is possible for popular use; since to consult a work constructed on the philosophic plan requires a degree of special knowledge on the part of the reader such as very few are so fortunate as to possess. The sec- ond method, then, has almost universally prevailed, and is represented and embodied in such standard works as the admirable Konversations-Leakon of F. A. Brockhaus, the Dictionnaire Universel du Dix-Neuviéme Siecle of Pierre Larousse, and the Cyclopedia of Chambers which still enjoys an undiminished popularity. It is a matter of interest to note, however, to what extent a feeling in favor of the philosophic method has unconsciously hampered the freedom of those editors who have avowedly rejected it. Although adopting the alphabetic arrangement, they nevertheless seem curiously anxious to consolidate their information under as few captions as possible, and also curiously unwilling to facilitate convenience of ref- erence by a simple and rational subdivision of their leading topics. In other words,. they have rejected the most commendable feature of the scientific mode of grouping, while retaining, to a great extent, the very ones that render it objectionable. For if an encyclopedia, though constructed on the alphabetic plan, still masses its information in a comparatively few ponderous and elaborate articles, the same general objection equally exists, since its knowledge is conveniently available to the specialist alone, while the average reader can find a particular topic only after a long and vexatious search. This objection, to be sure, is partially obviated by the somewhat awkward device of a general index ; but even this is much less simple than such a division of subjects as would enable one who is in search of information to turn to it at once and find it given in succinct and intelligible form under the title that is most obvious and natural. Something, also, of the old tradition which invested an encyclopedia with a fac- titious dignity, is still perceptible in the selection and rejection of their subjects by 4 PREFACE. many of the existing works. There seems to prevail a notion that certain fields of knowledge are more dignified than others; forgetting that the name encyclopedia itself expresses the whole range of man’s intellectuai activity, to which nothing can be truly alien. Here, again, the theory of the Konversations-Lexikon is better than the prevailing practice ; so that perhaps the excellent compilation of Meyer is the only one that consistently and exhaustively carries out the true design of a popular ency- clopeedia. This brief criticism will, perhaps, sufficiently explain in a negative way the general design of the new edition of the present work. Briefly stated, that design is (1), while treating each main topic with a reasonable degree of fullness under its own title, to set forth also in separate articles and under separate titles the essential facts regarding the several branches of the subject ; besides multiplying cross-references to both text and illustrations to such an extent as at once to direct the reader to the precise informa- tion of which he is in need, so that each article may stand as a clew to all the others that are cognate ; and (2), so far as is possible, to make the work in its wide range and diversity of subjects, that which its very name implies—a true Compendium of Human Knowledge. In the accomplishment of this general purpose, the INTERNATIONAL has been subjected to a most thorough and detailed revision. The single task of making all the existing articles truly representative of the marvelous advance of modern scientific knowledge, and of the political, literary, and educational development that has characterized the past decade, would in itself involve a radical alteration of the subject matter. But much more than this has been actually done. While many of the former articles have been recast and thoroughly revised, many more have been entirely rewritten by specialists of establisned reputation, and upward of three thousand new titles have been added. In contem- porary biography, and especially in contemporary American biography, it is believed that this cyclopeedia is more comprehensive than any other existing work. Political topics, both American and foreign, have been made a very prominent feature of the revision, and are so treated that each separate subject, whether it be a great constitu- tional question or a popular catchword, may be found under its own proper title. Educational theories, with their most recent developments, are carefully described. The discussion of each important topic is supplemented by a bibliography of the latest standard works relating to it. The recent census enumerations in Russia (1886), Spain (1887), Switzerland (1888), Holland (1890), Belgium (1890), Austria (1890), Germany (1890), the United States (1890), Hawaii (1890), England (1891), France (1891), India (1891), and Canada (1891), have been used, so far as the official figures were available, to give the very latest statistical information. New illustrations, many of them in colors, have been added, as well as a complete set of railroad and county maps of the States of the American Union, and of the Provinces of the Dominion of Canada. Meteorology and its cognate topics are made both intelligible and interesting by a series of colored weather-maps and charts. It is impossible, however, to describe, even in the most cursory manner, the extent and variety of the specific changes that have been made. The revision, as it stands, represents the combined work of a staff of more than a hundred and fifty writers, besides the advice, assistance, and suggestion of a still larger number of others who have courteously lent their aid to the regular contributors. There are few pages of the fourteen thousand contained within these volumes, that do not show the hand of the reviser. More than a third are absolutely new. An encyclopedia, like a lexicon, necessarily represents the garnered labor, experi- ence, and knowledge of all like works that have preceded it. The editors of the INTER- NATIONAL have endeavored to profit by whatever is most valuable in the many useful compilations that have been elsewhere published. The volumes of Brockhaus, of Meyer, of Larousse, of Pierer, of Chambers, and, in fact, of all the European scholars who have labored in this interesting field, have been many times consulted. To them a frank acknowledgment of obligation is cheerfully accorded. At the same time, however, it has been first of all the purpose of publishers and editors alike, to make the INTERNA- TIONAL before aught else a truly American encyclopedia, giving with fairness and fullness the information regarding American History, Geography, Politics, Biography, Science, PREFACE. 5 Art, and Literature, that American readers most desire. And it may be well to add, in view of the fact that contemporaneous questions of interest—political, social, economical, an‘ religious—occupy so large a portion of its pages, that no partisan expressions have been permitted to appear. Statements of fact regarding which there can be no question are never coupled with mere opinions, which too often represent only the personal bias of an individual. In so extensive a revision, embodying, as it does, contributions from many sources, it is impossible that inconsistencies should not be here and there detected. But the editors believe that these are few and unimportant ; and with a feeling of confidence that, both in its purpose and in the accomplishment of that purpose, the work is worthy of success, they now submit it to the test that is of all the most searching and most satisfactory,—the test that lies in critical comparison and in daily use. Harry THurston PEck, Editor-in-Chief. PREFACE TO THE EDITION OF 1898. Ir is now six years since the INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPADIA in its present form was given to the public. Since that time, owing to reasons which will be sufficiently obvious to all who are familiar with the history of works of reference, the progress of events has made inevitable a careful and systematic revision of certain departments, which from their very nature require frequent alteration or amplification. It has, indeed, been the settled policy of the publishers to correct from year to year those articles in which circumstances made immediate alteration imperative ; but this work was special rather than general, and did not extend to whole departments. In putting forth the present edition, which embodies so much detailed revision, it seems desirable to indicate in a general way the nature of the work that has been done. As in every similar book, the department of Brograruy is that which stood in need of most careful examination, especially in that portion of it which relates to living men and women. This whole department, therefore, has been critically examined ; and new matter has been added from a great variety of sources, including information given by the subjects of the articles. In the case of persons who have died since the last edition of the Cyclopedia was issued, that fact and the date of each death have been inserted, together with such additional information as seemed necessary. A very important feature of this department will be found in the inclusion of many new names, repre- senting those persons in every department of intellectual activity to whom public interest has been of late significantly drawn, and in whom this interest is.certain to be enduring. Scarcely less important and equally in need of constant alteration is the department of GroGRAPHY. Those articles especially that relate to places in the United States and Canada have demanded a thorough and minute revision, owing to the rapid growth of population, the establishment of new industries and public works, and, in many cases, the alteration of local terminology and municipal divisions. Accordingly, a large pro- portion of these articles have been entirely rewritten with reference to the insertion of these new facts. In nearly every case the information so included has been derived from an official source, and this has been especially true of the statistical material relating to the larger alministrative divisions of the two countries. It is believed that this feature of the work is now in a more satisfactory state and more near to the em- bodiment of a proximate accuracy in detail than is the case with any other standard work of reference. In those articles that relate to foreign countries and to foreign cities, although the need of revision is always far less frequently demanded, they have none the less in their turn been subjected to a searching criticism. The principal results of the German census of 1895, of the French census of 1896, and of the Russian census of 6 PREFACE. 1897 have been at the disposition of the editors, as have also the official estimates relat- ing to the population of the departments and large cities of Italy for 1894 and 1895 ; while for several of the countries of Central and South America, not only the statistics relating to population but to other matters as well have\been accessible, making it in many cases possible to include much information of this sort officially put forth in 1895 and 1896. Under this head the editors and revisers have also had recourse to authoritative sources ; and they wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to the diplo- matic representatives of the United States abroad and to those of foreign countries accredited to the United States. The consular reports that have from time to time been published by our own Government have furnished very valuable information, and with the aid of these and many other similar publications a large number of the foreign articles have been entirely rewritten. The rapid development of the INpusTRIAL ARTS AND MANUFACTURES that is so striking a feature of the present day has rendered this department of the Cyclopedia one demanding a special scrutiny, which has resulted in the revision of the principal articles on applied science ; while new and important titles have of necessity been added in order to supply much interesting information with regard to new inventions and discoveries of a mechanical nature, and their application to industrial uses. Besides the subjects which fall under the several heads already specified, the scope of the revision has included many other topics which it will be sufficient to specify more generally. An examination has been made of such portions of the work as relate to the most recent PotiticaL History, and to some of the more important topics of Economics and Epvucation, including, under the latter head, the universities, the colleges, and other institutions of higher learning in the United States. In this portion of the revision, as in the others specified, such information as has been added is drawn very largely from local and official sources; and in collecting it the co- operation of the Presidents and Faculties of these institutions has been frequently secured. On the whole, it may be stated with much confidence that the INTERNATIONAL CYCLOP&DIA, by reason of the alterations made in it, is now brought measurably nearer to the standard of an ideal work of reference. The present revision has in its details been carried out under the personal direction of Professor Frank Moore Colby, of New York University, who, with a staff of assistants, has devoted many months to the com- pletion of the task. Such especial merit as the new edition shall be found to possess is to be mainly ascribed to his experience, and to the careful, conscientious, and effective manner in which he has discharged this very onerous duty. Six years ago, in putting forth the earlier edition, the editors expressed their firm belief that owing to the comprehensiveness of its plan, and to the fact that it embodied the lessons drawn from the experience afforded by other undertakings of a like character, both foreign and American, the Cyclopedia would be found worthy to sustain the crucial test that comes from daily reference and use. This confidence may be said to have been fully justified. While the book has of necessity received much criticism in detail, — a thing inevitable in the case of any work so broad in its design, so varied in the range of subjects treated in it, and so comparatively minute in its subdivision of topics for the convenience of the general reader and for ease of reference, —it is not too much to say that, measured by every fair and impartial standard, it has well sustained the claims that have been made for it. No better proof of this could be desired than the striking appro- bation which has been given it by educators, by scholars, and by those whose professional necessities have led them to consult it systematically and often. It has made its way into all the great libraries of the country, it has been officially adopted by many educa- tional boards as a standard work of reference, and it has received the unsolicited com- mendation of a great body of disinterested and intelligent readers. It is the feeling of obligation arising from this very generous favor that inspires the publishers and editors alike with the earnest wish to make the work still more deserving of it; and both pub- lishers and editors would be equally remiss did they not, in issuing a new edition, express for this most gratifying evidence of approval their very high appreciation. Harry Tuurston Prck, Editor-in-Chief. New York, JANUARY ist, 1898, THE INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPAIDIA. REVISED EDITION. EDITOR-IN-CHIEF, HARRY .THURSTON PECK, A.M., Pa.D., L.H.D. Professor of the Latin Language and Literature in Columbia University and Secretary to the College; Member of the American Dialect Society; of the American Philological Society ; of the American Folk-Lore Society ; of the New York Academy of Sciences; Associate of the Royal Society of Canada ; Editor of Harper’s Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities ; of Appleton’s Atlas of Modern Geography ; of the Univer- sity Bulletin; of the Bookman; Associate Editor of the Library of the World’s Litera- ture ; etc., etc. ASSOCIATE EDITORS. SELIM HOBART PEABODY, Pxa.D., LL.D. Late President of the University of Illinois; Chief of the Department of Liberal Arts, World’s Columbian Exposition. CHARLES FRANCIS RICHARDSON, A.M. Professor of the English Language and Literature in Dartmouth College. The following is a list of some of the principal contributors whose work forms a part of the revised edition of the INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPZDIA: Hersert B. Apams, Pu.D. Professor of American and Institutional History in the Johns Hopkins University. (University Extension.) JEROME ALLEN, A.M., Pa.D.* Professor of Pedagogy in the University of New York. (Education.) E. Benzamin AnpDREwS, D.D. President of Brown University. (Baptists.) RosertT ARRowsMITH, A.M., Pu.D. Professor of Greek and Latin in the Teachers’ College, New York City. (Biography. ) Sipney G. AsHumoreE, A.M., L.H.D. Professor of the Latin Language and Literature in Union College. (Classical Literature. ) Henry Batpwin, A.B. New York. (Biography and Geography.) Freperick A. Bancrort, Pu.D. Formerly Librarian of the Department of State, Washington, D. C.; Lecturer in the School of Political Science, Columbia University. (Inter- national Law.) Epwin J. Bartiett, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in Dartmouth College. (Chemistry.) ALFRED L. BEEBE, PH.B. Chemist to the N. Y. Board of Health. istry of Foods.) (Chem- EpWARD BELLAMY. Boston, Mass. (Nationalism, etc.) GrorGE R. BISHOP. Official Stenographer to the N. Y. Stock Ex- change. (Shorthand.) Hsatmar Hgortu Boyresen, Pu.i).* Gebhard Professor of German in Columbia Col- lege. (Literary Biography.) CHARLES ROLLIN BrRainarD, A.M. New York. (Biography. ) EvizaABETH Stow Brown, M.D. Resident Physician to the Messiah Home, N. Y. City. (Dietetics.) Howarp M. Bort. Editor of Among the Clouds. Manufactures.) (Paper and Paper * Deceased. 8 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. Nicnoras Murray Bouter, A.M., Pu.D. Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy in Columbia University. Editor of the Educational Review. (Manual Training.) Witiiam H. Carpenter, Pu.D. Professor of Germanic Philology in Columbia University, N. Y. (Philology, etc.) Henry CHADWICK. Editorial Staff of the Brooklyn Eagle. A. N. CHENEY. Editor of Shooting and Fishing. Epwarp B. Cuapp, M.A. Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in the University of California. (Greek Lan- guage and Literature.) (Sports.) (Game Laws.) Rey. Sytvester CuiarKE, D.D. Professor of Homiletics and Pastoral Theology in the University of the South. (Religious Topics.) Apo.tpeHeE Conn, A.M., LL.B. Professor of the Romance Languages and Litera- tures in Columbia University. (French Biog- raphy.) Cuarues FE. Corsy, C.E.* Adjunct Professor of Chemistry in Columbia Uni- versity. (Chemistry.) Frank Moore Cocsy, A.M. Professor of Economics in the New York Univer- sity. (Political Science.) Freperick T. Cooper, A.M. Professor of Sanskrit in the New York University. (Biography. ) Metvit Dewey, A.M. Librarian to the State of New York. Secretary to the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York. (Library Schools.) Rev. BERNARD DRACHMANN, Pu.D. (Heidel- berg.) New York. (Jewish Antiquities.) Witiiam A. Dunnine, A.M., Pa.D. Editorial Staff of the Political Science Quarterly. Professor of History in Columbia University. (Political Theories and English History.) MortimMER Lamson Earte, A.M., Pu.D. Professor of Greek and Latin in Bryn Mawr Col- lege. (Archzeology.) : Henry R. Ettiot, M.A. Editor Dry Goods Economist, N. Y. Statistics.) (Commercial ALLAN ForMAN. Editor of the Journalist, N.Y. (Journalism, etc.) Ricuarp J. H. Gorrneit, A.M., Pu.D. Professor of Rabbinical Literature in Columbia University. (Aramaic and Jews.) Frank PIERREPONT Graves, A.M. President of the University of Wyoming. cal Biography.) Rev. Witiram E. Grirris, D.D. Late Professor of the Physical Sciences in the Imperial University of Tokio, Japan. (Asiatic History and Biography.) (Classi- Ropert GRIMSHAW, PH.D. Member of the Franklin Institute ; of the Société des Ingénieurs, Paris, etc. (Scientific Topics.) Herpert W. GRinDAL, LL.B. Formerly Librarian of the Columbia University Law School. (Law.) GrorGE J. HAGar. Associate Editor Columbian Encyclopedia. (Biog- raphy and Gazetteer Matter.) VALENTINE G. HALL. New York. (Lawn-Tennis and Out-door Sports.) CHARLES H. Hircucock, Pu.D. Professor in Dartmouth College. (Geology: Pet- rography. ) CHarLes L. Hocrsoom, M.D. New York. (Medicine.) Rev. R. I. Houarp, S.J. College of St. Francis Xavier, N. Y. Catholic Dogma.) (Roman Lucius Wares Horcukxiss, M.D. Professor of Anatomy in the Woman’s Medical College of the New York Infirmary. (Anatomy and Medicine. ) Mortimer T. HUMPHREY. New York. (Billiards.) Wiviiam C. Hunt. Chief of the Population Division, Eleventh Census of the United States. (Statistics of Population.) A. V. Witiiams Jackson, Pu.D., L.H.D. Professor of the Indo-Iranian Languages in Columbia University. (Avesta.) Haroutp Jacosy, Pa.D. Adjunct Professor of Astronomy in Columbia Uni- versity. (Astronomy.) HELEN A. JOHNSON. New York. (Decorative Art.) Howarp M. JENKINS. Editorial Staff of the American. (Philadelphia.) OLIVER JOHNSON.* Late editor of the Independent. (Biography.) Davip STARR JORDAN, Pu.D. President of the Leland Stanford, Jr., University. (Ichthyology. ) Lyman G. Jorpan, A.M. Professor of Chemistry and Biology in Bates Col- lege. (Bates College.) Cou. DELANCEY KANE. New York. (Coaching.) James F. Kemp, A.B., E.M. Professor of Geology, Columbia University. (Mining. ) = Otto Kimmie, Pu.D. Professor in the Grand-Ducal Gymnasium, Kone stanz, Baden. (Education: European Biog- raphy.) THeopore Y. Kinne, M.D. President of the American Institute of Home- opathy. (Homeopathy.) * Deceased. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 9) Cuarves Kircaorr, Jr., C.E. Editor of The Jron Age. (Iron and Steel.) CHARLES Knapp, A.M., Pu.D. Classical Instructor in Barnard College, N. Y. (Classical Biography.) Witrrip Lay, A.B. (Biography and Gazetteer Matter.) James MacArruor. Associate Editor of the Bookman. Biography. ) (Literary Rev. H. H. McFaruanp. New York. (Biography.) GeorGE R,. Metcarre, C.E. Editor of Hlectricity. dustrial Arts, etc.) W. Max Miurer, Pu.D. (Leipsic). Professor in the Methodist Episcopal Seminary, Philadelphia. (Egyptology. ) (Electrical Appliances, In- THomas Morone, Ru.D.* Late Curator of the Herbarium, Columbia Univer- sity. (Botany.) Artuur P. Nazro, Lieut. U.S. N. Hydrographic Office, N. Y. (Military and Naval Topics.) Cuarues A. NELSON. Late Librarian of the Howard Library, New Or- leans. (Biography.) CoL. CHARLES Lepyarp Norton, Author of Political Americanisms, etc. raphy. ) T. K. OGuessy. Secretary to the late Hon. Alex. H. Stephens. (Southern Biography.) (Biog- Gen. Paut A. OLIVER. Oliver’s Mills, Pa. (Gunpowder.) W TxHorNTON PARKER, M.D. Boston, Mass. (Surgery.) Epwarp DELAVAN Perry, A.M., Pu.D. Jay Professor in Greek in Columbia University. (German Universities. ) Hon. Ropert P. Porter. Superintendent of the Eleventh Census of the United States. (Customs.) Watpo S. Pratt, A.M. Professor in the Hartford Theological Seminary. (Music.) Joun D. QuacKkensos, A.M., M.D. Emeritus Professor of Rhetoric in Columbia Uni- versity. (Angling, Trout, etc.) ALFRED G. Reeves, LL.B. Professor in the New York Law School. (Law.) ALVAN F, Sanzporn, AB. Boston, Mass. (Biography.) CLARENCE W. Scort, A.M. Professor in the New Hampshire College of Agri- culture. (Agriculture.) KaTE SANBORN. Boston, Mass. (Biography.) Wivi1am W. SuHare, Pu.D. Professor of Chemistry in the Adelphi Academy. Brooklyn, N. Y. (Dynamics.) EsTHER SINGLETON. New York. (Music and Biography.) STEPHENSON. (Bicycle.) WaLTreR T. New York. BRANDRETH Symonps, A.M., M.D. New York. (Materia Medica.) DuruamM WuiteE STEVENS. Councillor to the Imperial Legation of Japan, Washington, D. C. (Japan.) C. J. Sropparp. United States Treasury, Washington, D. C. (Banking Statistics.) J. W. Tuomas, A.M. Professor of Modern Languages in Allegheny Col- lege. (Allegheny College.) R. D. Townsenp, LL B. New York. (Law.) HERBERT Tutte, Pu.D.* Professor of Modern European History in Cornell University. (German Politics.) Hon. Lyon G. Tyrer, M.A. President of William and Mary College. (Biog- raphy. ) Bisuor Joun H. Vincent, D.D. Chancellor of Chautauqua University. (Chau- tauqua. ) ARTHUR DupLEY VINTON. Editorial Staff, North American Review. (Bi- ography.) Epwarp D. WALKER.* Editorial Staff of Cosmopolitan Magazine. (Glass and Glass Manufactures. ) Henry, C. Watsu, M.A. Editor Lippincott’s Magazine, formerly editor of the Catholic World. (Biography.) WitiramM S. WALSH. Editorial Staff Zllustrated American, New York. (Biography, etc.) ELLA WEED.* New York. (Barnard College.) FRANK WEITENKAMPF (‘ FRANK LINSTOW WuiTE.’’) New York. (Theatrical Topics and Biography.) ScHuyLeER S. WHEELER, Sc.D. Electrical Expert to the Subway Commission, New York. Member of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. (Electricity, etc.) Water B. WINEs. Chicago, Ill. (Statistics.) Henry P. Wrient, Pu.D. Professor in Yale University. (Yale University.) * Deceased. 10 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. The Editors of the InrerNatronaL CrcLopapia are indebted also to the following, among others, for their courtesy in furnishing valuable information, In revising manu- scripts, or in making useful corrections and suggestions. CARDINAL GIBBONS. Archbishop of Baltimore. Don Matias ROMERO. Minister of Mexico to the United States. Don ANTONIO PENAFIEL. Chief of the Mexican department of Public Works. Hon. bol al RACK Late Secretary of the Navy. Hon. Wi.tt1am Winpom.* Late Secretary of the Treasury. Hon. WitiiaMm E. Curtis. Assistant Secretary of the Treasury; formerly Chief of the Bureau of American Republics. Hon. E. 8. Lacey. Late Comptroller of the Treasury. Hon. Jonn WANAMAKER. Late Postmaster-General. Hon. JEREMIAH RUSK. Late Secretary of Agriculture. Hon. REDFIELD PROCTOR. Late Secretary of War. Frankiin Carter, LL.D. President of Williams College. WiLiiaAM Rainey Harper, Pa.D. President of the University of Chicago. Hon. Sypney C. D. Roper. Chief of the Canadian Bureau of Statistics. EpwarkpD HARRIGAN. New York City. AIMARO SATO. Late Secretary of the Imperial Japanese “Legation to the United States. SAMUEL L. CLemeEns (“ Mark TwalIn ”’). Hartford, Conn. W. T. Sasine, D.D. New York City. Hon. Wituram M. Evarts. New York. Hon. Witit1am McKIn ey. Columbus, Ohio. Hon. HanniBat Hamiin. Hon. Brypcsrs P. HENNIKER. Late Registrar-General of England. Tuomas D. Srtymour, LL D. Professor of Greek Language and Literature, Yale University. HERMANN COLLITZ. Bryn Mawr College. HERMANN OLDENBERG. Professor of Sanskrit, University of Kiel ; formerly of the University of Berlin. BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER, Pu.D. Professor of Greek and Comparative Philology, Cornell University. Wooprow Witson, Pu.D., LL.D. Professor of Jurisprudence, Princeton University. Wiiiam I. Knapp. Yale University. Francis W. KEtLsey. University of Michigan. AvucGcustus C. MERRIAM. Columbia College. Ropert H. M. DawsBarn, M.D. New York Polyclinic College. Minton WARREN. Johns Hopkins University. Hon. 8S. G. Brock. Late Chief of the Governmental Bureau of Statis- tics, Treasury Department, Washington. Hon. Witiiam T. Harris. United States Commissioner of Education. EDWARD STABLER. Actuary of the Manhattan Life Insurance Co., New York. CHARLTON T. Lewis. New York City. JAMES SCHOULER. Boston, Mass. Hon. A. R. Sporrorp. Librarian of Congress. Hon. Epwin WILLITs. Late Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, Tuomas A. Epison. Menlo Park, N. J. R, A. Guin. Librarian of Brown University. Epear W. Nye (“ Birt NrE”’).* P. SAMPERS. _ Courrier des Etats-Unis. ALBRECHT WEBER. Professor of Indian Language and Literature, Uni- versity of Berlin. Hon. Nort A. HumpnHreys. Secretary to the Royal Census Office of Great Britain and Ireland. W. W. NEWELL. Editor of the Journal of American Folk-Lore. Hon. F. A. CRANDALL. Superintendent of Public Documents. Hon. R. E. Preston. Director of the United States Mint. Rev. J. F Burnett. Secretary of the American Christian Convention. , Rev. ALEXANDER McLEAN. Corresponding Secretary of the American Bible Society. GENERAL JAMES GILLISS. Deputy Quartermaster-General. Hon. Josepn P. SmitH. Director of the Bureau of the American Republics. * Deceased. Sn LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. LI Hon. Carrourt D. Wricut. United States Conimissioner of Labor. Hon. Joun E. RIsiey. United States Minister to Denmark. Hon. MAcGRANE Cox. Late United States Minister to Guatemala. Hon. Wiiii1aAM H. Hearp. United States Minister Resident and Consul-Gen- eral to Liberia. Don E. Dupuy DE Lome. Spanish Minister to the United States. Hon. EpMoND BRUWAERT. Consul-General of France (N. Y. City). Hon. FrepeERICK C. PENFIELD. United States Diplomatic Agent and Consul-Gen- eral to Egypt. I, P. A. Renwick, M.A., LL.B. Associate Editor of the Statesman’s Year-Book. GEORGE G. CoisHoLM, M.A., B.Sc. Editor of Longmans’ Gazetteer of the World. Rev. Francis L. Patron, D.D., LU.D. President of Princeton University. Rev. M. W. Stryker, D.D., LL.D. President of Hamilton College. Rev. Henry M. MacCrackew, D.D., LL.D. Chancellor of New York University. Rr. Rev. Joun F. Hurst. Chancellor of the American University, Washing- ton, D. C. GEORGE HarRIS. President of Andover Theological Seminary. W. F. Warren, St.D., LL.D. President of Boston University. Rev. Wituiam Dewitt? Hype, D.D. President of Bowdoin College. Miss M. Carry THOMAS. President of Bryn Mawr College. Henry Morton, Pu.D. President of Stevens Institute of Technology. Caprain P, H. Cooper. Superintendent of United States Naval Academy. Rev. T. S. Hastines, D.D., LL.D. Late President of Union Theological Seminary. Rev. G. S. Burroveus, D.D., Pu.D. President of Wabash College. Henry Wapbe Rogers, LL.D. President of Northwestern University. Rey. Henry A. Butrz, D.D., LL.D. President of Drew Theological Seminary. Joun I. Brapiry, Pa.D., LL.D. President of Ilinois College, C. A. ScHAFFER, Pu.D. President of Iowa State University. Rev. Greorce A. Gates, D.D., LL.D. resident of Iowa College. W.M. BearpsueEar, A.M., LL.D. President of Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Rev. WILuiaAM F. PIERCE. President of Kenyon College. Cuartes Louis Loos, LL.D. President of Kentucky University. T. M. Drown, LL.D. President of Lehigh College. Miss Emi ty J. Suiru, A.B. Dean of Barnard College. B.S. Hurvsort. Recording Secretary of Harvard University. JAMES B. ANGELL, LL.D. President of the University of Michigan. CHARLES F. Emerson, Dean of Dartmouth College. GrorGeE H. Baxer, A.M. Librarian of Columbia University. c ye (ales q Kan bes s : 1.3% We 1” - | on, . THE INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPASDIA. aN. THE first letter in the English as in almost every known alphabet. This pre- A cedence in alphabetic position is probably due to the phonetic character of the 9 sound it represents. An exception to this law of first place, however, is found in the Ethiopic, in which it is the thirteenth letter, and also in the old national Ger- manic alphabet, the Runic ‘‘futhark.’’ Its secondary position in this latter, it has been suggested, with some plausibility, is due, perhaps, to an artificial arrangement of the Runes, in assimilation with the order of the initial letters of the old Teutonic form of the Paternoster. In form our A, like the rest of our Alphabet, is derived from the Latin, and that in turn from the Greek. The Greek alphabet, with some additions, adaptations, and changes, was formed, as is generally agreed, on the basis of the Phcenician ; the Pheenician itself is commonly supposed to have been adopted from symbols in the old hieratic writing of the Egyptians. In the history of its forms, A has undergone a series of changes and developments. The Greeks called the letter alpha, whence ‘‘ alphabet,” having borrowed its name and form from the Phenician. In the latter, as in Hebrew, it was called aleph, from some supposed resemblance to the head and horns of an ‘‘ ox,” which the latter word, aleph, signifies. This fancied identification, by the Pheenicians, with the ox, is now presumed to be erroneous; there is reason for believing with de Rouge that in the oldest hieroglyphic pictures the form used by the Egyptians to express the sound was that of an eagle; the corruption in the cursive hieratic form may have led to the mistake on the part of the Phenicians. Phonetic Character.—In regard to its phonetic character, original a may be described as a ‘‘mid-back-wide” vowel; it had what we may term the ah-sound, familiarly known as the ‘‘ Italian” or ‘‘ Continental” a, heard in yar, father. By nature a is a simple and easy vowel, made by opening the throat naturally and expelling the breath with the least modification by the parts of the mouth. Such is the sound that this letter has in most languages; in Envlish, however, it has undergone so many modifications that to-day the pure ah-sound is comparatively scarce in our speech, and instead now of calling the letter itself by the name ah, as in most Indo-Germanic tongues, we term it ‘*qay” (ae), as in Tennyson, The Hpicad fin. ‘“ Mouthing out his hollow oes and aes.”’ The Anglo-Saxon or Earliest English preserved the genuine old af-sound, though shorter perhaps in quantity than the a of father. It was of quite frequent occurrence, and by its side existed the corresponding long a, often marked with the quantity sign. In Anglo-Saxon, short @ was subject, however, to certain modifications and shiftings ; in its stead 9 was frequently written, as in hond, hand, from, fram; or the ah-sound was shifted to @, asin sat; A.S., set; Goth., sat These modifications account only in part for the variety of sounds which the Mod. Eng. a represents, as other external influences have come in still more to alter the sound. The orthography has not kept pace with the change in pronunciation ; hence the anomalous character of a as a sound- symbol. There are some half dozen different sounds, shorter and longer, which a may represent in English ; some of these sounds are, of course, extremely common ; others are comparatively rare. The principal are: (1) fat, (4) father, (2) fate, (5) false, (8) fare, (6) what, was. To these is to be added the vowel sound in ask, chance, can’t, past, which varies with different speakers, and is apparently to be placed somewhere intermediate between fat Ai. Aard-vark. 14 and father. Likewise is to be noted the indifferent sound of a, approaching the w in but, that so frequently occurs in unstressed syllables, like against, abundant, and also the sporadic a in any, many, Where it approaches a short e. The rounded vowel above noted in was, false, and the like, is due to the influence of the adjacent consonant w, 0. The former sound, the a in was, is almost the short to all. In the latter case with 7, we find also aw beside a to express the sound, as fault beside false. The commonest short sound of a in English, however, is the flat vowel in hat ; its frequency leads to our call- ing this the ‘‘ short a ,” as corresponding “‘ long ” we generally assign the vowel in hate, although the latter is really the long e-sound of they. The vowel of fare, bare, is a still further modification. The percentage of occurrences of the old ah-sound in far, father, is in English extremely small. Indo-Germanic a.—In the Indo-Germanic languages the vowel row a, 7, wu is especially prominent ; in Sanskrit, and also in Gothic, these are the only short vowels. The short @ is never written in Sanskrit after consonants, but is regarded as inherent in the sign. Owing to these circumstances it was believed, until within a few years, that the primitive Indo-Germanic speech possessed only a, ¢, wu, and that a was the oldest and purest of the vowels ; this view has since been much modified ; it has been shown that e and o must have existed beside a, 7, win the primitive speech, and that they are of equal age with the others. As an instance of a genuine Indo-Germanic short a, we may take Indg.* agro-s, ‘‘ field, acre ;’’ Skt., dra-s ; Gk., dypo-¢ ; Lat., ager ; Goth., akr-s. As instances of the change of pronunciation in English may be cited A.S. stand-an (pron. stond-an), ‘‘ to stand ;” Mid. Eng., stand-en (pron. stgnd-an) ; Mod. Eng., stand. Again, A.S. and M.E., mann (pron. monn); Mod. Eng., man (pron. men); A.S., nama (pron. noma); M.E., name (pron. naama); Mod. Eng., name (pron. netm). The corre- sponding long @ occurs commonly in the oldest English, as in the other Indo-Germanic tongues; the history of its development into the modern speech, however, has been somewhat different, as it has passed over chiefly into an 6-sound. As a Symbol.—Standing at the head of the alphabet as a does, it is commonly used as a symbol to denote the first in order in a row or series. It is therefore thus employed to denote one of the notes (/a) in Musical Notation (q.v.) ; similarly in Logic (q.v.) to denote the universal affirmative. In Algebra (q.v.) the letters a, 0, c are used to denote known quantities as opposed to 2, y, z, the unknown quantities. In Geometry (q.v.), A, B, @ are familiar as a designation for points, angles, etc. In abstract reasonings and sup- positions, A, B, C are likewise employed as convenient designations for particular per- sons and things. In writing and printing, the series a, b, c is commonly used for reference. In nautical matters, Al, A2, A8 is in common use to denote the class and quality of ships. A stands also as the first of the Dominical Letters (q.v.). In Abbreviations, a is often found : thus, a for ‘‘ adjective,” ‘‘active,” etc.; a, or @, for at; A.D. for anno domini ; A.M., ante meridiem ; A.B. and A.M. = artium bacca- laureus and artium magister ; and among the Romans, A.U.C. for anno urbis condita or anno ab urbe condita. See also ABBREVIATIONS. In Grammatical Forms.—This same letter in a number of phrases and grammatical forms in English. In some of these it is a mutilated form of a fuller word. The first use to be noted is its employment beside an as an indefinite article ; both forms, a, an, are weakened from the A.S., dn, ‘‘one.” In provincial dialects a (a) appears as a pro- nominal form for he, etc., as in quotha, ‘‘ quoth he.” Sometimesit thus stands for have. It appears as a preposition for A.S., on, with a verbal noun in certain old phrases, as a-hunting, a-building ; also for A.S. of in Jack-a-lantern, John a Gaunt, Rich. ii. 1.3. Similarly as a prefix for A.S., on, in asleep (A.S. on slepe), away (AS. on weg), for off in adown (A.S. of dine) ; again intensive in a-thirst (A.S. of-thirst). It likewise stands for long 4 as a verbal prefix arise (A.S. a-risan), awake, and in many other phrases. A, as a note in music, is the major sixth of the scale of C major. When perfectly in tune to C, it stands in the proportion of 2 of 1. But in this state it would not bea fifth to D, the second note of the scale of C, being a comma too flat, which difference is as 80 to 81. The ear being sensibly offended with this deficiency, the note A is therefore made the least degree higher than perfect—namely, 3%5,, by which the advantage is gained, that A is a fifth above D ({$%), or only deficient in the proportion of 1%1—a deficiency so trifling that the ear accepts the fifth, D, A, and the sixth, C, A, as perfect, although, mathematically calculated, the one is too great and the other too small.—For A major and A minor, see Kry. Al, a symbol by which first-class vessels are known in Lloyd’s register of British and American shipping (q.v). and by which the operations of shippers of goods and insurers are governed. Surveyors appointed by the society examine all vessels in course of building, with a view to ascertaining their character, and inscribing them accordingly in the register, A designates the character of the hull of the vessel; the figure 1, the efficient state of her anchors, cables, and stores; when these are insufficient, in quantity or quality, the figure 2 is used. The character A is assigned to a new ship for a certain number of years, varying from four to fifteen, according to the material and mode of building, but on condition of the vessel being statedly surveyed, to see that the efficiency is maintained. A vessel built under a roof is allowed an additional year on that account. An additional period of one year, and, in certain cases, of two years, is also allowed te vessels whose decks, outside planking, etc., are fastened in a specified way. After the Al. 1 5 Taeieretn, original period has elapsed, the character A may be ‘‘continued” or ‘‘restored” for a time 8 years), on condition of certain specified repairs.—When a vessel has passed the age for the character A, but is still found fit for conveying perishable goods to all parts of the world, it is registered A in red. (The symbol for this class was formerly 4 asterisk in red.)—Ships AS in black form the third class, and consist of such as are still found, on survey, fit to carry perishable goods on shorter voyages. AA, the name of a number of rivers and streams in the north of France, Holland, Germany, and Switzerland. As many as forty have been enumerated. The word is said to be of Celtic origin, but it is allied to the old German aha, Gothic ahva, identical with the Latin aqua, ‘‘ water.” Ach or Aach is another form of the same word. Four streams of the name of Ach fall into the lake of Constance. The word, in both forms, occurs as final syllable in many names of places, as Fulda (formerly Fuldaha), Biberach, Biberich, etc. In the plural it is Aachen (waters, springs), which is the German name of Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.). Aix, the French name of so many places. connected with springs, is derived from Latin Ague, which became in old French A/gues, and then Aix. Compare the Celtic Esk, Ex, Axe, Ouse. AA, CurisTrAN KAREL HENDRIK, VAN DER, 1718-93 ; b. at Zwolle, Holland ; a cele- brated scholar and clergyman, author of works on natural science. His grandson, CHRISTIAN PIETER Rosipe, 1791-1851, »b. Amsterdam, was a poet of considerable prominence. Another of the same family (presumably), JAN, is the author of a Riographical Dictionary of the Netherlands. AACHEN. See Atx-LA-CHAPELLE. \A'GESEN, SvEnD, one of the earliest historians of Denmark, who lived in the latter part of the 12th century. His history of that country covers from the 4th to the 12th centuries, both inclusive. AALBORG (Eel-town), a seaport in the north of Jutland, with considerable trade ; pop., ’90, 19,508. AALEN, a walled town of Wirtemberg, on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Alps. In the town are linen and woolen factories, ribbon looms, and tanneries ; and near by are extensive iron works. A. was a free city from 1360 to 1863, and then an- nexed to Wiirtemberg. Pop. about 7000, AALI PASHA’, 1815-71; d, Constantinople, In 1834 he was secretary of legation to Austria; in 1888in the British legation, and for a time chargé des affaires. In1840 he was ‘yder-secretary for foreign affairs; 1841 to 1844, ambassador to England; subsequently member of the Turkish council of state and justice, minister for foreign affairs, and imperial chancellor. He was in the foreign office from 1846 till 1852; then promoted to be field marshal and pasha. About the close of 1852, he was, for a time, grand vizier or prime minister, which position he resigned, and was made governor-general of Smyrna, and afterwards of Brusa. In 1854 he was restored to power as foreign minis- ter; in 1855 he attended the council at Vienna, and was once more made prime minister. He resigned Nov. 1, 1856, but the sultan kept him in the cabinet without official posi- tion. In 1858 he was again grand vizier, retiredthe next year, but returned again. In 1861 the sultan made him once more the head of the cabinet, but in the same year he resigned and accepted the portfolio of foreign affairs. In June, 1867, he was appointed regent of the empire during the sultan’s visit to European courts. He bore a promi- nent part in the London conference of 1870, to settle upon Russia’s questions concern- ing the opening of the Black Sea. AALST. See ALostT. AALTEN, a t. in the Netherlands, on the Aar, 29 m.e. of Arnheim ; pop. about 7000. AAR, next to the Rhine and Rhone, the largest river in Switzerland, rises in the glaciers near the Grimsel in Berne, forms the falls of Handeck, 200 ft. high, flows through lakes Brienz and Thun, and passing the towns of Interlaken, Thun, Berne, Solothurn, Aarau, Brugg, and Kilngenau, joins the Rhine at the village of Coblenz, in Aargau, after a course of nearly 200 miles. It is a beautiful crystal stream, and, though rapid, is navi- gable for small-craft from lake Thun. There are several small rivers of the same name in Germany. AARAD, chief t. in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland, near the Jura mountains, on the right bank of tie Aar, 41 m. n.e. from Berne. It is well built; has a town hall, bar- racks, several small museums, and a library rich in Swiss historical works. There are silk, cotton, leather, and cutlery manufactories, and an iron foundry. The town is famous for producing excellent mathematical instruments. The slopeyof the moun- tains are covered with vines, and the vicinity is very attractive. Pop., about 6800. AARD-VARK, Orycteropus capensis, the Earth-pig; a plantigrade animal, class mammailia, order edentata; native and common in South Africa ; resembling a short- legged pig; length, full grown, about 8 ft. 5in.; head 11 in.; taill ft. 9 in.; ears 6 in. Tt has along, thin head, the upper jaw projecting over the lower; mouth small; tongue long, slender, flat, and covered with glutinous saliva to entangle ants. The ears erect and pointed; eyes far up the snout; body thick and fat; limbs short and very strong. The skin is usually bare, but sometimes partially covered with stiff, reddish-brown hair; the tail is bare, thick at the base and sharp at the end. It is very timid, and hastens to burrow in the ground upon the least alarm, It feeds entirely on ants, going at dark d- If. i : Pen nde 1 6 to their hills and running its long tongue into a passage-way ; the frightened ants are stuck in the saliva and devoured. The flesh is tolerable for food, and the hind quarters are sometimes smoked or salted and eaten. See illus., MARsSuPIALIA, vol. LX. AARD-WOLF, Proteles Lalandii viverra cristata, the Earth-wolf ; a quadruped of the digitigrade carnivorous mammalia; native of South Africa ; looks like a cross between the fox and hyena, and is about the size of a full-grown fox, but standing higher on its legs; ears larger and less hairy, tail not so bushy. It is striped, and might be mis- taken for the hyena, from which it differs chiefly in a more pointed head, and a fifth toe onthe fore foot. Its fur is ash-colored and woolly, and it has a coarse mane from head to tail, which is elevated when the animal is enraged, like the hair ona cat’s back. Its muzzle is black and nearly naked; legs and feet dark brown in front and gray behind; ears dark brown outside and gray inside. It goes abroad only in the night, and then for food.. It is fond of its kind, and a number will live in a single burrow. AARGAU (ARGOVIE), a canton of Switzerland, on the lower course of the Aar, and having the Rhine for its n. boundary. Its surface is diversified with hills and valleys, is well wooded, and generally fertile. The area is about 540 sq.m., and the population in 1890 was 193,580, rather more than half being Protestants. Besides agriculture, con- siderable manufacturing industry in cotton and silk is carried on both in the towns and country, and the prosperity of the population has of late markedly increased. In this canton is the castle of Habsburg or Hapsburg, the original seat of the imperial family of Austria. The chief town is Aarau. AAR’HUUS, a seaport on thee. coast of Jutland, and seat of a bishop; pop., 90, 33,308. AARIFI PASHA’, a Turkish statesman. He held successively many important offices, among them those of minister of foreign affairs, ambassador to France, and Grand Vizir.. He was a fine linguist, familiar with French, Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, and has won a place in literature by translating The History of the Crusades from the French. He was. president of the council of state at the time of his death in 1896. AARON, the elder brother of Moses, was appointed his assistant and spokesman, and at the giving of the Mosaic law received for himself and his descendants the hereditary dignity of the priesthood. Aaron assisted his brother in the administration of public affairs. He died in the 123d year cf his age, on mount Hor, on the borders of Idumea. His third son, Eleazar, succeeded him in the office of high-priest. AARSENS, Francis VAN, 1572-1641; one of the greatest diplomatists of the United Provinces. He represented the States General at the French court many years, and was in diplomatic service in Venice, Germany, and England. Richelieu, with whom he had negotiations in 1624, ranked him as one of the three greatest politicians of the time. There is a stain on his memory because of his complicity in the death of Barneveldt, who was executed in 1619, by order of the States General, after atrial which was scarcely more than a mockery. AASEN, IvAN ANDREAS, b. 1813; a Norwegian philologist. He was the son of a. farmer; educated by his own exertions; studied botany, but turned his attention to the native dialects. In 1848 he published Det norske Folkesprogs Grammatik, and in 1850 added Ordbog over det norske Folkesprog, enlarged under the title of Norsk Ordbog in 1878, and still later a work on Norwegian proverbs. He was granted an annuity some years ago. AASVAR, islands off Norway, about lat. 66°, an important centre of herring fishery, in which more than 10,000 men are employed in December and January; but for the. rest of the year the islands are almost deserted. The fish is the great Nordland her- ring, and the catch often reaches 200,000 tons in a season. AB, the fifth month of the ancient Jewish year, now the eleventh (and in intercalary years the twelfth), in consequence of the transfer of new year from spring to autumn. On the first Cay of Ab there is a fast to commemorate the death of Aaron, and on the. ninth the most solemn of all Hebrew fasts, to mark the destruction of the first temple by Nebuchadnezzar, 588 B.c., and the second temple by Titus, 70 a.p. Ab may begin as early as July 10, oras late as August 7. ABAB'DE, ABABDEH, or ABABDIE, an African people occupying the region between the Nile and the Red Sea, south of Kossier, and near the latitude of Dera, or Derr. They are distinct from Arabs, though they intermarry, and accept the religion of the Koran. As a rule they are faithless and treacherous. They have few horses, but. fine breeds of camels and dromedaries. There are three tribes, numbering in all about 120,000. Some are agriculturists, but the great part are nomadic. They have consid- erable possessions, and a small trade in senna and charcoal, which they send to Cairo. AB’ACA, or Maniua Hemp, is the fibre of a species of plantain or banana, Musa troglodytarum, a native of the Philippine isles, where it is extensively cultivated. The leaf-stalks are split into long strips and the fibrous part is then separated from the fleshy pulp. A laborer can in this way produce daily 50 lbs. of hemp. Before 1825, the quan- tity produced was insignificant, but now it amounts to nearly 31,000 tons annually. In Manila there is a steam rope-work for making ropes of it for naval purposes. They are very durable, but not very flexible. The fibre of a number of species of dA/uwsa is used in tropical countries, See PLANTAIN. ; iby Aard-wolf, Abandon. ABACOT, a word corrupted from bycocket, and said to mean a ‘‘ cap of state wrought up into the shape of two crowns, worn formerly by English kings.” The true word, bycocket, frequently found up to 1500 and later, after undergoing many corruptions appears in Spelman’s Glossarium (1664) as ‘‘ Abacot,” with the above definition. The original meaning probably survives in the Sp. dicoguin, a cap with two points. Henry V. wore a crown upon his bassinet at Agincourt, and Richard at Bosworth wore his crown upon his helmet ; so Henry VI. (crowned king of England and France) wore at Hedgley Moor two crowns upon his bycocket, but in no sense as part of it. AB’ACO, or Luca’ya, the largest of the Bahama islands, 80 m. long by about 15 m. wide, 150 m. e. of Florida, lat. 25° 51’ N., long. 77° 5’ W. Pop. 2000. Ship-building, wrecking, and turtle-fishing are the chief employments. AB’ACUS, a calculating machine or table occasionally employed in modern primary schools to make the elementary operations of arithmetic palpable. It consists of a frame with a number of parallel wires, on which beads or counters are strung. In ancient times, it was used in practical reckoning, and is so still in China, Persia, and elsewhere. — déa- cus Pythagoricus meant the multiplication-table.—ABACcDds, in arch., is a square or oblong level tablet on the capital of a column, and supporting the entablature. In the Doric, old Ionic, and Tuscan orders, the abacusis a regular oblong ; but in the new Ionic, Corinthian, and Roman orders, the abacus has concave sides, with truncated angles. Square marble tablets let into walls, and fields with figures in them inserted in mosaic floors, were also included under the term abacus in ancient architecture. ABAD’ (allied both in etymology and meaning to the Eng. abode), an affix to names of Persian origin, as Hyderabad, the ‘‘ dwelling” or city of Hyder. ABAD’ I. (Apu AMRu IBN Hazen), the first Moorish king of Seville, and founder of the Abadite dynasty. His ancestors were from Syria, but he was born near the Guadalquivir, and brought up in Seville, where by generosity and hospitality he became so popular that the people, in 1015, elected him king. He ruled 26 years, and added Cordova to his dominions. ABAD’ II, (MoHAMMED IBN HaBeEp), 1012-69; son of A. I. Heenlarged his father’s dominions by adding Andalusia. He is said to have been cruel and relentless. ABAD’ III. (MOHAMMED IBN HABED), 1039-95; son of A. II., a lover and patron of letters and writer of poetry. He was tolerant and kind, and peaceably added a part of ‘Portugal to his kingdom. His chief opponent, Alfonso VI. of Castile, married A.’s daughter, and the alliance roused the jealousy of the smaller Moorish princes, who engaged the king of Morocco in a league by which A. and Alfonso were defeated. Seville was spared from sack by a A.’s prompt surrender. He was kept four years a prisoner in Morocco, and his daughters were compelled to spin wool for subsistence. A.’s verses, written while in captivity, are admired. He was the last of the Abadites. ABAD’DON. See APOLLYON. ABAFT (lit., dy aft). Nautical term, meaning behind, toward the stern, e.g., ‘‘abaft the mainmast,” equivalent to behind the mainmast, toward the stern of the vessel. ABA’KA KHAN d. 1280; the second Mongol king of Persia, of the family of Genghis Khan. He completed the conquests begun by his father, and consolidated the Mongol rule over western Asia. AB’/ANA and PHARPAR, ‘‘rivers of Damascus” (1. Kings v. 12); probably the present Barada and Awaj, the former flowing through Damascus, and the other passing 8 m. to the south. Both rivers are lost in the marshes on the border of the Arabian desert. The plain of Damascus owes much of its fertility to the irrigation of these rivers. ABANCAY’, a. t. in Pern, 65 m. w.s.w. of Cuzco, on the Abancay, over which is one of the finest bridges in South America. The town has extensive sugar refineries ; sugar and hemp are cultivated, and silver is found in the mountains. ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH D’, 1758-92, a French statesman. When the revolution of 1789 broke out he was captain of cavalry, but Louis XVI. made him minister of war. In 1792 he was imprisoned by the revolutionary tribunal as a foe to freedom ; but while on the way from Orleans to Paris the transport was mobbed and he and his fellow-prisoners were butchered. ABANDON, ABANDONING, ABANDONMENT. This term, in its different grammatical and etymologic:! forms, has various applications in legal phraseology, but all more or less corresponding to its popular meaning. The following are examples: ABANDONING AN ACTION is a technical expression in Scotch legal procedure, signify- ing the act by which a plaintiff—or ‘‘ pursuer,” as he is called in Scotland—abandons or withdraws from his action on the payment of the costs incurred, and with the ap- proval of the judge before whom the action had previously been conducted. The same purpose is effected in the U. S. by the plaintiff in a court of common laweither entering a nolle prosequt, or at the trial withdrawing the record. In the courts of equity, the plain- tiff may move the dismissal of his own bill, or the defendant may move to dismiss the suit for want of prosecution by the plaintiff. Suits may also abate by the death or super- vening incapacity of the parties. - See ACTION. ABANDONMENT, in marine insurance, signifies the relinquishment to the insurer or Abere 18 underwriter of goods or property saved from ashipwreck, and of all interest in the same, previous to the owners’ demanding payment in terms of the policy. See INSURANCE. ABANDONMENT of a wife by her husband is synonymous with desertion. See Hus BAND AND WIFE. ABANDONING or deserting seamen, by masters of merchant-vessels, is a misdemeanot and punishable by imprisonment. See SEAMEN. ABANO, PieTRO D’, an Italian philosopher, 1250-1316 ; educated in Constantinople and Paris ; professor of medicine in Padua ; wrote on philosophy and medicine, and, like other learned men of his time, practised astrology, by reason of which he was ac- cused of magic, and sentenced to be burned ; but he died in prison. ABAR’BANEL, See ABRAVANEL. ABARCA, JOAQUIN, a Spanish bishop, b. about 1780, d. 1844. For supporting the absolute rule of Ferdinand VII. he was made bishop of Leon ; but he went with Don Carlos to Portugal and England, acting as his agent, though finally losing the pretender’s regard. Banished from Spain, he sought a monastery at Lanzi, where he died. AB’ARIM, a range of mountains in the land of Moab, e. of the Jordan and facing Jericho. The highest point was Mt. Nebo, the place where Moses closed his earthly career. AB’ARIS, a Scythian priest of Apollo, to whom it was fabled the god gave a golden arrow on which to ride through the air. This dart rendered him invisible, and it cured diseases and gave oracles. 2 From the mode in which A.A. combines with bases to form salts, it is evident that one atom of the hydrogen differs from the other atoms in being replaceable by a metal or an alcohol radical (as ethyl C2H;), and on this account A.A. is called a monatomic acid, and its formula is usually represented as HC:H;0.; that of acetate of potash being KC.2H;02, and of acetate of ethyl C2HsC2H;3Ox. A striking experiment may be made illustrating the mode in which alcohol is con- verted into A.A If slightly diluted alcohol be dropped upon platinum-black, the oxygen condensed in tha. substance acts with great energy on the spirit, and A.A. is evolved in vapor. Here the whole office of the platinum is to determine the oxygen of the air, and the hydrogen of the alcohol to unite. In the commercial processes for manufacturing vinegar, some vegetable substance containing nitrogen (one of the albuminous princi- ples) takes the place of the platinum-black, and determines the same change. Pure A.A. is a crystalline solid at ordinary temperatures. It is obtained by distilling dry acetate of potassium and sulphuric acid: 2KC:H;02 + H.SO, = 2HC.H30.2 + K.SO,. The anhydride of A.A. (see ANHYDRIDES) is formed by the action of chloride of acetyl on acetate of potassium. It has the composition (C.H;O).O, and unites with water to form A.A. The salts of A.A., called A’cETATES, are numerous and important in the arts. ‘The most important is acetate or sugar of lead. (See Leap.) For the commer- cial processes of manufacturing A.A., see VINEGAR. ACETONES, or KETONES, are the aldehydes of secondary alcohols (see ALCOHOL). Thus secondary propyl alcohol, when oxidized, loses two atoms of hydrogen, and gives dimethyl ketone, ordinarily known as acetone. Secondary Propyl Alcohol. Acetone. CH; - CHOH - CH; — Hz = CH; - CO- CH; A series of such acetones is known, of which acetone is typical. It may be pre- pared by distilling acetate of calcium. It is a limpid liquid, having a taste like that of peppermint, and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, and water. Its specific gravity is about 0-792, its boiling point being 182° F. (66° C.). It has recently been used in America for the manufacture of chloroform, which is obtained from it by dis- tillation with bleaching-powder. It is a solvent for gums and resins, as well as for gun-cotton. ACETYL, an organic radical not yet isolated ; supposed to exist in acetic acid and its derivatives ; the rational formula for acetic acid being on this hypothesis (C2H;0)OH. See TypEs, CHEMICAL. The reason for assuming the existence of this radical in the acetic compounds is that the formula to which it leads affords the simplest explanation of the most important reactions of acetic acid. Thus, when acetic acid is treated with a metallic oxide or hydrate, the basic atom of hydrogen is replaced ‘by a metal, and an acetate of the metal (C:H;0) OM is produced. The term acetyl was formerly applied to the radical C.Hs. ACHZ’ANS, one of the four races of ancient Greece, and a name often given by Homer to all Greeks. The A. inhabited parts of Thessaty, Argos, and Sparta, in the Peloponessus, whence they were expelled by the Dorians Their government was demo- cratic, and they preserved liberty until the time of Philip and Alexander, but were after- wards subject to the Macedonians, or oppressed by domestic tyrants. In mythology, their ancestor was Acheus, son of Xuthus and grandson of Hellen. ACHE M'ENES, ancestor and founder of the family of Acheemenide, from the time of Cyrus the royal house of Persia. ACHA'IA, a small district in the n. of the Peloponessus, was divided into twelve little states ; and was bounded e. by the Saronic gulf; n. and w. by the bay of Corinth ; and s. by Arcadia and Elis. The land, rising gradually from the coast to the hills of the interior, was famed, in ancient times, for fertility in the produce of oil, wine and fruits. When the Romans divided the whole of Greece into Macedonia and A., the latter included all Greece excepting Thessaly. In the modern kingdom of Greece, A. forms, along with Elis, a nome or department, in the extreme n.w. of the Morea, and its chief t, is Patras (q.v.), Excepting the w. coast, the land is fertile, and produces corn. A t . 695 Achenium. wine and oil. — The ancient Achzans were, in a great measure, separated from the other people of Greece. Their twelve little towns of which Aigium was the chief, formed a confederacy, Which was dissolved in the Macedonian times, but was renewed in 280 B. ¢., and subsequently extended itself, under the name of the Achwan League, throughout Greece. In 251 B. c. Aratus of Sicyon brought his city into the league and became the general of the confederacy. Its strength was afterward increased through the energy of Philopemen. Corinth had already become a member of the league and by the year 191 B. c. it included Athens, Sparta, Epidaurus, Megara, and many other cities of the Pelo- ponnesus as well as of Northern Greece. The government of the league affords the best example in antiquity of the federal system, and has been compared to the government of the United States. Every city in the confederation had equal rights with the others, but in foreign affairs the federal government had complete control. There was a public council in which the affairs of the league were discussed and a record kept of its pro- ceedings. The council had at first two presiding officers, but afterwards elected only one. The chief executive officer of the league was the strategos, who was commander- in-chief of the army; subordinate to him were the hipparchus or commander of the cavalry, and an under-strategos. There was a secretary of state and a sort of permanent council composed of ten men, who were said to have presided at the federal assemblies. For many years the league maintained its independence against all enemies. Something of the old power of Greece seemed to return, and there was a promise of permanent union, but it soon appeared that the league was bent on its own destruction. Instead of pre- senting a firm front against the common foes of Greece, its members were divided by continual discords. The Atolian League was a formidable rival, but a still more dangerous enemy was Rome. In the first war between the Macedonians and the Romans 211-205 B. c., the league adhered to the Macedonians, but in the second Macedonian war it went over to the side of the Romans, and in the third remained neutral. The hostilities of Sparta combined with the intrigues of the Romans and the folly of the leaders of the league to bring about its destruction. In 146 B. co. the Acheans were defeated at Corinth by the Roman general Mummius. This defeat not only dissolved the league but destroyed the political independence of Greece. Southern Greece, under the name of Achaia became a Roman province. The historian Polybius, who was one of the noble Achzans taken to Rome as hostages in 166, has given an extended account of the league in his history of the period 220-146 B.c. See also Thirlwall’s History of Greece, vol. 8. Schorn’s History of Greece from the Establishment of the dttolian and Achean Leagues ; Drumann’s work on the History of the Downfall of the Greek States, and Hertzberg’s History of Greece under the Romans. ACHARD’, FRANZ KARL, a meritorious naturalist and chemist, b. April 28, 1753, in Berlin, chiefly distinguished himself by his improvements in the process of preparing sugar from beet-root. In these labors he was supported by the king of Prussia. The results of his experiments were acknowledged as partly successful in 1799 and 1800; but were not carried into extensive application until the king gave to A. a farm in Lower Lusatia, where he founded a model manufactory of beet-root sugar. Here, after six years of experiments, conducted with the aid of Neubeck, a medical man, A. found out the true method of extracting beet-sugar; and in 1812, when the factory had become a very profitable investment, the king annexed to it a school for teaching the process of manufacture. A. was called to Berlin as director of the physical class in the academy of sciences, and died April 20, 1821. He wrote, among other similar essays, one on the European Manufacture of Sugar from Beet (Leip. 1809). ACHARD, Louis AMEDE EuGéEnsE, 1814-75; b. Marseilles. He began life as a mer- chant; became a Parisian journalist and royalist writer; accompanied the duke of Mont- pensier to Spain. In 1847 he published Belle Rose, a successful novel; later, Wiss Tempéte, Histoire Cun Homme, Le Clos-Pommier, L’ Eau qui Dort, La Misere @un Miliionnaire, Madame de Sareus and Histoire de Mes Amis, He was an officer of the legion of honor. ACHA‘TES, friend and companion of Aineas in his wanderings after the fall of Troy. His faithfulness to the Trojan chief originated the saying, ‘‘ Fidus Achates,”’ applied to any faithful friend, though not properly to an equal in position. ACHA'TES, a river in southern Sicily, now the Dirillo. Pliny says agates were first found there, whence their name, from that of the river. ACHEEN’, or ACHIN. See ATCHEEN. ACHELO’US, now called ASPROPOTAMO (i. e., White river, from the cream color of its waters) the largest river in Greece, rises in Mt. Pindus, flows through the land of the Dolopians, divides Aitolia from Acarnania, and falls into the Ionian sea. The extensive alluvial deposits at the mouth of this river have been observed from ancient times. It is said that the banks of the A. were anciently the haunt of lions. A/CHENBACH, ANDREAS, b. Cassel, 1815; a German landscape and marine painter. He studied under Schadow; was made a royal academician of Berlin, and hon. member in Philadelphia and other cities; is a knight of the legion of honor, and took a medal of the first class in Paris in 1855. Several of his paintings are in the U. S. A/CHENBACH, OswALp, b. Dusseldorf, 1827, brother of Andreas, a painter of Swiss and Italian subjects. ACHE’NIUM, Acua@NIvuM, or AKENIUM, a term now very frequently employed by botanists to designate a dry, hard, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, in which the integu- ments of the seed are closely applied to it, but distinct from it. Such are what are popu- larly called the seeds of borage, and other plants of the same natural order. They were I—3 Achenwall. 66 Achromatism termed nuts by Linneus. Sometimes the achenia are aggregated upon a common recep. tacle, forming what is called an etaerio, as in the ranunculus, in which they are placed upon a dry receptacle, or in the strawberry, in which the receptacle is fleshy. Sometimes the aggregated achenia are enclosed within the fleshy tube of the calyx, as in the rose. The fruit of the composite is also sometimes called an A.; but a different appellation (cypsela) has been given to it, because the tube of the calyx coheres with the fruit, the name A. being limited to superior fruits. A'CHENWALL, GortTrrieD, 1719-72, a chief promoter of the science of statistics. He studied at Jena and Leipsic; lectured at Marburg university on law, history and social science; and held a chair in the new university of Gottingen till his death. Though not the originator of the science of statistics, he was the first to formulate and define its purpose. Achenwall, it has been said, ‘ defined politics as the theory of what a state ought to be; statistics the account of what it really is; and history the relation of how it became what it is.” His wife, Sophie Elenore Walther, a rarely educated woman, wrote poems and essays. ACH’'ERON, the name given to several rivers by the ancients, always with reference to some peculiarity, such as black or bitter waters, or mephitic gases. The A. in Thes- protia, which flows through the lake Acherusia, and pours itself into the Ionian Sea; another river of the same name in Elis, now called Sacuto; and several streams in Egypt, were supposed to have some communication with the infernal world. Accord- ing to Pausanias, Homer borrowed from the river in Thesprotia the name of his infernal A., which the later poets surrounded with many imaginary horrors. Other lakes besides that above mentioned bore the name of Acherusia, e.g., the lake near Hermione in Argolis. ACHERON TIA, or DEATH’s-HEAD Mora, a genus of lepidopterous insects; belong- ing to the family sphingidew. ‘There is a species in Europe (acherontia atropos) having on the back of the thorax a singular representation of a human skull; hence the name. It is a beautiful insect, 44 in. long and 5 to 54 in. expanse of wings, and if disturbed or handled it makes a squeaking noise. The ignorant and superstitious believe it to be a forerunner of evil. It drives bees from their hives and eats their honey, taking no hurt from stings. It is seen most frequently mornings and evenings in autumn. Its larva is a fat caterpillar 5 in. long, greenish-yellow, and beautifully marked on the back with blue and white lines and black spots. A-CHEVAL' POSITION. When troops are arranged so that a river or highway passes through the center and forms a perpendicular to the front, they are said to be drawn up in A. P. Wellington’s army at Waterloo was d-cheval on the road from Charleroi to Brussels. In cases where a river forms a perpendicular to the front, secure possession of a bridge is necessary; otherwise one half of the troops might be routed, while the remainder stood idly as spectators. ACH'ILL, or ‘‘ Eagle’”’ Isle, off the w. coast of Ireland, is reckoned within the county of Mayo. Itis 154 m.long by 124 m. broad, and has a very irregular coast-line, though its general shape is almost that of aright-angled triangle. It has a wild and desolate ap- pearance; most of the surface is boggy; of the 35,000 acres which the island contains, not half a thousand are cultivated. ‘There are three villages in A., and a number of hovels or huts scattered over its barren moors, sometimes in small clusters, forming hamlets, but so wretched as hardly to be fit for beasts. A. rises towards the n. and w. coast, where the mountains attain an elevation of 2000 ft. One of them, composed, like the rest of the island, wholly of mica-slate, presents, towards the sea, a sheer precipice from its peak to its base, a height of 2208 feet. There is a mission-station in the island, which forms an exception to the general wretchedness of the houses. It possesses, amongst other agencies of civilization, a printing-press. The population amounted in 1871 to 6417 ; in 1881, to about 6700, but has since decreased. ACHILL#’A, a genus of plants of the natural order composite (q.v.), having small flowers (heads of flowers) disposed in corymbs, and the receptacle covered with chaffy scales (small bracte). The florets of the ray are female, and have a short, roundish tongue or lip; the florets of the disk are hermaphrodite, the tube of the corolla flatly compressed and two-winged; the involucre is imbricated.—The common YARROw or Mitrorn (A. millefoliwm) abounds in all parts of Europe and in some parts of North America—into which, however, it has perhaps been carried from Europe—growing in meadows, pastures, etc. It is about a foot in height: its leaves bipinnate, the pinne deeply divided, the segments narrow and crowded. It has white or rose-colored flowers. The leaves have a bitterish aromatic, somewhat austere taste, and little smell; the flowers have a strong aromatic smell, with an aromatic bitter taste, and contain an essential oil, a resin, bitter extractive, gum, several salts, and traces of sulphur. Both leaves and flowers are used in medicine as a powerful stimulant and tonic. The leaves were formerly much used for healing wounds, and are still so employed by the common people in the high- - lands of Scotland and in some parts of the continent, The expressed juice is a popular spring medicine in Germany. Yarrow is often sown along with grasses intended to form permanent pasture for sheep; and A. moschata, called Musk MixFott, is cultivated as food for cattle in Switzerland, A, meschata, A, atrata, and A, nana—all natives of the —————— 67 Achenwal/, Achromatism,. Alps—are very aromatic, and bear the name of GENIPI or GENIPP. The inhabitants of the Alps value them very highly, and use them for making what is called Sviss tea. They are very stimulating and tonic; as are also A. setacea and A. nobilis, both natives of Switzerland and other middle parts of Europe, and A. ageratum, a native of the south of Europe, used by the French as a vulnerary, and called herbe au charpentier.—SNEEZE- wort (A. ptarmica) is a native of Britain and other parts of Europe, 1 to 3 ft. high, with lanceolate leaves, and much larger flowers than the common milfoil. It grows in meadows and damp places. The root, which is aromatic, is used as a substitute for pellitory of Spain (q.v.), and the whole plant is pungent and provokes a flow of saliva. ACHIL'LES, the hero of Homer’s Jiiad, was the son of king Peleus and Thetis, a sea- goddess, belonging to a line descended from Jove. Of his life before the Trojan war, and of his death after the fall of Troy, the poets after Homer first profess to give accounts, We are told that he was dipped in the river Styx by his mother, and was thus made invul- nerable, except in the heel, by which he was held during the process; hence ‘‘ the heel of A.” became a proverbial phrase to denote any vulnerable point in a man’s character. It had been prophesied at his birth that his life would be short; and, therefore, when the seer Calchas announced that without A. Troy could not be taken, his mother, to keep him from the dangers of the expedition, concealed him at the court of king Lycomedes, among whose daughters the boy lived disguised asa girl. But Ulysses discovered him by a stratagem. He offered to the young ladies a number of articles, some of feminine attire and others of arms; and the young warrior was betrayed by his choice. A., in the Greek campaign against Troy, appeared with fifty vessels manned by his followers, the Myrmidons; but remained sullen and inactive during a great part of the contest. When the city of Lyrnessus was taken, he had seized and carried away the beautiful Briseis. A pestilence in the Greek camp being ascribed to the anger of Apollo, whose priest had been robbed of his daughter, Chryseis, by Agamemnon, Agamemnon was compelled by the army to send Chryseis back to her father. On this, he took away Briseis from A., which greatly offended the latter. With this incident the Iliad begins. Neither the splendid offers made by Agamemnon, nor the disasters of the Greeks, could afterwards move A. to take any part in the contest, until his friend Patroclus was slain by Hector. The hero then buckled on his armor, which had been made for him by Vulcan, and of which the shield is described at great length by Homer. The fortunes of the field were now suddenly changed in favor of the Greeks; and the vengeance of A. was not satiated until he had slain a great number of the Trojan heroes and lastly, Hector, whose body he fastened to his chariot, and dragged into the Grecian camp. He then buried his friend Patroclus with great funereal honors. King Priam, the father of Hector, came by night to the tent of A., and prayed that the body of his son might be given back to the Trojans. A. consented; and with the burial of Hector the Jizad closes. We are told that soon after the fall of Hector, A. made a contract of marriage with Polyxena, the daughter of the Trojan king, but was slain by her brother Paris, in the temple of Apollo, where the marriage should have been celebrated. According to other accounts, he was slain by Apollo, who assumed the likeness of Paris as a disguise. His ashes were placed in an urn, with those of his friend Patroclus, and were buried on the promontory of Sigeum, where, after the fall of Troy, the princess Polyxena, who had been made a prisoner, was offered as a propitiatory sacrifice. ACHIL’LES TATIUS, an ancient writer, a native of Alexandria. There is great uncer- tainty as to the time in which he lived, some assigning him to the 2d or 3d century, others to a much later period, even to the 5th century. He wrote a novel entitled The History of Leucippe and Clitophon, which is graceful in style and interesting in subject matter, but is often disfigured by grossness in the narrative. It was extensively imitated by subsequent writers. An edition was published by Jacobs in Leipsic, 1821, and the Didot collection edited by Hirschig (Paris, 1856), contains its Greek text together with a Latin ver- sion in the rotici Scriptores, There is an English translation by Smith (London, 1855). ACHIL’LES’ TENDON, TZendoAchilles, attaches the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles of the calf of the leg to the heel-bone. It is capable of resisting a force equal to a 1000 Ibs. weight: and yet is frequently ruptured by the contraction of these muscles in sudden extension of the foot. The name was given with reference to the death of Achilles by a wound in the heel. Ancient surgeons regarded wounds of the A. T. as fatal. ACHIME’NES, a genus of plants of the order gesneracee (q. v.), much cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. The species are numerous — natives of the warm parts of America. ACHMET, on AHMED, the name of three sultans of Turkey, of whom Achmet ITI. was the most famous. It was this sovereign who sheltered Charles XII. after his defeat at Pultowa in 1709. He wrested the Morea from the Venetians in 1715. Having invaded Hungary, he was defeated by Prince Eugene at Peterwardein in 1716, and later near Belgrade. The soldiers drove him from the throne in 1730, and he died in prison in 1736. ACHMIN. See EKHMIM. ACHROMATISM, the property in virtue of which certain combinations of lenses, etc., refract a beam of light without producing colored fringes. Any arrangement of lenses or prisms which refract light without dispersion (q. v.; also REFRACTION) is achro- matic. Newton, misled by imperfect experiments, concluded that dispersion could not be annulled without annulling refraction. Hall, in 1733, and later, Dollond (independently), found that certain media give large refraction with small dispersion, while others A Chula, 68 Acne. give small refraction with large dispersion ; so that the dispersion produced by one medium can be made to annul that due to another, while its refraction is not en- tirely annulled. For example, by properly combining a convex lens of crown-glass with a concave one of flint-glass, a compound achromatic lens can be produced. The achromatism in the above arrangement, and in every other arrangement yet tried, is not absolutely perfect. The reason is that such media do not give exactly simi- lar spectra (see SPECTRUM)—i.e., the ratio of the distances between any two pairs of rays is not quite the same for the different media. A combination of three lenses, or prisms, gives a better approximation to absolute achromatism than a combination of two. Blair, in 1791, constructed an achromatic telescope giving far better definition for high magnifying power than has since been obtained. He used a compound lens consisting of two glass lenses inclosing a liquid. A CHULA (Portuguese), a dance similar to the Fandango. ACIDIMETRY is the determination of the percentage of real acid contained in a sample of a hydrated acid, as sulphuric or nitric acid. In most cases, if we know that no foreign body is present, it is possible to determine the percentage by means of the specific gravity, as indicated by the areometer (q.v.). Usually, however, other sub- stances, which alter the specific gravity, may be present, and recourse is then had to one of the following methods: (I.) By volumetric analysis, in the manner described under alkalimeter (q.v.). (II.) By the gravimetric process. This may be conducted in two ways, which will be best understood by an example of each. Sulphuric acid forms several insoluble salts, the sulphate of barium refusing to dissolve, not only in ordinary fluids, but even in strong acids. When chloride of barium is added to a liquid containing sulphuric acid, the sulphate of barium is precipitated, and after due precautions have been taken to insure its purity, it may be weighed and the amount of sulphuric acid calculated there- from. A more rapid method consists in adding to the sample some carbonate of soda, and noting the amount of carbonic acid disengaged. This is readily accomplished by per- forming the operation in a weighed flask, and determining the loss of weight after the carbonic acid gas has been liberated. ACIDS. An acid is a chemical compound distinguished by the property of combin: ing with bases in definite proportions to form salts (q.v.). The most striking charac: teristics of A. are a sour taste, and the property of reddening vegetable blues. They are also mostly oxidized bodies; and at one time oxygen was thought to be essential to an acid, as the name oxygen (the acid-producer) indicates. Subsequent experience has extended the definition. There is an important class of undoubted A. that contain no oxygen; and silex or flint, which, being insoluble, neither tastes sour nor reddens lit- mus-paper, is held to be an acid because it combines with bases and forms compounds like acknowledged A. The oxygen A., which are by far the most numerous class, are formed of elements (sulphur, nitrogen, chromium, etc.), with two or more equiv- alents of oxygen. The elements that form the strongest A. with oxygen are the non- metallic, and most of them have more than one stage of acid oxidation. Thus sulphur unites with oxygen to form two oxides, SOz and SOs, which, in combination with water, yield respectively sulphurous and sulphuric acid. Similarly, arsenic forms two oxides, As,O; and As,0;, corresponding to arsenious and arsenic A. The higher stage of oxida- tion forms the stronger and more stable acid. All metals, except arsenic, that form A. with oxygen, have also, at a lower stage of oxidation, one or more oxides. To these inorganic A. containing oxygen must be added the organic A., composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Belonging to this extensive group are oxalic acid, HeC.0x, ; acetic acid, HC.Hs;O,.; and formic acid, HCHO... There are also A. found in animal fluids, or resulting from their decomposition, which contain nitrogen in addition to the three elements above named ; such is uric acid, H2CsH1N:Os. : The hydrogen A. are formed of hydrogen and a radical, either simple or compound. The most important of these, and the type of its class, is hydrochloric or muriatic acid HCl; others are hydriodic (HI) and hydrocyanic (HCN) acids. As all A., however, even oxygen A., possess acid properties—i.e., combine with bases—only when in com- bination with water, a new view of the constitution of A. now prevails, which makes hydrogen the real acidifying element in all A. Thus, instead of considering vitriol as a compound of sulphuric acid and water, SO; -+- H,O, the hydrated acid is held to be the real sulphuric acid, and its rational formula to be H:SO,. It thus becomes anal- ogous to hydrochloric acid, HCl. This view has not only the advantage of bringing all A, Into one class, but makes the theory of their combination with bases and of their capacity of saturation uniform and simple. Hence has arisen the most general defini- tion of an acid—viz., that “A. are salts of hydrogen.”” A more intelligible definition to ordinary readers is that which is adopted by Frankland, in which an acid is described *‘as a compound containing one or more atoms of hydrogen, which become displaced by a metal, when the latter is presented to the compound in the form of a hydrate.” Thus nitric acid and sodium hydrate yield nitrate of soda and water : Nitric Acid. Sodium Hydrate. Nitrate of Soda. Water. Os + NaHO = NaNO; -+ #£424.0 in which reaction the hydrogen of the nitric acid is replaced by the sodium of the 69 Aieye sodium hydrate (or soda) ; and as only one atom of hydrogen is replaced, nitric acia is said to be monobasic. When an acid admits of the displacement of two atoms of hydrogen, it is termed dibasic—as tartaric, oxalic, and sulphuric acid ; and when three atoms can be replaced—as in common phosphoric acid, H;POu,, in which Hs; may be re- placed by Ks; or Ag;—the acid is termed trdasic. The more important A, are included in the following list: A. containing no oxygen: Hydrochloric, HCl; hydrobromic, HBr; hydriodic, HI; hydrocyanic, HCN ; hydrosulphuric or sulphuretted hydrogen, H.S. Inorganic A, containing oxygen: Boracic, HsBOs;; carbonic, H.COs;; chromic, H:! CrO.:; hypophosphorous, H;PO:2 ; nitric, HNO; ; phosphoric, HsPO, ; phosphorous, H;PO; ; sulphuric, H.SO,; sulphurous, HeSOs. Organic A.: Acetic, HC.H;0, ; benzoic, HC,H;0.; citric, H3CsH;O;; gallic, HiC1 H.0O; ; lactic, HCsH;O;; salicylic, HC;H;0Os;; tartaric, H2C,sH4Os. « The most characteristic inorganic A. (hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric, sulphuric) are used in medicine in a very dilute condition as tonics and astringents, and to allay thirst in fevers. They corrode the teeth, however, and if long administered tend to dis- order digestion ; so they must be used with caution. Most of the group have special, some (as hydrocyanic, oxalic) extremely poisonous actions. The stronger A., when concentrated, are powerful caustics. ACI REAL’E, at. of Sicily, in the district of Catania. It lies at the foot of Mt. Etna, on the coast, where the small river Aci, flowing from Etna, enters the sea. The t. is built of lava, is defended by a fortress, and contains about 38,000 inhabitants, who are employed chiefly in the manufacture of linen and silk ; it also carries on a not incon- siderable trade in flax and grain. Many of the edifices are very handsome. A. R. is famed for its mineral waters, and for the cave of Polyphemus and the grotto of Galatea ACIS, the son of Faunus and Symethis, beloved by Galatea. Being jealous of him, Polyphemus the cyclops crushed him under a rock, and his blood gushing forth was changed into the river Acis, or Acinius, at the foot of Mt. Etna. ACKERMAN, EvERETT GrorGe, D.D., author and educator, b. New York. 1850; was educated at the Buffalo Med. Coll., the Northwestern Univ., and the Garrett Bib- lical Institute. He entered the Genesee Conference of the M. E. Church in 1878 ; was president of the Blue Mountain University, 1879-1881, and Vice-Chancellor of the U.S. Grant University, 1891. He has published Man a Revelation of God and Researches in Philosophy. ACLAND, JoHn Dykes, an English officer in the American revolution, commanding grenadiers at the battle of Stillwater, Oct. 7, 1777. He was shot in both legs by a storming party under Arnold. His wife was Harriet, daughter of the Earl of Ilchester, and showed great heroism in forcing her way to him after the fight. She wrote an account of the campaign. In 4778 Acland returned to England, where he resented remarks disparaging to Americans by Lieut. Lynch, who challenged him to a duel, at which A. contracted a cold of which he died. ACLIN’IC LINE, an imaginary line around the earth between the tropics, where the needle has no inclination. It is called the magnetic equator, and is about 90° from the magnetic poles. The line is variable and irregular; in the western hemisphere it is s, and in the eastern n. of the geographical equator. AC'NE, (probably from Gr. akme, an efflorescence) is an important skin disease. It is placed by some dermatologists in the order pustule, and by others in the order tuder- cula, which includes solid, hard elevations of the skin, much larger than papule. The sebaceous follicles of the skin (q.v.) are the primary seat of the affection. Their natural secretion accumulates in their interior, and there is, at the same time, a tendency to inflammation of the follicle and surrounding tissue. It is by no means rare to find on the face and shoulders of young persons about or above the age of puberty a number of black spots, each of which is placed on a slightly-raised pale base. These black points are called comedones. Pressure at the base occasions the expulsion of a little, elongated, spiral, white mass, with a black point or anterior end, commonly but erroneously regarded as a worm.* Interspersed are other spots, with the base more raised and inflamed, which become more or less perfect pustules, each of which rests on a com. paratively large red base. In some of the inflamed follicles coagulated lymph (to use the old phraseology) is thrown out, and a small hardened mass is the result. According as one or other of these appearances preponderates, we have different varieties of this disease. When the pustule is the most striking feature, the affection is called acne sim- plex or vulgaris; when the black points abound, it is acne punctata; and when there is decided induration, it is acne indurata. As long as there is no inflammation, the treatment simply aims at favoring the escape of the contents of the sebaceous follicles, by rubbing the face and other affected parts with cold cream at bed-time, washing the next morning with soap and water, and gentle subsequent friction with a soft towel. When acute inflammation is present, and the pustules are very tender, there is no better application than tepid water, with or without a little gelatine in solution; and subsequently the ointment of the hypochlorite of sul- phur has been found useful by Wilson and others. Acne tndurata, which is the least *In the midst of the white mass of sebaceous matter, a parasite, acarus folliculorum is. however. often found, Accemate. Acoustics. 70 tractable of the three forms, is sometimes benefited by the application of fly-blisters, In all these cases the state of the digestive organs must be carefully attended to. Acne rosacea is, according to some writers, a much more grave variety of acne; while others regard it as a special disease, to which they assign the name of rosacea, under which term it is described in this work. ‘ ACE/METZ, a class of Greek monks called watchers, who chanted service con- tinuously day and night, dividing like sailors into three watches. They originated in the 5th c., near Constantinople, and established many monasteries. Some were denounced for favoring Nestorianism. AC OLYTES, a name occurring first about the 3d c., and applied to functionaries who assisted the bishops and priests in the performance of religious rites, lighting the candles, presenting the wine and water at the communion, etc. They were considered as in holy orders, and ranked next to sub-deacons. These services have, since the 7th c., peen performed by laymen and boys, who are improperly called A.; but in the Romish church, aspirants to the priesthood are still at one stage consecrated as A., receiving candles and cups as the symbols of the office. See ORDERS, HOLY. ACO’MA, a village in New Mexico, the Acuna of Spanish historians ; 35° 24’ n., 106° 10’ w.; an old Indian t. built on a rock 400 feet high and reached only by spiral stairs cut in the stone. It has a church and missionary station. ACONCA’GUA, a province of Central Chili; 6000 sq. m.; pop. ’94, about 158,000. In the e. part are the Andes, with fertile valleys and many rivers running to the Pacific; there are copper, silver and gold mines. The w. part is artificially irrigated, and produces large crops of cereals and superior hemp. Kain is scarce, and natural vegeta- tion light. The province is divided into four departments: Andes, Ligua, Petorca and San Felipe. Capital, San Felipe d’Aconcagua, at the foot of the Andes, 55 m. n.e. from Valparaiso, ACONCA’GUA, the highest known mountain peak in the western hemisphere, n.e. of San -Felipe, 82° 39’ s., 70° w. The latest measure makes the height 6834 metres, or 22,422 ft. (4.245 m.), 997 ft. higher than Chimborazo. The cone is an angular, serrated mass, bare of vegetation, and without sign of volcanic action. It is a grand sight from Valparaiso. AC'ONITE, (Aconitum), a genus of plants of the natural order ranwnculacee (q.v.), having five petaloid sepals, of which the upper one is helmet-shaped, and two hammer- headed petals concealed within the helmet-shaped sepal. The fruit consists of 3 to 5 fol- licles. .A. napellus, the common WOLF’s-BANE or Monxk’s-Hoop, often cultivated in flower-gardens for the sake of its erect racemes of blue flowers, is a somewhat doubtful native of England, but common in some parts of Europe. The roots are fusiform and clustered. The root and whole plant are very poisonous, containing an alkaloid called aconita or aconitine, one of the most virulent of all known poisons; but an extract of the leaves isa valuable medicine, administered in small doses for nervous and other dis- eases. An A., sometimes called A. stoerckianum, but generally regarded as a variety of A. cammarum (also known as A. paniculatum), was brought into great repute on the continent during the last c. by Dr. Stoerck, an Austrian imperial physician, and is still much cultivated for medicinal use. The same properties seem, in greater or less degree, to belong to a number, if not to all, of the species of this genus, and they contain the same alkaloid. The virulent kh poison of India, equally fatal in its effects whether introduced into wounds or taken into the stomach, is prepared from the roots of several species. The A, ferox of Nepaul, from which much of it is obtained, has been iden- tified by Drs. Hooker and Thompson with A. napellus. Two other Himalayan species, A. palmatum and morgen te) psec Giles ne 1-38! Greek plethron (ancient)......... 0-23 Dertugalsgeiraey Nese ees 1-45 A'CRE, St. JEAN v’, or Acca, the biblical Accho, known as Ptolemads in the middle ages, is a sea-port on the coast of Syria, not far from the base of Mt. Carmel, and con- tains about 7000 inhabitants. The harbor is partly choked with sand, yet is one of the best on this coast. A. has often been the arena of warfare, and has suffered many changes of fortune. In 1110, it was taken by crusaders; in 1187, by the sultan Sala- din ; in 1191 was recaptured by the crusaders and afterwards became the seat of a bishop and of the Order of St. John; next, it fell into the hands of the Egyptians; and in 1517 was captured by the Turks; in 1799, it was besieged by the French for sixty-one days, but was successfully defended by the garrison, aided by a body of English sailors and marines under Sydney Smith. In 1832, it was stormed by Ibrahim Pasha, son of the viceroy of Egypt, and continued in his possession till it was bombarded and taken, in 1840, by a combined English, Austrian, and Turkish fleet. See Ecypr. ACRE’LIUS, Israren, {714-1800, b. in Sweden; studied at Upsal; was ordained in 1743; appointed provost of the Swedish congregation on the Delaware; came tc America and was pastor of the church at Christiana. After several years he returned to Sweden, and received a pension and a church living. He wrote a description of the Swedish set- tlements in America, translated into English in 1874. A’CRI, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Cosenza, 13 m. n. e. of the t. of Cosenza, ina beautiful and healthy situation, with a fertile country around. Pop. 12,000. Acritochromacy. Act. v4 ACRITOCHRO'MACY (Gr. akritos and chromatia, which, when associated, imply ‘‘ina bility to discriminate between colors”) is a term which seems likely to supersede color blindness, daltonism, achromotopsia, etc. AC’ROBAT, a word derived from the Greek, and nearly synonymous with rope-dancer. It literally signifies one who walks on tip-toe (akron, an extremity, and baino, I go); and is employed to designate those who perform difficult feats, vaulting, sliding, tumbling, and dancing on a slack or tight rope, stretched either horizontally or obliquely. These feats require great skill, suppleness, and steadiness. For a long time, acrobats were contented to divert and astonish only children or the most ignorant of the populace; but the extraordinary skill of some recent performers has given this perilous art a great celebrity. Within the nineteenth century, Farioso, Madame Saqui, and Signor Diavolo have excited admiration by their marvellous agility; Blondin was even more widely known. ‘The acrobats of antiquity appear to have closely resembled those of our own day. ACROCERAU'NIA, in ancient geography a promontory in the n.w. of Epirus, terminating in Montes Ceraunii, now cape Linqueeta ; lat. 40° 25’ n. The frequent striking of lightning at or near the mountain gave the name, which is equivalent to ‘thunderbolt peak.” ACRO-CORIN THUS, a steep hill of 2000 ft., near Corinth ; the site of the Acropo- lis or citadel, and commanding a beautiful view. ACROG'ENOUS PLANTS (Gr., growing at the summit) are plants in which the struc- ture of the stem is acrogenous—that is, in which the vascular bundles are developed sim- ultaneously, and not in succession, the stem increasing by the coherence of the bases of the leaves and by elongation at the summit. In a transverse section of stem a circle of vascular tissue is found near the circumference, and the centre is composed of cellular tissue, some por- tion of which frequently disappears, so that the stem, although solid when young, becomes hollow in a more ad- vanced stage of its growth. Tree- ferns afford the finest specimens of the acrogenous stem. All A. P. have stom- ata, or breathing-pores, on the surface. In general, they have a distinct stem and leaves arranged with most perfect symmetry. Some plants, in which the distinct stem is absent, are ranked with A. P., because the thallus has the texture of leaves, and exhibits a higher organization than in thallogenous plants (q.v.). A. P. are all acotyledonous (q. v.); and under this designation are included ferns, equisetacew, lycopodiacee, marsileacew, mosses, and hepatica. AC'ROLEIN (C.H;COH) is a colorless, limpid, strongly refracting liquid, lighter than water, having its boiling-point at about 126° F. It constitutes the acrid principle produced by the destructive distillation of fatty bodies, and is in part due to the decomposition of glycerine. It is best prepared by distilling a mixture of glycerine and anhydrous phos- phoric acid, the object of the latter being to effect the removal of the element of four atoms of water from the glycerine (CsH;Os), which contains the elements of acrolein (C2H;sCOH) + those of 2 molecules of water(2H:0). In its state of vapor it is extremely irritating to the eyes, nostrils, and respiratory organs—a property to which it owes its name. The pungent smell given off by the smouldering wick of a candle just blown out is due to the presence of acrolein. When mixed with a solution of potash or soda, the ir- ritating odor disappears, and is replaced by one of cinnamon ; while a brown resinous substance is formed ; and certain oxidizing agents, as oxide of silver, convert it into acry- lic acid (C2H;COOH). AC’ROLITHS (Gr. acron, extremity; lithos, a stone), the name given to the oldest works of Greek plastic art, in which wood-carving is seen in transition into marble statu ary. The trunk of the figure is still, in the old style, of wood, covered with the usual temple vestments; but the extremities—head, arms, feet—which are meant to appear naked from below the drapery, are of stone. AC’RON, a physician of Sicily in the 5th c. B.c., who is said to have originated the practice of stopping pestilence by purifying the air with large fires, though this is doubt ful. He wrote several works on medical subjects, but none of them are extant. ACROP’OLIS, ‘‘the highest point of the city.” Many of the important cities of Greece and Asia Minor were protected by strongholds, so named. The A. occupied a lofty position, commanding the city and its environs; inaccessible on all sides except one, which had, for the most part, artificial defenses. It contained some of the most impor- tant public buildings, especially temples, besides affording a last refuge in case of a hostile attack, The A., like the castle of the middle ages, had formed the center or nucleus Section of Acrogenous stem, 7 5 A ss gs needa me around which the town gradually grew. Among the most celebrated of the ancient A.s was that of Argos, whose name, Larissa, indicates its Pelasgic origin; that of Mesvenia, which bore the name of Ithome; that of Thebes, called Cadmea; that of Corinth, known as Acro-Corinthus; but especially that of Athens, which was styled pre-eminently the A. See ATHENS. ACROS TIC is a Greek term for a number of verses the first letters of which follow some predetermined order, usually forming a word—most commonly a name—or a phrase or sentence. Sometimes the final letters spell words as well as the initial, and the peculiarity will even run down the middle of the poem like a seam. Sir John Davies composed twenty-six Hymns to Astrea (Queen Elizabeth), in every one of which the initial letters of the lines form the words ExisanerHa Reeina, The following is one of the twenty-six: E v’ry night from ev’n to morn, L ove’s chorister amid the thorn I snow so sweet a singer; S osweet, as for her song I scorn A pollo’s voice and finger. B ut, nightingale, sith you delight E ver to watch the starry night, T ell all the stars of heaven, H eaven never had a star so bright A snow to earth is given. R oyal Astrea makes our day E ternal with her beams, nor may G ross darkness overcome her; I now perceive why some do write N ocountry hath so short a night A s England hath in summer. In the A. poetry of the Hebrews, the initial letters of the lines or of the stanzas were made to run over the letters of the alphabet in their order. Twelve of the psalms of the Old Testament are written on this plan. The 119th Psalm is the most remarkable. Itis composed of twenty-two divisions or stanzas (corresponding to the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet), each stanza consisting of eight couplets; and the first line of each couplet in the first stanza begins, in the original Hebrew, with the letter aleph, in the second stanza with beth, etc. The divisions of the psalm are named each after the letter that begins the couplets, and these names have been retained in the English translation. With a view to aid the memory, it was customary at one time to compose verses on sacred subjects after the fashion of those Hebrew acrostics, the successive verses or lines begin- ning with the letters of the alphabet in their order. Such pieces were called Abecedarian Hymns. See Hook's Church Dictionary. ACROTE'RION (Gr., the summit or extremity), a term in arch. for a statue or other ornament placed on the apex or at one of the lower angles of a pediment. Some under- stand by A. the pedestal on which such ornament stands. ACT, in the drama, is a distinct part of the general plot or action, and its conclusion is usually marked by a fall of the curtain. An act should be, in a certain sense, complete in itself, and at the same time should form a necessary part of the whole drama. As every dramatic plot naturally divides itself into three parts—the exposition, the develop- ment, and the conclusion or catastrophe—a division into three acts would seem most natural; but in practice it has been found inconvenient to inclose extended plots in such limits, and since the time of the ancient Greek tragedy, jive acts have generally been con- sidered necessary. In the first act, the general nature of the drama is indicated, the char- acters are introduced, and the action commences. The plot should rise in interest in the second, and reach its climax in the third act. In the fourth act, the conclusion or catastrophe should be prepared, but should by no means be anticipated so as to weaken the effect of the dénowement, which must occupy the fifth act. This is a rather difficult task; and, accordingly, many dramas fail in the fourth act. ACT, in English universities, is an exercise preparatory to receiving a degree. The student who ‘‘ keeps the act,’’ and who is called the ‘‘respondent,’’ reads a Latin thesis on some proposition which he has announced that he is to maintain. Three other stu dents, who have been named by the proctor as ‘‘ opponents,”’ then try, one after another, to refute his arguments syllogistically in Latin. The practice of keeping acts is still adhered to, as a form at least, at Cambridge. ACT, in law, has various meanings. In its more general acceptation it is used to denote the solemn accomplishment of some distinctive proceeding, as when a person in the U. S., when executing a legal instrument, declares it to be his act and deed. Formerly, in Scotiand, the word A. was frequently applied to the procedure in a litigated cause; and to this day the technical term to signify a plaintiff in Scotch pleading (which differs from that of England) is actor. By an A. is sometimes meant an act or proceeding, or rather the record of an act or proceeding, of a public nature—and in this sense it is used when we speak of an A. of Parliament (q.v.). This use of the word appears to be derived from the Romans, who employed acta to signify specially public official transactions, and oftener perhaps the records of such transactions. The Acta Diwrna was a kind of Action. 76 official Roman gazette, giving an account of the public transactions and events of the day. The Germans use acten, and the French actes, to signify official or legal docu- ments, or papers generally. : Pere Sally But the word A. has at the present day several precise legal applications, the princi- pal of which we now proceed to mention and explain : Act or Gop is a legal expression, and signifies any natural or accidental occurrence, not caused by human negligence or intervention ; such as the consequences arising from storms, lightning, tempests, etc., and which are deemed fatalities and losses such as no party under any circumstances (independently of special contract) is bound to make good to another. It has been ruled in England that the loss must be immediate, and the necessary consequence of the accident. es Act or INDEMNITY is an annual act of parliament passed for omissions in taking the oaths and assurances required by law of persons admitted to any public office or employ- ment. ACTA (DiurNA, Poputi, URBANA, or PuBLICa), a sort of daily newspaper published at Rome, chronicling the important events of the day, giving summaries of the principal legal and political orations, the decisions of the courts, news from the army and the latest gossip of the town. They seem also to have contained accounts of the trans- actions of the assemblies of the people, also of births, deaths, marriages, and divorces, accidents, prodigies, and the like, all of which were preserved as sources of future his- tory. When Antony offered Cesar a crown on the feast of the Lupercalia, Cesar ordered it to be noted in the Acta Diurna. The Acta are frequently said to have been introduced by Julius Cesar, but others believe them to have existed long before Cesar’s time, and to have supplanted the Annales, which fell into disuse about the year 131 B. c. The Latin scholar Hiibner has advanced strong arguments in support of the former view, although it was the practice before Cesar’s time for scribes to compile a manu- script chronicle of public events in the city of Rome, which was often forwarded with private letters to absent friends. The Annales took note only of the most important events, Whereas matters of far less importance were included in the Acta Diurna. The material for the Acta was gathered by reporters called actuarii, and the Acta were exposed in public places to be read or copied by any who chose to do so. After a reasonable period of time they were taken down and preserved with other public docu- ments. Personsin Rome were accustomed to keen their friends who were sojourning out of town informed of the progress of events and of the news generally, as gathered from the Acta Diurna. A passage in Petronius (cap. 53) gives an imitation of the Acta. From this it would appear that the style was very simple, and that only the bare facts were stated. ACTA MARTYRUM. This name was given by the ancient church to the records of the lives and sufferings of the Martyrs which were kept for the edification of the faith- ful. The oldest extant refer to the death of St. Ignatius of Antioch, who died about the year 107. St. Augustine speaks of these records as being read to the people on their festival days. Eusebius, the church historian, collected the Acta Martyrum in his two works, De Martyribus Palestine, and Synagoge Martyrum. ACT#’A, a genus of plants of the natural order ranunculacee (q.v.), the type of the sub- order actaee, distinguished by the colored imbricated calix and indehiscent succulent fruit. The genus actea has four deciduous sepals, four petals, and a single baccate carpel.— A.spicata, the baneberry or herb christopher, is a native of the n. of Europe, found in bushy places in some parts of England. It isa perennial herbaceous plant, about 1 to2 ft. high, with triternate leaves, and the leaflets deeply cut and serrated, the flowers in racemes, the berries black and poisonous. The root is anti-spasmodic, expectorant, and astringent, and is sometimes useful in catarrh. Botrophis actwoides (actea racemosa of Linnzeus) is a native of the U. 8., whose roots are said to possess similar qualities, and are also reputed as a remedy for the bite of the rattlesnake. ACTZ'ON, a mythical personage, a grandson of Cadmus. He was trained as a hunter by Chiron. Having once surprised Diana while bathing in a fountain, he was changed by the offended goddess into a stag, and his own dogs, not knowing him, tore him in pieces. According to Euripides, Diana was jealous because Actzeon had boasted that he excelled her in hunting. ACTA ERUDITO’RUM, the first literary serial in Germany ; was begun 1682 by Otto Mencke, professor in Leipsic university, published monthly in Latin, and kept in the founder’s family until 1754, when change of management and neglect reduced its circula. tion and reputation. The last volume, completing the record of science to the close of 1776, appeared in 1782. The whole set is in 117 vols, 4to. There have been many imita- tions in various countries, ACTA SANCTO RUM or Marryro, acts of saints or martyrs, the collective title given to several old writings, respecting saints and martyrs, in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, but now applied especially to one extensive collection begun by the Jesuits in the 17th c., and intended to serve as a better arrangement of the materials found in ancient works. This great undertaking, which was commenced by the Jesuit Heribert Rosweyd of Antwerp, has considerable importance, not only in a religious and ecclesiastical point 7 Action, ot view, but also with regard to history and archeology. After Rosweyd’s death, in 1629, J. Bolland was commissioned by the order of Jesuits to continue the work; and with the assistance of G. Henschen he prepared two volumes, which appeared in 1643. After the death of this editor (1665), the work was carried on by a society of learned Jesuits, who were styled ‘‘Bollandists,” until 1794, when its further progress was prevented through the invasion of Holland by the French. In recent times, the undertaking has been resumed; and in 1846 the fifty-fourth volume was published at Brussels. Several additional volumes have appeared since. The lives are arranged in the order of the calendar. A new edition of the first 54 vols. appeared in 1863-69. The sixty-fifth volume appeared in 1892. For notices of other and similar collections, see SAINTS, Martyr, and MARTYROLOGY. AC’TIAN GAMES. See Actium. ACTIN'IA, a genus of marine animals, belonging to the sub-kingdom ca@lenterata (see Sup KiIncpoMs, ANIMAL), and to the class actinozoa, of which latter group the genus is thoroughly typical. The animals included in this genus are famiarly known as ‘‘sea- anemones.” They are found attached by their bases to rocks and stones, and present the appearance of cylindrical fleshy bodies, possessing a mouth surrounded by numerous tentacles in the free extremity. These tentacles in the genus A. are of simple, tubu- lar conformation. They are perforated at their tips, and also possess sucker-like disks. The mouth leads into a stomach- sac, which (as in all ccelenterate animals) communicates freely below with the general body-cavity, and thus comes to resemble a pocket with the bottom cut out. The gtomach-sac is kept in its place by a series of vertical radiating plates, named lamella or mesenteries, to the faces of which the reproductive organs are attached. The actinide are capable of slow movements by expanding and contracting the muscu- lar bases of their bodies. ‘They may be cut and divided in various ways, with the result of producing new individuals by artificial Jission. Some species may attain a great age. ACTINISM, the property of the sun’s rays which produces chemical changes. See SPECTRUM. a, cavity of stomach ; b, surrounding chambers. ACTINOGRAPH (Gk., aktis, ray, beam, graphein, to describe), an instrument for meas- uring and recording the variations in the actznic or chemical force of the solar rays. By the actinic force is meant that power in the sun’s rays by which chemical changes are produced, as in photography. The intensity of the sun’s actinic rays is measured by an instrument called an actinometer. ACTINOM’ETER, an instrument to measure the heat of the sun’s rays; at first a common thermometer, the bulb blackened with nitrate of silver; then one with a large bulb filled with blue solution of ammonia and sulphate of copper, inclosed in a box with a plate-glass top, the expansion of the liquid to indicate the amount ofheat. Prof. John W. Draper of N. Y. next discovered that equal volumes of chlorine and hydro- gen form chlor-hydric acid in direct proportion to the actinic intensity of the light and the time of exposure... Subsequently Bunsen and Roscoe hit upon the same plan. There are other actinic reactions; as, in a solution of chloride of gold and oxalic acid, the gold precipitates on exposure to actinic rays. ACTION, in its large and general sense, means a judicial proceeding before a compe tent tribunal for the attainment of justice; and in this sense it is applied to procedure, whether criminal or cwil. In its more limited acceptation, it is used to signify proceed: ings in the czvi/ courts, where it means the form prescribed by law for the recovery of a right, or what is one’s due. In the law of England, the term A. used to be applied to proceedings in the courts of common law, as distinguished from those of eguity, where the word swt was used. What, in the courts of queen’s bench, common pleas, and exchequer, before the judicature act of 1878, was ealled action-at-law, was in the courts of equity called a suit in equity. See Common Law, Courts oF, and Equrry. In the Scotch law, which recognizes no distinction in legal administration between law and equity, the word A. is defined comprehensively as a demand regularly made and insisted on before the judge competent for the recovery of aright. Accordingly, while in Scotland there is, as in England, a remedy for every wrong, the law recognizes and gives effect to the right of a party to claim and to have declared a particular interest or right, even although that interest or right may not be withheld, or called in question. It is sufficient that it is doubtful, and that the ascertainment of it is necessary for the position and purposes of the plaintiff, or pursuer, as the Scotch law calls the active party. This procedure is known bythe name of an A. of declarator, which has been described as a suit in which something is prayed to be decreed in favor of the plaintiff, but nothing sought to be paid, performed, or done by the defendant. Lord Stair, in his Actium. 7 8 Act of Settlement. Institutes of the Law of Scotland, says, ‘‘such actions may be pursued for instructing or clearing any kind of right relating to liberty, dominion, or obligation ; and he further observes, ‘‘there is no right but is capable of declarator.” Various attempts have been made to introduce this mode of proceeding into the practice of the law in England, but as yet without success. The idea of the declarator has been said to have been derived by the Scotch lawyers from the French legal system, according to whose forms the existing administration of the Scotch law was originally molded. In the institutes of Justinian there are, however, indications of the partial use of this form of A. by the Roman lawyers. : We may add that the word A. is derived from the Latin actéo (agere), and that the plaintiff in a suit or action was originally said to be the actor, which, indeed, in the ~ recorded pleadings of the Scotch courts, his counsel or advocate still is called. In general, it may be said that no action can be maintained by a citizen against a gov- ernment without the government’s ae consent ; except in rare special cases no suit can be brought by a citizen against the U. 8.; relief must be sought by petition, or in the court of claims. State courts do not ordinarily contest acts of foreign states or sover- eigns for anything done or omitted in their public character. Here negotiation takes the place of suit. Modern statutes have much simplified proceedings under this title, and many old forms have been abandoned. In N. Y. an effort has been made to avoid all distinctive forms; there every other than a criminal is a civil action, having no other specific name; the design of the code being to give by this action every kind of relief which can be sought in civil causes. AC’TIUM (now Azio), a t. and promontory on the w. coast of Greece, at the entrance of the Ambraciot bay, now the gulf of Arta, is memorable for the sea-fight which took place near it, 2d Sept., 31 B.c., between Octavianus (afterwards the emperor Augustus) and Marcus Antonius. These two had for some time ruled the Roman world between them—the former in the w., the latter in the e.; it now came to a struggle for the sole sovereignty. The two armies were encamped on the opposite shores of the gulf: Octavian had 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 260 ships of war; Antony, 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 ships. Antony’s ships were large and well provided with engines for throwing missiles, but clumsy in their movements; Octavian’s were smaller and more agile. Antony was supported by Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, with 66 vessels, who induced him, against the opinion of his most experienced generals, to determine upon a naval engagement. The battle continued for some hours undecided; at last, Agrippa, who commanded Octavian’s fleet, succeeded, by a skillful maneuver, in compelling Antony to extend his line of battle, whose compactness had _ hitherto resisted all attempts of the enemy to break through. Cleopatra, whose ships were sta- tioned behind Antony’s line, apprehensive of. that line being broken, took to flight with her auxiliary fleet, and Antony recklessly followed her with a few of his ships. The aeserted fleet continued to resist bravely for some time, but was finally vanquished; the land-army, after waiting in vain seven days for Antony’s return, surrendered to Octa- vian. Asa memorial of the victory that had given him the empire of the world, and out of gratitude to the gods, Octavian enlarged the temple of Apollo at A., dedicated the trophies he had taken, and instituted games to be celebrated every five years. He also built, on the spot where his army had been encamped, the splendid city of Nicopo- lis (city of victory), near where Prevesa now stands. ACT OF PARLIAMENT is a resolution or law passed by all the three branches of the legislature—the king [or queen], lords, and commons. The expression is generally used to signify the record of an A. of P., and such records are strictly synonymous with the term ‘‘statutes,” or ‘‘statutes of the realm.” An A. of P. thus made is the highest legal authority acknowledged by the constitution. It binds every subject in the land, and even the sovereign himself, if named therein. And in England it cannot be altered, amended, dispensed with, suspended, or repealed, but in the same forms and by the same authority of parliament. In Scotland, however, a long course of contrary usage or of disuse may have the effect of depriving a statute of its obligation; for, by the Scotch law, a statute may become obsolete by disuse, and cease to be legally binding. It was formerly held in England that the king might in many cases dispense with penal statutes; but by the statute 1 W. and M. st. 2, c. 2, it is declared that the suspending or dispensing with laws by royal authority, without consent of parliament, is illegal. An A. of P. or statute is either public or private. A public act regards the whole community, but the operation of a private act is confined to particular persons and pri- vate concerns, and some private acts are local, as affecting certain places only. As the law till lately stood, the courts of law were bound ea officio to take judicial notice, as it is called, of public acts—that is, to recognize these acts as known and published law, without the necessity of their being specially pleaded and proved; but it was otherwise in regard to private acts; so that in order to claim any advantage under a private act, it was necessary to plead it, and set it forth particularly. But now, by the 13 and 14 Vict. c. 21, s. 7, every act made after the then next session of parliament is to be taken to be a public one, and judicially noticed as such, unless the contrary be expressly declared. _ Acts of P. are also sometimes described as declaratory, or penal, or remedial, accord- ing to the nature of their object or provisions. Declaratory statutes are where the old 79 Actium, Act of Settlement, custom of the kingdom has almost fallen into disuse, or become disputable, in which case the parliament has thought proper (én perpetuum ret testimonium, and for avoiding all doubts and difficulties) to declare what the common law is and ever has been. Penal acts-are those which merely impose penalties or punishments for an offense, as in the case of the statutes relative to game. Remedial acts are such as supply some defect in the existing law, and redress some abuse or inconvenience with which it is found to be attended, without introducing any provision of a penal character. There is also a dis- tinction of Acts of P. as being either enlarging or restraining, enabling or disabling acts. An A. of P. begins to operate from the time when it receives the royal assent, unless some other time be fixed for the purpose by the act itself. The rule on this subject, in England, was formerly different; for at common law, every A. of P., which had no pro- vision to the contrary, was considered, as soon as it passed (i.e., received the royal assent), as having been in force, retrospectively, from the first day of the session of par- liament in which it passed, though, in fact, it might not have received the royal assent, or even been introduced into parliament, until long after that day; and this strange prin- ciple was rigidly observed for centuries. The ancient acts of the Scotch parliament were proclaimed in all the county towns, burghs, and even in the baron courts. This mode of promulgation was, however, gradually dropped as the use of printing became common; and in 1581 an act was passed declaring publication at the market cross of Edinburgh to be sufficient. British statutes require no formal promulgation; and in order to fix the time from which they shall become binding, it was enacted by the 33 Geo. III. c. 18, that every A. of P. to be passed after 8th April, 17938, shall commence from the date of the indorsement by the clerk of parliament, stating the day, month, and year when the act was passed and received the royal assent, unless the commence- ment shall, in the act itself, be otherwise provided for. An A. of P. consists of various parts—such as the title, the preamble, the enacting sections and clauses, and sometimes certain forms or schedules added by way of appen- dix—and it is referred to by the year of the sovereign’s reign, and the chapter of the statutes for that year. The old acts of the Scotch parliament, before the union with England, are cited by the year in which they were passed, and the order of the number or chapter. See STATUTES, ScotcH STATUTES, and PARLIAMENT: ACT OF SETTLEMENT, a name given to the statute 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2, by which the crown was limited to the family of the present sovereign, Queen Victoria. It was tow- ard the end of king William III.’s reign, when all hopes of other issue died with the duke of Gloucester, that, as we are told by Blackstone, the king and parliament thought it necessary again to exert their power of limiting and appointing the succession, in order to prevent another vacancy of the throne, which must have ensued upon their deaths, as no further provision was made at the revolution than for the issue of Queen Mary, Queen Anne, and King William. The parliament had previously, by the statute of 1 W. and M. st. 2, c. 2, enacted, that every person who should be reconciled to or hold com- munion with the see of Rome, should profess the Roman Catholic religion, or should marry a Roman Catholic, should be excluded from succession to, and be forever incapable to inherit, possess, or enjoy the crown; and that in such case the people should be absolved from their allegiance, and the crown should descend to such persons, being Protestants, as would have inherited the same, if the person so reconciled, holding com- munion, professing ormarrying, were naturally dead. To act, therefore, consistently with themselves, and, at the same time, pay as much regard to the old hereditary line as their former resolutions would admit, they turned their eyes on the Princess Sophia, electress and duchess-dowager of Hanover; for upon the impending extinction of the Protestant posterity of Charles I., the old law of regal descent directed them to recur to the descendants of James I.; and the princess Sophia, being the youngest daughter of Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia, who was the daughter of James I., was the nearest of the ancient blood-royal who was not incapacitated by professing the Roman Catholic religion. On her, therefore, and the heirs of her body, being Protestants, the remainder of the crown expectant on the death of King William and Queen Anne without issue, was settled by statute 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2. And at the same time it was enacted that whosoever should thereafter come to the possession of the crown, should join in the communion of the church of England as by law established. This is the last limitation of the crown that has been made by parliament; and the several actual imitations, from the time of Henry IV. to the present, clearly prove the ower of the king and parliament to remodel or alter the succession, It is even made ane penal to dispute such power, for by the statute 6 Anne, c. 7, it is enacted, that if any person maliciously, advisedly, and directly shall maintain, by writing or printing, that the kings of this realm, with the authority of parliament, are not able to make laws to bind the crown and the descent thereof, he shall be guilty of high treason; or if he maintains the same by only preaching or advised speaking, he shall incur the penalties of premuntre. The Princess Sophia dying before Queen Anne, the inheritance, thus limited, descended on her son and heir, King George I.; and having, on the death of the queen, taken effect in his person, from him it descended to King George II.; from him to his grandson and heir, King George III.; from him to his son George IV., who was succeeded t of Uniformity. a of the Apostles, 80 by his brother, William IV.; and from the monarch last mentioned the crown descended to his heiress, the daughter of his brother Edward, duke of Kent, the present sovereign Queen Victoria. ‘‘ Hence,’ Blackstone remarks, ‘‘it is easy to collect that the title to the crown is at present hereditary, though not quite so absolutely hereditary as formerly ; and the com- mon stock or ancestor from whom the descent must be derived is also different. For- merly, the common stock was King Egbert, afterwards William the Conqueror, and now it is princess Sophia, in whom the inheritance was vested by the new king and parliament. Formerly, the descent was absolute, and the crown went to the next heir without any restriction ; but now, upon the new settlement, the inheritance is con- ditional ; being limited to such heirs only of the body of the princess Sophia as are Protestants, members of the church of England, and are married to none but Prot- estants.” ACT OF UNIFORMITY is the name by which the English statute 138 and 14 Car. II. is usually described. By that statute it was enacted that the book of common prayer, as then recently revised, should be used in every parish church and other place of public worship in England, and that every school-master and person instructing youth should subscribe a declaration of conformity to the liturgy, and also to the effect of the oath and declaration mentioned in the act of 13 Car. II. st. 2, c. 1. It further enacted that no person should thenceforth be capable of holding any ecclesiastical promotion or dignity, or of consecrating or administering the sacrament, till he should be ordained priest according to episcopal ordination, and with respect to all ministers who then enjoyed any ecclesiastical benefice, it directed that they should, within a certain period, openly read morning and evening service, according to the book of common prayer, and declare before the congregation their unfeigned assent and consent to the use of all things therein contained, upon pain of being ipso facto deprived of their spiritual promotions. By this statute, 2000 of the clergy, who refused to comply, were deprived of their preferments. Acts to secure uniformity were passed under Edward VI. (1549) and Elizabeth (1559). ACTON, Sir JoHN FrRaNcIS EDWARD, 1787-1811. He was a native of Besangon, son of Edward Acton, a physician. He served in the French and Tuscan navies, command- ing a frigate in the expedition against Algiers in 1774. For gallantry in rescuing some thousands of Spanish soldiers from slavery he was promoted, becoming commander-in- chief of the Neapolitan sea and land forces; next, minister of finance, and finally prime minister. His measures, prompted by his extreme hatred of France, were intolerant, and ultimately caused a reaction against the royal family of Naples, and in favor of the French party and the Carbonari. When the French entered Naples in 1806 he fled to Sicily, where he died, contemned by all parties ; though there is doubt about his responsibility for the ill treatment of political prisoners. He married, by papal dispensation, the daughter of his brother Joseph, who was also engaged in the Neapolitan service. ACTON, Lorp JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG, English historian, b. at Naples, 1854. He was brought under the influence of Dr. Dollinger, whose ‘‘ Old Catholic’’ views he adopted, zealously opposing the dogma of papal infallibility. He has edited and contri- buted articles to magazines and won a high reputation both for learning and for vigor of expression. In 1895 he was appointed regius professor of modern history at Cambridge. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the fifth book of the New Testament, the authorship of which is ascribed by tradition, and with the highest probability, to the evangelist Luke. Beginning with the ascension of Christ, it gives an account of the spread of the Christian church; confined, however, chiefly to the part taken therein by the apostle Paul. WNot- withstanding its title, little is said of the other apostles, with the exception of Peter. The narrative closes with the year 62 A.p., Paul being then a prisoner at Rome. The book has always been received as canonical, except by a few Manichean heretics; but its historical character has been impugned by the Tiibingen school. Spurious acts were put in circulation by early Christian sects. The introduction to the Acts of the Apostles connects it with the third gospel as written by the same author and addressed to the same person. That both were from the same hand is also to be inferred from the similarity of style, idiom, and diction. In modern times some writers have attempted a criticism invalidating both the external testimony on this point and the internal proba- bilities and proofs. A single specimen may be given of the reasoning on which they rely for dislodging this book from its place in scripture, or at least for lowering the estimation in which it isheld. ‘‘ According to the gospel ascribed to Luke, all the events related of Jesus after the resurrection took place, or seem to have taken place, on the day of the resurrection, or they may possibly have extended into the next morning, but certainly not later. The A. on the contrary states that Jesus was seen by the disciples for forty days after the resurrection.” This is a summary way of developing a contra- diction where none exists. The agecount of these events in Luke’s gospel is indeed brief and condensed, but it does not assert or imply that they all took place at once. Points in the narrative fairly admit, and rationally require, the supposition of intervals of time. The other gospels, also, declare or imply such intervals. The accounts of Matthew and Mark are more condensed than even Luke’s. John’s is much more extended. It marks off expressly several intervals, and says that one of them was a week long. All these accounts, therefore, taken together, prepare the way for the statement in the A. that the whole time between the resurrection and the ascension amounted to 40 days. The Greek title, it wil be observed, does not indicate that the book contains a complete history of the apostles of Christ in their work of proclaiming the gospel. It is not ‘‘ the 81 Act of Uniformity. Act of Toleration. acts” (which indeed the English translation does make it), as if all were intended, but “acts” as only a part. This is in strict accordance with the contents. In the opening of the book, the names of the eleven apostles and of the twelfth (chosen to fill the place of Judas) having been given, the actions and words of Peter at once become prominent; then Peter and John are mentioned together, and soon Peter’s course only is given. After 12 chapters, of which the larger part of one relates to Paul’s conversion, the rest of the book is filled chiefly with this last apostle’s work and things connected with it. Jerusalem, the church, and the apostles there, scarcely appear except as connected with Paul. The narrative ends with the year 62 A.D. The contents of the book may be noted as follows: I. An exhibition of the ever-present, controlling, and administrative agency of the Lord Jesus, from his exalted sphere at the right hand of God, putting forth the powers of his risen life and giving organization to his spiritual and everlasting kingdom. We have his commands to the apostles, his direction of the choice of Judas’s successor, his sending down the Holy Spirit, his turning men from their sins and adding them to his church, his working of miracles by the instrumentality of the apostles, his sending Peter to open the door of faith to the Gentiles and Philip to guide the Ethiopian in his effort to under- stand the scripture, his delivering Peter from prison and Paul from his mad career. Il. A record of the gift and operations of the Holy Spirit. The Savior at the close of his work on earth promised that he would send from the Father the Spirit of truth to abide with his disciples, to reveal the truth to them and to convince the world of sin, righteousness, and judgment. The A. records the fulfillment of the promise and exhibits the work of the Holy Spirit in the minds and hearts of men of various nations. It thus becomes the connecting link between the gospels and the epistles which describe the spirit’s progressive work. Ill. The account of the planting and spread of the Christian church. Tt records the names of the apostles, the number of the original company at Jerusalem, and the beginning of the church there. It shows that the life of Jesus was appealed to among those who had witnessed it; that his Messiahship was defended in the hearing of those who had crucified him for asserting it; that the divine appointment of his death was proclaimed in the midst of those who had inflicted it as a malefactor’s doom; that his resurrection was affirmed in the face of those who had buried him and exercised official guardianship over his grave; that the first adherents to his religion were gained among the crucifiers themselves, including priests as well as the people; that the faith in him spread immediately among Jews and proselytes, then in Jerusalem, who belonged to the chief countries of the Roman empire, and to some beyond its bounds; and that, the Gentiles being speedily admitted by divine command to the full blessings of salvation, the church was rapidly extended into Judea, Samaria, Phenice, Cyprus, Syria, Asia Minor, Illyria, and Italy. IV. Conclusive evidence of the divine origin of Christianity. It shows that, advancing from a very small beginning, by the instrumentality of unarmed men, opposed by the power of the Roman empire; of private persons, opposed by the authority of the Jewish and pagan priesthoods; of unlettered men, opposed by all the culture of the times, it prevailed over the mightiest institutions, the most formidable barriers, the most malig- nant persecutions, and prevailed by the power of God. When the historian Gibbon was investigating the decline and fall of the Roman empire he found that ‘‘an inquiry into the progress and establishment of Christianity constituted an essential part of the history of the Roman empire.” ‘‘ While that great body,” he says, ‘‘was invaded by open violence or undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble religion gently insinu- ated itself into the minds of men, grew up in silence and obscurity, derived new vigor from opposition, and finally erected the triumphant banner of the cross on the ruins of the capitol.” His curiosity having been awakened ‘‘to inquire by what means the Christian faith obtained so remarkable a victory over the established religions of the earth,” he ventures to give what he calls five secondary causes of the rapid growth of the Christian church. All these are vital portions of Christianity, and, as stated by him, they are seen to amount to this, that it was the prevalence of Christianity that promoted the triumph of Christianity, as a great conflagration is promoted by the spreading of the fiames. The book of A. supplies the necessary beginning to Gibbon’s account by showing how the fire was kindled, how the essential elements of Christianity were produced, His causes are: 1. ‘‘ The zeal of the Christians ~” and the A. informs us how the Christians came into existence and how their zeal was first produced and then “purified.” 2. ‘‘ The doctrine of a future life ;” and the A. declares the source whence the doctrine was obtained and ‘‘improved.” 38. ‘‘ The miraculous powers ascribed to the primitive church ;” and the A. explains how the primitive church began, and on what evidence the miraculous powers were so ascribed to it as to secure its triumph. 4. ‘ The pure and austere morals of the Christians ;” and the A. reveals how their morals came to be pure and austere, in the midst of an abounding corruption too horrible to be looked upon, and nowhere more fully revealed than in Gibbon’s own work. 5. ‘‘ The wnion and discipline of the Christian republic ;” and the A. demonstrates how the church came to be ‘‘a republic in the midst of the empire,” in what its ‘‘union’ consisted, how its “discipline” was maintained, and by what power ‘‘it became an independent and increasing state.” a qae 82 V. The close of Scripture history in relation to the Jews, In the great interest awakened. by the book as recording the first preaching to the Gentiles, comparatively little notice is taken of the fact that it records also the last preaching to the Jews. The book opens with the preaching of the gospel to the Jews, the acceptance of it by some of them, and the bitter opposition made to it by the rest which at length drove away a large part of the Christians from Jerusalem and in a great degree brought the preaching to the Jews there to an end. When Paul came there after his conversion he began to preach zealously to the Jews, but they would not receive his word, and he was commanded by the Lord to leave the city. At Antioch, in Pisidia, he preached earnestly to Jews and Gentiles, but when the former contradicted and blasphemed he turned, by divine command, to the latter. A similar result was witnessed in Iconium, Lystra, Thessa- lonica, Berea, Corinth, and Ephesus. When, late in life, he went again to Jerusalem, as it proved for the last time, the opposition of the Jews was more furious than before, and after a narrow escape from death at their hands and an imprisonment, continuing more than two years, through their instrumentality, he was constrained to appeal unto Cesar. Three days after his arrival at Rome he sent for the resident Jews, and had a day appointed for making known the gospel to them, on which, from morning to evening, he expounded, testified, and persuaded concerning Jesus out of the law and the prophets. The result then was that some believed and others believed not; and again Paul turned to the Gentiles. With this narrative the A. ends, abruptly, as many say, with respect to Paul and the gospel, but appropriately with respect to the Jews. If no reason can be shown why Christian history should here be cut short, certainly it was necessary that Jewish history should here come to an end. For, in a little while after Paul’s imprisonment at Rome, Jerusalem was destroyed and the Jews were scattered abroad. And thus the A. completes the unity of the historical books of scripture whose constant and ultimate, though not always direct, reference is to the Jews. ACTS, SPURIOUS OR APOCRYPHAL, are treatises or sentences which purport to have been written by or concerning Christ, the apostles aud other disciples. Many of these are now known only through the statements of ancient authors. Others are extant. J. One class profess to be words of Christ, and are supposed by some writers to have been derived from early accounts concerning him, of which many had been written before the gospel of Luke (i. 1). Some of them, in all probability, were merely inaccu- rate quotations from the genuine gospels; others have no external testimony to establish their genuineness and no merit to make them worthy of regard. ‘The beautiful words, not recorded in the gospels, which Paul quoted to the Ephesians as words of Christ, ‘“It is more blessed to give than to receive,” are not properly included in the class now described, for they are vouched for as genuine words of Christ, by an inspired apostle who had many ways of learning the truth about them, and have always had a place in an undisputed book of the New Testament. II. Many spurious treatises called Acts of the Apostles were written at now unknown dates. Of some of these little more is known than that they once existed; of others fragments remain, and several are extant entire. A selection was printed at London in 1821 under the title, Apocryphal New Testament. They abound in fabulous, puerile, and visionary statements which are unworthy of notice. III. Among the treatises of this general class, the A. of Pilate deserves to be singled out as probably genuine and valuable. It is well known that accounts of all important events that occurred at Rome were carefully preserved either in the Acts of the Senate or the Daily Acts of the People. In like manner it was the duty of the governors of provinces to send to the senate or the emperor reports of their adminis- tration, including accounts of the remarkable transactions that occurred in their region. These were called the ‘‘acts” of their government, and were not published for general perusal, but deposited among the archives of the empire, as are state papers now, for in- formation to historians. There is every reason to believe that Pilate sent such a report of his administration to Rome, and that it included an account of Jesus who was called Christ. And it is certain that the primitive Christians, in defending their faith, appealed to these A. of Pilate as to testimony which could not be denied. Justin Martyr, in his . first defense of the Christians, presented, 140 a.p., to the emperor and senate, having mentioned the crucifixion of Jesus and some of the events connected with it, says: ‘“That these things were so done, you may know from the acts made in the time of Pontius Pilate.” And again, having recounted some of the miracles of Jesus, such as healing diseases and raising the dead, he adds: ‘‘ And that these things were done by him you may know from the acts made in the time of Pontius Pilate.” Tertullian, also, in his defense of Christianity, 200 a.p., says: ‘‘Of all these things relating to Christ, Pilate himself sent an account to Tiberius, then emperor.” See APOCRYPHA. ACTUARY. The actwarii, in ancient Rome, were clerks who recorded the acta of the senate and other public bodies. The term might therefore, so far as its etymology is concerned, be applied to men of business in general. But in the constantly increasing tendency to subdivide labor and specialize functions, there has arisen, in recent times, a distinct branch of business, embracing all monetary questions that involve a consideration of the separate or combined effect of interest and probability, especially as connected with the duration of human life; and it is to one who devotes himself to this department of business that the name of A. has been specially assigned. The investigations and calcu- 8 3 aTwele lations of the A. supply the principles of operation for the numerous institutions now engaged in the transaction of life-assurance, annuity, and reversionary business. His functions might be briefly defined as the application of the doctrine of probabilities to the affairs of life. ACU'LEUS, in botany. See PRICKLE, A'CUPRESSURE, a mode of arresting hemorrhage from cut arteries. It is based on the principle of temporary metallic compression, and was first suggested to the scientific world by Sir James Y. Simpson, bart., in a paper read before the royal society of Edinburgh, Dec., 1859. The simplest mode of practicing it may be thus described: The needle is passed through the flaps or sides of the wound, so as to cross over and compress the orifice of the bleeding artery, just as in putting a flower in the lapel of one’s coat, one crosses over and compresses the flower-stalk with a pin pushed twice through the lapel. The middle portion of the needle—the only part of it which is in immediate contact with the fresh surface of the wound—bridges over and compresses the artery at its bleeding orifice, or perhaps a line or two more on its cardiac side. The head and point of the needle are exposed externally on the cutaneous surface of the flap or side of the wound. ‘‘ When passing the needle in this method,” says Sir J. Y. Simpson, ‘‘the surgeon usually places the point of his left forefinger or of his thumb upon the mouth of the bleeding vessel, and with his right hand introduces the needle from the cutaneous surface, and passes it right through the whole thickness of the flap till its point projects for a couple of lines or sofrom the surface of the wound, a little to the right side of the tube of the vessel. Then. by forcibly inclining the head of the needle towards his right, he brings the pro- jecting portion of its point firmly down upon the site of the vessel; and after seeing that it thus quite shuts the artery, he makes it re-enter the flap as near as possible to the left side of the vessel, and pushes on the needle till its point comes out again at the cutaneous surface. In this mode, we use the cutaneous walls and component substance of the flap as a resisting medium, against which we compress and close the arterial tube. But in some wounds, a neighboring bone or other firm unyielding texture forms the best and readiest point of resistance against which to pin and compress the artery by the acupres. sure needle.” Surgeons now seldom use acupressure. ACUPUNCT'URE (Lat., puncturing or pricking with a needle [acus]) is a very ancient remedy, and one practiced extensively in the east, for the cure of headaches, lethargies, etc. In Europe it is principally employed to relieve neuralgic pains, and these of chronic rheumatism, Steel needles are made use of, about 3 in. long, and set in handles. The surgeon, by a rotatory movement, passes one or more to the desired depth in the tissues, and leaves them there from a few minutes to an hour. Their insertion is accompanied by no pain, except the first prick—a fact the quacks of the 16th c. did not fail to take advantage of. According to Jerome Cardan, they traveled from place to place practicing A., and before inserting the needle, they rubbed it with a peculiar kind of magnet, either believing, or pretending, that this made the operation painless. The relief to pain afforded by this simple operation is sometimes astonishing, and the wounds are so minute as to be perfectly harmless.—The needles are sometimes used as conductors of the galvanic current to deep-seated parts, and are sometimes made hollow—on the suggestion of Dr. Alexander Wood of Edinburgh—to allow of a small quantity of some sedative solution being injected into the tissues, by which even the terrible pain of tic-douloureux may be almost immediately relieved. See NEURALGIA. ACUTE DISEASES. See DIsEASE. ADA, a co. in s.w. Idaho, on Snake river, near the Oregon border ; organized in 1864 ; 2500 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 8368, Mining is the principal business. Co. seat, Boise city, which is the capital of the state. A'DA, at. of the Austrian empire, in Hungary, 8m. s, of Zenta. Pop., 11,100. ADAFU'DIA, a t. of the Felattah country, w. Africa, about 400 m. s.e. from Tim- buctoo, in about 13° 6’ n. lat., and 1° 3’ e. long. It is situated in a dry, healthy, and fer- tile plain, and is surrounded bya mud wail. Pop. supposed to be about 24,000. A large trade is carried on, and slaves form a principal part ot the merchandise. ADA'GIO, a slow movement or measure of time in music, between largo, grave, and andante. In our more extended compositions of instrumental or chamber music, the second or third movement is generally marked adagio, and serves as a contrast with the rapid and energetic movement of the preceding and following parts of the sonata or symphony. The A. must be written in a measure of time which will afford scope for a flowing and expressive slow melody with a gracefully varied accompaniment. Without contrasted movement and a lively variety in the accompaniment, the slow air would have a monoto- nous or dull effect. A clear and expressive execution of the A. is a sure test of ability and good taste in the player or singer, as it demands a pure and beautiful intonation, a true reading and phrasing of the cantilena, even in its most minute details, and a care- ful attention to all points of effect. The finest specimens of the A. are found in the works of the old masters, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, and are as distinct in their features as Gate: 84 were the composers in their personal characteristics. In recent works, our composers have generally succeeded better in their rapid movements than in the A. ADAIR’, a co. in s.w. Iowa, on the head streams of Nodaway river ; 576 sq.m. ; pop. 90, 14,534. The surface is mostly level; the chief productions are agricu.tural. Co. seat, Greenfield. ADAIR’, a co. in s. Kentucky; 400 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 13,721, with colored. The surface is hilly, with good timber and fertile soil; there is plenty of water power, with several factories ; chief products, corn and tobacco. Co. seat, Columbia. ADAIR’, a co. in n.e. Missouri, on Chariton river; 570 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 17,417, with colored. The chief products are corn and tobacco, Co. seat, Kirksville. ADAIR’, Sir RoBeRtT, 1763-1855 ; b. in London ; son of a sergeant-surgeon to George III. and a relative of Charles James Fox. He entered parliament in 1802 as a whig ; in 1806 Fox sent him to Vienna, and in 1808 Canning sent him on a special mission to Turkey, where he concluded the treaty of the Dardanelles. He remained English repre- sentative in Turkey until 1811. In 1831 he was sent to the new kingdom of Belgium, and was prominent in later peace negotiations. In 1835 he retired with the rank of privy councilor. At the age of 82 he wrote memoirs of his residence at Vienna and elsewhere abroad. ADAL’ and ApreL. The name Adal is applied by geographers to the flat country lying between Abyssinia and the Red sea, from Massowah, in n. lat. 15° 40’, to the bay of Tajurra, lat. 11° 80’... Adel would seem to designate the coast-country from Tajurra to cape Guardafui, part of which is known as the country of the Somauli. AD’ALBERT, a French bishop and missionary to the German heathen, about the middle of the 8th ec. St. Boniface charged him with heresy in giving his own hair and nails as relics, and he was condemned to execution, but died in prison. His few dis- ciples were called Adalbertines. AD ALBERT, Saint, d. 997, ‘‘the apostle of the Prussians.”” He was educated at Magdeburg ; in 983 chosen bishop of Prague; failing to convert the Bohemians, he retired to a monastery near Rome; went back in 998, but again retired in discourage- ment ; in 995 he baptized the future St. Stephen, the first king of the Hungarians ; at last went as a missionary to Poland and Prussia, and was murdered by the natives. AD’ALBERT, d. 1072. He was made archbishop of Bremen in 1048 by Henry III., whom he accompanied to Rome, where he became a candidate for the papacy, barely missing the election. Leo IX. made him his legate in the north. During the minority of Henry [V., A. and Archbishop Hanno, of Cologne, usurped the administration of the empire, but he became obnoxious to the princes, and they succeeded in separating him from the emperor ; however, he soon after regained his influence and kept it as long as he lived. AD’ALBERT, HEINRICH WILHELM, 1811-73; b. Berlin; prince, and cousin of the emperor of Germany. He went into the artillery service in the army of Prussia when young, but having a taste for travel he visited most of the countries of Europe, and crossed the ocean to Brazil. In 1848 he was charged with organizing the German navy, and made admiral. In 1856 he made a voyage in the Mediterranean, and was slightly wounded in a fight with pirates off Morocco. He became commander of the marine of Prussia, and when the German empire was established was continued inspector-gen. of the new marine. He was under medium height and in no way conspicuous, unless for carelessness in dress ; but he was sharp withal, and jovial. In 1850 he made a morgan- atic marriage with Baroness von Barmin (Thérése, the dancer, and sister of Fanny Elssler). They had ason who died young. ADA'LIA, anciently Aftalia, the chief seaport on the s. coast of Asia Minor, inn. lat. 36° 52’, e. long. 30° 45’. The streets rise like the seats of a theatre, up the slope of the hill behind the harbor. Pop. 13,000. ADAM (of Bremen), an old historical writer, whose work, entitled Gesta Hammenbur- gensis Keclesie Pontificum gives a history of the archbishopric of Hamburg from 788 a.p, to the death of the archbishop Adalbert in 1072. This work has great historical value; in addition to its notices of ecclesiastical affairs, it gives accounts of the northern Slavonie tribes, which the author collected during a visit to the Danish king Svend Estrithson. A. was canon and magister scholarum at Bremen from 1067 to the time of his death, which took place in 1076. ADAM, ADOLPHE CHARLES, composer, b. in Paris in 1803; d. there in 1856. In 1817 he entered the conservatory, and studied composition under Boieldieu ; began writing piano fantasies and variations; wrote the operas of ‘‘ Pierre et Catherine ” in 1829, and the ‘’ Postillon de Longjumeau,” in 1836, by which he is best known. His autobiography and souvenirs were published (Paris, 1860). See Adolphe Adam, sa vie, ete., by A. Pougin. A’DAM, AtBrecut, 1786-1862; d. Munich. He studied painting in Nuremberg, served in the Austrian campaigns against Napoleon, but subsequently served with Beauharnais, and painted the battle-scene of Lobau. He accompanied Eugéne in the campaign of 1812 as far as Moscow, and prepared drawings to illustrate Eugéne’s Adair, 85 Adana military career ; painted several large war pictures—his last being the ‘‘ Battle of the Moskva,” for King Louis of Bavaria. ADAM, JmAN (1710-1765), was a Scotch poetess, who was born near Greenock, Scot- land. In her earlier life she was a teacher ; leaving that, after a time, she became a street vender, crying her wares on the street. She lived a joyless life, and died in the Glasgow poorhouse. She published a volume of religious poems in 1734. It is claimed for her that she is the author of ‘‘ There’s nae Luck aboot the House ;” but the quality of her poems does not seem to support the claim. ADAM, Mme. JutieTte. See LAMBER, JULIETTE. ADAM, RoBeERt, a distinguished architect, was born at Edinburgh in 1728. His father, William Adam, of Maryburgh, ia Fifeshire, was also an architect of no mean repute. After receiving a university education, Robert A. proceeded in 1754 to Italy, and thence to Dalmatia, where he devoted some time, in conjunction with Clerisseau, a French archi tect, to exploring and making drawings of the ruins of Diocletian’s palace at Spalatro. On his return to Britain he rapidly rose to distinction, was appointed architect to the king, and obtained extensive employment. The publication, in 1764, of the results of his labors at Spalatro, contributed to his reputation. # In opposition to the heavy style of architecture prevalent at the time, A. introduced a taste for lightness and decoration, which, however, tended to the opposite extreme of weakness and triviality. Those, how- ever, who form the lowest estimate of the general character of his designs, grant him the merit of having effected great reforms in British domestic architecture generally. In 1768 A. was elected m.p. for the county of Kinross. During upwards of twenty-five years, his practice, in partnership with his brother James,was more extensive than that of any other architect of the time. In 1778, the brothers commenced to publish a series of engravings of their chief designs, which was continued for some years. Robert died in 1792, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The most generally admired of his works is the register house, Edinburgh. Kedleston hall, near Derby, is regarded by some as his greatest work. Among his other principal works are the university buildings and St. George’s church, Edinburgh (both altered from the original design), the Glasgow infir- mary, the Adelphi buildings, London, the screen to the admiralty, Caen-wood house, Luton house (altered), Lansdowne house, etc. ADAMAN'TINE SPAR. See CorunDUM. ADAMANT. (Gr. a, neg., damao,T tame.) A term now used to express any substance of extraordinary hardness. The name was attached to a supposed stone, or mineral, as to the properties of which vague notions long prevailed. It was identified with the lodestone or magnet, and often used as synonymous with it by early writers. This confusion ceased with the 17th century, but the word, for a long time, had currency among scientific writers as a synonym with diamond. The use of the term to denote the lodestone seems to have been due to the early Latin medical writers, who apparently derived the word from the Latin adamare, ‘‘to have an attraction for.” ADAM and EVE. The narrative of the creation and fall of A. and E. is given in Genesis. To the scriptural account the later Jewish writers in the Talmud have made many tasteless additions. They tell us that the stature of A., when first created, reached to the heavens, while the splendor of his countenance surpassed that of the sun. The very angels stood in awe of him, and all creatures hastened to worship him. Then the Lord, in order to show the angels his power, caused a sleep to fall on A., and removed a portion of every limb. A. thus lost his vast stature, but remained perfect and complete. His first wife was Zilith, the mother of demons; but she fled from him, and afterwards E. was created for him, At the marriage of A. and E., angels were present, some play: ing on musical instruments, others serving up delicious viands; while the sun, moon, and stars danced together. ‘The happiness of the human pair excited envy among the angels, and the seraph Sammael tempted them and succeeded in leading them to their fall from innocence.—According to the Koran, all the angels paid homage to A., excepting Eblis, who, on account of his refusal, was expelled from paradise. To gratify his revenge, Eblis seduced A. and E., and they were separated. Adam was penitent, and lived ina tent on the site of the temple of Mecca, where he was instructed in the divine command- ments by the archangel Gabriel. After 200 years of separation, he again found E. on Mt. Arafat. Many other traditions of the Jews and the Mohammedans respecting A. ind E. may be found in Herbelot’s Bibliotheque Ortentale.—In the system of the Christian Gnostics and Manicheeans, A. is one of the highest zons.—According to the Calvinistic theology, A. was the covenant head or federal representative of the whole human race, who were thus involved in the consequences of his breach of the covenant (q.v.) which God made with him at his creation. This view is supported by reference to the parallel drawn between A. and Christ in Rom. v. and 1 Cor. xv., in the latter of which chapters Christ is called, in contradistinction to A., ‘‘the second man,” and ‘‘the last A.” ADAM pE LA HALLE, ApAamMauvRA, or ‘‘The Hunchback of Arras,” one of the wandering poets or trouvéres of the 18th ¢., b. in Arras Artois, about 1240, d. in Naples between 1285-’8. He was in the suite of count Robert of Artois in 1282, and Charles Anjou, whom he followed to Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Italy. A.’s works were superior to those of most of his contemporaries, and had enough of dramatic quality to secure for him a place among the founders of the drama in France. He had also much influence upon the formation of the French language, and his technical knowledge of Ad . Adams. 86 music places him as a link between the déchanteurs and the early contrapuntists of the Flemish school. His compositions include chansons, motets, and his famous Rodin et Mariam. See Coussemaker’s @uvres conplétes du trouvere Adam de la Halle (Paris, 1872), and Ambros’s Geschichte der Musik (vol. I1.). ADAMAW’A, the Mohammedan name of a country in central Africa, visited by Dr. Barth in 1851; in the British sphere of influence; on both sides of the upper Benue; capital, Yola, a city of 12,000 inhabitants. A. is a sub-kingdom, composed of a mix- ture of pagan tribes conquered by the Foolah chieftain Adama, who subdued the region when it was known as the kingdom of Fumbina. It is a fine country, well watered, generally flat, rising toward the s. to 1,500 ft. or more, with a few groups of mountains, which range from 3,000 to 9,000 ft. in height. It contains good graz- ing lands and is rich in cattle. Elephants are common; the ayu, an animal resem- bling a seal, lives in the rivers, feeding at night on the grass of their banks; and there is an indigenous ox, dark gray and less than three feet high. The standard of value is native cotton cloth 2} in. wide, length indicating price. It is under the pro- tectorate of the Royal Niger Company, which has a station at Yola, but it is governed directly by a native Foolah dynasty, which acknowledges the sway of the sultan of Sokoto. A'’DAMITES, a sect of fanatics who spread themselves in Bohemia and Moravia in the 15th and 16th c., but had no connection with the Hussites. One Picard is said to have been the founder of the sect about 1400. He styled himself Adam, the son of God, rejected the sacrament of the supper and the priesthood, and advocated the com- munity of women. After his death, his followers spread themselves in Bohemia under several leaders. They even fortified themselves on an island in a tributary of the Moldau, and committed depredations around. They were detested as much by the followers of Huss as by the Catholics. Ziska (q.v.) made war against them, and slew great numbers; but they were never entirely rooted out. Even as recently as 1849, when the Austrian government declared religious liberty for all its subjects, certain members of this sect appeared and endeavored to gain proselytes. The official investigation into their character which took place at that time represents their creed as a mixture of freethinking, quiet- ism, and communism. The members belong to the peasant or laboring class; and both men and women are generally industrious, temperate, and discreet in their ordinary course of life; but at their nightly meetings, at which they dispense with clothes, the utmost licen- tiousness is said to prevail.—As early as the 2d c., there was a sect of Gnostic tendency, called Adamites, who sought, by abstaining from all indulgence of the senses, to recall the state of innocence men were in before the fall. They therefore rejected marriage, and in order to exercise the virtue of continence went naked. They held that for those who had once attained the state of innocence all actions were alike indifferent—neither good nor evil, This doctrine led directly to the greatest licentiousness. Aberrations of this kind, under various disguises and modifications, have made their appearance from time to time in all ages of the world. ADAMNAN, Sarnt, a member of the early Irish church, to whom the world is deeply indebted for the information about that remarkable community which he left to posterity. His name was properly Adam, of which Adamnan is a diminutive. It is one of the peculiarities of that early church that the genealogies of its eminent members have been preserved with a minuteness scarcely rivaled in the days of peerages. He was born in the co. of Donegal about the year 625. In the words of Dr. Reeves: ‘‘ His father, Ronan, was sixth in descent from Conall Gulban, the head of one of the two great’ races of the northern Hy Neill, and in virtue of his birth claimed kin to St. Colomba and many of the sovereigns of Ireland. The father of Ronan was Tinne, from whom came the patronymic Ua Tinne, or grandson of Tinne, an appellative which is occasionally found coupled with A.’s name. Ronnat, the mother of A., was descended from Enna, son of Niall, whose race, the Cincl Enna, possessed themselves of the tract lying between the chan- nels of the Foyle and Swilly, which was called the Tir Enna, or land of Enna, and answers to the modern barony of Raphoe. He was, like many of the eminent Irish clergy, a states- man as well as an ecclesiastic, and we hear of his being sent on missions from his own peo- ple to Alfred, king of Northumbria. In the year 679, he was elected abbot of Iona. His rule over that community was not, however, destined to be peaceful and fortunate. The views held by the Irish church about the holding of Easter and the form of the tonsure are now pretty well known asa chapter in the history of the church. However little their own importance might be, they are significant as the object of a bitter contest in which that church resisted the rules promulgated from Rome. In his intercourse with the Saxon church, A. had adopted the Romish or orthodox views, as they are termed, and endeavored to put them in practice in his own community. He was thwarted in this object, and it is said that mortification at the failure caused his death. He d. in the year 704, on the 238d of Sept., which is the day of his translation in the calendar. He left behind him an account of the Holy Land, containing matters which he says were communicated by Arculfus, a French ecclesiastic who had lived in Jerusalem. It is valuable as the earliest information we possess of Palestine in the early ages of Christianity. But far more valuable is his Vita Sancti Columba, his life of St. Colomba, the converter of the Picts, and founder of Iona. Along with miracles and many other stories palpably incredible, this book reveals a great 87 Aimee deal of distinctand minute matter concernin g the remarkable body to which both the author and his hero belonged: The standard edition of the book is that of Dr. Reeves, edited in 1857 for the Bannatyne society of Edinburgh, and the Irish archxlogical society which (with an English trans.) forms the 6th vol. (1875) of Scottish Historians. Nearly all the information to be had about the early Scoto-Irish church is comprised in that volume. ADAM’S APPLE (Lat., Pomum Adami). The projection seen nearly midway between the summit of the breast-bone and the base of the chin, in males particularly visible, but rarely observable in females, and then only late in life. The thyroid cartilage, the largest in the larynx, is itssource. Its name, ‘‘ Adam’s Apple,” is said to take its origin in the superstition that a portion of the apple given to our first parent stuck in his throat, and that the enlargement thus caused has been transmitted to the race. It is produced by the conjunction of the two quadrilateral plates of the larynx causing, by their union, an angle which projects forward. ADAMS, a co. of w. Illinois, on the Mississippi; 830 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 61, 888; drained by Bear and McKee’s creeks; the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific railroads pass through the co. Co. seat, Quincy. ADAMS, a co. ine. Indiana, bordering on Ohio; 330 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 20,181. It is watered by the Wabash and St. Mary’s rivers; mostly wooded; surface level and pro- ductive. Co. seat, Decatur. ADAMS, aco. ins. w. Iowa, on the Nodaway river, and the Burlington and Missouri River railroad; 432 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 12,292. Itis an agricultural region. Co. seat, Corning. ADAMS, a co. in s.w. Mississippi, on the M. river ; 400 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 26,081, with colored. ‘The land is highly productive. Co. seat, Natchez. ADAMS, a co. in s. Nebraska, bounded n. by the Platte, and drained by the Little Blue river. Area, 552 sq.m. The white population in 1870 was but 19 ; 1890, 24,303. Co. seat, Hastings. ADAMS, a co. in s.w. Ohio, on the O. river; 488 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 26,098. It is hilly, fertile, and adapted to fruit, timber, and sheep raising. Co. seat, West Union. ADAMS, a co. in Pennsylvania, on the Maryland border ; 535 sq.m.; pop. 90, 33,486. South mountain is on its northern border, and the co. is mostly uneven. Copper mines have been worked with some advantage, and there are marble quarries. Co. seat, Gettysburg, which has railroad communication to the e. and n. ADAMS. a co. in s. eastern Washington, organized in 1883 ; 50 m. long, 30 m. wide. The land is well adapted to grazing and farming, and for vegetables and small fruits. Area, 1908 sq.m. Pop. ’90, 2098. County seat, Ritzville. ADAMS, a co. in central Wisconsin, on the W. river ; 690 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 6889. The surface shows chiefly forest and timber land, with abundant water power. Co. seat, Friendship. | ADAMS, a t. in Berkshire co., Mass., on the Hoosac river and the Pittsfield and North Adams branch of the Boston and Albany railroad ; pop. ’90, 9213. In the t. is Greylock mountain, 3505 ft., highest in Mass. The w. end of the Hoosac tunnel is 5 miles north at North Adams, which was formerly part of Adams, and is now accessible by an elec- tric road. The chief business is manufacturing cotton goods, paper, lumber, and build- ing materials. There are churches, high and graded public schools, national banks, Eye, ADAMS, CHARLES BAKER; b. Mass., 1814, d. St. Thomas, 1853. He graduated at Amherst and was a naturalist ; assisted Prof. Hitchcock in geological survey of N. Y. ; became tutor at Amherst, 1836; professor of chemistry and natural history in Middlebury college, Vt., 1888-47; professor at Amherst from 1847 till his death. In 1845-7 he was engaged in the geological survey of Vt. He went several times to the West Indies; wrote on conchology, and with assistance of Prof. Gray, of Brooklyn, published an elementary work on geology. ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS, LL.D., 1807-86 ; b. Boston; son of John Q. He passed ten years in Europe with his father, and learned Russian, German and French. In 1817 he entered the Boston Latin school; graduated at Harvard: college in 1825; studied law with Daniel Webster, and was admitted in 1828, but did not go into practice. In 1829, married a daughter of Peter C. Brooks, and became a brother-in-law of Edward Everett. In 1831 he was sent to State legislature, serving three years in the house and two in the senate. In 1848, candidate for vice-president with ex-Pres. Van Buren on the freesoil ticket. In 1858, elected to congress; supported Lincoln with public addresses, in company with Wm. H. Seward. In 1861, appointed minister to England, and managed American affairs through the crisis of the war with much success. In 1871 he was one of the arbi- tratorsfor the U. 8. at Geneva. In 1872 he entered with great earnestness into the Liberal Republican movement, and was a formidable rival for the presidential nomination against Horace Greeley who finally received it. In 1876 he was the Democratic candidate for goy- ernor of Mass., but was defeated. Mr. A. wrote much for the North American Review the Christian Hxaminer, and the press generally ; but his main work was the biography of his grandfather, and editing the writings of both grandfather and father. Adams. ) 88 ADAMS, Cnar_eEs Francis, jr., b. Boston, May 27, 1835; son of preceding. He grad. uated from Harvard, 1856, and was admitted to the bar in 1858; served with ability in the civil war, commanding a regiment of colored men, and was mustered out with brevet rank of brig.-gen. Identified with railroad development and arbitration, he became, 1884, president of the Union Pacific railway. He published zhree Hpisodes in Massa- chusetts History (1891). ADAMS, CHar.LEs KENDALL, LL.D., b. Vermont, 1835 ; removed to Iowa, 1855 ; was graduated at the University of Michigan (1861), and became assistant professor of history in 1863, full professor, 1868. He followed the German method of instruction in history, and in 1869-70 established an historical seminary which proved of great value in pro- moting the study of history and political science. In 1881 he was made Non-Resident ° Professor of History at Cornell University, where he succeeded to the presidency on the resignation of President White in 1885. Among his works are, Democracy and Mon- archy in France (1874); Manual of Historical Literature (1882); and Manual of Histor- ical Literature (1889). He resigned the presidency of Cornell in 1892; and became President of the Univ. of Wisconsin. He has edited Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia. ADAMS, Epwin, b. Mass., 1834, d. Philadelphia, 1877 ; an American actor. He first appeared at the Boston National Theatre, Aug. 29, 1858, as Stephen in ‘‘ The Hunch- back ;” went through the country, acting Hamlet, in 1860; was with Kate Bateman, Henry Placide, and Jas. W. Wallack at N. Y. Winter Garden in 1860; reappeared in N. Y., in 1866, as Robert Landry in ‘‘ The Dead Heart ;” was in the company when Booth’s Theatre opened, Feb. 8, 1867, and played Mercutio and Hnoch Arden in that house. ADAMS, HANNAH, b. Mass., 1755, d. 1832; one of the earliest American female writers; author of Views on Religious Opinions, 1184; History of New Englund, 1799; Lvi- dences of Christianity, 1801; History of the Jews, 1812; all of which brought fame, but little money. Hers was the first body buried in Mt. Auburn cemetery. ADAMS, Henry, historian, b. in Boston, Mass. 1838; third son of Charles Francis Adams. His chief work, The History of the United States, 1801-1817 (9 vols. 1889-91), is a thorough and able treatise highly esteemed by historical scholars. Among his other works are the lives of Albert Gallatin and John Randolph, historical essays and a col- lection of Documents relating to New England Federalisin, 1800-1815 (1877). ADAMS, Henry CARTER; economist, b. in Davenport, Ia., in 1852. He was professor in the University of Michigan, statistician to the Interstate Commerce Commission and special agent of the 11th census, in charge of the department of transportation. His publications, besides the annual reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission (1889- 91), include an Outline of Lectures on Political Economy (1881-86); Taxation in the United States 1789-1816 (1884) Public Debts and Relation of the States to Industrial Action (1887); Relation of American Municipalities to Quasi-Public Works, and Philanthropical and Social Progress (1893), ADAMS, Herbert BAXTER, historian, b. 1850, associate professor in John Hopkins University in 1883 and university professor in 1891. He has been active in the work of university extension, has edited the valuable series of Studies in Historical and Political Science of Johns Hopkins University, and written among other works Maryland’s Influence wn founding a National Commonwealth, and Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia, ADAMS, Joun, the second president of the United States, was born, Oct. 19, 1738, in Braintree, Mass., in that part of the town now forming the town of Quincy. He was the great-grandson of Henry Adams, a Puritan, who emigrated from England to Massachu- setts about 1640. His father was a deacon of the church and selectman, a farmer of small means and a shoemaker, but he gave John a good education at Harvard, whence he went to Worcester and took charge of aschoo]. He wasambitious, and only lacked influence to get into the army ; then he thought of divinity, but the confusion and wrangling of sects dismayed him, so he settled on law. In 1764 he married Abigail Smith, daughter of the ininister at Weymouth, and a person above his social position. She proved a good wife and mother and made his home happy. Soon after marriage he went into politics with other opponents of the stamp act and parliamentary oppression. He was selected as one of the counsel of the town of Boston, the others being Jeremiah Gridley, the head of the bar, and James Otis, the famous orator. They were to present to the governor and council a memorial asking that courts might proceed with business though no stamped paper was to be had. As junior, Adams opened the business, taking the bold stand that the stamp act was void because parliament had no right to tax the colonies. The repeal of the act soon after ended the matter. About this time he began to write on ‘‘ Taxa- tion” in the Boston Gazette, and some of his articles were reprinted in a London paper. In 1768 he moved to Boston, and two years later was elected to the general court, though at the time he was retained to defend Capt. Preston in the Boston massacre affair, who was acquitted in spite of the great prejudice existing. In the general court he began to be a leader of the patriot party, and though he soon resigned was consulted upon all important matters by Governor Hutchinson. About this time he wrote articles on the independence of the judiciary and the payment of the salaries of judges by the crown. The destruction of the tea brought on the crisis and produced the congress of 1774, of which 89 Adams. A. was one of the five Massachusetts members. There he took active part in the discus- sion of colonial independence, and when a declaration was agreed upon he was chosen to put the resolutions in shape. Returning home he was chosen to the provincial congress, then in session, which had substantially declared war by appointing a committee of safety, seizing the provincial revenues, appointing general officers, collecting stores and beginning to form anarmy. After the adjournment of this congress his pen was again at work and the ‘‘ Novanglus” articles appeared in anwer to pro-British papers signed ‘*Massachusettensis.”” This work was interrupted by the battle of Lexington, and A. hurried to the congress in Philadelphia, which body soon became the chief authority in the colonies. Adams was satisfied that reconciliation was impossible, though a majority in congress thought differently. The siege of Boston had begun, and Adams claims that he first suggested Washington for the chief command in order to secure the active help of the Virginia delegates ; but he insisted that Gen. Artemus Ward should be second, which place the Virginians wanted for Lee; Lee was made third in rank. While absent from congress some of his correspondence was made public, in which he spoke very freely of his colleagues, especially John Dickinson, who, with some others, became his personal enemy for life. He was a hard worker in congress, chiefly in committees; was on the naval committee, and his rules then written are the basis of our present naval code. Late in 1775 he was appointed chief justice of Mass., but never took the seat, resigning the next year. In congress freedom was slowly gaining ground; A. was in favor of the adoption of self-government by each of the colonies, then a confederation, and then treaties with foreign powers. May 18, 1776, he carried the first proposition, and the others naturally followed. , poe . ; | a ' ‘ as ; FB ; 4 . i ' ) ‘ LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS URBANA Sea n : r F ‘ ) Riki. 2: ewe) ; fy a i wars, ey Te : \ a& yi) hen | os) : is f 7 J ‘ . ; ' F ithe “18, i , , 7 | i —_ OF © ae | Ls eee cS hy S o° eee are Bes YOST ae LORE RA Ts RAS ! a a >rso¢ Suqqn nap, NG RN aT 4 : ill gua, Wi aK : We Kg y png Sor, Sul tng we ait». ~ : Sous onsal Fans = . Cae | v “pO ES 87-7 0g UT nye) YUii99 AT SY? ; has £5 ; : ; 4 eee ot 2 Z 2 Misa om ; 2 , yn 272 9 LD yang” we <2 aes 1 x00 nascent Lyn { POQD)) DPQ ees pibsoz 4 moouura é, S asad wHogn pS & Were SW, UDIND Fags Qiinnzn) sue T ae é | BRD QD { x a pysoy ~~. CAG owIT Be ee | : (aprng ) eed, poreee, SyyDup z ASSN, nig : PNAS WmevT juvysieqaisas — ({ \ ee eae sya ed \s oe 10yypuy Q ysyog mn . 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The position of the Afghan language among those of the Indo-Germanic branch has been much discussed. A recent writer on the subject, Dr. E. Trump, says it is Indian rather than Iranian. The only authors in the Pushtu language are lyrists and ballad-writers, but the Persian is employed in prose composition, and the Persian authors are faniiliar to the educated Afghans. In religion they are Mohammedans according to the version of the Sunnites, and are strongly opposed to the Persians and the Sikhs, who belong to other sects. The Afghans have been identified with the inhabitants of a hilly country on the western slope of the Soliman mountains, mentioned by Herodotus. In the 11th c. they are referred to as a small clan in the same district, who, since that period, seem to have assimilated and absorbed populations surrounding them. They first appeared as an independent power during the internal discords of Persia after the death of Nadir Shah. Ahmed Khan, of the race of Abdalli (1747-73), took advantage of these feuds, and liberated A. from Persian rule. His success founded the Douranee dynasty. When his son Timur died, in 1793, a contest for the throne took place between the brothers Zemaun, Mahmud, and Shah Sujah, which ended in the success of Mahmud, who, however, was compelled to abdicate the throne in 1828, and died in 1829. The empire now fell into the hands of three brothers, of whom the oldest, Dost Mohammed, ruled at Cabul, the most important of the three divisions of the country, where he had a revenue of 1,400,000 dollars, and an army of 18,000 men. Still, the country was in an unsettled state; for Dost Mohammed was at war with Lahore in the e., and in the w. the Persians had invaded Herat. On the 1st of Oct., 1838, the governor-general of India (ord Auckland) declared war against A., on the grounds that Dost Mohammed had unlawfully attacked the British ally, Runjeet Singh; that the military operations of the Afghans had betrayed a hostile purpose towards India; and that Shah Sujah, as the rightful heir to the Afghan throne, had placed himself under British protection. The British forces advanced through the Bolan pass to Candahar, where Shah Sujah formally claimed possession of the country. On the 21st of July, the army encamped before Ghiznee, and after some hard fighting that fortress was taken. On the 7th of Aug., Shah Sujah, with the British forces, entered Cabul, and the conquest was regarded as complete. It was a gross mistake of the nature of the country and the character of the people. The land had been invaded, but was by no means conquered. Dost Mohammed had surrendered to the English; but his son, Akbar Khan, was actively engaged in a conspiracy, of which Sir Alexander Burnes and the envoy Macnaghten were not aware until it was too late. At the beginning of winter, when help from India was impossible, the outbreak took place at Cabul, when Burnes, Macnaghten and several] British officers were slain. It was then agreed that the invaders should leave the country; while, on the other hand, Akbar Khan and his confederates stipulated to provide an escort, and make other necessary arrangements for the retreat. Depending on these promises, the British army left Cabul on the 6th of Jan., 1842, in order to return by the Khyber pass into India; but neither escort nor provisions were supplied by the Afghan leaders, and the severity of the season increased the misery of the retreat. The fanatical tribes of the districts harassed the flanks and rear of the army, and slew women and children as well as men. Out of a host of 16,000—or, if we include women and children, about 26,000—only one man (Dr. Brydon) escaped to carry the dismal tidings to Gen. Sale, who still held his position at Jelalabad. Almost against his own will, the new governor-general, lord Ellenborough, sent other forces into A. Gen. Nott marched from Candahar to Ghiznee, which was again taken after a slight resistance, and then proceeded to meet the army which, under Gen. Pollock, had marched through the Khyber pass to Cabul. Here the force of Akbar Khan was defeated and routed, and the place was as far as possible desolated. The English officers and their ladies who had surrendered themselves as prisoners to Akbar Khan were restored to liberty, and soon afterwards the troops marched back to India. It was believed now that the Afghans were deprived of all power to confederate against the government of India; but this conclusion was too hasty, for in 1846 they formed an alliance with the Sikhs against the British; and the disturbances in the Punjab were not quelled without several sanguinary engagements. After the decisive battle of Gujerat (Feb. 21, 1849), the Sikhs were forsaken by the Afghans, and Dost Mohammed, with about 16,000 men, fled over the Indus. After this period, Dost Mohammed devoted his attention almost exclusively to the consolidation of his dominions. He died in 1868, appointing Shere Ali, one of his younger sons, as his heir. At first, the choice was acquiesced in by the sixteen sons of Dost Mohammed, a large number of whom were governors of provinces; but disputes followed, which for many years kept A. in a state of anarchy. See Casun. The British government of India had recognized Shere Ali at his accession, and when in 1868, after his long struggle with his brothers, he obtained possession of Cabul, and became de facto ruler of the greater part of A., direct assistance was given him to secure the position for which he had fought so hard. Sir John Lawrence, then Indian viceroy, sent him first two and afterwards four lakhs of rupees. with 3500 stand of arms. The next viceroy of India, lord Mayo, met the Ameer in state at Umballa, in March, 1869. It was then explained to him that her majesty’s government had no desire to interfere with the affairs of A., except to check civil war, and, by so doing, to secure the peace and prosperity of the country. This intimation Was accompanied by another large present. In the same year, the Ameer conceived the Afium. 1382 Africa. idea of invading Bokhara (q.v.) and attacking the Russians, but was restrained by English advice. After 1869, Shere Ali endeavored to secure tranquillity in A. He was alive to the strife that had been occasioned by intrusting power to relatives, and he endeavored to replace the members of his family as much as possible by strangers. He also indicated very distinctly that he did not intend to select as his heir his son Yakoob—who, at an early age, had shown great ability as governor of Herat, and had, on many occasions, given his father most valuable assistance—but a younger son, Abdullah. The claims of Sakcob to share in the government of A. were ignored, and the result was that, in 1870, he headed a rebellion against his father; but in the following year a reconciliation was effected through the intervention of England. In 1869, it was settled between England and Russia that all the provinces between the Oxus and the Hindu Kush should be treated as part of A. In 1878, in consequence of new Russian diplomatic relations to A., Shere Ali was invited to receive a British mission. The refusal of the Afghans to admit the mission, which had advanced to the mouth of the Khyber pass, led, after some fruitless negotiations, to war. Hostilities began by the forcing of the entrance to the Khyber towards the end of November. There was sgme severe fighting in the passes, but the invaders were everywhere successful. Before the end of Dec., Jelalabad was occu- pied without resistance, and Candahar a little later. Shere Ali, who had fled, died early in 1879; and Yakoob Khan, proclaimed Ameer, made peace in May. It was provided that there should be a British resident at Cabul, and that Britain should defend A. against foreign aggression, the Ameer receiving a subsidy. The Kuram, Pishin and Sibi valleys became British territory, and the Khyber and Michni passes came under British control. But in Sept. of the same year the revolted troops of the Ameer surrounded and attacked the British residency. The resident, Sir Louis Cavagnari, and his staff, with almost the whole of their Indian guard, were slain after a desperate but bootless struggle. Measures were immediately adopted by the Indian government for punishing the outrage. The Ameer abdicated his sovereignty ; and, after some fighting, Cabul was reoccupied in the beginning of October. See GREAT BRITAIN. AFIUM-KARA’-HISSAR’ (Opium Black Castle), a city of Asia Minor, in the pashalic of Anatolia, 170 m. e. byn. from Smyrna. It stands near the Akar, partly on level ground, and partly on arising ground among rocks. Above the city towers an isolated rock of 300 to 400 ft. in height, almost precipitous on most sides, and very steep on that by which alone it is accessible. The summit has in former times been fortified. The streets of the city are very narrow. Most of the houses are of stone, and well built. A great trade is carried on, the city being an entrepdt between Smyrna and Europe on the one hand, and Armenia, the countries on the Euphrates, and Persia on the other. The products both of Europe and the east are to be found in its markets. A principal article of trade is opium, produced in the neighborhood, and from it the city derives its name. There are here manufactures of felts, carpets, arms and saddlery. Pop. about 25,000. AFRAGO’'LA, a t. in Italy, 5 m. n.e. of Naples, noted for manufactures of straw goods. Pop. about 6000. AFRA'NIUS, Lucius, a Roman poet and orator who lived about 100 B.c., praised by Cicero and Quintilian for the excellence of his plays. AFRICA, a continent of the eastern hemisphere, and the third in point of size of the great divisions of the globe, forms an extension of Asia, to which it has been attached since eocene times by the isthmus of Suez, and may be described as an irregular triangle, having its base on the Mediterranean and its apex at the junction of the Indian and Atlantic oceans. From Cape Blanco (87° 19’ 40’ n.) at Bizerta, Tunis, to Cape Agulhas (34° 51’ 15° s.) in Cape Colony, its length, divided almost equally by the equator, is about 5000 miles. Its extreme breadth, from Cape Guardafui (51° 14’ e} on the Indian Ocean to Cape Verd (17° 32’ w.) on the Atlantic, is about 4500 miles Including Madagascar and all adjacent insular groups, its area exceeds 11,950,000 square miles, but its coast-line, which is broken by few projections besides capes Bon, Verd, Good Hope, and Guardafui, and by few indentations, is but little more than 15,000 miles in length. The most important gulf is that of Guinea on the western coast. The most important islands belonging physically to the mainland are ferba and one or two others in the Mediterranean, Socotra, Pemba, Zanzibar, and Mafia on the eastern side, and the Bissagos group on the Atlantic side. Perm, Dahlak, and some other so-called islands in the Red Sea are coral reefs, pierced here and there by volcanic cones. The Comoros group, between Madagascar and Mozambique, Annabon, St. Thomas, Prince and Fernando Po in the Gulf of Guinea and Madeira, the Canary and Cape Verd archipelagos are all of volcanic origin. Madagascar and the outlying Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodriguez, are believed to be surviving fragments of a Mio. cene continent now submerged beneath the Indian Ocean. Relief of the Land.—The interior is generally monotonous in character, and consists of two well-marked physical regions—a great southern tableland with a mean altitude of over 3500 feet, falling off toward the north to an elevated plain, with a mean alti- tude of about 1300 feet. Although there is an absence of vast Alpine regions, Africa has a greater mean elevation (1900 to 2000 feet) than either Europe (1000) or Asia (1659). The lowlands under 600 feet have their greatest extent on the northeast and west of the Sahara or Great Desert, including in the former instance the lower valley of the Nile el) nu LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS — URBANA 1 10 —) 30 30 20 ' 10 0 10 ont? AZORE ES is. (To i= tu icatya FA AL “TERCEIRA “S.MICHAEL C.St. Vincent g ) / Strait of Gidraliar / C.Spartel& Tangier, : / Saige on al / Rage y- / Mad, M, MADEIRA !S.(To Portugal) @ cy, aay ( wines? MADEIRA tag “PTO. SANTO Sa yee re) S eaFi \\ “oeserTas R. Tens: sity 2 : pene . 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AS SS oc failimare eee Faw J le Sy FP Mouths of | ae Tamatave ate Y-the Zambesi: Q, TANANARIVO pA nflevoranto "y A Luabo f \ OF RODRIGUEZ . s = —~S” ‘e) = 20 Sip ,\Sofala Y s ne SE Dents “MAURITIUS ( British) ‘\o 38 Vines a / Mananzari { _ #BAZARUTO L.. | "St. Vincent KA) BOURBON or Reunion beet ° “* (French ) Ky Oo. —— EUROPA I. j ; / wulnhambane— = DO SS pei ee TROPIC-OF/CAPRICORN----~—===——-- -- - 4 i : bri 7: v eee 7Manambatoo ‘Limpopo R. - eS i t.Dauph an 4 PG Pdagoa Bay Res “p. : / ~ / “ty my j l | | rs OR, : = 30 a COLO) 5; pin ania"4RITz BURG / / Li “ | h r = ae = | eorge | 5 | Dy %Ge> = = {| 1&2 “ay . ° 6 : 2 = —F —a —— = tog “Vorg a, 40 50 Longitude East 60 ofGreenwich 70 kent oe es fee NT ay Ko ray, ot Lute id ae by ¢ Meat te| | aaee / ay ; ae ha clas id eee es? Po eee ty send TOM LF 1 A) Ni yPhoal Ave ety, ‘at con ru . rigs aye te se ate nears ‘ Ne eter ia) gee rt hte aki, on: “4 eggs began Nie a, ap ae ea Ter oie / ie. is. Wane aon a LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS “URBANA sa 3 nn Tara Wiest. th y : : iN res of ne lt), Maa ye Nie, iterate eb, cae OS LA a 4 tidy Le on tune 1, : A ania Pals oie i" hs ty BAS Lidge ist ‘ie 20 LR iyi lev Mite 2 ‘ a fd Mgr mY Ah Ag pre E -) p nuleyc Jae las - a PEAY | liebe ne (eA AV AR . v4 ‘i , r ¥? : VU et “ Aan Pur =) , its ‘i ay ay. Be 7. ot 7 ’ ia. r 17 oF Lifes fi ; 1 39d Afum. The rapid descent from the plateau to the northern plain is well illustrated by the Somerset (Victoria) Nile, which in its course of ninety miles between the Victoria and Albert Nyanza falls from 3800 feet to 1500 feet—no less than 2300 feet altogether. Orography.—Several mountain ranges intersect the southern plateau, among them the Lokinga or Mushinga mountains running east and west, and forming a district divide between the headwaters of the Lualaba (Congo) and the streams flowing south to the Zambesi. Further nerth another important watershed, between the Congo and the Nile basins, is formed by the Ulegga range, and its northern extension along the west side of lakes Mwutan Nzighé and Albert Nyanza, with eastern spurs dominated by the lofty and apparently volcanic Mfumbiro (10,000) and Gambaragara (15,000) which inter- vene between the Mwutan Nzighé and Victoria Nyanza. East of this basin rise the double-peaked Kilima-Njaro (18,881) and Kenia (18,000 ?), the culminating points of the whole continent. Here the Aberdare range (14,000) runs south and north between Kenia and Lake Naivasha in the direction of lake Baringo, found by Thomson to be a small land-locked basin 3217 feet above sea-level, commanded on the northwest by mounts Chibcharagnani (12,000) and Ligonyi (14,000). The whole of this newly discov- ered highland region, where the native reports of still active cones, such as the Dunyé- M’buro or ‘‘Smoky Mountains” have recently been confirmed by Fischer, seems to merge through the Kaffa hills northward in the Abyssinian uplands (10,000 to 15,000), which form the north-eastern limit of the great southern plateau. From this point the outer continental rim or coast-range stretches almost continuously through Gallarland, and along the eastern side of lake Nyassa, southward to the Nieuweveld system (8000 to 10,000) at the southern extremity of Africa. These eastern coast ranges, spoken of by the early Portuguese explorers, under the collective name of Lupata, may in some respects be regarded as forming, if not a backbone, at least the border-chain of one great continental highland system. The corresponding western coast-ranges are both much lower and less continuous, being interrupted by wide gaps in Damaraland, and especially on the northwest coast, between the Senegal river and Morocco. ‘They ter- minate in the Cameroons (13,700), at the head of the Gulf of Guinea, and elsewhere often present the appearance rather of outer scarps than of ranges actually rising above the inner tablelands. The Atlas system (8000 to 12,000), stretching in the extreme northwest between cape Nun, over against the Cananis, and Cape Bon, over against Sicily, runs parallel to the Sierra Nevada on the opposite coast, with which it forms a distinct physical region. Sallust’s remark that this part of Africa belonged physically to Europe, has been amply confirmed by modern research, which clearly shows that even in pliocene times, Mauritania was still connected with Iberia at the strait of Gibraltar, and with Italy through a north-eastern continuation of the Atlas, of which Pantellaria, Malta, Gozzo, Sicily, and the Lipari group are surviving fragments, while the Balkan peninsula merged southward in the now flooded plains was frequented by the elephant and other large African fauna. At that time the Mediterranean appears to have formed three distinct basins, with acommon outlet to the Atlantic, not north as now, but south of the Atlas, through the depression still marked by the Kebir and Melghir sebkhas, and the valley of the river Draa. To this extent the Saharian region may have been flooded by marine waters, but that it ever, since eocene times, at least, formed an oceanic bed, as is often maintained, is an assumption that has been completely refuted by the measure- ments and geological researches of Oscar Lenz and other recent observers. We now know that the Sahara is a vast elevated plain, somewhat higher than the Soodan (see above), and that it consisted of well-watered and fertile lands, obliquely intersected by a great divide (the Tibesti highlands), whence flowed mighty streams, such as the Ighar- ghar, north to the Mediterranean, the Messawara, south to the Niger, and others east to the Nile. In some of the pools lying along the sandy beds of these rivers, the crocodile still survives, while the elephant, as well as the camel, formed part of the Mauritanian fauna within the historic period. In fact, the Sahara was what the Sudan still is—a thickly peopled land, abounding in natural products, diversified with broad belts of tropical forests. arable tracts, and grassy steppes, according to the nature of the soil, and greater or less abundance of moisture. This is also the general character of the great southern tableland, which, like the northern plain, has also in the Kalahari its desert zone, both corresponding to the arid regions of other continents. In its geologt- cal constitution Africa presents the appearance of great stability and antiquity. Unlike those of other continents, the seaboard is subject to scarcely any movements of upheaval and subsidence, except on the northeast coast between the Nile delta, and the gulf of Sidra (an area of subsidence), and parts of the Moroccan and Red Sea coasts (areas of upheaval). Earthquakes are confined mainly to the Atlas, which belongs physically rather to Europe than to Africa, and igneous disturbances are restricted on the west side to the bight of Biafra (the Cameroons, Fernando Po, and other adjacent islets). But on the eastern side the volcanic system is much more highly developed, stretching from the Comoro Islands through Masai Land (Kili-Njaro, Kenia, Elgon, etc.), northward to the Dandkil country, and the volcanic islets in the Red Sea. The lava-fields of the Masai plateau appear to be the most extensive on the continent and at many points present signs of recent activity. But elsewhere the old plutonic prevail over the more recent eruptive rocks, just as the older sedimentary do over the later 134 Africa. tertiary and quaternary formations. Both orders appear to be generally intermingled, and largely associated with semi-crystalline and metamorphic forms, such as the schists, gneisses, graywackes, and hornblendse, about Kilima-Njaro and many other places. The Kamasia mountain range (8000 to 9000) northeast of Victoria Nyanza, is essen- tially metamorphic (white striated feldspar, quartz, and black mica), while shales and flaggy sandstones form the geological basis of the east African carboniferous series, which extends in a narrow strip from near the equator continuously to the Cape. Hard granite forms the bed of the Orange river, and asbestos, soapstone, coal, iron, and copper were amongst the specimens collected by Farini in the Kalahari steppe. Metamorphic rocks, again, prevail in the Congo basin, where iron and copper ores also abound, and where plutonic systems succeed above Stanley Pool (Johnston), Syenite, and other granites, with old sandstones, are the characteristic features of upper Egypt and the Nubian steppe, while Abyssinia has also a granitic base underlying dolerites, trachytes, and crystalline slates. But here the eastern slopes, skirted or traversed by the great volcanic zone, are strewn with obsidian, pumice, and other recent lavas. A great diluvial plain stretches from this region through Senaar southward to the crystalline slates, associated with magnetic iron ores of the Baginze slopes, about the source of the Welle. Even the Sahara, long supposed to be a recent marine basin, is characterized by the absence of late sedimentary rocks and marine fossils, and by the prevalence of old sandstones, quartz, and carboniferous limestones, largely disintegrated by weathering. It also abounds in rich saline deposits, forming a chief article of trade with the neighboring Sudan, which is distinguished by the almost total absence of salt, the prevailing formations here being crystalline rocks, granites, diorites, slates, gneiss, again associated with sandstones in the higher ranges. In the Kong uplands, the sandstones overlie the granites, which in the Teggele group (Kordofan), pass over to porphyries and syenites, with gneiss interspersed with extensive diorite and auriferous quartz veins. Gold, mined by the ancient Egyptians at Mt. Elba, Red See. coast, occurs also in many other places, as in Upper Guinea, the lower Zambesi, and Transvaal ; and gold dust has at all times formed a chief article of export. But iron and copper are the characteristic metals, ferruginous ores abounding almost everywhere, and copper in Namaqualand and the Congo basin, Dar-fertit, and many other places. The basin of the Vaal is one of the richest diamentiferous regions on the globe. In this southern region, granites and crystalline slates form the substratum of an extensive series of fossiliferous rocks, descending from the outer river (Nieuweveld) down to the coast in a series of terraces (‘‘ karroos”), which are baked clay in the dry season, but flowery and grassy meads in the wet season. The hydrographic are drawn in bolder lines than the orographic systems. Here, also, a certain symmetry prevails, the two great southern basins of the Congo and Zambesi, balancing those of the Nile and Niger of the northern plain, while the secondary Orange and Limpopo in the extreme south find their counterparts in the Senegal and Draa of the Northwest. The Zambesi and Limpopo, together with the Rovuma, Juba, and a few other coast streams, flow to the Indian Ocean; all the others, together with the Cunene, Koanza, Ogoway, Volta, Gambia, Tensift, Muluya, and Mejerdah, to the At- lantic, either directly or through the Mediterranean. Nearly all are still entangled in the intricacies of the interior, hence are obstructed either along their middle or lower courses by formidable falls and rapids, such as the stupendous Victoria falls on the lower Zambesi, the Yellala and Isangala on the lower, and Stanley on the middle Congo ; the so-called ‘‘Six cataracts,” the Ripon, Murchison, and many others, all along the Nile above Egypt ; the ‘‘ Hundred Falls” of the middle Orange. Freest from. these impediments are both the Niger and its great eastern affluent the Benue, which lat- ter affords a clear navigable highway into the very heart of the Sudan. Here a scarcely perceptible water-parting, which might be easily canalized (Flegel) separates it from the Shari, which gives further access by water northward to lake Tsad, southeastward toward the Nile and Congo basins. In this still unexplored region, the Shari, with its numerous headstreams, approaches the Makua-Welle, which its discoverer, Schwein- furth, supposed to flow from the Monbuttu uplands northwest to the Tsad, but which the explorations of Lieutenant Van Géle, in 1889, proved to be identical with the Mobangi, the great northern tributary of the Congo. But apart from its great rivers, including the historic Nile, earliest seat of human culture, Africa possesses a magnificent equatorial lake system, elsewhere unrivaled except by the great North American lacustrine basins. These lakes are the crowning glory of modern African research, all having been revealed to science by English- speaking explorers (Livingstone, Speke, Grant, Burton, Baker, Stanley) since the middle of the nineteenth century. They are grouped toward the east side of the con- tinent between 15° s. and 4° n. lat., and all stand on the southern tableland, draining seaward through the Zambesi (Nyassa, with outflow Shiré), the Congo (Tanganyika With intermittent outflow Lukuga), and the Nile (Alexandra Nyanza, Victoria Nyanza, Mwutan Nzigé, and Albert Nyanza, with outflow Somerset Nile). The Alexandra (Akanyaru) drains northeastward through the Alexandra Nile (Kagera), to the Victoria, next to Superior (33,500 sq.m.), the largest fresh-water basin (26,000 sq.m.) on the globe. The Shimiyu, another influent from the south, may be regarded as the farthest headstream of the Nile, which thus rises about 5° gs. lat., flowing thence or Se Africa, northward to the Mediterranean for some 4800 miles, a course probably a few miles longer than that of the Missouri-Mississippi, the next longest in the world. Some confusion still prevails regarding the Albert Nyanza and Mwutan Nzigé, which were long taken as alternative names of a continuous sheet of water now known to form two distinct basins. Hence Mwutan Nzigé may be conveniently restricted to the southern, and Albert Nyanza still retained for the northern lake, which is nearly 2000 sq.m. in extent. The outflow of Tanganyika was also a somewhat doubtful point, until the surveys of Thomson, Hore, and Wissman made it quite certain that it drains westward through the Lukuga, at least intermittently to the Congo. This adds considerably to the drainage area of the Congo, which ranks next to the Amazon in volume, discharg- ing probably as much water as all the other African rivers together (Reclus). Since its identification by Stanley with the Lualaba, its farthest headstream appears to be the Chambeze, an eastern feeder of lake Bangweolo, rising in 10° s. lat., 33° e. long., and giving to the Congo system a total length of considerably over 3000 miles. The equatorial lake system is thus distributed among the three great fluvial basins of the Zambesi, Nile, and Congo. But scattered over the continent are several other lacustrine basins, varying greatly in size, which have no seaward outflow, but form independent, or, at all events, now isolated centres of inland drainage. By far the most extensive of these are lakes Tsad (Chad) and Ngami, symmetrically disposed on either side of the equator, and fed, the former by the Shari and Komadugu, the latter by the Tonka. Both vary greatly in extent with the wet and dry seasons, and there is good reason to believe that formerly both had emissaries, Tsad to the Benue-Niger, Ngami to the Limpopo basin. True Alpine lakes, such as those of the Swiss and Bolivian highlands, are represented only by the Abyssinian lake Tana (Tsana or Dembea, 6100 feet), which has an area of some 1200 sq.m. and a depth of over 300 feet. It is fed by numerous Alpine streams, amongst which is the Abai, farthest source of the Bahr-el-Azraq, or Blue Nile, which, after sweeping round the Abyssinian plateau, joins the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile at Khartoom. Before the discovery of the great lakes, Tsana was considered by many geographers as the chief reservoir and farthest source of the main stream. The great oceanic and inland hydrographic systems of the con tinent may now be tabulated thus : Seaward Basins. Area in sq.m. WEL Ceeeeeh Pane ree rine St erro Pe Aad eh aicluls yl A fel Stes oo, Poa =| oa pk eas Cece Zo § oS BAN nO § ag &% Ba g 8 ae Senseo 43 9 AWsd eine Has es aHe = (4 fy < xe SS fozambique negro. 6, 7, 8, 9. Bellows, bow, hatchet, bowl. 10. Inhabitants of Tripoli, ittentot. 16. Fish-basket. 17. Slaves transported. 18. Bushman village. 19. Zulu nusicians and their wives. pam \ = ee ae poe ata LIBRARY wis “ae ~ UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS | : , ee 1° gay URBANA a Abert 1. ‘ he 7 wes % ai s yo hie) £7 a eh) aa fier | <3 - pase a, Ne bate 3 ; ‘ ES i4% i 3 rig) i oo; ; ohh ON RTS Oar es eae ih eis! / ‘ teak May: nye ate 139 Africa {I. Hamrric PEOPLES. Mixed and Doubtful Hamites : LUN Sc gate eae ot (So eae Ogoway basin, thence inland RIA Be no oY hee West and central Sudan. LYN RD Sekt 7 iy Ce .... Hast Sahara. AGQUE rattan 2 . eae Abyssinia. Di ise en es sos oss Masailand., ENGR eee sa Bc ores ves Egypt. True Hamites : RUPTUNe ests vaels ys ales Morocco. Berbers « Mzab, Kabyle........ Algeria, Tunis. PUTO etn a ord ales West Sahara. Gallas, Somali, Afar (Danékil), Peeps Mette aiidd ri 's-s3 pie s9-¢ Northeast coast. Ill. Semitic PEOPLEs. A ade ene ats ae ee Mauritania, west Sahara, central and west Sudan. TH ATEUT ULES cert m arate sons ioicse as ot (Amhara, Tigré, Shoa), Religion and Social Condition.—Speaking generally, the northern Hamites and Semites are Mohammedans and stock-breeders, the southern Bantus nature-worshipers and agriculturists ; all these factors intermingling in the intervening zone of Sudan. The chief exceptions to this statement are the Christian A byssinians (Monophysite sect) ; the Hottentots, who are mainly cattle-breeders ; and the Algerian Berbers, who prefer tillage to pasturage. A nomad existence prevails in eastern Sudan; a settled, in central and western Sudan. Throughout the whole of this region Islam continues to encroach on heathendom; it is now firmly seated on the upper Niger and upper Senegal ; it has already penetrated to various points of the Senegambian and Guinea coasts; it has spread with the conquering Fulahs to the southern limits of Ada- miawa, and has crept down the east coast from Somaliland to Zanzibar and Mozam- bique. Thus fully one-half of the continent has accepted its tenets, which have on the whole had a beneficent influence on the Negro peoples, by suppressing canni- balism and shaking their faith in the medicine man. Elsewhere progress is barred by the all-prevailing fetichism, intimately associated as it is with the baneful practice of witchcraft. Cannibalism, also, in its most repulsive forms holds its ground among the Monbuttus, Zandehs, and Fans, a central zone of anthropophagy apparently traversing the continent from the west coast along the equator nearly to the great lakes, and stretching northward to the upper Shari basin. On the other hand, slavery, while maintained by Mohammedanism as a necessary social institution, has by the interven- tion of the European powers, almost ceased to be an object of foreign traffic. But the Arab slave-dealer continues to widen his sphere of action in the interior, and has recently come into collision with the pioneers of European civilization, toward the eastern frontier of the newly founded Congo State. Christianity has been introduced at various points, and has made some progress amongst the Basutos and some other southern Bantus. Eaploration.—The word ‘‘ Africa,” of uncertain derivation, originally the name of a small tract on the n. coast still surviving in the /riga of the Tunisian Tell, was extended under Roman influences to the whole of the ‘‘dark continent.” It was the Ethiopia of Homeric and the Libya of later Hellenic times, terms vaguely applied to the region stretching away to the setting sun, and with undefined southern limits. But neither Greeks nor Romans ever extended their knowledge much beyond the northern verge of the Sahara. Exploration may be said to have begun with the expedition sent by Sankhara of the eleventh (Theban) dynasty to the land of Paint (Somaliland) as re- corded on the Wady Hammamiat inscription (2400 B.C.). After the circumnavigation attributed by Herodotus to Necho, son of Psametik I. (26th or Saite dynasty, 620 B.C.), and the naval expedition of the Carthagenian Hanno round the northwest coast, perhaps to the equator (300 B.C. 2), little was done for the seaboard till the fourteenth century A.D., when the Dieppe mariners claim to have founded ‘‘ Little Dieppe’ on the Guinea coast (1364), and colonized the Canaries under Jean de Béthencourt, and when Italian navigators had coasted the northwest side as faras Bojadoi, as clearly shown on Marco Pizzigani’s sketch map (1367), now in the Parma library. Our general knowledge of the periphery was nearly completed toward the close of the next century, when Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape and skirted the east coast northward to Magadosho in 2° n. lat. (1497-98). But long before this the spread of Islam in the seventh century followed in the eleventh (1050-78) by the tremendous irruption of nomad hordes from s.-western Asia, had converted the greater part of the northern plains into an Arab domain, which was revealed to science by the Arab writers of the next ensuing centuries. Thus a fair knowledge was acquired of their geographical, political, and ethnological relations in Africa. 140 the three physical zones of Maghreb (Mauritania), the Sahara, and the Soudan by the works of Edrisi (12th c.), Yakat, Abu’l-Hassan, and Ibn-Khaldan (15th c.), the true pioneers of African exploration. Then followed 300 years of comparative inactivity, noted chiefly by the occupation of various points on the coast by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. The Portuguese established relations with the powerful Bantu states of Congo on the west, and Monomotopa on the southeast side; the Dutch obtained a firm footing in the Hottentot country in the extreme south, while the English were attracted more especially to Guinea and Senegambia (Windham’s voyage to Guinea in the six- teenth century, followed by the journey of Jobson and Thomson, and occupation of Cape Coast in 1664). The modern epoch of geographical research, apart from political or commercial con- siderations, begins properly with James Bruce, who discovered the Abai source of the Blue Nile in 1770, and whose adventures in Abyssinia stimulated the foundation of the African Association (1788), which before the close of the eighteenth century had already sent out Ledyard, Lucas, Houghton, and Mungo Park to explore the Niger basin. In the nineteenth century the most various motives have co-operated in favor of an extended knowledge of this vast continent. The captains of English cruisers, employed to suppress the slave-trade, have supplied some valuable information ; the governors of the colonies and private merchants have contributed their share; and enterprising travelers from all sides of the coast have endeavored to strike out paths to the interior. The works published on Africa since the year 1800 are consequently very numerous. In 1802 to 1805 Lichtenstein traveled in the district north of the Cape of Good Hope, and first furnished information regarding the Bechuana tribe. The travels of Mungo Park from Timbuctoo to Bussa are familiar to every one. In 1809 Burckhardt was sent out by the African society, and his explorations, rich in manifold results, occupied the years 1812-1816. Tothe French weare indebted for much valuable information concern- ing Morocco, Algeria, and the neighboring parts of Sahara. The laborsof Oudney, Clap- perton, Denham, and Lander in the Sahara and Soodan are memorable by the discovery of lake Tchad and the course of the Niger. Since about 1840 our knowledge of South Africa has received many important additions from the missionaries stationed there, especially Moffat ; while David Livingstone, who, from 1848 to 1873, was engaged in trying to open the countries north of the Cape of Good Hope, penetrated in 1849 as far as lake N’gami, in 20° s. lat. ; and in 1853, ascending the Leeambye (Zambesi) north- ward for several hundred miles, succeeded in crossing the continent to Loando on the west coast. Having retraced his steps to the point of the Zambesi from which he had started, the adventurous traveler next followed that stream till he reached the east coast, at Quilimane, in 1856. From 1859 to 1863 was spent in various explorations of lake Nyassa and the neighboring regions. Again setting out in 1866, he found, in the region s. of lake Tanganyika, the river Chambezi. This river, which is specially known by this name ere it falls into lake Bemba or Bangweolo, is known between that lake and lake Moero as the Luapula, and farther on in its course as the Lualaba ; and was by Livingstone traced through these lakes and as far as 4° s. lat. Livingstone’s belief was that this basin, now known to be the upper Congo, contained the headwaters of the Nile. In 1871, along with Stanley, he found the river Rusizi flowing into the north of lake Tanganyika. His last enterprise consisted in further exploration of these regions, and new efforts to find the Nile sources. He died at Tala, beyond lake Bemba, in May, 1873. Burton and Speke, crossing the Border mountains from Zanzibar, in 1857, dis- covered lake Tanganyika ; and the former, then journeying to the northeast, discovered the southern part of the great Victoria Nyanza, which he supposed to be the head reservoir of the Nile. A second expedition, undertaken by Speke and Grant in the end of 1860, penetrated as far north as Gondokoro on the White Nile, and added vastly to our knowledge of the eastern equatorial regions of Africa. At Gondokoro, Speke and Grant were met by Mr. (Sir Samuel) Baker. Baker, accompanied by his heroic wife, pushed on to the south, and discovered, in 1864, west of the Victoria, another great lake, which he called the Albert Nyanza. He returned in Sept., 1873, from a second expedition—of a military character—undertaken in 1869, at the expense of the pasha of Egypt, to suppress slavery in the upper regions of the Nile. The geography, language, and manners of the inhabitants of Abyssinia, Senaar, and Kordofan have also during late years been greatly illustrated by the efforts of various European travelers. The researches of Drs. Barth, Nachtigal, and others (1850-1874)—investigating the same central division of the continent as Clapperton and Denham—and Dr. Schweinfurth’s travels (1868-1871) in unexplored regions, have enriched our store of knowledge regard- ing this land of mystery. In 1874-5, Lieut. Cameron surveyed the lower half of lake Tanganyika, and walked across tropical Africa from east to west, all but determining the source of the Congo. Next came Stanley, who after exploring the Shimiyu, farthest southern headstream of the Nile, circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza, and discovered the Mwutan Nzighé, which he took for Baker’s Albert Nyanza, but which is now known to be a distinct basin, draining possibly to Tanganyika (1875-76). Then striking the Lua- laba at Nyangwe in the end of 1876, he forced his way down the stream, and arriving at the mouth of the Congo in the autumn of 1877, demonstrated that the Lualaba and Congo are identical. In 1877-79 Serpa Pinto crossed from Benguela to Durban in *atal, In 1880 Mr. Joseph Thompson explored the route between Nyassa and Tan: 141 Africa, ganyika ; and in 1884 he made his memorable journey from Mombasa by Kilima-Njaro and Kenia across Masailand to the Victoria Nyanza. In 1884 Mr. H. H. Johnston ascended the main peak of Kilima-Njaro to a height of 16,200 feet. Dr. G. A. Fischer, in his attempt to reach Emin Pasha, reached north to lake Baringo (1885-86). In 1885 Grenfell discovered the U-banghi, the great northern tributary of the Congo, which he navigated to within 200 miles of the farthest point reached by Dr. Junker (22° 40’ e. long.) penetrating westward down the Welle-Makua (1886). It thus seems all but cer- tain that Schweinfurth’s Walle flows not to lake Tsad through the Shari, but through the U-banghi to the Congo. In 1887 Emin Pasha (q.v.) reported by letter repeated exploration of the Albert Nyanza (q.v.). Meanwhile Stanley’s expedition was on its way to the Congo to rescue him. This last expedition of Stanley, extending over the period June, 1887--Dec., 1889, and performed at great expense of lives and money, resulted in the discovery of a south- western extension of lake Victoria Nyanza reaching to within 155 miles of lake Tan- ganyika; also that the Albert Edward and Albert Nyanza lakes are connected by the Semliki river, and in the identification of the Ruwenzori range, with the ‘‘ Mountains of the Moon” of the old maps. The intricate water-system south of the Middle Congo has also been unraveled, especially by Pogge, Wissmann, and Ludwig Wolf (1881-86), who have made it evident that the Kwango, Kassai, Sankuru, and lake Leopold, all belong to one magnificent hydrographic system flowing through the Kwa to the Congo at Kwamouth, and including Livingstone’s Kassabi (1854). It was on the Sankuru that Dr. Wolf made the acquaintance of the pigmy Batwas, the smallest known race of mankind. The Ogoway system, first discovered by Du Chaillu (1850), ascended by Walker to Lope (1873), and surveyed by Compiégne and Marche to Ivindo (1874), has been completely elucidated by De Brazza, Mizon, and Rouvier during various expedi- tions between 1877-86. The Alima, supposed to be one of its head-streams, has been followed to the right bank of the Congo; and the Ogoway itself, reported to be one of the great continental basins, proves to be a coast stream of secondary importance. After visiting it in 1874, Dr. Oscar Lenz transferred the scene of his operations to the north, crossing from Morocco to Timbuctoo in 1880, and doing excellent surveying work on the route across the western Sahara. The same route had been followed by Chaillié in 1828, himself preceded (1826) by Laing from Tripolitana, and followed by Barth (1853), these, besides Mungo Park, being the only European travelers that have reached the ‘‘ Queen of the Desert” during the present century. Again moving south- ward, Lenz ascended the Congo to Nyangwe, and crossed the continent from the mouth of that river to the Zambesi delta in seventeen months (1885-86). He had been preceded altogether by nine others—Livingstone, Loanda to Quilimane, 1854-56 ; Cameron, Zanzibar to Benguela, 1873-75 ; Stanley, Zanzibar to Congo mouth, 1874-77 ; Serpa Pinto, Benguela to Natal, 1877-79; Matteucci and Massari, Suakin to Niger delta, 1880-81; Wissmann, Loanda to Zanzibar coast, 1881-82; Arnot, Natal to Ben- guela, 1881-84; Capello and Ivens, Mossamedes to Zambesi delta, 1884-85 ; Gleerup, Congo mouth to Zanzibar, 1884-86. The headwaters of the Lomami, one of the great southern tributaries of the Congo, were visited in 1889 by Alexander Delcommune, a Belgian, and in that same year Dr. Zintgraff made an expedition into the interior of the Cameroons. These have all been routes from east to west or west to east, no one having yet succeeded in crossing the continent along the line of the meridian from north to south. In 1886, Dr. Holub attempted the route from the Cape northward, and in 1887 had penetrated farthest in this direction, having advanced some distance beyond the Zam- besi. The regions that remain to be explored are chiefly : (1) The upper Zambesi and the space between that river and the headwaters of the Congo—that is, both slopes of the Lokinga water-shed. (2) The region between the Congo and equatoriallakes. (8) The much larger region between the Congo and Shari basins, and thence westward to the Bight of Biafra. (4) Most of Som4li, Kaffa, and Galla lands, especially between Thomson and Fischer’s farthest n. and Schuver’s farthest s.—that is, between 1°-10° n. lat., and stretch- ing from the upper Nile to the Indian ocean. (5) Much of the region enclosed by the great northern curve of the Niger. (6) The Libyan desert. The Partition of Africa.—In 1890-91, by various compacts between England, France, Germany, and Portugal, such desirable portions of Africa as had not previously been claimed by other nations, were divided among these four._powers. This territorial divi- sion did not take, in the case of all territories, the form of actual annexation ; but rather in the mapping out of the country into ‘‘ spheres of influence,” within each of which only the power to which it had been assigned should thereafter be paramount. These spheres of influence are of somewhat indefinite extent; and in the case of the Anglo- Portuguese division, there still remain territories that are indispute. The new arrange ment and general partition are indicated in the maps of ArricA and CENTRAL AFRICA. See also the articles Conco FREE STATE, GERMANY, GREAT BriTAIN, HINTERLAND. The ANGLO-GERMAN AGREEMENT was signed July 1st, 1890, at Berlin, by the Ger- man Chancellor and the British Ambassador, and consists of 12 articles. In return for territorial concessions by Germany in Africa, England in the twelfth article cedes to Germany the island of Heliyoland (q.v.) in the North Sea. Afvivcander. Airican Languages. 142 The ANGLO-FRENCH AGREEMENT was signed at London, Aug. 5th, 1890, by Lord Salisbury and the French Ambassador. It consists of two declarations. In the first, France recognizes an English protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba, and, in the second, England recognizes a French protectorate over Madagascar, and establishes the French sphere of influence from Algiers, south, to a line from Say on the Niger to Lake Tsad. The native government of Madagascar refused to recognize the French protectorate, and in 1895 France sent an expedition to enforce it. In January, 1896, Madagascar became a French dependency. The ANGLO-PORTUGUESE AGREEMENT is based upon a convention made on August 20th, 1890, and further modified on Nov. 14th, but the British South Africa Company asserts a right to considerable territory south of the Zambesi and west of Sofala, includ- ing Mashonaland and Manica, over which Portugal claims exclusive jurisdiction. The respective shares of the European powers in Africa are hard to determine, because they change from year to year. The extent of unappropriated territory is rapidly dimin- ishing and now comprises about 1,500,000 square miles. The following are rough esti- mates in square miles of the African possessions of European states: POTEU Gs la reres po ota v0 fain bisls Oe eres 900,000 | Congo Free State (Belgian) .....850,000 S Pal treeie e eeeieee sa erese ces ectene eae 250,000 1. Thalys. 2 ete teetan it ee eee ek. 600,000 TPA TCC eWeek vere Spee Gs 9 « «sane oo 5,000,000 | Great Britaiice.. ws. cece oe 02,200,000 (SPINA Yate tare ns o's ceive seeabte 890,000 Bibliography.—See Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography (1880); Barth, Travels (1857); Burton, Lake Regions of Central Africa (1860); Krafft, Travels (1860); Living- stone, Travels (1860), Hapedition to the Zambest (1865), and Last Journals (1874); Baker, Albert Nyanza (1866), and Ismadiia (1874); Schweinfurth, 7’he Heart of Africa (1874) ; Cameron, Across Africa (1877) ; Chaillé-Long, African Travels; Holub, Seven Years in South Africa (1881); Thomson, To the “Central African Lakes and Back (1881), and Through Masai Land (1885) ; also Cust, The Modern Languages of Africa (1883) ; Rowley, Religions of the Africans; Rohlf, Climatology and Hygiene of Hast Africa; Artes Africe (Industrial Arts of Central Africa); Smith, Zoology of South Africa (1887) ; Gordon Cumming, A Hunter's Life in South Africa (1850); Catalogue of Fossil Reptilia of South Africa (pub. by British Museum) ; Lambert, 7’ he Fishes of Zanzibar ; Harvey, Thesaurus Capensis (Flora of South Africa); Oliver, Mora of Tropical A frica (1868). For the recent political divisions, see the Statesman’s Year Book for 1891 and 1892 ; Cres- well, Our South African Empire (Lond., 1885); Little, South Africa (1884); Mohr, Nach den Victoria Fallen des Zambesi (1875) ; Pringle, A Journey in Hast A frica (1886) ; Roche, On Trek in the Transvaal (1878); Mackinnon, South African Traits (1887); Statham, Blacks, Boers, and British (1881) ; Mackenzie, Austral Africa (1889); Stanley, How I Found Livingstone (1872); id., Through the Dark Continent (1878) ; id., The Congo and the Founding of tts Free State (1885); id., In Darkest Africa (1890); Petermann and Hassenstein, Inner Africa (1863) ; Trollope, South Africa (1878) ; Serpa Pinto, How I Crossed A frica (1881); Baines, T’he Gold Regions of South Africa (1877); Du Chaillu, Equatorial A frica (1861) ; id., The Aspingt Kingdom (1870); Arnot, Garenganze (1889) ; Blyden, Sterra Leone and Liberia (1886) ; Horton, Climatology and Mineralogy of West Africa (1888); Fischer, Mehr Licht im Dunkeln Welttecl (1885) ; Johnston, Africa (1878) ; id., Kilimanjaro (1885) ; Schmidt, Sanszbar (1885) ; Latimer, Hurope in Africa in the XIX Century (Chicago, 1895). AFRICANDER, or AFRIKANDER is a name given to children born of European parents in South Africa. The AFRICANDER-BonpD is an association whose aim is to increase the political in- fluence of the Dutch population in South Africa. It first came into prominence after the war in the Transvaal (q.v.) AFRICAN INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION, founded in Belgium under the following circumstances: In 1876 the King of Belgium had called a conference of geographers and explorers of all nations in his palace at Brussels. He opened the congress in person, pointing out the growing interest taken in the civilization and exploration of Africa, advocating a closer union between all explorers for the furtherance of their common efforts, and suggesting the organization of stations for scientific purposes at the bound- aries of the unexplored parts of Africa. An international commission was accordingly established, with the king as its president. They concluded that the best way to bring Africa in communication with the world was to pierce straight across from e. to w. and leave settlements along the line. This line was established in s. Africa, about 450 m. from Zanzibar. But in Aug., 1877, Stanley concluded his march of 6900 m. from the e. to the w. coast of n. Africa, and arrived at the mouth of the Congo with the discovery that that river was the most magnificent waterway on the continent. For a distance of 115 m. from its mouth it was open to the largest steamers; a second section of 250 m. was not navigable, owing to rapids and cataracts, but beyond Stanley Pool it presented an unbroken waterway for over 1000 m. through a rich and populous country. Stanley declared that whatever power could possess itself of the river would absorb the trade of the whole of the enormous basin behind, which extends across 18 degrees of longitude and covers 14 degrees of latitude. A new conference of geographers, explorers, and capitalists was convened, 1878, at Brussels, resulting in the formation of the A. I. A., under the presidency of the King of Belgium, for the purpose of opening this great 143 Africaiuder. e African Languages. waterway to European commerce, A series of exploring stations were to be established, and a road was to be built along that portion of the river which was unnavigable, so as to connect the two navigable sections. The King of Belgium subscribed $250,000 per annum out of his own private purse for the prosecution of the work. Through the energy of Stanley great progress was made, and in the spring of 1882 the members of the association practically had the vast field of industry all to themselves. But meanwhile complications had arisen. The Portuguese government revived certain ancient terri- torial claims to all the w. coast of Africa between 5° and 8° s. latitude. These claims, which had been practically abandoned before the announcement of Stanley’s discoveries, were based on discovery, possession, and treaties with the natives and with European powers. At the same time the French government entered upon a scheme for buying up territory from the natives, and M. de Brazza appeared on the banks of the Congo distributing tricolor flags, and asserting that he had obtained from their recipients the cession of tracts and territory to France. The Dutch nation claimed possession of the lower part of the river by virtue of the trading posts that they had established there. Angry disputes arose. At length it was decided, by the mutual consent of all the great powers, including the U. 8., to leave the final adjustment of the difficulties to an inter- national conference in Berlin. The conference opened at Berlin, 1884, Nov. 17, with Prince Bismarck in the chair, and ended its labors, 1885, Feb. 26. Fifteen states were _represented. As a result of mutual compromises, it was declared that the immense regions forming the basin of the Congo river and its tributaries shall be neutral territory, © that perfectly free trade shall exist there, that citizens of any country may undertake every species of transportation within its limits, that the Powers exercising sovereign rights over neighboring territory are forbidden to exercise monopolies or favors of any kind in regard to trade, and that they shall bind themselves to suppress slavery. The King of Belgium was made sovereign of the new state. See Conco FREE STATE. AFRICAN LANGUAGES. Many classifications of the native languages of Africa have been made at various times by those who have endeavored to study them comprehen- sively. Among these the most noteworthy (until 1880) was that of Mr. Prichard, as follows : I. Dialects of Negro-Land. IL, Syro Arabian (Hebreo-African), including the Libyan and Atlantic peoples from Mt. Atlas to the Arabian Gulf ; and the Galla and tribes east and south of Abyssinia. III. Bantu. IV. Hottentot-Bushman. A more satisfactory and scientific division is that of Prof. F. Miller, set forth in his Universal Ethnology, and adopted by Mr. Cust in his valuable Modern Languages of Africa (1888). Prof. Muller had the advantage of being deputed as a member of the Scientific Ex- pedition of the Austrian frigate Novdéra, and in the linguistic portions of the Report of that expedition, in his Universal Hthnology, and Outline of Philology, he goes over the whole subject of the ethnology and languages of the world. His classification of the African languages is the following : I. Shemitic. II. Hamitic. III. Nuba-Fulah. IV. Negro. V. Bantu. VI. Hottentot-Bushman. The marking off the third additional division is the special feature of this classification, which removes a great many difficulties. Lepsius, in the preface to his Nuba Grammar, published in 1880, gives us the result of lengthy investigation and long experience. It is diametrically opposed to the results at which F. Miller arrived. Why he delayed so long the publication of this work is not clear. Setting the Semitic on one side, as obviously intruders from Asia, he con siders the Hamitic and Bantu elements as the sole factors, since the Hottentot-Bushman must be included in the Hamitic subdivision, and the great Negro intermediate zone is the diversified product of the collision and mutual influence and mixture of the Hamitic and Bantu. In very much of his argument he appears to follow Bleek, Logan, and those who preceded him chronologically, in enunciating such views ; but no one has worked them out so fully as Lepsius. In his Standard Alphabet, published in London and Berlin (1862), he made a general division of languages upon another principle, the main feature being the existence or absence of literature, which is not a permanent barrier, as in one generation a language passes under proper culture from being unwritten, to becoming the vehicle of a copious literature ; but to this division, based upon a transitory char- acteristic, he unites another, the existence or the contrary of grammatical gender, one of the most deep-rooted of all divisions. Waritine.—The use of a written character, and the necessity for it, imply a degree of civilization to which the majority of the inhabitants of Africa have never risen. African. Agape. J 44 And yet to Egypt the world is indebted for the one alphabetic character, which in differ- ent forms has become the property of civilized mankind. When, therefore, one states that, so to speak, there are no written documents to record the past in Africa, one is reminded that in Egypt the most ancient documents in the world have been conserved. It will be convenient to notice each division of the subject separately. In the Semitic family some Phenician inscriptions have survived in Egypt and the North of Africa. The Arabic character is used exclusively throughout the North of Africa, in a peculiar form called the Maghribi; through the central tracts it is the medium of religion, commerce, and social intercourse to the Mahometans ; and far to the South is used by the Malay immigrants. The Mahometans of Shoa write the Amharic language in Arabic character. The Hurari use the same character for their language. The character used by the Arabs of the East Coast is an antiquated form, and most unsuited to the sounds of the Swahili language. In Bornu the Arabic alpha- bet is called A? Warash. The written characters of the old Ethiopic, or Giz, and that of the Amharic are a Syllabary, read from left to right, which change was wrought under Greek influence. There are seven orders of letters of separate form to represent the consonant and vowel. The Amharic has some additional characters. D’Abbadie states that they amount to at least two hundred and sixty-seven varieties. The same character is used for the Tigré, and has been adopted, perhaps unwisely, for some of the Hamitic languages. In the Hamitic group we have among the written characters no longer used, the cele- brated Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic, and Coptic, the three former being at one and the same time ideographic, syllabic, and alphabetic, and the last alphabetic only. Noth- ing more need be said of these here. Of the old Libyan or Numidian form of writing, specimens are found in inscriptions brought casually to light and not yet satisfactorily interpreted. It is the mother of the existing local character called the Tifinag, the lan- guage being called Tamashek, and the tribe using it the Tuwarik of the Sahara, a subdivision of the Berber family. Oudney first noticed them in 1822. Richardson, the African traveler, drew attention to them in 1847, and an account by him was published by the British Foreign Office. In the highways of the desert are found blocks of stone entirely covered with this character. The Arabs were entirely ignorant of their mean- ing. Inthe houses are similar scribblings on the walls. Attempts have been made with some success to translate them. They are read from right to left, and forma syllabary. Hanoteau in his Grammar of the Kabdil and Tamdshek Languages ; Halévy and De Saulcy in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Paris ; Letourneux in the Report of the Florence Oriental Congress ; Faulmann in his book on Written Characters, have noticed this character. In the Nuba-Fulah group must be noticed the ancient Nubian written character in the ruins at Meroé and Napatain Nubia. No satisfactory interpretation has as yet been made, and the language employed is only presumed to be the ancient form of the mod- ern Bishari. In one instance there is a Greek transcript. It is only provisionally grouped here ; if proved to be the vehicle of a Hamitic language, it must be transferred to that group. In the Negro group is one indigenous written character only, that of the Vei, on the West Coast near Cape Mount. Dodlu Bukere, a native of the tribe, who had learned the Roman character, was the inventor of this character about the year 18384. The writ- ing was afterwards used for Mahometan purposes ; but in its invention Mahometanism had no share. It is quite original, independent both of the Arabic and the English char- acter. Itis syllabic, and there are upward of two hundred forms. Books have been written in it to a considerable number ; but it has not been adopted by any Christian mission, nor is it likely to have a prolonged existence. It has been noticed by a great many writers, and has received a notoriety greater than it deserved. Forbes, Koelle, Freeman, Hanoteau, and Steinthal have all mentioned it; it must be recollected that, though the forms are original, the idea of a syllabary and an alphabet was borrowed from European sources. AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. American Methodists from the begin- ning of their history, labored diligently for the conversion and elevation of colored people in the United States, both n. and s., thousands of whom are now in communion with the M. E. church. In 1816, a company of them, with the hope of being freer and more useful as a separate denomination, called a convention in Philadelphia, which or- ganized the African M. E. Church. Richard Allen, who had been a Methodist minister for 17 years, was chosen bishop, and was ordained by five presbyters. A second bishop, Morris Brown, was elected in 1828, and a third, E. Waters, in 1886. The doctrines and, with some unessential modifications, the government of the M. E. church are retained. The church has continued to grow, and many of its preachers have been able men. The abolition of slavery, with the kindred changes that accompanied it, has greatly enlarged its territory and added to its members. In 1864, preliminary measures for a union with the A. M. E. Zion church were taken by both parties, to be ratified at the next ppapeene their general conferences in 1868. The union, however, did not then take place. In 1876, a plan of union with the Independent Methodist Church was adopted, to be followed (it was hoped) by the admission of all the independent churches in Canada and the United States. The number of young men who are studying for the ministry is increasing. The Christian Recorder, the church newspaper, enlarged and improved, is 145 African.” Agapee. prepared entirely by colored men. An educational department has been instituted, and the effort to supply the schools with competent teachers of the African race will be dili- gently prosecuted. In 1896 were reported 4680 ministers, and 615,854 members. AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL ZION CHURCH, a denomination which had its origin, in 1820, in the secession of the Zion Congregation (N. Y. city) from the M. E. Church. It was soon joined by other congregations. The next year the first annual conference met in N. Y., attended by 22 ministers, and reporting 1426members. At first each annual conference appointed its president. In 18388 Christopher Rush was elected superintendent for four years. In 1847 there were two general superintendents, four annual conferences (Philadelphia, Boston, New York, and Baltimore), 75 traveling min- isters, about 200 local preachers and exhorters, 5000 members, 50 churches, and many congregations without churches, located in 11 states, the District of Columbia and Nova Scotia. The general conference of 1864 voted in favor of a union with the A. M. E. church (q. v.), which, however, has not taken place. The doctrines are the same as those of the M. E. church. The chief officers, at first styled general superintendents, but now bishops, are elected for four years, and may be re-elected. At the general conference in 1876 measures were adopted preparatory to a union with the colored M. E. church. In 1896 were reported 2561 ministers, and 492,888 members. AFZE’LIUS, ApAm, 1750-1836; Swedish naturalist, a pupil of Linnzeus, whose auto- biography he afterwards edited. He studied the flora of west Africa, 1792-94, and wrote many botanical papers for the Danish royal academy and the Linnzean society of London. Several species of Afzelia have been named after him. AFZE’LIUS, Arvip AvGuSsT, 1785-1871; a native of Sweden; first a school-teacher, and then parish priest for near half a century. He wrote poems in 1811, and Farewell to the Swedish Harp in 1848; translated Icelandic sagas, and with Geiger edited Swedish Folk Songs. His most valuable work is a History of the Swedish People, completed in 1870. AG'ADES, formerly a very important city of central Africa, but at present in a declin- ing condition. It is the capital of Air or Asben (q.v.), and is built upon the eastern edge of a great table-land, at an elevation of not lessthan 2500 ft., in lat. 16° 33’n., long. 7° 30’ e. It holds little intercourse with the northern cities, such as Murzuk, which, indeed, is never visited, except by pilgrims on their way to Mecca; but its merchants still frequent the markets of Katsena, Tasawa, Maradi, Kanoand Sokoto. AGADIR’, or Santa Cruz, a seaport in northern Africa, on the Atlantic, 30° 27’ n., 9° 36’e. It was the Santa Cruz of the Portuguese in the 16th c. AGALAC’TIA (Gr. a, not, and galacté, milk), a want of the due secretion of milk. It may depend either on organic imperfection of the mammary gland, or upon constitu- tional causes. In the latter case, the secretion may often be excited by warmth and moisture, by the stimulus of the act of sucking, and if this fail, by the application of the leaves of the castor-oil plant to the breast. AGAMA, a genus of saurian reptiles, the type of a family called agamide. The aga- mas are allied to the iguanas, and have a lax skin, which they have the power of inflating with air. None of them are of a large size. They are found in warm climates, and are of various habits, some of them living in trees, and others confined to the ground. AGAMEM'NON, son of king Atreus, and brother of Menelaus. After his father’s death, he reigned in Mycenz, and married Clytemnestra, by whom he had three children —Iphigeria, Electra, and Orestes, afterwards celebrated in the Greek drama. When Paris, son of the Trojan king, Priam, seduced and carried away Helena, the wife of Men- elaus, A., with his injured brother, made a tour throughout Greece, exhorting all the leaders of the people to unite their forces in an expedition against Troy. Having gained their alliance, A. was appointed general-in-chief of the united forces assembled at Aulis in Beotia, where they were delayed some time. In the following campaign against Troy, which forms the subject of Homer’s Iliad, A. is described as a very stately and dignified character. After the fall of Troy, he returned home, taking with him Cassandra, the daughter of Priam. Shortly afterwards, he was murdered by Clytemnestra, aided by fEgisthus, in whose care he had left his wife and children. A tragical fate had always lowered over the house of A.; and the destinies of his children—Iphigenia, Electra, and Orestes—were the favorite subjects of the Greek drama. AGAMEN'’TICUS, Mount, a hill in York co., Me., 4m. from the sea; 673 ft. high ; noted landmark for sailors. Its exact situation is 43° 10’ 2” n. and 70° 41.2’ w. AGAMOGENESIS, reproduction without sex, a process of multiplication by division, budding, or gemmation, and the like, in which there is no union of sexual elements, but simply a more or less discontinuous growth. It is exceedingly common among the lower animals and plants, but is gradually replaced in the higher by the more special- ized method of sexual reproduction. The term is synonymous with Parthenogenesis (q.v.). AGANIP’PE, a fountain in Beotia, near Mt. Helicon, flowing to the river Permessus. The water was sacred to the muses, and gave poetic inspiration. There was a fabled nymph Aganippe, daughter of the river. AG APH were love-feasts, or feasts of charity, usually celebrated by the early Chris- tians in connection with the Lord’s supper. The name is derived from the Greek word aga», which signifies love or charity. At these feasts, the rich Christians presented their poorer brethren in the faith with gifts, and all ate together, in token of their equality gee 146 before God and their brotherly harmony. ‘The meetings were opened and closed with prayer; and during the feast, spiritual songs were sung. At first, a bishop or presbyter presided, who read a portion of scripture, proposed questions upon it, and received the various answers of the brethren. Afterwards, whatever information had been obtained regarding the other churches, was read—such as the official letters of overseers, or private communications from eminent members; and thus a spirit of practical sympathy was engendered. Before the conclusion of the proceedings money was collected for widows, orphans, the poor, prisoners, and those who had suffered shipwreck. Then the members enibraced, and the feast was ended with a ‘‘philanthropic prayer.” As early as the 2d c., the custom of celebrating the A. and the Lord’s supper together had ceased, on account ot the persecutions. Justin, when writing on the latter subject, does not speak of the former; but Ignatius, on the other hand, seems to regard them as identical. Generally, the feast of the A. preceded the celebration of the Lord’s supper. But during the period of the persecutions, when the Christians had often to hold divine service before dawn, the A. were, for the most part, delayed till the evening. Later, a formal separation was made between the two rites. In the 3d and 4th centuries, the A. had degenerated into a common banquet, where the deaths of relatives, and the anniversaries of the martyrs, were commemorated, and where the clergy and the poor were guests; but with the increase of wealth, and the decay of religious earnestness and purity in the Christian church, these A. became occasions of great riotousness and debauchery. Councils declared against them, forbade the clergy to take any share in their celebration, and finally banished them from thechurch. At the same time, it must be admitted that the heathens ignorantly calumniated the practices of the Christians in these A., and that the defenses made by Tertullian, Minucius, Felix, Origen, etc., are eminently successful. The Mora- vians have attempted to revive these A., and hold solemn festivals with prayer and praise, where tea is drunk, and wheaten bread, called love-bread, is used. See LovE-FRASTs. AGAPEM ONE (Gr. love-abode), a conventual establishment of a singular kind, con- sisting of persons of both sexes, founded at Charlynch, near Bridgewater, in Somerset- shire, by Mr. Henry James Prince, formerly a clergyman of the church of England. The inmates belong to a new religious sect originating with Mr. Prince, and a Mr. Star- key, also a clergyman, and are sometimes called Lampeter Brethren, from the place where Prince was educated, and where, while a student, he formed a revival society. The ad- herents of the sect generally, of whom there are many in the south-western counties, are: known as Princeites or Starkeyites. The strange theories advocated by the founders of the sect, led to their dismissal from the church of England, but the heresy spread not only among the farmers along the coast of Sussex and Dorsetshire, but also among the educated classes. Community of goods being insisted upon, the leaders acquired con- siderable property, and fitted up in luxurious style a dwelling near Charlynch. Prince, who was styled ‘‘ The Lord,”’ affirmed in his publications that he was sinless, and was sent to redeem the body, ‘‘to conclude the day of grace, and to introduce the day of judg- ment.’’ ‘The Princeites, among other tenets, held religious objections to the increase of population, and claimed exemption from disease. See Hepworth Dixon, Spiritual Wives (1868), and The Newbery House Mayuzine (Nov. 1891). It would appear that a society, similar in its aims and character, though not conventual in its form, existed in England in the 16th and 17th cs. It was called the ‘‘ family of love.” Its founder is generally supposed to have been Henry Nicholas, a native of Minster, in Westphalia, but who lived a considerable time in Holland. He held himself to be greater than Moses or Christ, for the former only taught men to hope, and the latter to belueve, while he first announced the doctrine of love. He made his appearance about 1540. Others, however, are of opinion that the real father of this ‘‘ family” was one David George, a fanatical Anabaptist of Delft, in Holland, who died in 1556, and who imparted his ‘‘ damnable errors” to Nicholas, an old friend of his. In the reign of Edward VI., according to Fuller, Nicholas came over to England, and commenced the perversion of silly people in a secret way. By 1572, they had apparently increased in numbers considerably, for in that year one John Rogers published a work against them, entitled, The Displaying of an Horrible Secte of Grosse and Wicked Heretiques, naming themselves the Family of Love, with the Lives of their Authors, and what Doctrine they teach in Corners. In 1580, queen Elizabeth issued a proclamation for the hunting out and punishing of the ‘‘ damnable sect.” The family of love, ‘‘ or lust, rather,” as old Fuller has it, tried to insinuate themselves into the good graces of king James, by presenting a petition, casting aspersions on the Puritans. At length, the society expired from continual exposure to the effects of ridicule in prose and verse, as well as from its own intrinsic worthlessness. Their doctrines seem to have been a species of pseudo-spiritual sentimentalism, resulting in gross impurity. (See MuckKERs.) AGAPE’TZ, widows and virgins among the early Christians who devoted themselves: to attendance upon ecclesiastics. Immorality followed, and the early councils denounced the practice. AGAPE’TUS, a deacon of St. Sophia’s church at Constantinople, who presented to Justinian, in 527, a work on the duties of a Christian prince. It is highly valued, and: has been often reprinted, 147 Ais AGARDE’, Artuur, 1540-1615, an English antiquarian. He was bred to the law, and became deputy chamberlain, holding the office 45 years, in which time he became proficient in antiquarian knowledge. Camden and Sir Robert Cotton were his personal friends, and with them he was among the first members of the royal society of anti: quarians. A’'GARDH, JAxos GroRG, b. 1813 ; son of Karl Adolph, and followed the same study. He was professor of botany at Lund in 1854, He much increased his father’s large collection, and wrote several botanical works. A'GARDH, Karu Apoupn, 1785-1859 ; a Swedish botanist. He was educated at) Lund. In botany he paid special attention to cryptogamia, on which he is authority. In 1812 he was professor of botany and rural economy at Lund, and lectured on general economics. He became a priest in 1816 ; went into politics in 1817, and was elected to the diet; in 1884 was made bishop of Karlstadt, and was the leading liberal in the diet. A. was author of several books and papers, chiefly on botany, and a memoir of Linnzus. AG'ARIC and AGAR’/ICUS. See MusHroom. AGA’SIAS, a Greek sculptor, supposed to have lived in the 4th ec. B.c. The ‘‘ Borghese Gladiator,” one of his works, was found at Antium with the ‘‘Apollo Belve- dere,” and is now in the Louvre. It is a warrior on foot with head raised as if on guard against a horseman. Some suppose it represents Achilles, the invisible enemy being Penthesilea. AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER, b. Switzerland, 1835, son of Louis, and joined his father in Boston in 1848. He graduated at Harvard in 1855, and was in the U. 8. coast survey off California in 1859-60, studying the fauna of the Mexican coast. Subsequently he became largely interested in copper mining, and gave his attention successively to such scientific work as was involved in the positions of curator of the museum of comparative zoology, superintendent of the Anderson school of natural history, member of the scientific expedition to Chili and lake Titicaca, chief of the U. 8. dredging expedition in the West Indies, and one of the overseers of Harvard college. He is a member of a great number of scientific societies, and has written largely upon ichthyology. He was appointed an officer of the Legion of Honor in 1896. AG'ASSIZ, Louis JoHN Ropo.tpu, one of the most distinguished of modern naturalists, was born at Orbe, in the canton de Vaud, in 1807. After passing through the usual course of elementary learning at Biel and Lausanne, he prosecuted his studies at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich. rn early youth he had displayed a strong love of natural history; and at Heidelberg and Munich comparative anatomy was his favorite occupa- tion. In Munich he became acquainted with Martius and Spix, the well-known travelers in Brazil; and when Spix died (in 1826) his collection of 116 species of fish, collected in Brazil, was left in the care of A., who published it under the title Pisces, etc., quos collegtt et pingendos curavit Spiz, descripsit A, (Munich, 1829-31, with 91 illustrations in lithog- raphy.) Led by this work to study ichthyology more closely, A. next undertook a sys- tematic arrangement of the fresh-water fishes found in central Europe. Of this work, the first fasciculus, containing the family of the Salmonide, appeared at Neufchatel in 1889, with 34 illustrations, and descriptions in French, English, and German. A _ second fasciculus, prepared. by his friend Vogt, Hmbryologie des Salmones, was published in 1840; and a third, Anatomie des Salmones, appeared in 1845 as a part of the third volume of the Memoirs of the Neufchatel Society of Natural History. Beyond this, the work was not continued. A. at the same time devoted his attention to the fossil remains of fishes, and during his stay in Paris (1831-82), examined several private and public fossil collections, The results of his studies were given in his work Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, published at Neufchatel, with 811 lithographed illustrations, (1833- 42.) Meanwhile he had been invited to take the professorship of natural history at Neufchatel; and here he found two active young friends, Desor and Vogt, who afforded considerable aid in the completion of his works. With their assistance his work on fossil fishes was brought to a conclusion in 1842. During several visits to England, A. made himself well acquainted with the collections of fossils in this country; and in 1844 pub- lished a monograph on fossil fishes found in the old red sandstone of the Devonian system. His study of these remains led him to examine other fossils; and the results appeared in his works Description des Echinodermes Fossiles de la Suisse, and Monographies @ Echinodermes Vivants et Fossiles. In the latter work, Professor Valentin, of Berne, supplied the section on the ‘‘ Anatomy of the Sea-urchin.” A. next turned his attention to the mollusca, and produced his Critical Studies on Fossil Mollusca, which was soon followed by his Memoirs on the Muscles in Living and Fossil Mollusca. His work on Glaciers excited great interest, as it opened new views in geology. Theresults of further study were given in asecond work on The System of Glaciers; or Researches on Glaciers (Paris, 1847). In preparing this work, he was assisted by his friends Guyot and Desor. In 1846, A. went to the United States, where he was appointed to a professorship in Har- vard college, near Boston ; from which he was subsequently transferred (1852) to the chair of comparative anatomy in Charleston ; but this he resigned (1854), and returned to Har- vard. In Outlines of Comparative Physiology, A. upholds the doctrine of the successive creation of higher organized beings on the earth. An Essay on Classification, by A., was re 1 4 8 ge. published (Lond., 1859); anda Journey in Brazil (1868). During the latter of these years, he was appointed a non-resident professor and lecturer in Cornell university, Ithaca, N. Y.; and, along with count Portalés, was intrusted with the dredging operations in the investi- gation of the Gulf Stream, undertaken by the American government in 1871. A. granted that Darwinism (q. v.) could be theistically interpreted; but opposed it, chiefly on scien- tific grounds. D. in 1878. See Marcou’, Life, Letters and Works of Louis Agassiz (1896). AGASSIZ ASSOCIATION, a society formed about 1879 by Harlan H. Ballard, principal of Lenox (Mass.) academy, for the purpose of interesting his scholars in the study, col- lection, and preservation of natural objects. Since 1880 the association has become a general organization, including very many young people in various parts of the world, and not a few professional scientists and teachers, who recognize its value as an educa- tional power. The parent chapter is that at Lenox. Branch chapters take their names from the towns where they are formed, and must consist of at least 4 persons. The payment of a small fee enables any one not connected with a chapter to become a cor- responding member of the parent chapter, and to share in the advantages of the associ- ation, among which are free correspondence and exchange with naturalists, and free assistance from specialists in any department of science. The badge is a Swiss cross. Prizes for original research are offered by the association. At the first general conven- tion, held at Philadelphia, Sept., 1884, 700 local branches and over 8000 members were reported. The membership afterwards increased to about 10,000, with 1000 chapters. AG’ASSIZ, Mount, in Arizona, 70 m. n. e. of Prescott; an extinct volcano, 10,000 ft. above the sea-level. It is a favorite summer resort, and near it is the wonderful canyon of the Colorado. Another peak of this name in Utah is 13,000 feet high. AG’ATE, a mineral composed of layers of quartz, generally of different varieties or colors, intimately joined together. The layers are often concentric, and in the section some- times appear nearly circalar or elliptical, sometimes angular. Chalcedony, amethyst, common quartz, jasper, flint, etc., occur as layers in A. It takes a fine polish, and is much used for ornamental purposes. It is common in amygdaloids. Many agates are found in Scotland, and are sold under the name of Scotch pebbles. See illus., DIAMONDs, ETC., vol. IV. AG’ATHA, SAINT, a noble Sicilian lady of great beauty, who rejected the love of the proconsul Quintilianus, and suffered a cruel martyrdom in the persecution of Christians under Decius (251). She holds a high rank among the saints of the Roman Catholic church; her day falls Feb. 5. AGATHAR’CHIDES, or AGATHARCHUS, a Greek grammarian and geographer, who lived about 180 B.c. He was guardian of an Egyptian king, probably Ptolemy Soter II. A. was an orator, and wrote several works, of which only one remains. AGATHAR/CHUS, abt. 480 B.c.; a Greek painter ; said to be the first who applied the laws of perspective. He painted a scene for a tragedy by Aéschylus, and is called the first scene-pairiter. AGA'THIAS, surnamed Asrtanus; 5386-580 a.p.; educated at Alexandria and Con- stantinople; studied Roman law and practiced with success; wrote love verses and made an anthology of earlier poets; but his most valuable work is a history of the years 553 to 558, in which he tells of the conquest of Italy by the Goths, of the earthquakes of 554 and 557, the beginning of the Greek and Persian war, the rebuilding of St. Sophia, the exploits of Belisarius, etc. AGATH'OCLES, one of the boldest but most unworthy adventurers of antiquity, was b. at Therme, in Sicily, in 861 B.c. He rose from humble circumstances through the patronage of Damas, a noble citizen of Syracuse, and received a command in the expedi: tion against Agrigentum. After vards he married the widow of Damas, and became one of the most wealthy men in Syracuse. Under the rule of Sosistratus, he was obliged to flee into lower Italy, where he collected a band of partisans. Returning to Syracuse, after the death of Sosistratus, he zained the supremacy, confirmed it by a massacre of several thousands of respectable citizens, and took possession of the greater part of Sicily. To establish his power, and keep his army employed, he now attempted to expel the Cartha- ginians from Sicily; but in this undertaking he was defeated. His next plan was to. pass over to Africa with a part of his army and there attack the Carthaginians. This war he carried on with success for four years, or until 307 B.c., when disturbances in Sicily com- pelled him to leave the army fora time. On his return to Africa he found his troops in a state of mutiny against his son Archagathus, whom he had left in command, but pacified them by promises of large booty. Soon afterwards he suffered a serious defeat, and with deliberate treachery left his own son exposed to the vengeance of the disap- pointed soldiers. The son was put to death, and the troops surrendered themselves to the enemy, while A. escaped safely into Sicily, where, by fraud and cruelty, he soon recovered his former power, and was afterwards engaged in predatory inroads upon Italy. It was his intention to leave the throne to his youngest son, A.; but his grandson, Archagathus, made an insurrection, slew the royal heirs, and persuaded Menon, one of the favorites of the aged tyrant, to destroy him by means of a poisoned toothpick. This took piace in 289 B.c,, When A. was 72 years old, and had reigned 28 years. 149 teeselee AG'ATHON, or AacaTuo, 447-400 3B.c.; a Greek tragic poet, contemporary and friend of Plato, Socrates, Alcibiades and Euripides; noted for personal beauty. After his first literary triumphs, in 416, a dinner was given to him, which Plato immortalized in his ‘‘Symposium,” the scene being in A.’s house. He was sometimes ridiculed for bombast and for effeminate tastes, appearing on the stage in female dress. AGAVE, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order amaryllidee (q.v.), and hav- ing a tubular perianth with 6-partite limb, anda triangular, many-seeded inferior capsule. They are herbaceous plants, of remarkable and beautiful appearance. There are a number of species, all natives of the warmer parts of America. By unscientific persons they are often confounded with aloes (q.v.); and A. Americana is generally known by the name of AMERICAN ALOE. The agaves have either no proper stem, or a very short one, bearing at its summit a crowded head of large, fleshy leaves, which are spiny at the margin. From the midst of these shoots up the straight, upright scape, 24 to 36 ft. high, and at the base often 1 ft.in diameter, along which are small, appressed, lanceolate bractex, with a terminal panicle, often bearing as many as 4000 flowers. In 8. America, these plants often flower in the 8th year, but in our hot-houses not until they have reached a very advanced age; whence arises the gardeners’ fable of their flowering only once in 100 years. After flowering, the plant always dies down to the ground, but the root continuing to live, sends up new shoots. The best known species is A. Americana, which was first brought from $8. America to Europe in 1561, and being easily propa. gated by suckers, is employed for fences in Italian Switzerland, and has become natural- ized in Naples, Sicily, and the n. of Africa. By maceration of the leaves, which are 5 to 7 ft. long, are obtained coarse fibres, which are used in America, under the name of maguey, for the manufacture of thread, twine, ropes, hammocks, etc. This fibre is also known as pita flax. It is now produced to some extent in the s.of Europe. It is not very strong nor durable, and if exposed to moisture it soon decays. The ancient Mexi- cans employed it for the preparation of a coarse kind of paper, and the Indians use it foroakum. The leaves, cut into slices, are used for feeding cattle.—Another species, A. Mexicana, is particularly described by Humboldt upon account of its utility. When the innermost leaves have been torn out, a juice continues to flow for a year or a year and a half, which, by inspissation, yields sugar; and which, when diluted with water, and subjected to 4 or 5 days’ fermentation, becomes an agreeable but intoxicating drink, called pulque, AG'DE, an ancient French t. in the dept. of Herault, founded by the Greeks, and situated about a league from the Mediterranean sea, on the left bank of a navigable stream. To the n., under the walls of the t., flows the Languedoc canai. The mouth of the stream forms a harbor, which admits vessels of 400 tons burden. The coast-trade of A., in particular, is very brisk, while it is also the entrepot for the traffic of the s. and w. of France. It has, besides, considerable intercourse with Italy, Spain, and Africa. It carries on a large and prosperous trade in coal, wine, oil, grain, silk, etc., and manufactures soap and verdigris; but the general aspect of the place is sombre and forbidding, on account of the black basalt of which the houses are built, whence it has popularly received the name of the Black Town. It possesses a naval academy, and is noted in history as the place at which Alaric, king of the Goths, convened a council. Pop. ’91, 7889. AGE, in law, is that period of life at which persons are permitted legally to exercise certain rights which for lack of A. they had been restrained from. In general, @ person is ‘‘of age” on the day preceding the 21st anniversary of birth. The ‘‘A. of discretion” is at 14 years for males and 12 for females, at which point either may marry or elect guardians. At full A. (21) male citizens can vote and hold office, except in cer- tain specified cases, such as a representative in congress, who must. be 25 years of age,a senator 80, and the president 35. The ‘‘ military A.,” confined to males, is from 18 to 45 years. In N. Y. no judge can hold office after he is 70 years of age; male citizens over 21 and under 60 are subject to jury duty. In mythology and poetic fancy, the course of the world was divided into 5 ages: the golden A., when Saturn reigned, was a period of innocence and happiness; the silver A., under the rule of Jupiter, was the voluptuous period; the brazen A., when Neptune held sway, was a warlike interval; the heroic A. under Mars was also warlike and adventurous; while the iron A.,with Pluto as theruler, was one of human degradation and misery. In chronology we have many ages, the principal being the antediluvian and the postdiluvian. In anthropology there is the A. of stone, the A.of bronze, and the A. of iron, indicated by the use of these substances for tools in successive periods. In geology there are the azoic, the silurian, the Devonian, the carboniferous, the reptilian, the mammalian; and the A. of man, or the present A. In letters there are the A. of Pericles in Greece, the Augustan A. in Rome, the Elizabethan A. in England, and the Augustan A. in France under Louis XIV. There is the heathen as opposed to the Christian A.; the A. of the crusades; the dark A.’s, the middle A.’s and the A. of steam. The progress of mental activity has been divided into the A.of the supernatural, the A. of the metaphysical, and the A. of the positive. Physiologically human lifeis divided into infancy, youth, manhood, and old A. See CONSENT; INFANT, AG'ELNOTH, or ETHELNOTH, known also as ACHELNOTUS ; son of Egelmaer, arch. bishop of Canterbury in the reign of Canute. A. exercised great and salutary influence over that headstrong monarch, both to prompt and to restrain, counseling the policy that finally united the Danes and Saxons to oppose the Normans He also made peace in the church and ended the persecution raging between the Benedictines and the secu- lar clergy. He was made archbishop, and went to Rome in 1022 to receive the pall. On. keno pate hhis return he purchased at Pavia a relic, said to be the right arm of St Augustine rf Hippo. When Canute died he made A. promise to be faithful to his sons by Emma, and the promise was so well kept that Harold the usurper remained unconsecrated until after the death of A. AGEN’, the chief t. of the department of Lot-et-Garonne in France, is situated in a fertile region on the right bank of the Garonne. The town is old and gloomy in appear- ‘ance; but carries on an active trade in woolen and linen fabrics, leather, colored paper, ‘colors, cordage and sail-cloth. It forms the connecting-link of the intercourse between ‘Toulouse and Bordeaux, and exports plums, brandy, hemp, flax and poultry. Close by it is the old-fashioned house in which Joseph Scaliger, the prince of scholiasts, was born. In ancient times A. was the scene of many a fierce martyrdom of the Christians, when it was under the ruleof Roman pretors. Afterwards it suffered the miseries of war, during the barbaric irruptions from Germany, to a most incredible extent, having been taken and plundered by Goths, Vandals, and Huns, in their turn. It was seized by the English, in their early French wars, and, at a later period, was twice taken by the Huguenots, in the religious contests of the 16th c. It has many interesting antiquities. Pop. ’91, 20,400. AGENDA (Lat., things to be done), a term applied by theologians to practical duties as distinguished from the credenda, things to be believed, or doctrines that must be accepted as articles of faith. Among writers of the ancient church, the term signified both divine service in genera! and the mass in particular. We meet with agenda matutina and vespertina, morning and evening prayers ; agenda diet, the office of the day ; agenda mortuorum, the service of the dead. It is also applied to church-books, compiled by public authority, prescribing the order to be observed by the ministers and people in the ceremonies and observances of the church. In this sense agenda occurs for the first time in a work of Johannes de Janua about 1287. The name was especially used to designate a book containing the formule of prayer and ceremonies to be observed by the priests in their several ecclesiastical functions. It was generally adopted by the Lutheran Church of Germany, in which it is still in use, while in the Roman Church it has been, since the sixteenth century, supplanted by the term rztwal (q.v.). AGE'’NOR, a fabulous king of Pheenicia, son of Neptune, twin brother of Belus ; father of Cadmus, and some say of Europa. When Europa was carried off by Zeus, A. sent his sons to find her, with orders not to return until they had done so. She was not found, and the sons settled in various countries. Buttman supposes A. to be the Canaan of Moses (Gen. x. 6). ; AGE OF REASON, A name given to a certain period of the French revolution, when Christianity was decried and Reason acknowledged as the only true Goddess. This movement was carried on by Hebert and his followers, professed atheists, who suc- ceeded in persuading many Christians to renounce their faith. The worship of Reason centres round the ceremonies held in her honor at Notre Dame, November 10, 1798. The Goddess, typified by a painted harlot, was placed on the altar and received the homage of her worshipers. A schism in the party of the Montagnards, to which the atheists belonged, led to their execution, which occurred March 24, 1794. AGENT (Latin, agens). One who is employed to act for another in some matter con- nected with the making of contracts. An agent is distinguished from a servant, in that the latter is employed merely to do work or services for a master, and is not generally authorized to make contracts, by which his employer shall be bound. One who is em- ployed to render specified services for another, and is also authorized to enter into con- tracts with third parties in connection therewith, is both an agent and aservant. An agency may be either, (1) general or (2) special. (1) A general agent is one who is em- ployed by his principal to manage and attend to all the affairs of a certain business or department thereof. One who holds himself out to the community as ready and willing to transact all the business of a specified kind for any one who may employ him, such as a commission merchant or insurance broker, is a general agent for the time being for those who employ him in that capacity. A general agent binds his principal by all his acts done within the scope of his business or employment. (2) A special agent is one employed to do some specific work for his principal, as such agent, and who is not given the general management of any branch of business. He can bind his principal only by acts done strictly within the scope of the authority given by the latter. If the principal either employ his agent as a general one, or by his acts or representations lead those who deal with such agent to believe that he isso employed and to act upon that belief, he will be bound by all the acts of the agent as such, whether he be in fact_a general or a special agent. One who knowingly deals with a special agent cannot hold the principal liable for the acts of such agent outside of the strict authority given him by such prin- cipal. See also, FacToR, BROKER, COMMISSION MERCHANT. AGES, a term employed to designate the epochs of civilization in the history of the human race. The old poets and philosophers described these in harmony with what they conceived to have been the moral and political condition of their ancestors. The idea of a succession of A. presented itself at a very early period to the Greek mind. The life of the race was likened to that of the individual—hence the infancy of the former might easily be imagined to be, like that of the latter, the most beautiful and serene of all Hesiod mentions 5 A.—the golden, simple and patriarchal; the silver, voluptuous and godless; the brazen, warlike, wild and violent; the heroic, an aspiration towards the 151 Ferme better ; the iron, in which justice, piety and faithfulness had vanished from the earth, the time in which Hesiod fancied that he himself lived. Ovid closely imitates the old Greek except in one particular—he omits the heroic age. This idea, at first perhaps a mere poetic comparison, gradually worked its way into prose, and finally became a por tion of scientific philosophy. These A. were regarded as the divisions of the great world: year, which would be completed when the stars and planets had performed a revolution round the heavens, after which destiny would repeat itself in the same series of events. Thus mythology was brought into connection with astronomy. The golden A. was said to be governed by Saturn; the silver, by Jupiter; the brazen, by Neptune; and the iron, by Pluto, Many curious calculations were entered into by ancient writers to ascertain the length of the heavenly year, and its various divisions. The greatest discrepancy prevailed, as might naturally be expected; some maintaining that it was 3000, and others as many as 18,000 solar years. The Sybilline books compared it to the seasons of the solar year, calling the golden age the spring, etc.; and on the completion of the cycle, the old order was renewed. The idea of a succession of A. is so natural, that it has inwrought itself into the religious convictions of almost all nations. It is sanctioned by scripture, for it is symbolically adopted in the Apocalypse to a certain extent; it also manifests itself in the sacred books of the Indians, Modern philosophy, at least in Ger- many and France, has also attempted to divide human history into definite A. or periods. Fichte numbers five, of which he conceives that we are in the third; Hegel and August Comte reckon three, placing us in the last. : AGESILA'US, king of Sparta (899-360 B.c.), was elevated to the throne chiefly by the exertions of Lysander. Being called upon by the Jonians to assist them against Artax- erxes, he commenced a splendid campaign in Asia; but was compelled by the Corinthian war, in which several of the Grecian states were allied against Sparta, to leave his con- quest over the Persians incomplete, and return to Greece. At Cheeronea (394 B.c.), he gained a victory over the allied forces, and in 378 the war was concluded by a treaty of peace in favor of Sparta. Afterwards, in the Theban war, though hard pressed by Pelopidas and Epaminondas, he bravely and ably defended his country. He died in his 84th year. A. is described as of smal. stature but commanding aspect, blameless in his private character, and, in public life, just, as far as his partiality for his own country allowed. His biographers are Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos. AG’GERHUUS, or AKERSHUUS, a department in s. e. Norway, 2012 sq. m., pop. ’91, about 100,000. The chief business is in iron, lumber, pitch, tallow, and hides. The district has many small lakes, and the scenery is beautiful. AGGLU'TINATE LANGUAGES, the name given to the Turanian tongues, because the pronouns are attached (glued on) to the verbs, and prepositions denoting case in the same way attached to substantives. See PurnoLogy; TURANIAN LANGUAGES. AGGREGATION, STATES OF ; the three states, solid, liquid and gaseous, in which matter occurs, depending upon the degree of cohesion that exists between the molecules or atoms of material bodies. In a solid state the molecules are fixed, and cannot be changed from their position without force; in the liquid state they move freely on each other, and the cohesion is so slight that the body has no fixed form; in the gaseous state they are affected by an elastic force that amounts to repulsion, tending to disperse them through increased space. A recent hypothesis, to which some facts seem to point, is that of a fourth state, called ‘‘ radiant,” in which matter is supposed to exist at a point as far beyond the gaseous as that is beyond the liquid. AGINCOURT. See AzincourtT, AG'TO, an Italian word, signifying ‘“‘accommodation,” was first used in Italy to denote the premium taken by money-changers in giving gold for silver, on account of the greater convenience of gold for transport. The same word is now used to denote the differenee between the real and the nominal value of money; also the variations from fixed pars or rates of exchange. It corresponds very nearly to the English word ‘‘ premium,” A’GIS, the name of several kings of Sparta. Mention is made of a king A. as early as about 1000 years B.c., who subdued the old inhabitants of Sparta, and made the Helots vassals or slaves. Of the others, A. I. reigned during the greater part of the Peloponne- sian war, from 420 to 397 p.c.—A. II. ascended the throne in 838 B.c. His hatred of the Macedonian supremacy led him to form alliances with several Persian satraps against Alexander the great. A., after extending his conquests to almost all the cities of Pelo- ponnesus, fell in battle 330 B.c.—A. III. came to the throne in 244 B.c., when the state of Sparta had fallen into a ruinous condition through long-continued war. Though only twenty years old when he began to reign, he boldly resolved to restore the old institutions and severe manners of Sparta; but intrigues and self-interest in the higher classes frus- trated his designs. The riches of the state were now in the hands of a few persons, while a great majority of the people were in extreme indigence. A., therefore, in accord- ance with the old laws of the state, proposed a redistribution of landed estates by lot- tery. The new ephorus, Agesilaus, who was rich in landed property, but burdened with many debts, astutely proposed that first all debts should be canceled, and next the lands should be divided. The first part of this plan was soon effected; but great hindrances were opposed to the carrying out of the remainder. Meanwhile, the disappointed people were easily persuaded that A. had endeavored to introduce measures inimical to the wel- ha h ° A Azonic. 152 fare of the state. Pursued by his enemies, he fled for refuge to a temple, but was be- trayed by false friends into the hands of the magistrates, who immediately ordered him to be put to death by strangulation (240 B.c.). His mother and his grandmother, who had favored his measures, were barbarously executed in the same manner. Alfieri, the Italian poet, wrote a powerful tragedy on the fate of A. III. AGLA'OPHON, a Greek painter, who lived about 500 B.c. ; father of Polygnotus and Aristophon, also painters and his pupils. Quintilian praises A.’s pictures for simplicity of coloring. Another artist of the name, supposed to be a grandson, painted a portrait of Alcibiades. AGME’GUE, or GAGMEGUE, a name of the Mohawk Indians. They called themselves by a word signifying ‘“‘ she-bear.” The Algonquins called them Mahaquas, which the French made Moquis, Mohawks, or Mohocks. ‘They were usually at war with the French of Canada; but the Dutch kept them friendly, making a treaty in 1618 that lasted until the old French war, when they did good service for the English in Canada. In the revo- lution they sided with the British, and under the famous chief Thayendenega, or Brant, did much damage to frontier settlements. Soon after the peace they migrated from their old home in central N. Y. to Canada, where a small remnant still exists. Their language has been elucidated in grammars by Bruyes and Marcoux; and Brant translated the prayer-book and parts of the bible into their tongue. AGNA‘/NO, formerly a small lake near Naples, with no visible outlet. It has been drained, because it was thought to cause malaria. The lake was originally named Anguiano, from the number of snakes in the neighborhood. On the right of lake A. lies the grotto del cane—so called from the stratum of carbonic acid gas, some 18 inches deep, which always covers the floor, and which suffocates a dog (cane) or other small animal taken into it—and on the left are found the natural vapor-baths of San Germano, used for the cure of gout, rheumatism, etc., but inferior in virtue to the baths (stufe di Nerone) at Baiz. The volcanoes surrounding the lake have been extinct since 1198 A.p. Further on the left from A. lies the lake of Astron, which occupies the crater of an extinct vol- cano, and is surrounded by beautiful woodlands. AG'NATE (Lat. agnatus). Agnates, in the law both of England and Scotland, are per- sons related through the father, as cognates are persons related through the mother. In the Roman law, both of these terms had a somewhat different signification. Agnates, by that system, were persons related through males only, whilst cognates were all those in whose connection, though on the father’s side, one or more female links intervened. Thus, a brother’s son was his uncle’s A., because the propinquity was wholly by males; a sister’s son was his cognate, because a female was interposed in that relationship. With us the intervention of females is immaterial, provided the connection be on the male, or paternal side of the house. The reason for having thus changed the meaning of terms mani- festly borrowed from the Roman law, seems to be that in Rome the distinction between agnates and cognates was founded on an institution which has not been adopted in the Roman sense by any modern nation—that, namely, of the patria potestas (q.v.). Roman agnati are defined by Hugo to be all those who either were actually under the same pater- familias, or would have been so had he been alive; and thus it was that, as no one could belong to two different families at the same time, the agnation to the original family was destroyed, and a new agnation created, not only by marriage, but by adoption (q. v.). The foundation of cognation, again, was a legal marriage. All who could trace up their origin to the same marriage were cognati; and thus the term cognatus, generally speaking, comprehended agnatus. But though an agnatus was thus almost always a cognatus, a cognatus was an agnatus only when his relationship by blood was traceable through males. Justinian abolished entirely the distinction between agnates and cognates, and admitted both to legal succession and to the office of tutor of law, not only kinsmen by the father, though a female had been interposed, but even those by the mother (Woo. 118, c. 4, 5). As to the legal effects of the distinction in the modern sense, see SUCCESSION, GUARDIAN. AGNES, Saint, a Christian virgin, martyred by order of Diocletian, when about 15 years old. The legend is that her beauty excited the son of a preetor, whom she escaped through miraculous blindness that fell upon him; and that his sight was restored in answer to her prayers. AGNESI, MARIA GmTANA, 1718-99, a woman remarkable for her varied attainments, was b. at Milan. In her ninth year she could converse in Latin, and gave a lecture in this language, in which she argued that a knowledge of the ancient languages was a. proper accomplishment in women. In her eleventh year she could also speak Greek fluently, and subsequently acquired with great facility several of the oriental languages, and also French, Spanish and German. She was jocosely styled ‘‘ the walking polyglot.” This precocious development of intellect was encouraged by her father, who invited parties of learned men to his house, with whom Maria disputed on philosophical points. Of her discourses in these parties, her father published some specimens entitled Propo- stiones Philosophice (Milan, 1738). After her twentieth year she devoted her mind to the study of mathematics, wrote an unpublished treatise on Conic Sections, and published her Instituziont Analitiche (2 vols., Milan, 1748). This work so extended her reputation Sate . 1 hon, 153 qaleannen that when her father was disabled by infirmity she took his place as professor of mathe- matics in the university of Bologna, by the appointment of pope Benedict XIV. It is said that af.er her devotion to the study of mathematics her cheerfulness vanished, she avoided society, and at last became a nun, and gave the whole of her time to attendance on the poor and the afflicted. Maria A. was a remarkable exception to the general rule of precocious intellect and short life, as she lived to the age of 81. AGNES SOREL, 1409-50 ; mistress of Charles VII. of France, and lady of honor to the queen, the virtuous Marie of Anjou, whose full confidence she long enjoyed. She had great influence over Charles, and is credited with rousing him from the lethargy into which he had fallen after the successes of Henry V. of England at Agincourt and elsewhere. Her death was sudden, and it is supposed that she was poisoned by the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. She had three children by the king. AGNEW, CoRNELIuS REA, 1830-88, physician, author of valuable monographs on diseases of the eye and ear. He founded the Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital in 1868, became one of the trustees of Columbia College in 1874, and was a professor in the Col- lege of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. AGNEW, DANIEL HAYEs, M.D., 1818-92, professor of surgery at the university of Penn., and very widely known by his surgical inventions and by his works. AGNI, or AGnis, the Hindoo god of fire, represented with two faces, three legs, and seven arms. He is of deep red color, and the faces are said to represent fire in its two elements: beneficent and destructive; the seven arms represent the primary colors. He bears incense to heaven, and appears to be a mediator between men and the gods. AGNOETZ, a sect in the 6th c. which gave prominence“to the statement that, in his human nature, Christ was ignorant of many things, especially of the time of the day of judgment. An earlier sect of the same name denied the omniscience of God. A’GNOLO, Baccro pb’, about 1461-1543, b. Florence; architect of the villa Borgherini, and of the campanile of the church of San Spirito, in that city. He was the first to use frontons, or frontispieces, for windows and doors in private buildings. AGNO’MEN, among the Romans, a fourth name derived from some act, quality or event, as ‘*Cunctator’? added to Fabius, equivalent to ‘‘ Fabius the delayer.’”’ Pliny ‘the younger ’’ is also an instance. AGNO'NE, at. of S. Italy, in the province of Campobasso, and 22 m. n. w. from the t. of Campobasso. It stands on a hill, and is said to occupy the site of the ancient Aquilonia. It is celebrated for its copper works. Pop. about 10,000. AGNOSTICISM, a word compounded from two Greek words signifying lack and know- ing, to express the doctrine taught of late, especially by Herbert Spencer, Huxley, and others—but clearly traceable in much of the ancient Greek philosophy, and frequently reappearing in speculative thought—that man from his very nature is incapable of form- ing trustworthy conclusions concerning the being of a God or his own relations to the infinite. His mental limitations, it is asserted, preclude him from any knowledge of the absolute, the unconditioned ; he can see things only as they appear to him, and not as they are—phenomena, not noumena, Knowledge is derived exclusively through the senses, and is simply the accumulated experience of the race ; hence everything which lies outside of the sphere of sense lies also outside of the grasp of the mental faculties, No philosophical basis of certainty is attainable on any subject which transcends the limits of human experience. In theology this school of thought seeks a middle ground between the dogmatic theist and the dogmatic atheist, claiming to avoid affirming with the one or denying with the other, and to be opposed equally to both. It teaches that the true philosophy is to find out what are the limitations of the human mind, and then to confine the activity of the mental faculties within the regions of the ‘‘ knowable,” shunning as useless all speculations concerning the ‘‘ unknowable.” MReasoners against this doctrine have pointed out that its difference from atheism is apparent rather than substantial ; and that if it give its principles their full development it cuts away its own foundation ; and, further, that, as presented by its advocates, it manifestly claims to know and to assert various things regarding its own ‘‘unknowable.’’ Its latest utter- ances show signs of modification at the hands of its cultured adherents. AG'NUS DE'I (Lat., ‘‘ Lamb of God”), one of the titles of Christ (John i. 29); also the name given to a certain prayer used in the Roman Catholic service of mass. The lita- nies generally conclude with the same prayer: ‘‘O Lamb of God, that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us.” —The figure of a lamb bearing a cross, stamped upon an oval of wax, silver, or gold, is also styled an A.D. Such medals have been con- secrated by the popes since the 14th c., and are generally distributed among the faithful on the first Sunday after Easter. In the ancient church candidates for baptism received similar medals of wax and wore them as amulets, See AMuLET. In the Greek church, the cloth which covers the cup in the communion service bears the image of alamb, and is styled the A.D. AGON'IC LINE, the line of no variation of the magnetic needle. It passes from pole to pole in a curve differing widely from the meridian, as the aclinic line (line of no in- elination or dip of the needle) differs from the equator. The A. L. varies in position, constantly traveling westward in unison with the magnetic pole, at a rate that might Agnostici, . 154 Agrarian. make a revolution around the earth in ahout 600 years. In 1580, the line ran through Sweden ; in 1620, through Holland ; in 1660, England ; in 1700, the w. part of Ireland ; it reached America in 1780, and now crosses the w. part of Ohio. AGONIS'TICI, an ascetic sect of Christians in Africa in the 4th c., who believed in neither labor nor marriage. They were mostly low and ignorant, living by beggary, and courting violent death as martyrdom. They disappeared after an invasion of the Vandals. AGONY COLUMN, in England, a term applied to that part of a newspaper, generally the second column of the advertisement sheet, headed by notices of losses and disap- pearances, mysterious communications and correspondence. AGOS’TA, or AuGuSTA, a fortified city of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, 12 m. n. of that city. It stands on a peninsula projecting into the Mediterranean. It is said to oceupy the site of the Megara Hyblea of the ancients, but contains no ancient remains. The present city was founded by the emperor Frederick II. in 1229. It was the last place in Sicily to hold out against Charles of Anjou, but was betrayed into the hands of William L’ Estendard, one of his barons, in 1268, when it was sacked, and its inhabitants merci- lessly butchered. It remained desolate for years, but having been repeopled, and begun again to prosper, it was burned and razed to the ground in 1360 in another Sicilian war; and again was taken and burned by the Turks in 1551. Finally, in 1693, it was destroyed by an earthquake, when one-third of the inhabitants perished. Near A. was fought, in 1676, a great naval battle between the French and the Dutch, in which Admiral De Ruyter was killed. The port is spacious, but of rather difficult access. Salt is the chief article of export. Oil, wine, cheese, fruit, honey, and sardines are alsoexported. Pop. about 13,000. AGOULT’, MAri—E CATHERINE SOPHIE DE FLAVIGNyY, Countess, 1805-76; a French authoress known by her signature of ‘‘ Daniel Stern,” daughter of vicomte De Flavigny. She was married in 1827; traveled in central Europe; wrote novels, 1841 to 1845, Herve, etc., which appeared in Za Presse of Paris. In 1848, she became a political writer, and published a history of the revolution of that year, in which she favored the cause of the people. She wrote, also, Three Days in the Life of Mary Stuart, Dante and Goethe, etc. She had a daughter by Franz Liszt, who justified her musical paternity by marrying first Hans Von Bulow, and next Richard Wagner. AGOU'TI (Dasyprocta agouti), a small quadruped nearly allied to the cavy or Guinea- pig, very abundant in some parts of the W. Indies and of 8. America. It is often very injurious to the fields of sugar-cane. It is gregarious. Its flesh resembles that of the hare or rabbit. Other species are found in the same regions, and even in the colder parts of 8. America. The pampas hare is dasyprocta patachonica. See illus., ANTE- LOPES, ETC., vol. I. A'GRA, a British district in the lieutenant-governorship of the North-western Prov- inces, bounded n. and e. by the districts of Muttra, Minpooree and Etawah, s. and w. by the territories of Dhortpore, Gwalior and Bhurtpore. Its area is 1845 sq.m. The surface of the country is for the most part very level, the principal elevation of the Futtehpore Sikri hills, a sandstone range on the w. frontier, being about 700 ft. The principal rivers are the Jumna—flowing along the n.e. frontier, and its tributary the Chunibul (along the southern boundary), both of which are too deep in the channel to be of much avail for irrigation. The district generally is, in consequence, deficient in water, and the failure of the rains in some seasons (as in 1837, 1838) has been followed by severe famine. Pop. ’91, about 1,000,000; of the division of the same name, 4,767,720. AGRA, a city in the British n. w. provinces in India, is situated in the district of the same name on the right bank of the Jumna, 110 m. s. e. from Delhi, and 841 n. w. from Calcutta. The ancient walls of the city embrace an area of about 11 sq.m., of which about one half is at present occupied. The houses are for the most part built of the red sandstone of the neighboring hills. The principal street, running n.w. from the fort, is very spacious, but the rest are generally narrow and irregular, though clean: Some of the public buildings, monuments of the house of Timour, are on a scale of striking mag- nificence. Among these are the fortress built by Akbar, within the walls of which are the palace and audience-hall of Shah Jehan, and the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, so called for its surpassing architectural beauty. Still more celebrated is the Taj Mahal, situated without the city, about a mile to the e. of the fort. This extraordinary and beautiful mausoleum was built by the emperor Shah Jehan for himself and his favorite wife, Arjimand Banoo (surnamed Mumtaz Mahal). 20,000 men, says Tavernier, who saw the work in progress, were employed incessantly on it for 22 years. The principal parts of the building are constructed or overlaid outside and in with white marble; and the mosaic work of the sepulchral apartment and dome is described by various travelers in terms of glowing admiration. It is composed of twelve kinds of stones, of which lapis-lazuli is the most frequent, as well as the most valuable. Of British edifices in and near the city, the principal are the government house, the college (for the education of natives), the Metcalfe testimonial, the English church and the barracks. The climate at A., during the hot and rainy seasons (April to September), is very injurious to Euro- peans; but on the whole, the average health of the city-is equal to that of any other sta- tion in the n.w. provinces. A. is fortified and has a garrison; there is a military station in the neighborhood of the city. As administrative center of its district, and of the large ‘‘division” to which it gives name, A. is a place of great importance. The pop., 155 Agnostici. Agrarian. according to the census of 1891, is 168,662. The principal articles of trade are cotton, tobacco, salt, sugar, and grain. It is a very important railway centre. This city is held in great veneration by the Hindoos, as the scene of the incarnation of Vishnu under the name of Parasu Rama. It first rose to importance in the beginning of the 16th ¢., and from 1526 to 1658 it was the capital of the Mogul sovereigns. In that year, Aurungzebe removed to Delhi; henceforth A. declined. It was taken in 1784 by Scindia, and surrendered in 1803 to lord Lake, after a bombardment of a few hours. Among the spoils on that occasion was a cannon of 23 in. calibre, 114 in. metal at the muzzle; length, 14 ft. 2 in.; weight, 96,000 lbs. The balls, of cast-iron, weighed 1500 lbs. This stupendous piece of ordnance is said to have been wantonly reduced to fragments by blasting by some artillery officers in 1833 (Thornton’s Gazetteer of India). During the Sepoy mutiny, A. was one of the places in which the Europeans were shut up. At the outbreak the garrison consisted of the 44th and 67th regiments of B. N. infantry, the 8d European. fusiliers and a few artillery. The native regiments were disarmed in June, 1857, and the defense of thisimportant city devolved upon the Europeans. The ladies resorted at night to places of refuge appointed by the governor, while the gentlemen patrolled the streets; but matters growing worse both in the city and country, it was resolved, after a battle with the mutineers, to abandon the city and retire to the fort or residency. It was time; for some thousands of prisoners getting loose, began to fire all the Europea buildings in the city. Hardly a house escaped destruction; numbers of traders were ruined, and had to endure the misery of beholding their ruin from the fort. As the fort was both large and strongly defended, fugitives flocked in from all parts of the country, and the numbers soon swelled to 5846. Heroic sallies were occasionally made. Major Montgomery’s march to Allygurh, and his defeat of the rebels, though twenty times as numerous, was a feat worthy of Havelock. When Delhi fell, its rabble of defenders hurried off in the direction of A., which place was seriously threatened by them, but was relieved by the rapid and bril- liant march of Col. Greathed. AGRAM, the capital of Croatia, finely situated at the foot of a richly wooded range of mountains, is about 2 m. from the Save, in lat. 45° 49’ n., long. 16° 4’ e. King Bela IV. raised it in 1266 to the dignity of the royal town, in consequence of its having assisted him against the Tartars. It is the seat of a cathedral and of a university founded in 1874. Pop. ’90, about 37,000. | AGRAPHA (literally, ‘‘ unwritten”), the extra-canonical sayings of Christ: such words and expressions as are not found in the Graphe or body of accepted writings of the Church, but which were current either as oral traditions or as literature which has been lost. That a vast number existed outside of the present gospels is plainly inferred from John xxi. 25; and those found in the works of the early Fathers are introduced and em- ployed as though they were derived from sacred records. Some specialists in Hebrew literature assert that even the Talmud contains sayings of Christ which, having become current among the Jews, were introduced without knowledge of their source. A work entitled Agrapha (Leipzig, 1890), compiled by Rev. Alfred Resch, gives 139 of these say- ings, seventy-five of which the author regards as genuine and attributes to a Hebrew lost gospel. AGRA’RIAN LAW. With the name of A. lL. used to be associated the idea of the abolition of property in land, or at least of a new distribution of it. This notion of the A. laws of the Romans was not only the popular one, but was also received by most scholars. The French convention, in 1793, passed a law punishing with death any one who should propose an A. L., understanding by the term an equal division of the soil among all citizens. Now, it would have been strange if the Romans, with whom private property was so sacred, could ever have been brought to sanction any measure of the kind. It was the German scholars, Heyne, Savigny, and especially Niebuhr, who first explained the true nature and character of the Roman A. laws. There are still some disputed points on this matter, but one thing seems made out—that those laws had no reference to private lands held in absolute property, but to public or state lands. Asthe dominion of Rome extended, a portion more or less of each conquered terri- tory was confiscated to the state,and became public domain. All laws respecting the disposition of these lands were called A. laws; which are therefore of various kinds. What made these laws be so long mistaken for an interference with private rights, and excited such opposition to them at the time, was the use which was made of the public domains while unappropriated. ‘‘It was the practice at Rome,” says Dr. Arnold, ‘‘and doubtless in other states of Italy, to allow individuals to occupy such lands, and to enjoy all the benefits of them, on condition of paying to the state the tithe of the produce, as an acknowledgment that the state was the proprietor of the land, and the individual merely the occupier. Now, although the land was undoubtedly the property of the state, and although the occupiers of it were in relation to the state mere tenants-at-will, yet it is in human nature that a long undisturbed possession should give a feeling of owner- ship; the more so as, while the state’s claim lay dormant, the possessor was, in fact, pro- prietor, and the land would thus be repeatedly passing by regular sale from one occupier to another.” The state, however, was often obliged to interfere with these occupiers of the public lands, and resume its rights. The very idea of a citizen, in ancient times, involved that of a landholder, and when new citizens were to be admitted, they had each to receive their portion out of the unallotted public domain; which was attended, of course, with the ejection of the tenants-at-will. It appears, also, that the right to enjoy the public Agricola. 156 lands in this temporary way was confined to the old burghers or patricians. This, taken in conjunction with the tendency, strong at all times, of larger possessions to swallow up smaller, kept up an ever-increasing number of landless commons, whose destitution and degradation came from time to time to such a pitch that alleviation was necessary to prevent the very dissolution of the state. It is easy, however, to see what motive the patricians, as a body, had to oppose all such measures, since it was their interest, though not their right, to keep the lands unallotted. The enactment of A. laws occasioned some of the most memorable struggles in the internal history of Rome. Most of the kings of Rome are said to have carried an A. L., that is, to have divided a portion of the public land among those whom they admitted to the rights of citizenship. ‘‘The good king,” Servius Tullius, may be looked upon as the first victim of the hostility of the nobles to A. laws. About twenty-four years after the expulsion of the Tarquins, the distress of the commons called aloud for remedy, and the consul, Spurius Cassius, proposed an A. L. for a division of a certain proportion of the public land, and for enforcing the regular payment of the rent or tithe from the occupiers of the remainder. The aristocracy, however, contrived to defeat the proposal, and when the year of his consulship was out, Cassius was accused of trying to make himself king, was condemned, scourged and beheaded, and his house razed to the ground. The first important A. L. of a permanent nature, actually passed, was that proposed by the tribune, Licinius Stolo, and carried, after a struggle of five years, in the year of Rome 3888. The provisions of Licinius’s bill, or vegation, were- as follows: ‘‘ Every Roman citizen shall be entitled to occupy any portion of the unallotted state land not exceeding 500 jugera (see AcRE), and to feed on the public pasture-land any number of cattle not exceeding 100 head of large, or 500 head of small, paying in both cases the usual rates to the public treasury. Whatever portions of the public land beyond 500 jugera are at present Occupied by individuals shall be taken from them, and distributed among the poorer citizens as absolute property, at the rate of seven jugera apiece. Occupiers of public land shall also be bound to employ a certain number of freemen as laborers.” This law produced for a time very salutary effects. But before the year 621, when Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune, the Licinian law had been suffered to fali into abeyance; and although vast tracts had been acquired by the Italian, the Punic and the Greek wars, no regular distribution of land among the destitute citizens had taken place for upwards of a century. Numerous military colonies had indeed been founded in the conquered districts, and in this way many of the poorer Romans or their allies had been provided for; but still there remained large territories, the property of the state, which, instead of being divided among the poorer members of the state, were entered upon and brought into cultivation by the rich capitalists, many of whom thus came to hold thousands of jugera, instead of the five hundred allowed by the Licinian law.. Toa Roman statesman, therefore, looking on the one hand to the wretched pauper population of the meaner streets of Rome, and on the other to the enormous tracts of the public land throughout Italy which the wealthy citizens held in addition to their own private property, the question which would naturally present itself was—Why should not the state, as landlord, resume from these wealthy capitalists, who are her tenants, as much of the public land as may be necessary to provide little farms for these pauper citizens, and so convert them into respectable and independent agriculturists? This question must have presented itself to many; but there were immense difficulties in the way. Not only had long possession of the state lands, and the expenditure of large sums in bringing them into cultivation, given the wealthy tenants a sort of proprietary claim upon them, but in the course of generations, during which estates had been bought, sold and inherited, the state lands had become so confused with private property that in many cases it was impossible to distinguish between the two. Notwithstanding these difficulties, Tiberius Gracchus had the boldness to propose an A. L., to the effect that every father of a family might occupy 500 jugera of the state land for himself, and 250 jugera additional for each of his sons; but that, in every case where this amount was exceeded, the state should resume the surplus, paying the tenant a price for the buildings, etc., which he had been at the expense of erecting on the lands thus lost to him. The recovered lands were then to be distributed among the poor citizens; a clause being inserted in the bill to prevent these citizens from selling the lands thus allotted to them, as many of them would have been apt to do. According to the laws and constitution of Rome, there was nothing essentially unjust in this proposal, which was, in private, at least, approved of by some of the most distin- guished men of the time. The energy of Gracchus carried the measure, in spite of the opposition of the aristocratic party, whose vengeance, however, could only be satisfied with the assassination of Gracchus and his brother. See Graccuus. The attempts to carry out the ‘‘Sempronian law,” as it was called, were attended with great difficulties, and although not formally repealed, it continued to be evaded and rendered inoperative. Various A. laws were subsequently passed, some by the victorious aristocratic party, in a spirit directly opposed to the Licinian and Sempronian laws. Besides A, laws having for their object the division among the commons of public lands usurped by the nobles, there were others of a more partial and local nature, for the establishment of colonies in particular conquered districts: these naturally met with 157 Agricola, less opposition. Still more different were those violent appropriations of territory made by the victorious military leaders in the latter times of the republic, in order to reward their soldiers, and established exclusively military colonies. In these the private rights of the previous occupants were often disregarded. See Irish Lanp Laws. AGREDA, Maria DE (CORONEL), 1602-65 ; the superior of the convent of the Immac- ulate Conception in Agreda, Spain. She reported that she had had revelations from heaven, and that God had commanded her to write an inspired life of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Such a book was published ; but the church authority forbade the reading of it, and Bossuet pointed out some of its indecent portions. AGRICOLA, CuristopH Lupwie, 1667-1719; a landscape painter, who traveled in England, Holland, and France, and lived some time in Naples. His works are noted for skillful representation of varied phases of climate. In light and color he imitated Claude Lorraine. AGRIC'OLA (originally LANDMANN), Grore, 1494-1555 ; mineralogist, and the first to raise the study into a science. He studied at Leipsic and in Italy. In Bohemia he practiced as a physician, and, in 1531, was made professor of chemistry in a mining district of Saxony, where he pursued his favorite study. He published De Re Metallica, which gives minute descriptions of mining processes. AGRIC'OLA, GNZUS or GNEIUS JULIUS, a Roman of the imperial times, distinguished not less by his great abilities as a statesman and a soldier than by the beauty of his private character, was born at Forum Julii (now Fréjus in Provence), 37 A.D. Having served with distinction in Britain, Asia, and Aquitania, and gone through the round of civil offices, he was, in 77 A.D., elected consul, and in the following year proceeded as governor to Britain—the scene of his military and civil administration during the next seven years. He was the first Roman general who effectually subdued the island, and the only one who displayed as much genius and success in training the inhabitants to the amenities of civilization as in breaking their rude force in war. In his seventh and last campaign (84 A.D.), his decisive victory over the Caledonians under Galgacus, at a place called Mons Graupius, established the Roman dominion in Britain to some distance n. of the Forth. After this campaign, his fleet circumnavigated the coast, for the first time, discovering Britain to be an island. Among the works executed by A. during his administration were a chain of forts between the Solway and the Tyne, and another between the Clyde and Forth. Numerous traces of his operations are still to be found in Anglesey and N. Wales, and in Galloway, Fife, Perthshire and Angus. The news of A.’s successes inflamed the jealousy of Dcmitian, and he was speedily recalled. henceforth he lived in retirement; and when the vacant proconsulships of Asia and Africa lay within his choice, he prudently declined promotion. The jealousy of the emperor, however, is supposed to have hastened his death, which took place at the early age of 55. His life, by his son-in-law, Tacitus, has always been regarded as one of the choicest specimens of biography in literature. AGRIC'OLA, JOHANN FRIEDERICH, 1720-74; a musical composer who studied under Bach. He was a superior organist, and held the office of kapellmeister under Frederic II. He wrote ‘‘Achilles” and other operas, and minor compositions. AGRICOLA, JOHN (whose true name was Schnitter or Schneider, but who was also called Magister Islebius and John LHisleben, after the name of his native town), b. 1492, was one of the most zealous founders of Protestantism. Having studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, he was sent, 1525, by Luther, who highly appreciated his talents and learning, to Frankfort-on-the-Main, to institute there, at the desire of the magistrates, the Protestant worship. On his return, he resided asa teacher and preacher in his native town of Hisleben, till 1586. In 1537, he became a professor at Wittenberg, where the Antinomian controversy, already begun between him and Luther and Melancthon, broke out openly. See ANTINOMIANISM, The troubles in which he was thus involved obliged him to withdraw, 1588, to Berlin, where he was reduced to extreme want, and was thus induced to make a recantation, never altogether sincere. He then found a protector in the elector John of Brandenburg, who appointed him preacher to the court and general superintendent. He made great exertions for the spread of the Protestant doctrine in the Brandenburg states; but ere his death, which took place at Berlin, 22d Sept., 1566, he had become as much hated for his share in the drawing up of the Augsburg Interim (q.v.), as he had formerly been for his Antinomian opinions. Besides his numerous theological writings, his country possesses a truly national work of his, entitled Die Gemeinen Deutschen Spriichworter mit threr auslegung (common German proverbs, with their explanation; Hagenau, 1592; and a very complete but somewhat altered edition at Wittenberg, 1592). The patriotic feelings, pure morals and pithy language of this book have procured for it one of the first places among the German works of that age. AGRIC’OLA, MicHAEL, a Swedish scholar and reformer, who, in the latter part of the 16th c., translated the New Testament into the Finnish language. AGRIC'OLA, RupoLtpuxus, one of the most learned and remarkable men of the 15th c.,and a chief instrument in transplanting the taste for literature, just revived in Italy, into his native country of Germany, was born 1443, in the village of Baflo, near Groningen. His name was properly Rolef Huysmann (i.e., houseman or husbandman), which was Agricultural. 158 Latinized by him into A., after the usage of the time. He was also called Frisius, and Rudolf of Gréningen, from his native place; and sometimes Rudolf of Ziloha, from the monastery of Silo, where he spent some time. Having been first a disciple of Thomas & Kempis at Zwolle, he went to Louvain, then to Paris, and thence to Italy, where, during the years 1476 and 1477, he attended the lectures of the most celebrated men of his age. Here he entered into a close friendship with Dalberg, who afterwards became bishop of Worms. He was the first German who distinguished himself in Italy in public speaking and lecturing, and this he did not only by his erudition, but by the elegance of his language and the correctness of his pronunciation. He likewise acquired reputation as an accomplished musician, and his pieces were popular throughout Italy. On his return to Germany, he endeavored, in connection with several of his former co-disciples and friends, among whom were Alexander Hegius and Rudolphus Lange, to promote a taste for literature and eloquence in Germany. Several cities of Holland vainly strove with each other to obtain his presence, by offering him public functions; but not even the brilliant overtures made to him by the court of the emperor Maximilian I., to which he had repaired in connection with affairs of the town of Gréningen, could induce him to renounce his independence. At length yielding, 1483, to the solicitations of Dalberg, who was now chancellor to the elector palatine, and bishop of Worms, he established himself in the palatinate, where he sojourned alternately at Heidelberg and Worms, dividing his time between private studies and public lectures, and enjoying high popularity. He distinguished himself also as a painter; and at the age of 40 set with ardor to learn Hebrew, in order to study theology. He went again, 1484, with Dalberg into Italy, and died shortly after his return to Germany, on the 28th Oct., 1485. His fame rests chiefly on the personal influence he exerted. His compositions, which are written in Latin, are neither so numerous nor so important as those of many of his learned contemporaries. The first nearly complete edition of them was that published by Alard (2 vols., Cologne, 1539). Consult Tresling, Vita et Merita, R. A. (Groningen, 1830). AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. In addition to the study of the theory and practice of scientific agriculture, the more prominent subjects under this head are chemistry, geology, biology, elementary natural philosophy, meteorology, and agricultural eco- nomics. The theory and practice of agriculture should embrace field demonstrations by qualified instructors, besides lectures on the following subjects: (1) Definition of agri- culture: its relations to allied sciences. (2) Surface geology : soils—their properties ; nitrogen in soils ; the effect on soils of cultivation and the growth of plants. (8) Drain- age; irrigation; wet-warping; top-dressing; liming, etc.; paring and burning. (4) Implements and machines—construction and careful management. (5) Steam culti- vation. (6) The motive powers: Ist, man; 2d, horse; 3d, the mechanical powers. (7) Farm servants—labor and wages ; details of horse and hand labor. (8) Rotations— reasons for their adoption ; systems of farming. (9) Farm crops—selection and culti- vation ; insect injuries and diseases, and their prevention. (10) Grasses and other pasture plants—adulterations of seeds. (11) Management of permanent pastures— methods of making new pasture. (12) Weedsand means of destroying them. (18) Silage, and the system of ensilage. (14) Manures—farm-yard manure; special‘ manures and ‘‘ artificials’—their uses and adulteration ; liquid manure and town sewage. (15) Farm buildings and fences, etc.—covered yards. (16) Live-stock—embracing cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, and poultry ; the principles of breeding; feeding and management ; cost of producing meat. (17) Dairying in all its branches. (18) Feeding stuffs—quali- ties and manure-values. It is the function of agricultural chemistry, the most important of the allied sciences, to discover of what elements cultivated plants are composed, and how plants may most effectively be supplied with the materials necessary for promoting their growth without permanently exhausting the soil. This subject will, in its various aspects, be discussed under the heads, VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY, MANURE, Sorts, ROTATION oF Crops, etc. The farmer should also know the elements of veterinary medicine (q.v.). However important the branching off of education into this special track, it is only of late years that adequate attention has been paid to it. The first agri- cultural school was founded by Fellenberg at Hofwyl, in Switzerland, in 1806. His pupils were taken from the poorest class of peasantry, of whom he truly observed, that having ‘‘no other property than their physical and mental faculties, they should be taught how to use this capital to the best advantage,” by a combination of ‘‘ discipline, study, and manual labor.” No fewer than 8000 pupils were trained in this school, which flourished for thirty years under the able direction of Wehrli. Since then, various institutions of the same character have sprung up on the continent. The French government makes large appropriations to support agricultural education, and one school at Grignon has an old royal palace with its domain of 1185 acres. One of the first duties undertaken by the new government of Marshal MacMahon, in 18738, was the nomination of a commission to reorganize the system of agricultural education. In Prussia, there is scarcely a province that does not boast its agricultural school and model farm; and, indeed, throughout Germany, as well as in Russia, we find edu- cational institutions supported by the state, in all of which, with some slight differ- ence of detail, agriculture is practically as well as theoretically taught. More re. 159 Agricultural. cently, experimental stations have been established in various parts of the empire. In- deed the agricultural schools and field experimental stations in Germany are a credit to that country anda source of much attraction to visitors from other countries. Finland possesses two agricultural colleges and eight smaller schools subsidized by the state. There are also fifteen small dairy schools and two higher schools, these latter forming departments of the agricultural colleges. Denmark spends about $55,000 annually. Japan has an agricultural college on the island of Yezo and an experimental farm in the province of Shimdsa near Tokio. In Great Britain the only material support given is to a chair of agriculture at the normal school of science, South Kensington, a grant to the chair of agriculture in Edinburgh, and the payment of small grants to teachers in school and science class- es, who include agriculture in their instruction. The main centres where a full course of agricultural education, associated with a suitably arranged curriculum of study in the allied sciences can be obtained are (1) the University of Edinburgh ; (2) the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester (founded 1845) ; (8) the College of Agri- culture, Downton near Salisbury (founded 1880). There is only one degree associated with agriculture (instituted 1886), granted by the Edinburgh University. The chair in Edinburgh was founded and endowed in 1790. Practical agriculture is acquired by residence on a farm near Edinburgh, and by Saturday excursions to selected farms conveniently situated. In Aberdeen University a free annual course of lectures is given on agricultural subjects. Inthe University of Oxford, a professorship of rural econ- omy was established in 1796. There are agricultural schools at Aspatria, near Carlisle, and at Alvercot Priory. The Albert Institution at Glasnevin, near Dublin, a great agricultural coll. has existed since 1838, Similar institutions in Canada have met with success, among them, the Agricultural College and Experimental Farm, at Guelph, Ontario. The most important experimental station in England (a private one) is at Rotham- sted and was founded in 1848 by Mr. (now sir) J. B. Lowes. Several thousands of pounds are spent annually, and sir John set apart £100,000 to provide the means for continuing the work after his death. Woburn station, the next in importance, was start- ed in 1876 by the Royal Agricultural Society. In the United States the West Point Academy, established in 1802, was the first pro, vision by the general government for scientific education in any department ; the naval academy followed in 1845. Two years later, John P. Norton, agricultural chemist, just returned from Europe, agitated the question of agricultural schools, and one school was begun. In 1860 it was liberally endowed by Joseph E. Sheffield, and is now attached to Yale College as the ‘‘ Sheffield scientific school.” In 1852, a legacy to Dartmouth College, by Abiel Chandler, laid the foundation of a similar branch at that college. Congress was repeatedly asked to set apart lands for the support of agricul- tural colleges, and a bill was passed in 1858 for that purpose, but the president failed to sign it. In 1862, the effort was successful, and a bill became a law appropriating about ten millions of acres to all the states, to be divided according to the number of repre- sentatives from each state in congress. Meantime, New York and other states kept the question alive, and Michigan opened her agricultural college in 1857 ; and now, under one or another name, nearly all the states have colleges or parts of colleges in which scientific agriculture is taught. On the 2d of July, 1862, congress passed an act giving public lands to the several states and territories which should provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanical arts, the amount of land to be equal to 30,000 acres for each senator and representative in congress to which the states were then entitled. To guard against the loss of this fund by improvident investment, the act provides that all moneys derived from the land granted shall be invested in stocks of the United States or of the state, or some other safe stock yielding not less than five per cent. ; and that if any portion of the fund or the interest thereon shall be lost or diminished, it shall be replaced by the state, so that the capital shall forever remain un- diminished, except that a sum not exceeding ten per cent. on the amount received by any state under the act may be applied to the purchase of lands for sites or experimental farms, whenever authorized by the legislature. The general object and character of the colleges to be established is briefly stated in the fourth section of the act, which provides that the interest of the fund shall be inviolably appropriated by each state which may claim the benefit of the act, ‘‘to the endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college, where the leading object shall be (without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics) to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the states may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of 6.0 The states quickly availed themselves of these advantages, and the sums origi- nally obtained, amounting to many millions have remained unimpaired, with few excep- tions. Michigan obtained $8.38 per acre, but the land scrip of Maine was sacrificed at fifty-three cents per acre. In 1887 an act appropriating $15,000 to each state to estab- Hish experimental stations in connection with these colleges was passed, and has had 160 Agricultural. @ very stimulating effect upon the agricultural departments. In 1889 an act was pened appropriating from the sales of public lands to each state and territory for the more complete endowment and maintenance of colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts, $15,000 for 1890, and an annual increase by $1000 of the. amount of such appropriation thereafter for ten years, and the annual amount to be paid there- after to each state and territory was fixed at $25,000. The act forbade the payment of money for the support of institutions making distinctions of race or color in the ad- mission of students, but the establishment and maintenance of such colleges separately for white and colored students is held to be a compliance with the provisions of this act, and the funds must be equitably divided. The majority of these institutions have an officer of the army or navy detailed to act as professor of military science and tactics in accordance with a statute amended in 1888. AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1896. STATE. Name. Location. eon President. Alabama . .|Agricultural and Mechanical College . -|Auburn . . . . .| 1872 |William L. Broun. “ Southeast Alabama Agricultural School .| Abbeville. 6 North Alabama Agricultural School . . . . .|Athens. re 1889 fs State Normal and Industrial School for colored .;Normal ... . ... |W. H. Council. Arizona .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- versity Of ANZONAaS ee ees els ss .s| LUCHON Sy nee 1889 |Theo. B. Comstock. Arkansas . .|Arkansas Industrial University . . .. . . .|Fayetteville. . . 1871 |John L. Buchanan. t Branch Normal College of the University, for Colored {iq sete ae i ee es os ee, te Pine Lut are J. C. Corbin. California .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- versityjor Calitormia Si. a neeciee at cies a BCIkeley... cme me 1869 |Martin Kellogg. Colorado . .|Colorado Agricultural College ..... .|Fort Collins “ 1879 |Alston Ellis. Connecticut. .|/Storrs Agricultural School. ...... .|Storrs Station. B. F. Koons. se Sheffield Scientific School . . .... . . .JNewHaven. . . 1847 Delaware . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Dela- ware ‘Colleges t., ttre) 508i piel tee ety) ae ae NC WALK Uke ea 5 1870 |Albert N. Raub. ss State College for Colored Students. . .. . ./Dover.... ... |Wesley Webb. Florida . .|Florida Agricultural College... .. .. .|LakeCity .. . |Oscar Clute. oe State Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students ce cee. wheels wie ets Ge yeotiTe) wares oan ballanhasseees T. De S. Tucker. Georgia .|State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, University of Georgia . . atlas eePAbhenss 1872 |H. C. White. ~ South Georgia Agricultural College . . . . .|/Thomasville. 1879 se West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege Rp arem TEE as Pee eee ae aml tone ce 1881 a Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural Col- LOZO 5 Pe ane eng enana Te ee ens | UME SLOG eevilLe 1880 s Georgia Industrial College for Colored Youths .|College Station . |e ee Wer ieht. “ North Georgia Agricultural College . . .| Dahlonega oe 1871 |I. W. Waddell. ae Southwest Georgia Agricultural College SHOUGHDert” .5 6) sens 1879 Idaho ;|\Universityof idaho: Meee ieee een.) Ser MOSCOWens eotee ee ... |Frank. B. Gault. Illinois . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- versity of Illinois. Set ee worn te Wet ors] UT DANG Sita) SMe ee re 1868 |A. 8S. Draper. Indiana .|School of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Veteri- nary Science of Purdue University . . . .|Lafayette. 1874 |James H. Smart. Iowa Iowa State College of Agricultural and Me- chanical /Artsa' etc fos Cie oe eens tet). | AINESs Sense een ues en 1COUme| Maule beardshear, Kansas. . .|Kansas State Agricultural College. . . . . .|Manhattan . 1863 |Geo. T. Fairchild. Kentucky . .|Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ken- PUCK YT AE. TALe eer eee ae) Po ae ees Lexington. 1866 |Jas. K. Patterson. se State Normal School for Colored Persons . .{Frankfort. ... [John 8, Jackson. Louisiana . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, State University: (fishy ee iat ere ete Baton Rouge 1874 |J. W. Nicholson. at Southern University and Agricultural and Me- chanical College for colored . . . . . . .|New Orleans H. A. Hill. Maine .|Maine State Agricultural and Mechanical Col- LAGS acted etka Gace Dk Rae ole bl ee es OLTONO eemaenas 1868 |A. W. Harris. Maryland. . .|Maryland Agricultural College .|College Park 1859 |R. W. Silvester. Massachusetts .|Massachusetts Agricultural College .|Amherst . . 1867 |H. H. Goodell. - Massachusetts Institute of Technology . -|Boston . = 1865 |Francis A. Walker.* - Bussey Institution of Harvard University . .|Jamaica Plain. . .| 1861 |Charles W. Eliot. Michigan . .|Michigan State Agricultural College . . . . ./Agr. College Station.| 1857 |L. G. Gorton. Minnesota .|College of Agriculture, University of Minnesota ./Minneapolis. . .| 1867 |Cyrus Northrup. oe College of Engineering, Metallurgy, and the Me- chanic Arts, University of Minnesota ah os Mississippi ./Agricultural and Mechanical College of Missis- sippi “) 2... 3. aes LS A A ore College Stations) "1880's Stephens): ee: ss Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College. .|Westside. . . . .| 1872 /|T. J. Calloway. Missouri ./Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- versity or Missouri re ee ee ee ee COlum bide eee. 1870 |R. H. Jesse. af |Lincoln Institute, for colored . .|Jefferson City . »'. » 1. E. Page. Montana . ./Montana Agricultural College _.. . . ._. .|Bozeman. F 1893 |James Reid. Nebraska - .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni-| versity.of Nebraska. tin. 0). a coe) ok ce hi ey IIR COIT Syun ot Wet 1871 |Geo. E. MacLean. Nevada .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- Versity Of Nevada: 9%... .w oe en ee eee ONO 1874 |J. E. Stubbs. New Hampshire|New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Me- GRADICHATES Milnes uk ls cS, -pavdisoders gilsouectine | LLU LL DO peionn ania 1866 |C. S. Murkland. New Jersey ._ .|/Rutgers Scientific School, Rutgers College . .|New Brunswick . 1865 |Austin Scott. New Mexico. .|New Mexico College of Agriculture and Me- CHANICVATtS As epee tie tien ts, ga oe ee LOS LLL aaa 1889 |S. P. McCrea. New York. .|College of Agriculture, Cornell University . .|Ithaca . 1868 |J. G. Shurman. North Carolina .| North Carolina Coliege of Agricultural and Me- chanical rtarce ve tech eehi sh aise 8) cus Bee LES neue eae 1888 |A. A. Holladay. ‘State Agricultural and Mechanical College for the !|Coloreds Raceline Jee a). eee. S| Greensborows Ua. |d-O Crosby: North Dakota . North Dakota Agricuitural College .. . . .|/Fargo. , 1890 |J. H. Worst. Ohio. . . . . Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Ohio oe State Universitysu Siig pee lia fis. Seu. Columbusy ger .aye 1873 | William H. Scott. Oklahoma .|Oklahoma Agricaltatal College . > . » .|stillwater 1890 |G. E. Morrow. Oregon . .|State Agricultural College of Oregon. . . . .|Corvallis . 1872 |John M. Bloss. * D. Jan. 5, 1897. } 6 1 Agricultural. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1896. — Continued. Qo Organ- ized. President STATE. Name. Location. Pennsylvania .|Pennsylvania State College .... . . . .!State Coilege Station) 1859 |Geo. W. Atherton. Rhode Island . Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Me- CUAMIG AICS) ews ee > + + oe oe « of iO... es 6] 6 fOKN H. Washburn. S Agricultural and Scientific Department, Brown Shean Rn eae ete Te Midi lc) Suverts Uta eaXOMMOCNCOR far, Lal L8G E. ba_Andrews, South Carolina.|College of Agricultural and Mechanical Arts, University of South Carolina » + - . «Columbia. . . . .| 1805 |James Woodrow. s Clemson Agricultural College ... . . . .|/FortHill. . . . .| 1889 |E. B. Craighead. * Claflin University, Agricultural College and Mechanical Institute, for colored. . . . .JOrangeburg. . . .| 1869 |L. M. Dunton. South Dakota .|State Agricultural College of South Dakota . .| Brookings . . «| «... |Lewis McLouth. Tennessee . ./Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- versity of Tennessee. . . . . . . . . .{/Knoxville .. . .| 1869 |C. W. Dabney, Jr. Texas . . . .|Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas .|College Station . .| 1876 /L.S. Ross. bs Prairie View State Normal School, for colored ./Prairie View .. .| ... |L. C. Anderson Utah Se 4 UtaheAgricultural College... . 25520 21 G8ee.|Logan .8). 2800/1888 “1d. A Paul: Vermont . . .|/University of Vermont and State Agricultural CONec ere. s+. sles) ee ee DULUneLONe ese | 1805 Mere buckhan: Virginia . . .|Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College .|Blacksburg . . . .| 1872 |J.M. McBryde. : Hampton Normal and Industrial Institute, for Negroes and Indians. . . ‘Hamptons, ee al ses |i. 6: Frissel:. Washington. .|Washington Agricultural College and School of Science . . - .|Pullman ... . .| 1890 {Enoch A. Bryan. West Virginia .| Agricultural and Mechanical ‘Department, Uni- versity of West Virginia. . -|Morgantown .. .| 1867 |J. L. Goodknight. A West Virginia Colored Institute. ... ... . .jFarmStation ... .| ... |J.H. Hill. Wisconsin . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- Versity. of WISCONSIN wm Geeta. oe | Madisone.) 4 2 |) 1849 1 Charles\k. Adams: Wyoming. . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- VOIsityOLAVy VODMNG ements ALaMia. . 0. oe 4| 1867, 1Ay Ao oe onnson. Of all institutions, 14 were exclusively for colored students. The following shows approximately the number of students pursuing courses of a technical nature in the institutions endowed by the national land grant; agriculture, 2,712; mechanical engin- eering, 2,413; civil engineering, 1,107; electrical engineering, 1,349; mining engineering, 165; architecture, 264; household economy, 321; veterinary science, 395; chemical engin- eering, 21; biology, 13; and military tactics, 7,741. The colleges for white students had a total of 8,289 acres of land under cultivation, valued at $1,517,912, and those for col- ored students, 1,342 acres, valued at $117,155. In South and Central America agricultural education is receiving attention. ‘The Argentine Republic has a school of agriculture. A practical agricultural school was opened at Santiago in 1885, and a college of engineering and agriculture was established in Ecuador in 1890. In the secondary ‘‘ colleges” for boys in Costa Rica there are courses in agriculture, and the same is true of some of the special schools of Brazil. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. Departments of agricultural colleges, established under the act of the U. 8. Congress of 1887, and intended ‘‘to promote scientific investigation and experiment respecting the principles and applications of agri- cultural science.’”? They conduct researches with regard to the physiology of plants and animals, the advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under varying series of crops, the analysis of soils and waters, and the chemistry of manures, foods, etc. The act of 1887 appropriated $15,000 annually for each state for the purposes of such stations. The Officers of the stations report annually to Secretary of Agriculture, and publish bulletins giving a summary of the results of experiments. In 1893 there were 55 of these experi- ment stations in the United States, the best known being those at Auburn, Ala., Berkeley, Cal., New Haven, Conn., Champaign, Ill., La Fayette, Ind., Manhattan, Kansas, Am- herst, Mass., St. Anthony Park, Minn., Lincoln, Neb., New Brunswick, N. J., Geneva, N. Y., Columbus, O., the State College, Penn., Knoxville, Tenn., and Laramie, Wyoming. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES are associations for the purpose of promoting the science and practice of agriculture. In the United States, where the land is mostly owned by those who farm it, these societies have sprung up in great numbers. Every state has its central society, which in its turn fosters a number of local associations. Indeed, in all the chief grain-produc- ing districts, each county boasts of its own society. These being all partly supported by state money, useful information is collected, published, and sold at a cheap rate in reports. Canada follows in the wake of her enterprising neighbors, and supports by grants of money a provincial show in each province, while the co. societies are numer- ous, and supply materials for the reports of the boards of agriculture at Toronto and Mon- treal. In Canada and the U. 8. the A. 8. are of a bighly popular character. Prizes are given, not only for animals, implements, and dairy produce, but also for fruits, Being more of a general nature, combining agriculture, horticulture, and domestic economy, such exhibitions are frequented by all classes. They are known as “‘ fairs.” AGRICULTURE (Lat., ager, a field, and colo, I till) has come by usage to mean the cul tivation and care of all vegetable and animal life supported by the earth for the benefit of man. It is sometimes considered as a science and sometimes as an art, and he who en- gages in it is sometimes called a farmer and sometimes an agriculturist. At least there can be made of agriculture the divisions of tillage, husbandry, grazing, dairying, feed- I —6 Agriculture, 1 62 ing, breeding, horticulture and arboriculture. Many other divisions of agriculture are referred to as a matter of usage. Agriculture as a science is based upon a group of sci- ences which in their growth have revolutionized it. The most important of these are included under the terms chemistry, botany, zodlogy and geology. With a few exceptions the spontaneous growth of nature affords only a limited food supply. This supply cannot be greatly increased by the products of the chase. The population of a given area remains small even after the wild animals have become the property of man, and these have been made the rude beginnings of agriculture found among a pastoral people. It is only after those plants yielding man an abundant sup- ply of food have been selected and made the object of cultivation that population aug- ments and civilization takes its rise. Man has selected certain animals and plants which, modified by locality and circumstances, have furnished him food and clothing, and have become almost inseparable from agriculture and civilization. Animals, too, have been his co-workers ; without the ox and the horse the development of agriculture, which supports civilization, would be impossible. In northern latitudes wheat, barley, oats, rye and the potato are the chief food plants. These crops are most productive when grown in summer in the temperate climates of the earth, being unsuited to the heats of the torrid zone. Their geographical limits, however, are greatly extended by growing them as winter crops on the borders of and even within the tropics. In these regions, however, rice, Indian corn, millet and other grains become far more productive of food than the already-mentioned cereals are in high latitudes, as they flourish during the heats of summer. Where heat and moisture are almost perennial in the tropics, the banana, the bread fruit tree and other herbaceous plants and trees are most productive of human food. Agriculture is one of the oldest of human employments, dating from long before the dawn of history. The inhabitants of the lake dwellings of Switzerland were, per- haps, the earliest tillers of the soil and stock-keepers about whom we know. Among their dwellings we find the bones of cows, pigs, sheep and goats, as well as of wild animals. Grain crushers were in every dwelling. Wheat, barley, millet and flax seem to have been cultivated. The Aryan (q.v.) peoples are believed to derive their name from a word which indicated that they were the users of the plow, and were thus dis- tinguished from other peoples. Most of our knowledge of the earliest agriculture clusters about the river valleys— that of the Nile in Egypt, and that made by the Tigris and the Euphrates. In Oriental agriculture the great need is water. In Egypt once a year the Nile came to the relief of man, gave him the water for a crop, and prepared the bed for the seed. It was claimed by Sir Isaac Newton that agriculture began in the Nile valley, and that the river taught men the art. The teeming population that anciently existed in that nar: row valley, the large army maintained, and the great engineering and architectural works constructed indicate a successful cultivation of the soil. Rainisrarein Upper Egypt, and fertility is maintained only by the water of the Nile, which annually overflows. The inundation, unless prevented by embankments, covers the whole land, and occurs at the hottest season. In ancient times the crops, or at least the winter crops, were sown upon the soft mud dressing left by the river. These crops consisted of wheat, barley, lentils, beans, flax, lupines, etc. The time of the maturity of these crops depended upon the amount of the overflow. They were generally ready for the harvesting by the end of April, and sometimes a month earlier. After these crops summer crops could be raised by means of constant watering. Among the summer crops were rice, indigo and durra. The latter was probably the most importantcrop. It was gathered in July, and was apparently the food of the poorer people. By means of watering three crops were sometimes raised. There were also a great variety of other crops considered by good authority to be much the same as those at present produced. .The ancient Egy ptians. were in the habit of covering their monuments and burial-places with representations of the occupations of life. These, as collected in the works of Rawlinson and Wilkin. son, give us full and accurate information in regard to their agricultural practices. Sometimes seeds were merely thrown upon the mud and trodden in. When it was nec- essary, as it generally was, to stir the soil, the tiller sometimes used a rude pick made of two pieces of wood tied together. From this pick there was an easy transition to a rude plow made by lashing together a pointed share, two handles and a pole. The yoke for drawing this was sometimes fastened to the shoulders and sometimes to the horns of oxen. It is evident that the plan was used in Egypt more than five thousand years ago. From the representation it appears that the sowing was always broadcast, and that the harrow and the rake were unknown. Wheat heads were cut from the standing stalks, gathered in baskets, and carried to the threshing floor, where the grain was trodden out by oxen. Durra was pulled up by the roots and was bound in bundles after the soil had been brushed off. The dry heads were broken by drawing the stalks between sharp points. The inundation of the country and the necessity of retaining water for irrigation led to extensive systems of dykes and sluices. A vast amount of labor was expended in providing irrigation by means of the shadoof and other simple contrivances. For clothing the Egyptians produced flax in large quantities, cotton in small quantities, and wool. Sheep were not esteemed for food, but they gave two fleeces 1 63 Agriculture, a year. The evidence is conclusive that there were large herds of cattle, some without horns, and that flocks and herds were most carefully tended. Of Babylonian agriculture there are few records. As in Egypt, a dense population was supported. The Euphrates overflowed, but did not do the work of the Nile. In all the region irrigation turns desert lands into fruitful fields. Of such fields said Herodotus : ‘‘ This is of all lands with which we are familiar by far the best for growth of corn. When it produces its best it yields even three hundredfold. The blades of wheat and barley grow there to full four fingers in breadth ; and though I well know to what a height millet and sesama grow, I shall not mention it, for I am well assured that to those who have never been in the Babylonian country what has been said re- specting its productions will appear incredible.”’ The scriptures are full of allusions to the operations of the husbandman in Palestine as wellas in Egypt. The operations in the two countries necessarily formed striking contrasts, the crops in the former being dependent on the rains for growth, in the lat- ter upon the inundations of the Nile. The Hebrews, before their sojourn in Egypt, had been a semi-pastoral people, and they must have learned something of Egyptian agriculture during the years of bondage. Their laws were those of an agricultural peo- ple. Land was practically inalienable. Extensive plains of fertile soil yielded the finest wheat. The hill-sides were covered with vines and olives, often planted in ter- races formed with much labor to afford a large mass of soil in which the plants might flourish in the almost rainless summer. The valleys were well watered, And afforded pasture for numerous flocks. Of the smaller cultivated plants, millet was the chief summer crop, but it was cultivated to only a limited extent, being confined to those spots that could be artificially watered. Wheat and barley were the chief cereals, as the winter rains were sufficient to bring them to maturity. Little is known of early Grecian agriculture or of the fifty writers on agriculture referred to by Varro. Hesiod (700 or 800 B.C.) was a poet who, in his Works and Days, mingled agricultural directions and thrifty proverbs. We learn that the Grecians knew of the value of scarecrows, and when these failed, had a sure charm produced by carrying atoad about the field by night and then burying him in the middle of it. The plow was much like the Egyp- tian, as was the mode of threshing wheat. Unlike the Egyptians, they had the harrow. Summer fallows were in use, and the ground received three plowings: one in the autumn, another in the spring, and the third immediately before sowing the seed. Manures were used and soils were combined for fertilizing purposes. The land doubt- less was better wooded, better watered, and had agricultural possibilities greater than those of to-day. Roman agriculture has received special attention since so much was written about it by the Romans themselves, and since they carried it into other countries where it modi- fied or dominated agricultural customs. When Rome was only a colony on the Tiber, land was divided among the citizens in small allotments. There was a domain of pub- lic land which was continually extended by the conquests of neighboring States and the partial confiscations that followed. Although land in the conquered territory was sometimes granted to the poorer citizens, there were large tracts of public lands that were either cultivated or allowed to remain in pasture. The common conditions were that the occupants paid one tenth of the produce of the corn lands, one fifth of the prod- uce of vines and fruit trees, and a moderate rate per head for cattle pastured. The occupants were merely tenants at will, and theoretically the state could resume or sell the lands at any time. Yet the right of possession was good against all until the lands had been resumed ; and in process of time there came to be families so long in posses- sion that they could not be dispossessed. Only the wealthy had the cattle or slaves that made such occupation possible. The burdens upon these occupiers of the public lands were much less than those upon the small farmers who owned their farms. Thus at least two classes of cultivators were in existence, the small proprietors and the wealthy tenants holding the lands of the state. An addition to the strife between these two classes was the pressure brought to bear in the interest of the landless. Even after the Romans became masters of all Italy little more than four acres was assigned to each citizen, and the domain lands increased enormously. Attempts were constantly made to restrict the extent of land that could be occupied by the wealthy, but generally with- out effect. (See AGRARIAN Law.) A great deterioration and a consequent agricultural change took place during the century that followed the first Punic War (ended B.c. 241). The place of the small farmer was taken by the planter, who cultivated a great extent of territory, using slave labor. The small proprietors either sold their no longer profitable farms, or were driven from them by the large land-holders. In Sicily, the first province, and in the others successively, the ownership of the land was vested in the Roman people. From these provinces came the tribute of grain that made grain- raising unprofitable in Italy. Hence the large estates were gradually given over to the keeping of flocks and the raising of cattle. Among the Roman writers upon agri- culture were Varro, Columella, and Pliny. Earlier than these in time and more cele- brated was Cato the Censor (d. 150 B.c.), who gives us not only the most minute par- ticulars regarding the management of the slaves on his large Sabine farm, but also all the details of husbandry, from plowing to the reaping and threshing of the crop. Agriculture. 1 64 Among the agricultural works in Latin were those of Mago the Carthaginian. The translating had been done by order of the Senate, and Columella speaks of Mago him- self as the attthor of husbandry. The chief grain cultivated by the Romans was wheat, but barley was cultivated to a considerable extent. Land given to grain was fallowed for the whole of every alter- nate year. One third of the fallow was manured and sown with some green crop, as cattle food. Fallow received from four to five furrows before the wheat was sown in the fall. The crop of wheat ripened about the middle of June, but the summers were too dry to allow of millet and other summer crops being raised with certainty. Rye, hemp, flax, beans, turnips, lupines, vetches and lucerne are also mentioned as occasion- ally cultivated. Meadows were highly esteemed, and irrigation to some extent adopt: ed. Cattle were fed on the plains in the winter and driven toward the Apennines as the snows melted in spring and when the pastures below became parched by the heat. The Romans carried their agriculture into the ruder countries conquered by them. The vine growing wild in Sicily was carried into Gaul, where it was acclimated with difficulty. To the rude Britons the Romans taught agriculture so successfully that be- fore the period of occupation was over they were exporting large quantities of grain. The deterioration of Roman agriculture was accelerated by the overthrow of the Roman Empire. The conquering nations had advanced but little beyond the pastoral stage. During the following period of the Dark Ages the two influences working for the benefit of agriculture in Western Europe were from the Saracen in Spain and the religious houses in the other countries. The Saracens irrigated and tilled with untiring industry. Introducing the plants of Asia and Africa, they cultivated rice, cotton and sugar, and covered the rocks of Southern Spain with fruitful vines. In general through- out Western Europe land was cheap, and many worthless tracts were given to the church. In some of the religious orders labor with the hands was imposed upon the members. ‘They studied the works of the Roman writers upon agriculture, and soon had the best cultivated lands in those couutries through which their influence extended. Charlemagne encouraged the planting of vineyards and orchards. On the whole, the Crusades helped the agriculture of Western Europe. In the latter part of the Middle Ages the people of the low countries of Western Europe came to be as distinguished for their agriculture as for their commerce and manufactures. They plowed in green crops; those of Holland developed dairying ; the Flemings gained the reputation of being the oldest practical farmers. Also in the plain of Northern Italy, watered by the Po, agriculture was in an advanced condition. A large part of it of great natural fer- tility drew forth the praises of Polybius, who visited it about fifty years after it came into the hands of the Romans. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, under the influence of irrigation, the region became a garden, supporting a large population and exporting grain. Inthe England of the same period the agriculture showed alternations of indolence and bustle, of feasting and semi-starvation. In August, 1317, wheat was twelve times as high as it was in the following September. Rye was the bread stuff of the peasantry. Little manure was used. Oxen, not horses, were used for teams. In the fourteenth century serfdom disappeared from England, and the tenant farmer be- came established. ‘* Between 1389 and 1444 the wages of agricultural laborers doubled ; harvests were plentiful; beef, mutton, pork became their food ; sumptuary laws against extravagance of dress and diet attest their prosperity’’ (Prothero). Laborers without food could earn a bushel of wheat in two days and a half; of rye in a day and a half. By the beginning of modern history the fruitful lands of Western Asia and South- eastern Europe, swept by wars and desolated by conquest, had been placed under the ban of the Turk. The conquest of the Moors in Spain and their subsequent expulsion caused an injury to the agriculture of the peninsula not since repaired. The discovery of the New World showed two grades of agriculture carried on by those who had never seen the horse and were practically without domestic animals. Even the careful tillage of the ancient Peruvian had no influence upon Europe and little upon the America of succeeding centuries, The great contribution of America to the world’s agriculture was the three plants, the potato, tobacco and Indian corn ormaize, Inthe region north of Mexico the labor of planting and caring for the scanty crops was performed by the women, who broke the ground with the rudest possible implements. The leading English agricultural writer of the sixteenth century was Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, who published his Book of Husbandry in 1523. In this century agriculture became more profitable, enclosures were made, and the rights of common were greatly restricted. Turned from the former wool exportation, the farmers began to raise wheat in large quantities for exportation. A law in the middle of the century practically prevented grain exportation, and turned wheat lands into pasturage. The resulting high price of food and destitution on the part of laborers brought another reaction, and a replowing of grazing lands. The sixteenth century saw the end of villeinage. In 1595 laborers without food, during the summer months worked six days for a bushel of wheat, four days for a bushel of rye, and three and one half days fora bushel of barley. Gardening, greatly neglected in the first part of the seventeenth century, received due attention in the latter part. Deep drainage, too, began to be talked about. From the middle of the seventeenth century to the nineteenth England looked to Flanders for the perfection of careful tillage. From Flanders of the seventeenth century Sir Richard — “ Crate | LIBRARY OT aaa UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ig, Rigg. PRBANA = i | p ae 5 4 " ong ~- @ yt se: wa 4 M ¥ > | 7 f] “é id ii _ < Hl YM ‘ « 4 Le La sit a AGRICULTURE.—I. Mower. 2. Horse threshing and cleaning machine. 3. Harro il diwrsisiailoh LOM io sini Miia will DRIANCe ow ge’ Platt & CO : 4 A EN WW MLD QR a cultivator, 4. Binder in operation. 5. Sheaf binder. 6. Reaper in operation. 01S. Lu ur = WV 1 6 5 Agriculture, Weston brought turnips and red clover, and Arthur Young afterward called hima greater benefactor than Newton. By the end of the century turnips and clover were extensively cultivated in alternation with wheat. The eighteenth century saw revolu- tions in English farming. One came when Lord Townsend established the Norfolk system. Under this system of first, wheat ; second, turnips ; third, barley ; fourth, grass, one half of the land was constantly under grain crops and the other under cattle crops. Large numbers of sheep and cattle were fattened on the turnips, and the consumption of roots on the land increased the yield of the barley. The Norfolk system was a success from the beginning. The rental of certain farms increased fivefold, and farmers in special cases made handsome fortunes. Susceptible of many modifications, it has had much to do with the improved agriculture of England, Another revolution came from the breeding experiments of Bakewell, commenced in 1750. To mention a single point, it had taken three or four years to prepare sheep for the market ; those bred by Bakewell were prepared for the market in two years. Be- sides making a reputation and a fortune for himself, he made for others a way since followed in breeding. English agriculture of the first part of the nineteenth century was marked by the influence of Arthur Young, who traveled much, carefully observed, experimented somewhat, and wrote industriously. He was one of the first to make experiments in regard to nitrogen and in regard to ammonia, previously supposed to be injurious to vegetation. Of his works, one has recently beenrepublished. Assecretary of the Board of Agriculture, established in 1793, he was concerned in the discussion of all the agri- cultural questions of the period. Jethro Tull, whose book on Horse-hoeing Husbandry appeared in 1731, was almost in touch with the methods of the nineteenth century. His theory was that seeds should be sowed in drills and the spaces between the drills kept thoroughly cultivated. He asserted that the plant lives upon minute particles of soil, and obtains food from the air when the soil is brought to dust. He invented a drill and a horse-hoe. He did not succeed in obtaining a large crop ; but modifica- tions of the method have since been made, and nearly thirty-six bushels to the acre secured. Considering that Tulldid not have the aid of agricultural chemistry, he could not more nearly have touched hands with the scientific observers of to-day. In one respect there is an approach to his position. The supposed proof that plants cannot take nitrogen from the air has been questioned since 1880. At present it is generally accepted that certain (if not all) plants do acquire the plant food nitrogen from the air. (See Experiment Station Record, III., 111.) The theories of Tull may acquire fresh - interest through the present discussion of the relations of the physical properties of the soil to the cultivation of plants. The white colonists of North America had much to discourage them as agricultur- ists, and in New England the additional drawbacks of long winters and a rocky soil. The colonists in Virginia found both Indian corn and tobacco, the latter fitted to be- come an article of export. The New England settlers brought with them English modes of farming. From the Indians they learned how to raise corn, breaking the soil with a hoe and manuring with fish. Corn was the great product to be depended upon, although other grains were cultivated, and cattle and sheep increased slowly fed first upon the native grass, then upon herd grass specially fitted for New England soil. Potatoes began to be raised in the first part of the eighteenth century. The South- ern colonists, more favored by nature, made less actual progress than those of the North. An important part of the little written upon agriculture was the volume of essays pub- lished by Jared Eliot (q.v.), 1735. Even as late as 1790, as we learn from McMaster’s History of the American People, little progress was made. In New England and New York, as well as farther South, barns were small, implements rude, and carts more common than wagons. In Georgia the hoe was more often used than the plow ; in Virginia the poor whites threshed their grain by driving their horses over it. Through- out the South it was the common practice to grow crops without rotation, and in gen- eral manure was thrown away. A little later came the invention of the cotton gin and the beginning of the reign of cotton, with a demand for fresh fields and a disregard of careful tillage. Early in the century the importation of the Spanish merino sheep changed the farming of the North, and greatly increased the production of wool. Most marked changes have taken place in the agriculture of the past fifty years, no small part of which has been connected with the development of agricultural chemistry. That development began early in the century with Sir Humphry Davy, who in 1813 published Hlements of Agricultural Chemistry, a work translated into French and Ger- man. It was followed in 1840 and later by the works of Liebig. It has been continued in the researches and experiments of the laboratories of Europe and America, For English-reading agriculturists the experiments most prominent are those carried on since 1843, at Rothamsted, in England, by Sir John Lawes and Dr. Gilbert. (See War- rington’s Lectures on Rothamsted Haperiment Station, Depart. of Agriculture, 1892.) Among the results of the study of agricultural chemistry have been an extensive use of chemical fertilizers, selected with reference to soil and crops and a comparative inde- pendence of the fixed rotations. Researches, however, are not confined to agricultural chemistry. As carried on in the 320 experiment stations of the world they are arranged Agriculture. 1 66 to attack one after another the pests and the problems that confront the farmer. (See AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.) One of the features of the agricultural history of the past fifty years has been the extensive introduction of machinery. Sowing machines, cultivators, and all the ma- chines that displace the hoe are of comparatively recent invention. As early as 33 A.D., according to Pliny, the Gauls used a cart with projections in front which cut or tore off the heads of grain; but until recent times little effort was made to invent or intro- duce labor-saving machinery, owing to popular prejudice. The threshing machine was not invented until 1786, and though an attempt was made early in the century to construct reaping machines, but small success was made until the time of Bell, Hussey and McCormick. (See Reaprna.) In the hay harvest horse power is applied by means of the mowing machine, the hay tedder, the rake, and machines for loading and unload- ing the hay. Another class of machines like the one for threshing deal with the gath- ered crops. The use of a system of machinery like that applied to dairying has made great changes in certain lines of agriculture. From horse power, too, there has been a partial change to steam power. About the year 1850 the steam plow began to be used in England. One special advantage in the minds of English farmers was the depth to which the soil could be turned, while the engine was utilized for many purposes on the large estatesof that country. The great advantage of steam farm machinery in America has been for operations like that of threshing. Improved farm machinery in America has made possible the rapid settling of the new States and the successful gathering of their immense harvests. It has made possible the great farms where the furrow is plowed for miles and the line of harvesters sweep across wheat fields covering thou- sands of acres. Machinery has destroyed the advantage that might be possessed by the country with cheap labor, when pitted against the country with cheap land. It is claimed that on the largest farms of the West, by the use of improved farm machinery, wheat can be produced at an expense of $5 per acre, or less than half the average cost per acre of the United States. The agricultural history of the half century has shown the risks that attend the production of a staple that must compete for the markets of the world. There has been a lowering of cotton as the result of over-production ; but the product open to the greatest competition igs wheat. In England, from 1851 halfway t» the present, wheat and dairy products rose in value, being at times more than 50 per cent higher than in 1851. In England, in the fall of 1894 the price of wheat was as low as 52 cents per bushel, which was less than 50 per cent of the price of 1851. The lowering of prices has increased the pasturage by millions of acres, has thrown out vrheat land until the average production has become 28 bushels per acre, and has lowered rents in some cases more than 50 per cent. In the years 1895 and 1896 the price of wheat rose, and in the U. S. No. 2 winter wheat was quoted at 948 in the Chicago market in November, 1896. In the United States the average product for 24 years is 12.4 bushels per acre. There is a movement in agriculture to pro- vide for local demands, to take advantage of growing centres of population, to strive for excellence and exact system in place of haphazard methods. The evaporator has broadened the fruit market. The canning industry has utilized fruits and vegetables and saved the agricultural balances in sections. Cold storage, rapid transportation, and the refrigerator car have reduced risks and shortened apparent distances. New Zea- land is in the markets of London. Canadaand the United States have a profitable apple trade with England. The expenses of transportation have been reduced to a fraction of the previous cost, and thus the wheat lands of Dakota have been laid alongside those of both New England and Old England, with gain for the one and with loss for the others. In dairying there has been one of the triumphs of recent agriculture. Spe- cialization, with scientific method and improved machinery, has brought excellence with- out the destruction of the market. Dairy products, in contrast with others, are higher than they were fifty years ago. Carried on largely as co-operative undertakings, creameries and cheese factories (see DArRy) have increased in Europe and America. A large industry in England, dairying on the co-operative basis has been on the increase in France. The Netherlands, famous for its careful agriculture, is a leading dairy. country, exporting on an average 115,000,000 lbs. of butter and 64,000,000 lbs. of cheese. Switzerland, although furnishing a market for 2,000,000 lbs. of butter, on an- average provides other markets with 33,000,000 lbs. of cheese. Denmark no longer competes for the wheat trade, but has become one of the most successful of dairy coun- tries, one in which second-grade products are practically unknown. The amount of butter exported has steadily increased, and in 1891 was 100,000,000 lbs. England took nearly all of this, and in addition more than as much more from Canada, the United States, and other countries. The past fifty years has been a period of careful cultivation, though with many ex- ceptions in America. Thorough drainage and deep plowing, established in England, have been also made American. The storing of green crops in silos has become com- mon. A great amount of intelligent work has been given to securing plants and trees, like the Russian fruit trees, suited to local conditions in cold climates. In the vicinity of the large cities market gardening has been a profitable branch of agriculture, and lard 167 Agriculture. has been the culmination of careful cultivation. Somewhat similar to it has been an industry which has developed in the United States under the name of “ truck farming,’ and is carried on in places remote from markets. Roe 17 23 31 13 Sone Sete siekte BEanCes phe siestedsanaess 3809 pay 69 51 246 897 Sorte 44 104 JENNY cs nap wale ates 93 Ae 228 101 300 892 nee 91 55 (Greece tte: acts (OPS Ge il Bagh Q ae byline t ae 17 he TtalVuphde co meattees cs apts 122 81 4 9 17 2 B33: 10 26 Nethonanis Jaspeube. 6 rote li 5 12 63 Atte 6 oon Norway and Sweden.. yl ences PH | 19 63 69 a 2 3 Porvugalatearstiaeett ia 8 14 5 2 1 8 dee 10 ROUNTATIA eee ed eee 50 61 4 19 8 2 Page ff pats IRUSSIAN aaeiciw ates: Rig 242 20 723 154 576 464 on ware 292 Sorgia eines tee ocean § clei 2 3 2 negra t 3 Spain! 28 4 eT BRU) org 22 | 2t 49 7 ip NOoy wad dy, 66 Switzerland sccectente 3 2 2 1 5 oat Be 4 ee United Kingdom ... ... 78 2 2 £0 167 228 Sm Ra 147 Total (about), includ- ing other coun- 2,300 {2,800 {1,318 804 2,327 |Doubtful||Doubtful)/Doubtful| 2,500 TYICS Piste dee cleave MARKETS OF THE WORLD FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. MILLION BUSHELS. MILLION PounDs. 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J . UF By hy yh : cae 3 : 1} “> 714 7 x ; Oe Nu aur : Tr od gegiry i y Dif b . edit . As Rat 3 ‘i 7 oy ’ vy . 45 ¢ f A t ‘ | LIBRARY ety a asta ee UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Oba | URBANA 1a * - ' \ ‘ A ; ' . } : j ; . si ‘ -~ L / es . . » a aa i “f : : ‘ a. oe i ae rr ails 1 7 1 i fine aA. by the governor, Jan. 3, 4, and on Jan. 21 the senators and representatives withdrew from congress. Delegates from the seceded states met at Montgomery, Feb. 4, and organized the confederate government. ‘lhe constitution adopted then was ratified March 13 by a state convention, the vote being 87 to 6. A confederate arsenal, foundry, and navy- yard were soon established at Selma, In 1862, Feb.—April, federal troops occupied the Tennessee valley. In 1864, Aug. 6-23, Rear-admiral Farragut destroyed a confed- erate fleet in Mobile harbor and, aided by Gen. Granger with a land force, reduced forts Gaines and Morgan. In the spring of 1865, a body of troops under Maj.-gen. J. H. Wilson moved toward Mobile from the north, while a military and naval force under Maj.-gen. Canby and Rear-admiral Thatcher advanced from New Orleans. Selma was taken April 2; Tuscaloosa on the 8d; the forts about Mobile on the 8th and 9th ; Montgomery was occupied on the 11th and Mobile on the 12th. The military depart- ments of Alabama, Mississippi, and East Florida were surrendered to Gen. Canby, Mar. 4. A provisional government was established June 21, and in Sept. a convention of delegates, who had taken the oath of amnesty, repealed the act of secession and altered the constitution. In Nov. state officers and members of congress were chosen, and in Dec., U. 8. senators ; but congress, in conflict with President Johnson, refused admis- sion to the representatives from Alabama. In 1867, April 1, by the reconstruction act, Alabama was included with Georgia and Florida in the third military district, under Gen. Pope. In Nov. a new constitution was framed, and received, Feb., 1868, 70,182 votes out of 71,817 cast. The majority of registered voters took no action in the matter, but congress declared the constitution operative, and it continued in force till 1875. On July 14, 1868, military rule ceased, and on Nov. 16, 1870, the state ratified the 15th amendment to the federal constitution. During the war 122,000 men entered the con- federate army, and 7545—4969 colored—the union army. ‘The material progress of Alabama has been rapid, especially since 1880, and no state has a brighter future. TopograpHy.—Alabama is generally described as consisting of four great divisions ; the cereal, mineral, cotton, and timber belts. The first belt comprises 8 counties in the north, including the valley of the Tennessee ; the second, 28 counties, mainly between parallels 34° 15’ and 32° 15’; the third, 17 counties, reaching a little below parallel 32° ; the fourth, the 15 remaining counties. The greater part. of the state of Alabama is an irregular plain less than 600 ft. in altitude, and witha general slope toward the south- west. Low spurs and isolated peaks, none over 2500 ft. high, occupy the northeast corner, and, with the gradually diminishing foot-hills that extend into the central counties, end the great Appalachian range. The surface is undulating almost to the sea-coast, and in many places in Baldwin and Mobile counties has an elevation of from 100-300 ft. The valleys, the most important of which are the Tennessee, Warrior, and Coosa, have a northeast and southwest direction. The coast line is only 60 miles in length. Among the bays are Grand, Bon Secours, Perdido (q.v.), and Mobile (q.v.), the last the only important one. The Tennessee river comes in at the northeast corner of Alabama, flows for 130 miles across the state, and passes out of the northwest corner, forming fora few miles the boundary with Mississippi. The Tombigbee enters from Mississippi, receives the Black Warrior, and, joining the Alabama above Mobile, forms the Mobile river, emptying into Mobile bay. The Alabama (q.v.), with its tributaries, drains all the middle part of the state. The Chattahoochee, forming the boundary with southwest Georgia, passes through Florida to the gulf. The Perdido, forming part of the boundary with Florida, rises in Alabama, as do the Choctawatchie, Yellow Water, Escambia, other Floridastreams. All the rivers south of the Tennessee have a southwest and southerly direction, and are rapid asarule. The navigable mileage is 2000 miles. Navigation on the Tennessee is aided by a canal around the muscle shoals, a series of rapids. Among mineral springs are those at Shelby, Blount, Livingstone, Bladen, and Tallahatta. GroLocy.—The stratified rocks represent every formation occurring in the Appalach- ian region of North America. There are three geological divisions of Alabama, namely : the northern, containing most of the state north and west of a line from Chattanooga through Birmingham nearly to Tuscaloosa, and including the great Tennessee valley, in which the rock masses belong to the sub-carboniferous (calcareous and silicious lime- stones) and the coal measures ; their strata approximately horizontal. Adjoining this is the middle region, bounded by a line drawn from the northeast corner to Tuscaloosa and thence through Centreville, Clanton, and Wetumpka to Columbus, Ga. This includes (1) the metamorphic region, with altered and crystalline sediments of Silurian or preceding ages; quartzites, marbles, granites, and gneisses, the strata in many places disintegrated into masses of stratified clay and interlaminated with quartz seams. (2) The Coosa valley, with prevailing calcareous rocks. (8) The Coosaand Cahawba coal fields, their strata consisting of sandstones, conglomerates, shales, and coal beds, tilted and unequally degraded. This division contains some of the highest land in the state. The southern division south and west of these limits, and including the cotton belt, consists largely of drift beds irregularly stratified over the eroded surface of cretaceous and tertiary rocks. Clark county, between the Alabama and Tombigbee, is rich in fossil remains. MINERALOGY.—The southern limit of the mineral region may be defined by a line passing through Pikeville, Tuscaloosa, and Wetumpka to Columbus, Ga. Within this Alabama. it 9 yi area are the gold deposits of Randolph county, and three fields of bituminous coal, named from the rivers that drain them—the Warrior, covering 7800 square miles ; the Cahawba, 200 ; andthe Coosa, 150 square miles. Cannel, free-burning, lump, coking, gas, and other coals of superior quality are found. There are extensive beds of iron ore, including red hematite, limonite, black band, drift, magnetic and specular; and the Choccolocco, Anniston, Coosa, Cahawba, Birmingham, and other valleys are noted for their produc- tiveness. Among other mineral products are asbestos, asphalt, copper, corrundum, emery, fire-clay, graphite, granite, lithographic stone, manganese, white and variegated marble, marl, red ochre, phosphates, plumbago, pottery and porcelain clays, salt (in the southwest), silver, slate, soapstone, and tin. Natural gas has been discovered. ZodLoey.—Among the wild animals, which are especially numerous in the north, are the bear, wolf, wildcat, fox, deer, opossum, raccoon, marsh-hare, skunk, cotton-rat, musk-rat, and squirrel. Among birds and wild fowl, the turkey, partridge, pigeon, rice-bird, mocking-bird, carrion-crow, ibis, spoonbill, flamingo, pelican, and cormorant. Alligators and moccasin snakes are found in the southern swamps, and terrapin in the salt marshes. Borany.—In the mountain region the principal trees and shrubs are the red, black, and Spanish oak, mountain and short-leaved pine, red cedar, chestnut, butternut, elm, black walnut, hickory, poplar, linden, magnolia, and azalea. In the central or upper pine region they are the Jong-leaved pine, spruce, white cedar, red, black, water, swamp, post, and Spanish oak, maple, shell-bark, hickory, elm, sycamore, chinquapin, buckeye. haw, and redplum. In the southern counties, particularly in the coast pine-belt, are found the red cypress, pitch, and long-leaved pine, juniper ; water, live, willow, and black-jack oak, tupelo, cotton-wood, catalpa, ash, elm, hickory, papaw, holly, palmetto, sweet-bay, black gum, snowdrop tree, huckleberry, wax myrtle, yaupon, yucca, and cane. Among flowering plants are the jessamine, wistaria, pipe-vine, rosin-weed, phlox, catchfly, bloodroot, pogonia, and 5 species of pitcher plant. There are over 150 species of native and naturalized grasses. Som, AND CLIMATE.—The valley of the Tennessee has chiefly a deep red calcareous soil; that in the metamorphic region is a red or gray loam with clay subsoil ; in the coal measures it is sandy, with sand or clay subsoil; the north and middle divisions are bordered by a wide belt of red or yellow loam over stratified rocks and pebbles; the cotton belt has a heavy black calcareous soil from 2-20 feet deep, and south of this, brown and red clay loams predominate. In the extreme Southern counties the soil is light and sandy. Excepting the lowland along the rivers, the state is very healthful, particularly in the north. Extremes of temperature are rare, the yearly mean for the state being 61°.. The summer heat is tempered by winds from the gulf; the average rainfall is 55.04°. Snow falls occasionally in Jan. and Feb., but rarely in the south; the frost limits at Montgomery are Oct. 10 and April 25. The prevailing winds for the whole year are from the south and southwest. AGRICULTURE.—The state may be divided into four natural sections, of which three are more or less adapted to agricultural purposes. The cereal belt includes the Alabama section of the Tennessee valley, is 200 miles long by 20 wide, covers eight counties, and has 180,000 inhabitants. Wheat, oats, rye, hay, cotton, and various fruits grow to advantage here, where the surrounding mountains provide a welcome shelter against the harsh winds of the north and the heat of the south. The agricultural region proper is known as the black belt, owing to the prevailing rich soil of rotten limestone. It extends some 70 miles across the state, between parallels 33° and 31° 40’. Water is obtained largely from artesian wells. The finest cotton is raised in this section, which embraces 17 counties and has 500,000 inhabitants, including a large percentage of negroes. The timber belt in the south contains superb forests of yellow pine, cypress, sweet bay, water-oaks and live oaks, and also yields sugar-cane, sorghum, melons, and peanuts in abundance. Chestnuts, cedars, mulberries, elms, hickories and poplars are found in the northern and central parts of the state. The mineral belt covers the southwestern terminal of the Appalachian range in the north. Large quantities of rice are raised in the sandy lowlands and river bottoms of the South. Ramie is likewise an important product, and tobacco is grown in the north. The vicinity of Mobile bay is extremely fertile, and yields such fruits as melons, plums, apricots, figs, pomegranates, olives, and oranges, besides peaches in several fine varieties. Good grazing lands are found among the northern hills, as well as in the more fertile districts of the south. Wild cane, mast, and numerous species of grass furnish desirable forage. Cotton forms by far the largest crop. In 1891 Alabama ranked as the fourth state in cotton production and eighth in corn. Otherwise the staple products are wheat, oats, rye, potatoes, rice, tobacco, fruits, hay, wool, butter, cane, and honey. The number of farms in 1890 was 275,000, with an acreage of over 19,000,000. The capital invested in lands and buildings approximated $80,000,000. The principal crops (1896) were: Corn, 32,445,075 bush. ; wheat, 394,184 bush.; oats, 4,454,870 bush. ; potatoes, 458,976 bush.; rye, 16,152 bush.; hay, 92,385 tons; tobacco, 1,009,090 lbs.; and cotton (1895) 1,000,000 bales. The farm animals in 1895 comprised 128,336 horses, 127,195 mules, 208,459 milch cows, 523,329 other cattle, 271,111 sheep, and 1,848,898 swine, of a total value of $24,686,936. Farming in Alabama has not yet recovered from the effects of the war, when 1,000,000 acres were allowed to relapse into wilderness, and the product was 1 9 3 Alabama, reduced by one-half. That of 1860 has never been reached since. Latterly, however, many improved methods have been adopted, and increased attention paid to stock- raising. Topusitnrns Se aban large and increasing manufacturing industries are mainly established in the flourishing and more recent cities of the North. She may be said to rival Georgia in her facilities for economic production, particularly of iron, as ore, coal, and limestone are frequently found close together. Unsurpassed water-power is afforded by means of the numerous falls and rapids of the Coosa, Tallapoosa, Chattahoochee and tributary streams. The largest cotton-mills are stationed at Tallassee. Lumber, iron, steel, machinery, cotton goods, flouring-mill products, wagons, bricks, and leather are the leading manufactures. The first practicable blast furnace was erected in 1852. Since then iron industries have taken gigantic strides, and become of paramount impor- tance. The now thriving town of Bessemer, for instance, which was founded only in 1887, within three years could boast of seven furnaces, rolling-mills, fire-brick works, besides eight churches, public buildings, business blocks, and two newspapers. The same thing might be said of such centres as Anniston, Birmingham, Colera, Decatur, Florence, Sheffield, and Tuscaloosa. From 250 to 800,000,000 ft. of lumber are sawed annually from the splendid yellow pine and cypress forests of the state, while vast num- bers of shingles, staves, etc., are manufactured, The yield of turpentine and rosin reaches large proportions, and of late the canning of fruit and vegetables has become a successful industry. In 1895, Alabama ranked fifth in production of coal with an out- put of 5,693,775 tons, value $5,126,822; third in iron ore, output 2,199,590 tons; fourth in pig iron, output 854,667 tons; and second in coke, output 1,444,339 tons, value $3,033,521. There were 26 cotton mills, with 164,898 spindles, 2,756 looms, and 517 cards. CoMMERCE. — Mobile is the only seaport, and the chief exports are cotton, coal, and lumber. The bay of Mobile is 30 miles long, and has an artificial channel for vessels drawing under 20 feet of water. In the calendar year 1896, the value of imports was $860,411; exports, $9,087,076; total trade, $9,947,487; increase over 1895, $2,685,564, ex- clusive of gold and silver coin and bullion. The principal imports were fruit and nuts; exports, cotton and lumber. Commerce increases very slowly, owing to railroad compe- tition and discrimination. New Orleans takes the bulk of the cotton for export trade, and Pensacola the lumber, RAtLways.—In 1892 there were 3595 miles of railroad against 2500 in 1887 and 853 in 1868. The leading roads, with mileage in state at the close of 1890, were the Alabama, Great Southern (Chattanooga to Meridian), 245 miles; Southern and Northern (Mont- gomery to Decatur), 189; Mobile and Montgomery, 178; Selma Division of East Ten- nessee, Virginia and Georgia, 172; Georgia Pacific, 241; Memphis and Charleston, 151; Savannah and Western, 156; Alabama Mineral, 127; and Kansas City, Memphis, and Birmingham, 118. In addition to the above there were 25 roads of less than 100 miles. The total mileage in 1896 exceeded 3,400, and the various roads represented a total investment of over $114,500,000; cost for construction and equipment nearly $103,000,000; had total funded debt of over $57,000,000; net earnings over $4,250,000; and paid in- terest and dividends of over $3,000,000. BANKS AND INSURANCE. —In 1896 there were 27 national banks, with aggregate capital of $3,405,000; deposits, $5,660,282; reserve, $1,896,072; 10 state banks, with capital $464,000; deposits, $538,709; and 3 private banks, capital, $137,000; deposits, $508,272. EDUCATION, LIBRARIES, ETC. —In 1895 Alabama had 9 universities and colleges of liberal arts, of which 3 were for males only, and 6 were co-educational. Combined, these institutions had 95 instructors, 1,558 students in all departments, grounds and buildings valued at $880,500, productive funds $365,000, income $106,625, and volumes in libraries, 37,000. ‘These institutions were Blount College, Blountsville; St. Bernard College, Cullman; Howard College, East Lake; Southern University, Greensboro; Lafayette College, Lafayette; Lineville College, Lineville; Selma University, Selma; Spring Hill College, Spring Hill; and the University of Alabama, University Station. There were an agricultural and mechanical college for white students at Auburn, and a normal and industrial school for the colored at Normal. The number of children of school age (1894) was 603,000, of whom 306,014 were enrolled in the public schools, and 185,100 were in daily attendance. There were 6,687 school buildings, 6,608 teachers, and school property valued at $1,573,000, and the expenditure of the year was $663,359. For secondary in- struction there were 51 public high schools, with 109 teachers and 2,593 secondary students, and 79 private schools, with 181 teachers and 3,304 secondary students. Six public normal . schools had 65 teachers and 1,498 students, and 5 private normal schools, 105 teachers and 1,454 students. There were also 8 colleges for women, 2 schools of iheology, 2 of medicine, and one each of law, dentistry, and technology. The state had 27 public libraries of over 1,000 volumes each in 1893, with a total of 100,216 bound volumes and 22,121 pamphlets. In 1896 there were 212 periodicals, including 20 dailies. GOVERNMENT. — The capital is Montgomery. A residence of one year in the state, three months in the county and 30 days in the township or precinct entitles an adult to vote. State senators and representatives receive $4 per day and 10 cents per mile traveled. The former (33) serve four years; the latter (100) two. The legislature meets biennially. The governor (elected for two years) receives a salary of $3000; the treasurer, $2100; the secretary of state and the auditor, $1800 each; the attorney-general, $2500. The judiciary consists of a chief-justice and four associate justices of the supreme court, serving six years; 10 district judges of circuit courts, serving for the same time; 5 chancellors of the court of chancery, and judges of the probate and city courts. The last-named are appointed by the governor, but all other judicial offices are filled by pop- I.—7 Alabama, Bt 94 ‘ular vote. The U. S. district courts are at Montgomery, Mobile, and Birmingham. The legal rate of interest is eight per cent, with forfeiture ia case of usury. Alabama has two senators and nine representatives in the U. 8. congress. The electoral votes have been cast as follows: 1820, Monroe and Tompkins, 8; 1824, Jack- son and Van Buren, 5; 1828, Jackson and Calhoun, 5; 1832, Jackson and Van Buren, 7; 1836, Van Buren and Johnson, 7; 1840, for same; 1844, Polk and Dallas, 9; 1848, Cass and Butler, 9; 1852, Pierce and King, 9; 1856, Buchanan and Breckenridge, 9 ; 1860, Breckenridge and Lane, 9; 1864, no vote; 1868, Grant and Colfax, 8; 1872, Grant and Wilson, 10 ; 1876, Tilden and Hendricks, 10 ; 1880, Hancock and English, 10; 1884, Cleveland and Hendricks, 10; 1888, Cleveland and Thurman, 10; 1892, Cleveland and Stevenson, 11; 1896, Bryan and Sewall, 11. FINANCES. — The state receipts for year ending Sept. 30, 1896, were $1,999,930; expenditures, $1,959,977. The amount raised by taxes was $1,328,817. The assessed value of property in 1895 was $241,338,024; bonded debt, $9,299,400; current rate of taxa- tion, 5 mills. The total debt, less sinking fund, in 1890, was $18,930,867. CHARITIES, ETC.— The state institutions comprise the Alabama Institution for the Deaf, the Alabama School for Negro Deaf Mutes and Blind, and the Alabama Academy for the Blind, all at Talladega; a hospital for the insane, at Tuscaloosa; a penitentiary, at Wetumpka; and two prisons at Pratt Mines. The convict system has undergone moet improvements, but prisoners are still leased to contractors for various kinds of work. PoPULATION.—In 1820, 127,901—41,879 slave, 571 free col’d ; 1840, 590,756—253,- 532 slave, 2039 free ; 1860, 964,201—435,080 slave, 2690 free ; 1880, 1,262,505—600,103 col’d ; 218 Indian; foreign born, 9734—2966 Irish ; males, 622,629; females, 639,876 ; persons to square mile, 24.50; whole number of dwellings, 240,227 ; families, 248,961 ; engaged in agriculture, 380,630 ; in manufacturing, mining, and mechanical industries, 22,996 ; population 1890, 1,518,017 ; 1893, 1,625,000. There are 66 counties ; for pop- ulation 1890, see census tables, vol. XV. The largest towns, 1890, were : Mobile, 31,076 ; Birmingham, 26,178 ; Montgomery, 21,888 ; Anniston, 9876. ALABAMA, ariver of the state of A., is formed by the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa, about 10 m.n.n.e. of Montgomery. Its general course is westward to Selma, thence s. westward until about 50m. n. of Mobile, where it meets the Tombigbee, and with that stream forms the Mobileriver. Its whole course is tortuous ; itslength about 320 m. ALABA’'MA, Tuk, an armed vessel of the Confederate States of America, which inflicted terrible injury upon the shipping of the northern states of the American Union during the civil war which broke out in 1861. The career of the A. was in more than one re- spect unparalleled in the history of any previous naval war. She was, for a war-ship, a small vessel, built for speed, carrying a few guns, and intended not for fighting, but for preying upon defenseless merchant-ships. She was almost the only vessel the Con- federate states had upon the open seas; but the destruction she wrought was so great, and in effect so alarming, as to produce a very marked diminution in the number of commercial vessels carrying the flagof the United States. She was built, too, in a British port, and never, at any time, entered a port of the state by which she was commissioned : there was no port available for the disposal of her prizes, and, ship and cargo, they were usually burned. Her career demonstrated how completely, in the present state of commerce, under the conditions of navigation and naval warfare produced by steam and long-range artillery, belligerents fairly matched might ruin each other at sea; and it raised international questions between the United States and Great Britain, which more than once threatened to issue in the gravest consequences to both nations. At the outbreak of the war, the Confederate states were without a navy, and ap- parently without the means of acquiring one, for their population was agricultural ; they had neither ships nor seamen; and the northern states promptly instituted an effective blockade of nearly all their ports. The able men who had planned the secession of the southern states from the American Union had not overlooked the subject of a navy; but events had been against them. They had reckoned upon securing a part of the United States fleet ; and before the war commenced, they had determined upon fit- ting out some small and swift vessels, carrying a few heavy guns, to cruise against the northern commerce. A majority of the senior naval officers of the United States were southern men, and were at their command ; but although efforts had been made early in 1861 to purchase ships for the south, it was not until several months after the war began, in June, 1861, that the Confederate states were able to send their first armed cruiser » to sea. This was the Sumter, a small steamer which had previously traded between New Orleans and Havana. Capt. Raphael Semmes, who was appointed her commander, was a native of Maryland, about 51 years of age, and had been a commander in the U. 8. navy. His career in the Sumter is a record of triumphs won over neutral governors and ministers, who were disinclined to admit the little Swmter to the position of a bel- ligerent war-vessel ; of clever avoidance of the enemy’s cruisers, of which several were always on his track; and of the destruction of valuable ships and cargoes belonging to citizens of the United States. The Swmter and her captain were soon known through- out the world. Though called a pirate, Semmes appears to have done nothing but what it was his right as a belligerent to do. It was upon his system of burning his captures, not upon the captures themselves, that the people of the northern states founded their charge ; and his treatment, warranted by precedents, was probably within his right. The cruise of 195 Alabama, the Sumter, which began on the 30th June, 1861, with her escape from New Orleans, then strictly blockaded, was over before the end of the year; but she had captured 18 vessels, had spread alarm through the northern sea-ports, and had put ship-owners and merchants to heavy charges for insurance; and by disinclining merchants to ship their goods in northern vessels, had seriously injured the shipping trade of the northern states. Eventually, she was laid up at Gibraltar, and declared unfit for further service: had she been seaworthy, it would have been very difficult to carry her out of a port where she was diligently watched by northern cruisers. She had, however, verified the anticipa- tions of the Confederate government; and in 1862, this government found a successor for her, much better fitted for the work to be done, and destined to far greater celebrity. This was the Alabama, built for the Confederate government by Messrs. Laird and Sons, at Birkenhead, England She was a screw steam-sloop of 1040 tons register, built of -wood, and for speed rather than strength. She was bark rigged, with two 350 horse- power engines, was pierced for twelve guns, and had the means of carrying two heavy ivot-guns amidships. She cost $237,500 without equipments ; including equipments, $258,580. In June, 1862, Semmes was appointed to superintend her equipment, and to take command of her when completed, but enjoined to keep her destination as much of a secret as possible. Before he sailed, however, the British government was called upon by the U. 8. minister to detain the ‘‘ No. 290,’’ as she was called, from her num- ber in the list of steamships built by the Messrs. Laird, on the ground that her construc- tion being more that of a ‘war vessel than an ordinary trading vessel, in itself consti- tuted grounds for seizure, as being an infringement of international law. Before any decision was arrived at (July 31st, 1862), ‘‘ No. 290,’ under pretense of making a trial trip, steamed away from the British coast, whereupon the British government was notified that it would be held responsible for any damage the vessel might do to Ameri- can commerce. In the mean time the vessel arrived at Terceira, one of the Azores, Aug. 13th, and was joined, a few days later, by the Agrippina, of London, with her guns, stores, and supply of coal, and by the Bahama, with Capt. Semmes and his offi- cers. By Aug. 24th she was ready for sea, and Capt. Semmes produced his commission to the sailors, named her the Alabama, and hoisted the Confederate flag. The sailors on the three vessels were Englishmen, all entered for a feigned voyage, and with few exceptions they enlisted under Capt. Semmes. The crew consisted of eighty men all told, and the armament of eight 32-pounders. The Alabama made her first capture Sept. 5th, and within eleven days she seized and burned property the value of which exceeded her own cost. The people of the United States were filled with indignation and alarm, and several fast-sailing cruisers were at once sent in search of her. As Semmes was anxious to make some captures within sight of New York, he sailed at once for the American coast ; but his supply of coal failing, he had to make for a coaling station, after which he lay in wait for the California mail-steamers, plying between New York and Aspinwall. After a time he captured the Arve/, taking one gun and a quan- tity of specie, besides several United States officers, 140 marines, and about 500 other passengers. There was not room on the Alabama for the passengers and crew, and as the yellow fever was raging at Kingston, Jamaica, where he intended to land them, he was unable to destroy the steamer, as he intended, but set her free after exacting a bond for a large sum to be paid at the close of the war. This capture caused great alarm among ship owners, which was further increased, Jan. 17th, 1863, by an encounter be- tween the Alabama and the United States gunboat Hatteras, off Galveston, Texas, in which the latter was sunk. After this pursuit became so hot that she sailed away for the African coast and remained until June, 1864, when she returned to European waters, and put in to Cherbourg, on the coast of France, for repairs and supplies. A few days later the United States steamer Kearsarge arrived off Cherbourg, and made demonstra- tions that were regarded by Capt. Semmes and his officers as a challenge. Accord- ingly, on June 19th, he put out to sea some three leagues, or beyond French waters, where, after an hour’s battle Semmes found his ship sinking, and gave orders to pull down his flag, to get out the boats and put the wounded into them ; but before this could be done the ship went to the bottom. The boats of the Kearsarge saved many of the crew ; others, including Capt. Semmes, were picked up by the Deerhound, an Eng- lish yacht that had gone out to see the fight, and had been allowed by Capt. Winslow to assist in the rescue. These the Deerhound immediately carried within the neutral jurisdiction. Semmes and the others saved by this vessel were afterwards charged with having broken their faith as prisoners who had asked for quarter from the Kearsarge ; but this is not so, because when once on the deck of the Deerhound they were entitled to the protection of Great Britain, and no previous compact could have deprived them of it. The Alabama captured in all sixty-five vessels, most of them merchant vessels incapable of resistance, which she either burned or liberated on bond, and the value of the property she destroyed in this way has been estimated at $4,000,000. But it was by the heavy insurance for war risks to which she subjected them, and still more by the difficulty she caused them in getting freights that the Alabama inflicted the greatest in- jury upon the ship-owners of the United States. See The Oruise of the Alubama and the miter, compiled from the papers of Capt. Semmes. The ‘‘ Alabama Question” was fairly raised in the winter of 1862-63, when Mr. Seward, in his diplomatic correspondence, declared that the Union held itself entitled at a suitable time to demand full compensation for the damages inflicted on American prop- erty by Anglo-confederate vessels; the cnestien never ceasing to be a source of irritation Aland.” 196 between the two peoples till its final settlement by special tribunal of arbitration. This court, consisting of the representatives of England and the United States, and of three other members appointed by the king of Italy, the president of the Swiss confederation, and the emperor of Brazil, met at Geneva, 17th Dec., 1871, and, the claim for indirect damages to American commerce having been allowed to drop, finally decreed, 15th Sept., 1872, that Great Britain should pay $15,500,000. See GENEVA ARBITRATION. AL'’ABASTER. This name is given to two kinds of white stone, chemically distinct, but resembling each other in appearance, and both used for ornamental purposes. A. proper isa white, granular, semi-transparent variety of gypsum (q.v.), or sudphate of lime. It occurs in various countries, but the finest is found near Volterra, in Tuscany, where it is worked into a variety of the smaller objects of sculpture, vases, time-piece stands, etc. Gypseous A. of good quality is also found in Derbyshire, and many ornamental articles are made of it at Matlock and other places. Not being quite insoluble in water, 1t can- © not be exposed to the weather; and its softness makes the surface easily become rough and opaque. Nor is it generally found in sufficient masses for large works. The other stone is a compact, crystalline carbonate of lime deposited from water in the form of stalagmite, etc. It is distinguishable from the gypseous alabaster by its effervescing with an acid, and by its hardness; real alabaster may be scratched with the nail.—The name is derived from Alabastron, a town in upper Egypt, where this kind of stone was abun- dant, and was manufactured into pots for perfumes. Such pots were called alabasir:: even when made of other materials. AL’ABASTER, WILLIAM, D.D., 1567-1640, an English poet and scholar. He was educated at Cambridge and Oxford, and was a fellow of Trinity college. He was appointed chaplain to Robert, earl of Essex, whom he accompanied in 1591 in the expe- dition intended to assist Henry IV. against the league. In France he was converted to the Roman Catholic church, but did not long remain in it. His report was that he was enticed to Rome and imprisoned, but escaped. Returning to England he became pre- bendary of St. Paul’s and rector of Hatfield. A. was a famous Hebrew scholar, with a strong inclinatioa to mysticism in tracing the meaning of scripture. Dr. A. pub- lished several works on scriptural subjects, and left a number of poems in MSS., one of which was surreptitiously published—a tragedy called Roxana, which Dr. Johnson regarded as the only Latin verse of English production worth naming until Milton appeared. ALACH’VA, a co. in n. Florida, between the Santa Fé and Suwannee rivers, crossed by several railroads; 1282 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 22,934, inclu. colored. It has a rolling surface and fertile soil, producing sea-island cotton, oranges, etc. Co. seat, Gainsville. ALACOQUE, MarauEritE Marts, 1647-90; a French nun, who established the fes- tival of the sacred heart of Jesus. She took the veil at Paray-le-Monial, where she is said to have performed miracles, prophesied, made revelations, and held direct communi- cation with God and the angels. She foretold the day of her death, and cut the name of ‘‘ Jesus Christ” on her bosom with a knife. By the Roman Catholic church she is called ** venerable.” ALADAGH’, a mountain chain in Asiatic Turkey in which the Euphrates rises. The chief portion of the chain is above the basin of the lake Van, between 39° and 40° n. and 42° and 44° e., forming part of the water-shed between the Caspian sea and the Persian gulf. ALAGO’AS, a maritime province of Brazil, which formed at one time a district of the province of Pernambuco. It is bounded on the n. and w. by Pernambuco, and on the s.is divided from the province of Sergipe by the navigable river San Francisco. The country, which is mountainous in the n.w., and low, marshy, and unhealthy on the coast, contains (1890) 511,440 inhabitants. ALAIN DE LILLE, 1114-1203; a Cistercian scholar, called ‘‘the universal doc- tor,” one of the most learned men of the 12th c., in philosophy, theology, history, medi- cine, and poetry. He was appointed bishop, but soon resigned to enter a monastery. He wrote chiefly in verse on alchemy, natural philosophy, and doctrinal subjects. Ger- many, Scotland, Spain, Sicily, and Flanders contend for his birthplace; but he said he came from Lille in Flanders, as his name implies. ALAIS, a t. of the dep. of Gard, France, situated in a fertile plain, on the right bank of the Gardon, at the base of the Cevennes mountains, 23 m. n.w. from Nimes, with which it is connected by railway. It embraced the Protestant cause in the religious wars of France; and Louis XIII. in person, accompanied by the cardinal de Richelieu, besieged it, and having taken it in 1629, demolished its walls. Three years later, the baron of A. having taken part in the rebellion of Montmorency, the castle was destroyed. Protestantism still prevails to a considerable extent. A. is a very flourishing t., and owes its prosperity chiefly to the mineral wealth of the surrounding district, which pro- duces coal, iron, lead, zinc, and manganese. The coal and iron mines are of chief importance. Pop. 23,700. ALAJUE'LA, a city of the state of Costa Rica, Central America, 23 m. w.n.w. from Cartago, and a little on the western side of the water-shed between the Atlantic and the Pacific. It contains many good houses, and has extensive suburbs of detached houses, j Alab st . 197 Aland. embowered among trees and flowering shrubs. The neighborhood is chiefly devoted to the culture of the sugar-cane. Population about 10,000. ALAMANCE, a co. in North Carolina, on the Haw river and the Southern rail- road ; 446 sq.m; pop. 90, 18,271, inclu colored. It has an undulating surface and fer- tile soil, producing tobacco, corn, etc. Co. seat, Graham. ALAMAN'NI, Luter, a distinguished Italian poet, b. at Florence, Oct. 28, 1495. His father, a man of noble birth, was a zealous partisan of the Medici, and Luigi stood high in their favor till in revenge for some real or fancied wrong he conspired against the life of cardinal Guiliano, the representative of Leo X. This being found out, A. fled to Venice, and thence, on the accession of the cardinal to the papal chair, to France. In 1527, encouraged by the pope’s reverses, he returned to Florence, and urged the republic to seek the protection of Charles V., by means of Andrea Doria’s friendly mediation. The republic declared such a proposal treachery, and A. sailed with Doria for Spain. Finally, he settled in France, employed as a diplomatist by Francis I. and Henry II. A. d. at Amboise in 1536. He wrote epics, dramas, and minor poems, much admired in their day, and disputes with Trissino the claim of first introducing blank verse into Italian poetry. ALAME’DA, a co. in w. California, on the bay of San Francisco, and traversed by several railroads; 704 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 93,864, with Chinese; co. seat, Oakland. ALAMEDA, a city in Alameda co., Cal., 6 miles across the bay from San Francisco, with which it is connected by ferry lines; on the Central Pacific and South Pacific Coast railroads. It is mainly aresidential city for San Francisco business men, has macadamized streets, an improved sewer system, electric lights, an electric railroad, public and private schools,a free library, good banking facilities and newspapers, and is celebrated for its cleanliness and for its variety of trees. Itsnewcity hall was completedin 1897. The drawbridge over the Oak- land estuary hasa draw of 380 feet. Borax ismanufactured on an extensive scale, and there are manufactures of sewer pipe, pottery, and a large oil refinery. Pop. 1890, 11,165. A'LAMO, Tue, a fort now in San Antonio, Bexar co., Texas, famous in the Texan war of independence. It was oblong, covering about 24 acres, with walls some 22 ft. high, and a yard in thickness. Here, Feb. 23, 18386, Santa Anna with 4000 Mexicans shut in 151 Texans and men from the United States commanded by Col. Wm.B. Travis. Bombard- ment was kept up 24 hours, and several assaults were repulsed; Travis sent for help, but only 32 men reached him, and all his men suffered greatly from fatigue and want of pro- visions. On the 6th of Mar. at daylight the Mexicans assaulted in force, and were twice driven back with heavy loss. A hand to hand fight ensued, in which, lacking time to load, the Texans clubbed their rifles and fought desperately until only six were alive. These, including Colonels Crockett and Travis, surrendered under promise of protection, but were killed by Santa Anna’s orders. Col. Bowie, ill in bed, was shot after killing a number of his assailants, and Maj. Evans was shot while trying to fire the magazine. Some women, a negro, and one child alone were spared. Then the bodies were collected, mutilated, and burned. A few weeks later Santa Anna was routed with immense loss and himself captured in the battle of San Jacinto, where the cry ‘‘ Remember the Alamo” excited the Texans to fight like heroes. A'LAMOS, Los (i.e., 7’he Poplars), a t. of Mexico, in the state of Sonora, and depart- ment of Sinaloa, 110 m. n.n.w. from Sinaloa. It is situated in a barren plain, but in a region famous for its silver mines. The houses are mostly of stone or brick, covered with stucco. Provisions are dear, being brought from a distance, and the t. is very insufficiently supplied with water. Pop. estimated at 6000 to 10,000. | ALAN, ALLEN, or ALLYN, WILLIAM, 1582-94; an English cardinal. He studied in Oxford, and became principal of St. Mary’s Hall in 1556. Two years later he was made canon of York. He opposed the reformation, and on the accession of Elizabeth fled to Louvain. After a while he returned to Engiand, but his proselyting zeal made another flight necessary. He was given a doctor’s degree by the new university of Douay, and established there a college for English Roman Catholics, whence he sent Jesuit priests to his native land, the aim of his life being to restore papal supremacy in England. In 1589 he was offered the archbishopric of Mechlin. He hated Elizabeth, who expelled some of his emissaries and put some to death. In one of his pamphlets he made charges against the queen too foul for decent pages. He wasin the armada plot—the pope having promised him the see of Canterbury in case of success. He published 10 volumes, among them: Certain brief Reasons concerning Catholic Faith (1564); The Execution of Justice in Fingland (1584) ; and aided in revising the English trans. of the Douay Bible. A’LAND ISLANDS (pronounced Oland), a numerous group of small islands and rocks at the entrance of the gulf of Bothnia, opposite Abo, about 25 m. from the Swedish coast, and 15 from that of Finland. They are called, by the Finns, Ahvenanmaa. About 80 of them are inhabited. Although these rocky isles are covered with but a thin stratum of soil, they bear Scotch fir, spruce, and birch trees, and with proper cultivation produce barley and oats, besides affording subsistence to a hardy breed of cattle. The inhabitants are of Swedish origin, skillful sailors, fishermen, and seal-hunters. The total population is about 16,000. The largest of the islands, which gives its name (signifying ‘‘land of streams’) to the whole group, is about 18 m. long by 14 broad. It is tolerably wooded and fruitful, and contains nearly 11,000 inhabitants. These islands belonged formerly to Sweden, but were seized by Russia in 1809. Previous to this, they had several times changed hands between these two powers. In 1717, the Swedes Alangiacess , ark : 198 were defeated by the Russians in a naval engagement near Aland, the first important exploit of the Muscovite navy. The importance of these islands as a military position led to the construction, in the reign of the emperor Nicholas, of those strong fortifications at Bomarsund which, in Aug., 1854, were destroyed by the Anglo-French force, com- manded by Sir Charles Napier and Baraguay d’Hilliers. Two thousand prisoners were taken. This extensive fortress (which is supposed to have been but the first of an intended series of similar menacing fortifications in the Baltic) commanded the anchor- age of Ytternes, capable of containing a large fleet. ALANGIA'CEZ, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, allied to Myrtacee (q.v.), and containing only about eight known species, trees and large shrubs, of which the greater number belong to the American genus nyssa (see TUPELO), differing from the rest of the order in the absence of petals. The one-celled fruit, and pendulous albumi- nous seeds, constitute marks of distinction from myrtacese. The fruit of alangiwm decapetalum and A. hexapetalum, natives of the East Indies, are eatable, but mucilag- inous and insipid. The timber is good, the roots aromatic. ALA'NI, nomadic tribes of eastern origin who spread over Europe during the decline of the Roman empire. They probably were first encountered by the Romans when Pompey, in the Mithridatic war, led an expedition into the Caucasus. In 276 a.p. they were checked by the emperor Tacitus in their attempt to go eastward into Persia. The Huns gave them a severe defeat on the Tanais in 375, and then the A. divided, some going e., but the larger portion joining their conquerors in an invasion upon the Goths. With the Vandals and Suevi they entered Gaul in 406, and later crossed the Pyrenees and founded settlements in Lusitania, where they lived for some time in peace. In 418 they were attacked by the Visigoths, their king was slain, and they became subject to Gunderic, king of the Vandals, losing completely their national independence. About 450 they served under Theodoric; but they sympathized with the barbarians, and their desertion at Chalons (451) came near bringing defeat upon the Roman army. They were mentioned occasionally in later times, and seem to have kept their independence after the 6th c. In 1221, Gengis Khan defeated them, and they were so completely subjugated in 1237 by Batu-Khan that their name disappeared from history. AL-ARAF, in the Mohammedan religion, the line or wall of separation between heaven and hell, astride of which are placed those whose accounts of good and evil exactly balance, so that they deserve neither hell nor heaven; also those who went to. war without consent of their parents, who are deemed martyrs, safe from hell but not quite worthy of heaven. ALARCON, HERNANDO DE, a Spanish navigator of the 16th c., the first to visit the coast of California. He sailed May 9, 1540, to meet a land expedition under Vasques de Coronada, but did not find him. He discovered that lower California (a supposed island) was a peninsula, made a good survey of the coast, sailed up the Rio de Tizon (Colorado), and on returning to Mexico, in 1541, made a map of California, which differs little from those of the present day. ALARCON Y MENDOZA, JuAN Ruiz DE, one of the most eminent of Spanish drama- tists, b. at the t. of Tasco, in Mexico, about the end of the 16th c. He belonged to the ancient family of the Ruizes of Alarcon, of which a branch had emigrated to America. Having studied at the college that had been instituted in Mexico, he removed to Spain, where he is mentioned as Relator del real consejo de las Indias (reporter of the royal council of the Indies) in 1622, The success that early attended his pieces, joined to the haughty disdain with which, in the consciousness of his own powers, he treated the opinion both of the public and of his brother-writers, excited the envy and jealousy of his contempo- raries, so that he became the object of venomous epigrams by the most famous poets of the time, in which the deformed upstart from New Spain, with his pride and contempt- uousness, was held up to public ridicule. This kind of persecution continued till his death, which occurred in 1689. Even during his lifetime, his best pieces were attributed to others, and were printed and represented under the names of more favored poets. This early withdrawal and oblivion of his name, together with the scarcity of his works, have been the cause that he has seldom been mentioned and still less appreciated by historians of literature, even down to the latest times. Yet some of the best critics rank him next to Calderon and Lope de Vega as a dramatic writer. Besides many single or detached pieces printed in collections, he published a nuniber in his Comedias (vol. i., Madrid, 1628; vol. ii., Barcelona, 1634). Hartzenbusch began a collected edition at Madrid, 1848. A. attempted almost all the kinds of drama in vogue in his time; and was especially eminent in the heroic, as the best specimens of which may be mentioned H/ Tejedor de Segovia and Ganar Amigos, or La que mucho vale mucho chesta. A.’s mastery in delineating char- acter is shown in the Comedias de Costumbres, or character-comedies, of which he may be held as the creator. The best known are La Verdad Sospechosa (imitated by Corneille in his Menteur) and Las Paredes Oyen (Walls have Ears), which are yet represented on the Spanish stage. Of his comedies of intrigue, the best specimen is Todo es ventura. It does not appear that A. wrote any Avwtos or sacramental allegorical dramas, though his two pieces, Hl Antichristo and Quien mal ande en mal acuba, betray a tendency to ascetic mysticism. Although, through the artifices of his contemporaries, as well as the éclat of Alanviacesze. 199 Alastee Lope de Vega’s and Calderon’s dramas, the compositions of A. were soon driven from the stage, yet he remains, together with Tirso de Molina, the most distinguished and original among the successors of Lope. Lope and Calderon, the coryphei of that age, are the only dramatists that excel A. Combining, in no mean degree, the characteristics of both, he excels them in purity of language and elevation of moral feeling. ALARD, DELPHIN, Violinist, born in Bayonne, France, March 8, 1815 ; died in Paris, Feb. 22, 1888. He was the son of an amateur violinist, studied in Paris under Habeneck and Fétis, and won the notice of Paganini, when he appeared in concerts In1840 Alard succeeded Baillot as first violinist to the king, and in 1843 became professor of the violin at the Paris Conservatoire. He is the representative of the modern French school of violin playing, has composed nocturnes, duos, études, etc., for the violin, and is the author of an Heole du violin, which was adopted by the Conservatoire. AL’ARIC I, (A/-ric, i.e., all rich, or from 41, all, and reiks, ruler) a great chieftain of the Visigoths. He makes his first appearance in history in 894 A.D., as leader of the Gothic auxiliaries of Theodosius in his war with Eugenius; but after the death of the former, he took advantage of the dissensions and weakness that prevailed in the Roman empire to invade (895) Thrace, Macedon, Thessaly, and Illyria, devastating the country, and threatening Constantinople itself. Rufinus, the minister of Arcadius, appears to have sacrificed Greece in order to rescue the capital, and Athens was obliged to secure its own safety by ransom. 7 A Rae eh le sure sthes LIBRARY : bp hae) rt) eee : ‘i é t ) | | , | Ca oar UNIVERSITY OF ILLINGIS ei r ' | ¢ : | 7 ; | | | i) Lee} i | “a Lb 4 ‘* iter re - ’ | Te Ast, i ; | | a 4 ji e a] . ee | | rot ke — ‘ : ‘ ; air woe [ ¥ 4 | yes AL hie ™ | St) > gio bg: ) oT) Rare b,j fi Meee eye 4) Sele Jom i tt ie f =>" i) ~, , ; . : . | é yd ee Se aes a se Ba ! * % Ss % o | os Le 4» -% #2 pak lee SP Bee So 214 Ne ~ yan set a” ANDREANOFF xj Beechey Pt ——_ Sa i ————= SS EVymdes ver wy etl min, ; Nay, < MMW IM, “iy “hte, MOMAK A on ee Filey Tony te hilpy a % g Y Part Ea “4 Uy a TRS qd TM a My, t p yy pil sail i gay : ton oe eee Ps ics ar t Bax .Cleare Nakutat 2 ? 3 ungau Ct Gra SCALE OF !AILES | 145 “Ti40 Dict sy ly Pe cr . are j M ive Wey pret) 74 ib he 4 wit pati ‘ » pine LIBRARY | UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS URBANA : : : ee ee ~ _ . or agin 201 | rad of Al-ay-ek-sa, ‘‘the great land.’’ A, is naturally divided into 3 regions, differing from each other in climate and agriculture: the Yukon district, comprising the country n. of the A. mts.; the Aleutian district, comprising the islands of that name and the peninsula; and the Sitka district, comprising the remainder of the territory. The northern ranges of the Rocky Mts. extend through the Sitka district, the Coast range having a width of from 50-75 m., and consisting of a succession of lofty mts., many of which exceed 12,000 ft. in height. Mt. St. Elias, one of the loftiest American peaks, is 19,500 ft.; Mt. Cook, 16,000 ft.; Mt. Crillon, 15,900. The Alaska Mts., one of these great Alpine ranges, turn to the s.w., extend along the southern side of the long peninsula of Aliaska, and are prolonged for 800 m, farther by the Aleutian islands. The Yukon Mts, farther n, have a nearly parallel direction. A large portion of the mainland, especially toward the n., is made up of dreary moors, marshes, and undulating plains. The principal river, the Yukon, one of the longest on the globe, and the largest American river emptying into the Pacific, rises in British Columbia, and after a course of about 2000 m., flows through a wide delta into Behring sea. It drains an area estimated at 200,000 sq.m., and is said to discharge every hour one third more water than the Mississippi. At a distance of 600 m. from the sea it is a m. wide, and it is navigable for steamers, in A., for 1206m. Its chief tributaries are the Tananah and the Porcupine. The largest river flowing into the Arctic ocean is the Colville. The principal streams s. of the Yukon are the Kuskoquim and Copper. Owing to the peculiarities of its contour, the coast line is disproportion- ately long and measures 20,000 m., exceeding the entire coast line of the U. 8. on the At- lantic ocean and gulf of Mexico. It is cleft by numerous bays and fiords, and by means of Kotzebue and Norton Sounds, Bristol Bay and Cook’s Inlet, the mainland projects 4 great peninsulas into the sea. The most northerly part of the mainland is Point Bar- row, on the Arctic coast, lat. 71° 27’n. The islands comprise about 31,200 sq.m. of the land area of A., and their principal groups are the Aleutian (q.v.), about 150 in number ; the Privyloff, or Prybilov (q.v.), the Kadiak or Kodiak, including Kadiak, 80 m. long, and the Alexander, 1100 in number, of which Sitka is the most important and Prince of Wales the largest. An idea of the extent of the coast line can be best conveyed by quoting the statement of Prof. Guyot: that the island of Attu is as far w. of San Francisco as the coast of Maine is e. of that city. A. is noted for its glaciers, which abound in the valleys and along the coast, and in- clude some of the largest on the globe, The Muir glacier, at Glacier Bay, fills a ravine or amphitheater, between the St. Elias Alps and the White mts., of about 1200 sq.m. in area, and discharges its surplus ice through an opening about 2 m. wide. Its depth, where it breaks off into the water, is estimated at nearly 1000 ft., and the amount of ice daily discharged during Aug., at 150,000,000 cubic ft. Another glacier, on the Stickine river, is 40 m. long and 4 or 5 m. wide. Extinct volcanoes are numerous, especially in the Aleutian islands, and there are others which are dormant, some of which have been active within recent years. Northern A. is famed for its auroral displays. Geology and Mineralogy.—The upheaval of the Rocky Mts. took place, it is believed, during the jurassic period ; that of the Coast Range at the end of the miocene. The ex- tent and force of the volcanic disturbances in A. are proved by the great number of vol- canic peaks, and the hot and boiling springs, some of which are of great extent. The glacial period, like the volcanic, still survives, some of the masses of ice that abound in mt. valleys and in ravines leading to the sea having a motion of many feet per day, that of the Muir glacier in the central part of its channel of exit being from 65-70 ft. Glacial débris and striz are found high up on the mt. sides, and the iniets of the western coast are doubtless the work of ancient glaciers. Beds of cretaceous and miocene lignites are found, also dikes of plutonic rock, and remains of the elephant and other mammals ure abundant. Gold was discovered on the Kenai peninsula in 1848, but no attempts were made by the Russians to seek further for precious metals. In 1880 surface gold was found in s.e. A., and the search has since been diligently prosecuted. On Douglas, Admiralty, Prince of Wales, and other islands there are quartz-bearing ledges, and one mine on Douglas Island in 1886 turned out over $100,000 in bullion monthly. Many claims lie close to the water’s edge. The auriferous gravel beds of the Yukon and its tributaries are of great extent, and auriferous sands are worked at Yakutat Bay. A deposit of silver-bearing galena of great extent and purity exists at Golovin Bay, about 1000 m. n.w. of Sitka. Lignite coal of good quality is obtained at various points, native copper, cinnabar, graphite, mica, manganese (black oxide), and kaolin. There are large deposits of iron ore, and on Bardnoff and Admiralty Islands, beds of fine white marble. Sulphur is abundant, petroleum is reported, also garnets and amber. Fossil ivory of some value is an article of commerce. Medicinal springs are a feature both of the islands and the mainland. Zoology.—The principal fur-bearing animals are the black, white, blue, red, silver- gray, and cross foxes, marten, mink, otter, lynx, 3 species of bear, wolf, wolverine, and sable. The reindeer, moose, mountain sheep, mountain goat, beaver, ermine, muskrat, hare, squirrel, marmot, and porcupine are abundant, as are the walrus, sea otter, fur, hair and other species of seal. The islands of St. George and St. Paul, in the Pribyloff group, are the haunts of the fur'seal. (See Industries.) The waters afford over 60 species of food fishes. The cod is found along the whole s. shore, but the principal banks are off the Aleutian islands. Salmon are equally abundant, the king salmon of Bristol Bay Alaska. 202 being noted for size and quality, also herring ; and halibut, sea trout, Arctic trout, sea bass, mullet, ulicon, etc. The creeks and rivers swarm with salmon during the spawn- ing season, and according to Dall, not less than 2,000,000 are caught and dried every summer by the natives at the mouth of the Yukon alone. Clams are plentiful along the 3. eastern coast. The eagle, gull, puffin, ptarmigan, etc., are numerous. Botany.—The interior of the country is well wooded. On the Pacific* coast dense forests of spruce, yellow cedar, hemlock, and balsam fir clothe the mountain-sides, both on the islands and mainland. The spruce predominates and trees are found from 4-6 ft. in diameter at the base and growing to a height of from 30-40 ft. before branching. Its lumber resembles that of the southern or pitch pine. The yellow cedar is more limited in distribution, but is more valuable, yielding a hard and durable lumber invaluable for ships. The hemlock attains a large size, but is not plentiful. The white and the black birch are sparingly found. The poplar, willow, and alder are abundant. Many of the northern islands and parts of the coast are nearly if not quite destitute of trees. Red and black currants, gooseberries, cranberries, salmon berries, whortleberries, and strawberries and other fruits are indigenous. Climate, Soil, and Agriculture.—The great gulf stream of the Pacific, known to geographers as the Japan current, strikes and divides on the western end of the Aleutian islands. A portion flows n. into Behring’s sea, so that it is a remarkable fact that ice does not flow from the Arctic ocean southward through Behring’s straits. The otber portion sweeps southward and eastward, and makes the whole n.w. coast habitable, giving to southern A., onthe coast and the adjacent islands, a winter climate milder than that of New York city. In the Yukon district the mean annual temperature is about 25° Fahr., and from 3-4 ft. below the surface there is a subsoil of frozen earth, from 6-8 ft. deep. This phenomenon is ascribed to the want of drainage, together with a covering of moss that shields the ground from the hot suns of the Arctic summer ; yet, notwith- standing this ice subsoil, during the summer months there is a luxuriant growth of veg- etation. The mean annual temperature of the Aleutian district is 36°-40° Fahr. During a period of 5 years the greatest cold was found to be zero and the highest temperature 77°. The Sitka district has a warmer and moister climate, the mean annual temperature being 44.7° and that in winter seldom reaching the freezing point. The average annual rainfall here is about 40 in. The rainfall on the upper Yukon is less than on the coast and the sunshine is more continuous. In the interior of A. the cold is extreme and there are regions covered with eternal ice and snow. Cyclones are unknown in A. The Aleutian islands and the mainland below the Coast range, extending n. and w. from Sitka to the peninsula, have a fertile soil, which is largely a vegetable soil with a clay subsoil, producing oats, barley, potatoes, and root crops. In favorable localities in s.e. A., cauli- flowers and cabbages are grown, and it is probable that in many parts all the cereals except corn can beraised. Blue, blue-joint, and wood-meadow grasses grow luxuriantly, and in s.e. A. pasturage is obtained during 8 months of the year. There are, however, few horses and cattle in the territory. Industries. — These are principally the fur seal and salmon fisheries, and, since 1895, gold-mining. Over two-thirds of the annual catch of fur seals in the world is taken in Alaskan waters. The seal fishery is controlled by an American corporation, operating under stringent congressional regulations, and the government has received from the corporation for rent of the Pribyloff Islands (q. v.) much more than the amount paid for the purchase of Alaska, During the season of 1896 the lessees of the islands took 30,000 male seals, and 66 vessels engaged in pelagic sealing took 20,712. The males on the islands exceeded the needs of the herds there, but the number of seals frequenting the sea showed a steady decrease. The supply of salmon appeared to be inexhaustible. There were 29 canning establishments in operation, and 619,879 cases were packed in 1895, and a still larger number in 1896. The canneries employed 2,000 white men, 1,600 Indians, and 2,000 Chinese. Cod, halibut, and herring are caught in large quantities. Besides these and salmon, the waters of Alaska contain over 1U0 species of food fish. In 1896, congress provided for a regular inspection of all the fisheries. The development of gold mining has been extraordinary, following the reports of the first geological survey made by the government in 1895. The initial fields of operation were in the Sitka district, the Yukon river region, and along the coast in the vicinity of Cook’s Inlet. During the year ending Oct. 1, 1896, the output of gold mines within Alaska was valued at $2,300,000. Under the treaty of 1892, the United States and Great Britain appointed commissioners to survey the country through which the boundary runs. In 1895 some excitement was caused by a rumor that Great Britain claimed nearly 30,000 square miles of territory in Alaska, containing the best gold fields, but on Jan. 30, 1897, a treaty was signed providing for a commission to locate the boundary line,so far as it coincides with the 141st meridian. Religion and Education. —The United States government maintains about 20 public schools in the mainland and islands. The Russian Greek Church has schools at Fort Kenai, Ninilchik, Tooyounok, and Alexandrofsk, and orphanages at Unalaska, Kadiak, and Sitka. Several schools and missions and an industrial training school at Sitka are supported by the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions. In 1895, the Rev. Peter T. Rowe, D.D., was consecrated the first Protestant Episcopal bishop of Alaska, the terri- tory being raised from a missionary district, because of the large religious, educational and charitable interests that denomination had established there. The activities of the sie *. — Sa NE YC E SS ALASKA.—I, 2, 5, 6, Baskets; 3, Basket cover; 4, Carved horn ladle. 7. Stone axe and handle; snow-house, Alaska. 14. | {j, Carved bone stakes for marten trap; I0, II, 12, Carved horn spoons. 13. Eskimo ‘trip by canoe. [ rh y: eae ae? Rev Reet 9! 4 4 ri ESS OE hore gl PT ee > yy ‘ 4 .. J eres ee Pere : Fey : yee ee P ae Rie et ’ he bigTs b> a ee — = ris bias ' i2) 2 03 { Alaska. various religious denominations comprise church, mission, day and boarding school, hospital, and training school buildings, and, at Auvik, a well-equipped saw mill for the industrial training of the natives. The congressional appropriation for educational work in Alaska for 1895-96 was $30,000, an inadequate amount, because the closing of many contract schools threw an additional burden on the regular government schools. The strongest denominations are the Roman Catholic, Russian Greek, and Presbyter.an. Government, elc.—The capital and port of entry for the customs district of A. is Sitka, and here are situated the land office, court house, custom house, and penitentiary. The territorial officers are a gov. receiving $3000 salary, a U. 8. judge, a clerk and re- ceiver of public moneys,a U.S. district attorney, a U. 8S. marshal and surveyor gen. All civil suits are tried by the U. 8. commissioner. There are sub-ports of entry at Ton- gass, Wrangel, and Juneau ins.e. A., and on Kadiak and Oonalaska islands. There is a monthly mail service between Port Townsend and several ports in s.e. A. The enforcement of law and order in all portions of A. is impossible, and except in the s. eastern part of the territory, civil government is merely nominal and, it is believed, must remain so antil mail communication is established or those charged with the duty of administering it are furnished with some kind of safe and reliable transportation. In all the more remote sections of the territory the law prohibiting the importation and sale of intoxicating liquors and breech-loading fire-arms is openly violated ; crimes, including murder, are committed with impunity, and there is no punishment for the offenders, for the simple reason that the officials are not provided with the means necessary to put the law in force. The indefiniteness of the boundary line between A. and the British possessions threatens, since the discovery of gold on the eastern tributaries of the Yukon, to become a cause of international disputes. Native Races.—These are classed as Orarians and Indians; the Orarians being divided into Innuits or Eskimos and Creoles and Aleuts; the Indians into Tinneh, Thlinkets, and Hydahs—not to mention the many tribes, settlements, and families into which all these are sub-divided. The Orarians occupy almost all the coast and its outlying islands, and portions of the peninsula; the Indians possess the interior, the coast at Cook’s inlet and Copper river, and the Alexandrian archipelago, southward from mt. St. Elias. The Innuits are described as tall, muscular, and good- natured, with coarse brown hair, yellow complexions, small eyes, and high cheek bones, and as having a common language split up into dialects. The Arctic division embraces about 380 small settlements (see illustration NoRTH AND SouTH AMERICA, figs. 9, 12, 20), but the majority are found on or near Norton’s sound and the Yukon and Kuskoquim rivers. Although superior to the other Eskimos of the North American continent, the Innuits are savages, and those n. of the Aliaskan peninsula are nomadic in summer. The Aleuts or Unungum (‘‘our people”) occupy portions of the peninsula and the islands westward from the Shumagin group. They havean average height of 5 ft. 6in., beara strong resemblance to the Japanese, are civilized, Christianized, and more or less edu- cated. The customs and modes of life of ancient times (see same illus., figs. 1, 17), have given place to those of the whites with whom they are associated. They are decidedly superior to both the Innuits and Indians, but under Russian rule, their condition was de- plorable and their numbers were considerably lessened. The Tinneh (‘* people’) are akin to the Indians of Oregon and California. They are tall, well formed, and brave ; skilled hunters and fishers, but where uninfluenced by civilization are degraded in habits, believers in witchcraft, and live in abject fear of the Shaman or sorcerer. The Thiinkets resemble them. The Hydahs, on the southern end of Prince of Wales island are large, strong, light-colored, and noted for bravery and ferocity. They are skilled workers in wood and metal. The Indians are sub-divided into various families, each of which has its badge or to- tem. Members of the same tribe may marry, but not members of the same badge. A wolf, for instance, is not permitted to ally himself with the wolf family, but may with that of the whale. The rank of a chief is indicated by the height of a pole erected in front of his house. In front of their leading houses and at their burial places are some- times seen immense timbers covered with carvings which constitute the genealogical record of the family. Polygamy, with all its attendant evils, female infanticide and the slavery and degradation of women, are, or were, among the customs both of the fnnuits Tinneh, and Thlinkets. Among some of the Indians on the upper Yukon and around the shores of Behring’s sea, the bodies of men are burned. Where wood is scarce, the bodies of women are not considered to be worth the wood that would be consumed in the burning. Among the Kariaks the old and feeble-are sometimes put to death. In some localities cannibalism was practised in former times. In spite of the prevailing dis- eases—scrofula and consumption—and the devotion of certain tribes to intoxicating li- quors, the natives are said to be increasing. A. is celebrated for its canoes. Some of the largest of these canoes are from 60-75 ft. long, and 8-10 ft. wide, and will carry 100 people. The operation of making them is thus described : ‘‘ Having selected a sound tree and cut it the desired length, the out- side is first shaped, then the tree is hollowed out till the shell is of proper thickness ; this is done with a tool resembling a grubbing-hoe, or narrow adze witha short handle. It is then filled with water, which is heated by throwing in hot stones. The canoe is then covered with a canvas to keep the steam in. This softens the timber, and the sides are distended by cross-sticks to the desired breadth at the center, and tapering toward the ye 204 ends in lines of beautiful symmetry. It is finished off with a highly ornamental figure. head, and the bulwarks strengthened by a fancy covering board.” The Aleuts use ca- noes made of the skin of the hair seal or sea lion. A fishing scene on the Naass river, witnessed by a missionary, is one of many graphic descriptions in Jackson’s work on A.: ‘‘It was what the Indians call their ‘small fishing.’ The salmon catch is at another time. These small fish are valuable for food and «liso for oil. They come up for six weeks only, and with great regularity. The Naass, where I visited it, was about a mile and a half wide, and the fish had come up in great quantities, so great that, with three nails upon a stick, an Indian would rake in a eanoeful in a short time. Five thousand Indians were gathered together from British Columbia and Alaska, decked out in their strange fantastic costumes, faces painted red and black, and they had feathers on their heads and imitations of wild beasts on their dresses. Over the fish was.an immense cloud of sea-gulls, so many and so thick, as they hovered about looking for fish, the sight resembled a heavy fall of snow. Over the gulls were eagles soaring about and watching their chance. After the small fish had come up larger fish from the ocean, There was the halibut, the cod, the porpoise, and the fin- back whale ; man life, fish life, and bird life—all under intense excitement.” Population, ete. —In 1880 this was estimated at 33,426—17,617 Eskimos, 1756 Creoles, and 430 whites. In 1887 it was estimated at 39,000-—5000 whites, 1800 Creoles, who are practically white, and 38000 Aleuts. The census for 1890 gives a total population of 30,329. Of this population about 25,000 are found in that section of the territory westward from Kadiak, including the villages along the coast and islands, to the end of the Aleu- tian peninsula. These contain about 4800 Creoles and Aleuts, who are civilized, and, to a large extent, educated. They reside mainly on the islands and are generally mem- bers of the Greek church. In the s, eastern section of the territory the white popula- tion is estimated at 2000, residing principally at Sitka, Juneau, Douglas Island, Wran- gel, Killisnoo, and some smaller points, while the natives number 7000 or 8000. St. Michael’s or Michaelofsky is the principal seat of the Yukon river trade, and Fort Wrangel or Wrangell, on the n. western coast of Wrangel Island, at the mouth of the Stickine river is a business center for s. eastern A. Belkofsky, near the southern ex- tremity of the peninsula, is the principal depot for the trade in sea otter furs. See Ban- croft’s History of Alaska, 1730-1885 (San Francisco, 1886); Ray’s Report of the Inter- national Polar Eapedition to Point Barrow, 1881-83 (Washington, 1885); Seton Karr’s The Shores and Alps of Alaska (1887) ; Elliott’s Our Arctic Province and Alaska and the Seal Islands (1886); Schwatka’s Along Alaska’s Great River (New York, 1885); Wright’s The Ice Age in North America (New York, 1889); Jackson’s Alaska and the Missions of the North Pacific Coast; Mrs. E. 8. Willard’s Life in Alaska (1884); Ballou’s The New Eldorado (Boston, 1889); The Alaska Coast Pilot, a government publication; Report of the Governor of Alaska to the Secretary of the Interior (1896). ALASKA SABLE. A euphemistic name given by dealers in fur and also by their cus- tomers to the fur of the skunk (q.vV.). ALATAU (‘‘ mottled’’), a name given to a range of lofty mts. forming the boundary between Turkestan and Mongolia, and the northern limit of the great table-land of cen- tral Asia. It is made up of five sierra-like sub-ranges, the Zungarian, the Trans-Ili, the Kungei, and the Terskei A., the fifth, running west, having been renamed by the Rus- sians the Alexander range. These are all grouped round lake Issik-Kul (elevation, 5300 ft.) as a central point. The mts., which are principally of granite formation, range generally in elevation from 10,000 to 15,000 ft., and the loftiest peak, Khan Ten- gri, is 24,000 ft. above the sea. ALATER'NUS, according to some, a genus of plants of the natural order rhamnacee (q.v.), akin to rhamnus (see BUCKTHORN) ; but more generally regarded as a sub-genus of rhamnus, consisting of evergreen shrubs, of which the best known is rhamnus A., or A. phillyrea, a large shrub, densely branched, with shining alternate leaves, which are more or less ovate. The flowers are dicecious, racemed, numerous, and small, much sought after by bees, This shrub is abundant in Europe, ALA'TRI, at. in Italy, 6 m.n. of Frosinone. It is the see of a bishop, anu shows considerable remains of Pelasgian antiquity. Population about 14,000. The ancient name was Alatrium. ALAU’DA, genus of birds, including larks, chiefly noted as song birds. They are found in all countries, but abound especially in Europe, They are birds of passage, and some of the genus are esteemed for the table. ALAU’SI, at. of the republic of Ecuador, South America, in the province of Chim- borazo, 65 m. e. from Guayaquil, at an elevation of 7980 ft. above the sea, in a valley of the Andes, on the river Alausi, which flows into the gulf of Guayaquil. The valley of the Alausi is extremely fertile, producing sugar, grain, and fruits. There are hot springs in the town. Pop. estimated at 4000 to 6000. A’LAVA, one of the provinces of Spain, 1200 sq.m. Its surface is mountainous, especially in the n., where the Pyrenees form the natural boundary. It is separated from Logrino by the Ebro; the Zadowa and the Ayadak are the other rivers. The soil is fer- tile, producing wheat, barley, maize, flax, hemp, and fruit. The mountains are covered 205 Alba:™ with forests of oak, beech, chestnut, etc., and contain iron, copper, lead, and marble. Pop. ’87, 92,893. Capital, Vittoria. A’LAVA, Don Mieueu Ricarpo vp’, a Spanish general, b. at Vittoria, in 1771, of anoble family, in the province of Alava. He entered the navy in early life; but afterwards changed to the land-service. After the abdication of Ferdinand VII., he was for a time a zealous partisan of France; however, in 1811, when he saw the fortunes of Joseph beginning to wane, he abandoned the cause of this prince, to embrace that of the national party, and accepted the office of Spanish commissary on the staff of Wellington. He gained the confidence of this general, and from this time manifested the strongest pre- dilection for England and English institutions. The war of independence furnished him with numerous occasions of distinguishing himself. After the restoration of the king, however, be was arrested, on the suspicion of entertaining liberal opinions; but on the application of his uncle, Ethenard, the inquisitor, seconded by the influence of Welling- ton, he was not only liberated, but appointed ambassador to the Hague. He returned to Spain in 1820, after the revolution; became captain-general of Aragon, made himself con- spicuous among the Exaltados, and figured in the ranks of the militia on occasion of the revolt of the royal guard at Madrid, July 7, 1822. In the cortes assembled at Seville in 1823, he voted for the suspension of the royal authority, and took part in the negotiations carried on with the duke of Angouléme, at Cadiz. The re-establishment of absolute monarchy in the peninsula drove him, as a political refugee, to Brussels and England, till, ut the death of Ferdinand, he was recalled by the regent, Maria Christina. In 1834, he was appointed Spanish ambassador to London; and towards the end of 1835, he under. took a mission to Paris. Under the administration of Isturiz, A. showed himself as zeal- ous for the moderate system as he had been for the preceding one, and advocated the French intervention, which he had opposed during his embassy to London. After the insurrection of La Granja, he refused to swear to the constitution of 1812, declaring that he was tired of constantly taking new oaths; he gave in his resignation accordingly, and retired to France, where he died in 1848. ALAY, a Turkish ceremony on the assembling of the forces at the breaking out of a war; essentially a public display of the sacred standard of Mohammed, which may be looked upon only by Moslems and touched only by emirs. Once when the standard had been shown, the rule was forgotten, but when remembered all the Christians who had innocently looked at the banner were slaughtered. ALBA (ancient Alba Pompeia), a very ancient city of north Italy, in the province of Cuneo, on the right bank of the Tanaro, 31 m. s.e. from Turin. It is situated in a plain surrounded by hills. The neighborhood produces much wine and silk, besides corn, oii, and fruits. The town has an extensive trade in cattle. It isan episcopal seat; the cathe- dral was founded in 1486. Pop. 6000. AL’BA, or ALVA, FERDINAND ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO, Duke of, prime minister, and gen. of the Spanish armies under Charles V. and Philip II., was b., in 1508, of one of the most illustrious families of Spain. He was educated under the eye of his grandfather, who instructed him in the arts of war and of government. He fought, while yet a youth, at the battle of Pavia, and had the custody of Francis I. while a prisoner. He commanded under the emperor Charles V., was present at the siege of Tunis, and accompanied the expedition against Algiers. He defended Perpignan against the dauphin, distinguished himself in Navarre and Catalonia, and was in consequence created duke of A. His cau- tiousness and his taste for political intrigue afforded as yet no very high evidence of his military talents; and even Charles V., whom he counseled, when in Hungary, to build a bridge of gold for the Turks, rather than hazard a decisive battle, seems to have intrusted him with the command rather as matter of personal favor than recognition of his abilities. His pride was hurt at the low estimation in which he was held; and his real genius began to show itself. The victory which Charles V. gained at Miihlberg over John Frederic, elector of Saxony, in 1547, was due to the able generalship of the duke of A. Under his influence, as president of the council of war, the captive elector was condemned to death, and it was entirely against his wish that the emperor commuted the sentence. He took part under the emperor in the expedition against Henry II., king of France, who had taken possession of Metz; but here his exertions, as well as those of the emperor, proved unavailing. He was more fortunate in Italy against the combined armies of the pope and the French king, which he repeatedly defeated during the campaign of 1555. After the abdication of the emperor Charles V. in 1556, he continued to hold the command of the army, and overran the states of the church, which, after the retreat of the French army in 1557, lay entirely at his mercy. He was obliged, however, by the command of Philip II., to conclude a peace with pope Paul IV., and restore all his conquests. Being recalled from Italy, he appeared in 1559 at the court of France, with which Spain had become reconciled by the peace of Chéteau-Cambresis, April 8, 1559; and as proxy for his sovereign, espoused Elizabeth, Henry II.’s daughter. When the inhabitants of the Netherlands, who had been accustomed to freedom, revolted against the tyranny of Spain, and especially against the hated inquisition, the duke of A.’s counsel was to suppress the insurrection forcibly and with rigor. The king accordingly committed the matter to his hands, and sent him to the Netherlands, 1567, with unlimited power and a large military force. His first step on arriving was to estab Albacete. Albania, 2 0 6 lish what was called the ‘‘ bloody council,” in which he himself at first presided, and over which he afterwards appointed the sanguinary don Juan de Vargas. This tribunal condemned all without distinction whose opinions appeared dubious, or whose-wealth excited jealousy. The present and the absent, the living and the dead, were subjected alike to trial, and their property confiscated by the council. A number of the merchants and mechanics emigrated to England; above 100,000 abandoned their native country, and many others enlisted under the banners of the proscribed princes, Louis and William of Orange. A., rendered still more savage by adefeat which befell his lieutenant, the duke of Aremberg, put to death the counts Egmont and Horn on the scaffold. He afterwards defeated Prince Louis, and compelled William of Orange to retire toGermany; upon which he entered Brussels in the greatest triumph on the 22d Dec., 1568. The pope pre- sented him with a consecrated hat and sword, as defender of the Catholic faith; an honor which, having been hitherto conferred only on crowned heads, increased his insolence to the highest degree. He caused a statue to be cast, in which he was represented as tramp- ling under foot two human figures, representing the nobles and people of the Netherlands; and this he set up in Antwerp. His executioners shed more blood than his soldiers; and none now withstood his arms except Holland and Zealand. But these provinces con- tinually renewed their efforts against him, and succeeded in destroying the fleet which had been equipped by his orders. This disaster, and perhaps still more the apprehension that he might lose the king’s favor, induced him to request that he might be recalled. Philip gladly acceded, as he perceived that the obstinacy of the rebels was only increased by these cruelties, and he was desirous of trying the effect of milder measures. A. accordingly resigned the command of the troops to Don Louis de Requesens, and, Dec. 18, 1578, left the country, in which, as he himself boasted, he had executed 18,000men. The war which he had kindled burned for 68 years, and cost Spain $800,000,000, her finest troops, and the loss of seven of the richest provinces of the Netherlands. A. was received at Madrid with the highest distinction, but did not long enjoy his former consideration. Don Frederic, one of his sons, having seduced one of the queen’s ladies of honor under promise of marriage, and being arrested on this account, the father assisted him to escape, and, in opposition to the desire of the king, united him in marriage to one of his relatives. He was in consequence banished from the court to his castle of Uzeda, where he lived two years. But now the troubles in Portugal, the crown of which Philip claimed as his hereditary right, induced the king to draw A. anew from his retreat. The duke accordingly led an army into Portugal, and drove out don Antonio, who, as grandson of John III., had taken possession of the throne. The whole country was speedily conquered (1581); and A., with his accustomed cruelty and rapacity, seized the treasures of the capital himself, while he allowed the soldiers to plunder without mercy the suburbs and the surrounding country. Philip, dissatisfied with these proceedings, desired to have an investigation of the conduct of the duke; but the haughty bearing of the latter, and the fear of a revolt, induced him to abandon it. A. d. at Lisbon, Dec. 11, 1582, at the age of 74. He had a fine countenance, with a haughty air and a robust frame; he siept little, while he both labored and wrote much. It has been said of him, that during 60 years of military service he never lost a battle, and never allowed himself to be surprised. ALBACE'TE, at. of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, in Murcia, 138 m. s.e. from Madrid, and a station on the railway from Madrid to Alicante. It stands in a fertile but treeless plain, is built with some degree of regularity, and contains a number of squares and many good houses. It is a place of considerable trade, and has great cattle-fairs in Sept. It was formerly noted in Spain for the manufacture of knives and other steel goods, which, however, were very inferior to those of Sheffield. Annual cattle fairs are held here. Pop. 20,700.— The province of Albacete is partly formed trom the former kingdom of Murcia, and partly from New Castile. The river Segura drains the province. It is generally hilly, and in some parts mountainous, some of its mountains attaining an altitude of 5000 feet; but it contains also rich plains and fertile valleys. Agriculture is in a more advanced state than in most parts of Spain, and the mineral wealth of the province is said to be considerable. It produces grain, oil, wine, tobacco, fruits of various kinds. Large numbers of cattle, horses, sheep, and goats are reared, The area of the province is 5972 sq. m.; pop. ’87, 229,492. AL'BA LON'GA, one of the most ancient cities of Italy, situated on the rocky ridge that runs along the eastern shore of the Alban lake, between the lake and the Alban mount. See ALBANO. According to legendary history, it was built by Ascanius, the son of Aineas, about 300 years before the foundation of Rome, which is represented as a colony of A. Notwithstanding this, the Romans, under Tullus Hostilius, destroyed the city, and removed the inhabitants to Rome. It seems certain that A. was an important city long before the existence of Rome, and the head of a confederation of Latin towns, and that when it was destroyed, many of its inhabitants settled at Rome. Some traces of its walls are yet to be seen. AL'BAN, Sarnt, the first martyr of Britain, was b. at Verulam, in the 3d c., and after having long lived as a heathen, was converted to Christianity, but put to death at the commencement of Diocletian’s persecution of the Christians. His anniversary is 207 Albania.” eclebrated on the 22d June. The t. of St. Albans, which bears his name, is believed to gtand on the site of his birthplace, or the scene of his martyrdom. See ALBANS, ST. ALBANEN’SES, a division of the sect of Catharists in the 11th c., holding the Gnostic doctrine of two principles, good and evil. They denied the divinity of Christ, and rejected the story of his death, resurrection, and ascension; they denied the resurrection of the dead; and believed the judgment day was passed, and hell’s torments are suffered in this life; they also denied free will and original sin, and held that man can impart the Holy Spirit to himself. ALBA'NI is the name of a rich and celebrated family of Rome, who came originally from Albania in the 16th c., and settled first at Urbino. The great influence of the family dates from the accession (1700) of Giovanni Francesco A. to the papal throne as Clemens XI. It has since furnished a succession of cardinals. ALBANI, Emma (stage name of Emma La Jeunesse), b. Canada, 1851; opera singer, whose first public appearance was at Albany, N. Y., when but 12 years old. She studied under Duprez, of Paris, and Lamperti, of Milan, making her début at Milan, 1870. She m. 1878, Mr. Ernest Gye, of London. Among her impersonations are Elsa in ‘‘ Lohengrin,”’ Elizabeth in ‘‘ Tannhauser,’’ and in 1896 she appeared in ‘‘ Tristan und Isolde.”’ ALBA'NI, FRANCESCO, a painter of the Bolognese school of the time of the Caracci ; b. at Bologna 1578, and d. there in 1660. He studied, along with Guido Reni, first under Calvert, and afterwards under the Caracci. He has painted above fifty altar- pieces, worthy of the Caracci school; but his inclination lay more to the representation of scenes of a playful and pastoral or of a mythical kind, and of this nature are the greater part of his pieces. He had by his second wife a family of twelve children of extraordinary beauty, in whom he found exquisite models for his Venuses, Galateas, and angels’ heads with the disadvantage, however, of imparting a certain uniformity to the countenances of his figures. His representation of the four seasons, so often imitated, gained him great renown. A.’s chief defect lies in the expression of life and feeling. ALBA'NIA forms the s.w. district of European Turkey, and occupies the w. of the Balkan peninsula, from Bosnia and Montenegro to the Greek frontiers, which the Ber- lin congress of 1878 recommended should be advanced to the Kalamas river. Upper or northern Albania corresponds to the Illyria of the Romans, and lower or southern Albania corresponds to the ancient Epirus. On the east boundary, forming the water- shed of the peninsula, rises the range of the Bora-dagh and the Pindus. The first detaches itself from the wild masses of the Tshar-dagh (dagh in Turkish means mown- tain) and Argentaro mountains ; and west of it lie parallel chains, inclosing on the one side long elevated valleys, and sinking on the other in terraces down to level strips along the coast, consisting mostly of unhealthy swamps and lagoons. Pindus, to the s., is also flanked by isolated basins or hollows, whose western edges pass into the jagged and thick-wooded Ebirotic highlands. 'These highlands advance to the sea, forming steep rocky coasts ; one promontory, the Acroceraunian, projecting in cape Linguetta far into the sea, reaches a height of 4000 to 5000 ft. The chief rivers are the Bojana, the Drin, the Skombi, Ergent, Vojussa, Glykys or Acheron (which follows for some distance a subterranean channel, and on reappearing is called Mauropotamos), the Arta, and the upper course of the Aspropotamos. Among the lakes, those of Bojana, Ochri, and Janina are the most important. A fine climate, the heat of which is tempered by high mountains and the proximity of the sea, and a favorable soil, would seem to invite the inhabitants to agriculture ; but for the most part in vain. In the north little or nothing is cultivated but maize ; in the moist valleys, a little rice and barley are produced ; but the mountain-terraces are used as pastures for numerous herds of cattle and sheep. In Epirus there is more variety. Here the slopes of the lower valleys are covered with olives, fruit and mulberry trees, intermixed with patches of vines and maize, while the densely wooded mountain-ridges furnish valuable supplies of timber. The plateau of Janina yields abundance of grain ; and in the valleys opening to the s. the finer fruits are produced, along with maize, rice, and wheat. Even cotton and indigo might be profitably cultivated in the moist valleys ; but in its present wretched condition the country can barely support its scanty popula- tion. The inhabitants, estimated at about 1,400,000, form a peculiar people, the Albanians or Arnauts; they call themselves Skypetars. They are descendants of the ancient Illyrians, mixed with Greeks and Slaves, and not to be confounded with the Albani that live on the Caspian sea. The Albanians are half-civilized mountaineers, frank to a friend, vindictive to an enemy. They are constantly under arms, and are more devoted to robbery and piracy than to cattle-feeding and agriculture. They live in perpetual anarchy, every village being at war with its neighbor, and even the several quarters of the same town carrying on mutual hostilities. Many of them serve as mercenaries ip other countries, and they form the besi soldiers of the Turkish army. At one time the Albanians were all Christians ; after the death of their last chief, the hero Scanderbeg, and their subjugation by the Turks, a large part became Mohammedans, who dis- tinguished themselves by cruelty and treachery towards the tribes that remained true to their old faith. The steep valleys of the Acheron in the s., forming the district of Albania, Albany. 2 08 Suli, are inhabited by a powerful tribe, the Suliotes, who till their fields sword in hand, and conceal their harvests in the earth. They made themselves famous by their long resistance to Ali Pasha. In the n., between the Black Drin and the sea, is the country or circle of the Mirdites, i.e., the brave, who are always ready with weapons in their hands to defend their freedom and their religion—the Roman Catholic. A. is officially divided between the vilayets of Scutari and Janina. The divisions chiefly recognized by the Albanians themselves are the varieties of the native tribes, which col. Leake divides into the Ghegides, whose chief towns are Dulcigno, Scutari, and Durazzo; the Toskides, in Berat and Elbasan ; the Liape, in the mountains between the Toske and Delvino; and the Tsami, in the s. Albanians form an element in the population of Greeee, Italy, Sicily, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Dalmatia and Slavonia. ALBANIA, in ancient geography, a country in Asia on the w. side of the Caspian sea and n. of Armenia, corresponding with the modern Daghestan, Schirvan, and Lag- histan. It is mostly alluvial, made by the river Cyrus, and is very fertile. The ancient Albanians were described as tall, very strong, and of graceful appearance. ‘They were nomads, and never went into agriculture or trade. The Romans under Pompey first encountered them (65 B. c.) and found a force of 60,000 infantry and 22,000 cavalry con- testing the road. Pompey secured a nominal submission, but they continued practically independent. ALBA’NO, at. of Italy, about 18 m. from Rome, on the declivity of the lava-walls which encompass the lake Albano. It is the seat of a bishop, has about 7000 inhabitants, and is surrounded with handsome mansions of the wealthier Romans. Itis on the oppo- site side of the lake from where Alba Longa stood, and owed its origin to the villas of ancient Roman magnates, such as Pompeius, Domitian, and Clodius. A valuable wine is produced in the environs. Near the town, on the old Appian way, are found the remains of an amphitheatre, and a sepulchre of Etruscan architecture. THE ALBAN LAKE, or lago di Castello, is formed in the basin of an extinct volcano, and has a circumference of 6m., with the enormous depth of more than 1000 ft. Its elevation is. nearly 1000 ft. above the sea-level. While the Romans were at war with the Veientes (890 B.c.), this lake rose to an extraordinary height in the heat of summer, and without any apparent cause. Etruscan diviners declared that the conquest of Veii depended upon letting off the waters of the lake. Stimulated by this, the Romans, under the direc- tion of the Etruscans, opened an emissary or tunnel through the lava-wall which bounds it. In the execution of this work they acquired the art of mining, which they now applied to undermine the walls of Veii. The tunnel, which still remains, and still fulfills its ancient office, is 14 m. in length, with a height of 7 ft. and a width of 4 ft. On the eastern bank of the lake, rises monte Cavo, the ancient Mt. Albanus, 3000 ft. high, affording an extensive and magnificent view from its summit. Upon it once stood the magnificent temple of Jupiter Latialis, which was approached by a paved way, for the ascent of the solemn processions of the Latin confederation (Werte Latine), and for the ovations of Roman generals. The road remains, in great part, perfect to this day. The Albano stone, called Peperino, was much used in Roman buildings. Itis akind of volcanic tufa, of an ash-color, and is still quarried extensively at A. AL'BANS, Sr., an ancient borough in Hertfordshire, situated on the top and northern side of a picturesque hill, 21 m. n.w. from London. The Ver, a small tributary of the Colne, separates it from the site of the ancient Verulamium (Verulam), an important station in the time of the Romans, and the scene of a terrible slaughter in the insurrec. tion under Boadicea. In honor of St. Alban, said to have suffered martyrdom here in 297, a Benedictine monastery was founded by Offa, king of Mercia, in 796. The foun. dation of the t. is supposed to be due to Ulsig (or Ulsin), who was abbot about 150 years later. Two battles were fought near St. A. during the wars of the roses, in 1465 and 1461. In the first Henry VI. became a captive; in the other, he was set at liberty by his brave queen, Margaret of Anjou. The old abbey-church, restored in 1875 by Sir Gilbert Scott, is a cruciform building of irregular architecture, 547 ft. in length by 206 in breadth, with an embattled tower 146 ft. high. The abbot of St. A. had aseat in the house of peers, and had precedence of all other English abbots. In St. Michael’s church is to be . seen a monument to the memory of the great Bacon, who bore the titles of baron Veru- lam and viscount St. A. More recently, the Beauclerk family have taken from this place the title of duke, and the Grimston family that of earl. The borough was disfranchised in 1852 for bribery. Pop. ’91, 12,895, many of whom are employed in straw-plaiting. St. A. has recently been made the centre of a new diocese of the church of England, its first bishop having been enthroned in June, 1877. ALBANS, St., in Vermont. See Sr. ALBANS. ALBANY, or ALBAINN, an ancient name for the highlands of Scotland, and retained. in some degree of use down to our own day. Connected with it is the term Albiones, applied to the inhabitants of the entire British island in Festus Avienus’s account of the voyage of Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, in the Oth c. B.C; also the term Aldion, which appears as the name of the island in Aristotle’s Treatise of the World. It may, indeed, be pretty safely assumed that Albion or Albany was the original name of Britain among its Celtic population; and that it only became restricted to the n.w. provinces of Scotland 1 ° 209 Albany. when the Celts had for the most part become confined to the same region. Albainn means a country of heights (the root being ald, or alp, a height) ; and it is remarkable to find Albania also a mountainous country. The modern use of the name A. may be said to have taken ‘ts rise in an act of a Scottish council held at Scone in June, 1898, when the title of duke of A. was conferred on the brother of king Robert III., then acting as re- gent of the kingdom. The title, being forfeited in the son of the first holder, was after- wards conferred on Alexander, second son of king James II., in the person of whose son, John, it became extinct in 1586. Subsequently it was conferred in succession on Henry lord Darnley, on Charles I. in infancy, on James II. in infancy, and (as a British title) on Frederick, second son of George III. Prince Charles Stuart assumed the appellation of Count of A. as an incognito title, and gave the title of duchess of A. to his legitimated daughter. The title was restored in 1881 and conferred upon prince Leopold. ALBANY, aco. in e. N. Y., on the w. side of the Hudson river, 499sq.m. ; pop. 90, 164,555. The surface is hilly and mountainous in the s. ; soil good in the valleys, but on high ground sandy and poor. Marl, gypsum, magnesian limestone, and iron are found. Several railroads intersect it, including the great New York Central and Hudson River, the first section of which, from A. to Schenectady, was the earliest railroad in the state. The staple products are wool, grain, hay, milk, etc. Co. seat, Albany. ALBANY, aco. in the s.e. part of Wyoming, 4500 sq.m. ; drained by the n. fork of the Platte and the Laramie r. It is mountainous, Laramie peak being 10,000 ft. above sea-level. The Union Pacific railroad runs through the co. Cattle and wool are the staples. Co. seat, Laramie. Pop. of co., 1890, 8865. ALBANY, capital of New York state and of Albany county, is on the west bank of the Hudson River, nearly six miles below the head of navigation ; in latitude 42° 39’ 49” north, and longitude 73° 44’ 383" west; 145 miles north of New York and 200 miles west of Boston. The first settlement in Albany was made as early as 1540 by some Frenchmen, who commenced erecting a castle near the site, and the place was called Castle until the Dutch took possession of it in 1617; they had built a stockade called Fort Nassau, on an island below the present location, in 1614, but removed to the mainland and called their settlement Beverwyck. In 1624 Fort Orange was erected in what is now the heart of the city. In 1626 the Indians destroyed the place, and the inhabitants were sent down the river to New Amsterdam forsafety. In 1629 originated the ‘‘ patroon’’ system, by which the settlers rented their lands from the patroon or lord of the manor, who had ab- solute title to the soil, his tenants being little more than serfs, Killien Van Rensselaer and others received a grant of land extending along the Hudson twenty-four miles square, including Fort Orange and Beverwyck, and Van Rensselaer became the first patroon. He erected a large mansion, with extensive grounds, which remained standing until 1894, when it was removed to Williamstown, Mass., to be used as a chapter house for the Sigma Phi Society. The property descended through five generations, but the patroonship became obsolete after the Declaration of Independence. What is known as the ‘‘ Anti-Rent War’ was the result of an attempt to collect these rents for years after the Revolution, and caused the troops to be called out many times. It was finally arranged in 1853, and most of the tenants received a fee simple of their lands. In 1664 Beverwyck, Fort Orange, and Willemstadt became English possessions, and were called Albany. In 1686 Albany was the first city in the thirteen colonies to be incorporated. In June, 1764, the first general Congress of the Colonies met there, and in 1797 it was made the permanent capital of the state. In that year and in 1848 it suffered severely from fires. In 1886, July 18th to 22d, the bi-centennial of its incorporation was cele- brated with elaborate ceremonies, and on Jan. 6, 1897, the centennial of the selection of the city as the state capital. Albany has a river frontage of four miles, and for about 300 feet back the ground is comparatively level and is subject to overflow. From that point four hills, separated by ravines, rise westward to a plateau elevated about 200 feet, Prospect Hill reaching an altitude of 301 feet. Upon these hills are the Capitol and many elegant residences, - stretching away in the distance, giving a very picturesque effect to the city, when viewed from the river or the opposite shore. There are numerous parks, large and small, of which the most extensive and picturesque is Washington Park, containing eighty-one acres, a lake 1700 feet long, and a fountain which is a work of art. This was the gift of Col. Henry L. King, in memory of his father, Rufus H. King, and was designed by J. Massey Rhind. The subject is Moses smiting the Rock, and besides the central figure, twenty-nine feet above the basin, there are grouped about upon the rocks a@ woman with two children, a maiden, a soldier, and an old man. Of the many ceme- teries, Rural, four miles above the city, and shared by Troy, is one of the finest in the country. Here is the tomb of President Arthur, with a magnificent mausoleum, de- signed by Ephraim Keyser, representing a life-sized angel placing a palm upon the bier. The streets are many of them narrow and steep; scme still retain the old cobble-stone pavement, although on others many miles of asphalt and granite have been laid. State street, leading to the Capitol, is broad, but steep, and was formerly the general market-place, Electric roads furnish transportation to all parts of the city and suburbs. Water is supplied from an artificial lake five miles distant, and also from the Hudson; it is pumped into reservoirs on Prospect and Bleecker Hills. The fire and police depart- ments are well equipped and efficient. Albany. 2 1 (0) Alberic. The Capitol is built of Maine granite, in the Renaissance style, with dome-capped tower, and cost more than $18,000,000. It contains an assembly room, senate, court of appeals, state library of over 122,000 volumes, and rooms for state officers. Many relics of the Revolution and Civil War find place in its spacious corridors. The City Hall. erected in 1882, Custom-House, Post-Office, State Agricultural Museum, Geolog- ical Hall, Merchants’ Exchange, Hermann’s Bleecker Hall, State Penitentiary, many elecant churches and two cathedrals are among the public buildings. The Delevan House, for fifty years known as the resort of politicians and eminent men, was burned on the night of the 31st of December, 1894. Excellent public schools, academies, a high school, normal college and St. Agnes’ school for young ladies furnish educational facilities. Connected with Union University at Schenectady are Dudley Observatory, a law school and medical college. ‘There are four fine libraries, and many newspapers, daily and weekly. There are immense blast- furnaces, foundries, breweries, shoe factories, etc. Assessed valuations (1895) real estate, $58,549,720, personal, $6,426,995; total, $64,976,715; tax rate $20 per $1000; net debt (1896) $3,042,327. In 1896 the combined capital of national banks was $1,550,000; de- posits, $6,386,190; resources, $13,158,686. Albany has long taken a high rank in the lumber trade, its products amounting annually to several millions. It is also a large barley market. Population, 1820, 12,630; 1880, 90,758; 1890, 94,928. ALBANY, capital of Linn county, Oregon, is on the Willamette river, twenty-eight miles south of Salem and eighty-one south by west from Portland. It is located in an extensive valley noted for its beauty and fertility. It has good school buildings, Albany college, banking facilities, newspapers, churches, and good water supply. There are wagon, match, and furniture factories, saw and planing mills, foundries and machine-shops, a wire-cloth factory and woolen and flouring mills. Flour, grain and fruit are exported. Population, 1890, 3079. ALBANY, a maritime division of Cape Colony, Africa, about 450 m. e. of Cape Town; 65 m. long by 30 or 40 wide; traversed by Great Fish River. It produces maize, barley, and cotton. Capital, Grahamstown, pop, ’91, 10,498. ALBANY, LourisA-MARIA-CAROLINE, also ALOYSIA, Countess of, wife of the unfor- tunate Charles Edward Stuart (q. v.), grandson of James II. of England. She was the daughter of prince Gustavus-Adolphus of Stolberg-Gedern, who fell in the battle of Leuthen in 1757. This lady was b. in 1753, and, during her married life, bore the name of the countess of A. She had no children; her marriage proved an unhappy one, and in order to escape from the ill-usage of her husband, who lived in a state of continual drunkenness, she sought refuge in a nunnery, 1780. At the death of the prince in 1788, the court of France allowed her an annual pension of 60,000 livres. She outlived the house of the Stuarts, which became extinct at the;death of her brother-in-law, the cardi- nal of York, in 1807. She died at Florence, which was her usual place of residence, on the 29th of Jan. 1824. Her name and her misfortunes have been transmitted to pos- terity through the works and autobiography of Alfieri (q. v.), with whom she lived after the death of the prince. Their remains repose in the same tomb in the church of Santa Croce at Florence, between the tombs of Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo. ALBATEG’NI L, d. 929; an Arabian astronomer, whose proper name was MOHAMMED Ipn JABIR IBN SENAN ABU ABDILLAH, named from Batan in Mesopotamia, of which t. he is said to have been chief. His astronomical observations extended over more than 60 years, and were conducted on the Euphrates and at Antioch in Syria. His chief work, The Science of the Stars, was published in 1587 from the original manuscript in the Vatican library. He recast and improved Ptolemy’s tables, and came as near to the obliquity of the ecliptic as 23° 35’. His tropical year was nearer than Ptolemy’s, being only 2m. 26s, short. The Alphonsine tables of the moon’s motion were founded upon his observation, and he first substituted sines for chords, and also introduced into trigonometry the use of tangents and versed sines. He was called ‘‘The Arabian Ptolemy,” and was held to be first of Arabian astronomers. AL'BATROSS (Diomedea), a genus of web-footed birds of the family of the Larida, nearly allied to gulls and petrels. Their feet have no hind-toe nor claw; they have a large strong beak—the upper mandible, with strongly marked sutures, and a hooked point. The common A. (D. erulans), also called the wandering A., is the largest of web-footed birds, the spread of wing being sometimes 12 ft., and the weight 20 lbs. or upwards. The wings are, however, narrow in proportion to their length. This bird is often seen at a great distance from land, and abounds in the southern seas, particularly near the cape of Good Hope, whence sailors sometimes call it the cape sheep. It often approaches very near to vessels, and is one of the objects of interest which present themselves to: voyagers far away from land, particularly when it is seen sweeping the surface of the ocean in pursuit of flying-fish. It seems rather to float and glide in the air than to fly like other birds, as, except when it is rising from the water, the motion of its long wings is scarcely to be perceived. The plumage is soft and abundant, mostly white, dusky on the upper parts, some of the feathers of the back and wings black. The bill is of a deli- cate pinky-white, inclining to yellow at the tip. The A. is extremely voracious ; it feeds chiefly on fish and mollusca, but has no objection to the flesh of a dead whale, or to any kind of carrion. It is not a courageous bird, and is often compelled to yield up its prey to sea-eagles, and even to the larger kinds of gulls. When food is abundant, it gorges self, like the vultures, and then sits motionless upon the water, so that it may some- Albanye 211 Aibonicl times be taken with the hand. Not unfrequently, however, on the approach of a boat, it disgorges the undigested food, and thus lightened, it flies off. Its cry has been com- pared to that of the pelican ; it also sometimes emits a noise which has been likened to the braying of an ass. Its flesh is unpalatable. It heaps up a rude nest of earth not far’ from the sea, or deposits its solitary egg in a slight hollow which it makes in the dry ground. The egg is about 4 in. long, white, and spotted at the larger end ; it is edible. There are seven species of this genus. One of these (D. fuliginosa), chiefly found within the antarctic circle, is called by sailors the Quaker bird, on account of the prevailing brown color of its plumage. Albatrosses appear in great numbers towards the end of June, about the Kurile islands and Kamtchatka. The Kamtchadales take them by baited hooks, blow up the entrails for floats to their nets, and make tobacco-pipes and various domestic articles of the wing-bones. See illus., ANTELOPES, ETC., vol. I ALBAY’, at. of the island of Luzon, Philippine islands, the capital of a province of the same name, in the s, end of the island. It is situated about 2 m, from the bay of Albay, which is an excellent harbor, and very near a volcano also called Albay, which is in a state of constant activity. Earthquakes are frequent, but the province is very fertile. The t. is regularly built, and is a place of considerable trade. Pop., about 13,000. ALBE, or ALB (Lat. albus, white), the long white linen vestment worn in early times by all ecclesiastics at divine service. It differed from the more modern surplice (q.Vv.), which is only a modification of it, in having narrower sleeves. At the foot and wrists were embroidered ornaments called apparels. In the ancient church newly baptized persons were obliged to wear a similar garment for eight days ; and hence catechumens were called albati ; and the Sunday after Easter, on which they usually received baptism, came to be called dominica in albis. See WHITSUNTIDE, ALBEMARLE, a co. in Virginia, e. of the Blue Ridge and n. of James river, inter- sected by the Chesapeake and Ohio, and the Southern railroads; 675 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 32,379, inclu. colored. It has an undulating surface and rich bottom lands. Co. seat, Charlottesville. ALBEMARLE, GrorGE Monk, Duke of, 1608-70; an‘English general, chief agent in the restoration of the Stuarts in 1660. In 1625 he was in the expedition against Spain ; served ten yearsin the Netherlands; was lieut.-col. in the campaign against the Scots; leda regiment against the Irish; and was governor of Dublin until the peace in 1648. Next year in the civil war he was made prisoner by Fairfax, and kept two years in the Tower, but was released on taking the covenant. Cromwell made him lieut.-gen. and chief of artillery, and for good service at Dunbar raised him to gen.-in-chief in Scotland. He took part in the commission to arrange the union of Scotland and England, and went to the former country as governor in 1654, with much difficulty maintaining his rule against the Presbyterians. Charles tried to secure his support, but Monk sent the letter to Cromwell, after whose death Monk declared in favor of Richard Cromwell, assuming the defence of public order. On the 1st of Jan., 1660, Monk crossed the border with 6000 men, joined Fairfax at York, and entered London Feb. 3 without opposition. His intentions were not known until Feb. 28, when he called together the Presbyterian members expelled from parliament in 1648, and created a majority for the king, and Charles was formally declared on the 8th of May. Charles made Monk duke of Albe- marle, privy-councilor, chamberlain, and lord lieutenant of Devon and Middlesex. In 1666 he commanded the naval expedition against Holland and was beaten by De Ruyter at Dunkirk, in his turn defeating the Dutchmen at North Foreland. ALBEMARLE SOUND, an inlet in the coast of North Carolina, 60m. long and 4 to 15 wide, separated from the ocean by an island, and not appreciably affected by the tides. It receives the Roanoke and Chowan rivers and is connected with Currituck and Pamlico sounds by natural channels, and with Chesapeake bay by the Dismal Swamp. canal. Having only shallow water, the sound is of little value for navigation. AL’BER, MATTHEW, 1495-1570 ; one of the promoters of the reformation, preaching at Reutilingen. He was put under ban by the pope and the imperiai court, but went on preaching, strongly supported by the people. He rejected Latin, and used the native tongue in church services, put out the images, and took a wife. He was summoned before the imperial chambers and charged with nearly 70 distinct heresies, to all of which, save that of speaking disrespectfully of the mother of Christ, he confessed guilty. He was tried, but set free without punishment. A. was a friend and ally of er Some of his sermons, a catechism, and a work on Providence have been pub- ished. AL'BERIC I.,a Roman ruler in the beginning of the 10th c.; son of a Lombard nobleman. He married Marozia, daughter of the notorious Theodora, who held the temporal authority, and by union with her he came to beruler. He joined pope John X. in expelling the Saracens, and ruled the duchy of Spoleto; but the pope banished him from Rome and he was murderedin 925. His widow married Guido of Tuscany, and after his death, Hugo, king of Italy, whom her son Alberic II. expelled. AL'BERIC II, son of Alberic I., a wise Roman ruler who died in 954, after a reign, of 28 years, He was succeeded by his son Ottaviano, afterwards pope John XII., in 956.. “Alberoni. 9) _Albert. 212 ALBERO'NI, Givuii0, CARDINAL, the son of a poor vine-dresser, was born on the 31st ‘of May, 1664, at Firenzuola in Parma. From being merely a chorister in a church at Piacenza, he quickly rose, through his abilities, to the dignity of chaplain and favorite of count Roncovieri, bishop of St. Donino. He was afterwards sent to Madrid as chargé @ affaires, by the duke of Parma, where he gained the favor of Philip V. of Spain, and had the honors successively conferred on him of grandee, cardinal, and prime- minister. In this last capacity he was of singularly great service to Spain, overthrow- ing the intriguing family of Ursini, bringing about the second marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth Farnese, and stimulating the expiring energies of Spain. A new life dawned upon the nation, which learned to forget the hardships it had suffered in the Spanish wars of succession ; although, on the other hand, it must be admitted that it was principally through his instrumentality that the last liberties and rights of the people were sacrificed in favor of absolutism. He was ambitious, and ambition is always despotic and unscrupulous ; hence, to gratify the covetous desires of his new mistress, he suddenly invaded Sardinia, in violation of the peace of Utrecht, cherishing the hope of re-establishing the monarchy of Charles V. and Philip I1., and startling Europe by his insolent audacity. The regent of France broke off his alliance with Spain, and united himself with England and the emperor; but A. was not dismayed. Even when the Spanish fleet in the Mediterranean was destroyed by an English one, he contemplated an extensive war by land, in which all the European powers would have been entangled. He patronized the pretender, to annoy England, and the French Protestants, to annoy Louis. He sought to unite Peter of Russia and Charles XII. with him, to plunge Austria into a war with the Turks, to stir up an insurrection in Hungary, and, through his influence with one of the parties at the French court, he actually accomplished the arrest of the regent himself (the duke of Orleans), But so universal became the com plaints against A., that Philip lost courage, and concluded a treaty of peace, the chief condition of which was that the cardinal should be dismissed, which was effected through the influence of Elizabeth herself, now weary of the arrogance of her late favorite. In 1719 Alberoni received a command to quit Madrid within 24 hours, and the kingdom within 5 days. Exposed to the vengeance of every power whose hatred he had drawn upon himself, he knew no land where he could remain. Not even to Rome could he venture, for Clement was more bitterly inimical to him than any secular potentate. He wandered about in disguise, and under fictitious names. At length he was imprisoned in the Genoese territory, through the solicitation of the pope and the Spanish monarch ; but he speedily recovered his liberty, and two years after the death of Clement, was reinstated by Innocent XIII. in all the rights and dignities of a cardinal. In 1740 he retired to Piacenza, where he died twelve years after (June 16, 1752) at the age of 88. He bequeathed his possessions in Lombardy to Philip V., while his cousin and heir, Cesar A., became possessor of 1,000,000 ducats, ALBERS, JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERMANN, 1805-67; a German physician, professor of pathology at Bonn. He established there an asylum for the treatment of insanity and nervous diseases ; and was director of the pharmacological cabinet. His anatomi- cal atlas and works on various branches of medical science are regarded as authority. ALBERT, a co. ins.e. New Brunswick, on the bay of Fundy; 677 sq.m.; pop. 91, 10,971. The land is good, with bituminous and cannel coal, oil-bearing shales, plaster, and freestone. Coal and plaster are sent to the United States, Chief t., Hopewell Cape. ALBERT, archbishop of Madgeburg, and elector of Mentz, generally called A. of Brandenburg, younger son of the elector, John Cicero of Brandenburg, was b. in 1490. In 1513 he became archbishop of Madgeburg; in the same year, also, administrator of the bishopric of Halberstadt, and in the following year, archbishop and elector of Mentz. Leo X. having granted him permission to sell indulgences, on condition that he should deliver up half the booty to the papal exchequer, A. appointed the Dominican Tetzel ‘“‘indulgence-preacher,” who, by the shameless manner in which he went about his work, first stirred Luther to post up his well-known ninety-five theses. Even in the archbishop’s own diocese, the reformer’s doctrines found not a few adherents, so that A. was com- pelled, at the imperial diet at Augsburg, to act the part of peacemaker. When he joined the holy alliance against the treaty of Schmalkald, Luther made a fierce attack on him in writing. He was the first of all the German princes who received the Jesuits into his dominions. In 1541, he granted religious liberty to his subjects, under the condition that they should pay his debts, amounting to 500,000 florins. He did this, not from any love of religious liberty, but either because of the consideration referred to, or from a dread of popular compulsion. The last days of his life were spent in Aschaften- burg, where he d. in 1545. } ALBERT, count of Bollstiidt, usually called Albertus Magnus, also Albertus Teutoni- cus, a man less distinguished for originality than for the extent of his acquirements and his efforts for the spread of knowledge, especially of the works and doctrines of Aristotle, was b. at Lauingen, in Swabia, in 1205, or, as some say, in 1193. After finishing his studies at Padua, he entered the order of the Dominican friars, and taught in the schools of Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. He afterwards repaired to Paris, where he publicly expounded the doctrines of Aristotle, in spite of the prohibition of the church. In 1249, he became rector of the school at Alberoni, 918 Albert. ologne; and in 1254, provincial of the Dominican order in Germany. In 1260, he od from Pope Racer IV. the bishopric of Ratisbon. But_ in 1262, he retired to his convent at Cologne, to devote himself to literary pursuits; and here he composed a great number of works, especially commentaries on Aristotle. He had fallen into dotage some years before his death, which occurred in 1280. ‘The fullest edition of his works was prepared by Pierre Jammy, the Dominican (21 vols., Lyon and Leyden, 1651); but it is far from being complete. Many of the writings attributed to A. seem to be spurious; among others, that entitled De Secretis Mulierwm, which was widely circulated during the middle ages. The extensive chemical and mechanical knowledge which A. possessed, considering the age in which he lived, brought upon him the imputation of sorcery; and in German tradition he has a very ambiguous reputation. It is recorded, for instance, that in the winter of 1240, he gave a banquet at Cologne to William of Hol- land, king of the Romans; and that during the entertainment the wintry scene was sud- denly transformed into one of summer bloom and beauty, This myth rests most’ likely on the fact of A. having hada greenhouse. The scholastics who followed A.’s opinions took the name of Albertists, His best known works are Summa Theologie and Summa de Creaturis, ALBERT, last grand-master of the Teutonic order, and first duke of Prussia, was b. in 1490. He was the son of the margrave Frederic of Anspach and Baireuth, who, having several children, wished to make him enter the church. He was educated under the care of Archbishop Hermann, of Cologne, where he became canon. He did not, however, neglect knightly exercises. He accompanied the emperor Maximilian I. in his expedi- tion against Venice, and was present at the siege of Pavia. In 1611, when scarcely 21 years old, he was chosen grand-master of the Teutonic order, the knights expecting their feudal allegiance to Poland to be abolished, on account of his near relationship to Sigismund, the monarch of that country, while they also hoped for protection against the latter from his friends in Germany. He was consecrated at Mergentheim with his father’s consent. In 1512 he removed to Konigsberg, having been acknowledged by Poland likewise; but refusing to take the oath of allegiance, he was plunged into a war with Sigismund in 1520. The year after, a four years’ truce was agreed to at Thorn. A. next made his appearance at the imperial diet at Niirnberg, as a German prince of the empire, to induce the other princes to assist him against the Poles. But Germany could at that time grant no assistance to any one. _ Disappointed in his hopes, A. threw himself into the cause of the reformation, which had rapidly spread into Prussia, and broken the last strength of the declining order, whose possessions now appeared a certain prey to Poland. A. still hoped to preserve these, by acting upon Luther’s advice, which was, to declare himself secular to the duke of Prussia, and place his land under the sovereignty of Sigismund. This was done with great pomp at Cracow, on the 8th April 1525, the duchy being secured to him and his descendants. During the remainder of his life, A. zealously sought to further the welfare of his duchy. He regulated the administration of all affairs, both secular and ecclesiastical, established the ducal library, founded in 1543 the university of Kénigsberg, gathered many literary men around him, and caused their works to be printed. In 1527, he married Dorothea, daughter of Frederick, king of Denmark. A. earnestly desired peace, but his was not an age in which peace could be purchased. The transition period from the old to the new is always violent, and the duke found himself entangled in conflicts with the nobles, and in theo- logical disputes, which, along with other crosses of a more personal character, saddened the close of his life. Hed. in 1568. See Prussta. ALBERT, or ALBRECHT. Fivesovereign dukes of Austria (q.v.) bore this name, of whom two (I. and V.) were also emperors of Germany. A.I., duke of Austria and emperor of Germany, was the eldest son of Rudolph I., and born in the year 1248. Rudolph, about the close of his career, made an effort to have A. appointed his successor; but the electors, tired of his authority, and emboldened by his age and infirmities, refused to comply with his request. After Rudolph’s death, Austria and Styria revolted; but A., having vigorously crushed the insurrection, had the audacity to assume the insignia of the empire without waiting for the decision of the diet. This violent measure induced the electors to choose, in preference to him, Adolphus of Nassau. Disturbances in Switzerland, and a disease which cost him an eye, now rendered him more humble; he delivered up the insignia which he had so rashly assumed, and took the oath of allegiance to the new emperor, who, however, after some years, so completely disgusted his subjects, that A. began to entertain hopes of recovering his imperial dignity. In 1298, Adolphus was deposed, and A. elected; but the former having resolved to maintain his title, A. was obliged to fight for the crown. The rivals drew up their forces near Worms, where a battle ensued, in which Adolphus was defeated and slain. A., feeling that he might now safely display magnanimity, voluntarily resigned the crown which had been recently conferred upon him; and, as he had anticipated, was unanimously re-elected. His coronation took place at Aix-la-Chapelle, in August, 1298. But the pope, Boniface VIIL., denied the right of the princes to elect A., declared himself the only true emperor and legitimate king of the Romans, summoned the former before him, required him to ask pardon and do penance, forbade the princes to acknowledge him, and released them from their oath of allegiance. A., on the other hand, with his usual intrepidity, defied his holiness, formed an alliance with Philip the fair of France, secured the neutrality Ibert. Alberta, 214 of Saxony and Brandenburg, invaded the electorate of Metz, and forced the archbishop to break off his alliance with Boniface and to form one with himself for the next five years. The pope was alarmed by his success, and entered into negotiations with him. A., whose duplicity and unscrupulousness equaled his courage, suddenly broke off his alliance with Philip, admitted the western empire to be a papal grant, and declared that the electors derived their right of choosing from the holy see. Moreover he promised upon oath to defend the rights of the Romish court whenever he was called upon. Asa reward, Boniface gave him the kingdom of France, excommunicating Philip, and declaring him to have forfeited the crown; but the latter severely chastised the pope for his insolence in daring to give away what was not hisown. In the following year, A. made war unsuccessfully against Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Hungary, Bohemia, and Thuringia. Shortly afterwards, news reached him that a rebellion had broken out amongst the Swiss in Unterwalden, Schweitz, and Uri, in Jan., 1808. A. had not only foreseen, but desired this, in order that he might find a pretext for completely subju- gating the country. A new act of injustice, however, occasioned a crime which put an end to his ambition and life. His nephew, Duke John, claimed Swabia as his rightful inheritance, and had set his claims before A., but in vain. When the latter was depart- ing for Switzerland, the former renewed his demand. A. scoffingly refused; and duke John resolved to be revenged. Along with four others, he conspired against his uncle’s life, and assassinated him on the way to Rheinfelden, while separated from his followers by the river Reuss. The emperor expired May 1, 13808, in the arms of a beggar-woman sitting by the wayside—a spectacle calculated to excite stern reflection on the vanity of human ambition. His daughter Agnes, queen of Hungary, frightfully revenged her father’s death. See JoHN, THE PARRICIDE. A. left five sons and five daughters, the children of his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of the count of Tyrol. ALBERT, or ALBRECHT, Archduke of Austria, b. in 1559, was thethird son of the emperor Maximilian Il. He was brought up at the Spanish court, and dedicated him- self to the church. In 1577 he was made cardinal, in 1584, archbishop of Toledo, and during the years 1594-96, held the office of viceroy of Portugal. He was next appointed stadtholder of the Netherlands, where he continued, until his death, the representative of the Spanish monarch, discharging the duties ‘of his function with prudence and dignity. Cardinal Bentivoglio, who resided a considerable time at his court, praises his uprightness, his moderation, his love of serious study, his industry, his perseverance, and his discretion, though he does not conceal the fact that he was a prince better fitted for peace than for war. He displayed at first both courage and enthusiasm, but after- wards he was accused of dilatoriness and timidity. Meanwhile, he did not receive from Spain the promised help ; and, moreover, affairs had reached such a pitch, that they could hardly become worse. A., however, did the best that could be done. His mild, moderate, and unpersecuting character, essentially contributed to the re-establishment of the Spanish authority in the Netherlands. Philip employed him to mediate amid the disturbed provinces. A. now abandoned his ecclesiastical profession, and married (1598) the infanta, Isabella, who received the Netherlands for her dowry. He d. in 1621. ALBERT, ALEXANDER MARTIN, a member of the provisional government of France after the revolution of Feb., 1848, was b. at Bury (Oise) in 1815. His father was a peasant, and he himself learned a mechanical trade at Paris. He took part in the revolution of July, 1830, and was implicated in the celebrated trial of 1884 ; after which he devoted himself to the study and discussion of political questions, yet not abandoning his workshop. He commenced at Lyon the republican journal called La Glaneuse, on account of whichhe was condemned to a fine of 5000 francs when the insurrection broke out at Lyon. In 1840 he began L’Atelier, a paper conducted exclusively by operatives, and devoted to their interests. On the evening before the proclamation of the republic in Feb., 1848, he was making buttons in his workshop; and on the nomination of Louis Blanc, he was called to take part in the provisional govern- ment. He was afterwards chosen president of the commission for national rewards; but he soon resigned this post. He was elected by a large majority of voices as the repre- sentative of the department of the Seine in the national assembly; but involving himself in the attempt of May 15, 1848, against the government as it then existed, he was arrested, and sentenced to transportation. He was, however, soon liberated. D. May 28, 1895. ALBERT, FRANctIS(ALBERT) AUGUSTUS-CHARLES-EMMANUEL, Prince of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, consort of Victoria, queen of Great Britain, b. Aug. 26, 1819, was the second son of the late duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, by his first marriage with Louisa, daughter of the duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. The prince, after a careful domestic education, along with his elder brother, the reigning duke, attended the university of Bonn, where, in addition to the sciences connected with state-craft, he devoted himself with ardor to the study of natural history and chemistry, and displayed great taste for the fine arts, especially painting and music. Several compositions of his obtained .publicity, and an opera was afterwards performed in London, said to have been composed by him. Gifted with a handsome figure, he attained expertness in all knightly exercises. It was this accomplished prince that the young queen of Great Britain selected as her partner for life. The marriage was celebrated in London on the 10th of Feb, 1840. On his marriage, Prince Albert received the title of royal highness, was naturalized as a subject of Great 215 \ Sibert. ritain, and obtained the rank of field-marshal, the knighthood of the order of the bath, oA the command of a regiment of hussars. As the union proved, in the highest hac haa a happy one, the prince was loaded with honors and distinctions both by the piern an the nation. The title of consort of her most gracious majesty was formally conferred in 1842, and that of prince consort, in 1857, made him a prince of the United Kingdom. He was also made a member of the privy council, governor and constable of Windsor Castle, colonel of the grenadier guards, acting grand-master of the Order of the Bath, chancellor of the university of Cambridge, master of the Trinity House, etc. Notwithstanding his high and favored position, the prince, with rare prudence and tact, abstained from meddling with state affairs, and thus escaped the jealousy and detraction of parties. When the whig ministry of 1840 proposed for him the income of £50,000, as consort of Queen Victoria, the tories, in conjunction with the radicals, succeeded in limiting the sum to £30,000. This appears to have been the only instance of any manifestation of party feeling with reference to the prince. On the other hand, he opened for himself an influential sphere of action, in the encouragement and promotion of science and art, appearing as the patron of many useful associations and public undertakings. The exhibition of 1851 owed much to the prince. He d. 14th Dec., 1861. See Life by Theo- dore Martin (5 vols., 1874-80), and Vitzthum’s Reminiscences (Eng. trans. 1887). ALBERT, FREDERICK RupowpH, 1817-95; Archduke of Austria, son of archduke Charles, and grandson of Leopold II.; first cousin of the father of the reigning emperor. He was distinguished in youth as a cavalry commander, doing good service in the battle of Novara, in 1849. He was governor of Hungary, 1851-60; in 1866 he commanded the Austrians in Venetia, and won the victory of Custozza, June 24; but Benedek’s defeat at Sadowa, July 3, made his success of no account. He became field-marshal and inspector general of the Austrian army. A. married, May 1, 1844, Archduchess Hildegarde, daughter of Ludwig I. of Bavaria. Shed. April 2, 1864. ALBERT, Friepricu Avucust ; b. April 28, 1828, reigning king of Saxony, son of king John and queen Amélie. He was a general in the Schleswig-Holstein war, and after his father’s accession in 1854 presided over the council of state. In 1866 he commanded the Saxon army codperating with the Austrians against Prussia, and re- ceived a decoration for the behavior of his troops. On the union of Saxony with the n. German confederation, this force became the 12th corps of the n. German army, and with them the prince won high honors at Gravelotte and Sedan, receiving the Prussian iron cross and the command-in-chief of the newly formed 4th army, at the head of which he entered Paris with the emperor and the German princes. He married, June 18, 1853, Caroline Frédérique Frangoise Stephanie Amélie Cécile, daughter of Gustavus, prince of Vasa, ALBERT EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES, b. Nov. 9, 1841; heir-apparent of the British throne, eldest son and second child of Victoria and Albert. He is duke of Corn- wall, according to the statute of 1337, with annual revenue of about $250,000. He was created Prince of Walesin 1841, and earl of Dublin in 1850; is high steward of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, earl of Carrick, baron of Renfrew, and Lord of the Isles. He is also a Knight of the Garter, general in the army, and colonel of the 10th hussars. His early education was under Rev. Henry Birch, rector of Prestwich ; Mr. Gibbs, barrister ; Rev. C. F. Tarvex, and H. W. Fisher. He visited Canada and the United States in 1860; joined the camp at Curragh in June, 1861; traveled in 1862 in the east with Dean Stanley, visiting Jerusalem ; and in 1875-76 made a tour of India. He married March 10, 1863, Princess Alexandra, daughter of Christian [X., king of Denmark. Their children are: 1. Prince AlbertVictor Christian, duke of Clarence, b. 1864, d. 1892; 2. Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, b. June 3,1865 ; 3. Princess Louise Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, b. Feb. 20, 1867; 4. Princess Alexandra Olga Mary, b. July 6, 1868 ; 5. Princess Maud Charlotte Mary Victoria, b. Nov. 26, 1869. Prince A. was chosen grand-master of free- masons in 1867, succeeding the marquis of Ripon. ALBERT, EvGEN D’, pianist, born at Glasgow, Scotland, April 10, 1864. He was the son of Charles d’Albert, a French dancing-master, studied under Sir Arthur Sullivan, Prout, and Pauer in London, under Hans Richter in Vienna, under Liszt in Weimar, and in 1881 made his first appearance at a Philharmonic concert in Vienna, achieving brilliant success. He was soon made court pianist in Weimar, traveled in Europe, and came to America in the season of 1889-90. His mastery of technique, intellectual inter- pretation, force, and fire class him with Rubinstein, Liszt, and von Biilow, as one of the four greatest pianists of the century. His compositions include pianoforte music, a suite, symphony, and overture for the orchestra, a quartet for strings, and several songs. ALBERTA, a district in Canada, formed in 1882 out of the n.w. territory, contain- ing about 106,000 sq.m. It is bounded on then. by Athabasca, on the e. by Sas- katchewan and Assiniboia, on the s. by the U. §., and on the w. by British Columbia. A, is the cattle-ranche district, containing the Belly, Battle, and Bow rivers. Principal places, 1883, Edmonton, Rocky Mountain House, Victoria, Fort Saskatchewan, Hamil- ton, Calgary, Old Bow. The new districts, A., Athabasca, Saskatchewan, and Assini- boia, have as their capital, Regina in the latter district. The Canadian Pacific railroad passes through the s. portion of A. Pop. 1891, 25,277. Albert. , 916 Albion. ALBERT LEA, seat of justice of Freeborn co. Minnesota, is situated between two lakes, one of which bears its name, about 100m. s. of St. Paul. It was settled in 1855, and incor- porated in 1878, and is reached by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul and other rail- roads; has waterworks, electric lights, an academy, Albert Lea college, and is principally engaged in manufacturing, dairying, and grain and stock raising. Pop. ’90, 3305. ALBERT MEDAL, a decoration instituted in England (1866) to reward heroic acts in saving life at sea. In 1877 it was extended to acts of gallantry in preventing loss of life in perils on land. ‘ AL'BERT N’YAN’ZA (the Little Luta Nzige of Speke), a large lake of e. central Africa, one of the reservoirs of the Nile, situated in a deep rock-basin, 80 m. w. of the Victoria N’yanza. The A. N. is of an oblong shape, and, as proved by M. Gessi, one of colonel Gordon’s party in 1876, is 100 m. Jong from n. to s., and 25 m. broad. It is crossed by the equator near its centre. On thee. it is fringed by precipitous cliffs, having a mean alt. of 1500 ft., with isolated peaks, rising from 5000 to 10,000 ft. The surface of the lake is 2720 ft. above the sea, and 1470 ft. below the general level of the country : its water is fresh and sweet, and it is of great depth toward the centre. Then. and w. shores of the lake are bordered by a massive range of hills, called the Blue mountains, which have an elevation of about 7000 ft. The existence of this vast lake first became known to Europeans through Speke and Grant, who, in 1862, heard the Luta Nzige de- scribed by the natives as only a narrow reservoir forming ashallow back-water of the Nile. When Speke and Grant, after the discovery of the Victoria N’yanza, were, in 1863, descending the Nile on their return to Europe, they met, at Gondokoro, Mr. (now Sir) Samuel White Baker (q.v.), who wasascending the river inthe hope of meeting with and aiding these travelers. Assoon as they informed him of the reputed great lake, Pakcr agreed to undertake itsexploration. Joining a trading party, hetraveled south-eastward to Latooka, which he describes as the finest country he had seen in Africa, His course was now s. and s.w., through the countries of Obbo and Madi, crossing the Asua, a tribu- tary of the Nile, on 9th Jan.,1864. Journeying next in as, and south-eastward direction over uninhabited prairies and swampy hollows, he came upon the Nile at the Karuma falls, lat. 2° 17' n., at the identical spot where it had been crossed by Speke and Grant. Being prevented, by the jealousy of king Kamrasi, from following the course of the stream to the westward, he was forced to proceed, by slow marches southward on the w. side of the Somerset or Nile, to M’rooli, leaving which, his course lay s.w. onthe s. side of the Kafoor river. After a toilsome march of 18 days from M’rooli, the party came in sight of the glorious expanse of water, which Baker named in honor of Prince Albert who was but recently dead. The spot where the party first reached the lake, Vacovia, is in lat. 1° 14' n., 30° 40’ e. Embarking thence in canoes, the party coasted north-eastward, and in 18 days arrived at Magungo, lat. 2° 16’ n., near the mouth of the Somerset river. At this part, the lake was under 20 m. in width, and appeared to stretch away in a n.w. direction. From Magungo, 250 ft. above the lake, the travelers had a view of the Nile valley for 15 or 20 m. northwards. Ascending the Somerset, at a distance of 25 m. from its mouth, the canoe-voyage was interrupted by a grand cataract 120 ft. high, which was named the Murchison falls. The explorers proceeded south-eastwards for about 30m. to Kisoona, and then a march n.e. for about the same distance brought them to the Karuma falls, where they first entered the lake-region. The name Somerset is adopted from Speke’s first map, in order to distinguish that river from the Nile proper. It issues from the Victoria N’yanza at the Ripon falls, and flowing n.w. and w. for about 230 m., it enters the A. N. within 80 m. of its northern extremity, and soon quits it to form the true Nile. From the Ripon falls for 80 m. n., and from the Karuma to the Murchison falls, 45 m., the Somerset forms a series of rapids. The A. N. receives the drainage of a great equatorial mountain range, where rain falls during 10 months of the year. In 1887, Emin Pasha reported that he had discovered two rivers, the Nyussi-Msisi and the Due-ru, flowing into the lake from the southwest, and that the latter, the larger of the two, discharges a considerable quantity of water into the lake all the year round. In 1876 two steamers were placed by Gordon Pasha on Albert Nyanza. The scenery of the lake is described as extremely beautiful. Salt, which is very abundant in the soil on the eastern shores of the lake, is now the only article of trade to the inhabitants. ALBERT THE BEAR (so called, not from any peculiarity of character or appearance, but from the heraldic cognizance that he assumed), margrave of Brandenburg, one of the most remarkable princes of hisage, was b. 1106. He was theson and successor of Otho, the rich count of Ballenstiidt, and of Elica, eldest daughter of Magnus, duke of Saxony. Having proved faithful to the emperor Lothario, he received from the latter Lusace, to be held as a fief of the empire; but the duchy of Saxony, to whigh he had the best claim, was given to Henry of Bavaria (1127), the son of the youngest daughter of the duke. As a compensation, A. was made margrave (markgraf) of the northern march or marck (Salzwedel) ; but in the year 1188, Henry having been put under the imperial ban, the duchy reverted to the former, when he took the title of duke of Saxony. Henry, however, again got the upper hand, and A. was compelled to fly, and to content himself with the margraviate of northern Saxony, and the government of Swabia, which was given him as an indemnity. Returning to his own country, he got himself invested with the Jands which he had conquered from the Wends as a hereditary fief of the empire, and thus became the founder and first margrave of the new state of Brandenburg. Under ——_ e 917 Alpes. A. the margravedom was afterwards raised to be an electorate, and he himself became elector of Brandenburg. After he had quelled a revolt of the Wends in 1157, he deter- mined to take extreme measures against the vanquished. He almost depopulated their country, and then colonized it with Flemings. On his return from a pilgrimage to Pal- estine in company with his wife in 1159, he exerted himself to suppress the language and paganism of the Wends, and to introduce Christianity amongst them. He died in 1170. ALBER'TUS MAGNUS. See ALBERT OF BOLLSTADT. AL'BI, capital of the department of Tarn in France, is built on a height. It is very old, and suffered greatly during the religious wars which devastated the Jand in the time of the Albigenses. Besides the usual government offices, it possesses a public library of 12,000 volumes, anda museum, The chief buildings are the cathedral, built in the style of the 18th c., the old palace of the count of Albigeois, and the theater. There is con- siderable trade in corn, wine, fruit, etc., and linen, cotton, woollen, and leather manu- factures. Pop. about 14,200. AL'BIGENSES is a name applied loosely to the ‘‘ heretics,” belonging to various sects, that abounded in the s. of France about the beginning of the 13th ce. The chief sect was the Cathari (q.v.); but they all agreed in renouncing the authority of the popes and the discipline of the Romish church. The name arose from the.circumstance that the dis- trict of Albigeois in Languedoc—now in the department of Tarn, of which Albi is the capital—was the first point against which the crusade of Pope Innocent III., 1209, was directed. The immediate pretense of the crusade was the murder of the papal legate and inquisitor, Peter of Castelnau, who had been commissioned to extirpate heresy in the dominions of count Raymond VI. of Toulouse; but its real object was to deprive the count of his lands, as he had become an object of dislike from his toleration of the here- tics. It wasin vain that he had submitted to the most humiliating penance and flagella- tion from the hands of the legate Milo, and had purchased the papal absolution by great sacrifices. ‘The legates, Arnold, abbot of Citeaux and Milo, who directed the expedition, took by storm Beziers, the capital of Raymond’s nephew, Roger, and massacred 20,000— some say 40,000—of the inhabitants, Catholics as well as heretics. ‘‘ Kill them all,” said Arnold ; ‘‘God will know his own!” Simon, count of Montfort, who conducted the war under the legates, proceeded in the same relentless way with other places in the ter- ritories of Raymond and his allies. Of these, Roger of Beziers died in prison, and Peter I. of Aragon fell in battle. 'The conquered lands were given as a reward to Simon of Montfort, who never came into quiet possession of the gift. At the siege of Toulouse, 1218, he was killed by astone, and counts Raymond VI. and VII. disputed the posses- sion of their territories with his son. But the papal indulgences drew fresh crusaders from every province of France, to continue the war. Raymond VII. continued to strug- gle bravely against the legates and Louis VIII. of France, to whom Montfort had ceded his pretensions, and who fell in the war in 1226. After hundreds of thousands had per- ished on both sides, a peace was concluded, in 1229, at which Raymond purchased relief from the ban of the church by immense sums of money, gave up Narbonne and several lordships to Louis [X., and had to make his son-in-law, the brother of Louis, heir of his other possessions. These provinces, hitherto independent, were thus, for the first time, joined to the kingdom of France; and the pope sanctioned the acquisition, in order to bind Louis more firmly to the papal chair, and induce him more readily to admit the inquisition. The heretics were handed over to the proselytizing zeal of the order of Dominicans, and the severe tribunals of the inquisition ; and both used their utmost power to bring the recusant A. to the stake, and also, by inflicting severe punishment on the penitent converts, to inspire dread of incurring the church’s displeasure. From the middle of the 13th c., the name of the A. gradually disappears. The remnants of them took refuge in the east, and settled in Bosnia. ALBI'NOS—called also Leuccethiopes, or white negroes, and by the Dutch and Ger- mans kakerlaken—were at one time considered a distinct race; but closer observation has shown that the same plrenomenon occurs in individuals of all races, and that the peculiar appearance arises from an irregularity in the skin, which has got the name of leucopathy or leucosis, It consists in the absence of the coloring matter which, in the normal state, is secreted between the cuticle and the true skin, and also of the dark pig- ment of the eye ; so that the skin has a pale, sickly white color, while the iris of the eye appears red, from its great vascularity. As the pigment in the coats of the eye serves to diminish the stimulus of the light upon the retina, A. generally cannot bear a strong light ; on the other hand, they see better in the dark than others. The coloring matter of the hair is also wanting in A., so that their hair is white. All these differences are of course more striking in the darker varieties of the species, and most of all in the negro albinos. _ Albinoism is always born with the individual, and occurs not only in men, but also In other mammalia, in birds, and probably in insects. It is not improbable that the peculiarity may, to some extent, be hereditary. The opinion that A. are distinguished from other men by weakness of body and mind, is completely refuted by facts. AL'BION is the most ancient name on record of the island of Great Britain. See ALBANY or ALBAINN. Albion. 9 il 8 e Albumen. ALBION, the seat of justice of Orleans co., N. Y., 80m. w. of Rochester; pop. ’90, 5773. The Erie canal and Niagara branch of N. Y. Central railroad pass through it. There are sandstone quarries, manufactures of agricultural implements, shoes, carriages, etc. ALBION, New, the name given by Sir Francis Drake to California, which he visited in 1578 ; but later restricted by Humboldt and ther geographers to that part of the n.w. coast lying between 43° and 48° n. ALBIR'CO, a double star in the head of the swan; interesting to spectroscopists for the different color lines of its components ; the larger star is orange and the smaller one blue. ALBITE (Lat., albus, white), name given to soda-feldspar. AL'BOIN, the founder of the Lombard dominion in Italy, succeeded his father in 561 A.D., as king of the Lombards, who were at that time settled in Pannonia. His thirst for action first vented itself in aiding Narses against the Ostrogoths; and afterwards, in a war with the Gepide, whom he, in conjunction with the Avari, defeated in a great battle (566), slaying their king Cunimond with his own hand. On the death of his first wife, Klodoswinda, he married Rosamond, daughter of Cunimond, who was his prisoner. Some of his warriors, who had accompanied Narses into Italy, brought back reports of the beauties and riches of the country. This determined A., in 568, to enter Italy with his own nation of Lombards, the remains of the Gepide, and 20,000 Saxons. He soon overran and subdued the n. of the country as far asthe Tiber, fixing his principal resi- dence at Pavia—which long continued to be the capital of the Lombards ; when his bar- barity cost him his life. During a feast at Verona, he made his queen drink out of the skull of her father, which he had converted into a wine-cup. In revenge, she incited her paramour to murder her husband, who fell 574. Strangely enough, A. was a just and beneficial ruler. He was beloved. by his subjects, whom he stimulated into that vital activity that characterized their descendants for ages. For several centuries, his name continued to be illustrious among the German nations, who celebrated his praises in mar- tial songs. To escape the fury of the Lombards, Rosamond fled with her associate and the treasure to Longinus, the exarch, at Ravenna. lLonginus becoming a suitor for her hand, she administered poison to Helmichis, her paramour, who, discovering the treach- ery, caused her to swaliow che remainder of the cup, and die with him. ALBO'NI, MarteTta, b. Mar. 10, 1828; an Italian contralto, pupil of Rossini. She made her début at the age of 15 at the Communal Theatre of Bologna, where her success led toan engagement at La Scala, Milan. She made rapid progress, and in 1846-47 sang in all the principal cities of Europe, in London at Covent Garden in rivalry with Jenny Lind, who was at her Majesty’s Theatre. In1852 she visited the United States, remaining over a year, and singing in the chief towns in opera and concert. Her celebrity was owing to the power, fine quality, flexibility, and compass of her voice, a true contralto compassing 24 octaves, and ranging as high as a mezzo-soprano, her florid style gaining great effect from her vivacity and grace of action. She married Count Pepoli, of the Roman states, but kept her maiden name on the stage, appearing in opera at Munich as late as 1872. Her husband died in 1866, and in 1877 she married M. Zieger. She died in 1894. ALBORNOZ’, Ziaiprus ALVAREZ CARILLO, a warlike prelate of the middle ages, was b. at Cuenca, 13810. He studied at Toulouse, and Subsequently became almoner to Alfonso XI., king of Castile, who appointed him archdeacon of Calatrava, and finally archbishop of Toledo. He took part in the wars against the Moors, saved the life of the king in the battle at Tarifa, and was present at the siege of Algeciras, where the king dubbed him knight. On account of the Christian boldness with which he denounced the criminal excesses of Peter the cruel, he fell into disgrace, and had to flee to pope Clement VL., at Avignon, who made him a cardinal. Innocent VII. also recognized his political talents and sent him as cardinal-legate to Rome, where, by his tact and vigor, he secured, in spite of the intricate complication of affairs, the restoration of the papal authority in the states of the church (1353-62). Pope Urban V. owed the recovery of his dominions to him, and out of gratitude appointed him legate at Bologna in 1367. In the same year he died at Viterbo, but, expressing a wish to be buried at Toledo, almost royal honors were rendered to his dead body by the Spanish monarch, Henry of Castile; and Urban even granted an indulgence to all who had assisted in the transference of his remains from Viterbo to Toledo. He left a valuable work upon the constitution of the Romish church, printed for the first time at Jesi in 14738, and now very rare. ALBOSTAN’, a t. of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Marash, and 122 m. n. from Aleppo. Pop. estimated at 6500. ALBOX’, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, in the province of Almeria, 42 m. n.e. from Almeria, on a small affluent of the Almazora, which divides the t. into two parts. It has some good streets and buildings, and a fine square. Blankets, coarse linen and hempen fabrics, and earthenware are manufactured. ‘There are also corn and oil mills. There is a great annual fair in Nov., lasting for a fortnight. Pop. 10,100. ALBRECHT. See ALBERT. AL'BRECHTSBERGER, JOHANN GerorG, 1736-1809; an Austrian musician, He studied under Mann, the Vienna court organist, and hecame one of the most learned and skillful contrapuntists of his age. In 1772 he was appointed court organist, and in 1792 kapellmeister of St. Stephen’s cathedral. Among his pupils were Beethoven, Humme:, Moscheles, Seyfried, and Weigl. His published works consist of preludes, fugues and sonatas for the piano and organ, and string quartettes ; but the greater portion 9 1 9 Albion. Albumen. of his labors are in manuscript, in possession of prince Esterhazy, His most valuable service to music was in his theoretical works, which substantially superseded earlier treatises. ALBRET, JEANNE D’, 1528-72, queen of Navarre, only daughter of Henry II. and Margaret, sister of Francis I. Jeanne married Antoine de Bourbon. She was celebrated for her intellectual strength and personal beauty. She embraced Calvinism, while her husband adhered to the Roman church, and asked the pope to annul his marriage; but Antoine died soon afterwards; and, in spite of Spanish menaces and Roman intrigue, Jeanne kept her possessions. In 1567 she declared the reformed religion established in the kingdom; and in 1569, with her children Henry and Catherine, she brought a small band of Huguenots to Coligny at La Rochelle, where, after the murder of the prince of Condé, she was looked upon as the only support of the Protestants. She wrote prose and verse, and some of her sonnets have been published. ALBRIGHT, JAcon, a Lutheran minister, 1759-1808; b. Pennsylvania; founder of the EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION (q.V.). ALBUCA’SIS, or ABoo-L-KasiM, d. 1110; the most celebrated of Arabian writers on surgery; supposed to have practiced in Cordova. His chief work on anatomy, physi- ology, and the practice of medicine and surgery, is of great value, the treatise on surgery pete the best that has come to us from antiquity, and important for tracing the progress of the art. ALBUER’A, in the Spanish province of Estremadura, an insignificant hamlet, famous for the battle of May 16, 1811, between the combined English, Spanish, and Portuguese forces under Gen. Beresford, and the French under Marshal Soult, who were scarcely so numerous, but had abundant artillery. The object of the latter was to compel the English to raise the siege of Badajos. The result was that Soult was obliged to retreat to Seville with the loss of 9000 men; the loss of the allied forces was about 7000. In proportion to the numbers engaged, the battle was the most sanguinary in the whole contest. The French had at first got possession of a height which commanded the whole position of the allied army, but they were driven from it by 6000 British, only 1500 of whom reached the top unwounded. ALBUFER’A (an Arabic word meaning ‘‘ the lake’), a lake near Valencia, in Spain, about 10 m. in length and the same in breadth, divided from the sea by a narrow tongue of land; a canal connects it with the city of Valencia. It is rich in fish and fowl, and is said to have been excavated by the Moors. From it marshal Suchet (q.v.) took the title of duke. ALBU’'GO is a term employed in surgery to designate the white opacity that often follows ulceration of the cornea of the eye. In infancy, the comparatively rapid inter- change of materials will often diminish to a great extent both the extent and density of these spots, but in after-life they do not undergo similar absorption, nor are they amenable to surgical relief. AL'BUM, amongst the Romans, was a white tablet overlaid with gypsum, on which were written the Annales Maximi of the pontifex, edicts of the pretor, and rules relative to civil matters. It was so called, either because it was composed of a white material, or because the letters used were of that color. 'To tamper with the names written on an A. was regarded by the Romans as a serious offense, and involved a severe penalty. In the middle ages the word was used to denote any list, catalogue, or register, whether of saints, soldiers, or civil functionaries. In the gymnasia and universities on the conti- nent the list of the names of the members is called the A. The name is also applied to the ‘‘ black board” on which public notifications of lectures, etc., are written up. But its popular signification in modern times is that of a book for containing photographs, or a blank book for a drawing-room table, and intended to receive the fugitive pieces of verse, or the signatures of distinguished persons, or sometimes merely drawings, prints, marine plants, etc. ALBU MEN, in physiological chemistry a definite proteid substance (now frequently spelt Albumin). It forms the chief ingredient in the white of egg, and abounds in the blood and chyle, and more or lessin all the serous fluids of the animal body: it also exists in the sap of vegetables, and in their seeds and other edible parts. A. forms the starting point of animal tissues, for in an egg during incubation all the parts of the chick are formed out of it. The organized substances, fibrine and caseine, have a chemical composition similar to A.; and hence, along with A., they are called albuminous compounds. A. may be considered a raw material of fibrine, and fibrine as animalized A. The chief component elements of A. are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with small proportions of phosphorus and sulphur. It is believed to be a definite chemical com- pound, though the exact proportions and the rational formula have not been definitely ascertained. Carbon forms about 54 per cent of it; nitrogen, 16; and sulphur, 2. It is the sulphur of the A. that blackens silver when brought in contact with eggs, and the smell of rotten eggs arises from the formation of sulphureted hydrogen during the decomposition. A. is soluble in water, and in such a state is found in the egg, the juice of flesh, the serum of blood, and the juice of vegetables ; when heated from 140° to 160° F. (48 to 71° C.) Albumen. Alburnum, 2 2 0 it coagulates, and is no longer soluble in water. With bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), acetate of lead (sugar of lead), nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), it forms insoluble compounds, and is therefore used as an antidote to these poisons. The property of coagulating with heat adapts A. for the purpose of clarifying in sugar-refining and other processes. The A. is added to the liquid in the cold state, allowed to mix thoroughly therein, and then, when heated, it coagulates, entangling and separating all the impurities suspended in the liquid. Kaph, K, variety of. ] Kappa. 3) 5 Lamed, t: Lambda. vy Mem, M. Mu. 3 Nun, N. Nu. | [co Samekh, S, variety of.] Sigma. y Ayn, a vowel. O(mikron). ED Pe, A Pi. [y Tsadi, TS.] 4 P Koph, K orQ Koppa. f Resh, R.] Rho. w/Sin, S.] San. pm Tau, Tey Tau. Leaving out of account the letters inclosed in brackets, which are not easily accounted for, and are possibly later interpolations, the whole fall into four groups, the law of which will best appear in the following scheme : w ow Re w 5 2 = = > Pe ee fe Pi a b g d Flats or medials. e v ch th Aspirates. 7) p k t Sharps. 4 y m n Liquids. *The theory was first propounded in 1833, by Prof. Key, of University college, London, in the Penny Cyclopedia, art. ‘’ Alphabet.”’ 815 Alphabet. Without entering at present into the nature of the relation between the letters in the several rows horizontal and vertical, of the scheme (for which see LETTERS), it will be seen that.group (1) in the Hebrew A. consists of a vowel followed by three mute letters, all having one character (flats or medials); that group (2) consists of a vowel followed by three mutes, also having one character (aspirates); and that group (4) consists in like manner of a vowel followed by three mutes, all of the same character (sharps). The order, moreover, according to the organ of utterance, in which the mutes follow in each group, is invariable: the labial (lip-sound) coming first; the palatal (palate-sound), second; and the dental (tooth-sound), last. This principle of arrangement is charac- terized by Dr. Latham as a céreulating order. Group (8) likewise consists of a vowel and four consonants of one character (liquids); but in this case the order of the vocal organs is not observed—at least in the form in which the Hebrew A. is known to us; in order to be symmetrical with the other groups, the sequence would require to be m, J, n. The nucleus of the original A. would thus seem to have consisted of 16 letters, grouped in four tetrads or quaternions, on an organic principle of arrangement. This principle is obscured in English and other modern alphabets, by some of the letters having gradually come to represent quite other sounds than their original. There is sufficient evidence, for example, that in the earliest Latin alphabet, from which the English is derived, the third letter, C, had the power of G (in gun). There was a subsequent period in the development of that language when the distinction between the sharp and flat palatal sounds seems to have been lost, and when two syllables like kam and gam would have been both pronounced alike (kam). C thus acquired the power of K, and the letter K itself went almost out of use. But about the time of the first Punic war (264-241 B.c.), the distinction between the sharp and the flat sounds revived; and while the original C continued ever after to have the power of K (Cicero, for instance, was pronounced Kikero), a new character (G) was formed from it, by a very slight alteration, to express the flat sound. Again, the modern H, which has in most cases become a mere evanes- cent breathing, can be traced back until it becomes a strong guttural, like CH in the Scotch word loch. The place of the third consonant in the cycle of aspirates is a com- plete blank in the alphabets derived from the Latin; because that language being originally destitute of the sound, dropped the sign of it, from the first. The Latins were, in fact, completely destitute of the genuine aspirate sounds; for even the letter F had not the sound we give it. Therefore, when they had to represent the aspirate consonants of the Greek language, ~, 7,9, they had recourse to the combinations ph, ch, th—a clumsy expedient still followed in modern alphabets derived from the Roman, and constituting one of their most serious defects.—The cycle of the sharps is pretty perfect in the English alphabet, for Q is only a variety of K. It is easy to conceive a language represented by 16 characters of the nature above described. The most serious deficiency would seem to be the want of rand s. But the sound of th is very nearly allied to that of s (witness ‘‘loves or loveth;” also the pro- nunciation of a person who lithpth), and one character might be made to stand for both, as easily as in English ¢ is made to represent two sounds so different as those exemplified in cat and city. Some nations, again, are said to make no distinction between 7 and /, so that one character might stand for both these sounds. But whether or not the Pheenician A. had originally only 16 letters, it is evident that when transplanted into Greece, it had 21 letters, if not 22. In accommodating itself to the necessities of the Greek tongue, it gradually underwent a series of changes. Some of the letters were modified: He became e; Cheth, ee; Sigma became & = 2, and the name Sigma was transferred to San. Other letters were altogether dropped, as Digamma (=v) and Koppa. On the other hand, for such simple sounds as had no (Spree DHE in the Phcenician, new characters were invented, and annexed to the end Vv, RP, X; > @ = Another important change was in the direction of the writing. In the Pheenician and other Semitic languages, the writing proceeded from right to left. The Greeks, on bor- rowing the Pheenician A., also wrote for some time from right to left. The mode called bustrophedon (turning like an ox in plowing), of writing alternately from right to left and from left to right, was then introduced; and finally the direction from left to right pre- vailed throughout the west, to the exclusion of the other modes. In the classical period of the Greek language, the A. had come to consist of 24 letters, as in columns 2, 3, 4 of the following table. Column 1 (copied from Ball- horn’s Alphabete) gives some of the earlier forms of the Greek letters, found on coins and other inscriptions, of the period when writing still proceeded from right to left; column 2 is from the Alexandrian Codex (q.v.), as given in Key’s Alphabet; and cols. 3 and 4 are the modern printed forms of capitals and small letters. The small characters are merely cursive forms or variations of the capitals; and it would not be difficult to show how, in each case, the endeavor to trace the capital on soft material rapidly and without lifting the hand, would give rise to the form now used as the small letter. With regard to the figures or shapes of the letters, it is believed that they all arose out of pictures or hieroglyphic characters. The names of the Hebrew letters are also the names of material objects; and the letters themselves were at first, in all probability, rude outlines of the objects. Aleph, for example, means an ‘‘ ox,” and the letter was in its origin an outline of an ox’s head. The history of Gimel, which means ‘‘ camel,” Alpha. 316 Alpheius,. is probably similar. The Hebrew characters known to us are believed to be compara- tively modern, and much corrupted from their original forms, and the likenesses are more difficult to trace in them than in the Samaritan and the early Greek, or even in the Latin. Mem, again, is the Hebrew word for ‘‘ water,” and some of the earliest forms of the letter M are zigzag lines, similar to the sign of Aquarius (“) in the zodiac, intended no doubt to represent the undulations of water. Ayn, the name of the Hebrew jetter equivalent to O, also means an ‘‘eye,” and the picture of an eye would naturally degenerate into a circle, first with a dot in the center (which some ancient O’s actually have), and then without a dot. Lire. Name. Pom, Nel A 2» Lambda 1 exams | TANIM) «em ‘A.a Alpha a ae a fr ; ; ; un ‘ 10 |Q]o « Omikron 0 (short) ‘ : ‘| ne Pi Pp 4 3 Delta d | E « Epsilon e (short) Fea: OTP |e e Rho r ze Zeta dis IMA|C | 2 os Sigms 6 0 El 6 (long) rT. Tm @ Theta th Eka to Y¥psilon « {ota i Pais & @ Phi f pb x Kappa &k X x Chi ch TTA] y y Pai ops MCS The A. came into Italy not directly from Pheenicia, but from Greece, and that at a time when the Greek A. had undergone some of the changes described above, although not all of them; v, g, and y had been added, but not ~ and w. Moreover, there must have been distinct and independent inrportations into more than one part of Italy, and that, probably, from different parts of Greece, or, at all events, at different periods. The Etrurian A.is evidently an earlier importation than the more southerly Latin, as it departs less from the Pheenician. There are even differences in different parts of Etruria itself. The alphabets of Etruria north of the Apennines (for numerous inscriptions recently discovered show that this remarkable race must have extended at one time as far north as the Alpine valleys of Provence, Tyrol, Graubiindten, and Styria) differ slightly from the alphabets of the inscriptions in Etruria proper, which are demonstrably taken from the A. of the Greek colony of Cere. 2a AA AA 12.m MWM, UIP OME yea 3 1b: 13.n IN, N, SFomn ye les i440 >, %,0,0 ade), bd Fg Be be E,W, 16.4 Q, Oita Wer RR, 22 Z, ws 5 S, Bh H, 19.'t hide * Loads 20. v (),.V 30. KK. (E) 2.x X = nN = om is The Latin A., which became that of Rome, and thus of the whole western world, was borrowed from a newer form of the Greek—namely, that imported by the Dorian » « A : Greeks of Cume and Sicily. The writing in the oldest Latin inscriptions is never from right to left, as is mostly the case in Etrurian. On the other hand the Kaph and the Koph (K and Q) of the Pheenician, which disappear in Etrurian, are retained in Latin. The Greek A. of Cume had not yet received the addition of y and » ; but it still retained the representative of the Phoenician Vaw, the Digamma, and also Koppa, and thus con- sisted of 24 letters. The Latin tongue, being destitute of aspirate sounds, dropped the three letters 9, ¢, v, so that the original Latin A. consisted of 21 letters, the forms of which, as seen on the oldest inscriptions, were as in the following table. See Corssen’s Aussprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache (Leip. 1858) ; Taylor, The Alphabet, 2 vols. (1883). Z was early dropped, and the new letter G (see above) substituted for it; and thus the Latin A. continued to the last to consist of 21 letters, until it was applied to the modern tongues of western Europe. The distinction made between w and v, and between 7 and j, in printing Latin books, is a modern innovation; and no Latin word contains either y orz. The five additional letters that make up the 26 of the English A., arose from the addition of z, and the development of 7 intoy, and of w into w, », and y. The Anglo-Saxon A. had two useful letters, which have disappeared from modern English—namely, one for the sound of ¢/ in thin, and one (or rather two) for that of th in thine. 'These were derived, in all probability, from the M«so-Gothic A., which (as well as the Russian and other Slavonic alphabets) was founded on the Greek rather than the Latin. The loss of these letters is owing to the influence of the Norman-French, Pa nenebet of which is exclusively Latin. The forms of the Anglo-Saxon letters are as under A a (4) N :u & «2 (V€) 0 o B »b P p c c« (CD) R +r (p) p da (6) s s {f) Ee (¢) tT & (6) eae Ns 0 ou Gg &Z W w Hr h (DB) X x oi PP) Rhea Say aE oats PP th Win ‘The characters between brackets were written by the Anglo-Saxons, but, being for the most part mere corruptions of the Roman forms, are now seldom printed.” —Vernon’s Anglo-Saxon Grammar. The peculiarities of the several letters will be noticed in their proper places. For their classification, and the defects and redundancies of the English A., see LETTERS AND ARTICULATE Sounps. Other points connected with this subject will be found under BuackK-LETTER, ORTHOGRAPHY, and PHONETIC WRITING. ALPHA AND OMEGA, the first and last letter of the Greek alphabet, employed to convey the idea of completeness or infinity; used ‘in Rev. xxii. 13, to signify Christ in His immeasurable fullness. In early church symbolism the letters combined with a cross in a monogram represented faith in the divinity of Christ, or in Christianity in general. ALPHE'IUS (now Ruféa, Rufia, or Rofia) is the chief river of Peloponnesus (Morea), rising in the se. of Arcadia, and flowing w. through Elis, and past the famous Olympia, into the Ionic sea. This river is one of the most celebrated in ancient song, and is cen- nected with a beautiful and characteristic Greek legend. The nature of the upper course of the A. was calculated to affect strongly the imagination of the Greeks. In its passage through Arcadia, a country consisting of cavernous limestone, and abounding in shut-in basins and valleys, it repeatedly disappears under ground and rises again. After these feats, it was capable of anything—even of flowing under the sea—and the Greek colonists of Sicily thought they recognized it in theirnew country. Close on the margin of the sea in the island of Ortygia (the site of Syracuse), there was a beautiful and copious fountain; and just where the water of this fountain joined the sea, another strong spring bubbled up under the salt water. This could only be another freak of the A.; and it was popularly believed that the sweepings of the temple of Olympia, after the great festival, when thrown into the river, reappeared in the springs at Ortygia. Strabo asserts as a fact that a cup did so. eae 818 This wonderful phenomenon found its explanation, as usual, in a myth, connecting it with the history of the gods. The river-god Alpheius became enamored of the nymph Arethusa while bathing in his stream. ‘Toescape him, she prayed to Diana, who changed her into a fountain, and opened up an underground passage for her to Ortygia. The river still pursued the object of his love, passing from Greece to Sicily below the sea, without mingling his waters with it, and appearing in the spring that bubbles up by the shore. ALPHONZO. See ALFONSO. ALPINE, a co. in e. California, on the Nevada border ; drained by the Carson and forks of the Stanislaus and Mokelumne ; 1000 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 667. Co. seat, Mark- leeville. ALPINE CLUB, an English society to promote mountain explorations, formed in 1858. Three members, Lord Francis Douglas, Mr. Hudson, and Mr. Haddo, lost their lives while descending the Matterhorn in July, 1865. There are similar clubs in other countries. See APPALACHIAN CLUB. ALPINE HUSBANDRY. The characteristic feature of A. farming is, that the prepa- ration of fodder is the chief object, and the cultivation of grain only secondary. In the less elevated regions bordering on the flat country, it is the practice to break up the grass from time to time, and take a succession of grain crops. In more elevated districts, the moisture of the climate and the shortness of the season of vegetation, prevent crops requiring tillage from coming to perfection, and there the whole attention is devoted to pasturage and the preparation of meadow-hay. The top-dressing of the plots devoted to hay-growing, with the solid and liquid manure of the cattle, the cutting and making of the hay, and transporting it to the farm-offices, occupy a great part of the labor of the population of the Alps. They turn to account for hay-making those shelves and crevices among the mountains which are inaccessible to cattle, and even goats; the herbage, which often grows luxuriantly in such situations, is cut, bound up in cloths or nets, and carried down difficult paths on the head, or is flung over the precipices. The grass-lands in the lower regions near the dwellings being mostly reserved for hay, the cattle are pastured in summer in those regions that lie too high or too remote to be inhabited in winter. These pastures consist of plateaus and slopes, which imme- diately on the disappearance of the snow, become clothed with a rich carpet of herbage and flowers. Each separate locality or pasture is called an alp. Some of these ‘‘ alps” belong to individuals; others to the commune or parish. The more rocky and steep places are pastured by sheep and goats. There are three zones or stages in the A. pastures. The cattle are driven to the first and lowest stage about the end of May; about a month later, they ascend to the ‘‘middle Alps;” and by the end of July, they reach the upper Alps. As the days shorten, they descend in the same gradual way, so that the whole ‘‘ Alp-time” lasts about 20 weeks. The pastures are provided with huts for those who have charge of the cattle, who also convert the milk into cheese. ALPINE PLANTS. This appellation is given not only to those plants which are found at elevations approaching the limit of perpetual snow in the Alps of central Europe, but also to plants belonging to other mountainous regions in any part of the world, whose natural place of growth is near snows that are never melted even by the beams of the summer’s sun. As the elevation of the snow-line, however, varies very much in different countries, according to the latitude, and also from peculiar local circumstances, the term A. P. is not so much significant of the actual elevation of the habitat, as of the average temperature which prevails there. On the Andes, near the equator, at an elevation of 12,000 to 15,000 ft. above the level of the sea, many kinds of plants are found, of humble rowth, resembling in their general appearance those which occur in Germany and witzerland at an elevation of 6000 ft.; and these, again, either resemble, or are even iden- tical with, the species which in Lapland grow upon hills of very little elevation, or which, in the northern parts of Siberia, are found at the level of the sea. Similar plants occur also in the Himalaya mountains, at elevations varying remarkably within very narrow geographical limits from local causes, which also create great differences in the general dryness or humidity of the atmosphere. The laws of this natural distribution of plants have been in our own day for the first time investigated and elucidated by Humboldt, Wahlenberg, Schouw, Decandolle, and others, and form the most essential part of a branch of science still in its infancy, and much requiring further study, phytogeography, or the science of the geographic distribution of plants. When the A. P. of central Europe are spoken of, those are meant which grow at an average height of 6000 ft., marking what, in the language of phytogeographic science, is called zone. ‘This, on its northern limit, the Riesengebirge, or Giants’ mountains, falls as low as 4000 ft., and rises, in the southern Alps and Pyrenees, to an elevation of 9000 ft., and sometimes even above it. Although very rich in forms peculiarly its own, this zone contains many plants which are likewise found on much lower hills, and even in the plains. The number of these, how- ever, diminishes as the elevation increases. Hence the small spaces clear of snow in the highest regions possess a very characteristic flora, the plants of which are distinguished by a very low diminutive habit, and an inclination to form a thick turf, frequently, also, 819 AE: by a covering of wooly hairs, whilst their stems are very often either partly or altogether ‘woody, and their flowers are in proportion remarkably large, of brilliant colors, and in many instances very odoriferous, upon which accounts, they remarkably attract and please the occasional visitors from the plains. In the Alps of central Europe, the eye is at once caught by gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, and various species of primrose. With these and other phanerogamous plants, are associated a number of delicate ferns and exceedingly beautiful mosses. The highest mountains in Scotland exhibit a some- what similar flora, and beautiful plants, both phanerogamous and cryptogamous, are found on them, which never appear in lower situations, as the Alpine speedwell (veronica | Alpina), the small Alpine gentian (gentiana nivalis), the rock scorpion grass, or Alpine . forget-me-not (myosotis Alpestris), azalea procumbens, woodsia tlvensis, and hyperborea, etc. Many A. P. are limited to a very small district. Thus, the flora of Switzerland differs considerably from that of Germany, the latter being now known to contain 3400 phan- erogamous plants, of which the former contains 2200, and along with them also 126 species which have hitherto been found only in the Swiss Alps.—There are, moreover, particular species of plants which are found only in single localities, as hypertewm corvs, upon the mountain of Wiggis in the canton of Glarus; wulfenca carinthiaca, upon the Kiweger Alp, in upper Carinthia, and many others. There are, however, many species which, occurring on the mountains of central Europe, appear also in those of Britain and of Scandinavia at lower altitudes, but are not found in the intervening plains. See D1s- ‘TRIBUTIONS OF Lire.—Cryptogamic plants are generally found in Alpine regions in much greater abundance than elsewhere. The transplanting of A. P. into gardens is attended with great difficulties, and is rarely successful. Their great beauty, even when dried, makes them favorites with those plant collectors who have amusement more in view than the mere interests of science. Small herbaria of them are offered for sale every- where in Switzerland; and in some places, large collections have been prepared and thrown open to the public. ALPY’NI, Prospero, 1553-1617, a Venetian botanist and physician. He served in the army when young, but left it to study medicine, to which he added a passion for botany. Being made physician to the Venetian consul at Cairo, A. spent three years in Egypt in his favorite study. He anticipated Linneus in learning the sexual differences of plants, and one of his papers gave Europe the first notice of the coffee shrub. He filled the botanical chair in the university of Padua for many years. The genus Alpint, order Zingiberacee, is named after him. ALPINIA. See GALANGALE. ALP'NACH, or ALPNACHT, a Swiss village, in the canton of Unterwalden, at the foot of Mt. Pilatus, 14 m. from that part of lake Lucerne called lake A. It is known princi- pally on account of its celebrated ‘‘slide.” This was a sort of wooden trough by which the felled timber of Mt. Pilatus was conveyed with amazing velocity from a height of 2500 ft. down tothe lake. In order to prevent friction, the trough was perpetually lubri- cated by a slender rill of water. It is no longer used, the wood bemg now drawn down ‘by horses and oxen. Pop. about 2000. ALPS, the most extensive system of lofty mountains in Europe, raise their giant masses on a basis of 90,000 sq.m., between 6° 40’ and 18° e. long., and extending in some places from the 44th to the 48th parallel of latitude. The word Alp or Ald signifies in the Celtic language ‘‘ height ;” but the Latin albus (white) may have given the name to these mountains, perpetually crowned with snow. The Alpine system is bounded on the n. by the hilly ground of Switzerland and the upper plain of the Danube; on the e. by the low plains of Hungary; on the s. by the Adriatic sea, the plains of Lombardy, and the gulf of Genoa; and on the w. by the plains of Provence and the valley of the Rhone. A string of lakes encircles both the northern and southern bases of these mountains, the former at an elevation of 1200 to 2000 ft.; the latter, 600 to 700 ft. The varied natural scenery of France, Italy, Germany, and Hungary has a common center of union in this lofty region. Valleys open out in all directions, sending their melted snows on one side into the North sea, on another into the Black sea, and on another into the Mediterranean. The water-system of the A. may be thus briefly sketched: 1. In the basin of the Rhine there is the Rhine itself, which partly forms the lake of Constance, at the north-eastern extremity of Switzerland, and receives on the left the important tributaries of-the Thur and the Aar; the latter of which flows through lakes Brienz and Thun, and is itself augmented by various affluents, the largest of which are the Reuss and the Limmat. 2. In the basin of the Danube there flow from the s. the Iller, Lech, Isar, and the Inn. Still further e., the Danube has for its tributaries the Traun, the Eas, the Raab, the Drave, and the Save, the last three of which have their sources in the extreme eastern A. 3. In the basin of the Po there are numerous streams, which rise in the southern A.; the principal of these are the Dora Baltea, the Sesia, the Ticino from lake Maggiore, the Mincio from lake Garda, and the Adige. 4. In the basin of the Rhone there are the Rhone (flowing through the lake of Geneva), and various Alpine tributaries, the most important of which are the Arve, the Isére, and the Durance. 5. The Var is the principal Ligurian coast-stream; the Piave, and the Tagliamento, the largest of those which fall into the Adriatic from the southern A. 520 Alps. Divisions.—In order to give a clear view of the manifold ranges of this mountain-land, a distinction is generally made between the e., the w., and the middle A.; the last of which is again divided into a northern, central, and southern chain ; while a natural sep- aration by river-valleys into groups is also made. I. Wrest A.—The principal ranges of these are: 1. The Maritime A., extending from the middle Durance southwards to the Mediterranean, and rising in the Rocca dell’ Argentera to 10,795 ft. 2. The Cottian A., north of these, whose highest summit, monte Viso, is 13,599 ft. 3. The Graian A., forming the boundary between Savoy and Piedmont, and attaining in mont Iséran an elevation of 13,272 ft., and in mont Cenis, an elevation of 11,457 ft. Il. MippLeE A. Yentral Chain.—1. The Pennine A., between the plains of Lombardy and the valley of the Rhone. Highest summits: Mont Blanc, 15,744 ft.; monte Rosa, 15,151 ft.; mont Cervin, 14,836 ft. 2. The Lepontian or Helvetian A., from the depression of the Sim- plon, along the plateau and masses of St. Gothard (12,000 ft.), to the pass of mont Spliigen. 38. The Rhetian A., between the Inn, the Adda, and the Upper Adige. North- ern Chain.—1. The Bernese A., between the Rhone and the Aar; highest summits: Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft.; Jungfrau, 13,716 ft.; Schreckhorn, 13,397 ft. 2. The A. of the four ‘‘ Forest Cantons,” the Schwytz A., etc. The Southern Chain.—1. The Oertler A., between the Adda and the Adige; highest summit, Oertlerspitz, 12,822 ft. 2. The Trientine A., between the Adige and the Piave ; highest summit, La Marmolata, 9802 ft. III. Easr A.—The principal chains of these are: 1. The Noric A., between the plains of the Drave and the Danube; highest summit, Gross-Glockner, 12,481 ft. 2. The Carnic A., between the Drave and the Save. 3. The Julian A., between the Save and the Adriatic sea; highest summit, mont Terglu, 9366 ft. Elevation.—With respect to height, it isa general rule that the A. are lowest where the system is broadest, that is, in the e., and highest where the system is narrowest, that is, towards the w. Making a threefold distinction of crests, summits, and passes, the principal ranges may be characterized as follows: The crest-line : (1) of west A., 6000 to 11,000 ft.; (2) of middle A., 9000 to 13,000 ft.; (8) of east A., 8600 to 9000 ft. The sum- mits : (1) of west A., 9000 to 14,000 ft.; (2) of middle A., 9000 to 15,800 ft.; (8) of east A., 6000 to 12,000 ft. Height of the passes: (1) of west A., 4000 to 8000 ft.; (2) of middle A., 6500 to 11,000 ft.; (8) of east A., 8500 to 6000 ft. A comprehensive classification leads to a division of the elevations into three regions : 1. The lower range forming the buttresses of the main masses, and reaching a height of 2500 to 6000 ft.; that is, to the extreme limit of the growth of wood. 2. The middle zone lying between the former limit and the snow-line, at the elevation of 8000 to 9000 ft. 3. The high A., rising to 15,744 ft. The middle zone forms the region of mountain-pastur- ages, where the characteristic Alpine dairy-farming is carried on. These pastures con- sist of a rich carpet of grass and flowers. This threefold division of heights, however, does not everywhere coincide with the same phenomena of vegetation : the line of per- petual snow descends lower on the n. side, and the boundaries of the zones above de- scribed vary accordingly. 1. The line of demarkation between the region of mosses and Alpine plants and that of perpetual snow, is from 8000 to 9000 feet on the northern de- clivities ; but on the southern it approaches 10,000 ft. 2. The highest limit to which wood attains on the n. is about 6000 ft., while on thes. it is nearly 7000 ft. 38. Grain, beech, and oak on the n. disappear at the elevation of 4000 ft.; on the s. they contrive to exist some hundreds of ft. higher. 4. The region of the vine, as well as of maize and chestnuts, extends to an elevation of 1900 ft. on the northern declivity, and on the south- ern declivity to 2500 ft. The ranges of outlying lower mountains which flank the high central A. on the n., e., and w. are mostly wanting on the s., especially where the mid- dle A. descend into the plains of Lombardy. ‘Thus the A. rise in steep rocky precipices from the level of the flat plains of the Po, whilst they sink more gradually into the plains. on the n.; hence their mighty masses closely piled together present an aspect from the s. more grand and awful ; from the n. more extended and various. Valleys.—The variety of the valleys as to form and arrangement is not less striking than in the elevations. Most worthy of notice is the characteristic form of the wide: longitudinal valleys that lie at the foot of the high central chains. On the e. side they open directly into the plain; on the n. they are connected with the plain through transverse valleys which often end in lakes. The transverse valleys on the s. side are mostly in the shape of steep rocky ravines, forming in some parts long-stretching lakes. Besides the deep-sunk principal valleys, there are extensive series of basin-shaped sec. ondary valleys, which are the scenes of Alpine life, properly so called. Many of the Alpine valleys have names distinct from the rivers flowing through them. Thus, the valley of the Rhone is styled the upper and lower Valais ; that of the Adda, the Valte- line ; of the Arve, Chamounix. Communications—Passes.—The valleys of the high A. form the natural means of com. munication. Some are more accessible than others. The entrance into a longitudinal valley is almost always smooth and easy; art has often had to force an entrance into a transverse valley. On many of the high-roads which link the principal with the second- ary valleys, it has been found necessary to blow up long ridges of rock, to build terraces, to make stone-bridges and long galleries of rock as a protection against avalanches, as well as to erect places of shelter (Aospices) from storms. The construction of these roads may be reckoned among the boldest and most skillful worksof man. In crossing theA., 321 Alps, several defiles (usually seven) have to be traversed; for in addition to the pass of the main crest, there are other defiles on both sides at the entrance of the different valleys. In the e., the numher of these narrow passes or defiles is considerably increased. The names applied to the Alpine passes vary according to their natural features or the local dialect; as Pass Sattel (saddle), Joch (yoke) Scheideck, Klause, Col, Chiusa. The trav- eler, in the course of a day’s journey, experiences a succession of climatic changes, which is accompanied with an equal variety in the manners of the people. No lofty mountains in the world can boast of being so easily crossed as the European A. Hence we can understand how the plains of upper Italy, accessible from the French, German, and Hungarian sides, have been the theater of bloody strife for ages. The passage of the West A. is made by five principal roads: 1. The military road, La Corniche, a coast-road at the foot of the A. from Nice to Genoa, parallel to which a rail- way nowruns. 2. The causeway over the Col-di-Tenda, between Nice and Coni, made in 1778; highest point, 5890 ft. 3. The high-road over Mt. Genévre, connecting Provence and Dauphiné with Turin; highest point, 6550 ft. 4. The carriage-road made by Napo- leon in 1805, over Mt. Cenis, connecting Savoy with Piedmont; highest point, 6770 ft. Near this the chain is pierced by the railway tunnel (see TUNNEL, and CENIs). 5. The pass of the Little St. Bernard, connecting Geneva, Savoy, and Piedmont; highest point, 7190 ft. By this pass Hannibal crossed into Italy. It is not much used now. Besides these great roads, there are many smaller ones branching off from them, which form a pretty close net-work of communication. The passage of the M1ipDLE A. is made by eight principal roads: 1. That of the Great St. Bernard, connecting the vailey of the Rhone with Piedmont; highest point, 8170 ft. It was crossed by,Napoleonin 1800. 2. The magnificent road over the Simplon, constructed by Napoleon, 1801-1806, and con- necting the Valais with the confines of Piedmont and Lombardy ; highest point, 6570 ft. 3. Between the Great St. Bernard and monte Rosa is the Col of mont Cervin, the loftiest pass in Europe, being nearly 11,200 ft., connecting Piedmont with the Valais. 4. The pass of St. Gothard, connecting Lucerne with Lago Maggiore; highest point, 6800 ft. It is about to be crossed by arailway. 5. The Bernardin pass, made 1819-28, by the Swiss Grisons and Sardinia ; highest point, 6800 ft. 6. The Spliigen pass, repaired in 1822, connecting the sources of the Rhine with the Adda. This pass was the one used by the Romans in their intercourse with the countries bordering on the Danube and the Rhine, and also by the German armies on their marches into Italy in the middle ages. 7. The Wormser Joch, also called the Orteles pass, or road, opened by Austria in 1824. It is the loftiest carriage-road in Europe, and connects the Tyrol with Lombardy. 8. The Brenner pass, known to the Romans. It also connects the Tyrol with Lombardy ; highest point, 4650 ft. It is now crossed by a railway. Besides these great roads, lead- ing s. into Italy, there are twc ~which lead n. from the valley of the Rhone, and cross the Bernese A., over the Grimsel pass, 6500 ft. high, and the Gemmi pass, 7490 ft. high. The roads over the East A. are much lower and also much more numerovs than those in the MippLE or West A. The prircipal are: 1. The road from Venice to Salzburg, crossing the Noric A. at an elevation of rather more than 5100 ft. 2. The road over the Carnic A., which divides into three branches—the first leading to Laybach ; the second, to the valley of the Isonzo; and the third, to the valley of the Tagliamento. 3. The roads 1:0m the Danube at Linz to Laybach. Geology.—The A. offer a rich field for geological investigations, the results of which hitherto may be thus summed up: The highest central mass—the primary A., as they are called—that rises from the plain to the s.w. of Turin, and stretches in a mighty curve to the Neusiedlersee, in Hungary, consists chiefly of the crystalline rocks gneiss and mica-slate, with a much smaller proportion of granite. Inclosed among the central A. appear representatives of the carboniferous and jurassic formations ; but so altered and become so crystalline that their age can only be guessed trom a few remaining petrefac- tions, which are accompanied here and there by garnets. In the Graian, Pennine, and Rheetian A. occur great masses of serpentine ; in the n. of Piedmont, and in the upper valley of the Adige, quartz-porphyry. In the e. there are, on the n. ands. sides of the chief range, vast deposits of clay-slate and grauwacke mixed with transition limestone. Beginning on the Mediterranean coast, and following in general the direction of the central chains, a belt of sedimentary rocks runs along the w. and n. sides to the neighbor- hood of Vienna. On the s. sidea similar belt runs from lake Maggiore to Agram. The undulating curves and colossal dislocations presented by these regions show that the form of their mountains must have been the result of a mighty force acting northwards and southwards from the central A. In respect of age, these sedimentary or calcareous A. include all the members of the series of formations from magnesian limestone up to the lowest strata of the tertiary group. The south-eastern portion of these calcareous mountains, forming the Julian A., mostly consist of cavernous rocks of the jurassic and chalk groups; and are continued with this character into Dalmatia. Minerals.—Precious stones are found in abundance in the trap and primary moun- tains, especially in the region of the St. Gothard. The rock-crystal of St. Gothard has a world-wide reputation. Mining and smelting become more and more productive as we advance eastward. Switzerland itself is poor in useful ores. Gold and silver are found in Tyrol, Salzburg, and Carinthia ; there are also silver-mines in Styria and Illyria, and one near Grenoble, in France. Copper is found in the French A..in Tyrol, and Styria 1.—11 A j a . Alseierre* 322 The lead-mines near Villach, in Carinthia, yield Aaa about 35,000 cwt. The yield of iron in Switzerland, Savoy, and Salzburg is trifling; Carinthia, on the other hand, pro- duces 260,000 cwt., and Styria 450,000 cwt. Quicksilver is extracted at Idria, in Carni- ola, to the amount of 1000 to 1500 cwt. The Alpine region 1s rich in salt, especially at Hall in Tyrol, and Hallein in Salzburg. Coal is found in Switzerland, in Savoy, and in the French A., but in no great quantity; the Austrian A. are, again, richer in this im- portant mineral. The mineral springs, hot! and cold, that occur in the region of the A. areinnumerable. See Arx, IscHL, LEuK, BADEN, etc. Animals.—The Alpine mountains present many peculiarities worthy of notice in the animal as well as in the vegetable kingdom (see ALPINE PLANTS). On the sunny heights the number of insects is very great; the butterflies are especially numerous. There are few fishes, although trout are sometimes caught in ponds even 6000 ft. above the level of the sea, Although the lofty mountains are inhabited by eagles, hawks, and various species of owls, yet the birds are few in comparison with the numbers in the plains, and those few are mostly confined to the larger valleys. Among the quadrupeds, the wild goat is sometimes, though rarely, to be met with ; the chamois is more frequently seen, chiefly in the eastern districts. The marmot inhabits the upper Alpine regions. Wolves are seen more frequently in the w. than in the e.; in the latter, on the other hand, bears, lynxes, and wild-cats are found, although constantly diminishing in number. Of the omestic animals, goats and oxen are scattered everywhere in large herds. There are fewer sheep and horses, and these are not of good breeds. Mules and asses are used more frequently in the s. than in the n., especially as beasts of burden. Swine and dogs are not commdh ; the latter are used almost solely by the herdsmen, or are kept in the hospices, to assist in searching for the unfortunate wanderers who may be lost in the snow. The Alpine mountains are rich in singularly beautiful natural scenery, of which the inhabitants of flat. countries can scarcely form an idea. Nature in the A. has an infinite variety of aspects. Here the hardened masses of the icy glacier cover the naked rock, avalanches are hurled into immeasurable abysses, the fall of rocks or mountain-slips overwhelm the dwellings, and cover the fields in the valleys; and in the e., the dora, with its hurricane strength, hurls before it the upraised masses of snow. There the sun glances upon the scattered silver threads of a water-fall, or mirrors himself in the peace- ful waters of a glassy lake, while his rising and his setting are announced to the expectant traveler by the ruddy glow on the snowy mountain-tops. The inhabitant of the A., sur- rounded on every side by mountains, is unconsciously subdued by their presence, and receives from them a peculiar stamp of character ; their dangers fascinate him as well as their charms. The most ceaseless variety of occupation demands all his time and his thoughts; in the mountains he acknowledges his only despots, who seize his soul, and lead it unresistingly. In his constant struggle with the elements, the Alpine dweller strengthens both his mind and body; he opens his heart to the impressions of nature; he gives utterance to his childlike gladness in simple songs, and at the same time defends with self-sacrificing devotion his mountain-fortresses against foreign aggression. But the manners and spirit of the neighboring plains have penetrated into the larger valleys along with the dust of the highway. ‘There the true Alpine life has more and more passed away. The simplicity and characteristic industry of the Alpine farms are now preserved only in the higher secondary valleys. Six states share the A. The western portion is shared by France and Italy. Switz- erland claims the middle A. almost exclusively for her own. Bavaria has only a small share. Austria has the largest share of the A.—in the provinces of Tyrol, Illyria, Styria, and the archduchy. The wide valleys opening to the e. allow the civilization of the plains to enter easily among the mountains. The value of the minerals, and the fertility of the soil, have permitted mining, manufactures, and agriculture to take firm root, and a flourishing trade has caused large towns to usurp the place of mere Alpine villages. In the Tyrol, the pastoral life of the mountains has long been mixed up with the work- ing of mines of salt or other minerals. The inhabitants of whole valleys are occupied in various branches of industry toa greater extent than in any other district of the A., and their sons travel far and near as artisans. See H. and A. Schlagintweit, Researches into the Physica! Geography of the A. (Untersuchungen dber die die Physikalische Geo- graphie der Alpen), Leip. 1850. ALPUJAR’RAS (a corruption of an Arabic word which signifies ‘‘ grass’”—an allusion to the splendid pasturage on the n. side), a range of mountains parallel to the Sierra Nevada, and approaching the coast of the Mediterranean sea. Their southern side is precipitous, but the northern slopes away into broad valleys, beyond which rises the Sierra Nevada. They commence in the w. at Motril, where they are separated by the Guadalfeo from the jower Sierra de Holucar, and the adjacent vine-covered hills of Malaga, and stretch as far e. as the river Almeria. The range is divided into two parts by the Adra, each of which bears a particular name. The highest peaks reach an elevation of 7000 ft. On the n. side, owing to the copious rains, there is the richest pasturage, both in the deep valleys and on the uplands. The southern slope, however, is almost destitute of trees or shrubs, with the exception of the fertile valleys near the sea, which are abundantl watered by numerous little streams. Here flourish, under an almost tropical climate, i 328 | Alndaeree the products of the south, even the date-palm and the sugar-cane. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in rearing sheep, and in cultivating the vine and other fruits. A little mining also goes on. Lead, antimony, and silver are got. The Moorish element is still quite discernible in the population of this mountain region. ALREDUS, or ALRED. See ALURED. ALSACE’, a German district, forming, along with Lorraine, an imperial territory (Reichsland), reunited (all but the small district of Belfort) to that country in 1871, after two centuries’ possession by France. It lies between the Rhine on the e. and the Vosges mountains on the w., extending s. to Switzerland, and n. to Rhenish Bavaria, and occupying 3200 square miles. It is exceedingly fertile ; rich also in mines and manu- factures ; and contains the important cities of Strasbourg, Colmar, and Miilhausen. In Cxesar’s time, A. was occupied by Celtic tribes ; but during the decline of the empire, the Alemanni and other tribes from beyond the Rhine occupied and completely Germanized it. It afterwards formed part of the German empire, under various sovereign dukes and princes, latterly of the house of Hapsburg ; till a part of it was ceded to France at the peace of Westphalia, and the rest fell a prey to the aggressions of Louis XIV., who seized Strasbourg (1681) by surprise in time of peace. By the peace of Ryswick (1697), the cession of the whole was ratified. 'Thus—as the Germans used to complain—was this fine land, and one of the noblest branches of the race alienated, from the German people, and the command of the German Rhine disgracefully surrendered to the enemy in the time of misfortune, and, more disgraceful still, not demanded back when fortune favored. German never ceased to be the language of the people, and all newspapers were, during the whole period of the French possession, printed in both languages. The language question agitated the province again, in 1883, when an attempt was made to banish French from the schools, by devoting but two hours weekly to its study, instead of four, and by compelling the use of the German language in the deliberations of the provincial committee. Alsace-Lorraine has an area of 5601 sq. m., with a pop. in 1895 of 1,640,986, which is 293 per sq.m. It is administratively divided into three districts: Ober-Elsass, Unter- Elsass, and Lothringen. The area and population are as follows: Ewe Area Pop. Pop. District. sq.m. Dee. ’90. Dee. 95. Oper=Bilsasserelacpccctes aoletvicvee sists cialis sisiecletis sree 1,354 471,609 477,477 (UniteraH sass eter tatele ce tie tre ole reibin. dis aletn siatore sie tela 1,846 621,505 638,624 DOGDTIM ORs wr mins cain b pis ele wind bet + aale'g o 5m o>» 2,401 510,392 524,885 Dota lenn ttecitns romeo e cet a eciaisls icie aks sieve 5,601 1,603,506 1,640,986 In Alsace-Lorraine the annual increase in population from 1875 to 1880 was 0.45 per cent.; 1880-85 an annual decrease of 0.03 per cent.; 1885-90 an annual increase of 0.5 per cent. The census of 1890 showed 1,227,225 Roman Catholics, 337,476 Protestants, a few members of other Christian sects, and 34,645 Jews. About 1,393,000 were German and 210,000 of French origin. The three principal cities are Strasbourg, capital of Ober- Elsass, pop. 135,318; Miilhausen, capital of Unter-Elsass, pop. 83,040, and Metz, pop. 59,728. The constitution of the German empire was introduced Jan. 1, 1874. The administration is under a governor-general bearing the title of ‘‘ Statthalter,’? and under him are governors for the three districts. The revenues are derived largely from cus- toms and indirect taxes. ALSA'TIA, the popular name of Whitefriars, London, which served early in the ‘17th c. as a refuge for criminals; but this immunity was abolished by parliament in 1697. AL'SEN (Dan. Als), an island in the Baltic, in the Prussian province of Slesvig- Holstein, and extending from the Apenrade to the Flensborg Fiord, is separated from the mainland by the sound of A., in part very narrow but deep. Its greatest Jength is nearly 20 m. ; its greatest breadth about 12; lat. 54° 46’ n., long. 9° 52’ e. The island, one of the finest in the Baltic, has a picturesque appearance, is very fertile, with rich woods, and numerous lakes abounding in fish. Its fruit-trees are celebrated over all Slesvig. The Gravenstein apple, in particular, forms an important article of commerce. The chief towns are Sonderborg or Siidborg (South Town), and Norborg or Nordburg (North Town). The former has an excellent harbor, with a population of abt, 5000. Close to the harbor are the ruins of an old and famous castle belonging to the Augusten’ borg family. Here Christian II., of Denmark and Norway, was confined from 1582 to 1549. In the war of 1864, A. was taken by the Prussians from the Danes. AL'STED, JoHann HErnricu, 1588-1638 ; a German Protestant divine and volum- inous writer, professor of philosophy and divinity at Weissenburg. His Hncyclopedia, Thesaurus Chronologie, and De Millie Annis, are well known. The latter was 2 prophecy that the thousand years, or millennium, during which the saints were to reign on the earth, would commence in 1694. AL'STER, a river in Holstein, is formed by the confluence of three streams, and, in the neighborhood of Hamburg, spreads itself out, and forms a lake, called the Great or Ourer A., and, within the t., the Inner A, It flows by several canals into the Elbe. Alston, Altay: , 5324 ALSTON, Joun, d. 1846; a Glasgow merchant who introduced books printed in raised letters for the blind. He published the Bible in such letters, and more than 20 volumes of other works, besides maps and charts. AL'STREMER, or ALSTROMER, Jonas, 1685-1761 ; a Swedish industrial reformer. He was a clerk and a shipbroker in London, and undertook to introduce English indus- tries in his native country, where he established a woolen factory, a sugar refinery, and improvements in farming, in ship-building, tanning, etc. His best success was in bringing sheep from England, Angora, and Spain. High honors were given him ; he was made a noble, with permission to change his name to Alstrémer, and there is a statue of him in the Stockholm exchange. AL'STREMER, or ALSTROMER, Kuas, 1736-96; son of Jonas; a botanist, having for his master and friend, Linnzus, who named in his honor the genus Alstroemeria. He visited Spain and wrote a work on the breeding of fine-wooled sheep. ALSTREMERTA or ALSTR@MER’S Lity, a genus of plants of the natural order Amaryllidew (q.v.), and, according to Lindley, of the tribe Alstrameriew, which is distinguished by fibrous—not bulbous—roots, and by having the outer segments of the perianth different in form from the inner. In this genus, the two lower segments are somewhat tubular at the base, the capsules do not gape when ripe, are 8-valved or pulpy within, and the seeds globose. The leaves are twisted, so that what should be the upper surface, becomes the lower. The species are numerous, natives of the warmer parts of America. Many of them have tuberous roots. Some are sufficiently hardy to endure the open air in Britain, and are admired ornaments of our flower-gardens. Some have climbing or twining stems; amongst these is the salsilla (A. salsilla), a plant of great beauty, with lanceolate leaves, a native of Peru, which is cultivated in the West Indies, and its tubers eaten like those of the potato. In Britain, it requires the stcve or a hot- bed. A. ovata, also a beautiful plant, with a slender twining stem, and ovate leaves, is cultivated in Chili for its tubers, which are used as food. It has been introduced into Britain, but its cultivation has made little progress. The tubers weigh from 8 to 6 ounces. A kind of arrow-root is also prepared in Chili from the succulent roots of A. pallida and other species. _ ALT, or ALTEN (Ger. “‘old”), a prefix to many names in Europe as “alt-dorf,” ‘old village,” or ‘‘old town.” ALTAI' (A. Yeen Oola) is the term vaguely applied to the high range in the e. of Asia, forming the northern border of that vast table-land known by the name of Chinese Tartary, and extending from 80° to 142°e. long. The A. mountains constitute the boundary between the Russian and Chinese empires, or between the long icy low- lands of Siberia, stretching away to the Arctic sea, and the variegated central plateau that lies s.of them. Their general direction is from e.to w. They are divided into many ranges and groups, each having a distinctive name. From the sea of Okhotsk, in the extreme e. of Asia, they extend in a broad and winding mass to the plains of Turke- stan, a little to the w. of lake Zaisan, or Zaizang, a distance of more than 3000 m. The breadth of the system is, in some places, not less than 800 to 900 m. From Okhotsk to the Lena, it is called the Aldan chain ; it 1s next separated into three groups by the val- leys of the Amur, Yenisei, and Irtish, the last of which is called the little A., to distin- guish it from the spur that strikes off into Chinese Tartary in a south-easterly direction, which is called the great A., a range that in some places towers into the region of per- petual snow, and whose most easterly cliffs abruptly disappear in the dark clouds which overhang the sandy steppes of Gobi. The Russian A., between Semipalatinsk and the sources of the Obi, have been colonized by the Russians, and as they rival the Ural mountains in their mineral wealth, they have already become one of the most important districts of the Russian empire. This chain consists of a broad Alpine range on the north-western edge of Chinese Tartary, and is called the Altai-Bjelki, or Snowy moun- tains. It reaches in its highest peaks an elevation of nearly 11,000 ft. Little is known of the geology of the Altaian system. Jasper is found in considerable abundance near the summits, red porphyry lower down, and granite still lower. Around lake Baikal there are numerous granitic masses, interspersed with newer igneous formations, but active volcanoes do not appear until the range reaches Kamtchatka. The mines are rich in gold, silver, copper, and lead. The botany of the mountains is as imperfectly known as the geology, but it seems to be worthy of closer attention. N.of the A.-Bjelki lies the broad zone of the A. mineral districts, the inhabitants of which are employed as miners and agricultural laborers, over whom a strict watch is kept. The s.e. is peopled by the Calmucks of the mountains, a Mongolian race. They are heathens, and their government is a patriarchalone. They lead a nomadic life, encamping in summer among the rich pastures on the mountain-terraces, and in winter within the sheltered recesses of the woody glens. _ ALTA’ MOUNTAINS. Since the article Aurar was originally written, the explora- tions of Russian surveyors have led to a more definite knowledge of the form and limits of this important range, now described as a separate system, one of the four parallel chains which constitute the skeleton of eastern high Asia, covering the great table-land. The A. forms an alpine girdle, intersected by wide valleys traversed by many streams, ~ Alston. 325 Altar among which are the Tez river, flowing w. to the Ubsa Nor (lake), and the Kobdo, flow- ing s, to the Tke Aral lake. The general direction of the range is from w. to e., about the parallel of 50° n. It extends between the meridians of 84° and 100°e. On the e, the A. is separated from the Daurian mountain-system by lakes Kosgol and Baikal; on the w. it terminates in the Katunsk mountains, a small isolated group, in which Mt. Beluka rises to 12,790 ft., far above the line of perennial snow, with extensive glaciers on its western flanks. The climate of the A. is not sosevere as might be inferred from its position. The winters are frequently mild, and comparatively little snow falls. The mountain slopes are covered with rich grass, and their flanks are in many parts adorned by magnificent cedar forests. Stags, hares, and wolves abound in the lower, and bears in the higher portions of the range. The A. is celebrated for its gold, silver, and lead mines. Barnaul, on the northern slope of the range, is the chief mining town; and the village of Zeminogorski, s. of Barnaul, is in the center of the richest silver mines in the Russian empire. N.of the Ubsa Nor (lake), the Tangnu Ula mountains, connected with the A. on the n., rise to upwards of 11,000 ft. They furnish abundance of white marble of an excellent quality. ALTAMU'RA, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Bari, and 28 m.s.w. from Bari, at the eastern base of the Apennines. It is a well-built and beautiful t., surrounded with walls, and having a magnificent cathedral. The surrounding country is fertile, produces much oil and wine, and abounds in rich pastures. A.is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Zupazia. Many fine Grecian antiquities have been dug up. Pop. abt. 18,000. ALTAR (Lat. aliare, from altus, high), the place whereon offerings were laid both by Jews and heathens. The first on record is that which Noah built on leaving the ark. The Israelites, after the giving of the Law, were commanded to make one. We find, from the Old Testament (1 Kings iii. 3; 1 Kings xi. 7; and 2 Kings xxiii. 15), that altars were often erected on high places—sometimes, also, on the roofs of houses. Both in the Jewish tabernacle and temple there were two altars, one for sacrifices, and another for incense. For a minute description of these, see Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. The Jewish and oriental altars were generally either square, oblong, or approximating to such ; those of Greece and Rome, on the other hand, were often round. Sacrifices were offered to the infernal gods, not on altars,.but in cavities dug in the ground. The word has been transferred into the Christian system. For upwards of five centuries, altars in the Christian churches were, for the most part, made of wood ; but in 509 A.D., it was decreed by a council held at Epone, in France, that none should be consecrated with chrism except those built of stone. In the first ages of Christianity, there was only one A. in a church; but, from a very early time, the Latins have used more than one. In the 12th c., the adorning of churches with images and numerous altars was carried to a great extent, and they were embellished with gold, silver, and precious stones. The Greek church use but one A. Altars were frequently placed at the w. end of the ancient churches, instead of the e., but in England almost uniformly in thee. The only perfect A. of the old times in England is the high A. of Arundel church, Sussex. The slab is 12 ft. 6 in. long, by 4 ft. wide, and 24 in. thick. The support is of solid stone, quite plain, and plastered over. For 300 years after the time of Christ, the word A. was constantly used to describe the table of the Lord; subse- quently, ‘‘table” and ‘‘altar” were used indifferently. In the first prayer-book of king Edward, 1549, the word A. was used in the rubric, and the Lord’s supper was still called the Mass; but in 1550, an order was issued for the setting up of tables instead of altars, and in the second prayer-book, of 1552, the word altar was everywhere replaced by tadie. The table was further ordered to be of wood, and movable. In Mary’s reign the altars were re-erected; but in Queen Elizabeth’s, some were riotously pulled down, and injunc- tions were then issued directing that this should not be done, except under the oversight of the curate and at least one churchwarden. It was charged against archbishop Laud that he had converted commiunion-tables into altars. What he really did was to remove the tables out of the body of the church, and place them ‘‘altarwise,” i.e., n. and s., at the upper end of the chancels, where the altars formerly stood; and a dog having on one occasion run away with a piece of the consecrated bread, he directed that rails should be erected to prevent such desecrations in future. The old stone altars used frequently to be made in the shape of tombs, and they inclosed relics; this was from the early Christians having often celebrated the eucharist at the tombs of the martyrs, or, as others say, they were thus made with the design of representing Christ’s humanity as having been real, and vouched for by the fact of his body lying in the tomb. The Credence Table and Piscina are adjuncts of an A.- By the judgment in the Arches court, 1845, in the case of Faulkner », Litchfield, it was decided that altars may not be erected in churches. This case arose out of the erection, by the Cambridge Camden society, of a stone A. in the church of the Holy Sepulchre in that town. The old English divines, and, indeed, all Protestant ecclesiastical writers of any importance, are unanimous in the opinion that among Christians the word cannot mean what the Jews and heathens expressed by it. The later fathers used various phrases to denote the solemnity which should attach to the communion-table, such as ‘the mystical and tremendous table,” ‘‘the mystical table,” ‘‘the holy table,” etc. And they termed it an A., because, first, the holy eucharist was regarded as a kind of com: Alt-dort: Altitudes 326 memorative sacrifice, or, more properly, a consecrated memorial before God of the great sacrifice on Calvary; and, second, the prayers of the communicants were held to be in themselves sacrifices or oblations—sacrifices of thanksgiving, as it were. This is the view of those who hold high church opinions, but does not exclude the other view. Again, they termed it a table when the eucharist was considered exclusively in the light of a sacrament, to be partaken of by believers as spiritual food. In the former case, the sacrifice was commemorated; in the latter, it was applied: in the former, it expressed more directly the gratitude; in the latter, more directly the faith of the Christian. ALT-DORF. See ALTORF. ALT'DORFER, ALBRECHT, painter and engraver, was b. at Altdorf, Bavaria, abt. 1480, and d. at Ratisbon, 1538. He is said to have been a pupil of Albert Diirer ; but this is not certain. He belongs, however, to that religious school of artists of which Dutrer was the head. His pictures are also animated by a glowing and romantic spirit of poetry which is delightful to any one who appreciates the conditions of old German life. The Jandscape is delineated with the same truth and tenderness as the figures; a rich mani- fold life pervades the scenes, and everything is handled with the utmost delicacy. - His master-piece, now in Munich, is ‘‘ The Victory of Alexander over Darius,” a painting which, it is said, affects the beholder like a heroic poem. Asan engraver, A. is reck- oned among the lesser masters. ALTE’A, a seaport t. of Valencia, Spain, in the province of Alicante, and 25 m. n.e. from Alicante. I1t stands on a rising ground, on the right bank of a small river called the Alga, and at the head of a bay. It has wide streets, but many of them are steep. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in agriculture; some of them are fishers and sailors. Linen fabrics, ropes, and soap are manufactured. Pop. 6000. AL’TEN, KARL Aveaust, Count of, one of the chief Hanoverian generals in the Napoleonic wars, was b. Oct. 20, 1764; entered the army in 1781, and gained distinc- tion at the siege of Valenciennes, and in the decisive engagement at Hondschooten. He was first lieut. in 1800, but on account of the unhappy capitulation at Lauenburg, found it advisable to leave Hanover, and came to England. Here he was made commander of the first light battalion in the German legion 41803). In 1808, he assisted as general of brigade in covering the retreat of Gen. Moore to Corunna, and in the following year com- manded the troops stationed in Sussex. in 1811, he took part, under Gen. Beresford, in the siege of Badajoz and the battle of Albuera, and in the following year was promoted by the duke of Wellington. In almost all the engagements of the Spanish war of libera- tion—at Salamanca, Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, Orthez, Toulouse, etc., A. took a prominent part, and had the command of acorps of 30,000 men, stationed near Madrid, in 1812. He fought with great distinction at Quatre-Bras and at Waterloo, where he was severely wounded; his efforts greatly contributed to the decision of the battle. After his return to Hanover he was made minister of war, and in this capacity d., April 20, 1840. AL'TENA, a t. of Westphalia, Prussia, in the government of Arnsberg, 40 m. n.e. from Cologne. It stands on the right bank of the Lenne, in a deep and picturesque valley. It has large public works, the machinery of which is moved by water-power, and manu- factures great quantities of needles, pins, and other small articles of hardware. There are also stocking manufactories and tanneries. Pop. 10,500. AL'TENBURG, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, is situated in a fertile country about 24 m. from Leipsic, and contains (1890) 81,440 inhabitants. Standing on an almost perpendicular rock of porphyry, the old castle of A. forms a striking feature in the landscape. Its foundations are probably as old as the 11th century. A. possesses several excellent educational institutions, a museum, and a theater. Brushes, gloves, and cigars are among the chief manufactures carried on in A., and the book trade is con- siderable. A railway connects it with Leipsic and Bavaria. ALTENES’SEN, a t. in Prussia, in the Rhine province ; pop. 12,300. AL'TENGAARD, or ALTEN, a seaport t. in the province of Finmarken, Norway, sit- uated at the mouth of the river Alten, in lat. 69° 55’ n., and long. 23° 4’ e. Beyond this point no cultivation is attempted ; and even here potatoes and barley alone are produced. A. has a harbor and considerable trade. Itis visited principally by Russian and Norwe- gian vessels. Pop. about 2000. AL'TEN-OT'TING, or ALTérrine, a place of pilgrimage not far from the Inn, is sit- uated in one of the most beautiful and fertile plains of upper Bavaria. It is frequented by thousands of Roman Catholics from Austria, Bavaria, and Swabia, on account of a famous image of the Virgin Mary (the ‘‘ Black Virgin”) which it possesses, and may be called the Loretto of Germany. It has also an extraordinarily rich treasure of gold, sil- ver, and precious stones. From 1838 till their expulsion in 1873, A. was the headquar- ters for Germany of the redemptorist fathers. Thereis also a capuchin monastery here. A. was originally a villa regia. Several German emperors, suchas Henry III. and Henry IV., held their court here. The emperor Leopold L., and other princes of the house of Hapsburg, made pilgrimages to it. A chapel, called Tilly’s or Peter’s chapel, contains Alt-dorf. 327 Altitude: the tomb of count Tilly, who was buried here at his own request. Maximilian I. and numerous other princes and princesses of the Bavarian family have had their hearts interred in it. Pop. about 5200. AL’TENSTEIN, a castle near Eisenach, Saxe Meiningen, on the s. slope of the Thuringer wald, the summer residence of the governing dukes. It has a fine park in which is a cavern 500 ft. long through which flows a large stream. Boniface lived and preached here in 724 ; and near by is the place where, in 1521, Luther was seized to be carried off to Wartburg. ALT’ENSTEIN, Kart von, Baron, 1770-1840; a Prussian statesman. After the treaty of Tilsit he became the head of the finance department; in 1815, he went to Paris with Humboldt to claim the restoration of works of art taken from Prussia by the French armies; afterwards he was minister of public worship and education, doing great service for the universities and schools. Under his direction the university of Bonn was founded. He was one of Fichte’s warm supporters. ALT ERATIVES, in medicine, a term applied to remedies that have the power of changing the state of the living solids of the body, and consequently altering the func- tions which they perform. It is generally applied, however, to medicines which are irritant in full doses, but which -almost imperceptibly alter disordered actions or secre- tions; acting specially on certain glands, or upon absorption in general, when they are given in comparatively small doses, the treatment being continued for a considerable length of time. For example, mercury is an irritant in some of its preparations ; but when small doses of blue pill, Plummer’s pill, or corrosive sublimate are given at inter- vals for some length of time, they ‘‘ produce alteration in disordered actions, so as to cause an improvement in the nutrient and digestive functions, the disappearance of eruptions, and the removal of thickening of the skin or of other tissues” (Royle) ; and they will effect these changes without otherwise affecting the constitution or inducing salivation. So iodine, also an irritant in concentrated doses, and poisonous in some forms, is most useful, when given in small doses, in effecting the removal of enlarged glandular organs, and need not cause iodism, if carefully given. The preparations of gold are likewise stimulants of the absorbents, and are used in cases of scrofula. Some preparations of arsenic are powerful A. in cases of skin-disease. So also are the decoctions of the woods and their substitutes, such as decoction of Sarsaparilla, and the like, which, when taken in large quantities of water, must operate partly by their diluting and solvent properties, and partly by the stimulant effect of the active principles of several ingredients in these diet-drinks, conveyed into the capillaries. ALTERNATE, in botany. See LEAVEs. ALTER'NATE GENERATION (see GENERATIONS, ALTERNATION OF): a method of reproduction, in which the young resemble not the parent but the grandparent or some more remote ancestor, the successive generations passing through a regularly recur- ring series. The radiated creatures, popularly called jelly-fishes, illustrate A.G. In pools left at low tide on the sea-shore, a hydroid is found growing in tufts like shrubs, each individual pendent from the general mass by a slender tube, as a flower from its stem, each mouth taking food for the common nourishment. The young of this creature are jelly-fishes, small, transparent cups, from which depend four long threads and a pro- boscis, each specimen an independent unit moving freely in the water. This creature produces bunches of spheres from which come other jelly-fishes, and also spheres or eggs from which are developed pear-shaped bodies, that take a permanent abode and have the form of the first hydroid. The fixed hydroids and swimming jelly-fishes are alternate forms assumed by the successive generations of the same animal. ALTHE’A. See Marsa Mariows and HoLiyHock. ALTHEN, Evan, or JEAN, 1711-74 ; b. in Persia, and a slave to a planter, from whom’ he escaped and went to Avignon, where he established the cultivation of madder. Like many others who have conferred great benefits on the public, he died in extreme poverty, ALTHORP, Lorp. See SPENCER. ALTHORN, an instrument standing in E-flat or F, used in military music. Owing to its upright bell, it is easily played on horseback, and often replaces the French horn. It belongs to the Saxhorn family, and the name is sometimes given to the Saxhorn in B-flat. See Horn. ALTIMETRY (Lat., altus, bigh, metrwm, measure), the art of ascertaining altitudes by means of an altimeter, which is any instrument for taking altitudes, as a quadrant, sextant, or theodolite (q.v.). ALTIN’, a lake in Siberia, which is one of the sources of the Obi, in the Altai moun- tains, 320 m.s. of Temsk; 80 m. long by 50 wide. This lake is remarkable because in winter the northern part is frozen so as to bear sledges while the southern part has never been known to freeze. AL'TITUDE, in astronomy, is the height of a heavenly body above the horizon. It is measured, not by linear distance, but by the angle which a line drawn from the eye to the heavenly body makes with the horizontal line, or by the arc of a vertical circle inter cepted between the body and the horizon. Altitudes are taken in observatories by means of a telescope attached to a graduated circle (see CrrcLE), which is fixed vertically. The telescope being directed towards the body to be observed, the angle which it makes with Altkirch, Alto. a 328 — the horizon is read off the graduated circle. The A. thus observed must receive various corrections—the chief being for parallax (q.v.) and refraction (q.v.)—in order to get the true A. At sea, the A. is taken by means of a sextant (q.v.), and then it has further to be corrected for the dip of the visible horizon below the true horizon (see Horizon). The correct determination of altitudes is of great importance in most of the problems of astronomy and navigation. See LarrruDE.—An ALTITUDE and AZIMUTH INSTRUMENT consists essentially of a vertical circle with its telescope so arranged as to be capable of being turned round horizontally to any point of the compass. It thus differs from a transit instrument (q.v.), Which is fixed in the meridian. See AZIMUTH. ALT KIRCH’, a t. in upper Alsace, 70 m. s. of Strasbourg ; pop. about 4000 ; select- ed by Germany to be fortified as a counterpoise to Belfort in France. A. was founded in the 12th c., and has the ruins of a castle which was often occupied by Aus- trian archdukes in their visits to Alsace. ALTMARK, an old district in Germany which formed the nucleus of the electorate of Brandenburg. From 1807 to 1813 it belonged to the kingdom of Westphalia. After the year 1815 it formed a part of the administrative district of Magdeburg, its chief city being Stendal. Its pop. is estimated at 195,000. ALTMUHL, ariver in Bavaria, an affluent of the Danube which it joins at Kelheim near Ratisbon. The Ludwigs Canal connects it with the Main system. Length about 125 miles, ALTO (contralto deciso) is the deepest or lowest species of musical voice in boys, in eunuchs, and best of all in females, where its beauty of tone gives it the preference. This quality of the human voice has been too much neglected by modern composers and singing-masters. The powers of expression which it possesses are quite peculiar, and cannot be supplied by any other kind of voice. Its tone-character (timbre) is serious, spiritual, tender, and romantic. The low A. in particular has a fullness of tone combined with power in the lower range. No other voice expresses so decidedly dignity, great- ness, and religious resignation: it can also represent youthful manly power as well as romantic heroism. The high A. has generally the same range of compass as the mezzo- soprano, but differs from it in the position of the cantabile and in its character of tone. A. voices generally consist of two registers, tne lowest beginning at F or G below middle C, and reaching as high as the A or B above the octave C. The higher notes up to the next F or @ partake more of the character of the soprano. See VOICE. ALTON, at. of Hampshire, England, of considerable antiquity, near the Wey, 16 m. n.e. from Winchester. It is pleasantly situated among picturesque hills and woods, The principal street forms part of the main road from London to Winchester. The church was erected in the reign of Henry VII., and is in the perpendicular style. ALTON, city of Madison co., Ill., ona bluff 200 feet high on the left bank of the Mississippi river, which is spanned here by a great railroad bridge; twenty-four miles above St. Louis. It is on the Chicago and Alton and other railroads, is the centre of a large commerce, and has woolen and glass factories, flouring-mills, machine shops, brick yards, powder works, farming implement factories, etc. It has many churches, a Roman Catholic cathedral, and contains a monument to Elijah P. Lovejoy (q. v.). Population 1890, 10,294. ALTON, Jos. WILHELM EDUARD Db’, professor of archeology and the history of art at Bonn, was b. 1772, at Aquileia, and d. in 1840. In early years his attention was directed to natural history, especially that of the horse, on which he published a splendid illustrated work (Naturgeschichte des Pferdes, Bonn, 1810), which was completed in 1817. In concert with his friend Pander, he projected an extensive work on compara- tive osteology, of which the first division was published at Bonn, 1821-1828. His etch- ings of animals, etc., are esteemed as valuable. Albert, the late prince consort of queen Victoria, was a pupil of A. in the history of art. AL/TONA, the largest and richest city in the Prussian province of Slesvig-Holstein, is situated on the Elbe, so near Hamburg that the two cities are only divided by the state boundaries. Pop. ’95, 148,944. A. lies higher than Hamburg, and is much healthier; but, on the other hand, it is destitute of the numerous canals so necessary for the transport of goods, with which Hamburg is so abundantly provided. In a commercial point of view, it forms one city with Hamburg. Its trade extends to England, France, the Mediterranean sea, and the West Indies. There are many impor- tant industrial establishments in A.; among others, the manufacture of tobacco, cotton, woolen, chemicals, soap, leather, ropes, etc. A. is a free port, and enjoys many privileges in respect of trade, and also of civil freedom; all sects are allowed the free exercise of their religion. The city is connected by a railway with Kiel, Rendsburg, and Gliickstadt. The observatory, which gained a great reputation under the direction of its founder, Schumacher, who died in 1851, was transferred to Kiel in 1874. The rise of A. to its present importance has been recent and rapid for a continental town. ALTOONA, city of Blair county, Penn., at the eastern base of the Alleghany moun- tains, 1180 feet above the sea level, on the Pennsylvania railroad, 237 miles west of Phil- adelphia and 117 east of Pittsburgh. The railroad crosses the mountains at this point, and during the ascent two locomotives are required to move the train. The magnifi- cent view which gradually opens to the vision of the traveler can scarcely be imagined. 9 Altkirch. Besides large machine shops there are the car-works and locomotive-shops of the Pennsylvania railroad, extensive planing-mills, and over 200 other manufacturing establishments. The hydraulic works cost $500,000. There are churches, convents, hospitals, public schools, a public library, banks, and an electric street railway. The large number of daily and weekly newspapers show the literary taste of the people. Population in 1890, 30,337. ALTOONA or ALLATOONA PASS. A pass in the vicinity of the town of Allatoona, in northwestern Georgia. Here occurred, during the late Civil War, on Oct. 5, 1864, the battle made memorable by the gallant defense of Allatoona by Gen. John M. Corse, of the Federal Army. Gen. Sherman was occupying Atlanta, having garrisoned Allatoona as his second base; this point the confederates determined to capture, and Gen. 8. G. French, under Gen. Hood, was commissioned to accomplish the work. Sherman, being informed of these designs, signaled from Kenesaw Mountain to Gen. Corse, stationed at Rome, to move with the utmost speed to Allatoona and hold it against all opposition until he himself could arrive with aid. Here Gen. Corse, with scarcely 2000 men, main- tained the defense from nine o’clock in the morning until three o’clock in the afternoon against a large force of confederate soldiers. At three o’clock, Gen. French sounded a retreat, and Allatoona was saved. Gen. Sherman at once took as the subject of a general command the principle of war illustrated here, that fortified posts should be defended to the last, regardless of the relative numbers of the party attacked or attacking. AL’TORF, the chief t. in the Swiss canton Uri, is situated in asheltered spot at the base of the Grunberg, about 2 m. from the head of the lake of the Four Cantons, and contains abt. 8000 inhabitants. It is a well-built town, having several open places, a church, a nunnery, and the oldest capuchin monastery in Switzerland. The little tower on which the exploits of William Tell are painted in rude frescoes, is known to be older than the legend of Tell. The lime-tree under which the scene of the shooting of the apple was laid, was removed in 1567, and a stone fountain erected in its stead. AL'TO-RILIE'VO (Ital.), high-relief, the term used in sculpture to designate that mode of representing objects by which they are made to project strongly and boldly from the background, without being entirely detached. In A. R., some portions of the figures usually stand quite free, and in this respect it differs not only from basso-rilievo, or low-relief, but from the intermediate kind of relief known as mezzo-rilievo, in which the figures are fully rounded, but where there are no detached portions. In order to be in high-relief, objects ought actually to project somewhat more than half their thickness, no conventional means being employed in this style to give them apparent prominence. In bass-relief, on the other hand, the figures are usually flattened; but means are adopted to prevent the projection from appearing to the eye to be less than half; because if an object projects less than half, or, to state it otherwise, be more than half buried in the background, it is obvious that its true outline or profile cannot be represented. This rule, that in all reliefs there shall be either a real or an apparent projection of at least half the thickness of round objects, was strictly observed in the best period of Greek art, but it has been often neglected in the execution of reliefs in later times, and hence attempts have been made at foreshortening and perspective, which have necessarily resulted in partial failure. Relief forms a kind of intermediate stage between plastic art and painting, the mode of representation being borrowed from the former, whilst the mode of arrangement to a certain extent, is in accordance with the latter. The plastic principle occupies the most prominent place in the simple and tranquil reliefs of the earlier art of Greece, whereas the pictorial principle preponderates in the crowded and often excited scenes represented in the later Roman reliefs. In such reliefs as have been produced in modern times, the one element or the other has prevailed, according as the one model or the other has been followed. The works which have been recovered from the ruins of Persepolis, Nineveh, and Babylon, still attest the extensive employment of relief in Persian and Assyrian art. Of the latter, which usually belongs to the class of mezzo-rilievo, some of the finest specimens in existence are now to be seen in the British museum. Though never exhibiting the life and freedom of classical or modern European art, the elaborately executed and majestic reliefs of these semi-oriental nations are greatly in advance not only of the whimsical distortions of nature’exhibted by the Hindoos, but of the inanimate and motionless representations of the Egyptians. The earliest Greek reliefs possessed a hard and severe character, somewhat approach- ing to the art of those earlier nations of which we have just spoken, and were very slightly raised. Of this we havean example in the two lions over the gate at Mycene— probably the oldest Greek relief in existence. It was Phidias who gave to relief its true character, and finally brought it to a degree of perfection which it has never since attained. The alti-rilievi which adorned the metopes of the parthenon at Athens, and the temple of Apollo at Phigalia in Arcadia, now preserved in the British museum, are still not only unsurpassed, but unapproached as examples of the style. In none of these a a see any attempt at perspective, and even foreshortening for the most part is avoided. Under the Romans, sculpture was employed to an enormous extent in the decoration of tombs and sarcophagi, whole streets of such monuments being constructed, as, for example, on the Appian way. The result of the demand thus created was that sculp- ture became a manufacture rather than an art, and attempts were made to supply by Alemntsas™ oe technical execution and mere mass what had been lost in thought and spirit. Relief was now applied, often by Greek artists resident in Italy, to purposes for which the Greeks, in their own land and in their better times, had rightly conceived it to be unsuited. Behind figures standing nearly free a second rank was introduced, and those numerous examples of a false style, still to be found in every gallery in Europe, were produced, the imitation of which afterwards led to such a lavish expenditure of artistic talent in Italy. The attempt which the Romans had made tc invade the province of painting, by means of sculpture, was carried still further by the Florentine artists of the 16th and 17th centuries. Not only were several rows of figures represented in perspective, but even landscape was introduced with a success which, in the hands of such artists as Ghiberti, was positively marvelous. If the highest perfection in the true plastic style of relief was attained by Phidias in the metopes of the parthenon at Athens, a correspond- ing merit may be claimed as regards the degenerate pictorial style by Ghiberti in the celebrated bronze doors of the baptistery of San Giovanni at Florence. Even Canova’s reliefs partook to far too great an extent of the character of paintings in stone; and to Flaxman, and above all to Thorwaldsen, must be assigned the merit of restoring this style of art to its genuine and original principles. It is to be remembered, in studying the reliefs of classical times, that studiously as the Greeks avoided a pictorial conception of their subject, they did not eschew the use of color where it could be employed to heighten the effect of their reliefs. There is reason to believe that in many excellent examples the background was painted blue, and that the hems of the garments of the figures, and the like, were often colored or gilded. AL'TRINGHAM, a market-t. of Cheshire, England, on Bowden downs, 8 m. s.w. from Manchester. It is situated on the Cheshire Midland railway, and near the duke of Bridgewater’s canal, which has contributed greatly to its prosperity. It is a very neat and clean t., and on account of the salubrity of the air, is much resorted to by invalids from Manchester. It has manufactures of artificial manures, and an iron-foundry, but a chief employment of its inhabitants is the raising of fruits and vegetables for the mar- ket of Manchester. Pop. ’91, 37,988. ALTRO VOLTO (Italian), another turn, a word used in the early part of the last cen- tury for encore. ALTRUISM (Latin, alter, another), a word introduced by the Positivists, followers of the French philosopher Comte, as the opposite of egovsm or selfishness. It signifies a love for others and a due regard for their feelings and interests, Altruism is regarded by Positivists as the crowning virtue of their system, in the exercise of which the perfected individual will find not only his duty but his chief pleasure. We die, they say, but our actions live after us, and bear fruit to the most distant ages. The consciousness of this survival of the results of our actions must be a constant incentive to righteousness; and the consolation of knowing that his life has been a useful one to the race is offered to the just man as the only substitute for the Christian’s hope of immortality. This doctrine has been eloquently phrased by George Eliot, in her later years the greatest of all the Positivists, in her lines beginning, ‘‘O may I join the choir invisible ?’ But the average mau may find little comfort or incentive to duty in thinking that after he is annihilated he wiil have smoothed the pathway of other men in their progress to a similar annihila- tion —a view entertainingly presented by Mallock in Js Life worth Living ? ALTU’RAS, a former co. in s. Idaho, on Snake River; area, 6700 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 2629. In 1895 both Alturas and Logan counties were abolished, and the county of Blaine was created therefrom. ALUM, a whitish, astringent, saline substance ; properly it is a double salt, being composed of sulphate of potash and sulphate of alumina, which, along with a certain proportion of water, crystallize together in octahedrons or in cubes. Its formula is K2S0,A1,(SO,4)s + 24H20. _ A. is soluble in 18 times its weight of cold water, and in its own weight of hot water. The solution thus obtained has a peculiar astringent taste, and is strongly acid to colored test papers. When heated, the crystals melt in their water of crystallization; and when the water is completely driven off by heat, there is left a spongy white mass, called burnt A. or anhydrous A, lies between n. lat. 27° 14’ and 28° 13’, ‘and between e. 00S uM Go elae aU; hoo le eels area is about 3000 sq. m.; its pop. about 800,000. In the western part of the state the surface is broken by mountains, the outlying peaks of the Aravalli range, which abound in minerals, particularly in iron, the ore lying near the surface.