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Ralph Sea Seite tetiate lige. siete iss. tyne: ravenays eieligh erat | ate eit a lacie ape : mprarnss. ty nei yh ers Sean ne Seecoes Bs Oe te eh fore renee es es 7 Ste , a a oe 3 3 ° er: nd aos n Letant Se nhs ets he > ETT ep Serstte Yee Agere, = > faa “Ty if KC a bi % ' Pe 4 CN Retreat Stith moteagees ty Oy n be x, =F, 3," a r- ns) MS +e 2 pete hr Petar re oe Bee a Neer gna aE tress kes Pere os Pro io tea ieee es eee ae ae a= a - Scanian teaser Adeereieion Ne hapa eee Me - - pia nae 2 Pons dba ale le Thpareretage er Tm ie Sins Sam Bi edie s ae Put FN eae ' 7 = 6 : 7 = re vind EG essa: Gee ee ok . ses eT ry art es THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 0320 Jen 1925, V. SST SPN tera terme eS neice aes § ps . A §) it e j AN ; E « fi . vr 4 i ha alt \ = ee -! a ‘ ee vs 4 ¢ =, Re ee on a ae 7 weet :4 Ht oe . ie ke MWA A SA SIT AISTAS LLIN IT RSID IIIT ADSTAIITLEE WA NZINTANTZING 4, THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA WYANK SAINZINFARE, WIN SIN MAN WN) APS LIBRARY | UNIVERSAL } ear g ite IN [THIRTY VOLUMES PLAY “at ly NY OAN cs Pa, GN ® NATO, VAN u ; DSA SMASDSZAONSAASA NWTAX. L929 OW *NZ THE AMERICANA CORPORATION | A / Ca) NEW YORK CHICAGO OSA) AW, ia SST TINY rere © — as od ial le a ea srs eM tg ll A game Da. ee OL: * a 7 on, See. - “s Hames CORPORATION ons se : ‘ ae die tre Se A eee : THE f: BNevevovsnia. Awe ‘ANA CORPORATION : CopyriGutT, 1924 BY hy THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA CORPORATION . o BAAS ES ke ve Y ue YO OPER SR UR fh Ae “She ss ‘ = a Par onc ALDEN, RAYMOND M., Ph.D., Litt.D. Professor of English, Leland Stanford Junior Uni- versity LETTERS IN LITERATURE LITERARY FORMS LYRIC POETRY AUSTIN, OSCAR P., M.A. Statistician of the National City Bank of New York and Secretary of the National Geographic Society LATIN AMERICA — INDUSTRIAL DE- VELOPMENT AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS AYRES, SAMUEL G., B.D. Garrett Biblical Institute LECTURESHIPS BEER, WILLIAM Librarian, Howard Memorial Library, New Orleans LOUISIANA BOUCKE, EWALD A., Ph.D. Professor of German and Scandinavian, University of Michigan LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE BRANDON, EDGAR EWING, A.B., A.M. Dean of Miami University LATIN AMERICA — EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA BREWSTER, WILLIAM T., A.M. Provost of Barnard College, Professor of English, Columbia University. LORNA DOONE LUSIADS, THE BROOKE, TUCKER, M.A., Litt.B. Professor of English, Yale University LOVE’S LABOUR'S. LOST BUCHANAN, MILTON A., Ph.D. Professor of Italian and Spanish, University of Toronto LIFE IS A DREAM CANFIELD, ARTHUR G., Ph.D. Professor of Romance Languages, University of Michigan LE’ ROUGE ET LE NOIR LEARNED LADIE>, 148 CLEMENTS, FREDERIC £., %.%c., Ph.D. Head of the Departinent of Botany University of Minnesota LICHENS \ 'O Lapis ets War PARTIAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME XVII CORNYN, JOHN HUBERT, B.A., LL.B. Editorial Staff of The Americana LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE LEON, FRAY LUIS PONCE DE LYCEUM COUMBE, CLEMENT wW. Technical Art Expert LAUREL IN ART AND SYMBOLISM LION IN ART CUSHMAN, ROBERT EUGENE, A.B. Associate in Political Science, University of Illinois LAW MERCHANT, THE LEGISLATION, DIRECT LEGISLATIVE REFORM CUTLER, FRANCES W., M.A. Instructor in English, Vassar College LIGHT OF ASIA, THE DANA, JOHN COTTON, A.B. Librarian, Publis Library, Newark, N. J. LIBRARIES, SPECIAL DEWEY, MELVIL, LL.D. Author of ‘ Decimal Classification and Relativ Index,’’ etc. LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION DOLE, NATHAN HASKELL, A.B. Author, Editor and Translator LIZA DOW, CHARLES M. Director of Letchworth Park and Arboretum LETCHWORTH PARK AND. ARBO- RETUM DRUM, WALTER, S.J. Late Professor of Scripture, Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md. LOYOLA DUNN, WALDO H., M.A., Litt.D. gr Se of English, College of Wooster, Wooster, io ; LIVES OF THE POETS EGAN, MAURICE FRANCIS, Ph.D., LL.D. Former Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- potentiary to Denmark. LEO XIII EGGERT, CARL E., B.Ph., Ph.D. Assistant Professor: of German, Michigan LUCIAN University of Contributors to Volume XVII — Continued EISELEN, FREDERICK CARL, Ph.D., D.D. Professor of Old Testament Interpretation, Garrett Biblical Institute LEVITICUS, BOOK OF EISERHARDT, EWALD, Ph.D. Professor of German, University of Rochester LIED VON DER GLOCKE, DAS ESTES, DAVID FOSTER, D.D. Professor of New Testament Interpretation, Colgate University LUKE LUKE, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO FAIRLIE, JOHN A., Ph.D. Professor of Political Science, University of Illinois LOCAL GOVERNMENT LOCAL OPTION FERRIS, RICHARD, C.E., Sc.D. Editorial Staff of The Americana LATIN AMERICA — THE MINERAL INDUSTRY LATIN. AMERICA — THE RUBBER IN- DUSTRY FIRMIN, GEORGE General Manager, Little Rock Board of Commerce LITTLE ROCK, ARK. FISH, DANIEL Judge, District Court, Minneapolis; author of “Lincoln Bibliography,”’ etc. LINCOLN, ABRAHAM FUERBRINGER, LUDWIG E., D.D. Professor of Theology, Concordia Theological Sem- inary, Saint Louis, Mo. LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA GARNER, JAMES WILFORD, PhiD. Professor of Political Science, University of Illinois LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL LAWS OF WAR, THE LEGISLATION LEGISLATURE GAUSS, CHRISTIAN, Litt.D. Professor of Modern Languages, Princeton Uni- versity LION OF FLANDERS, THE GOMME, G. L., F.S.A. Clerk to the London County Council. LONDON, ENGLAND (Revised by D. S. Douc.tas, Toronto) GRAHAM, W. B. 7 sos wit Latin American Division, Washington LATIN AMERICA — CATTLE AND MEAT - INDUSTRY LATIN AMERICA — HIDES AND LEATHER raebtne MERICA — RICE PRODUC- LATIN AAMERICA — THE TOBACCO INDYSTRY LATIN} AMERICA — WOOL INDUSTRY GRAVES, V. CHARLES Hartford, Conn. LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS LIBERTY OF THE PRESS GUITERMAN, ARTHUR, B.A. Author and Critic LIGHT THAT FAILED, THE LITTLE MINISTER, THE - HALLER, WILLIAM, Ph.D. Instructor in English, Columbia University LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME HANFORD, JAMES H., Ph.D. Associate Professor of English, University of North Carolina LAVENGRO | HARTMANN, JACOB WITTMER, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Department of German Lan- guage and Literature, College of the City of New York LENAU, NIKOLAUS LUDWIG, OTTO HASTINGS, CHARLES S., Ph.B., Ph.D. Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University LIGHT HEMELT,} FRANCIS J. Assdciate Professor of English Language and Bee ature, Catholic University of America. ALFRED FIRMIN HIBBEN, JOHN GRIER, Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D. President of Princeton University LOGIC HOLLAND, |W. J., Ph.D., Sc.D.,; LL.D. Directok of Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa. LEPIDOPTERA HOLMAN, C.\ VEY, LL.M. Lecturer om Mining Law, University of Maine LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF | HOWARD, WILLIAM G., A.M. Assistant Professor of German, Harvard University LOST PARADISE, THE Contributors to Volume XVII— Continued HOWE, WILLARD C., Editorial Director of ‘‘ Lumber ” LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES HUNTINGTON, EDWARD V., Ph.D. Associate Professor of Mathematics, Harvard Uni- versity. LADD-FRANKLIN, CHRISTINE Lecturer at Columbia University LOGIC, SYMBOLIC INGERSOLL, ERNEST Zoologist and Author _UEAVES wAZARD «UMINOSITY OF ANIMALS ISAA(S, ABRAM S., Ph.D.* Professor of Semitic Language, New York Uni- versity LMYARUS, EMMA LIE TURE, ART AND. MUSIC, IN- ILUENCE OF THE WORLD WAR ON ISAACS, EDITH T. R. LICITENSTEIN JACOBY, HAROLD, Ph.D. Ruterford Professor of Astronomy, Columbia Uni- Vésity LEAS1 SQUARES, METHOD OF JELLIFFE, ‘MITH ELY, M.D., Ph.D. AdjuncProfessor of Diseases of Mind and Nervous Systa, Post Graduate Hospital and Medical Schoc’ Professor of Psychiatry, Fordham Uni- versit. New York ° LAVAGE LUNGS KLEIN, HENR F. Editorial Sf of The Americana LICHNOWYY, PRINCE KARL MAX LICHNOWSY’ MEMORANDUM LENNOX, PATRIK J., Litt.D. Professor of Edish Literature, Catholic University of America LOGAGDIC ERSE LOISEAUX, L. A.,3.S. Associate Profeyr of Romance Languages and Literatures, Cymbia University LES CHATIMETS LUCKIESH, M. Nela Research Labytory, National Lamp Works, General Electric Cnpany LIGHT AND SHAE WA * Deceased. w Te ee McDANIEL, WALTON BROOKS, Ph.D.c 117 | Professor of Latin, University of Pennsylvania LATIN WRITERS McGILLICUDDY, DANIEL J., A.B. Lewiston, Me. LEWISTON, MAINE MEADER, JOHN R.* Labor and’ Service Department, Brighton Mills, Passaic, N. J. ; LIFE EXTENSION MEEHAN, Very Rev. ANDREW B. Saint Bernard’s Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. LAW, CANON, THE NEW CODE OF MORRIS, EDWARD PARMELEE, L.H.D., Litt.D. Professor of Latin, Yale University LATIN LANGUAGE, THE LATIN LITERATURE, THE MUNROE, CHARLES E., S.B., Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry, George Washington Uni- versity, Washington, D. C. LYDDITE NASCHER, I. L., M.D. Author of Geriatrics; Diseases of Old Age am Their Treatment LONGEVITY PANARONI, ALFRED G., B.S. Instructor in Romance Languages, College of the City of New York LITTLE OLD WORLD, THE PFEIL, STEPHEN* Formerly of the Philadelphia LAW LAW, MILITARY LEGITIMACY RAUSCH, FREDERICK Of Sackett and Wilhelms Corporation, New York LITHOGRAPHY RINES, GEORGE EDWIN Editor of ‘‘ The Americana "’ LUTHER, MARTIN ‘** Press ”’ RIX, GEORGE E. Secretary of Lawrence Chamber LAWRENCE, KANSAS SAVAGE, ELMER S., B.S Professor of Animal ges, LIVE STOCK SHAW, GEORGE * Master anc |ibrariar, phe Atheneum, Liverpool LIVERPOOL, ENC ,AND of Copamerce , M.S., Ph.D. andry, Cornell University Contributors to Volume XVII— Concluded SHERMAN, L. A.,.Ph.D., LL.D. Of the University of Nebraska LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL STARR, FREDERICK, Ph.D., Sc.D. University of Chicago LIBERIA TAYLOR, A.E., Ph.D. Professor of Moral Philosophy, Saint Andrew’s University, Scotland LEIBNITZ TRENT, WILLIAM P., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of English Literature, versity LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH LYCIDAS Columbia Uni- TUCKER, MARION, Ph.D. Professor of English, The Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn LETTERS TO DEAD AUTHORS LOCKSLEY HALL UNDERHILL, JOHN GARRETT, Ph.D. Author of Spanish Literature in the ‘‘ England of the Tudors ”’ LAZARILLO DE TORMES LOS INTERESES CREADOS LOS SUENOS VALETTE, MARC DE Chief, Economics de la Banque de France, Paris LEGION OF HONOR VEAZIE, WALTER B., Ph.D. Department of Philosophy, Columbia University LEVIATHAN, THE VERNER, WILLIAM F., B.S. Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan ~ LOCOMOTIVE, THE WALTER, FRANK K., B.A., M.A. Vice-Director, New York State Library School LIBRARY TRAINING WATKINS, JAMES L. Statistician, New York City LATIN AMERICA — THE COTTON INDUSTRY. IN LATIN AMERICA LATIN AMERICA —SUGAR INDUSTRY IN LATIN AMERICA WEEKS, RAYMOND, Ph.D. Professor of Romance Languages, Columbia Uni- versity LE CRIME DE SYLVESTRE BONNARD LE PECHEUR D’ISLANDE WELLS, BENJAMIN W., Ph.D. Author of ‘‘ Modern German Literature,” etc. LE DIABLE BOITEUX LE GENDRE DE MONSIEUR POIRIER LES LETTRES PERSANES LETTERS, THE me! LIFE OF JESUS, THE eet f. Be } WIENER, LEO Professor of Slavic Languages and Liteatures, Harvard University / [ LEAR OF THE STEPPES, A | WILCOX, MARRION, A.B., LL.B. Co-Editor of Encyclopedia of Latin Ameica LATIN AMERICA — GENERAL/DES- CRIPTON AND CHARACTERSTICS LATIN AMERICA — LATIN ERICA AND THE WORLD WAR LATIN AMERICA — FRUIT TIADE OF LATIN AMERICA WILEY, EDWIN, Ph.D. Librarian, United States Naval WarServiee LIBRARIES LIBRARIES, MEDIAAVAL AJD RENAISSANCE | LIBRARIES, MODERN | LIBRARY ARCHITECTUR) AND CONSTRUCTION LIBRARY DATA 7 LIBRARY LAWS AND. ILGISLATION IN THE UNITED STA#S 2s WILSON, OTTO | Chief of Latin-American Wision, Bureau of poreien and Domestic Corferce, Washington, . LATIN AMERICA — TION AND COMM NSPORTA- ICATION IN WRIGHT, HERBERT F., PD. Sometime of the Departm¢ of Latin, The Catholic University of America LATIN LITERATURIOF THE MIDDLE AGES LIVES, PARALLEL YANES, FRANCISCO J.,/h.D. Assistant Director, Pafimerican Union LATIN AMERICA; CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERI or or pc =—C REYeCE © far, -tather fate, hate ate tae air, care ado, sofa all, fall choose, church eel, we bed, end her, over: also Fr. e, as in de; eu, as in neuf; and oeu, as in boeuf, coeur; Ger. 6 (or oe), as in dkonomie. befall, elope agent, trident off, trough gas, get anguish, guava hat, hot Ger. ch, as in nicht, wacht what file, ice him, it between e and i, mostly in Oriental final syllables, as, Ferid-ud-din gem, genius quaint, quite Fr. nasal m or n, as in embon- point, Jean, temps re) o ° oi Oor oo ou OTF OW uor t il Z zh PRONUNCIATION. Span. 7, as in canon (can’yon), piwon (pén’yon) mingle, singing bank, ink no, open not, on corn, nor atom, symbol book, look oil, soil; also Ger. eu, as in beutel fool, rule allow, bowsprit satisfy, sauce show, sure thick, thin father, thither mute, use but, us pull, put between u and e, as in Fr. sur, Ger. Milles of, very (consonantal) yes, young pleasant, rose azure, pleasure ‘(prime),” (secondary) accents, to indicate syllabic stress nich : D. 5 ” i. Foy “ ‘2 ee . a aa > 7 *~ a he + » a“ ay oat ae SALA 27 ie = fs a 5 G “or » ~ Oat ft7aD = ae “ah i? $ f Pa oe 4 ot “ . - : OU GMS GIOlsG ~ es , k =] ‘ 7 a 7 7 ' eee ik ut er E ‘ t Os atood a 4 c Sa ote ts. ® % i * m4, ye .- . . ma = ~@ re < A i ee aps Ho ret. FR Vs) 2th | aoe hie : yo P58 ears hae Ee Satz 4 ~ ; tab: ey . Z a cae on iy ae > on caus a He eee, ak A 9. ey +4 ' tO ia h ta ? fi aie tet it econ Ae [Mev Oc | A a WS Ae! Pay % i! » SoBe ey laksge 2 yas Yr, . etl WOES £2 2: . mit BES i ho ee es é : : Pe c x ’ a > ; . ; =, rae vat ‘ Guts i ng ig Bs 3 y Le, e a : en 1 a | a ; Sod. in ae _ iu 4 L 4 bad am, re . aa ei ‘6 ae rh : Pei sing Abt gear 4) fa A oy, _ Shg3i ivaie “ Of ote ATIN AMERICA, a general term given to the countries in South and Central America; especially those whose in- habitants come of Latin linguistic stock. These include inhabitants of Mexico and certain islands of the West Indies. The term HISPANIC AMERICA has also come into use, embracing both the Portuguese-American inhabitants of Brazil and the Spanish-American inhabitants of other countries of Central and South America, as descendants of natives of the Iberian Peninsula, which under Roman domination was called, as a whole, Hispania. From this point of view the Hispanic Society of America, New York City, the periodicals Hispania and Hispanic American Historical Review, all three deal with matters both Portuguese- and Spanish-Amer- ican. Special information will be found in this section under the following heads: — 1. General Characteristics. 10. Cattle and Meat [n- 2. Civilization of Latin dustry in Latin America. America. 3. Education in Latin 11. Hides and Leather in America. Latin America. 4. Latin American Litera- 12. Coffee Industry in Latin ture. America. 5. Latin America and the 13. Fruit Trade of Latin World War America. 6. eer taan and Com- 14. Rice Production in Latin munication in Latin America. America. 15. Rubber Production in Latin America. Sugar Industry in Latin America. Tobacco Industry in Latin America. 7. Industrial Development and Commercial Prod- 16. ucts of Latin America. 8. Mineral Industry in 17. Latin America. 9. Cotton Industry in Latin 18. Wool Industry in Latin America. America. 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. Latin America distinguishes as a group 20 American republics, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Pan- ama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, Uruguay and Venezuela. In a still larger sense, but less accurately, as a general term it designates all of the central and southern portions of the New World, continental and insular as well, between the United States and Cape Horn, The total area of the 20 Latin American re- publics is about 8,150,000 to 8,200,000 square miles and the aggregate population of the same countries not less than 75,000,000. In each the language of the ruling class is Spanish, except in Brazil, where it is Portuguese, and in Haiti, where it is French ora patois called “creole. » But in the central regions of the Western Hem- isphere are about 205,000 or 206,000 square miles i" N with 3,190,000 to 3,200,000 inhabitants not in- cluded in any of the Latin American republics. They are held as dependencies by Great Britain, Holland, France or the United States; and to denominate these dependencies “Latin Ameri- can” would be misleading. A few facts may serve to supplement de- scriptions in the articles devoted to South America, Central America, Panama, Mexico and the West Indies; to each of the above: mentioned republics, and to their political sub- divisions. Climate.— Readings of the thermometer, as set down in notes of travel in Latin America, are: At Montevideo, Uruguay, 18 June, 54° F. at 11 a.M.; Buenos Aires, Argentina, 4 July, 52° F. at 3 p.m. But the average of these two, namely, 53° F., was recorded on the west coast of South America as the lowest figure the mer- cury reached during the cold season at Lima — which lies so much nearer than do Buenos Aires and Montevideo to the equator that its range of temperatures would be _ decidedly higher were it not for the influence of the cold Humboldt current. In the article CHILE ref- erence at greater length is made to this cur- rent, which is a truly beneficent river of the ocean, constantly tempering and stabilizing the climate along the Pacific coast, flowing north- ward and then northwestward along that coast until headlands below the equatorial line throw it straight out to sea, to cool one side of the Galapagos Islands. That is one of the big facts about the climate among others in the same field. At the confluence of the Paraguay and Alto Parana rivers, 25 July, the thermometer showed 80° F. in the shade at 10 A.M., and about noon of the same day on the Paraguay River, 92° F. in the shade; at Asuncion, Paraguay, 27 July, 84° F. in the shade; in the same city, 28 July, 78° F. at 9 am. The circumstance that Asun- cién is built on a hill counts for much, Com- paring these observations, made in regions re- mote from the ocean, with - observations at moderate altitudes above the Atlantic coast, a striking difference is noticed immediately. Thus, on the road from the Brazilian port of Santos to Sao Paulo, 14 August, the thermom- eter showed only 62° F. at 2 p.M., and in the city of Sao Paulo, 15 August, ot F. as the average of the forenoon. At Rio de Janeiro (nearly at sea- -level), 19 August, we find 72° F. in the afternoon, but, only 67° F. at 7-8 A.M., 20 August; and, as the record for the 2 LATIN AMERICA — GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS (1) warmest day of that “winter” season in Rio, 84° F. at 34 p.m. A short distance away, a Petropolis among the mountains, we note 63° F. at 7 A.M.; and at an elevation of 1,500 feet above Rio, in the tropical forest clothing the flanks of Corcovado, 29 August, 60° F. at 7 A.M. The fact thus illustrated is, simply, that regions sufficiently elevated to receive quite di- rectly the cool and saturated ocean breezes have, even in these latitudes near the Tropic of Capricorn, a climate not given to extremes but favorable to man and vegetation alike. Again, near the Atlantic coast in lat. 1° 52’ S., long. 38° 45’ W. we read 84° F. at 11 a.m.; in lat. 1° 13’-N., long. 43°°51’ W., 86° Pekar 12, noon, to 1 p.M.; in lat. 8° N., long. 53° 48° W, 85° F. at 2 p.m. The highest temperatures (in the shade) observed at the equator near the Pacific or Atlantic coasts, either at sea or where the ocean influence controls —85° or scarcely more than 86° F.— must be called quite moderate. (See comment on this subject in the article BraziL). In the corresponding re- gions north of the equator, near the Tropic of Cancer, we appreciate, or resent, most promptly the development of intolerable degrees of heat in regions that are enclosed and far from the sea. For example, we notice.en route Oaxaca, Mexico, to Puebla, 14 March, 100° F. in the otherwise comfortable cars of a train running through a valley. It is necessary to remember that the Antillean regions (see CENTRAL AMER- IcA) look out, on one side at least, upon a com- paratively restricted and nearly bisected Amer- ican Mediterranean, not upon the ocean which plays the part we have mentioned all along the South American east coast; that the trade winds and the Gulf stream visit some portions of this interpolated continental area assidu- ously, but are as constantly deflected from other portions; and, partly for this reason, each subdivision of the vast, varied and most interesting Antillean region is the subject of a special study. (See the separate titles). Pan- ama, occupying the narrow space between two oceanic elbows, has, as shown by observations in a sheltered building near the centre of the capital during the year, an equatorially limited range of temperatures — from 76° F. to 88° F. But places shut in, even parts of the city of Panama itself, because they lie nearly at sea- level, may have 100° F. thrust upon them when the air-currents from ocean to ocean are inter- rupted temporarily. Climatic Values of Altitude.— Here again in Panama (and this is not less true of the Central American states) we find that even a moderate elevation mitigates the tropically op- pressive conditions that are notorious inthe lowlands. The importance of this consider- ation becomes apparent when we reflect that in much more than one-half of the entire land- area in the New World between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn nature assigns the con- trol of temperatures to mere altitude or to the almost equally permanent influence of oceanic and aerial currents. But in the vast highlands of Latin America one learns by experience, if he has not learned through previous study, that the pure and rarefied air is bad for any weakness of the heart, and, even when there is no such weakness, produces what is commonly known as soroche (anoxemia or mountain- sickness). It is worth while to note quite care- fully the effects of the change from sea-level to these great altitudes, since the experience bears directly upon the question of the value of, these uplands as regions where civilized men can live and work successfully. We ob- serve, as first effects, that the skin becomes rather dry and the digestive processes are de- ranged — with consequent pains and penalties. We must add the following symptoms: lassi- tude, loss of appetite, aversion to all forms of physical effort and drowsiness. The _ heart finds its steady job a bit harder than usual, and one gets out of breath too quickly, the air seem- ing to supply the lungs with innutritious food. After a long voyage a traveler in vigorous health suffers to this extent — that is, slightly and for a few days at least—on making a rapid and radical change. But in a week or so these symptoms disappear, the traveler gets acclimated and should find no trouble in mak- ing any physical effort that the situation calls for. Quite the contrary, in fact. We enjoyed mountain-climbing, long walks, long and hard riding, at altitudes of about 12,000 feet for sev- eral weeks and ranging from 10,000 to 16,000 feet during two months. The impression we receive in regard to the people living in Andean towns (for example) situated at altitudes of 7,000 to 14,000 feet is that they, as a rule, with some exceptions of irregular lives, are not in- jured by the climate. Naturally healthful regions are the follow- ing: 1.. The extensive region south of a line drawn from ocean to ocean through the cities of Paysandt and Valparaiso, including all of southern Argentina and Chile. 2. The uplands of southeastern Brazil. 3. The Andean habit- able districts, including many valleys and cuencas, at altitudes ranging from 6,000 to 12,000 feet. 4. In Venezuela, Central America and Mexico, the districts, often fertile and ex- tensive, at altitudes ranging from 2,500 or 3,000 to 7,000 feet, more or less. 5. Portions of the West Indies receiving the full benefit of the trade winds and ocean currents. Unfortu- nately it is necessary to note the prevalence of such diseases as typhoid fever in cities and towns whose favorable situation in temperate uplands does not safeguard them against the consequences of neglecting sanitary regulations. The tropical conditions in the low-lying parts of Central America and the northwest coast of South America (to and including the Gulf of Guayaquil) are unfavorable to health chiefly be- cause enormous deposits of alluvion and exces- sive rainfall offer ideal conditions for the prop- agation of disease-bearing insects. Yellow fever and malarial fevers have therefore long been regarded as endemic. Similar conditions are found in the great Amazon Valley and on the tropical Brazilian coast between the Atlantic and the highlands of the interior. Successful efforts to combat and control these fevers have been made at focal points — at Santos and Rio de Janeiro, at Panama, ete—— but much still re- mains to be done. Annual rainfall is most ex- cessive in amount at Pernambuco and Iquitos in Brazil, at Greytown in Central America, and in the territory of Magellan, in southern Chile; it is least on the Peruvian littoral and in north- ern Chile (q.v.); it is as a rule moderate in the interior of Argentina. Dense fogs, called LATIN AMERICA — GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS (1) 3 partias, supply the place of rain (but only to a slight extent) in the arid west coast regions just mentioned. Ever since the discovery of the New World the fact has been observed that the most vigorous races gained their de- velopment in the extreme south (region number 1) and in the temperate or relatively cold up- lands (regions 3 and 4). It is not less interest- ing to observe that the most progressive and vigorous element of which we have any record in the early history of Brazil had its home in region number 2. For the exceptionally fine and temperate climate of Uruguay, see the article devoted to that country. Fauna and Flora.— The highlands of the northern and central portions of Mexico are included in the Nearctic Region and their fauna is classed with that of all temperate and Arctic North America; but naturalists, grouping to- gether all other parts of Latin America, in the wider sense of that term, distinguish the group (thus composed of Central America and Panama, the Mexican lowlands, the West Indies and South America) as the Neotropical Region. A valuable study entitled ‘A Zoodlog- ical Expedition to South America,> by W. E. Agar (in Royal Philosophical Society of Glas- gow Proceedings, Vol. XL, pp. 53-65, 1909), contains an expression of its author’s opinion to the effect that the Neotropical is, of all those regions into which zoologists divided the world in accordance with their fauna, by far the most interesting. And this is true although only four families of the ungulates are represented: the pigs by the peccary, the cervide by a few species of deer, the camels by the llama, and finally there is the tapir; while the beasts which we may call characteristic of the country are such forms as the opossum, armadillo, ant- eater and sloth, all very lowly organized ani- mals. Our interest in this fauna is deepened when, at the suggestion of the same writer, we ex- amine its history in past geological ages. “The past history of the mammals [in general, i.e., in all regions] shows us that, broadly speaking, most new forms arose in the North Polar regions (which we know were much warmer then than now) and spread thence southwards, exterminating to a large extent the more primi- tive earlier forms, and being sometimes ousted in their turn by new forms migrating south- wards. Now, the primitive mammals which arose in the Northern Hemisphere seem to have reached South America, not across the Isthmus of Panama —for we known that the whole south portion of North America was sub- merged at this period — but probably by means of a land connection across the Atlantic with Africa. Whatever may have been the exact nature of this connection between South Amer- ica and the other land-masses of the globe toward the end of the secondary geological epoch, it is certain that it was soon broken through and that South America was com- pletely isolated during the whole of that period in which the most active evolution of mammalia was taking place in other parts of the world. The few low mammals which had reached South America before it became isolated evolved a very peculiar mammalian fauna, including such forms as the giant sloth or Megatherium, and Glyptodonts like gigantic armadillos, which, however, never reached a very high grade of development, such as the mammals in the more desperate struggle for existence that was going on in other parts of the world were attaining.” But finally a new path of approach to this com- pletely isolated continent was constructed, Dur- ing the end of the Miocene period the emer- gence of the Isthmus of Darien or Panama allowed the influx of more highly specialized forms from the Northern Hemisphere; and accordingly we find that. fossiliferous beds dating from this period hold the remains of lions, the sabre-toothed tiger, dogs, bears, llama, deer, horses, tapirs and peccaries — animals that had been abundant in other parts of the globe for ages before, but had been unable to reach South America for the reason mentioned. These invaders “established themselves to a great extent at the expense of the old typical South® American fauna. -Remains of this original fauna, however, still survive in the opossum, armadillo, ant-eater and sloths, while the new forms, which are now far more abun- dant, both in numbers and species, include such forms as the deer, tapir, peccary, puma, jaguar, wildcats, dogs, etc.” Ex-President Roosevelt invites our attention particularly to the fact that South America has the most extensive and most varied avifauna of all the continents. The rhea, or American ostrich, and the fur seal were studied with true interest by Dr. John Augustine Zahm in. Uruguay. For the dis- tinctive fauna and flora of an important part of the west coast, see CHILE. On the other hand the countries of Central America, forming borderlands between the greater North and South, naturally show some results of the prox- imity of the former; nevertheless the influence of the latter has been in these respects so much the more potent that Central America is with good reason assigned to the Neotropical Region, as we have said above. Near the heart of South America, the region called the Chaco is interpolated between the region of great forests and the sabanas and pampas — the last being poor in vegetation while the first is in the same respect almost beyond belief richly endowed: since in that vast Amazonian valley the vegetable kingdom long ago fairly conquered the animal kingdom by expelling or subordinating the most important terrestrial mammals. (Consult Putnam’s Maga- zine, Vol. VII, pp. 194-199, New York, Oct. 1909-April 1910). Of course it is still impos- sible to say what addition will be made to rec- ognized lists of plants by these equatorial South American forests: they have never been: more than partially explored; a civilizing reconquest of the fertile areas they usurp has never been attempted systematically. Taken all together they make the Great Forest of the world, shar- ing primacy in the list of this world’s natural features with the Andes, the greatest of moun- tain masses, and with the Amazon’s wholly in- comparable torrents. We mention here only a few of the best-known natives of widely sepa- rated parts of Latin America: Cinchona, maté (Ilex paraguayensis), coca, various rubber-pro- ducing forest growths, victoria regia, maize and Agave americana (both presumably Mexican), tobacco (a product of the islands of the West Indies), and potato, claimed as a native by both Chile and Peru. A very early association ex- 4& LATIN AMERICA — CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) isted with the flora of the Eastern Hemisphere; a much more recent connection was’ established with the North American flora. (See above). Botanic geography will, we think, establish the facts that Latin America’s most distinctive and distinguishing possession is its flora and that in this respect, even more —or much more — than in respect to its fauna, its claims will re- ward our attention; and although this is “by far the most interesting region” to the botanist as well as to the zoologist, we shall find both botanists and zoologists as one in asserting that the primitive geologic union of the South American continent with Africa and Australia explains many phenomena which could not be understood otherwise. Briefly, then, Latin American flora and fauna, both of surpassing interest, have indeed enjoyed independent’ de- velopment, yet in most ancient times they un- doubtedly influenced and in turn weré’ influ- enced by the flora and fauna of equatorial, tropical and sub-tropical regions of the East- ern Hemisphere.. Languages.— Interesting variations are ob- served in the Spanish, spoken and written, which, as we have said, is the language of the ruling classes-in 18 of the republics. Thus, in Mexico its characteristics are those of the tongue of southern Spain, but in Costa Rica those of northern regions in the mother coun- try; in distant Chile the Castilian linguistic standards are flouted (the substitution of 7 in place of g being a single example of literary and sépiilar revolt), while Cuba has held fast to the good old Spanish linguistic traditions ‘through all the years of political insurrections and armed rebellion. Ecuador, Colombia and Peru deserve their fame as, in this respect, con- servative centres of an inherited culture, where the best usages are appreciated by writers and speakers. The literature of that great country, Brazil, in which Portuguese is spoken, seems to all loyal Brazilians a priceless treasure, even as the manuscript of the ‘Lusiad seemed to CamGes: they cherish their’ language in cor- responding degree — somewhat too exclusively. Governments of Latin America.— The Latin American countries are constitutionally either federal states, resembling most nearly in this respect the United States of America, or are unitary and centralized. The United States of Brazil, the United States of Mexico and the United States of Venezuela more obviously stand in the class first mentioned; Argentina’s’ governmental plan embraces some of the features characterizing each class; the other countries (Republic. of Bolivia, Republic of Colombia, etc.) in the main illustrate by their organization the growing unitarian or centraliz- ing tendency: “Republic of Colombia” was formerly “United States of Colombia”; the variations are, however, so complex that we convey only an approximately correct idea of them when we say that the federal form of government in Latin America resembles that of the United States and the centralized that of France. The readers who wish to study this subject closely will find paragraphs on govern- ment and constitution in the articles devoted to these countries separately, with careful bibliographic reference to such special works as are available. Frequent — constitutional changes are there recorded; but these must not be regarded as indications of weak vacillation. It is only fair to say that they are to a some- what greater extent than we commonly realize paralleled in our own experience, particularly in the matter of State governments (consult Holcombe, A. N., ‘State Government in the United States, Dp. 119-120, New York 1916) ; that by the middle of the 19th century “the constitutions of most of the States of the United States had been revised or were in process of revision»; and that, “beginning in 1870, the constitutions of most of the leading States in. the north outside of New England [and inthe South after the overthrow of negro domination] were revised, the culmination of the movement being reached in New York in 1894.” Some of the most interesting constitu- tional changes in South America (for example, in Paraguay): were designed simply — and wisely —to prevent the recurrence of dictator- ships and so to safeguard orderly development in the future. The dangers in that quarter have often been bravely met and will surely be over- come; their magnitude, and the importance of these phenomena in every study of this branch of our subject must be admitted. But the people who possess the splendid central and southern regions in the New World have determined that whatever im-~ pedes true progress or conflicts with the stabil- ity of republican institutions shall have no place in the third great period of national develop- ment, which is at hand. Marrion WILCOX, 2. CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMER- ICA. Latin-American civilization from an Anglo-Saxon point of view may be found wanting in many respects, but the life and happiness of nations, the ideals and hopes of their peoples, their legislation and institutions, are not to be found ready made, but have to be worked out to meet peculiar wants, and in accordance with the racial, mental, moral, climatic and material resources and necessities of each. Latin America must be dealt with as a whole if one wishes to cast a rapid glance at its civilization. Some of the 20 free and independ- ent states which in their aggregate make up Latin America have developed more than others, and a few to a remarkable degree, but whether north or south of the Panama Canal, east or west, on the Atlantic or the Pacific, on the Caribbean or the Gulf of Mexico, the countries of Latin America sprang from the same race—the brave, hardy, adventurous, ro- mantic and warlike Spanish and Portuguese conquerors, who fought their way through un- known territories, whether in quest of “El Dorado” or in warfare against whole nations of Indians, as in the case of Mexico and Peru, where the native Indians had a wonderful civilization of their own. On the other hand, the men who founded the United States, the Pilgrims who first set foot on this new land of promise, and those who followed in the wake of the first settlers, came to the country already prepared, through years of training, to govern themselves. They came to the friendly shores of the New World in quest of freedom. They wanted a home in a new land not yet contaminated with the spirit of the Old World, They brought with them LATIN AMERICA — CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) 5 their creed, their habits of order and discipline, their experience in self-government, their love of freedom, their respect for the established principles of law. Hence from its inception Anglo-American civilization was built upon solid ground. Its subsequent development — the mar- vel of the last half of the 19th and of this 20th century —is due to the solidity of their institutions, their steadfastness of purpose, their practical view of life, and a. territorial expanse where all the soils, all the wealth, all the climatic conditions of the cold, the temperate and the tropical zone can be found. The discussion of Latin-American civiliza- tion is of vast importance, since it deals with the history and development of 20 republics lying beyond the Mexican border, and covering an aggregate area of about 8,200,000 square miles, with a total population of nearly 80.000,- 000, of whom 54,000,000 speak the Spanish language, 24,000,000 Portuguese in Brazil, and 2,000,000. French in Haiti. This general divi- sion brings us at once to deal, under the same classification, with peoples and_ civilizations springing from different sources,— Spanish, Portuguese: and French. Even among the Spanish-speaking countries there are conditions, — depending on the province of origin of the first Spanish colonizers and settlers, who came mainly from Biscay, Andalusia, Castile, Aragon and Estremadura— which tend to establish slight differences and peculiarities just as the various States of the United States show dis- similarity due to the sources of their popu- lation. Geographically, Latin America begins beyond the Rio Grande, with Mexico, at the southern boundary of which extends what is called Cen- tral America, consisting of Guatemala, Hon- duras, Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, the historic five Central American states; Panama, the gateway to the Pacific on the west and to the Caribbean and the Atlantic on the east; South America proper, embracing Venezuela on the Caribbean, Colombia on the sea and partly on the Pacific; Ecuador, Peru and Chile, bordering on the Pacific; Bolivia and Paraguay, inland states in the heart of South America; Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil on the Atlantic; and, lastly, Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, islands in the Caribbean Sea. Thus Latin America extends from the north tem- perate zone to Cape Horn, near the Antarctic Ocean, which means that all climatic conditions are found in that enormous area from the cool regions of notthern Mexico to the tropical heat of the torrid zone and again to the cold lands of Patagonia. This is indeed a world of wealth where all the products of the globe can be successfully cultivated, where all races of man- kind can live and thrive, because the Mexican and Central American cordilleras, and farther south the mighty Andean range, offer an un- broken chain of lofty peaks, wide valleys and extensive tablelands, affording all climates and zones, all kinds of soils and minerals, the only limitation to the development of these lands being human endurance. The water supply is plentiful in most parts of Mexico and the Central American republics, and there is noth- ing which can be compared to the hydro- graphic areas of northern and central South ‘in the New World. length of about 4,000 miles; the mighty Amazon, having three times the volume of the Missis- sippi and navigable for over 2,000 miles, and the network of great rivers emptying into it; the Parana and the river Plata, with twice the volume of the Mississippi, and a thousand other streams too numerous to mention in detail, but which can be found on any fairly good map, showing a feasible water route from the mouth of the Orinoco in Venezuela to the Amazon and the very heart of South America, and thence to the Parana and finally down to the river Plata. It is well known how Columbus discovered this New World which to-day bears the name of America (although the application of that name is quite restricted in this country to the United States)— what hardships that un- daunted sailor and his followers had to endure, their sufferings, their hopes and their faith in some supernatural fate, a trait which is due in part to the influence of Moorish ancestors in Spain through the mingling of both races dur- ing the occupation wars which lasted over eight centuries. Thé discovery of America has a tinge of romance, such as inspires the soul of the adventurer and the buccaneer. It was a romance that began at the Rabida, grew in the presence and with the help of good Queen Isabella, developed into a mad desire for ad- venture at Palos, and ended with the planting of the Spanish standard on the shores of Guanahani, now called Watling’s Island. From here Columbus went to what is to-day called Cuba, thence to Hispaniola — now divided into Haiti and Dominican Republic—and in this latter island founded the first white settlement i It is not necessary to follow Columbus’ voyages or his adventures step by step, but the discovery of America is an epic worthy of the mettle of the great explorer and his men. And so the civilization of what is called Latin America began with the first Spanish settlement, the first Indian blood shed by the greed of the white conqueror and the first attempt to Christianize the inhabitants of the new-found land. The inevitable features of conquest — war, treachery, destruction, fire, sword, deeds of valor but little known and endurance almost superhuman — marked along the trail of the discoverers the birth and first steps of the: nations of the New World. And in the midst of this turmoil, bravely battling against unknown odds, the Spanish missionary fathers worked unceasingly, founding hamlets and towns, thus planting in the wilderness the seeds of many a large city to-day, building their temples of worship, going from place to place struggling with disease and hunger, teach- ing the Indians the Spanish language and with it their religious faith, and laying the founda- tion of what is known to-day as Latin America. The second stage of Latin-American civil- ization began when the Crown of Spain finally took an active interest in its’ new possessions and men of a better class than the soldiery which landed with the discoverers and con- querors began to come to the New World, bringing their wives and daughters, and sur- rounding themselves with whatever comforts could be had in their new home. They were in many cases scions of noble families, who came either as viceroys, governors or in some 6 LATIN AMERICA — CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) other administrative capacity, or as “oidores,” or judges, ‘and men of letters in general. There came also learned monks, and among these, philosophers, poets, musicians, painters and. skilled artisans. Hence some of the oldest descriptions and chronicles of Latin America are in verse or in choice prose, either in Span- ish or in Latin, and we find in some of the oldest cities in Spanish America wonderful ex- amples of wood carving, either in churches or in old houses, beautiful specimens of the gold and silversmith’s art, some fine paintings, and unexcelled samples of the art of illuminating books, particularly missals. The scholars, either members of the reli- gious orders or laymen, began to gather books imported from Europe, and so our libraries were started, mainly in the convents. With this feature of civilization the necessity of educating the children of the Spaniards and the Indians became more pressing, and private schools and seminaries were established, as a first step toward the foundation of universities. Both in Mexico and in Peru schools were founded by order of the Crown of Spain for the education of the Indians, where they learned not only reading and writing, but the manual arts as well. Latin Americans point with natural pride to the fact that the first university founded in the New World was that of Santo Tomas de Aquino at Santo Domingo, in 1538. This uni- versity is no longer in existence, but there still exists that of San Marcos at Lima, Peru, founded in 1551; the University of Mexico, established in 1553 and refounded in 1910; the University of Cérdoba, in Argentina, dating. from 1613; that of Sucre in Bolivia, founded in 1623, or 13 years before Harvard, which dates from 1636, and that of Cuzco, in Peru, established in 1693, or eight years earlier than Yale, which was founded in 1701. The Uni- versity of Caracas, in Venezuela, dates from 1721, and that of Habana, Cuba, from 1728, the other universities founded before the 19th century being that of Santiago, Chile, in 1743, fae the University of Quito, Ecuador, in 1787. The great agent of civilization and progress, the printing press, has been known in Latin America since 1536, when the first printing outfit was introduced into Mexico and the first book printed in the New World, a plea of Father Las Casas fora better life. Cartagena, Colombia, is said to have been the second city* of America to have a printing press, in 1560 or 1562, but Peru seems to hold the record for the first book printed in South America, about 1584, and La Paz, Bolivia, had a printing establishment about 1610. There were also a press and other printing paraphernalia at the Jesuit missions of Paraguay, about the first decade of the 17th century. -The first work in Bogota was printed about 1739; Ecuador printed its first book in 1760 and Venezuela in 1764, while the earliest production of the Chilean press bears the date of 1776; and there was a printing outfit in Cérdoba, Argen- tine, in 1767. With the foundation of univer- sities and schools and more frequent com- munication with Spain and other European countries of Latin origin, and the printing of books and newspapers in the New World, the ‘desire for learning was developed and a new field was opened to intellectual culture, The dissatisfaction of the colonies with the exactions and abuses of the viceroys, captains- general and other officials representing the Crown of Spain, jealousies between the “creoles,»> or children of Spanish parents born in America, and the “peninsulars,” or native Spaniards, commercial preference and social distinctions and other petty annoyances born of the arrogance of the Spaniards on the one hand, and the proud nature of the creoles on the other, were the smouldering embers which, fanned by the success of the American Revo- lution and the storm of the French Revolu- tion, set on fire the Spaniard colonies at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. The majority of the Spanish-Ameri- can countries attained their independence be- tween 1804 and 1825, and their struggles for freedom, while encouraged by the example of the United States, were inspired by French ideals. The heroes of the bloody but romantic French Revolution, their fiery speeches and fearlessness, their proclamation of the repub- lic and the rights of man; the echoes of the Boston Tea Party, the exploits of the spirit of ’76, the commanding and serene figure of Washington, the adoption of the American Constitution, the utterances of the grave think- ers and inspired orators of the Revolutionary period — all these dazzling examples of patriot- ism appealed to the Spanish-American colo- nists, and one by one the colonies began their fight for independence. The executions and ignominy which were the lot of the first patriots who forfeited their lives for the cause of independence, instead of discouraging the leaders, made them more aggressive, and they resolved to gain the day at all hazards. On the most brilliant pages of the history of Latin America are written, among the names of other heroes, those of Miranda of Ven- ezuela, the precursor of South American inde- pendence; Bolivar, who has been called the Washington of South America, a born leader, the liberator and father of Venezuela, his na- tive country, and of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia; Sucre, also a Venezuelan, more like Washington than was Bolivar; San Mar- tin, the great general of Argentina, the brave and heroic liberator of the southern half of South America; Artigas of Uruguay, a man of sterling qualities; O’ Higgins, the great Chilean hero; Tiradentes, the forerunner of Brazilian independence; Morelos and Hidalgo in Mex- ico, both Catholic priests, and both martyrs to the cause of independence; and scores of others from each country whose names would be meaningless except to those well acquainted with the history of South America. Once free from colonial bondage, the new republics, whose political constitutions in the main are based on that of the United States, had to deal with fresh problems arising from changed conditions. The new political entities commenced their independent life heavily handicapped, on the one hand by their eco- nomic condition after a period of protracted wars, and on the other hand by a scarcity of population. The unbounded productiveness of Latin America, coupled with the modest wants of the masses, has been the main cause of the & LATIN AMERICA — CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) 7 slow development of most of these countries as manufacturing centres, their chief means of support being agricultural and allied industries and mining. The evolution out of all this chaos has been more rapid in some countries than in others, due to special conditions, among which the principal ones are geographic and topographic position and predominance of the white man. The leading classes, owners of black slaves and landlords to the Indian tenantry, lived for the most part in relative ease after the war of independence. Those who did not seek in the army a field for their activities or inclinations devoted themselves to intellectual and scientific pursuits, either in civil life or in the service of the Church. Some went abroad, to France or Spain preferably, to acquire a general educa- tion or to perfect that received at home and to see the world, and on their return bringing new ideas which were eventually adopted and modified as necessity demanded. With the progress of the 19th century Latin America also advanced. Intellectually, there is no difference between the Latin-Americans and the Anglo-Americans. The literature of Latin America (q.v.) 1s as rich and valuable as that of any country, yet it is hardly known— not to say entirely un- known—in the United States except by a handful of men who have devoted their time to the study of the Spanish language. It is only during the last few years that a desire to learn Spanish has made itself felt in the United States, and it is most gratifying to note the number of persons now able to read and understand the language and their growing familiarity with things Latin-American. On the other hand, the study of modern languages is compulsory in all of the universities and colleges of Latin America, and absolutely neces- sary to obtain certain academic degrees. French was for a long time the language chosen by the majority of the students, hence the influence of French literature and French thought in Latin America. German was taken up by many, more as a commercial tongue than otherwise. English was preferred by others, rather as an accomplishment than as a lan- guage of immediate practical use, but now it has taken, in many cases, the place of Ger- man. These two languages have followed the trend of trade, but English is becoming more useful every day in view of the increased re- lations of Latin America with the United States, in all spheres of human activity. The problem of education has always com- manded the earnest attention of all the Latin- American governments, to the extent of having made primary education not only free but compulsory. So far as higher education is concerned — that is, all grades above primary —there are institutions, either public or pri- vate, or both, for secondary and superior edu- cation, normal schools, schools of mines, agri- cultural and manual training, technological in- stitutes, colleges, universities, conservatories of music, academies of painting and sculpture, national or public libraries, museums, etc.— in short, all kinds. of institutions devoted to the moral and intellectual uplift of the people. In each of the Latin-American countries there is a system of scholarships which serves as a practical means of promoting interest in education. This system provides for support- ing abroad for a certain length of time such students and graduates as have won honors, who are sent to Europe and in some cases to the United States, to perfect their education and bring home the latest and most approved methods. Since the present war began students come to the United States who formerly would have gone to Europe to take a post-graduate course in some science or profession. Others are in this country studying and investigating school methods and appliances. At present there are over 1,300 such students sin the United States. With better means of communication and a desire to expand their trade with Latin America, United States merchants and travelers are visiting intelligently the Latin-American countries, and men of science and learning have, during the last few years, turned their eyes toward that continent, bringing to light the wonders of past ages buried by the sands of Time, and doing justice to a civilization then little known, and only by a few. No better proof of the fact that Latin-American civilization is worthy of note could be had than the desire to exchange professors and students between certain universities of the United States and those of the leading South Ameri- can countries, as well as the acquisition, gen- erally by purchase, of important private li- braries of Latin America, containing invaluable works dealing with the history, progress and - higher development of those countries. Latin Americans have done much toward the progress of the world both intellectually and ‘materially. Civilization may be -divided into two great branches from which others spring: development of the intellectual forces of mankind and development of the material resources for the benefit of society. Under the first head—as has been shown in the pre- ceding paragraphs—there are found educa- tional institutions to train and perfect the mind, which have existed in Latin America for centuries, and the result of this training has been great jurists, historians, orators, physicians, painters, sculptors, poets, musi- cians, playwrights and others too numerous to mention when dealing with 20 countries, but whose works might fill a great library. A passing mention has already been made of the standing of Latin-American writers. There are painters and sculptors of renown, whose works have been admired, rewarded and commended in the leading art centres of the world. In all these countries there are art schools from which the students go preferably to Italy or France, most frequently pensioned by the gov- ernment, to perfect themselves. There are musicians wedded to their art and a credit to their country and themselves; and composers. singers and players educated in their own con- servatories or schools. There are theatres and opera-houses not surpassed by any others in the United States or Europe, and the govern- ments of many, if not all, of the Latin-Ameri- can countries contribute to the musical educa- tion of the people by subsidizing opera troupes every Season or so, paying large sums to ob- tain the best singers. Many a celebrity who has come to New York has commenced his career in Latin America. There:is another phase of Latin-American 8 LATIN AMERICA —CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA (2) civilization showing in an unquestionable man- ner a natural tendency toward the establish- ment of higher ideals —those ideals that are to-day being proclaimed by men of good will of all nations. I refer to arbitration, recourse to which is the highest form of culture among peoples. Arbitration is not new with the Latin- American peoples. It is one of the basic prin- ciples of their social structure, since it rests on the civil law of Rome, which provides for arbitration as one of the ordinary and usual means of settling differences between man and man. The principle of world arbitration was first proclaimed by Gen. Sim6én Bolivar, who was the originator of the idea of holding the first Congress of Nations of America at Panama in 1826, for the purpose, among others, of adopting arbitration as a principle of Amer- ican — that is to say, Pan-American — policy. In recent years Latin America has had re- course to arbitration and direct negotiations partaking often of the nature of arbitration, more frequently than all the rest of the world. Latin-American wars have been civil wars for a political principle, and these mainly in coun- tries where the military element predominates. They have never engaged in wars of conquest. In their international difficulties arbitration has always been the keynote of negotiations. It is a remarkable fact that in the history of the Latin-American republics, since they became independent from the mother country over 100 years ago, they have had among themselves only two international wars, and these could indeed be classed as national, since they were fought among members of their own family of nations. But these wars were not fought for territorial expansion, nor in the spirit of conquest, although territory may have been gained as an indemnity. These are the Para- guayan war against Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, 1865-70, and the war of Chile against Bolivia and Peru, 1879-84. On the other hand, who, looking at the map of Europe before this war, would recognize it as the same Europe of half a century ago? With one or two exceptions —the Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas and the British Isles —there is not a single country that has not been remade at the cost of numberless lives. All boundary disputes — and they have been many—tave been or are being settled by arbitration. ‘Could any better proof be offered of the advancement of peoples who, while springing directly from a race of warriors, are not afraid to work toward the ends of peace? Another proof of this spirit of progress is the maintenance in the city of Washington, by all the countries of the American hemisphere, of a unique organization. called the Pan-Ameri- can Union, the living embodiment of the idea which created the International Union of American Republics as a result of the first Pan American Conference held in Washington in 1889-90 at the invitation of that great Ameri- can statesman, James G. Blaine. The Pan- American Union represents the spirit of prog- ress, the desire for a better understanding, the necessity for stronger ties of friendship, felt among the republics of the three Americas, by making them known to one another, by bring- ing to the attention of the people of the United States the opportunities offered by the Latin-American countries, their civilization, their onward march toward: prosperity, united in a single purpose of material and moral ad- vancement. There is another aspect of the civilization of the Latin-American republics which deserves more than passing attention. It is their polit- ical life as members of the Pan-American fraternity of independent nations. Their first step toward higher ideals was their declaration of independence and their assumption of the duties and exercises of the rights of sovereign states. The transition from colonial depend- encies to self-governing nations was fraught with difficulties unknown to the citizens of the original 13 states of the North American Union, resulting from different conditions, due in the main to the spirit that inspired ‘their complete emancipation. The original 13 States separated from England principally for prac- tical reasons, while the Spanish-American countries had to contend with an economic as well as a political problem. After a period of evolution— or of succes- sive revolutions, as some would say — during which the several antagonistic interests were undergoing a process of amalgamation, or bet- ter still, clarification, there now exist, in the majority of Latin-American countries, stable governments whose sole aim is to maintain above reproach the moral as well as the eco- nomic credit of their respective nations, so as to attract foreign capital and energy, which will stimulate the development of home indus- tries, and ensure peace, prosperity and hap- piness to its citizens. Some Latin-American republics have been less fortunate, but every disturbance, all civil strife, should be construed, in fairness, as a misdirected effort toward the attainment of a goal dreamed of and desired. by all. Public education, foreign commerce, improved means of communication, greater de- velopment of the natural wealth of these coun- tries, are factors which have contributed and are constantly contributing to the establish- ment of a peaceful era which will eventually become normal and stable. As to the material phase of Latin-American civilization, communication with the other countries of the world at the beginning of the World War was represented by over 50 steam- ship lines plying between European ports and those of Latin America, and about 25 lines running from the United States to the Atlantic, Caribbean and west coast ports of Latin America. The combined railway mileage from Mexico down to Chile and Argentina, including the island countries of Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, is estimated at over 68,000 miles, Argentina leading with over 22,000 miles ; next comes Mexico with over 15, 000 miles ; Brazil follows with about 14,600 miles : Chile, nearly 6,000; Cuba, nearly 2,500, and the other republics in lesser proportion. There is not one single country, however, that is not in- cluded in this total mileage. It may seem strange that in an area of about 8,200,000 square miles there should be only 68,000 miles of railway, but if one stops a moment to con- sider the enormous barrier extending along the west coast of South America, formed by the mighty range of the Andes Mountains, which made direct communication between the cities of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts very difficult, and the scarcity of population which creates LATIN AMERICA —EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA (3) 9 demands and makes traffic profitable, one will understand why the railways of Latin America have not advanced faster. But even under these circumstances, not a day passes but some work is done toward the extension of that railway mileage. Another phase of civilization and progress is the foreign commerce of a country. The progress made by Latin America in its com- mercial relations with the world at large and the United States, especially, shows that there is a great consumption of all such articles as are considered necessary to civilization. Latin America is not a manufacturing continent; it mainly produces for export agricultural prod- ucts such as sugar, coffee, rubber, tobacco, cacao or cocoa, cotton, etc., hides and other raw materials, mining products such as silver, gold, tin, copper, iron, bismuth, saltpeter, etc., and a few gems. Its main imports are ma- chinery of all kinds, hardware, cotton and other fabrics, foodstuffs, carriages and automobiles, railway material, electrical appliances and other similar products of industry necessary to the cultivation of the land, the improvement of roads and cities, and the comfort of the in- habitants. There is not a city of any importance in Latin America where either artificial illuminat- ing gas or electric light is unknown. Tele- graph and telephone wires stretch all over Latin America, uniting cities and towns, over the wilds and across the mountains, bridging mighty rivers, connecting neighboring countries and linking their shores with the rest of the civilized world. Not an event of. any import- ance takes place in Europe, Asia, Africa or the United States which the submarine cable does not bring to the Latin-American press, to be made public either in the form of bulletins or in “extras,” according to the importance of the event, while nearly every Latin-American country has its wireless telegraph system. Electric cars are fast replacing the older and slower methods of transportation within the cities and extending their usefulness to carry- ing passengers to suburban villas, small towns or country places of amusement, and Buenos Aires, the largest Latin- American capital, has a subway i in operation. A charge frequently made against Latin- Americans is that they are a race of dreamers. There is some truth in this. Latin-Americans have inherited from their forefathers the love of the beautiful and the grand; the facility for expression and the vivid imagination of the Latin race; the sonorous, majestic Span- ish, the flexible, musical Portuguese, and French, the language of art; and a responsive chord to all that thrills, be it color, harmony or mental imagery. They have also inherited from those ancestors their varying moods, their noble traits and their shortcomings, both of which have been preserved, and in certain cases improved, under the influence of environ- ment, the majestic mountains, primeval forests, ever blooming tropical flowers, birds of sweet- est songs and wonderful plumage; under magnificent skies and the inspiration drawn from other poets and writers, foreign and native. Much more might be said to sty the con- stant endeavor of Latin America to co-operate with its best efforts to the civilization of the world. It has contributed readily according to its Latin standards, and from the day of its independence and the establishment of republi- can institutions Latin America has recognized the rights of man, abolished slavery, fostered education, developed its commerce and in- creased traveling facilities and means of com- munication with the outer world. It has con- tributed to the best of its ability to the sum total of human betterment, and the day cannot be far off when full justice will be done to the efforts of the countries south of the United States, where live a people intelligent, progres- sive, proud of their history and their own efforts, and ready to extend a friendly hand and a sincere welcome to those who are will- ing to understand them, and aid them on their road to progress. FrANcisco J. YANES, Assistant Director, Pan-American Union. 3. EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA. General and Historical. Education in Latin America is dominated by two forces. One is historical and concerns higher and _ pro- fessional studies. The Spanish colonists estab- lished universities soon after their occupation of the country. Santo Domingo, 1538; Lima, 1551; Mexico, 1553; Bogota, 1572; Cérdoba in Argentina, 1613; Chuquisaca (now Sucre) in Bolivia, 1623. Six others were founded by the end of the colonial period. They had charters from the king of Spain and from the Pope, and enjoyed the monopoly of granting degrees. Preparation was obtained only in church schools and by private tutoring. The univer- sities themselves were conducted by the re- ligious orders. They were organized and con- - ducted solely in the interest of the colonial aristocracy. To-day they are national and theo- retically open to all classes with small tuition fees and very generally include engineering schools. However, their traditional character- istics persist. They overemphasize theory, culture, dialectics, and make their appeal to the leisure class. "They exercise little or no di- rect influence on elementary instruction. On the other hand, they dominate the secondary schools, which too often are but feeders to the universities, imitating their methods, reflecting their traditional spirit, and are likewise limited in patronage almost exclusively to the wealthy classes. The other force in Latin-American educa- tion, the movement for elementary education, is recent and comes from abroad. Before 1860 no state had any well-defined system of elementary instruction. During the presidency of Sarmiento (1868-74) Argentina inaugurated a determined movement for universal elemen- tary instruction. Sarmiento was influenced by the example of the United States. About the same time Chile undertook seriously the national organization of elementary schools. France has been rightly called the intellectual mother of Latin America, and when the French republic from 1870 on strove to banish illiter- acy from France, its influence was not without great effect in Spanish America. All the states soon put upon their statute books laws for compulsory primary education. The reform has not progressed uniformly. Argentina, Chile and Uruguay in South America and Costa Rica in ‘Central America have made the 10 LATIN AMERICA —EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA (3) greatest progress. Whereas in these states 50 years ago illiteracy was perhaps more than 90 per cent, it is now less than 50 and rapidly de- creasing. In some of the other states it is still 90 per cent. progress in elementary education since its inde- pendence. The least progress has been made in those countries where the Indian and Mestizo population is the largest, or where strong clerical influence hampers the national and secular school organization. In such coun- tries school statistics are often misleading. Many schools exist only on paper, in others the terms are short, average attendance is low and the law of compulsory attendance is not enforced. Primary Education.— The standard period of the elementary school is six years, but even in a country like Argentina the full length is observed only in cities and larger towns. The villages and countryside maintain curricula of but two, three or sometimes four years. The school year appioximates nine months. The subjects of instruction are reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, geography and national his- tory. As far as the mere ability to read is concerned, the short period of elementary schooling which obtains in so many localities is in part compensated for by the phonetic spelling of Spanish, and as concerns simple cal- culation by the use of the metric system. Gen- uine intellectual development, however, suffers severely from the short term of schooling for the average child. Elementary teachers are as a rule underpaid, and are seldom from the upper classes. The sharp class distinctions which so generally prevail in Latin America, especially in countries with a large mestizo pop- ulation, are nowhere more noticeable than in the schools. Except in Argentina, and in a lesser degree in Uruguay and Costa Rica, chil- dren of the upper classes of society seldom at- tend the elementary public schools. They re- ceive their primary education either . through private tutoring or in private select schools, or in primary grades attached to the state’ sec- ondary schools. This practice tends to foster and accentuate class distinction and makes of the public elementary instruction purely folk schools — a condition of affairs much to be re- gretted in a democracy. In a few countries there is a surprisingly strong tendency toward coeducation in the ele- mentary schools, but in general the policy is segregation of the sexes. In cities and larger towns segregation is practised in all grades. In smaller communities -boys and girls are taught together in the first two or three grades and segregated in the higher grades. In rural and small village schools where the range of instruction is limited (from two to four grades) the classes are usually open to both sexes. Except in the federated republics (Argen- tina, Brazil, Mexico and Venezuela) the primary school system is thoroughly central- ized and directed even in the smallest details from the national capital. The funds are ap- propriated from the national treasury, the ad- ministration is vested in the council of ele- mentary education under the Minister of Pub- lic Instruction. This council fixes the cur- riculum and methods, provides the building and Cuba has made commendable’ equipment, establishes qualifications of teach- ers, assigns teachers to their posts and fixes their salaries. Frequently there is a_ local board of education chosen by the municipality or named by the governor of the province. Its authority is, however, carefully limited. Its principal functions are to care for-the material equipment (building, etc.), to recommend suit- able teachers, and when the teacher has been appointed, to see that he performs his assigned duties and maintains a proper scholastic, moral - and civic attitude. Sometimes the local board is expected to provide from local funds the building and equipment. Great numbers of primary schools are conducted in rented build- | ings. In the federated republics the state systems are a copy of the national system of the cen- tralized republics. The tendency, therefore, is toward centralization over a larger or smaller extent of territory and close uniformity. Sucha system has undoubed advantages and was the only one that could cope with the difficulties that confronted popular education in Latin America. In Argentina the national govern- ment has recently asserted the right to estab- lish, maintain and control national elementary schools in those states where the local author- ities do not provide an adequate system. In some countries, especially in Mexico, the municipalities establish and maintain elemen- tary schools irrespective of the state system. These schools are usually better equipped and conducted than the state schools since the very fact of their establishment is an indication -that state-wide interest in popular education is de- ficient or non-existent. Normal Schools.— Those countries which have done most for primary education lay great stress on their normal high schools, which have come to be the secondary schools ‘of the com- mon people, as well as training schools for primary teachers. These schools were origin- ally an importation and came with the impetus for universal and obligatory primary instruc- tion. Many of the first masters were brought from Europe and the United States, and the schools were organized on the model of the French primary normal school and the original independent normal school of the United States. The requirement for entrance is completion of the elementary school course (six years) or its equivalent. The curriculum covers four, five and six years. The studies embrace what is usually found in grades 7 to 12 of American junior and regular high schools with the addi- tion of pedagogy, observation of teaching and practice teaching in the annexed model school. Many normals are boarding schools. Whether boarding or day schools the usual practice is for the state to maintain the scholars, lodging, feeding and clothing them in the boarding schools, or paying them.a commutation in the day schools. In return the scholars enlist in the teaching service of the state for a certain number of years. In case they do not serve out their enlistment, they agree to reimburse the govenment. A bond is given to ensure the observance of the contract. Unfortunately, in many countries this contract is not always ob- served. The normal school students come from the lower middle class, if indeed one can speak of a middle class in the average Latin-Ameri- LATIN AMERICA —EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA (3) 11 can society, and their advancement into the higher grades of instruction, even with indus- try and ability, is difficult and rare. Their limited education is a handicap, and the line of demarcation between the normal and ele- mentary schools on one hand and the secondary and university education on the other is so sharply drawn that it is next to impossible to pass from the one to the other. Chile and Argentina maintain higher normal schools of college rank for the training of primary nor- mal school instructors, and, to a limited ex- tent, for the training of regular high school teachers, but the latter are more usually re- cruited from the universities and lack distinct pedagogical preparation. The boarding normal schools very naturally are for one sex or the other, but in the day schools coeducation is surprisingly common. A model school is always attached to a normal school, and much stress is laid upon practice teaching, although much more time is devoted to observation than to actual practice. Secondary Education— The — standard period of the regular secondary schools (Liceos) is six years, but in some countries it is less. These schools are usually good of their type even in countries where primary education has been neglected. Their clientele is largely from the upper classes. Church and private schools of this grade are numerous, but the state retains (as in France) the right of examination and power to grant the degree (bachelor of humanities) at the end of the course. The curriculum is, as.a rule, uniform and comprises the Spanish language and litera- ture, general and national history, mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology (usually without individual laboratory practice), French, Eng- lish, elementary philosophy and _ economics. Latin is seldom included. The uniform curric- ulum in the secondary schools is due to their close administrative relation with the univer- sities. They are still regarded as mere pre- paratory schools. When commercial and indus- trial. education was introduced, it seemed more politic to divorce it wholly from the traditional secondary schools, as had been done with the primary normal training. Hence almost every- where commercial and industrial schools are separate institutions although state supported. When they are combined with the regular high school, it is for economic, not pedagogical or administrative reasons. Notwithstanding the relative excellence of the regular high school, it suffers from the lack of trained and pro- fessional teachers. Much of the instruction is given by university graduates who divide their time between a number of schools or who carry on a profession (law, medicine, pharmacy, jour- nalism, etc.) at the same time. Their teaching is necessarily often a secondary consideration and their attendance irregular. They fre- quently lack ability really to teach. The recita- tion is apt to become a lecture as in the uni- versity. Commercial Education.— The commercial school in many Latin-American countries oc- cupies a position of high favor, receives liberal state support and opens an avenue to young people who could not hope to profit materially by the regular high school course. It is usu- ally a combination of upper primary and junior high school. The curriculum comprises the traditional subjects of the fourth, fifth and sixth grades of the elementary school with a commercial orientation of arithmetic, geography and composition, while introducing the specific commercial branches, typewriting, stenography and accounting. Much stress is laid upon modern foreign languages, especially English and French. These schools often receive im- portant gifts and even regular subsidies from public-spirited citizens and commercial organ- izations. Evening as well as day classes are the rule in these institutions, and some have evening classes only. Unfortunately relatively few pupils complete the entire curriculum. They leave the school after acquiring the mere rudiments of a commercial education to accept modest employment in business. Higher and Professional Education.— The universities are professional schools almost exclusively. A very few have faculties. of letters and pure science. The standard uni- versity contains faculties of law, medicine, engi- neering, commerce and agriculture; but many have only two or three faculties. Medical de- partments include schools of pharmacy, den- tistry and midwifery. The average course of study in law covers six years; in medicine, six; in engineering and agriculture, four; in commerce, four; in pharmacy and dentistry, three. i The enrolment in Latin-American univer- sities is surprisingly large. Buenos Aires has approximately 6,000 (exclusive of the attached preparatory high school) ; Santiago 2,000, Lima 1,100, Montevideo 900 exclusive of the agri- cultural college, a separate institution, and others in proportion to population and degree of general culture. The explanation is found in the fact that although the institutions are merely groups of professional schools, they also fill the place occupied by the liberal arts college in the United States, and many students attend with no expectation of following the profession they are studying. They take a uni- versity course for general culture or for the sake of the doctor’s degree which is conferred upon graduation. Not nearly half the gradu- ates in law and not more than half in medicine practise the profession. The law course espe- cially is regarded as a liberal education, being less technical than in an American law school and including at least the rudiments of all the social sciences, psychology, economics, sociology, constitutional history, as well as the philosophy and history of law, and international law. It is in fact a study of jurisprudence in the wide sense, and leads to the degree of doctor of jurisprudence. The medical college. with its adjunct departments usually has the largest en- rolment. The curriculum is long and full. Not as much stress is laid upon chemistry and the other basic sciences of medicine as there Should be, but the clinical instruction and practice is excellent. Agriculture, the last of the faculties to be introduced, is much en- couraged by the governments and _ receives generous support. The enrolment, however, is limited. All the states have one or more schools of agriculture either as part of a uni- versity or existing as a separate institution. Organization of Universities.— Practi- cally all institutions of higher and professional instruction in Latin America are state sup- ported and state controlled. In a few centres 12 LATIN AMERICA — EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA (3) there are church colleges of law, engineering, etc., but mever of medicine. These colleges do not confer the degree of the profession. That privilege is reserved for the state uni- versity. Most state universities are autono- mous;.1.e., they are governed directly by the faculty, which is a self-perpetuating corpora- tion. However, the election to a vacant chair must be confirmed by the President of the re- public through the Minister of Public Instruc- tion. The common practice is for the faculty to nominate three candidates for a vacancy of whom the minister selects one. The state ex- ercises in this way a control over the personnel, but usually the faculty indicates its choice of the candidates, and the minister rarely rejects the nomination. The universities have thus acquired almost everywhere complete independ- ence. Their revenue, of course, depends largely on the will of the national (or provincial) legislature. University professors, like those of the secondary schools in Latin America, are rarely teachers by profession. The law is taught by practicing lawyers and judges in office; medicine, by practicing physicians. This custom has the same disadvantages though not so marked as in the Liceos. A professor usu- ally teaches but one course which consists of three lectures or recitations per week. If a course runs through two years, one man will teach the first year, another the second. This custom accounts for the large number of pro- fessors in an institution in proportion to the students, the ratio being often in the smaller universities as high as one to five. The differ- ent colleges of a university are usually scat- tered, the college of law being located in one part of the city, the college of medicine in another, etc. Each has its own library and laboratories. This necessitates a duplication of material and often a duplication of instruction since matriculation in the university is directlv from the high school, and certain basic subjects are taught in two or more colleges. Especially is this true of the basic sciences of medicine, engineering and agriculture. The universities are very generally open to both sexes, and women are enrolled in considerable numbers in the colleges of medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, education and architecture. So-called practical schools of agriculture and industrial arts are very common and are supported or subsidized by the state. They are of lower rank than the university profes- sional schools and are for the training of over- seers, foremen, artisans and farmers. The agricultural states have featured the practical agricultural school in recent years. Argentina has a score of them of different grade. Some are designed to emphasize the type of agricul- ture in the region where they are located, fruit growing, cattle raising, sugar industry, etc.; others have a general curriculum. They admit boys with the mere fundamentals of in- struction from the third or fourth grade, and continue their common school instruction, add- ing the professional branches. The curriculum extends over three or four years. Many of these institutions are boarding schools. The system is very similar in other states. Chile maintains them in the agricultural _ region; Cuba has one in each of the six provinces. In Brazil and Mexico it is the concern of the individual states, the national government con- cerning itself only with the higher professional schools. Industrial Education.— The practical in- dustrial schools (Escuelas de artes y officios) have the same status and occupy a correspond- ing position in the industrial field. They are supposed to reduce theory to the minimum and bend their energies to the practical. This is especially difficult, however, in Latin America since the tradition in education there for cen- turies has been in favor of theory, and the racial mind is forcibly bent in that direction. In the most enterprising countries there are trade schools for girls as well as for boys. Chile, for example, has a great number for girls, one or more in almost every important town. The introduction of industrial and agri- cultural education into the regular primary schools is uncommon. The tendency is to make them separate departments of instruction. Both at Buenos Aires and at Santiago, Chile, there is a school of industrial arts which occupies a middle ground between the ordinary elemen- tary trades school and the engineering college. They are well equipped and train a high type of artisan and practical engineer. Many ele- mentary trade schools are conducted by various orders of the Roman Catholic Church. The Salesian Brothers make a specialty of this type of education. Some of these schools combine elementary agricultural training with schooling in the industrial arts. They usually receive a subsidy from the local, provincial or national treasury. The pupils come from very poor families or are orphans. os aaa 6 Theological Education.— Preparation for the Roman Catholic priesthood is given in church schools which are wholly removed from governmental supervision. At least one such school is maintained in each diocese from whence the more gifted boys are sent to the arch-diocesan school in the capital for ad- vanced instruction and training. The lesser priesthood may be recruited directly from the diocesan school. These institutions necessarily have a different curriculum from that of the state and state-supervised elementary and sec- ondary schools, not only in the emphasis laid upon strictly religious instruction, but also in the inclusion of Latin which is seldom found in the Spanish-American curriculum; in fact, in many states the study of Latin in the state and state-inspected schools is forbidden by law. Education in Brazil__In Brazil little was done for popular education before the advent of the republic (1889). It is delegated wholly to the individual states. Some, notably Sao Paulo and other southern states, have made commendable progress; others have done very little. The type of instruction is much the same as in Spanish America. The same is true of secondary education. Brazil has two national schools of law (Sao Paulo and Recife) and two of medicine (Rio de Janeiro and Sao Salvador) but since 1911 their gradu- ates have no rights not enjoyed by graduates of other standard institutions. The tendency now is to establish universities; i.e, groups of professional schools, in all the state capitals. Conclusion.— Popular education is re- tarded in Latin America by various causes of which some are operative in some countries, others in others, and some in all. They may be summarized as follows: (1) Apathy of Indian LATIN AMERICA—LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 13 and Mestizo ‘population; (2) lack of trained teachers; (3) opposition of church to secular schools; (4) greater relative importance and appropriations given to university and second- ary imstruction; (5) want of proper buildings, textbooks and equipment; (6) sharply accen- tuated* class distinctions: (7) traditional cur- ricula and inefhicient methods of instruction. — €conomic and social progress, a will ingness fo learn modern educational methods, and an ever-increasing adaptability of instruc- tion to local and racial needs. Excar Ewrnc Brannon, Vice-President and Dean of Miami University. 4. LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE, Ee an ne vtec on peont: American the possessions in America, past and pres- Be In the restricted sense in which the term im this article, however, it deals ie ene Mi Bicisinnce at tee Socaish ond Portuguese countries of the New World which lhaye achicyed national existence and which ise epesomently. been for years facing each Suse ane ete. 8s Pate ate and producing Se a aie at ax fas Miecoieres oF all countries. have a resemblance. The heritage of language, cus- toms, laws, government, social usages and Iiter- ature have made this necessarily so. Yei the differences are, in most cases, as marked as the In a general way ithe literature countries holds the same relation to that of Spain that American literature does to that of England It repre- sents the multiple and varying imterests of the great Spanish colonial land in the New World It has ever clung to the literary traditions of the mother country, and Spain's influence upon Spanish-American literature has been, m a semse, paramount. But just as Spanish colonial America has ever been different from British colonial America, so this difference is reflected m the literatures of the two countries. Eng- dand never had a very strong hold upon her colonial possessions m America: and she con- Seer ctewl were, dally, intn,stheke with her colonies but she kept such a firm hand upon their government that the colonies them- selves were never b dian of the Spanish- i colomies made their 2 very : problem, which f the first fi i thistle sean the interests of Spaniards in America i vith those of Spain. ing the centi- ries of Spamish rule in the New World, Mexico and Peru gave birth to by far the greater part of the Spanish-American literature The Kit- erary productions of these countries, while ex- hibitmg a certain amount of individuality, is during this period essentially Spanish: sail greater part of it is the work of Spaniards or of sons of Spaniards born in America This Latin-American literature, whether it treat of things American or Spanish, is markedly a re- eee el ne: Faget pene as fon poe ag icine sles? Ginerteae we of the colonies and the relation of the Spanish adventurers and of the Spanish government to the natives of the New World An important part of it also deals with the history, customs, habits, religion, traditions and superstitions of the American races preceding and immediately following the discovery of the New World and the contact of Europe with America The Colonial Period— The two favorite colomies of Spain in America were Mexico and Peru, the former, because it was the first great territory ; and the latter, because of its wealth in the precious metals which gave it material importance over all the other Spanish- American colonies. The early prominence of these two colonies attracted to them great num- bers of Spaniards of all classes, among them many of high title, family connection and ex- cellent education. To these, to priests and friars and to native Indian wrfers we owe 2 great pari of the early colonial [terature Mexico's part in this colonial iterature is fully discussed in the article on Mexican Literature (qa.v.)._ In general this early literature con- sists of letters and similar documents relating to the conquest, settlement and adminisiration oi the colonies, to the customs and habits of the Indians and to their pre-conquest history. The literature contributed by the priests and monks consists of works largely relating to the Chris- tianizing of the natives and it includes invalu- able texts of a religious nature written in the numerous native tongues of the aborigines. Some of these works are of a much more ex- tensive, ambitious and valuable nature than others. Among these are the ‘Hisioria de las Indias” of Fray Bratolomé de Las Casas (q.v.); the “Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva Espafia? of Padre a de Sahaguin and other works on the antiquities of Mexico by the same author; ‘Historia natural y moral de las Indias, by Padre de Acosta (1580): the “Monarchia India? of Padre Torquemada (1615) (qv.); the ‘Storia Antica del Mes- sico” by ithe "Abbé Clavigero (1780), all of Mexico; the ‘Inca Ceremonial and Religion? of Cristébal de Molina of Cuzco (between 1570 and 1584); the ‘Extirpacién de Ila ons tria del Peri? of Pablo José de Arriaga; and the ‘Relacién de las costumbres antiguas de los naturales del Pert,» by an anonymous Jesuit priest. These, however, are bat a few of the immediately succeeding the conquest and the relationship of the Spaniards to the natives. But this early period of Spanish-American colo- 14 LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICAN LAT EROEE ES (4) nial history produced laymen who have left as valuable and as vivid accounts of the same period as. have the representatives of the Church. Among these are Fernando de San- tillan, ‘Relacion, etc. (1550); Juan José de Betanzos, ‘Account of the Incas? (1551); Pedro de Cieza de Leén, historian of the con- quest of Peru (about 1554); Juan de Matienzo, ‘Gobierno de El Pert?; Polo de Ondegardo, two ‘Relaciones? giving an account of the laws and system of administration of the Incas of Peru_ (between 1561 and 1571); Bernal Diaz del Castillo, ‘Historia Verdadera de la Con- quista de Nueva Espafia? (toward the end of the 16th century); F. de Alva Ixtlilxdéchitl, ‘Relaciones? and ‘Historia Chichimeca? (end of the 16th century); Francisco de Avila, a work on the Indians of Huarochiri, their gods and their superstitions; Pachacuti Yamqui Sal- camayhua, ‘Relacidn de antiguedades deste Reyno del Pert”; Miguel Cavello Balboa of Quito, ‘Miscellane Austral,’ giving informa- tion on the war between Huascar and. Athau- huallpa and Indian coast history generally (1576); Fernando Montesinos, ‘Memorias antiguas historiales del Pert,’ and ‘Anales y memorias nuevas del Pert; Antonio de Her- rera, ‘Historia general de los hechos de los cas- tellanos en la Isla y Tierra Firme del Mar Océano? (1601); Garcilaso de la Vega (the Inca), ‘Comentarios reales? and other works (early in the 17th century); Lopez de Gomara, “Historia General de las Indias? (1616); Alonzo Ramos Gavilan, ‘Historia de Copaca- bana et de su Milagrosa Imagen” (1620); An- tonio de la Calancha, ‘Order of San Agustin, in which he gives a history of the Incas (1638- 50); Juan de Velasco, ‘Historia de Reino del Quito?; Ioannes de Laet, ‘Novus Orbis? (1633) ; Sanchez de Aguilar, ‘Informe contra idolorum cultores Obispado de Yucatan (1639) ; Villagutierre y Sotomayor, ‘Historia de la conquista de la Provincia de el Itza? (1701) ; Cogolludo, D. L., ‘Historia de Yuca- tan? (1688). In addition to these serious: historical works the first period following the conquest saw many writers of personal narratives, heroic, narrative and semi-lyrical poems, a considerable number of which were based on personal ad- ventures or reputed to be so. are interesting for the hght they give on the obscure history, customs, quarrels and habits of the period. Among these are the rhymed chronicles, ‘La Araucana? of Alonso Ercilla y Zufiiga of Chile (1533-94); also ‘Arauco Do- mado? (1596), ‘El Vasauro? (1633) and ‘EI Ig- nacio de Loyola? of Pedro deOfia, also of Chile; ‘Purén Indémito? of Hernando Alvarez of To- ledo; the ‘Compendio historico de Chile? of Melchor Xufre del Aguila (1568-1637); the “Conquista del Nuevo Mundo” of Gaspar de Villagra (1610); the ‘Elegias de Varones ilus- tres de Indias? of Juan de Castellanos; the ‘Peregrino Indiano> of Antonio Saavedra Guz- man (1599), of Mexico; México Conquistada? of Juan de Escéiquiz: the “Cortés Valeroso” of Gabriel Lasso de la Vega (1594); and the “Hernandia? of Francisco: Ruiz. (See an account of these under MerxicANn LITER- ATURE). Ambitious “epic poems” of a very similar nature appeared in the Argentine, Peru and Brazil. The various branches of this ex- tensive literature acted and reacted upon one These chronicles: another, eases the Spanish and Portuguese colonies i in America and in Spain and Portugal ; for in this the colonies were following in the footsteps of the mother countries; though some of the American poems were superior to a very considerable body of the European end of the literature. Many of these rhymed chronicles were little more than prose, and their authors would often have probably done better if they had used prose as their vehicle of communica- tion instead of poetry. Yet, to-day, they are looked upon as valuable owing to the side- lights they throw upon the age in which they were written. But their popularity prevented the production of prose works of a similar char- acter to any great extent. However there were a few prose productions which had considerable influence upon colonial literature owing to their general popularity and the extent to which they were read throughout Latin America. Among these were the ‘Cautiverio feliz? of Francisco Nufiez de Pifieda, written in the latter half of the 17th century; and the ‘Restauracién de la Imperial y conversiédn de almas infieles>? of Fray Juan Barrenechea (1693). The religious literature depicting the lives of the saints and other sacred characters during the first two centuries of Spanish rule in America, though plentiful, is of no great interest, except in so far as it shows the efforts the priests and monks made to present religious dogma in a pleasing form for the enlightenment of the Europeans in America and in a still simpler and more realistic form for the instruction of the Indian and mes- tizo population (‘See account of the religious drama in the article on MExIcAN LITERATURE). Of the most interesting and ambitious religious epits of this period’ are ‘La Cristiada> of Fray Diego de Ojeda of Lima (1611); and the ‘Santa Rosa de Lima? of ‘Luis Antonio de Ovedo (Peru 1711). The most. interesting chronicler (and a fairly good poet) of the first century of the Spanish occupation of America was Bernardo de Balbuena (for whom, see MEXICAN LITERATURE). The period under consideration produced a great amount of verse, apart from the rhymed chronicles. Much of this has been lost and such of it as has been preserved is, on the whole, © not of a very high class (‘See MEXICAN LITERA- TURE for an account of literature of this nature in New Spain). Among the few poetical works of the period that are still of interest are the ‘Miscelanea austral? of Diego de Avalos of Lima (1603); the “Parnaso Antartico de obras: amatorias? of Diego Mejia (1608); and the ‘Ramillete de varias flores poéticas» of Jacinto de Evia of Guayaquil (1673); and the ‘Diente del Parnaso” of Juan del Valle of Lima about 1681. A somewhat similar work by Fray Juan de Velasco, ‘El Ocioso de Faenza,? has pre- served, in six volumes, the best of the poetry of his age in Quito and the territory subject to it. The same author, in ‘Historia del reino de Quito? also gives some very interesting his- torical and other material relative to this an- cient stronghold of the Indian empire of the Pacific coast. The body of Spanish-American literature of the colonial period, on the whole, faithfully rep- resents the life in Spanish America, with its adventures, its strongly religious element and its close relation to the mother country. A part of it, too, shows the Indian side of the ques- LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 15 tion. This latter is strongly brought out in such works as ‘Ollanta,> a Peruvian drama written in the Quichua language; ‘Cautiverio feliz? (already mentioned) of Francisco Nunez de Pifeda; and the drama ‘Siripo? of Manuel José Labardén, an Argentino (1789). Throughout the colonial period of Latin- American literature, Mexico, Colombia, Peru and Chile acted and reacted upon one another in some manner; but their literary resemblance to one another is more due to their common famil- iarity with and imitation of Spanish writers. For this reason they have all been reviewed under one head. But the Revolutionary period and the years following have seen a very con- siderable divergency in literary aspirations and achievements throughout all the republics which had their origin in the Spanish-American colo- nial possessions. Therefore it has been found convenient to treat the literature of each one of these nations separately, connecting them only when it is necessary to show the influence that one national literature has had upon the others. Revolutionary Period. The general char- acteristic of the literature of the Revolutionary period throughout Latin America is that of a strong resentment against Spain, an intense, somewhat idealized desire for liberty, and a general breaking away from the old order of things. It signified also the rise to power of the native population of the various colonies as distinguished from the Spanish-born rulers. It was inspired by the Napoleonic conflict in Europe, the troubles in which the Spanish gov- ernment found itself, and by the ideals of the American and the French revolutions. (For the restrictions placed upon native Indians and Spanish creoles, see MEXICAN LITERATURE). Naturally, possessing the ideas on government that they did, and the antipathy to Spanish rule that they had shown for some years, the Amer- ican revolutionists inclined strongly toward re- publican institutions. Once each country se- cured its independence the people proceeded to set up a republic in name at least. This feeling toward Spain and Spanish government and this love for republicanism and for the institutions of the United States and France are strongly reflected in the Latin-American literature of the Revolutionary period; and the more revolu- tionary the writers and the more they showed their hatred for the past the more they were likely to be popular with their fellow country- men. Yet for all this there is, at the beginning of republican institutions in Spanish-America, very little literary breaking away from Spain, whose literary bondage had become so firm and lasting that it may still be said to remain com- paratively firm. The revolutionary writers who sprang into prominence in the Spanish-Amer- ican colonies used the Spanish language in all its varied literary forms as their most powerful weapon against the mother-country, at the same time fanning the native hatred against every- thing Spanish. The whole land was sharply divided into two parties, those who were pro- Spanish and those who were anti-Spanish. The latter identified themselves with the cause of the Indian and the mestizo. The slumbering hatred of the oppressors who had so cruelly treated, for three centuries, the descendants of the native races, and had kept them in bondage, burst forth with terrible intensity and Spaniards were everywhere treated with the same cruelty that they had meted out to the vanquished na- tives. All this is reflected in the Spanish- American literature of the revolutionary period. Though it falls short of correct literary form, this literature never lacks intensity and direct- ness of aim. Much of it is very bitter; and the greater part of it still more markedly local in its point of view. But it has in it a sense of indi- viduality and the breath of national freedom which had never before been known in Spanish America. This revolutionary feeling is strongly exhibited in the ‘Marcha patriotica? of the Ar- gentina, Lopez y Planes, which, though, it was long the national anthem of the Argentine, is intensely anti-Spanish. Most of the literature of this period is controversial and political and shows all the ear-marks of having been written for revolutionary ends. Little of it is of very great value from a literary point of view. Its worth, however, consists in the fact that it served as a training field for the writers who were to follow in all the countries of Latin America and to produce, in each case, a national literature. Argentina. The early literature of the Argentine Republic is filled with the revolution- ary spirit that gave birth to the nation. Of the early Argentine poets one of the best is Juan Cruz Varela (1794-1839). His work ex- presses well the spirit of his age in its intense- ness and intolerance. Two of his dramas, ‘Dido? (1823), and ‘Argia? (1824), were very popular with his own party, as was also his campaign poetry directed against the tyrant, Juan Manuel Rosas, President of the republic by right of conquest. A poet of much promise, marked simplicity and charm was Florencio Balcarce (1815-39) whose naturalness made him a great favorite. The most influential, how- ever, of these early Argentine poets was Este- ban Echeverria (1803-51). A profound student of English, French, German and Spanish poetry, and partially educated in Europe, he decided to make literature his life work. He published ‘Elvira? in 1832. This was followed shortly by ‘Los consuelos,» a volume of Byronic verse, which at once became popular; and by ‘Rimas? (1837). One of the poems in the latter, ‘La Cautiva,? sets forth a new literary creed for Latin America and breaks away from established and entrenched literary forms. For this reason it has had much influence upon sub- sequent Latin-American literature. Among his other longer poems are ‘Celia,» ‘El Angel Caido? and ‘Avellaneda.» Like many of his contemporaries, Echeverria spent his latter years in exile from which he thundered against the tyrant ruler of the Argentine. Another exile, José Marmol (1818-81), a companion of Echeverria in Montevideo, was a poet, novelist and political writer of great force, imagination and considerable originality. His most notable works are his novel ‘Amelia? which was widely read; his numerous quatrains; his long nar- rative Byronesque poem ‘Fl Peregrino? and his two dramas ‘Fl Cruzado? and ‘EI Poeta. Two other political exiles and writers of in- fluence were Claudio Mamerto Cuenca (1812- 52), and José Rivera Indarte (1814-45). The former left two dramas. ‘Muza and ‘Don Tadeo, and three volumes of poems published as ‘Delicios del corazén.? One of the best of the poets of the first half of the life of the republic is Juan Maria Gutiérrez (1809-78), 16 LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) a follower of the doctrine of Echeverria that American poetry should be distinctly American. His works include ‘Los Amores del Payador? (1838) ; ‘América Poetica? (a collection of shorter poems, 1846); and ‘Estudios Biog- raficos.» Other poets of talent of this same period are Vicente Fidel Lépez (1815-1903) ; Juan Bautista Alberdi (1810-84) ; Luis Domin- guez (1819-98) and Bartolomé Mitre (1821- 1906). The latter, who became President of the republic and who proved himself a very successful soldier and leader of men, was a poet of considerable merit, a noted journalist and one of the best historians and biographers of his country. Another journalist, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811-88), played a very prominent literary and political part in the history of the Argentine, becoming a powerful journalistic factor, a leader in politics, Presi- dent of the republic, a reformer in education and a university professor of ‘note. His book “Facundo? which reveals his political and social ideas, is characterized by brilliant descriptions of Argentine and mountain scenery and_ pic- tures of the life of the country, especially that of the interior on the great pampas. Among his other works of note are ‘Educatién popu- lar, ‘Viajes por Europa, Africa y América,? and ‘Recuerdos de Provincia?: but his com- plete writtngs make up close upon 50 volumes, in which the treatment of educational and po- litical subjects form a very considerable part. It is probable that Sarmiento was influenced in his descriptions of the gaucho and his life by the work on the same subject by Hilario Asca- subi (1807-75) whose ‘Media Cafia del Campo? became almost a text in the army fighting Rosas. His other important works, all essen- tially Argentine in sentiment, subject and treat- ment, .are ‘Paulino Lucero? (a_ series’ of gaucho eSpisodes published between 1839 and 1851); and ‘Santos Vega.? The gaucho con- tinued to play an important part in Argentine literature for a considerable time and to aid in forming the realism of the national literature on a sounder basis. This gaucho movement, combined with the traditions of the Classicists and the influence of the Romantic movement in Europe and especially in I’sance, may be said to have been the motor power behind the move- ment that produced the Modernists in the Ar- gentine and other Latin-American countries. Of the Argentine classical writers one of the most important leaders was Carlos Guido y Spano, who was born in 1829 and continued, throughout a long life, to influence the literature of his country for purity of style and love of classical tradition, through ‘his journalistic articles and his published works. His best- known collection is ‘Hojas al viento? (1871). José Fernandez (1834-86), another journalist, was one of the most widely read poets and writers in his country. His ‘Martin Fierro (1872), and ‘La Vuelta de Martin’ Fierro? offer some of the best pictures of gaucho life in the Argentine presented in any work to date. Estanislau del Campo, a year younger than Fernandez, also helped to make the gaucho famous. His ‘Fausto,? a poem written in the gaucho dialect, is full of the spirit of the wild presented in a very artistic and spirited manner. Olegario Victor Andrade (1838-83), who was 42 years of age before he was any way well known in literary circles, became suddenly famous not only in his own country but out- side it and acquired the reputation of being one of the two or three best poets of the country; and by many critics he is held to be the best. The most characteristic and worthy of his poems is ‘Prometeo.» To this period ‘be- longs Ricardo Gutiérrez (1836-96), poet and novelist, who is credited with being the best of all the interpreters of criollo life in the Argen- tine. His work shows a powerful imagination, great sympathy and striking ability to depict the life, feelings and passions of the lower classes on the great plains of Argentina. Carlos Encina (1839-82), in his two works ‘Canto al arte? and ‘La lucha por la idea» made him- self the leader of what may be called the zxs- thetic school in Argentine literature, a school which was destined to widely influence Latin- American literature and to have its effect on that of Spain through the Modernistas. Martin Coronado, a contemporary of Encina, was a narrative poet of considerable power and the possessor of a large fund of humor. Among his most popular works are ‘Los Hijos de la Pampa,” ‘Angela, and several dramas, the best of which are ‘La Rosa Blanca? (1877), and ‘Luz de Luna y Luz de Incendio? (1878). One of the best Argentine interpreters of nature is Rafael Obligado, a follower of the school of Echeverria. His poetry is romantic in form, tender in sentiment and free in movement. Gervasio Méndez (1849-98), the poet of melan- choly, bed-bound most of his life, set the fashion for a sort of melancholy poetry ‘which was in great favor in the Argentine during the latter quarter of the 19th century. Eugenio Cambaceres, a contemporary of Méndez, was his direct opposite. His naturalism was so marked that he had difficulty in gaining the attention of the public. His first two works, ‘Sibidos de un vago? (1882); ‘Musica senti- mental? (1883) and ‘Sin rumbo? (1885), gradu- ally overcame the antipathy of the public and his ‘En la sangre? (1887) made his reputation as a painter of the national life, especially of the mixed population of Buenos Aires. Martin Garcia Mérou, born in 1862, is one of the most voluminous of modern Argentine writers, hav- ing already published some 16 volumes covering literary criticism, descriptive studies of foreign countries, tales and poems, novels and history. The list of younger Argentine writers is long and includes, among others, Domingo Martinto, Luis S. Ocampo, Alberto Navarro Viola, Adolfo Mitre, Julio E. Mitre, Enrique E. Rivarola, Rubén Darié (q.v.), Juan Mas, Emilio Berisso, Manuel Galvez, Eugenio Diaz Romero, Ricardo Rojas, Alvaro M. Lafinur, Albero Giraldo, An- tonio Argerich, Paul Groussac, Lucio Vicente Lépez and Enrique Rodriguez Larreta. Some of the later Argentine novelists are worthy of special attention. Among these are two who have won attention in Europe. Carlos Maria Ocantos has an audience throughout Spain and — Latin America. He has written many novels, the best of which are ‘Ledn Saldivar,’ ‘Don Perfecto,» ‘El Peligro.2. Emma de la Barra, who writes under the pen name of “César Duayen,” is the best of the woman novelists of the Argentine. Her most popular story, ‘Stella, depicts, in a vivid manner, fashionable society in the capital. In this field she disputes sover- LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 17 eignty with Martin Aldeo whose novel ‘La Novela de Torquato Méndez? is in itself a vivid picture of the life of Buenos Aires. Chile.— From the earliest days of the con- quest Chile has been a land of historians and chroniclers, to some of which reference has been made in the earlier section of this article. Many of the historical works of Chile are excellent; and she has shown considerable talent for essays and writings of a like nature. But it is in the novel, in more recent times at least, that Chilean literature has given the greatest promise. One of the earliest and most voluminous of Chilean novelists was Liborio Brieba, whose plots are set in the revolutionary period of native history. They are often spoiled by crude presentation of crime and fan- tastic plots. The work of Martin Palma (1821- 84) is in every way better than that of Brieba. He was journalist, contfoversialist, free-thinker and tractarian. Among his novels are ‘Los Secretos del Pueblo” (1869); ‘La Felicidad del Matrimonio» (1870); ‘Los Misterios del Con- fesionario? (1874, translated into English). The success of his novels brought forth numer- ous imitators. Miguel Luis Amunategui (1828- 88) who worked with his younger brother Gregorio, was the first trustworthy critic of Latin-American poetry and poets. Their works include, among much published matter, ‘Juicios criticos de algunos poetas hispano-americanos? ; ‘La Alborada poetica en Chile? and ‘Primeras representaciones dramaticas en Chile.» The most copious biographer of Chile and probably of Latin America is Benjamin Vicuia Mackenna (1831-86), who has written more than 150 vol- umes on biographical-historical subjects. Diego Barros Arana (1830-1908), one of the most learned men and deepest thinkers of Chile, has left the best history of his native land, ‘Historia General de Chile,» among numerous other his- torical works. Alberto Blest Gana, whose liter- ary activity began in 1858, with a volume of striking stories: dealing with contemporary society, is one of the best story writers and foremost novelists of Chile. Among his novels are ‘Pago de las Deudas? (1860); ‘Martin Rivas? (1862) and numerous shorter stories, all of which move along swiftly displaying one vividly painted scene or characterization after another. Ramén Vial (1833-96), a dramatist and comedy writer of considerable talent, pos- sessed of an inexhaustible fund of hurnor and resources in dramatic comedy. Among his numerous works some of the best are ‘Mujer- hombre; ‘Los extremos se tocan? and ‘Grati- tud y amor. Three writers all bearing the same family name, Daniel Barros Grez (born 1839), Vicente Grez (born 1843) and Borja Orijuela Grez, have all made names for them- selves in Chilean literature. The former is the best of the Chilean writers of historical fiction. Among his novels are ‘El huérfano,? ‘Primeras aventuras del maravilloso perro Cuatro Remos en Santiago» and ‘Pipiolos -y Pelucones? (Liberals and Conservatives), all of which are written with keen wit, satire and humor. He was also successful as a writer for the stage, his best dramatic production being ‘Fl Tejedor.» Vicente Grez (1843-1909), one of the most versatile of Chilean literary men, has produced some notable novels, among them ‘Emilia Reynals» (1883); ‘La Dote de una VOL. 17 — 2 joven» (1884); ‘Marianita? (1885); ‘EI ideal de una esposa’ (1887) ; and a volume of poems ‘Rafagas? (1882). Borja Orihuela Grez is also a novelist and her ‘Fl cura civil? is an excellent picture of certain phases of country life in the interior of Chile. Ramén Pacheco, who has been active as a novelist since the beginning of the last quarter of the 19th cen- tury, has found his field in episodes of native history. His best-known work, ‘El subterraneo de los Jesuitas? (1878), has gone through several editions. Enrique del Solar (1844-), son of a famous mother, Mercedes Marin del Solar, is the author of a number of popular novels con- siderably above the average of their class, among them being ‘Dos Hermanos? ; and ‘Una aventura en Ercilla.» Luis Montt (1848-1909), poet, bibliographer, critic and editor, has done much to encourage the study of the history and literature of his native land. José Toribio Medina (1852-) is the greatest authority on the history of printing throughout Spanish America; and he has written the best and most appreciative history of the early literature of Chile. Valentin Mutillo (1840-) has written numerous novels, short stories and other literary productions stretching over a third of a century. The best known of these is a novel ‘Una vic- tima del honor? (1871). Alejandro Silva de la Fuente is the author of several novels of promise; but they are hopelessly tragic. Among these are ‘Ventura? (1885); and ‘Penas que - matan? (1887), which are the most character- istic of his earlier work. Alberto del Solar (1860-), traveler, diplomat, novelist and. de- scriptive writer, has done some creditable work. Among his publications are ‘Huincahual? ; ‘Rastaquoere?; and two novels, ‘Contra la marea? and ‘El faro.» One of the best short story writers of Chile is Luis Orrego Luco (1866-). He is also a successful novelist. Among his works which have attracted much attention are ‘Un idilio nuevo? (1900); ‘Un voluntario de la patria vieja? (1905); and ‘Casa grande? (1908). Among the long list of other writers of Chile not mentioned are Pedro N. Cruz, story novelist; René Brickles; Emilio Rodriquez Mendoza, novelist; J. V. Lastarria; Baldomero Lillo; A. C. Espejo; F. Santibafiez ; R. Maluenda; G. L. Hubertson; all short story writers. J. J. Vallejo and Daniel Riquelme are both humorous writers popular in Chile. - Andrés Bello (1781-1865), as both poet and prose writer of varied talents and accomplish- ments, properly forms the connecting link be- tween the prose and the poetical writers. Born in Venezuela he became the moving spirit in educational matters in Chile where he was soon recognized as the leader of the classical school of literature in his adopted country. Bello distinguished himself as a poet, journalist, literary leader, educator and writer of school and other books. Grammar, philosophy, mathematics, education, juris- prudence and international law were all handled by Bello in works of singular clearness and notable pedagogic construction. His position as president of the University of Chile increased his influence. José Joaquin de Mora (1784- 1863), a naturalized Spaniard and a literary man of some ability, was the opponent of Bello in most of his educational and literary work. His ‘Leyendas Espafiolas» had considerable in- 18 LATIN AMERICA—LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) fluence upon the development of literature in Chile. The most notable woman writer of this period was Mercedes Marin de Solar (1804— 60), a writer of occasional verses which have in them the imagery, imagination and vision that make true poetry. Salvador Sanfuentes (1817- 60), jurist, educator, statesman and_ literary man, was Bello’s most noted pupil. Among his poetical works are ‘El Campananario,? Juana de Napoles» (a drama), ‘El Bandido, ‘Inami,> ‘Huentemagu,? ‘Ricardo y Lucia? and ‘Teudo.? Sanfuentes has written exten- sively and interestingly with a true sympathy with nature and a keen eye for her beauties. José Victorino Lastarria (1817- 88), one of the prime factors in the literary life of Chile in his age, wrote prose sketches, short stories, political essays and was the prime mover in the literary society and the Academia de Bellas Letras. His works include ‘Antafio y hogafio,? ‘Recuerdos liter-. arios?> and ‘Lecciones de politica postiva.? The two sons of Andrés Bello, Juan (1825-60) and Carlos (1815-54), both wrote and trans- lated dramas and generally helped on the liter- ary movement in Chile. Carlos Bello’s drama, “Los Amores del Poeta» was very successful as were several of the dramatic adaptations of his brother. One of the stoutest liberals among the Chilean literary men of the middle of the 19th century was Francisco Bilbao (1823-65). Sociologist, historian, journalist and poet, he showed talent in every field. His best prose work is ‘Sociabilidad Chilena.. A friend and supporter of the literary and political ideas of Bilbao was Eusebio Lillo (1826-1910). Editor, poet and soldier, he wrote fervid patriotic po- etry, some of which is still popular in Chile, among these being the ‘Himno nacional? and the ‘Himno de la igualdad.» Another active literary and political figure of this period was Isidoro Errazuriz (1835-). He distinguished himself in the field of history, which deals alto- gether with Chilean affairs. Guillermo Blest Gana (1829-1904) is a very subjective poet with decidedly romantic leanings. He has been called the poet of the home. Guillermo Mata is the most representative Chilian poet of the middle of the 19th century. He fitted his muse to political and national ends and he had ad- mirers throughout Latin America. Among his extensive poetical publications are ‘La mujer misteriosa,» ‘Un cuento endemoniado,” ‘Cuen- tos en verso,’ and much heroic and historical poetry. Martin José Lira (1833-67), one of the best nature poets of Chile, has made numerous translations from English into Spanish, among them Longfellow’s ‘Psalm of Life.2 Luis Rodriguez Velasco, J. A. Soffia, Eduardo de la Barra, the brothers D. A. and J. A. Alemparte and a score of other writers contributed more or less to Chilean poetry. Uruguay.— The peculiar formation of the great flat country along the Rio de la Plata and the close political and social relationship long existing between Uruguay and the Argentine have made it inevitable that their literatures should act and react upon one another. The constant revolutions in both countries have caused the exodus of literary men from one to the other and from the neighboring republics. The capitals of both republics have formed the hot-beds of revolutionary propaganda and the refuge of political exiles, many of whom were fired with the enthusiasm for political and social reforms each in his respective country. These conditions and circumstances have had an all- powerful influence upon the literature of both countries and in fact upon that of several other Latin-American republics, though probably upon none to such an extent as upon Argentina and Uruguay, many of the literary men of whom have had, at one time or another, to take refuge abroad from evils at home. To this latter class belonged Francisco Acufia de Figueroa (1790-1862). He was a_ strong partisan of Spanish interests in America and when the colonists rose up in rebellion during the Napoleonic troubles in Europe, he fought the battles of Spain right vigorously, using reason, appeals to’ patriotism, invective and satire. Naturally, on the success of the cause of the colonists, he had to leave the country, going to Brazil. After a while, he was per- mitted to return and became most active, as a literary figure. His influence which was nation wide exerted its greatest power in Repub- lican circles. Notwithstanding many public duties Acufia de Figueroa was a voluminous writer, his published works comprising 12 sub- stantial volumes. In “La Malambrunada,? one of the best-constructed and worked-out satires in the Spanish language, he ridicules the exag- gerations and pretensions of the new school. In ‘La Madre Africana» Acufia de Figueroa pleads for the abolishment of the African slave trade; and in others of his poems he displays a constant and intelligent interest in the great public questions of his day. Melchor Pacheco y Obes (1810-57) was, in a sense, a precursor of the Romantic school of literature. Pedro P. Bermudez (1816-60), a poet of some power, is noted for his lyrical drama ‘El Charrua,? which met with signal success on account of the sen- timents it expresses, its sympathy with the na- tive races and America as opposed to Spain. Adolfo Berro (1819-41), a still.more determined follower of the Romantic school, selects for his poems, for the most part, native subjects and incidents and he evolves his story with consid- erable skill and marked interest. Juan Carlos Gomez, a lyrical, romantic poet with strong sub- jective and personal tendencies, made his power felt in journalism and politics. He is intensely patriotic and he displays a fierce hatred of Bra- zilian domination over his country. On this subject he devotes a long poem of six cantos, ‘Figueredo.» Alejandro Magarinos Cervantes (1825-93), diplomat, poet, dramatist and novel- ist, is the most universal literary genius that Uruguay has produced. He early acquired lit- erary fame not only at home but throughout Latin America and Spain. He published, dur- ing his student days in Madrid, a novel of con- siderable force and great promise, ‘La estrella del sur? and two dramas, ‘Amor y patria» and ‘Percances matrimoniales,? which increased his reputation. When, at the age of 27, he pub- lished his poem ‘Celiar,? a striking legend of epic qualities, his name was already well known throughout Spain. Crowned with European laurels he returned to his native country at the age of 30. There during the rest of his life he retained the enthusiastic admiration of his countrymen who heaped favors upon him, among them being the position of rector of the LATIN AMERICA—LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 19 aational university and senator. Among his more notable works are ‘Brisas del Plata? (1864), and ‘Palmas y Ombues?’ (1884), two volumes of poems of various kinds, all of which are marked by a choice of native sub- jects, an intense love of his native land and the power of painting the life about him superior to that of any of his contemporaries or of, his countrymen up to his day. Of his various novels, ‘Caramurt is the best from the point of view of construction and general develop- ment. Francisco de Acha (1828-88), journal- ist, poet, humorist and dramatist, wrote very good comedies, several of which were very suc- cessful on the stage. He also edited a comic satirical paper, El Molinillo, which had a very wide circulation. Among his successful dramas, some in prose and others in verse, were ‘Bro- mas caseras, ‘Como impieza acaba, ‘La fusién® and ‘Una victima de Rosas.” Heraclio Farjado (1833-70), poet and dramatist, was one of the most popular literary men in Uruguay in his day. He possessed considerable dramatic talent and wrote excellent shorter poems and odes. ‘Arenas del Uruguay? contains most of his shorter poems; and his most noted longer poetical composition is ‘La cruz de Azabache.’ For his ode on ‘América y Colén? he won a gold medal in 1858. His best-known drama, GCamilia O’Gorman? (1836), was received with great enthusiasm, perhaps more on account of its political references than because of the evident dramatic talent which it shows. Victor- iano E. Montes (1848-) belonged to the group of poets who delighted in depicting the life of the interior of the country after the manner of the gaucho poets. His best productions, which possess a very considerable warmth of. feeling and action, are ‘El Tambor de San. Martin? and ‘Tejedora de fianduti.» To this period be- long two dramatists who were quite popular, Estenilaso Pérez Nieto and Orosman Morato- rio. The chief work of the former, ‘Aparien- cias y realidades,» has its scenes laid during the revolutionary period. Moratorio, in his dramas, successfully exploited the gaucho character, sur- roundings and associations, working over popu- lar legends and stories. His dramas are still occasionally presented. Washington P. Bermt- dez (1847— ) came by his dramatic talent through family inheritance, his father being Pedro P. Bermtdez, already mentioned. He contributed fugitive verse to the periodicals; and became known as a writer of witty, satir- ical and political poems, many of which were contributed to El Negro Timoteo, a noted polit- ical journal. He wrote many plays, the most successful of which was ‘Artiagas,’ a historical drama, which is looked upon as one of the lit- erary assets of the nation. Juan Zorilla de San Martin (1857- ), diplomat, lyrical and epic poet, and the leader and greatest representative of the Romantic movement in Uruguay, was educated in the University of Chile and there received the first inspiration in the Romantic literature which had then already taken hold on the Pacific coast. He took ardent sides with the struggle then going on between the older school and the new literary movement; and he began to write with enthusiasm and yet with great care. Inspired with the ambition of writ- ing the great Latin-American narrative poem, he set to work on what proved to be the great- est poem of its kind in Uruguayan literature. This, when published, bore the title of ‘Ta- baré,? the name of the hero of the story. The poem, which consists of six cantos, sings, in beautiful lyrical verse, the love story of Tabaré, half-breed Charru Indian, for Blanca, the sister of Don Gonzalo, the Spanish commander. The plot ends in a tragedy, which was in reality the only solution for the complications the author had created. Among the other works of San Martin are his famous ‘La Leyenda Patria,’ “La epopeya de Artigas» and ‘Resonancias del Camino,» Luis Pifieyro del Campo (1858-) marks the passing of the Romantic movement into quasi-realism. He has written a great deal that is pleasing and often poetic, but little that is really lyrical or approaching poetical great- ness. His ‘EI ultimo gaugho, one of his long- est poems, gives a pleasing picture of the past and its customs. ‘Santiago Marciel (1867- ), at the age of 17, published a volume of poems which gave great promise of future achievement (‘Auras primaverales?). His best-known long poem, ‘Flor del trébol,? a tale of love, war and adventure, displays considerable poetic feeling and an appreciation of the beauties of nature. Among the other poets of Uruguay worthy of notice are Bernardo Prudencia Berro (1803-68), Enrique de Arrascaeta, Joaquin de Salterain, Antonio Lussich, Luis M. Lafinur, José del Busto, Victor Arreguine, Rafael Fragueiro and Carlos Roxlo. The latter, who is a poet of con- siderable versatility, has written what is by far the best literary history of his country, ‘Histo- ria critica de la literatura uraguaya> (1912). The same subject has been treated, but in a much less efficient and extensive manner, by any i Bauza, in his ‘Estudios literarios? Eduardo Acevedo Diaz (1851- ), journal- ist, soldier, reformer, critic and novelist, stands easily at the head of the story writers of Uru- guay. He passed a stormy life. Frequently in opposition against the government and often in arms and exile, his varied experiences are em- bodied in a series of novels of startling reality and dramatic force. Undoubtedly Acevedo Diaz was largely influenced in his earlier days by his companion in exile, Carlos Maria Rami- rez, author of ‘Amores de Marta, a popular romantic story, and other tales. Among Ace- vedo Diaz’ popular stories are ‘Brenda, his first novel; ‘Ismael,? ‘Nativa,? ‘El Grito de Gloria,» a trio of semi-historical novels, pur- porting to relate the adventures of a family during the wars of the revolution, which pre- sent a bewildering array of excellently drawn characters. Carlos Reyles (1862—) is credited at home with being the leader of the natural- istic movement among the novelists of Uruguay. He had unexceptional facilities for depicting the life of the interior of the republic, for he was the owner of an extensive cattle ranch on which were employed scores of cattlemen and other ranch help. These he studied carefully and in detail; and he has reproduced them with startling exactness. Among his best and most realistic stories are ‘Beba? (1894); ‘La raza de Cain?; and a volume of excellent short stories. Manuel Bermtdez (1867—) also has written very good stories after the style of Reyles. Uruguay has also produced good dramatists 20 LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) in Samuel Blixen (1869-1909) and Victor Pérez Petit (1871—). The former has developed, in a series of plays of the seasons, ‘Primavera,’ ‘Otofio? and ‘Invierno,? some very fine char- acterization. Pérez Petit has written, in addi- tion to drama, literary criticism, stories and tales. His literary criticisms and studies in- clude ‘Los Modernistas? and ‘Zola, and his dramas ©Cobarde,? ©Yorick? and ‘El Esclavo- rey.’ He also published poems and a volume of sonnets bearing the title ‘Joyeles barbaros.? Two modern Uruguayan poets are Julio Her- rera y Reissig and José Enrique Rodd. The former possesses marked poetical talent; his best work is to be found in his sonnets which received a sort of second birth after the death of the author in 1909.. Rodé is learned and is looked upon as a leader of a certain section of the modern literary field not only in Uru- guay, but also in the Argentine and Paraguay. Peru and Bolivia—Away back in semi- historical times Peru and Bolivia were con- nected politically and their interests have been, in many respects, very closely related since then. Bolivia, owing to the disturbed condi- tion of the country following the expulsion of the Spaniards, did not begin to produce litera- ture until about the middle of the 19th cen- tury; and since then, her writers have, for the most part, been but rather faint echoes of those of Peru and the other surrounding countries, and of Spain. Therefore the literary efforts of Peru and Bolivia have been grouped together in this article. Peru—In Peru the unsettled condition of the country following the achievement of inde- pendence retarded literary development; but still the ancient land of the Incas recovered more quickly than her one-time province, Upper Peru (Bolivia). Manuel A. Segura (1805-71) is the brightest literary star on the horizon of Peruvian Republican literature. His first ‘ comedies began to appear in 1839. His pub- lished comedies numbering a dozen are witty, full of intrigue, have considerable movement and present very good characterization. Hence they were very popular in their day. Among the best of his comedies are ‘La moza mala? ; ‘Saya y manto’; ‘Lances de Amancaes,? ‘Na Catita?; and ‘El Sargento Canuto.? Felipe Pardo Aliaga (1806-68) was, like Segura, a depictor of the humorous situations of life and a wielder of satire. They are very good pictures of certain phases and conditions of the life of the country and of the society of the day. Among Pardo’s best-known comedies are ‘Frutos de la educacién,? ‘Don Leocadio? and “Una Huérfana en Chorillos.» Manuel Castillo (1814-70), leader of the mountain school of Arequipa, is a poet with a great love of nature and a power of depicting her moods. To this period belongs Juana Manuela Gorriti de Belzu (1819-74), the greatest woman writer of Peru and her most clever novelist. Her husband, Manuel Bezu, President of Peru from 1848 to 1855 and again in 1865, died in the latter year at the hand of an assassin. Juana Manuela Gor- rita had published her first novel, ‘La Quena,” in 1845 and had followed it up with many tales of a like nature, all having a historical or legendary basis in the national life of Peru and her pre-Spanish civilization. A collection of her stories was published under the general title of ‘Suefios y realidades? in 1865; and since then various other editions have appeared. Juana Manuela Gorrita also edited a periodical, El Correo del Pert, which exercised very considerable influence in literary circles. José Arnaldo Marquez (1830-1904) wrote in a fatal- istic and hopeless vein which gained him a con- siderable following. He struggled all his life with poverty and inability to make a decent liy- ing and his struggle is vividly reflected in his ‘Meditacién? and other poems. Carlos Agusto Salaverry (1831-90) is the Peruvian poet of melaricholy and yearning love. There is in his poems a sweetness and depth of feeling rarely attained in Latin-American literature. ‘Cartas a un angel contains a collection of his love poems. Ricardo Palma, critic, historian, philol- ogist and poet, made a very respectable body of literature out of the traditions, customs and humors of Peru and Peruviau life. No other Latin-American writer has handled so many characters, incidents and plots as Palma has in his ‘Tradiciones Peruanas? which were pub- lished in various series and numerous volumes. Clemente Althaus (1835-81) has attempted al- most every class of literature, passing from Romanticism in ‘his younger days to Classicism in his more mature years. He wrote much and passably well. Luis Benjamin Cisneros (1837-1904), diplomat and poet, rises above the level of the poetic achievements of Althaus. Among his poems which are recited in schools and colleges and at private gatherings and public assemblies in Peru, are ‘Al Pert? (1860) ; ‘Aurora Amor? (1885); and numbers of his songs and his patriotic odes. Manuel Nicholas Corpancho (1839-63) who died in the burning of a ship at sea was one of the most promising of Peruvian poets. Owing to his poetic success * he had already been appointed Peruvian Minis- ter to Mexico at the age of 21. He was both dramatist and lyrical poet. His first drama, ‘El poeta cruzado,? published at the age of 17 is a surprisingly good production. Among his other works are ‘Magallanes,’ an epic poem founded upon the life of Magellan. A collec- tion of his poems with an introduction by José Marmol appeared under the title ‘Ensayos poéticos.» Pedro Paz Soldan y Unanue (“Juan de Arona,” 1839-95), a poet of much originality and power, occupies a high place in the estima- tion of his countrymen. In his periodical, El Chispazo, he poured out all his satire, sarcasm and bitterness, which, natural with him, was imitated by the younger poets of his following. Paz Soldan made extensive translations from Virgil, Lucretius and Ovid; and this helped to increase the beauty and effectiveness of his style and the strength of his imagery. At once the most characteristic and the best of his published works is ‘Cuadros y episodios peru- anos? (1867). In these pictures, for such they really are, Peruvian scenery and life, especially in the country, seem to live and breathe. Ricardo Rossel (1841-1909), a poet of high ideals and Romantic tendencies, forms the link between the Romanticists and the Modernistas. Rossel has attempted successfully, in addition to Romantic poetry, the historical legend, songs, letrillas and humorous verse. Two. poems which show the extremes of his composition and treatment are ‘Hima Sumac,’ a poetical historical legend, and ‘Meditacién en el cemen- terio.” Manuel Gonzalez Prada (1844— ), professor of literature, possessed of a mastery LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 21 of Spanish composition, has run through all the gamut of extremes, pessimism, atheism, anti-religious fanaticism, anarchism, and yet preserved his beauty of style and perspecuity of thought and arrangement. His most char- acteristic work is ‘Paginas libres.» Carlos G. Amézaga (1846-1906), dramatist and poet, in his ‘Leyenda del Caucho? has shown consider- able epic ability and his ‘Mas alla de los cielos? has the true lyrical ring. - Clorinda Matto de Turner (1854— ), the Peruvian wife of an English doctor, is noted for her patriotic poems. She has written two series of good “tradi- ciones,” and a novel, ‘Aves sin nido, the lat- ter of which has been extensively read through- out Latin America. It depicts, in a powerful and convincing manner, the wretched condition of the native Indian ground down beneath the keel of the landowner, the Church and the government. Peruvian critics are fond of com- paring ‘Aves sin nido»? with ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin.? Contemporary with Clorinda Matto is Mercedes Cabello Carbonero, another clever Peruvian writer and the best novelist her coun- try has produced in her own peculiar field, the depicting of Peruvian society. She has covered a wide extent of territory in her novels. Political ambition and its effects upon the coun- try, gambling and its effect upon society, the relation of women to society and many other like subjects she has made the centre themes of her novels which are still read not alone in Peru but in many of the other Latin-Amer- ican countries. Among her most popular novels are ‘El conspirador,? ‘Las consecuencias? and ‘Blanca Sol,» the latter of which is almost as well known in Spain and throughout Latin America as at home in Peru. Jdése Santos Chocano (1875, q.v.), the exponent of Ameri- canism, is universally and favorably known through Latin America. Among his published works are ‘Iras santas»? (1894); ‘En la aldea? (1895) ; ‘La epopeya del Moro,’ ‘Alma Amer- ica? and ‘El canto del porvenir.» Among the minor poets and writers of Peru worthy of mention are Clemente Palma (son of Ricardo Palma), noted for his ‘Cuentos malévolos? ; Jose Galvez, a writer of erotic sonnets and epic poems; Juan del Carpio, a poet of love songs and other erotic poetry; Leonidas N. Yerovi; Enrique A. Carrillo, a novelist; Manuel Bedoya, a dramatist of very modern tendencies; Felipe Sassone, a poet of love themes; José de la Riva Agtero, historian and critic, whose ‘Char- acter de la literatura del Perit independente? is one of the best works on the subject; and Francisco Garcia Calderén, essayist, historian and philosopher. The latter is one of the best of the Latin-American writers in his peculiar field and he is favorably known in Spain and throughout Latin America. He has dealt ex- tensively with the problems of his country and with those of Latin America in general. Among his works that are generally known are two published in French, ‘Le Pérou contemporain? and ‘Democraties latines de Amérique? ; and two issued in Spanish, ‘Profesores del Ideal- ismo” and ‘Hombres e ideas de nuestro tiempo.” Bolivia—Among Bolivian writers who have made respectable places for themselves on the literary roll of their country is Nestor Galindo (1830-65), a somewhat melancholy poet of Ro- mantic tendencies. Undoubtedly he stands higher in the eyes and in the hearts of his countrymen, because he was exiled from his native land several times, and finally shot. His chief work is ‘Lagrimas.’ Daniel Calvo (1832- 80), a contemporary of Galindo, seems to have been under the same influence as the latter; and his attitude toward life is seen in his first volume of poems, ‘Melancolias.? In fact he was an ardent admirer of Galindo and ad- dressed some poems to him which fully dis- play this admiration. His ‘Rimas? are better and more varied than his other work; and some of the romantic legends contained therein have been popular in Bolivia. Rosendo Vil- lalobos (1860— ) has spent more time out of his native country than in it; and while he is claimed by Bolivia as one of her clever literary men, he more properly belongs to the city of Lima where most of his literary work has been produced. There he published several volumes of poems, light in quality, but pos- sessing a sympathetic touch and a swing which make them pleasant reading. They have, therefore, been quite popular in both Peru and Bolivia. Numbers of other Bolivian writ- ers are scattered throughout Latin America be- cause of the want of encouragement at home. One of these, Ricardo Jaimes Freyre, a profes- sor of literature in Tucuman, Argentina, has made for himself an international reputation as a follower of the Modernista movement. He is a disciple of Rubén Dario, with whom he was at one time associated. Benjamin Lens (1836-78) was a follower of the Romantic poetry whose influence had already extended to all Latin America in his day. He, Galindo and Calvo are usually associated together in any review of Bolivian literature. Lens, how- ever, is free from the excessive lachrymose tendencies of his two literary companions. He is, therefore, more pleasant reading, though he has not the poetic touch of Galindo nor the facility for successful imitation of Calvo. The modern poets of Bolivia are all under the influence of Rubén Dario, Santos Chocano or some one or all of the prime actors in thé Modernista movement. Of late years, how- ever, Chocano has come to have more influ- ence in Peru than Dario or any other modern or ancient poet. The Pan-American note of Chocano finds an echoing voice and a sympa- thetic ear in Bolivia. This Chocano influence is having a good tendency on the younger genera- tion of Bolivian writers who promise to make themselves heard in the near future in the cause of the extension of the feeling of com- mon interests and brotherhood throughout the American continents. Colombia.— For its population and the ex- tent of its educated class Colombia has pro- duced more literary men, in its short national life, than perhaps any other of the Latin-Amer- ican republics. Among the early writers of republican Colombia are José Joaquin Ortiz (1814-92) and José Eusebio Caro (1817-53), both poets, magazine writers and editors who worked together earnestly and intelligently for the advancement of Colombian literature. The latter is very strongly subjective and _ sensi- tive, vehement in his likes and dislikes, lyrical and. oratorical, and he moves ever on a high plane of morality and duty. Ortiz, too, be- longs to the Romantic school, and his poetry shows power of description, choice of words, finish of form and a lyrical ring which, at its 22 LATIN AMERICA —LAiiN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) best, is very good. His patriotism and his literary culture ring true and enabled him to do much, during his long and active life, for the cause of letters in his native country. A contemporary poet of great talent was Julio Arboleda (1817-62), statesman, soldier and pa- triot. Born to considerable wealth, his life was one long series of adventures and _ political changes, which finally ended in his assassina- tion. His geatest work, ‘Gonzalo de Oyon, a long poem founded on a native legend, is written in excellent Spanish, and displays many attrac- tive poetical gifts. Its influence has been very considerable on subsequent Colombian literature and his work is still read throughout Latin America. One of the most voluminous writers of Colombia was Manuel Maria Madiedo (1817-1900). His varied writings cover sci- ence, law, government, logic, poetry and reli- gion; and there is a- strong patriotic ring to them enforced by an enthusiastic love of na- ture. He was also a. journalist and dramatist. One of the poets of this period who strongly reflected the Romantic movement was Gregorio Gutiérrez Gonzalez (1826-72), “Antioco»» There is a tone of melancholy and discouragement running through his poems which appealed strongly to his audience and made him one of the most popular poets of Colombia. Felipe Pérez (1834 ) and his brother Santiago (1837— ) both wrote dramas, some of which were acted with success and others of which were simply published as literary productions. Felipe found the plots for his novels and tales in the early history of Spanish America, while his brother sought his in English history. José Maria Samper (1828-98), diplomat, dramatist, novelist and biographer, is one of the foremost figures in Colombian literature. He was a pro- lific dramatist, averaging over three plays a year for some time, all of which were staged, some of them with notable success. Turning from the stage he wrote novel after novel, interlarding his work with sketches of his contemporaries and of other native literary men. Among his best dramas are ‘Dos Primos a la Moderna? and ‘Un Alcalde a la antigua. “Historia de una alma, largely autobiograph- ical, is a book of deep interest. One of the most interesting characters in Colombian litera- ture is Rafael Nufiez (1825-94). At the age of 36 he was President of Colombia, and for a score of years he dictated the policy and gov- ernment of his country. Beginning as a con- firmed skeptic, he gradually came around to protect the Church and he rose from a dictator to an advocate of something as near like con- stitutional government as Colombia was fitted for at the time. In addition to poems he has written a very interesting work, ‘La Reforma politica en Colombia.» José Maria Vergara (1831-72), poet, literary critic and editor, did much for the advancement of Colombian litera- ture; and his ‘Historia de la literatura en Nueva Granada? (1867) is the best authority on the subject. José Manuel Marroquin, statesman, philologist, political writer and his- torian, was successively Vice-President (1898- 1900) and President (1900-04). His works in- terestingly reflect the life of his times. Miguel Antonio Caro (1843-1909), another Colombian President, was a classical poet; encouraged literature and edited, among other works. Ar- boleda’s »voems. Diego Fallén (1834-1905), a His © poet of breadth and imagination and depth of feeling, siands high in Colombia as a writer of rhythmis poetry that is, in some ways, sug- gestive of Poe. His religious sentiments and love of nature are ever strongly in evidence in all his work. Rafael Pombo (1833-1912), dip- lomat, educator and poet, is still one of the most popular of Colombian writers. His poetry is versatile, imaginative, rhythmic, technically excellent; and it often expresses great depth of feeling. Among his many popu- lar poems are ‘Mi Amor, ‘Angelina, ‘Cuen- tos morales» and “Cuentos pintados.° Colombia has produced many novelists, the best of whom are Jorgé Isaacs (q.v., 1837— 95) and José Maria Samper already mentioned. Isaacs’ ‘Maria» is the best novel written in Latin America. It has been translated into most of the languages of Europe and has been warmly received in Spain. The book con- stantly reveals an intensity of passion that is truly Latin-American. Isaacs also published a volume of poems of some merit but inferior to his novel. He has had many imitators in his own country, the best of whom is Lo- renzo Marroquin, who has written some clever stories which have attracted attention at home and abroad. Of these the best known and most discussed is ‘Pax.? Among the more recent Colombian poets who have influenced Latin-American literature through. originality in meter and form is José Asuncion Silva (1860-96). Ecuador.— Gabriel Garcia Moreno (1821- 75), twice President of the republic (1861-65 and 1869-75) was the leader of the ultra-Catho- lic party in Ecuador and his administration was very much of a dictatorship. He possessed a curlous combination of talents. He was ar- dently attached to the mysticism of the Middle Ages, and his writings, especially his journal- istic work and his ‘Defensa de los Jesuitas,” are of great interest as reflecting the condition of Ecuador during its period of development toward more democratic ideas. The most in- teresting literary character of Ecuador is Juan Leén Mera (1832-99), poet, novelist, critic, his- torian, scholar and antiquarian. But it is as a poet that he is best remembered. One of the best of his longer poems is ‘La virgen del sol? (1861). Odes, romances, Indian legends, love poems and songs give a great deal of variety and life to his. whole body of poems. Mera’s ‘Historia Critica? of the literature of Ecuador is one of the best works of its kind; and his editions of the works of various Latin-Amer- ican poets give strong evidence of his critica] ability. Mera also won fame as a novelist, his best work in this department of literature being ‘Cumanda? (1879). This story displays a great love for and familiarity with nature. In it the poet shows that the forest is his domain and his great love. Numa Ponypilio Llona (1832- 1907), educator, poet and philosopher, who re- ceived an excellent, cosmopolitan education in Colombia, Peru and Ecuador, and spent some years in the diplomatic service of his country in Europe, wrote long, semi-philosophical poems and sonnets which were popular in his day; but they are too discursive and subjective to suit the popular taste of to-day. Some of his poems, however, like ‘Noche de dolor en las montafias,’ ‘Los caballeros del Apocalipsis’ and ‘La Odisea de! Alma’ are still popular in LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 23 Ecuador. Juan Montalvo (1835-89) is one of the most unique of Ecuadorian literary men. Profoundly religious, he was a strong hater of everything that gave evidence of sham in soci- ety, government and religion. This hatred burned fiercely against the friars and the igno- rant clergy of his country who prostituted their office. His mind was brilliant and original and his forms of poetical expression distinc- tively his own. Among his works are ‘El Buscapie? (partially finished) ; ‘Siete tratados, “Cervantes, and considerable excellent literary criticism, much of which appeared in his quar- terly, El Espectador. Like most Latin-American countries, Ecuador possesses a very consider- able number of aspirants for noetical honors, the greater number of which, however, sing in a minor key. Among these are Luis Cordero, Dolores Veintemilla de Galindo, Julio Zalum- bide, Horacio Vasquez, Francisco Campos, Ale- jandro Andrade Coello, Carlos R. Tobar, Emilio Gallegos del Campo, Dolores Sucre and Emilio Gallegos Naranjo. Venezuela.— On the breaking out of the revolution which finally led to the separation of the country from Spain, the Venezuelan revolutionary leaders had only one use for the press, and that was to employ.it to fight Spain. This end was purely political. Hence the vol- ume of political literature which marks the be- ginning of the life of the young republic. But even at this early date some enthusiastic spirits began the cultivation of literature for its own sake. These literary devotees were encouraged by the establishment of the first printing press in Venezuela in 1806; through revolutionary activity; the smuggling into the country of books forbidden by Spain and the general in- tellectual activity which proclaimed the coming of the revolutionary storm. Among these early literary advocates and lovers were José Luis Ramos, José Sanz, Luis Javier Ustariz and Francisco Javier Ustariz who are now remem- bered more for the encouragement they gave to literature and the example they set than for the excellence of their literary remains. Andrés Bello (q.v.), the greatest name in the literary life of Venezuela in the early days of the re- public, became more intimately connected with Chile (q.v.) very early in his career. Roman- ticism early made its appearance in Venezuela, as it did in all the Latin-American republics. Its first standard bearer was José Antonio Martin (1804-74). True to the inspiration of poetry in Venezuela he sang the beauty of the rich tropical land about him. To him nature was altogether lovely. He also wrote pleasing narrative poems and political effusions which were not so happy because they were not the natural expression of the author who couched them in characteristic Gongoristic language. One of his best poems is ‘Canto ftnebre? ; and one of his most characteristic and curi- ous narrative tales is ‘El Mascara.? Fer- min Toro (1807-65), diplomat, educational- ist, statesman and poet, has the peculiar distinc- tion of being both a classical writer and a romanticist. He was one of the best diploma- tists which his country has produced and he negotiated important treaties between Vene- zuela and Spain, France, Italy and Great Britain and was instrumental in obtaining general official recognition in Europe of the independ- ence of Venezuela from Spain. Though he was successful in classical poetry he was the first to recognize the fact that in his own country was a wide and interesting field for poetic efforts; and he himself lead the way in his elegies ‘Hecatofonia? which depict the cruelty of the Spaniards in their treatment of the natives of Venezuela. His poetical tales have less merit than some of his other works. Rafael Maria Baralt (1810-60) has the distinction of being the first Venezuelan literary man who was wel- comed in Madrid where he became one of the noted literary figures of the Spanish capital and a member of the Spanish Academy. He distinguished himself in various fields of liter- ary endeavor. Journalist, poet, historian, critic and lexicographer, he proved almost equally efficient wherever he turned his hand. He was a great lover of classical literature and he saw the dangers into which the Romantic school was running. His sonnets and odes are among his best work; yet they are too often rigidly classical. The best known of his odes, and probably the most meritorious, is his “A Colon,? which is known to every Venezuelan who knows anything about literature. Juan Vicente Gonzalez (1808-66), historian, essayist and biographer, is one of the deepest thinkers and best critics that Venezuela has produced. In his ‘Historia Universal? and his ‘Mesenianas? are striking elegies in prose about the men who gave their lives for their country. José Ramén Yepes (1822-81), sailor, poet and soldier, has written poems that are filled with fine descrip- tions of the sea to which his vivid imagina- tion and his sensitive poetical nature have lent great brilliancy. The most notable Venezuelan poet of patriotic verse is Abigail Lozano: Journalist, critic and lyrical poet, he has done good service in advancing the cause of litera- ture in Venezuela through his literary publica- tion, El] Album. Among his collections of poems are ‘Fl martirio? (1847), and ‘Otras horas de martirio” (1864). Many of his poems have a political trend. Daniel Mendoza (1823-67), journalist and successful humorous writer and satirist, has made the vehicle of his satire on the customs, manners, foibles and extravagance of the larger cities the “llanero,” or Vene- zuelan cowboy. The latter, who has but re- cently arrived in the capital, is constantly sur- prised at all that he sees there,.and he makes his comments accordingly, thus holding up, ap- parently innocently, the vices of the age. José Antonio Calcafio (1837-97), a romantic poet of some considerable power, but no apparent aims in his work, has been popular in Venezuela. One of his best poems, ‘A orillas del Tamaira,? is filled with very pleasant pictures, but spoiled by his constitutional repining-over the things and advantages lost in the past. As it is there is a haunting sweetness and caressing melody in many of his plaints; as for instance in ‘La maga y el genio de las selvas? and ‘La hoja.? Another Venezuelan poet of nature is Heraclio de la Guardia (1829-1907)., He has written poems on many kinds of subjects and has a large body of work to his credit, some of it, however, of a somewhat mechanical nature. One of the most popular and national of Venezuelan poets is Domingo Ramén Hernan- dez. He is a follower of the Romantic school and he catches its inspiration and real senti- — 24 ments perhaps better than any other Vene- zuelan. There is a depth of sweetness and tenderness, a wealth of imagery and an un- dertone of sadness in his poetical efforts that have endeared him to his countrymen. Fran- cisco G. Pardo (1829-82), one of the most per- sistent prize winners of the Venezuelan Acad- emy, has been called the Longfellow of Vene- zuela. Among his popular poems are ‘Las Indianas,? ‘El porvenir de la América? and ‘La gloria del libertador.» Cecilio Acosta (1831- 81), jurist, orator, journalist and poet, had the power of poetical repetition so noticeable in the songs, poems and oratory of the aboriginal races of America. Some of his -poems read like an echo of ‘Hiawatha? or of some of the songs or hero tales of the Iroquois or Algon- quins. He was one of the cleverest masters of word painting in the history of Latin-American literature. A very characteristic example of his style and his limitations is ‘La casita blanca. Being a noted orator, Acosta was naturally a master of prose composition. In fact his prose has often all the characteristics of his poetry. It is rhythmic, imaginative and forceful. ‘La gota de rocio,’ one of his best poems, pos- sesses much of the mannerism of his best prose efforts and effects. Nicanor Bolet Peraza, journalist, political agitator, reformer and dramatist, was at one time well known in the United States, where he spent most of his life in political exile. He was witty, satirical and yet withal possessed of a strong fund of com- mon sense and the ability to size up the situa- tion in all cases. He strove sedulously to in- duce the different republics of Latin America to follow the example of the United States in the adoption of democratic principles and prac- tices. His writings have always been popular in Venezuela with a large percentage of the people, and his play ‘Luchas de honor? re- ceived an ovation in the capital of that re- public. Julio Calcafio (1840—), philologist and novelist, was tireless in his efforts in the field of literature and in his endeavors to inspire his countrymen with a desire to improve and broaden that field. ‘His historical — novel, ‘Blanca de Torrestella,? which has run through several editions, and which has been translated into English and French, was popular in Europe and America. No other Venezuelan writer has painted such vivid pictures in prose of his country as has Julio Calcafio. This is because he knew Venezuela as few Venezuelan writers have succeeded in knowing it. His great work ‘Fl castellano en Venezuela? has become a classic for those who are interested in the study of the Spanish language in Latin America and its relation to the tongue of the mother- country. Juan Antonio Pérez Bonalde (1846-— 92) made popular in Venezuela the poetry of Becquer who received his inspiration from Heine. ‘Pérez Bonalde has often more of the ring of the German than has Becquer himself ; but generally his poetry falls considerably below that of either Heine or his adapter. Pérez Bonalde’s importance consists in the fact that he introduced his countrymen to Becquer and put them in line with a wave of literary effort which was destined to spread over all the re- publics of Latin America and to leave deep and dasting effects, one of which was that it, in part at least, was the cause for the appearance of LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) the Modernista movement on the American continents. Pérez Bonalde’s German influence is due to the fact that he was a very close student of the German language and literature ‘and especially of the poems of Heine of whom he was an ardent admirer. His ‘Estrofas? (1877) was largely composed of translations or adaptations from the German poet. Some of his original work is of high standard and pos- sesses the qualities which he admired so much in Heine and Becquer. These qualities are seen at- their best in ‘Poema del Niagara,” which was translated into sonorous English by the American poet Bryant, who had a high ap- preciation of the talent of Pérez Bonalde. ‘Vuelta a la patria? is another poem of Pérez Bonalde which is known wherever the Spanish language is spoken. Among the followers of Pérez Bonalde and, through him, of Heine and Becquer, is Miguel Sanchez Pezquera (1851—). He is both an erotic poet and a writer of Heine verse to which he has given an original turn by applying the moralizing principles of Heine to historical and dramatic settings. He is fond of moralizing on the vanities of all things human, on the shortness of human life and on the hopelessness that ofttimes takes possession of him. Of this class of composition is ‘El ultimo pensamiento de Weber? and ‘La tumba de Marino.» and ‘Claveles encarnados y amarillos,” two volumes of verse of a decidedly classical trend. The second period begins with the pub- lication of tales of a very realistic type. These were followed by novels in which the author exhibits his talents much more highly devel- oped. Among these are two which have at- ™% LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE (4) 25 tracted attention throughout Latin America and in Spain, ‘Nieve y lodo? and ‘EI _ sargento Philipe.’ The latter is the best of his work. It is a novel filled with interest from cover to cover, and this interest is connected together with the most vivid and convincing pictures of life in Venezuela. Like so many Latin-Ameri- can and Spanish novels and stories, however, it is hopeless tragedy. One of the latest works of Picén Febres, who is by the way a univer- sity graduate and a deep student of science, is the ‘Libro raro,’ a. wonderfully interesting work on the peculiarities of Spanish as spoken in Venezuela. It is a work written to supple- ment and correct the “Catellano en Venezuela? of Calcafio, already mentioned. Another book which shows the breadth of learning and critical power possessed by Picon Febres is his ‘Litera- tura venezolana en el siglo XIX, the most learned and extensive work of its kind on the subject in Spanish. José Gil Fortoul (1860—), historian, short-story writer, essayist, critic and novelist, “began his literary life as an out and out adherent of the French psychological writers and more especially of Paul Bour- get. But he outgrew his youthful tend- ency and influence and became the most in- teresting and soundest historian of his coun- try. His first story to attract attention, ‘Julian,? is said to be largely autobiographical, and his French influence stood him in fairly good stead as it enabled him to analyze the conditions under which his hero is supposed to have lived, and incidentally to reveal his own thoughts and the influences at work in his own life. A succeeding story, ‘Idilio,” was subject to much the same influences, but it is weaker in plot and development than the former novel. “Pasiones,» another novel, is also partially autobiographical at least.. It is a vivid picture of political conditions in Venezuela under Guz- man Blanco’s dictatorship. Pédro César Dom- inici (1863—) has written very good tales, but they are all foreign to the soil in that they have nothing whatever to do with Venezuela or things Venezuelan; for Dominici seems to have never been in sympathy with his country. Manuel Romero Garcia (1865—), on the con- trary, has written so intimately about Venezuela and things Venezuelan that he is often so wrapped up in his subject he gives to it details and allusions an outsider cannot understand on account of their pure localism. These char- acteristics are very prominent in Romero Garcia’s novel ‘Peonia,? which the author him- self has declared is a photograph of social con- ditions in Venezuela, more especially in the rural sections. This novel, which was very popular, gained for the author a considerable following of younger writers who began to ex- ploit what was known as the nationalistic move- ment, which had already gained headway in the Argentine and several other Latin-American countries. It. became the fashion to write stories about Venezuelan characters and sub- jects and the short tale in this field found a number of exponents, among them Rufino Blanco Fombona, Luis Ubaneja Achelpohl and Rafael Bolivar. Of- these the best known is Blanco Fombona, novelist and critic, who has lived mostly in Europe, where he has been very closely connected with the Modernista move- ment. His tales and stories have had a wide -and government. circulation in Europe in both Spanish and French. Among his poems is a volume bearing the title “Pequefia épera lirica? (1904). He has also published numerous volumes of sketches and travels, among them ‘Mas alla de los horizontes? (1904) and ‘La Lampara de Aladino? (1915). A close friend of Rubén Dario (q.v.), Blanco Fombona became one of the most active of the Modernista poets and the foremost representative of that school in Venezuela. His ‘El hombre de hierro, a satire on conditions in Venezuela during the dictator- ship of Cipriano Castro, is a novel of very con- siderable force and power of description and of depicting conditions and characters. It grew out of the author’s personal experience while governor of the Amazonas territory (1905). While in prison in Venezuela Blanco Fombona wrote ‘Cantos de la prisi6n y del destierro” (1911) which have become popular with the Venezuelan revolutionary element. He has also written a great deal of sane criticism about Latin America and other literature; but his weak point is his antipathy to the United States. Miguel Eduardo Pardo (1868-1905) has cari- catured the Modernista movement and the whole school of writers who have written so fervidly about Venezuela, in his ‘Todo un pueblo,’ which has been also printed in Europe and translated into French. Manuel Diaz Rodriguez has taken delight in satirizing conditions in his native land and in many respects he has outdone Pardo in his novel he lashes absolutism in Latin-American politics He is inclined to follow the sociological school, as exemplified in French literature of the latter quarter of the 19th cen- tury, in his other novels and more especially in ‘Sangre patricia. As an art and _ literary critic Diaz Rodriguez has no superior to-day in Venezuela, and few equals in Latin America. His criticism is marked by the same rhythmic, forceful and clear prose that makes his novels and other literary productions delightful read- ing. Among the other Venezuelan minor writers worthy of mention are Francisco de Sales Pérez (‘Ratos perdidos,? 1880); Nufiez de Caceres; Jacinto Gutiérrez Col, Andrés Mata; Victor Racamonde, Samuel Dario Mal- donado; Francisco Lazo Marti (‘Silva cri- olla’); Eduardo Blanco (‘Zarate?); José Maria Manrique; Tomas Michelena (‘De- bora,» 1884; ‘La Hebrea,? 1890); Arévalo Gonzalez, and Rafael Cabrera Malo. For the literature of other Latin-American countries see MEXICAN LITERATURE; WeEsT INDIAN, CEN- TRAL AMERICAN, AND BRAZILIAN LITERATURE. Bibliography.— Amunategui, Miguel Luis, ‘La via de D. Andrés Bello? (Santiago 1882) ; ‘Las Primeras representaciones dramaticas en Chile? (Santiago 1888); ‘Ensayos biograficos” (Santiago 1893-96) ; Barreda, E., ‘Nuestro Parnaso, coleccion de poesias argentinas? (4 vols., Buenos Aires 1914); Blanco-Fombona, Rufino, ‘Cartas de Bolivar? (Paris 1893); ‘Autores Americanos? (Paris 1912); Cafiete, Manuel, ‘Escritores hispano-americanos? (Ma- drid 1884); Figueroa, . ‘Antologia chilena? (Santiago 1908); Garcia Calderén, Francisco, ‘Latin America? (London 1913); Garcia Velloso, Enrique, ‘Historia de la litera- tura argentina” (Buenos Aires 1914) ; Gutiérrez, Juan Maria, ‘Poetas anteriores al siglo XIX? | “Idolos ratos,? in which ° < 26 LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) (Buenos Aires 1865); Isaza, E., ‘Antologia colombiana? (Paris 1895); Laverde Amaya, I, ‘Apuntes sobre biografia colombiana? (Bogota 1889) ; Medina, José Toribio, ‘Historia de la literatura colonial de Chile? (‘Santiago 1882) ; Menéndez y Pelayo, Marcelino, ‘Historia de la poesia hispano-americana? (Madrid 1913); Mera, Juan Leén, ‘Ojeada_ historico-critica sobre la poesia ecuatoriana? (Quito 1868) ; Oyuela, Calixto, ‘Apuntes de literatura Argen- tina? (Buenos Aires 1889); Pena, N., ‘Teatro dramatico Nacional? (Santiago 1913) ; ‘Pifieyro, Enrique, ‘Biografias americanas>? (Paris) ; Torres Caicedo, José Maria, ‘Ensayos - biog- raficos? (3 vols., Paris 1863-68); Valera, Juan, “Cartas americanas? (Madrid 1889-90); Ver- gara y Vergara, J. M., ‘Historia de la litera- tura en Nueva Granada? (Bogota 1867); Cal- cafio, Julio, ‘Parnaso venezolano? (12 vols., Caracas 1892; Picédn Febres, Gonzalo, ‘La literatura venezolana en el siglo XIX? (Caracas 1916); Bauza, Francisco, ‘Estudios literarios> (Montevideo 1912); Roxlo, Carlos, ‘Historia critica de la literatura uruguaya? (Montevideo 1912); Molina, P., and Finot, E., ‘Poetas bolivianos.? Joun Hupert Cornyn, Birmingham Southern College. 5. LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR, 1914-19. The attitude of the Latin-American countries as a whole toward the conflict in Europe can be fully appreciated only when we examine separately the record of each country in this great class during the years of the war. It will, therefore, be our en- deavor to present briefly in this article the facts disclosed by studies of action and of tendency, so far as these can be ascertained to-day, in every one of the 20 Latin-American republics. We shall endeavor also to give prominence to things essential and of permanent value, and 1o show in a true perspective things accidental or transitory. The American republics making common cause with the United States and her allies will be mentioned first. Then those main- taining neutrality — either strict neutrality or a friendly neutrality toward the United States — will be considered in their turn. Cuba and Panama followed immediately the lead of the United States in her declaration that a state of war existed between the United States and Germany. Thus, on the day after that declaration, the Cuban Congress resolved that there existed also a state of war between Cuba and Germany. President Menocal, in his message to the Cuban Congress, reviewed the causes which brought about-hostilities between the United States and Germany. He dwelt upon Germany’s continuous violations of in- ternational law and of the rights of neutrals, and said: “The Republic of Cuba must not be indifferent to this violation of the rights of peoples nor ignore the noble attitude of the United States. We are bound to that nation by sacred ties of gratitude and confraternity, and by a political treaty explicit and implied which creates between the two nations an understand- ing practically amounting to an alliance. This would require Cuba’s co-operation at any ordi- nary time, and all the more so now that the United States is defending principles of human liberty, of international justice, of honor and the safety of those free and independent na- tions which are threatened in their most vital rights and interests» On 16 Dec. 1917 Cuba declared war on Austria-Hungary. In like manner Panama’s acknowledgment of the close political and friendly ties which bind it to the United States was both swift and spontaneous. It has been well said that, to all intents and purposes, Panama has been in a state of war with Germany since 7 April 1917. The Presi- dent of that republic in his proclamation of 9 April 1917 said: “Panama will lend its full and decided co-operation to the United States of America against any enemies that carry out or intend to carry out any hostile act against the territory of Panama or the Panama Canal or that should in any way affect or intend to affect the common interest of the two coun- tries” This official document was supple- mented by a cablegram addressed to the Presi- dent of the United States by the President of Panama, in which the latter said: “The Re- public of Panama, whose future is so intimately identified with that of the Great American Democracy, will take upon itself, in this trial, the obligation concurrent with its conception of solidarity, and fully assumes on this occasion the responsibilities due to its obligations to- ward the United States.» On 10 Dec. 1917 Pan- ama declared war on Austria-Hungary. Bolivia practically reached a decision early in February 1917. The Bolivian Foreign Of- fice, having been advised of the establishment of the submarine “blockade” by Germany, re- plied that the character of a maritime warfare involving offensive action of submarines against neutral vessels and persons, as well as the pro- hibition of all neutral traffic within the zone described, constituted an absolute denial of the inherent right of neutral powers to trade and ‘navigate; that in view of this abnormal and il- legal situation the government of Bolivia had advised the United States that it was fully in accord with the stand taken by President Wil- son, and made common cause with the United States. On 13 April 1917 the German Minister was given his passports. The Bolivian Foreign Office stated that, inasmuch as Germany had carried out to all intents and purposes its threat against vessels and persons of neutral states, and in view of the fact that the steamer Tu- bantia had been torpedoed in neutral Dutch waters, the Bolivian Minister to Berlin being on board, diplomatic relations between Bolivia and the German Empire were no longer possi- ble. On 6 Aug. 1917 the Bolivian President, in his message to the Bolivian Congress, fully en- dorsed the course adopted by the government of the United States in defense of the principles of humanity and justice. Brazil’s first public statement in connec- tion with her attitude in the European War was almost synchronous with Bolivia’s reply, men- tioned above; for on 7 Feb. 1917, answering likewise Germany’s notification in regard to submarine warfare, the Brazilian government, through its Foreign Office, expressed the de- sire to maintain its position of unswerving neu- trality, reserving, however, the right to present in due time such claims as might arise in con- crete cases affecting Brazilian interests. It was also stated that a deep impression had been caused by the German avowal of an intention to sacrifice liyes unjustly, and unjustly to de- LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) 27 stroy property and disorganize commerce. The Foreign Office pointed out, moreover, that Bra- zil could not accept the “blockade” as effective; and that the Brazilian government, in harmony with international usages, conventions and agree- ments, was bound to protest against such a block- ade, placing on the German government the re- sponsibility for any acts affecting Brazilian citi- zens, ships and merchandise. On 11 April 1917 the Brazilian government broke off diplomatic re- lations with Germany, as the result of the sink- ing of the steamship Parand by a German sub- marine, without warning and with loss of lives, on the night of 3 April 1917 off Point Barfleur. On 1 June 1917 the Brazilian government re- voked the decree of neutrality (of 25 April 1917) in the war between the United States and Germany. Next, measures were taken to make use of the German merchant vessels an- chored in Brazilian ports. The plans formed at that time included the protection of Brazil- ian shipping abroad and co-operation with friendly nations in measures designed to se- cure the freedom of Brazil’s foreign trade. On 4 June 1917 the Brazilian Ambassador at Washington; in his note to the Secretary of State of the United States, said: “The Presi- dent of the Republic [of Brazil] has just in- structed me to inform Your Excellency’s Gov- ernment that he has approved the law which re- vokes Brazil’s neutrality in the war between the United States of America and the German Empire. The Republic thus recognized the fact that one of the belligerents is a constituent por- tion of the American continent, and that we are bound to that belligerent by traditional friend- ship and the same sentiment in the defense of the vital interests of. America and the accepted principles of law. Brazil ever was and is now free from warlike ambitions, and while it al- ways refrained from showing any partiality in the European conflict, it could no longer stand unconcerned when the struggle involved the United States, actuated by no interest what- ever, but solely for the sake of international judicial order, and when Germany included us and the other neutral powers in the most vio- lent acts of war” We may add that a strong anti-German sentiment had been created in Bra- zil by the publication of the facts concerning the invasion of Belgium and the Teutonic atrocities during 1915 and 1916. The people and their government were of one mind when, on 25 Oct. 1917, the President of Brazil sent a message to Congress stating that it was impos- sible longer to avoid recognition of the state of war imposed by Germany. Accordingly on the following day, 26 Oct. 1917, the Chamber of Representatives by an almost unanimous vote (149 to 1) declared that a state of war existed between Brazil and Germany. Unanimous ap- proval of the proclamation of war was given by the Senate also on 26 Oct. 1917. _Costa Rica evinced the true Pan-American spirit promptly, offering the use of its ports to the warships of the United States, arresting on 16 Sept. 1917 three of the resident Germans who were charged with conspiracy, and intern- ing all Germans who resided in Costa Rican ports. A special session of Congress was called and on 21 Sept. 1917 the government severed diplomatic relations with Germany. The diplo- matic and consular representatives of Germany received their passports, and the Costa Rican legation and consuls in Germany were recalled. Costa Rica declared war on the government of the German Empire 23 May 1918. The Dominican Republic declared its neu- trality in 1916, but in June 1917 withdrew the exequatur of the German consular service and thus, in response to the general sentiment of its citizens, severed diplomatic relations with the German Empire. Ecuador did not reach a clear and explicit decision in this matter until toward the end of 1917, but the government expressed to the Min- ister of the United States at Quito, in a note dated 11 Feb. 1917, the following views: “The efforts of neutral powers to soften the rigors of the present disastrous war are very com- mendable and worthy of applause, as are . . . the principles declared by the Government of the United States in its note of 18 April 1916, addressed to the German Foreign Office, through American Ambassador Gerard, con- cerning the inalienable rights of neutrals, the immunity of non-combatants, and those sacred rights of humanity which have universally and of old been accepted by civilized nations.» The President of Ecuador, in his message of 10 Aug. 1917 to the Ecuadorean Congress, ad- vanced the thought of Pan-American solidarity in the following terms: “We continue to up- hold a policy of neutrality and our efforts to secure a more open and frank understanding among all nations of the American continents. We have said on every occasion, when justice so demanded, that we are in sympathy with and have faith in the great democratic principles, the fundamental basis of those nations. Amer- ica, therefore [in the wider sense, as suggested above], will always find us with it” On 5 Oct. 1917, when Peru broke off diplomatic relations with Germany, it was stated that the German Minister at Lima intended to go to Ecuador, to which country he was accredited as well as to Peru. The Ecuadorean government announced, however, through its Minister of Foreign Af- fairs, on 7 Oct. 1917, that the German Minister would not be received officially in Ecuador in case he desired to present his credentials there; and two months later (7 Dec. 1917) the sever- ance of diplomatic relations with Germany was made definite and complete. Guatemala, in a formal statement dated 7 March 1917, protested against Germany’s sub- marine blockade, of which it had received noti- fication on 9 February. The whole policy adopted by the German Admiralty constituted, according to the characterization of it in that document, a violation of the rights of nations. This protest elicited no response whatever from the German government or its diplomatic rep- resentative in Guatemala, and the Guatemala government proceeded to sever diplomatic re- lations with Germany on 27 April 1917. It also offered its ports, territorial waters and railway facilities to the United States; and by a decree of the National Legislative Assembly, 21 April 1918, Guatemala’s attitude of belliger- ency toward the German Empire was declared to be the same as that of the United States. Haiti’s National Assembly protested on 11 May 1917 against the establishment of the sub- marine blockade, asserting that Germany must be held to account in every sense for resultant injuries sustained by Haitian subjects travel- ing on the high seas; that a benevolent. policy - 28 LATIN AMERICA —LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) was adopted toward the United States, and that diplomatic relations with Germany would, if necessity for such action arise, be broken off. Accordingly when the Karnak and the Mon- treal were sunk, several Haitians losing their lives, the government of Haiti demanded sat- isfaction and indemnity. The German gov- ernment emphasized its unwillingness to con- sider the matter by delivering his passports to the Haitian chargé-d’affaires at Berlin. The rupture was completed by the dismissal, on 16 June 1917, of the German representative at Port-au-Prince, and by a declaration of war, 12 July 1918. . Honduras, on 17 May 1917, severed diplo- matic relations with Germany, as a protest against the submarine campaign. In the de- cree of that date we find the declarations that the republic at Honduras makes common cause with the United States, approving fully the principles that the latter’s government defends; and that “it is incumbent upon Honduras to de- clare its attitude in the conflict between the United States and Germany on account of the submarine warfare, in violation of the princi- ples of international law, the rights of neutral property, and commerce on the high seas.” The government of Honduras offered to the United States its resolute co-operation in all possible ways and declared war on Germany, 19 July 1918. Nicaragua, on 18 May 1917, broke off diplo- matic relations with Germany. In the note of the Minister of Foréign Affairs to the resi- dent American Minister full sympathy with the policy of the United States was expressed “by instruction of the President of the Republic,” and Nicaragua was truthfully represented as being in accord with the attitude the United States had taken for the safety of all the Latin- American continent and its measure of defense of the high ideals and principles of civiliza- tion. The use of the Nicaraguan ports, ter- ritorial waters and means of communication was offered to the government of-the United States. Nicaragua’s declaration of war on Germany was dated 8 May 1918. Peru sent a strong note of protest to the German government upon the sinking of a Peruvian vessel, the bark Lorton, 5 Feb. 1917. Later she refused to submit the case to German prize court and sent a second note, demanding a reply to the first — but without avail. On 28 July 1917 the President of Peru. in his mes- sage to the Congress expressed agreement with President Wilson’s war-message. “The sufferings of humanity,” said President Pardo, “will not have been in vain if, through these efforts there is raised the new edifice of in- ternational society upon the immutable foun- dation of justice» On 7 Sept. 1917 Peru’s House of Representatives, by resolution unani- mously adopted, declared its adhesion to the es- tablished principles of justice and international ethics as proclaimed by President Wilson; and on the following day the Senate declared: “The international policy of Peru must be in- spired by the principles of the solidarity of the ‘nations of the American continents with the United States, in harmony with ideals of inter- national justice proclaimed by President Wil- son and with the declaration formulated .. . in the House of Representatives.» The Peru- vian Congress, by a vote of 105 to 6, passed a resolution severing diplomatic relations with Germany on 5 Oct. 1917, and on the same day passports were handed to Dr. Perl. (See above, Ecuador). On 4 June 1918 the Peruvian gov-. ernment took possession of eight German ves- sels interned at Callao. This was not, how- ever, regarded as an act of war. Uruguay manifested cordial approbation of the cause defended by the American govern- ment. In a note dated 14 April 1917 and ad- dressed to the American Minister in Monte- video the Uruguayan Minister of Foreign Af- fairs stated that his government, while still maintaining neutrality, recognized the justice of the position taken by the United States of America. Thus, the offer of “moral sympathy and solidarity,” as the Minister of Foreign Af- fairs expressed it, was extended without delay; and on 18 June 1917 the Uruguayan govern- ment issued its memorable decree, in which the general principle was laid down “that no Amer- ican country, which in defense of its own rights should find itself in a state of war with nations of other continents, will be treated as a belligerent” On 7 Oct. 1917 Uruguay sev- ered diplomatic relations with Germany. The rupture was announced in a presidential de- cree, after the Chamber of Representatives, by a vote of 74 to 23, had declared itself in favor of such action. In his message to Congress President Viera observed that although Uru- guay had not received direct offense from Ger- many, it was necessary to espouse the cause of the defenders of justice, of democracy and of small nations; and popular acceptance of thig view was emphasized at a great public meeting. Eight German ships were seized at Uruguayan ports and subsequently leased to the Emergency Fleet Corporation of the United States. Summarizing our observations up to this point, we may say that nearly two-thirds of all Latin-American republics made known, by vig- orous governmental action, their adhesion to the cause of the United States and her Allies before the end of the year 1917 and were found standing firmly for the right when the year 1918 had half run its course. We owe to John Barrett, Director-General of the Pan-American Union (see Bibliography), the observation (in 1917) that “the sober public sentiment of [the people of] practically all the twenty Latin American Republics is overwhelmingly pro- United States and pro-Ally in this struggle of democracy against autocracy. It would seem, in consequence, to be only a question of time when all the Latin American countries must follow the dictates and demands of this pub- lic sentiment and align themselves with the United States and the Allies.» Let us now turn our attention to the remaining seven — to those whose governments maintained interesting vari- ants of neutrality. “Argentina, Chile, Colom- bia, Mexico, Paraguay and Venezuela,” accord- ing to a special memorandum issued in 1919, “either by the statements of their Executives or by resolutions passed by their Congresses, or again by the pro-Ally tone of their most repre- sentative statesmen also expressed themselves in favor of Pan American solidarity.» As for Salvador, her declaration of benevolent neu- trality toward the United States “permitted the use of her territorial waters by the war-ships of the United States and the Allies.” Argentina, on 7 Feb. 1917, made answer to LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) 29 Germany’s notification concerning the subma- rine blockade: “The Argentine Government regrets that His Imperial Majesty has thought necessary to adopt such extreme measures and declares that it will adjust its conduct, as al- ways, to the fundamental rules and principles of international law.» In accordance with that declaration, the Argentine Foreign Office en- tered a strong protest when information was secured in regard to the sinking of the Monte Protegido, 4 April 1917; and in its note of 4 July 1917 demanded satisfaction for the sink- ing of the sailing vessel Oriana on 6 June and the steamer Toro on 22 June, both without loss of life. More specifically, it required in- demnity, together with assurances that no more Argentine vessels would be attacked. In the Monte Protegido case Germany accepted the suggestion in regard to indemnity. On the other hand an effort was made to justify the sinking of the Toro. Argentina reiterated her demand 4 Aug. 1917. Next, into the heated controversy a new element was projected. On 8 Sept. 1917 the Department of State of the United States published several cablegrams, dated 19 May and 3 and 9 July of the same year, sent by the German chargé-d’affaires at Buenos Aires through Baron Lowen, Sweden’s Minister at the same capital, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs in Stockholm, to be delivered to the Minister for Foreign Affairs in Berlin. These dispatches contained an insolent refer- ence to Argentina’s Minister of Foreign Af- fairs and recommended the sinking of Argen- tine vessels without leaving a trace. On 12 Sept. 1917 riots occurred in. Buenos Aires, .in the course of which the people expressed their resentment by wrecking the German Club, the offices of the German newspaper, La Union, and important German business houses. The offending chargé-d’affaires, Count Luxburg, and the German legation were protected by the police. The Argentine government immediately asked Germany to disapprove Luxburg’s con- duct and to apologize for his discourteous lan- guage; and on 19 Sept. 1917 the Argentine Sen- ate voted almost unanimously (23 to 1) in favor of breaking off diplomatic relations with Ger- many. This resolution was sent"to the Cham- ber of Deputies for approval. On 23 Sept. 1917 the Argentine government received a note of apology from Berlin, expressing disapproval of Luxburg’s utterances; but the Chamber held this to be inadequate, and on 25 Sept. 1917 by _a vote of 53 to 18 upheld the Senate’s course. On the next day 100,000 persons paraded through the streets of Buenos Aires; and this was but a part of a great popular. demonstration in favor of war. Nevertheless the executive, it was said, did not consider it advisable to ter- minate diplomatic relations with Germany after the promise of discrimination in favor of Ar- gentine ships and the apology for the Luxburg incident. This seems to have been a clear case of unrepresentative inaction: the determination of the Argentine people not finding utterance through the executive. Chile, at the beginning of the war, dec lared its neutrality. Its President, on 1 June 1917, in a message to the Ch ilec an Congress, referred to the common enemy's declared ‘intention to es- tablish a submarine bloclade and then said: “For our part, being advised of hostile! plans against neutral merchant vessels that would af- | / . / | | erent.» fect well-established maritime routes utilized as of old by countries foreign to the present armed conflict, we have found ourselves obliged to re- serve the right to take measures against acts which we cannot tolerate.» But at the same time he expressed unwillingness to deviate from the line of strict neutrality. It is cer- tainly more important to note that on 29 June 1917 the government of Chile endorsed Uru- guay’s declaration of 18 June that “no American country, which in defense of its own rights should find itself in a state of war with nations of other continents, will be treated as a bellig- In his message to Congress 1 June 1918, the President of Chile upheld the neu- trality of his country. Colombia at an early period declared its neutrality, and its government consistently maintained that original position. Neverthe- less the Colombian Senate, in October 1917, passed a resolution of protest against the bar- barous submarine warfare conducted by the common enemy. Mexico’s attitude was defined by President Carranza in his message to the Congress on 15 April 1917 as follows: “Having in view com- pliance with the high duty of preserving and defending the national interests, and inspired always by the most altruistic and humanitarian motives, I shall guide the conduct of the Gov- ernment under my charge by all possible and dignified means in the direction of a most strict and rigorous neutrality.» At the beginning of a Congressional session, 1 Sept. 1917, President Carranza reviewed certain efforts that had been made by the Mexican government, the object of which was to render prosecution of the war extremely difficult. In this connection he men- tioned a note in which the Mexican govern- ment had proposed that all neutrals should cease shipping supplies to the belligerents. But according to his own admission the efforts of his government to bring about a premature peace had not called forth, in other Latin-Amer- ican countries, such full approval as he de- sired. And it is a pleasure to add that when the new Belgian Minister was presented the Mexican chief executive, in his address of wel- come, himself emphasized the duty of resisting the common enemy to the uttermost, saying: “Tt is a great pleasure for me to express to Your Excellency on this solemn occasion, ta; Belgium in taking up arms as Your Fxéellency affirms, tn defense of her neutra! ty, her honor and her independence, has fulfilled the most heroic act of modern times” for ihe glory ait example of weak nations “The countries which are not ready to shed the last dtop of blood in defense of their autor omy atid their institu- tions have no right to be counted in the con- cert of free mations, and those which do not , measure dangers or curtail sacrifices to pre- serve them, altl iough they may be defeated and chained, may rest assured of the advent of the bright day of their liberty, because they are worthy, of it, because they live for it and were born to enjoy it.” The wholly exceptional po- sition of Mexico was due to the circumstance that in April 1914, when American forces oc- cupied the seaport of Vera Cruz, and for a long time afterward, the United States and Mexico were on the brink of war. It is proper to ad- vert also to the following circumstance: The recognition of the government of Don Venus- 30 tiano Carranza, on 19 Oct. 1915, was brought about in an exceptional. manner, namely, through co-operative action of the American countries which, after careful investigation of Mexican conditions, granted together the off- cial recognition to the de facto Carranza gov- ernment. - Paraguay, geographically so remote from all scenes of the great war, gave evidence, nev- ertheless, of the feeling of her people when, on 11 July 1917, an important meeting held at Asun- cidn was attended by the most prominent citi- zens, by the leaders of thought and representa- tives of the masses. The meeting offered am- ple tribute of admiration to the United States for her entrance into the conflict in defense of the principles of humanity and democracy, ac- claiming her as the champion of human rights, and particularly of those of the New World. The suggestion was brought forward that Para- guay’s duty was to intervene in the conflict against the common enemy, but the government has continued to profess neutrality. Salvador’s Foreign Office, in its note of 4 Dec. 1914, observed: “The use of neutrality proclamations seems to have been customary before international law clearly defined the principles which should govern the rights and obligations between belligerents and neutrals during a state of war. Later, these proclama- tions have been used in cases where neutrals maintain an active commerce with belligerents ; have adjoining frontiers across which they might supply each other with armament; or when a neutral nation has a commercial fleet that might be affected in its traffic with bellig- erents. Our country in the present war is not affected by any of the above-mentioned con- tingencies; and as a state of neutrality and the regulations established for the same are juridic conditions emanating from the war itself and from the international principles which govern it, Salvador as a ‘neutral is obliged to observe strictly the principles of war-neutrality. These principles must not necessarily be promulgated by this country in the form of a proclamation, as they are amply set forth in the fourteen diplomatic instruments subscribed to at the Sec- ond Conference of the Hague in 1907 and in the Declaration of London dated 26 Feb. 1909.» The Minister of Foreign Affairs also stated that-notice had been given to the military com- manders under his control to see to it that bel- ligerent vessels should observe strict neutrality in the employment of their wireless apparatus. The government of El Salvador declined to take sides openly against the common enemy,’ but in a note dated.3 Oct,1917 the Minister of Foreign Affairs stated that SEl Salvador, as an American nation, could not fail to recognize, in the conflict between the United. States and- Germany the solidarity which binds it to the great Republic of the North, in view of the PRIM of Pan-Americanism which should pre- vail. Venezuela, non-committal from the begin- ning of the war, announced its policy on 3 May 1917 through the message of the Provisional President, who stated that there had been no act of German submarines by which Venezuela had been directly affected, and, therefore, Vene- zuela had not been involved in the complica- tions which had drawn the United States into - ference of what we did” LATIN AMERICA — LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR (5) war with the common enemy: “Notwithstand- ing this,” the chief executive added, “Venezu- ela reserves intact its right to defend the lives and the properties of its nationals. It follows the course of events with natural interest and identified with the principle in defense of which the United States has entered into the war; [moved also by] the traditional friendship which unites it to that nation and those general interests which are common to the Republics of this continent.» Again, in the message of 1 May 1918, the Venezuelan executive declared that his nation was in full sympathy with the principles for the defense of which the United States had gone to war. Contributions to the Cause of the Allies were indeed extended, but with attendant dif- ficulties, mainly economic, even in those coun- tries of Latin America in which the natural demonstration of approval was not entirely pre- vented by active German propaganda. Brazil, for example, rendered valuable services — to which reference was made, in 1919, by the Bra- zilian Ambassador to France, who was also the leading member of the Brazilian peace delega- tion at Paris. In support of his assertion that Brazil had accomplished much in the Allied cause since she entered the war, the Ambassa- dor said: “We seized 43 first-class German vessels and one German cruiser. Thirty of these vessels we turned over to France for her own use. We mobilized our entire army, of 60,000 officers and men, and all our navy. At the same time we placed our merchant fleet at the command of the Allies. We sent our best aviators to France, together with more than 100 army officers. We organized and maintained a complete hospital unit in France, with 300 beds. We kept more than 50 steamships plying be- tween Brazilian ports and the United States and Europe, supplying our allies with coffee, cocoa, oils, nuts, cotton and sugar. We stamped out German propaganda in Brazil, put a stop to enemy espionage and interned many dangerous enemy aliens. A large part of our navy was sent to European waters, where, un- der command of a United States admiral, it co- operated with the Allied fleets in protecting the coasts and shipping and: troop-transports from enemy submarines. Eight of our best merchant vessels were sunk by torpedoes while in the service of the Allies. Many of our sea- men were lost with these vessels. Some of our seamen were picked up and interned in Ger- many. We feel our position is quite modest, but hope for the complete approval by the con- ' (Consuit New York Herald, 3 Feb. 1919). Large sums of money were raised in Latin America for the loans of all the Allies (con- sult ‘Selling War Bonds in South America,’ in The South American, New York, October 1918, p. 5). ; Special mention should. be made here of Cuba’s highly creditable part in the war. When speaking in a general way about the participa- tion of. Cuba, the Secretary of War of that re- public mentioned a few interesting details in July 1918, saying, among other things: “We have established training camps in Cuba, both military and naval, and through the courtesy of the United States we have placed officers at Key’ West and Pensacola for instruction. LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 31 France has detailed two Cuban aviators, who have achieved brilliant records in France with the Lafayette Escadrille, to act as instructors in our aviation school. We have purchased ad- ditional equipment and materials necessary to make this arm of our service effective. If our forces are needed on the western front, they will go there. It should be distinctly un- derstood that the Cuban government will with- hold nothing that it possesses that can be used to advantage by our allies in the fight against Prussian militarism.” On 19 Oct. 1918 an- nouncement was made in Havana that Cuba’s total subscriptions to the Fourth Liberty Loan amounted to $10,000,000, or $4,000,000 more than the quota allotted to her. The President of Cuba, in an authorized statement, said: aA relatively considerable number of large Ger- man steamships were held by the war in Cuban ports. I ordered their immediate seizure, as the governments of all the belligerent nations have done in similar cases, and turned them over to the United States to be used freely in the prosecution of the war. To the same end of frank co-operation, the government of Cuba authorized the sending of American troops to different .points in Cuba for military instruc- tions and preparations. For the same purpose a goodly number of officers and enlisted men of the Cuban army were sent to the United States to complete and perfect their training for war. The law establishing obligatory mili- tary service empowers the President to take steps for sending a contingent of our present regular army to the European battlefields, re- inforced by volunteers who wish to go and who have already, indeed, begun to enlist in considerable numbers. The President is also authorized to send military missions to the United States, England, France and Italy. The 4th of July, anniversary of the independ- ence of the United States, and the 14th and 21st of July, celebrated in France and in Belgium as patriotic fétes, have been declared legal holi- days.” (see article CuBA). Bibliography.— Barrett, John, ‘The War and the New America —the New Pan-Amer- ica? ; Address before the Southern Commercial Congress : World Court (New York, Novem- ber 1917); Blakeslee, George H., ‘True Pan- Americanism ; a policy of co-operation with the other American Republics?; Journal of Race Development (Worcester, January 1917); Bul- letin of the Pan-American Union, ‘The Grow- ing Spirit of Pan-Americanism? (Washington, October 1917); Calderon, I., ‘The Consecra- tion of the Western Hemisphere to Democ- racy, World Court (New York, November 1917); ‘Circular de la Cancilleria Ecuatoriana a las Cancillerias del Norte, Centro y Sud America, sobre Union y Solidaridad de_ los paises de todo el continente,? Boletin del Min- istro de Relaciones Exteriores (Quito 1917); Downs, W. C., ‘Pan-Americanism and the War,? South American (New York, November 1917) ; Naon, R., ‘The European Conflict and the Pan American Republics,’ The Commoner (Lincoln, December 1914); Rendueles, M. R., ‘Hacia una América Nueva,” El Gréfico (Ha- vana, 30 Dec. 1917) ; Review of Reviews, ‘Latin American Sympathy for France practically Demonstrated? (London, April 1918, p. 303, and South American Journal, London, 9 March 1918, p. 146); ‘Tribute to Brazilian Help in the War,? Pan American Magazine (New York, February 1919). Marrion WILCox. 6. TRANSPORTATION AND COM- MUNICATION IN LATIN AMERICA. Railways.—Although several countries lay claim to having the oldest railway in South America it appears that the first road to be actually opened for service was a line five miles long, finished in British Guiana in 1848. In the next year a line was completed between - Caldera and Copiapé, Chile, and in 1857 the first road began operations in Argentina, Brazil following a year later. Since that time con- struction has been practically continuous, and now every country in South America has its railway system. Naturally expansion of rail- way transportation has been most rapid in the level plains of Argentina, where rails have been laid at comparatively little expense, and it has made least progress in the west and north, where mountain construction often runs the cost up to more than $100,000 a mile. The railway mileage of South American countries (not in- cluding minor private and other lines) was (1917) as follows: COUNTRY Mileage INTRON tin a ieee Weer reales castcthe cua titateers oaks att 21,325 Bolivia oy ice whe ce le be oe a MESA PAE, Sd 850 Brazil eur Ite oh Retiree Senay Eee ote bee 16,146 CHG ih ihe Acca eae ee wie ae gl SOLS Colom Diskin seca een te ee aye es ets Oe 698 Mcuanor te SOA aA ee hoon taken tebe de 427 iana: AAT ibis heer ys mca ye Gil ele ee cre Steyn an ee 100 BB YS Good cM Ne ag eaten EL ies alta as ee 109 Prench fen oo Bs ALAS Pe eee! SP Stet SES. Paraguay Je rate patel Testo ree ih kon ol Serene 231 OPT CEM Sate) CRY OED alee dat om Relea red See ie ee ene 1,900 UTM OAV Soe be ciate e tea ee ete eer. one? See sae 1,639 Vertectelalss Si Cte Sat ok? ly eee ee. 530 In. each country this mileage serves national needs almost entirely, and tourists will find that communication between countries is still largely by coast or ocean vessels. Travel to South America as a rule follows a well-beaten path. The tourist who wishes to visit the chief centres usually travels on one of two routes — down the east coast to Buenos Aires, across the continent to Valparaiso, up the west coast to Panama, and thence to Colom- bia and Venezuela, or the reverse of this jour- ney, making the north-coast countries from Barbados or Trinidad. If he elects the for- mer route his first stop will probably be at Pernambuco, where most ocean liners. serving Brazil call. Coast steamers will carry him to Para, Natal and points between, but the tourist whose time is limited can continue by ocean steamer to Bahia and to Rio de Janeiro. From Rio a favorite trip is that by rail to Sao Paulo, thence by rail to Santos, where the steamer can again be caught for Rio Grande do Sul, Montevideo and Buenos Aires. From Buenos Aires various side trips can conveniently be made, including a visit to Asuncién, capital of Paraguay. The only transcontinental line in South America affords rail accommodations between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso, Chile, where the traveler usually takes a boat for the trip along the west coast. If he wishes to visit Bolivia he stops at Antofagasta, reaching La Paz from that port by rail in about 45 hours. Siroche or “mountain sickness,” how- 82 LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) ever, caused by a too rapid change from the coast to an altitude of over 12,000 feet, may make a more gradual ascent advisable. From La Paz two other railways reach the coast, that leading to Mollendo, Peru, having hereto- fore had the most passenger traffic. At Mol- lendo the sea voyage is continued to Callao- Lima, thence to the northern ports of Peru and to Guayaquil, Ecuador, from which the capital, Quito, can be reached in a two-days’ journey. Steamships carry the traveler from Guayaquil to Panama and through the canal to Colon, where connection can be made for Cartagena, Colombia. After possible trips to the interior cities of Bogota and Medellin, connections are made at Cartagena or Puerto Colombia for Venezuelan ports, the most important of which are Puerto Cabello and La Guaira, from both of which the capital, Caracas, can be reached by rail. As convenient the traveler can then either go to Trinidad or Barbados and catch a north-bound boat, or return to Colon. It will be seen that on a South American tour of this kind a great part of the travel is by boat, and railways are as a rule of only local convenience. If he desired to do so, how- ever, the traveler could land at Victoria, Brazil, and continue on the route mentioned entirely by rail to Mollendo, Peru. Most of the railways of South America have been built by European capital, largely Eng- lish. The equipment is therefore for the most part European. Government ownership “and “operation are most prominent in Chile, but exist also in Brazil, Argentina and other coun- tries. There are a multitude of gauges, ranging from the broad 5 feet 6 inches of various Argentine lines to 2 feet 6 inches of the Anto- fagasta (Chile) and Bolivia line in Chile, and even narrower private lines. Accommodations for passengers on many roads, notably those of the larger Argentine and Brazilian systems, are the equal of those in the United States, luxurious parlor-car, sleeping-car and dining- car service being provided. Fares are variable but for the most part are not excessive. Rates for excess baggage, however, are usually high. Before reviewing briefly the transportation systems of the various countries, the much- discussed project of the Pan-American Rajl- way should be mentioned. This project is the proposed linking-up of existing lines to afford railway service through North and South America, from New York all the way to Bue- nos Aires. Existing lines could be utilized to the southern border of the United States, and the National Railways of Mexico line would carry the train to the Guatemalan border. Railways now in operation, being built or pro- jected would afford passage through Central America to Panama, where construction to the Colombian border would involve the conquering of the tropical forest. At the other end of the line there is through trackage from Buenos Aires to Cuzco, Peru, except for a stretch of about 66 miles, now under construction between La Quiaca and Tupiza, Bolivia, and there are various mountain lines in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru which would form links in the com- pleted chain. Much of the construction yet to be affected, however, is in difficult country and it will be many years before the great dream is a reality. SoutH AMERICA. ARGENTINA.— The great level plains of Ar- gentina, with their wealth of agricultural and pastoral products, have made the river Plata region the centre of railway expansion in South America. From Buenos Aires a great network of lines stretches out to the north, west and south, connecting practically every important town or city of Argentina with the capital and bringing the country to a rank of ninth in point of railway mileage among the nations of the world. The following distances by rail from Buenos Aires to other cities of Argen- tina will illustrate the extent of railway de- velopment: To Bahia Blanca, 446 miles; Tu- cuman, 720 miles; Mendoza, 647 miles; San Juan, 745 miles; Santa Fé, 299 miles; Rosario, 186 miles; Cordoba, 433 miles; Salta, 996 miles; Santiago, 628 miles; Jujuy, 1,006 miles; San Luis, 485 miles; Catamarca, 771 miles; Mar del Plata, 248 miles. Up to the outbreak. of the European War the mileage was being steadily extended, but that event practically suspended construction through the curtailment of the supplies of foreign capital necessary for exten- sive building. The systems of Argentine railways, with their mileage (excluding private and other minor lines) are as follows: Buenos Aires and Pacific, 3,535 miles; Buenos Aires Great Southern, 3,792 miles; Buenos Aires Western, 1,870 miles; Central Argentine, 3,305 miles; Cordoba Central, 1,205 miles; Entre Rios, 831 miles; Buenos Aires Midland, 322 miles; Ar- gentine North Eastern, 752 miles; Province Santa Fé, 1,192 miles; Rosario-Puerto Belgrano, 493 miles; General Buenos Aires, 790 miles; Central Northern, 1,790 miles; Argentine del Norte, 1,196 miles; Buenos Aires Central, 252 miles. Most of these systems are owned wholly or in part by English shareholders (English capi- tal having been invested in Argentine railways to the extent of almost a billion dollars), and the securities of the more important roads are quoted regularly on the London Stock Exchange. Of the total mileage the govern- ment owns some 4,000 miles, the longest roads being the Central Northern Railway, running from Santa Fé northwest to the Argentine boundary at La Quiaca, and the Argentine Northern, running from Santa Fé west to San Juan, both roads having several branches. The government is interested in building and operating railroads chiefly in order to open up new territory, and the roads in many cases are run at a loss, Argentine railways have three different gauges. The broad gauge of 5 feet 6 inches, said to have been introduced when the first railway builders’ purchased rolling stock of this gauge which had been used in the Crimean War, prevails on several of the larger roads, including the Buenos Aires and Pacific, the Buenos Aires and Great Southern, the Buenos Aires Western and the Central Argentine. The middle gauge, 4 feet 8% inches, is used by the Entre Rios Railway, the Argentine North Eastern and the Buenos Aires Cen- tral. The government lines mentioned, the Transandine Railway, the Cordoba Central, the Buenos Aires Midland.and the Province of Santa Fé are of metre (3.28 feet) gauge. Freight carried on these roads naturally con- LATIN AMERICA—TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 33 sist very largely of grain, livestock and animal products such as wool and hides, but consider- able quantities of wine and grapes are carried from the vineyards of Mendoza and. other western provinces. The passenger service of these lines is quite up-to-date, and all the comforts appertaining to modern railway travel are provided. The line of the Central Argentine between Buenos Aires and Rosario has been double-tracked, and the running time between these cities, a distance of 186 miles, has been reduced to four and a half hours. The fare is not ex- cessive. One of the minor drawbacks to rail- way travel in many parts of Argentina is the monotony of landscape, some lines running for hundreds of miles over level plains with prac- _ tically no trees or hills to be seen in any direction. The railway system in general is such that every city of consequence in Argen- tina can be conveniently reached from Buenos Aires, and tourists and commercial travelers find it a good plan to make the capital their headquarters, taking side trips to other centres as may be desirable. The fact that a great part of the import and export business of the country flows through Buenos Aires makes it unnecessary for foreign salesmen to visit many of the outlying cities. Tourists, however, will find it interesting to visit Tucuman, where Argentine independence was declared; Men- doza, the centre of the wine industry; Rosario, second to Buenos Aires as a shipping centre; La Plata, where there are a large observatory and large meat-packing plants; and Mar del Plata, the great seaside resort. Urucuay.— The fact that Uruguay, smallest of South American republics, has some 1,600 miles of railway is an illustration of the pro- gressiveness of the country, as well as the facility in construction afforded by the level or gently rolling character of the land. The chief system is the Central Uruguay Railway, which operates approximately 1,000 miles of track. Its main line and an extension connect Montevideo with the Brazilian frontier and join the Rio Grande system at Sant’ Anna. Nearly all lines are controlled by British capital, and as a rule return a good profit. They are for the most part operated under a government guarantee. In the third of the river Plata countries, Paraguay, there is as yet but a single line, the Paraguay Central, running from Asuncid6n, the capital, to’ Villa Encarnacién, where it makes connection with the Argentine North Eastern. A branch from Villa Rica to the Brazilian frontier is being constructed, to con- nect with the Sao Paulo-Rio Grande Railway and give through connection with the Atlantic Coast. At present Asunciédn is reached in about 50 hours from Buenos Aires over the road mentioned, or by river boat, the trip upstream taking five days and the return trip four days. An extension of the Santa Fé Railway of Argentina is being constructed which has for its objective a point in Argentina op- posite Asuncién, the complete line to be en- tirely in Argentine territory but giving Asun- cién another outlet to the sea. Railway. This continues 111 miles to the Transandine Tunnel, two miles long. The Chile-Argentine boundary line is reached about halfway through the tunnel, and across the line the journey is over the track of the Chilean Transandine Railway to Los Andes, 47 miles. From there to Valparaiso (83 miles) runs the line of the Chilean National Railway. The whole distance from Buenos Aires to Val- paraiso is 888 miles. This Transandine route has made unnecessary the long voyage around the Horn when traveling between Valparaiso and Buenos Aires, the railway trip now being made in two days. The line does not carry a great amount of freight but has a good passenger traffic. During the winter months it is often blocked by snows and the service is consequently very uncertain’ from June to August. The character of the railway. development of the west coast has been determined by the peculiar contour of the land. Along practically the whole length of the South American conti- nent the high ridges of the Andes lie only a comparatively short distance back from the coast. For the most part, therefore, the rail- ways of Chile, Peru and Ecuador consist of short lines crossing the narrow strip of coast lands between sea and mountains, here and there climbing over the high passes into the interior plateau. Mec The chief exception to this is the Longi-/ tudinal Railway of Chile, running from Puert/ Montt in the south to a point near Iqui (eventually to be extended to Arica). / cause of the proximity of the mountains t/ sea and their height, railway constructi¢ been exceedingly costly and difficult 7 required the solution of more eng problems than construction in any of the world. The highest rail world is to be found in Peru, the Central of Peru Railway re height of 15,865 feet, while f Bolivia, a branch of the Ant and Bolivia Railway running 15,814 feet. So far the rail Buenos Aires and ValparZ, \,i1] doe affording transcontinentaJ 4p; Zona tioned above, the comfently for sey- ee - Vs track between La Quige d another through rou eee een } gn rouktended to meet tion has been carriefestern of Brazil eral years. A thit4ed to the Spy ie Bolivia's railwaycher transcontinental the track of Blanea, Argentina Railway, practas been discussed. but town of Cong done on it. There ds line, to ruwahia Blanca to Neuquén to Talcahy , no active/es of railway open in Chile mm Argh owned by the government, miles of in Argnly country in South America cnsive government-owned sys- aboyoads are for the most part oper- Ch’s. The private lines are mostly t lways, owned and operated by the exploiting the nitrate fields in North 1A.— The country of Bolivia, entirely Cuite— From Buenos Aires the broag’ from the sea, has three rail connections gauge tracks of the Buenos Aires and Pac) lead away 647 miles to Mendoza, joining with the meter-gauge Argentine Trans you, 17—3 34 LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) with the coast, two of these being through Chile and one through Peru. The lines through Chile run from Antofagasta and Arica to La Paz, and that through Peru to Mollendo. The southernmost line is that of Antofagasta (Chile) and Bolivia Railway, from Antofagasta to Oruro, Bolivia, a distance of 575 miles. From Oruro the Bolivia Railway, leased by the Antofagasta Railway, leads to Viacha, 125 miles, and the rest of the distance to La Paz, 19 miles, is covered by a line constructed by the Antofagasta Railway, as well as by two others. The whole distance of about 720 miles is covered in 45 hours. The second line to the coast is the Arica-La Paz line of 248 miles, of which 28 miles is rack*road. The time required for the trip to La Paz from the coast is about 25 hours and for the journey in the other direction 15 hours, the first-class fare being about 6% cents a mile. The third line to the sea is through Peru to Mollendo, the total dis- tance being 534 miles and the running time about 29 hours to the coast, part of the journey being made by steamer on Lake Titicaca. This road is the Southern Railway of Peru, which also operates a branch from Juliaca to the ancient Inca capital, Cuzco, 210 miles, a favorite objective of tourists. _While most of the traffic to and from Bolivia has been by way of the first and third of these routes, the second is considerably the shortest and there is, more- over, one of the best harbors along the Pacific Coast at Arica. The line was opened in 1912 and is expected to build up a volume of busi- ness between La- Paz and the coast that will equal that of its older competitors. Peru.— Besides the Southern Railway, Peru as one other line that climbs the Andes from ‘coast. This is the famous Central Railway °eru, one of the most wonderful railways in ‘orld because of the number and character engineering difficulties overcome. It was 1 and partially completed by Henry jn American engineer, at an enormous ins from the port of Callao to Oroya, . with an extension to Huancayo, a 00 uiles_to the south. The main line 3 thie 57 tunnels and ‘reaches a height the feene branch to Morococha going of aeat This branch, as noted above, ay in the world. At Oroya can copp’ railways tl. Railway leads to the town connecting *€ of an important Ameri- coastal regionterprise. Besides these A large p2us shorter lines, chiefly railways is contural valleys of the tion, a companyfic ports, 9 holders of Peruvileage of Peruvian of interest on whicPeruvian Corpora- ment between the gi890 by European tion is such that thes, the payment way situation in Perult. The agree- terested in new construd the corpora- for the government a linetes the rail- on the Southern Railwajany 1s in- . Dios River, which will opei surveyed and-water route to the AtlaTiripata, Andean lines are projected in dre de central sections of Peru. | % rail- Ecuapor.— The only railway-ans- in Ecuador is the Guayaquil atand a built, owned and operated by Americans. This line is another example of daring mountain construction. It has a total length of 287 miles and the journey to Quito takes two days. There are also railways inland from the ports of Bahia de Caracas, Manta and Bolivar, and lines are projected from Quito to the coast and from Ambato, on the Guayaquil and Quito Railway, to ‘Curaray in the interior, which will open up the rich tropical sections of the Amazon Valley in Ecuador. Work on the latter line is proceeding slowly. CotomBiA.— In the north-coast countries of Colombia and Venezuela railroad building has made little progress, partly because of the mountainous character of the country and partly because of the fact that each country is but sparsely inhabited. In Colombia the main arteries of travel are still the rivers, particularly the Magdalena, and nearly all railways lead off from this river or from the seacoasts. The foreign traveler usually lands either at Carta- gena (thence reaching the river by rail at Cala- mar, 62 miles away), or at Puerto Colombia, going thence to Barranquilla, a rail distance of 17 miles. A river boat carries him to La Dorado, where the Dorado Extension Railway leads around a series of rapids to Puerto Bel- tran, the river voyage being then continued to Girardot. The rest of the journey to Bogota, the capital, is by railways of two different gauges, a distance of 109 miles. From Bogota two short lines lead out north and southeast, besides the line running to the Magdalena River. The Antioquia Railway, nearly completed, con- nects Medellin with the Magdalena, and a short line leads out from the river port of Puerto Wilches, to be eventually continued to Bucara- manga. Isolated lines serving local needs in- clude the Cucuta Railway (44 miles) in the east, the Santa Marta Railway (92 miles) in the north, and the Cauca Railway (103 miles) in the west. A short line running from the Magdalena at Girardot to Espinal completes the list. The railway construction program of Colombia includes the completion of the lines from the Magdalena to Bucaramanga and to Medellin, the continuation of the Cauca Rail- way to Popayan, the connecting of the Cucuta Railway with the Magdalena, the building of a line from Medellin to the Gulf of Darien, and the construction of a line from Girardot to Cali, thus giving Bogota access to the Pacific. VENEZUELA.— The 530 miles of railway in Venezuela are all of three and one-half feet gauge or less, and serve the regions along the coast. The chief line is the Great Railway of Venezuela, a German road of 111 miles running from Caracas to Valencia. It was a costly road to build, having 86 tunnels and 212 bridges. Both the terminal cities of this road are con- nected with the coast, Valencia by an English- owned railway of 34 miles running to Puerta Cabella and Caracas by the La Guaira and Caracas line, also English, which in: its 23 miles passes over 10 bridges and through nine tunnels, and climbs 5,000 feet. The Bolivar Railway (109 miles) connects the interior city of Barquisimeto with the coast at Tucacas, and is important as a carrier of copper ore from the mines at Aroa, about 50 miles from Tucacas. This road is also English-owned as is the Cen- tral Railway (46 miles) running southeast from Caracas, Most of the other railways, LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 35 penetrating short distances into the interior from the coast and from lake Maracaibo, are financed by Venezuelan capital, three being government-owned. Several projects for new railways have been talked of, but extensive construction will have to await the development of the country. Gui1anaA.— In British Guiana there are about 100 miles of railway, the chief line being that from Georgetown to New Amsterdam, 60 miles long. Dutch Guiana has a single road of about 109 miles, BraAziL.— Brazil, a country whose great ex- panses have as yet not even been fully ex- plored, holds great promise for future railway construction. There are now some _ 16,000 miles of railroad in the country, and lines pro- jected and under construction when the European War broke out would have added 8,000 or 10,000 miles more. Existing lines, with one notable exception, have naturally been laid where the country is most thickly settled, that is, in the coastal regions and the immediate hinterland, and the great interior plains and forests are penetrated by only one line that has connections with the coast. Construction has been most in evidence in the more productive section, comprising the agricultural and mining states of the south. Almost one-half of the total mileage of the country is owned by the ederal government, although most of this is leased. The gauges of Brazilian railways range from two feet to five feet three inches, but about 90 per cent of the mileage is metre gauge. The chief economic value of these railways heretofore has been to bring the products of each general section to the coast, and communi- cation between northern, southern and western states is still largely by ocean or river steamer. The traveler visiting the several coast cities has little use for the railways until he reaches Rio de Janeiro. From Rio the usual journey (re- quiring all of one day), is by rail to Sao Paulo, one of the most thriving commercial cities of South America, and then to the coast again at Santos, where steamer connection is made for southern Brazil and the river Plata. However, the traveler, if he wishes to do so, can reach both Uruguay and Argentina by rail from Rio de Janeiro. Sleeping and dining-car service is provided, but the rates are high. The line that connects the capital with many of the important cities of southern Brazil and the oldest line in the country is the Central of Brazil Railway, whose broad and metre gauge tracks lead to Sao Paulo in the southwest and to Bello Morizonte and other important centres in the north. It is government-owned, and returns a large annual deficit. The coun- try’s best-paying line is the S40 Paulo Railway, running from Santos to Jundiahy via Sao Paulo, which carries a tremendous freight of coffee annually. There are two tracks over the 50 miles between Sado Paulo and Santos, and grades of 8 per cent are surmounted by means of endless-cable systems. Other import- ant lines of this region that should be men- tioned are the Mogyana, Sorocabana, Paulista, South Minas, West of Mines and Brazil Rail- way systems. The last named is the compre- hensive system controlled by a company known as the Farquhar Syndicate, incorporated in Maine, which carried forward ambitious de- yelopment plans that involved railway construc- tion or control in Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay and Argentina. This development, however, was largely suspended by financial difficulties on the outbreak of the European War, and the company passed into the hands of a receiver. The southernmost states of Brazil are served by this line and by the Great Southern, the region to the north of Rio de Janeiro by the Leopoldina Railway, the region around Pernam- buco by the Great Western, the state of Ceara by the Brazil North Eastern, and Bahia by the state of Bahia Southwestern. There is at present no through rail connection between north and south, but it is planned to have the Central of Brazil extended eventually to Para, thus affording railway communication for all the states on the Atlantic seaboard. Construc- tion is also reaching out toward the western plains, and a transcontinental line through Bolivia will eventually be built. Far removed from all other lines is the Madeira-Mamore Railway, 1,800 miles into the interior, which spans a series of rapids in the Madeira, Mamore and Beni rivers. These rapids are the only obstruction to river traffic from the interior of Bolivia to the Atlantic, and the road of 225 miles was constructed (with great difficulty and only after repeated failures) to afford an outlet for the products of eastern Bolivia. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. Mexico.— Before the revolution broke out in 1910 Mexico had witnessed a steady expan- sion of its railways, which formed a network that afforded an outlet for the products of almost all parts of this potentially wealthy coun- try. In the years that followed the overthrow of Diaz not only has new construction been materially diminished (though not entirely sus- pended) but millions of dollars’ worth of track and rolling stock have been destroyed. In normal times the country is well served by its railways. It has about 16,000 miles of rail- way, mostly standard gauge (four feet eight and one-half inches) of which about 7,300 miles are owned or controlled (but not operated) by one system, the National Railways of Mexico. The government organized this system by combining the National Railroad of Mexico and the Mexi- can Central, in 1908, and later adding the Mexican International, the Vera ‘Cruz and Isthmus and the Pan-American. The govern- ment owns 50.3 per cent of the ordinary stock and thus has full control. The principal line of the system runs from Nuevo Laredo, on the northern border, through the ‘states of Nuevo Leon and San Luis Potosi on down to Mexico City, with several branches east and west. Other important lines of Mexico include the Southern Pacific of Mexico, running from the northern border through the western states of Sonora and Sinaloa to Tepic, whence it will be continued to join the National Railways of Mexico at Guadalajara; the Mexico North Western Railway, one of the two lines joining El Paso and Chihuahua; the Mexican Rail- way, running from Vera Cruz to Mexico City, with several branches; the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway, which when completed will join Kansas City with the port of Topolo- bampo on the Gulf of California; and _ the Tehuantepec National Railway, running from ,. 36 LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) coast to coast between Salina Cruz and Puerto Mexico. The only isolated system is the United Railroads of Yucatan, and a line is pro- jected which will join this with the other rail- ways of the country. Mexico has a carefully worked out body of railway law, and the Minister of Communica- tions is assisted by a standing advisory Railway Commission of nine members. CENTRAL AMERICA. In ‘Central’ America through connections from ocean to ocean are afforded in three countries, Panama, Costa Rica and Guatemala (considering Panama a part of Central America). On these and other Central American lines the traveler will find some of the finest scenery attending railway travel anywhere in North and South America. Both freight and passenger rates are high, but the service in general is good. The oldest and best-known line, the Panama Railway, has been carrying immense amounts of traffic across the isthmus since it was opened in 1855, and its earnings have been very large. It is 47 miles long, and the trip between the Atlantic and Pacific terminals is made in about one and one- quarter hours. From Port Limon, in Costa Rica, the three and one-half foot gauge Costa Rica Railway (leased by the Northern Rail- way of Costa Rica) carries the tourist through wild and beautiful country to the capital, San José, in some five or six hours, a daily service being maintained in both directions. The fare is $3.90 gold. Over another line the traveler may also reach the Pacific Coast at Puntarenas, 69 miles from San José, in about the same time. The freight traffic of these Costa Rican railways is very largely made up of bananas and coffee shipped by the United Fruit Company. A sys- tem that promises much for the future develop- ment of Central America is that of the Inter- national Railways of Central America. This now includes the lines joined to make the ocean-to-ocean route from Puerto Barrios, on the Atlantic, to San José on the Pacific, together with a branch at Santa Maria and a line run- ning westward from La Union, Salvador. When projected roads are completed the Inter- national Railways will have continuous track from the Mexican border to Panama, which will complete the North American part of the Pan- American Railway. The railway mileage of the countries of | Central America is as follows: Panama, 202 miles; Costa Rica, 450 miles; Nicaragua, 200 miles; Salvador, 184 miles; Honduras, 300 miles; Guatemala, 500 miles.* Ocean Transportation. The fact that a large part of the foreign trade of South Amer- ica has been with Europe has caused a great development of. ocean transportation service be- tween the two continents. Until a few years before the World War the only regular com- munication of any importance between South America and the outside world was over the lines of ships that ran to European ports. It was customary for passengers bound for South America from the United States to go by way of Liverpool or Hamburg, and a great deal of freight was also routed via these ports. While this has decidedly changed and the United *These figures, which. are approximate only, are taken from ‘Railway Expansion in Latin America’ by Frederic M. Halsey, United States. States enjoys reasonably good freight service with South America, it is nevertheless true that in normal times transportation facilities to and from Europe are immensely better than to and from the United Siates. This is due in large part to the nature of the resources and com- merce of Europe, South America and the South America is distinctly a continent of raw materials, while Europe is a producer of manufactured articles and has been, moreover, an investor of immense amounts of capital. A heavy volume of oversea traffic and a consequent growth of shipping was, there- _ fore, very logical. The United States, on the other hand, has until recent years supplied it- self with most of its foodstuffs and other raw materials and has also not actively sought for- eign markets for its factory products. Direct transportation facilities to South America, therefore, have been in demand only in a com- paratively few years and the freight and pas- senger traffic, even after direct service was well established, has been carried almost wholly in foreign bottoms. Before the beginning of the European War a triangular trade route had been evolved by which vessels carried manufac- tured goods from Europe to South America, coffee, hides and a few other staples from South America to the United States and various American exports to Europe. The radical changes resulting from the war, together with the steadily increasing interest of the United States in South American trade, will undoubt- edly cause the establishment of more ample direct facilities between North and South America, which in time will rival the facilities heretofore enjoyed by European countries. After the outbreak of the World War in 1914 shipping service to South America was of course anything but normal. The price of charters advanced as much as 1,000 per cent, and ships were often not to be had at any price that would justify the dispatch of cargo. Any description of shipping conditions during the war would give little indication of the ordinary state of ocean transportation. The following account will, therefore, be confined to a review of the service offered immediately before the beginning of the war, although most of the lines mentioned have maintained a more or less in- terrupted service during its continuance. European shipping, carrying mostly food- stuffs, hides and skins, and similar commodities to Europe, has been much more in evidence in the ports of Brazil and the river Plata than on the west and north coasts and scores of vessels, some of them registering as high as 20,000 tons, have come and gone at all seasons of the year. The port of Buenos Aires saw its business grow so rapidly that elaborate con- struction of docks was hardly sufficient by the time it was completed to take care of the grow- ing traffic. In 1913 a total of 700 passenger- carrying vessels entered the port from over- seas, bringing 316,000 passengers. Many of the large liners that reached Buenos Aires put in also at Rio de Janeiro and Montevideo, and these also were busy ports. Liners flying the flags of European countries, together with the ships of one Brazilian line, afforded most of the regular communication between the east coast and New York, and the American flag, carried only by an occasional sailing vessel or LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 37 tank steamer or the monthly vessels of one American line to Brazil, was counted a rarity along the east coast. England has enjoyed the bulk of South American trade and English lines have been more numerous than any other: The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company was perhaps the most prominent of these. It maintained a weekly service, its modern steamers of 15,000 tons and more making the voyage from Liver- pool to Buenos Aires in 18 days regularly, and on occasion covering the distance from Cadiz, Spain, to Rio de Janeiro in 11 days. The Lam- port and Holt Line had passenger and freight steamers running to the river Plata both from New York and from English ports, and steam- ers of the Booth Line plied regularly between England and North Brazil and Amazon ports, and between New York and these ports. Other lines offering service between the east coast of South America and England were the Harri- son Line, the Houston Line, the London and Northern Steamship Company, Ltd., the Blue Star Line, the British and Argentine Steam Navigation Company, Ltd., the Nautilus Steam Shipping Company, Ltd., the Nelson Line, the Prince Line and a line operated by the New Zealand Shipping Company, Ltd., and Shaw, Savill and Albim Company, Ltd. All these sent their ships to the river Plata, and the Royal Mail, in addition, had regular boats to Venezuela and to Panama, offering service, through transshipment, to the west coast. Direct service to the west coast was maintained by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, a subsidiary of the Royal Mail. The fastest of the river Plata steamers made Lisbon in about 14 days and Southampton in 17 days from Buenos Aires, and the first-class fare rangéd from $110 to $160. Next to the English the ships of the Ital- ian lines were most numerous in traffic to the east coast. This was due to the large move- ment of Italian immigrants into Argentina and Brazil, many of them going over for the har- vests and returning to Italy to spend the rest of the year at home. Those who settled per- manently brought their tastes with them and the demand for Italian articles built up a trade of considerable proportions. The following lines maintained a service consisting mostly of monthly sailings each way between Italian ports, usually Genoa and Naples, and the river Plata: Italia Line, La Veloce, Italian Lloyd, Lloyd del Pacifico, Lloyd Sabaudo, Navigazione Gen- erale Italiana, Ligure Braziliana and Sicula- Americana. The German flag was carried by the large vessels of the Hamburg-South Amer- ican and the North German Lloyd to Brazilian and Argentine ports, and by the Roland Line to west coast ports. The first-named line maintained a weekly service to European ports, including Lisbon, Vigo, Southampton, Bou- logne and Hamburg, calling at Rio de Janeiro on the way and covering the distance between the river Plata and Lisbon in about 16 days. The first-class passenger fare to Europe was about $160. Regular liners were also to be seen in the river Plata in weekly, fortnightly or monthly service from France, Denmark, Hol- land, Spain, Belgium and Sweden, and even the interior countries of Russia and Austria- Hungary found it desirable to maintain a regu- lar service through their own national lines. Besides the regular boats there were a large number of tramp steamers and sailers and spe- cially chartered boats plying between Europe and the river Plata, for the most part carrying grain and livestock products from Buenos Aires, Rosario, San Lorenzo (near: Rosario) and Bahia Blanca, and bringing back coal and miscellaneous cargo. Between the United States and the river Plata six steamship lines, all British, offered freight service and one or two of these also carried passengers. These were the Lamport and Holt (the only important passenger-carry- ing line), Barber, Norton, Houston, Prince and American- Rio Plata lines. They maintained a fortnightly or monthly service from New York, stopping at Brazilian ports in one or both directions. The United States and Brazil Line, flying the American flag, was established primarily to carry the products of the United States Steel Products Company to Brazil and bring back manganese for steel manufacture, but it also offered general cargo service. The Booth Line had sailings from New York to Para, Manaos and Iquitos, and also on occa- sion. to ports on the north coast of Brazil, and the Brazilian line, the Lloyd Brazileiro, oper- ated between New York and all the important Brazilian ports. The west coast enjoyed adequate ocean transportation facilities, both to oversea coun- tries and between the various coast ports. The regular European lines included the Kosmos and Roland lines, flying the German flag, the three English companies, the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, Gulf Line and Lamport and Holt, and the Johnson Line, maintaining service to Denmark and Norway. To the United States ships of three lines sailed regu- larly from west coast ports—the Merchants, West Coast and New York and South Amer- ica lines, each with sailings varying from one to two months apart. These lines made the trip around the Horn until the opening of the canal, but now go by way of Panama. Be- tween Japan and the Pacific Coast the large ships of one line, the Toyo Kisen Kaisha, pro- vided regular and adequate service. In the coasting trade between the ports of Chile, Peru and Ecuador’ three companies maintained reg- ular schedules, the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, the Compania Sud Americana de Vapores (Chilean) and the Compania Peruana de Vapores y Dique del Callao (Peruvian Steamship and Drydock Company of Callao). Ships of the Kosmos Line and others sailing to transoceanic ports also made stops at the im- portant ports of the west coast and carried more or less coasting traffic. Besides these regular sailings there were a large number of tramp steamers and sailing vessels taking ni- trate from Chile to Europe and the United States or bringing coal from Australia and Wales. The flags of more than half-a-dozen coun- tries were carried on the ships of the regular lines that served the ports of the north coast. Spain was represented by the Compagnia Transatlantica de Barcelona, Italy by La Ve- loce, France by the Compagnie Générale Trans- atlantique, Holland by the Royal Dutch West India Mail, Germany by the Hamburg Amer- ican, England by the Harrison and Leyland lines, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company 38 LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) and the United Fruit Company (British ves- sels sailing from United States ports), and the United States by the “Red D” Line. The ships of most of these lines touched at ports of both Venezuela and Colombia, usually, how- ever, going in one direction, New Orleans or New York being visited either before or after the Caribbean ports on the round trip from Europe. The United Fruit Company had sail- ings only to Colombia, and the Red D Line and the Royal Dutch West India Mail visited only Venezuela. In Venezuela, La Guaira and Puerto Ca- bello were the chief ports of call, the cargo to and from Maracaibo, the important coffee dis- trict, being transshipped at Curacao, and a good part of the trade of Ciudad Bolivar and the Orinoco being handled through Trinidad. In Colombia either Cartagena or Puerto Colom- bia, the port for Barranquilla, was visited by the liners serving the country, and in addition the port of Santa Marta became prominent be- cause of heavy shipments of bananas. Barran- quilla, the most important commercial city of the Colombian Republic, is shut off from the ocean by a great bar at the mouth of the Mag- dalena, which permits the entry of boats of lighter draft only. Various projects have been discussed and contracts have even been let for dredging and maintaining a channel through this bar, but this has not been accomplished so far and cargo must come and go through Puerto Colombia. The various lines carrying the commerce of the United States with South America may be said to have furnished a fairly adequate serv- ‘ice, and in the main their ships were ready to carry all the cargo that offered. There has been considerable agitation in recent years for the establishment of American steamship lines to carry freight and passenger traffic between the United States and Latin America, but this has arisen from a desire for many advantages de- rived from a national service rather than from a conspicuous inadequacy of cargo space. Nev- ertheless there is little question that American- owned vessels would do much to assist in the upbuilding of United States trade with Latin America. American lines could expand their service with the increasing demands from American shippers, and: could adopt policies that would directly encourage a steady trade in- crease. A faster schedule with more frequent sailings of passenger vessels to Brazil and the river Plata would help to bring shipping com- munications from New York to a par with those from Liverpool, Hamburg and Genoa. A constant community of interest between Amer- ican industries and the companies which trans- ported their products to Latin America would work for as great an expansion of both trade and shipping as could reasonably be expected under normal conditions of competition. It is probable that with the growth of interest in foreign trade in the United States thg estab- lishment of American-owned lines to all parts of Latin America will be a question of only a short time. The time now required for the voyage from New York to Buenos Aires is 24 or 25 days, to Rio de Janeiro 17 days, to Colén 7 days, to Cartagena 8 or 9 days, to La Guaira 8 to 10 days. to Guayaquil, Ecuador, 12 to 14 days, to Callao, Peru, about 15 days and to Valparaiso, Chile, about 22 days. The West Coast and the Merchants lines offer through service to the west coast, and the United Fruit Company and the Panama Railroad and Steamship lines con- nect with the boats of the Peruvian and Chilean lines and the Pacific Steam Navigation Com- pany. Vessels plying to east coast ports from New York make no stops in the West Indies, as a rule, except at Barbados, and occasionally Trinidad, and travelers in Venezuela or Colom- bia who wish to visit Brazil and Argentina often find it more desirable to return to New York than to wait for connections. Pernam- buco is the first port of call for the regular liners on the way down the east coast, except those of the Lloyd Brazileiro, and Para and neighboring ports are reached from Pernam- buco by coasting vessels. : River Transportation.— Transportation by river in South America has had the importance which it always has in a new and unexplored continent, and it will continue to be perhaps the chief factor in the development of the in- terior regions, particularly the Amazon Valley, for an indefinite time to come. Where rail- ways are built they form of course the prin- cipal means of carrying traffic, and a steady ex- pansion in railway construction is to be ex- pected. But such construction is attended with great difficulties in the vast tropical regions of the northern and central sections as well as in the mountainous regions of the west coast, and the cost is very heavy. The rivers will, there- fore, remain the recognized outlets for these tropical regions until the growth of population makes it feasible and desirable to provide what is now dense forest land with networks of rail- ways. ; There are four great river systems in South America on which vessels ranging in size from the small canoe of the Indian to the great ocean liners carry manufactured goods to the interior and bring out rubber, hides and a dozen other tropical products. These are the systems of the Amazon, the river Plata, the Orinoco and the Magdalena. So extensive are these systems that with a comparatively few miles portage one can go by boat except for rapids from Buenos Aires to the mouth of the Orinoco. The great Amazon, of course, leads in the extent of navigable waterways and ocean liners go regularly as far as Manaés and even Iquitos, almost to the boundary of Ecua- dor. The Parana and its tributaries, the Para- guay and the Pilcomayo, stretch far into the heart of the continent and afford an outlet for the interior plains of Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. In the north the Orinoco is as yet little utilized because the country it serves is but thinly settled, but the grassy plains through which it flows will support millions more cattle than they do, and until railways are built to the coast their only outlet will be by way of the river. In Colombia the Magdalena forms the only highway by which freight and passengers move from the interior of the coun- try to the Atlantic Coast and vice-versa. Navigation on the Amazon, in many respects the most remarkable river highway in the world, is carried on by ocean liners, particularly the boats of the Booth Line and the Lloyd Brazil- eiro, by a number of river companies and by a LATIN AMERICA — TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) 39 host of larger or smaller vessels not grouped into companies. The principal river company is the Companhia Navegacgao do Amazonas, a Brazilian company, which owns some 50 or 60 vessels. The principal port is that of Manads, about 1,000 miles from Para, on the Rio Negro near the place where it empties into the Ama- zon. On the Madeira there is continuous navi- gation to the beginning of the rapids at Santo Antonio, and beyond these series of rapids, which are spanned by the Madeira-Mamore Railway, boats of light draft can run almost to the foot of the mountains. On the Amazon itself the line of navigable water for large- draft boats passes the frontier of Peru and continues on to Iquitos, and much farther for those of smaller size. Another highly import- ant river in Brazilian transportation is the Sao Francisco, which rises in the state of Minas Geraes and flows north for more than a thou- sand miles before turning east and south to the Atlantic. Rapids and falls prohibit through navigation, but there is a stretch of about 800 miles between Pirapora and Sobradinho over which boats of considerable size can operate. The Uruguay River does not offer much in the way of transportation facilities, as rapids at Salto stop the boats going up from Buenos Aires. The Paraguay, however, is open as far as the draft of vessels will permit them: to go, and steamers of the Lloyd Brazileiro call regu- larly at Corumba on the Bolivia-Brazil fron- tier. These boats and also those of the Mihano- vitch Line (Argentine Navigation Company, Ltd.) offer a river service to Asuncidn, Paraguay, the trip up the river from Buenos Aires taking about five days and that down- river about four. This company, which has a fleet of some 300 vessels, does an extensive coasting business to Argentine ports and main- tains a daily express service between Monte- video and Buenos Aires. On the Orinoco, as noted, traffic is light be- cause of the fact that the plains through which the river flows are as yet but sparsely inhab- ited. There is considerable difference in the level of the river in the rainy and the dry sea- sons and when the floods come it overflows its banks and its width increases to several miles. The principal city, Ciudad Bolivar, is reached by vessels engaged in ocean trade, and the river is navigable for large boats during high water as far as San Antonio. In western Venezuela the large expanse of lake Mara- caibo affords a highway over which the im- portant coffee production of the interior reaches the outside world, but a bar at the en- trance keeps out all but light-draft boats. The Magdalena River, in Colombia, may be said to be the life-line of the country’s com- merce. Practically all imports. destined for the interior are carried over it. Although it is silted up at the mouth so that ocean liners can- not pass through, cargo is discharged at Carta- gena and Puerto Colombia and is taken thence by rail to the river ports of Calamar and Bar- ranquilla. It is then loaded on river boats (which also carry passengers) and carried up the Magdalena to the various river ports, from which it is taken inland by muleback or rail. If destined for the capital, Bogota, it must be transferred to railway trains at Honda or La Dorado and then reloaded on river boats at Bel- tran, after having encompassed a series of rap- -running through to the Magdalena. ids in the river. It then goes by river to Girar- dot, 93 miles, and finally arrives at Bogota after another journey by rail, during which it must be transshipped from a medium-gauge to a narrow-gauge railway. From the time it ar- rives in port, therefore, until it reaches Bo- gota the cargo is transshipped six times. The whole trip up-river to Bogota takes 8 to 10 days, but the down trip can be made in less time during periods of high water. The Cauca River, the principal tributary of the Magda- lena, is navigable over part of its length, but rapids and falls prevent the river boats from Railway construction may in time provide a quicker and more convenient outlet for the country’s prod- ucts, but this is not likely to be accomplished for many years. Mexico AND CENTRAL AMERICA. Central America has owed much of. its ocean-transportation service to the development of its banana industry, as this has brought about the establishment of the steamship lines of the United Fruit Company. The vessels of this company have provided the east coast of Central America with a service to United States ports more frequent and regular than is enjoyed by any other section of Latin America. Large ships carrying as a rule both passengers and freight sail regularly between the United States and Central America, as well as Colom- bia and Cuba, giving direct connections between these countries and five United States ports. From New York there are two sailings each week for Panama (one of these boats also mak- ing Port Limon, Costa Rica), and one sailing every two weeks for British Honduras, Guate- mala and Spanish Honduras. From Boston there is a weekly boat to Port Limon, stopping at Havana, Cuba, on the way. From New Orleans there is a boat each week to British and Spanish Honduras and Guatemala and an- other to Panama and Costa Rica, while a third sails for Panama by way of Havana. Service is also offered from Galveston and Mobile, though no passengers are carried, as they are on all the other routes. These boats, carrying millions of bunches of bananas from Central American ports every year, as well as cacao and other produce, afford an adequate and valued service of immense importance to the prosper- ity of Central American countries, all of which are reached directly except Salvador and Nicaragua. Besides the United Fruit Company lines serving the east coast from the United States are the Bluefields Fruit and Steamship Company, operating between Bluefields and New Orleans, affording the only regular steamship commu- nication of eastern Nicaragua with the outside world; the Orr-Laubenheimer Line, the vessels of which operate between Mobile and _ ports of British Honduras and Guatemala; the Hub- bard-Zemurray Line running fruit steamers from Mobile to Puerto Cortes, Ceiba and Tela. Honduras; and the Independent Steamship Line, with sailings twice.a week for Ceiba, Honduras. Before the war the Hamburg American Line (Atlas Service) had weekly sailings be- tween New York and Port Limon, and also a semi-monthly service from Port Limon to Hamburg. The Elders and Fyffes Line formerly 40 LATIN AMERICA—TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION (6) carried bananas from Costa Rica to Bristol, England, but the vessels were taken over by the United Fruit Company, which continued the sailings via Colon and Jamaica. The French Compagnie Générale Transatlantique maintained a semi-monthly service between Colén and Port Limon and Havre before the war, but sailings under war conditions have been uncertain. Besides this line connections between Panama and Europe are normally afforded by the Leyland and Harrison Line and the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company to England, La Veloce (Italian) to Genoa, and the Compania Transatlantica de Barcelona to Spanish ports. On the Pacific coast Central America is served by five regularly operating lines, the Pacific Mail, the line of W. R. Grace and Com- pany, the Salvador Railway and Steamship Com- pany, the Jebson Line and the California South Sea Navigation Company. The first-named line operates between Balboa and San Fran- cisco, touching at intermediate ports of im- portance, the second between Seattle and Bal- boa and the third between Salina Cruz, Mex- ico, the terminus of the Tehuantepec Railway, and Balboa. The Jebson Line and the Cali- fornia South Sea Navigation Company operate out of San Francisco, the former with steamers every three weeks and the latter every 10 days for ports to the south. Before the war the vessels of the Kosmos and Hamburg Amer- ican lines called at Central American ports on their way to Europe. All the above lines serve Mexican west-coast ports as well as those of Central. America, and in addition the Pacific Coast Steamship Company has sailings from San Francisco to Mexican ports. To Mexican east-coast ports four or five lines offer direct regular service from: New York, and others take cargo for transshipment. The New York and Cuba Mail has a weekly service to Vera Cruz, Progreso and Puerto Mexico, and the American and Cuban Steam- ship Line and the Atlantic Fruit Company serve Vera Cruz, Tampico and Frontera with frequent sailings. From New Orleans and Mobile three or four lines have weekly sailings to the chief east-coast ports of Mexico, and there are also a large number of tramp steamers plying between Mexican and United States Gulf ports. Several oil companies also’ operate tank steamers out of Tampico to United States and European ports. In normal times Dutch, British, German and other steamers afford a frequent service to Europe. Lake and river transportation has not been extensively developed in Mexico or Central America, as there are no interior waterways of great importance. In Guatemala a certain amount of traffic is carrried on over Lake Izabal, and in Nicaragua Lake Nicaragua, Lake © Managua and the San Juan River form a water highway that is considerably used. In Mexico the Panuco River, leading back from Tampico, is navigable for many miles. He Interior Transportation—A casual study of the map will disclose that South America, although . discovered by white men over 400 years ago, is as yet in large part only fringed with settlements, and the heart of the continent remains as it was before Columbus sailed. All along the coasts are scores of towns and cities, mostly commmunicating with each other and the outside world by water, which serve as inlet and outlet for the commerce of a com- paratively narrow hinterland. In some cases the towns and villages of this hinterland are reached by railways, in others by river boats; but very often the only communicating road from the coast is a rough trail, where even wheeled vehicles will find no thoroughfare. Even where rail or river transportation ‘is - well developed: the terminal towns serve as distributing centres for settlements still farther in the interior, which must be reached by primitive means. These interior towns are not heavy consumers of manufactured goods from abroad, or at least the variety of such goods in demand is not wide. But such lines as cotton goods, boots and shoes, farm implements, house furnishings and hardware of various kinds, particularly cutlery, move constantly to the interior when they can be obtained from abroad. It is also a mistake to consider that these out- lying villages offer no special market for lux- uries or for articles usually associated with urban life. An American company has placed sewing machines in the houses of poor Indian » laborers, and one instance is known where an American soda fountain was imported, al- though the drums of carbonated water to be used in it had to be carried regularly 100 miles or so by muleback. As a rule the American manufacturer exports his wares to South America in the same way as the German, British or other European manufacturer, that is through an export commission house, which attends to transportation details. Even where he ships direct his goods in most cases go to a native importing house in some large port, and this house, long established in the field, has its own connections with merchants of the interior. It will nevertheless be worth his while to make such study as he can of the ultimate consumer in South America, and, if oppor- tunity offers, to trace his goods by personal visit to their final destination in mountain or forest home. The necessity for complying closely with requirements as to. trifling details in color or construction, for packing in con- tainers of a certain weight and quality and for being liberal in granting credit terms to importers will undoubtedly be more clear to him after such visit. The distributing centres for foreign goods in South America are in most cases coast cities at which the ocean liners discharge the cargo destined for the general region which they serve. Along.the coast of Brazil there are six or eight of these centres, including Para, Pernam- buco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro and Santos, and to a lesser extent Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Florianopolis, Victoria, Maceio, Forta- leza, Paranagua and others, while Manaos, over 900 miles up the Amazon, is for all prac- tical purposes to be considered an ocean port. From these cities goods are distributed by coast vessels ranging in size from those of several hundred tons to the small sailing vessels or motor boats, which make the numerous small ports in between the larger centres, and from these the goods work their way back into the inland villages: In Uruguay all lines radiate from Montevideo and in Argentina Buenos Aires is the great open door to the whole in- LATIN AMERICA —INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT, ETC. (7) 41 terior. Goods destined for Patagonia may be routed by way of Bahia Blanca or Punta Are- nas, but the greater part of imports for this section also will probably be found to pass through Buenos Aires. Along the Chilean coast are many nitrate towns and cities, each of which lives an independent existence, ob- taining all its supplies from visiting ships. Besides three railway lines running to the Pacific, Bolivia is reached by two or three routes running up from the river Plata. This is the historic road over which a great amount of traffic passed in the Spanish colonial days, and it is still a convenient pathway for supplies going to eastern Bolivia. The route lies through either Buenos Aires or Rosario, then by rail to the border at La Quiaca, then by cart or animal to Tupiza, 57 miles, or to Tarija, 82 miles, and then by such conveyance as offers to the final destination. Goods often reach the cities of Sucre or Potosi in this manner. Throughout all the region known as the “mon- tania” district, embracing eastern Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and western Brazil, the method of moving produce is the same — that is, by rail, ocean steamer or river boat as far as these conveyances can take it, then by muleback, llama back or man power to the village in the mountain or forest. This is true also of Colom- bia and Venezuela and the Guianas, to the north, where the general absence of rail trans- portation makes the mule a necessity in com- municating with most districts off the coast. In all South America there are hardly any extensive highways built and maintained with substantial paving materials, such as are com- mon in the United States and Europe. Wheeled vehicles are mostly carts, which are used in -many places to bring the country produce to market and to do heavy hauling in the towns and cities. This lack of roads is due in part to the expense of constructing them, in part to the general disposition of South Americans to allow foreign enterprise to develop their re- sources. There is, however, a very widespread interest in the subject of good roads, and several governments have included substantial sums in their budgets to be devoted to build- ing them. It is likely that the continent is on the eve of an era of extensive highway con- struction, one of the things now most needed to open up the resources of the various po- tentially wealthy countries. The coming of the automobile is to be credited with much of the interest now being displayed in good roads. Of the beasts of burden used to transport freight into the mountainous districts of the Andean highlands the llama is most distinct- ive but the mule is most useful. The llama is not a strong animal and can carry only about 100 pounds. It is very tractable and finds its own forage by the wayside. It knows its load, however, and will usually refuse to go on if a few pounds extra weight are added to its burden. The mule carries as much as 250 pounds at a load, but as the pack is arranged so as to distribute the load evenly on each side it adds greatly to the convenience of the im- porter to have the goods in cases of 120 or 125 pounds each. Packages should not be over three feet long, or 14 inches in other dimen- sions. Indians carry heavy loads on _ their backs and go long distances with little to eat. although a pouch of cocoa leaves on which to chew is considered practically a necessity. Conditions in Central America are prac- tically the same as in South America so far as interior transportation goes, although in one case at least an excellent automobile road has been built. This is the highway called “Carretera del Sur,” 90 miles long, leading from the Pacific coast of Honduras to Teguci- galpa. There is much interest in road building in Honduras, but comparatively little con- struction of a permanent character has been effected. In Mexico road building and rail- road construction have made much more ad- vance, but mule trains are used throughout the country, particularly for carrying supplies into mining camps and bringing out ore. ; Orto WILSON, Chief of Latin-American Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Washing- ton, D. C vie INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF LATIN AMERICA. Latin America is the most promising of the undeveloped sections of tHe world. The North Temperate Zone has been peopled and developed. Europe with 3,875,000 square miles has 465,000,000 people, or 120 per square mile. Asia with 17,000,000 square miles has 870,000,000 people, or 50 per square miles. North America with 8,600,000 square miles has 140,000,000, or 16 per square mile. Africa with 11,600,000 square miles has 150,000,000, or 12 persons per square mile; South America with 7,600,000 square miles of area has but 56,000,000 people, or 7 persons per square mile. Add to South America, Mexico, Central America, Cuba and the island of Haiti, and we find that Latin America has 8,660,000 square miles, 82,000,000 people and 8 persons per square mile. North America has 315,000 miles of railway, Europe 227,000, Asia 62,000, South America but 49,000, and Latin America as a whole, 70,000. Europe has a commerce of $25,000,000,000 per annum ‘in nor- mal years; North America, $6,250,000,000; Asia, $4,200,000,000, South America $2,250,000,000 in her best year, 1913, and all Latin America $2,900,000,000 The three great requirements of man are food, clothing and manufactures. The North Temperate Zone has been pretty well de- veloped as to its producing powers and is look- ing to the South Temperate Zone and_ Tropical America for food and manufacturing materials. The food demands of the Temperate Zone peo- ple are chiefly bread and meat, and the Tropics at present do not produce enough of these for their own use. And there are only three places in the South Temperate Zone to which to look for products of this character, namely, South America, Australia and New Zealand. All of Argentina, all of Uruguay, two-thirds of Chile and the southern parts of Brazil and Paraguay are temperate. They grow wheat, corn and maintain enormous herds of cattle and sheep, and Argentina is now beginning to develop the swine industry. In addition to this the great elevated region of the interior of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and Colombia is capable of producing Temperate Zone products, the extreme eleva- 42 LATIN AMERICA —INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT, ETC. (7) tion giving it a temperate climate even under the Equator. Argentina, Uruguay, Chile and Mexico together produce about 225,000,000 bushels of wheat a year, while Australia and New Zealand, the other South Temperate Zone wheat: producers, seldom turn out more than 100,000,000 bushels a year. Of corn, Argen- tina is next to the United States in rank in the quantity of corn produced, and actually exports more corn than we do, and Mexico 75,000,000 bushels, while Australia and New Zealand pro- duce but very small quantities. Of meats Argentina alone exceeds Australia and New Zealand in combination, her supply of cattle being about 30,000,000 against 13,000,000 in Australia and New Zealand. Mexico and Cen- tral America have normally about 10,000,000. Of sheep Argentina has 83,000,000, Australia 82,000,000 and New Zealand 25,000,000, though the number of sheep slaughtered for food is small, most of them being retained for wool production. Of swine Argentina has about 3,000,000 while Australia and New Zealand have about 1,000,000. Brazil has as many cattle as Argentina, 30,000,000; Uruguay 10,000,000, other countries of South America about 20,000,000, and Mexico and Central America 10,000,000, making for all Latin America about 80,000,000 against 20,000,000 in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The total number of cattle in all the world is but about 500,000,000. About 125,000,000 of these are in India which does not utilize them for food, so that Latin America has now over one-fourth of the world’s supply of cattle usable for food. And when we re- member that Latin America has at the present time but an average of 8 persons per square mile against 20 persons per square mile in the United States and 120 per square mile in Europe, it will be seen that her possibilities of a large increase in the future are very great, both in the matter of meat supply for the out- side world and that of grain, for Argentina in 1913 held fourth rank as an exporter of wheat, and was also the world’s largest exporter of corn. Of sugar Cuba is the world’s largest producer, her exports in 1918 in sugar alone amounting to about $246,000,000. In one other important article of food sup- ply South America outranks all other parts of the world combined. This article is coffee. Brazil alone produces not merely more. coffee than any other country, but actually more than all the rest of the world put together. In fact Brazil’s output of coffee amounts ‘to about three-fourths of the world’s supply, while sev- eral other of the Latin-American countries pro- duce considerable quantities of this important world crop. The total world output of coffee averages about 2,500,000,000 pounds per annum, and of this Brazil produces three-fourths and Latin America as a whole produces four-fifths. And when we remember that the coffee crop of the world amounts to about $350,000,000 per annum in value in the countries of production we begin to realize the value of Latin America’s production of this article of commerce. The cacao crop of the world amounts in value to about $100,000,000 per annum, and _ Latin America produces about one-half of this, di- vided between Ecuador, Brazil and the West Indian Islands, the Ecuador crop amounting to about 100,000,000 pounds a year, and that of Brazil about 75,000,000. Of flaxseed, or lin- seed, as it is usually termed in commerce, Argentina produces about one-third of the world’s supply, the total world crop usually amounting to about 130,000,000 bushels, while Argentina alone produced 44,000,000. bushels in 1913, though the crop of 1916 was very small owing to the extreme droughts which adversely affected many of the agricultural products of that country. Wool, hides, rubber, tin and copper are Latin America’s chief contribution to the manu- facturing requirements of the world at the present time, and the output of copper on the western coast of continental Latin America has greatly increased in very recent years. The relative rank of the Argentine and Uruguay in the world’s supply of wool and hides is in- dicated by the figures above quoted of shee and cattle in the same countries compared with those of other parts of the world, as above presented. In copper production Chile holds second rank as a world producer, and rapidly increasing its output through the great mines owned by American capital, though her out- put is small as compared with the United States, which still supplies over one-half of the copper of the world. Chile has also the world’s chief supply of nitrate. Mexico and Peru are considerable producers of gold and silver. Bolivia supplies about one-fifth of the world’s tin, and has very large supplies yet undeveloped. In India rubber, Brazil formerly held first rank in world production prior to the recent wonderful development in the production of plantation rubber, but her output of forest rubber is declining by reason of the enormous supplies of plantation rubber now entering the world markets. Of cotton considerable quan- tities are grown in Brazil, Peru, Chile, Mexico, Colombia and the northern part of Argentina. Tobacco is grown in great quantities, that of Cuba alone amounting to about $25,000,000 a year. Latin America has a more promising future than any of the other great undeveloped areas of the world. It is, as already shown, a large producer of many classes of foodstuffs and manufacturing material for which the world is clamoring, its fertile area is larger in propor- tion to its entire extent than that of any other of the undeveloped continents, and the present population per square mile is smaller than that of any other of the continents except Aus- tralia which has a much larger percentage of desert than has Latin America. The greatest lack in natural supplies is in. coal, of which she has but small quantities, found chiefly in Chile, but the recent developments in fuel oil production in Mexico and the mountain re- gions of the west coast of South America, coupled with the increasing use of the splendid water powers for the production of electricity, promise to minimize the disadvantage due to this lack of fuel supplies. Latin America’s greatest requirement at the present time is capital for transportation facili- ties and for the development of the great agri- cultural and mineral resources which will be- come available with facilities to transport the natural products to the navigable streams of which South America has the world’s greatest supply and thence to the ocean where steam- LATIN AMERICA — MINERAL INDUSTRY (8) 43 ships. are available to transport them to the Waiting markets of the world. The lessons of the war have shown that the horseless vehicle and flying machine can now be successfully used over areas in which no modern roads exist, and the development of the motor for farm pur- poses has shown how agriculture can now be conducted in the tropics without the aid of the horse. These things point to a great develop- ment in the producing power of Latin America in the near future. O. P. AusTIN, ‘Statistician of the National City Bank of New York and Secretary of the National Geo- graphic Soctety. 8. MINERAL INDUSTRY IN LATIN AMERICA. The known mineral riches of Latin America exceed those of any other part of the globe so far explored. The entire sup- ply of the world’s bismuth comes from Bolivia; by far the largest supply of thorium is fur- nished by the monazite sands of Brazil; the unparalleled nitrate deposits of Chile supply practically all of the world’s consumption of nitric acid, and quite all of its consumption of iodine; ‘Colombia is the only considerable source of platinum outside of Russia; the tin production of Bolivia stands second on the world’s tally sheets; Colombia supplies the world’s demand for fine ‘emeralds; Brazil is second only to South Africa in the production of diamonds, and for many years was first; .the asphalt lakes of Trinidad and Bermudez supply the world. In striking contrast to the prodigious wealth awaiting development in Latin America is the notably disproportionate enterprise with which it has been attacked. The most serious hin- drance is the lack of transportation, and, com- parable with this, the scarcity of water and dearth of fuel. The preliminaries of new un- dertakings in the mineral country require the investment of very substantial sums, and ex- plains why the active mines in the whole region are those which have been in operation for centuries, and why the vast mineral treasure of the less accessible places is left to the exploita- tion of the individual native miner. The mineral belt of Latin America is cen- tred upon the great continental backbone which in the United States and Canada bears the general name of “The Rockies.» In Mexico it is a broad zone traversing the entire country from northwest to southeast. Through Cen- tral America it is lower in altitude and with apparently fewer treasure spots. In South America it appears again as the Andes, follow- ing along the entire western coast. Other smaller areas add their tribute, notably the coastal uplift of southeastern Brazil, known as the great Brazilian plateau. Glaciers and other erosive agencies have scattered far and wide their grindings from the mother lodes, so that the territory available for profitable ex- ploration and development is, broadly speaking, boundless; and somewhere within the region may be found every mineral having commercial value. The disturbed conditions in Mexico and the influences of the European War upon the min- eral output of South America from 1914 to 1918 make it impossible to present an accurate survey of Latin America’s potential production of any of the metals. The most that can be done is to show what the actual production was under these great disadvantages. Gold.—In Mexico and Central America almost all the mining of gold is from the lode. In South America much the greater output is from the placers which for centuries have been accumulating fragments from lodes of un- rivaled richness high up on the slopes of the Andes, and as-yet undiscovered. The stores of gold and golden objects carried away from the Inca and Aztec chiefs by Pizarro and Cortes were doubtless the accumulations of many years, and in all probability were the prod- uct of the placers. Under the viceroys a very large amount of gold and silver was obtained under a system of forced labor at no expense to the taskmasters. In Bolivia alone the great placer deposits have been worked since the middle of-the 16th century and are estimated to have produced $2,500,000,000. About the middle of the 18th century the leading gold producing country of the world was the south- eastern highland of Brazil in the present state of Minas Geraes. The workings were mainly placer, but there were some lode mines. Some of the more remarkable yields of mining under modern methods are: Butters (Salvador), $4,138,050, on a capitalization $729,000; Dos Estrellas (Mexico), $10,335,000, on a capitaliza- tion of $150,000; Mexico Mines of El Oro, $4,458,745, on a capitalization of $875,000; Penoles (Mexico), $6,361,687, on a capitaliza- tion of $180,000; San Rafael (Mexico), $1,442,- 380, on a capitalization of $60,000; Sorpresa, $3,979,240, on a capitalization of $384,000. Figures which give a fair comparison of the relative annual gold production of the countries of Latin America follow: AT RENTING Te 2 Aik teens Oe eRe oo aa $107 , 300 Bolavial ai tte: higeaest Shsewick? & uae eee ee 175,000 Shea iA eee aot PR eR ane Ba y's 3,570,000 British? Guiana’. Since 2 ee). ee: 879 ,000 Ghileé..°s seit as ected © eset. 8 ae Se 731,000 Goloibiare wares vite youd aro hoes diciked > anes enero ts 2,971,700 COSEAPINICA helices tatee ice Choe cis, cra os eas 1,021,629 Cuba Ako BELA he A Bag 2 28 ,000 PatehyGuiahaties [eth Pen Ses) 2. eee 571,100 CHA CGESY ta One ee ee Pe kaa 406,500 Haneh Gta yest tte tebe ee ee teas ee 3,050,000 TLonaduraste tee tee - bee aae Oo rk cls een aes 1,000,000 Mesitot Vii eo teri ieee est Shoe 2 Tepe 20,500,000 Nicaragua... aitht.; Se See Rene Ee LIER aN 1,100,000 CEU eres ey itebiaricct ce cbeeettstohs, ceenEEs he chain o oee nies 492 ,000 DAlVAGOr AS. A Alas lett tee noe aicl a Gree ol ated 1,245,000 Urupua year} bcc aetna. 3c MOR Oe tee les 111,000 VeEnOZUGl al auton ETh base Wc tedicciecs At aPohecyatihn' 623,500 Upon the breaking out of the European War in 1914, the demand for metals other than silver and gold lessened considerably, so that large numbers of men found their way to the fields yielding the precious metals. The effect was most marked in the yields of Colombia and British Guiana, the tormer increasing to $4,678,000 (nearly 60 per cent), and the latter increasing to $1,126,515 (28 per cent). As to the immediate outlook it may be said there are enormous gold-bearing deposits on the summits and slopes of the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, and this section is probably richer than the most productive area now being worked anywhere in the Western Hemisphere. Glacial moraines miles in extent show gold in paying quantities, and great alluvial “pampas” are equally rich. In addition, gold may be ie LATIN AMERICA — MINERAL INDUSTRY (8) picked out of every stream flowing down to the lowlands. In the Nechi and Condoto rivers in Colombia dredges are at work, the yield ranging from 20 to 50 cents a cubic yard, though not yet in the richest section. Drills show that an average of 70 cents per yard pre- vails throughout a mass of 7,000,000 yards. In 1915 gold to the value of $1, 720,000 was taken by two dredges from the Nechi River. The mines of Chiquiaguillo are noted for the un- usual size of the nuggets secured, the largest weighting 52% ounces, of which 47 ounces were solid gold. In the form. of lodes gold is found both on the eastern and western slopes of the Andes, the veins often crossing the water courses, and showing an outcrop hun- dreds to thousands of feet above the base of the ravines. ' They are traceable for miles, from three to eight feet in width and showing from one to five ounces of gold per ton. The whole country, and this is true also of Mexico and Honduras, is dotted with signs of ancient workings. In Honduras many of these diggings are being worked to-day with the most primitive appliances and yielding sur- prising returns. In the Brazilian plateau the ore is showing richer quality as the mines are sunk deeper. The Saint John del Rey mine is now the deepest in the world having reached the depth of nearly 5,000. feet. This mine and the Ouro Preto combined have a steady output of about $233,000 a month. Formerly the gold output was mostly placer, and abandoned placer mines are very numerous in Minas Geraes. In French Guiana and Dutch Guiana some of the placer territory has apparently run out, though it is still considered profitable for dredges. With all its potential richness, how- ever, the whole of Latin America is at present yielding only about one-fifth as much gold as is South Africa. Silver.— Large as has been the total of gold produced by Latin America, the amount of silver has been many times larger. The records do not go back of about 1545, when Europeans found many silver mines yielding enormous quantities, and millions of dollars in silver ornaments, images and objects of. art. At the beginning of the 19th century the yearly silver output of Mexico was about $27,000,000; it is now about $45,000,000. The state of Zacatecas alone has produced nearly or quite $1,000,000,000 in silver. The most famous sil- ver mine in South America is at Potosi, Bolivia, discovered in 1545. Fully $3,000,000,000 has been taken from this “silver mountain,” and its yearly output is about $2,450,000. Another noted mine is, or was, that at Cerro de Pasco, now equally famous for its enormous copper pro- duction, the silver it now yields being what is found in with the copper. Another mine of fabulous richness is that at Valenciana, Mexico, which from 1760 to 1810 produced over $300,- 000,000. In Colombia several discoveries have been made of ore carrying from 500 to 750 ounces of silver to the ton. In Chile and Argentina silver has been found on both sides of the great eruptive masses of the mountain country, but as yet is little worked. The silver output of those countries is largely that recovered from argentiferous copper ores. The latest authoritative figures for the silver ‘famous mines of Cornwall. production of Latin America are those for 1914, as follows: AT ROTM ss oa. os vob nage heen oe $19,500 Oliviay Wilree a US. 30, Aa Gi ee ee , 200,000 Chile. 3534:5. 52s cata $428 biog cae ee eee 39,600 Calonti bia « os cooviscs + tie eee 194,300 Eictiadors tet ks. Oe ee 5 Se 12,500 erro. Teo, Ai os Rous eee 4,618, 400 Mexido, fs ab Gerablitud. hone ee 39,099, 200 Central Americas: 1s « dty. or “anilla viejo»; the Siam Garden, - called “anilla nuevo,” and a small quantity of Valencia rice, the last named in packages and called locally “Bomba,” similar to the Domestic Japan so well known on the New Orleans market. The Dominican Republic is concerned with the tobacco, coffee and cacao industries and very few cereals are raised, rice being grown to only a small extent. The imports of this cereal in 1913 amounted to $736,751; 1914, $485,776; 1915, $908,876; and 1916, $1, 080,068. The United States supplied, in 1911 (fiscal year ending 30 June), 35,000 pounds, valued at $1,007; 1912, 43,703 pounds, valued at $1,498; 1913, 54,290 pounds, valued at $2,367; 1914, 48, 750 pounds, valued at $1,418; 1915, 6,706, 158 pounds, valued at $289,874; and 1916, 9.301 067 pounds, valued at $369,770. Haiti, as regards industrial conditions, is closely allied with the Dominican Republic. The production of rice is exceedingly small. Imports from the United States in 1912 (fiscal year ending 30 June) amounted to 71,660 pounds, valued at $2,725; 1913, 109,055 pounds, valued at $4,357; 1914, 33 5659 pounds, valued at $1,253; 1915, 6,706, 158 pounds, valued at $289,- 874: 1916, 9,301,967 pounds, valued at $369,770; and 1917, 15,476,048 pounds, valued at $681,837. W. B. GRAHAM, Trade Expert, Latin-American Division, War Trade Board, Washington, D. C. 15. RUBBER INDUSTRY IN LATIN AMERICA. Latin America holds the cradle of the rubber industries of the world, in the southwestern section of the great basin of the Amazon, where the “black hevea” is at its best, and Brazil, Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador share in providing its most favored habitat. It was from this region that the first specimens of rub- ber were sent to Paris by a scientific expedi- tion in 1736. It should be remembered, how- ever, that historical mention of the use of rub- ber among the native Indians of that country had been made 200 years before, but without attracting serious attention. Although the rub- ber production of the Amazon basin has been for the last few years overshadowed by the LATIN AMERICA — RUBBER INDUSTRY (15) 71 yield of the great rubber plantations of the East, the seeds, plants and stumps with which those plantations were established came from the Amazon and to-day the Amazonian hevea (Hevea Brasiliensis) occupies 1,500,000 acres -in Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula, southern India, Borneo and Burma. ~ Notwith- standing even these widespread enterprises in cultivated rubber, the fact remains that the most remarkable rubber producing region of the world lies in the valley of the Amazon. It extends from the Atlantic Ocean on the east to the southern boundary of Colombia on’ the west, a distance of 3,000 miles. This valley, perhaps 200 miles across at the Atlantic end, broadens toward the south until it is 1,500 miles across, comprising a total area of about 2,400,000 square miles. By far the greater part of this territory lies in Brazil, but parts of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia are in- cluded. Practically the whole region is cov- ered with forests, and it is estimated that hardly more than 5 per cent of this vast area has been exploited by the rubber gatherers. In the larger survey, however, Latin Amer- ica contributes to the markets of the world six different kinds of rubber from as many differ- ent species of plants. Their market names and sources are as follows: Para rubber — obtained from several varieties of Hevea, chiefly H. Brasiliensis, though usually a mixture, sometimes. containing rubber from Sapium Taburu, and, separately, that from Micrandia siphonioides; produced in the states of Para and Amazonas, the government province of Acre, and the states of Maranhao and the northern parts of Matto- Grosso and Goyaz, of Brazil; and in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and southeastern Colombia. Ceara, or Manicoba rubber, also Ceara scrap — obtained from several species of Manthot, mainly M. Glaziovii and M. dichotoma; produced in northeastern Brazil, chiefly in the state of Ceara. Colombia Virgen, or Cartagena scrap — obtained from several species of Sapium, mainly S. Tolimense and S. verum; roduced in Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, British Guiana, and ocalities in Central America. i Mangabeira, or Bahia rubber, and Matto-Grosso sheets — obtained from Hancornia speciosa; widely distributed throughout Brazil, but collected chiefly in the states of Bahia, Pernambuco and Matto-Grosso, and to some extent in Minas Geraes, Goyaz and Sado Paulo. Caucho rubber, Mexican strips, Centrals, etc.— from species of Castilloa, principally C. Ulei in Peru and Ecuador, and C. elastica in southern Mexico, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Salvador and Guatemala, and in Trinidad and Tobago. Guayule rubber — obtained from the shrub Parthenium argentatum; produced in northern Mexico. In the Amazonian Basin, where Para rubber originates, there are three districts in which rubber gathering is active, all lying south of the river and along its southern tributaries: (1) The island section, including the numerous islands forming the Amazonian delta and yield- ing what is commonly termed “island rubber” ; (2) a district in the neighborhood of Manaos, including the lower reaches of the Rio Purus and the Rio Jurua and a part of the Rio Ne- gro; (3) the upland districts of Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador. The product of all these dis- tricts is known as wild Para rubber, that of the “Up-river” country (above Manaos) being gen- erally “hard cure,” and that from the more easterly sections, “soft cure” The wild Para rubber of the Amazon Valley is regarded as the best raw rubber supplied to the world’s mar- kets. Its excellence is attributed by some au- thorities to a probable mixing of the saps of several different trees, but by the resident rub- ber gatherers the superior quality is declared to be due to the soil and climate of the region, which are not duplicated in any of the sections where the same varieties of rubber-producing trees are cultivated in plantations. Whatever the true reason, the industrial fact is that man- ufacturers hold that the wild Para rubber of the Amazon is absolutely dependable as’ to quality, while “plantation Para” needs a cer- tain amount of manipulation before it can be worked through the processes commonly em- ployed with unvarying success for wild Para. The production of Para rubber is largest - in the island district, extending from the mouth of the Amazon about 500 miles up the river, and comprising a multitude of low, tide-flooded islands and the low alluvial shores of the main stream and its affluents from the south. Here the principal rubber-yielding tree is the “white hevea,” a variation of Hevea Brasiliensis, re- garded by botanists as having “migrated” down the river from its original habitat'in the up- land region near’ the headwaters toward the southwest. Its white color is attributed to the peculiar whitish lichens which grow upon its trunk in the down-river country. On the higher lands the lichens are dark gray or black, giving rise to the title “black hevea.” This explanation, however, does not account for the decided difference in the cortex of the two trees even when found growing close together, nor for the “red hevea” growing in both dis- tricts. The trees are scattered through the forest, generally from 200 to 300 feet apart, although occasionally in groups of two to six. A trail is laid out to cover from 130 to 150 trees, a distance of about six miles. The hevea sap flows very slowly, and requires from 100 to 150 tappings a season. In some sections a new tapping is made every day, in others every other day. At the camps the rubber is separated from the sap by drying out the moisture over a smoky fire made in such a way that the smoke contains a considerable proportion of acetic acid and creosote —a slow process. A great saving of time in this coagu- lation process has been accomplished by the introduction of a new treatment of the raw sap with a mixture of benzine and wood alcohol. The output of Amazonian rubber is con- trolled primarily by: the cost of getting the rubber to navigable water, and also to a large degree by the reluctance of laborers to go far into the forests. The population which is de- pended upon for laborers is apathetic, due to an anzmic condition of health, this in turn being the result chiefly of climatic conditions. The rainy season begins in November, and from March to May the entire river country is subject to flooding, in some localities the waters rising as much as 50 feet. Owing to the low gradient the water is very slow in running off. The impossibility of maintaining roads under such conditions operates oppress- ively against development of the industry.. Whatever rubber collecting is done must begin not earlier than May and be completed by the end of October. On the higher lands toward the western and southwestern part of the basin the rainfall is less and the floods run off more rapidly and the rubber season is longer. Com- plaint is made that the average laborer works but 100 days in the season, and that in a large part of the rubber-producing region the work could be and should’be carried on for 200 days, 7 LATIN AMERICA — RUBBER INDUSTRY (15) adding from 50 to 60 per cent to the annual output. The figures for the 1916 output of wild rubber in the Amazonian region are only par- tially complete. They show that in that year 17,747 tons were shipped from Manaos to New York and European ports, and that 38,682 tons were shipped from Para to the same destina- tions, a total from these two principal ports of 56,329 tons. Of the whole, 20,334 tons went to Europe (26,792 tons in 1915) and 35,995 tons to New York (33,597 tons in 1915). The world’s yield of plantation (cultivated) rubber for 1916 is officially estimated at 160,000 tons. The latest available complete figures are those for the fiscal year ended 30 June 1913: they are quoted here for purposes of comparison. The output of the Amazon valley in that year was 43,362 tons. Of this 31,362 tons were pro- duced in the upper rivers section, including parts of the Bolivia and Peru rubber districts, and 12,000 tons in the lower Amazon country. As classified, this output consisted of 16,971 tons (39.12 per cent) of “Fine Hard Para”; 8,860 tons (20.44 per cent) of “Entre-fine” and “Fraca” (medium-fine and weak); 7,400 tons (17.07 per cent) of “Sernamby” (scraps and niggerheads) ; and 10,131 tons (23.37 per cent) of “Caucho” Outside of this yield other Brazilian states shipped about 4,000 tons, mostly Ceara rubber. The total Brazilian output for that year was therefore about 47,000 tons, or about 40 per cent of the world’s production. _ The territory which produces Ceara rubber includes the Brazilian states of Ceara, Piauhy and Bahia. The Manihot trees from which this kind of rubber is collected thrives on compara- tively poor soil, on desert plains and dry hill- sides up to an elevation of 3,500 feet above the sea. It withstands the long drought from May to November, and is indifferent to occasional hoar frosts. There are some plantations of the Manihot in Brazil, and tapping is begun as early as the second year. The yield of this district is about 4,000 tons annually. North of the Amazon the Hevea Brasil- icnsis does not grow in commercial quantity, but the Hevea Benthamiana is plentiful and yields an excellent rubber. As a rubber dis- trict, however, this territory has not been seri- ously exploited, except in the Rio Araguaya district near the Atlantic coast. H. Bentham- ana is plentiful also along the river Tocantins, south of the mouth of the Amazon. In Colombia there are three rubber-produc- ing districts: in the southern and southeastern section, along the valleys of the Japura and Ica rivers and the Rio Negro; in the north, along the valleys of the river Magdalena and its tributaries; and in the northwest in the basin of the river Atrato. The production is chiefly “caucho,” although a considerable quan- tity of fine Para is collected from the “black hevea” of that section. Heretofore the system of collecting the “caucho” sap has included cutting down the trees, so that the productive area has been constantly diminished. This prac- tice is being regulated by law, and eventually will be abolished. The exports of all rubber from Colombia in 1915 amounted to a value of $91,953. In Peru the rubber district embraces the departments of Loreto and San Martin and parts of Junin, Huanaco and Cuzco, including the valleys of the rivers Huallaga, Maranon, Ucayali and Putumayo. This region yields some of the finest Para and a much larger quantity of the best caucho. In this country there is a dependable supply of laborers — na- tive Indians —to be had at no other locality in the Amazonian basin. Bolivia's rubber-yielding territory covers the northern part of that country, including the valleys of the Rio Beni, Rio Mamore, Rio Madre de Dios and other headwater affluents of the Rio Madeira. The eastern part of Ecuador lies in the most favored section of the Amazonian basin and produces both fine Para and caucho. On the Pacific coast near Guayaquil some plantations have been started. In Venezuela the rubber country lies along the southern border and along the basin of the Orinoco. The available sources are Hevea Benthamiana and Hevea Guyanensis. Large plantations have been made in Trinidad and Tobago, but with indifferent results. Other varieties will be tried. In Panama rubber-gathering is one of the native occupations. The source is a variety of Castilloa. In 1915 the exports amounted to 70,604 pounds, valued at $18,874. In Central America various species of Cas- tilloa flourish on both sides of the mountain chain, and small plantations have been estab- lished in most of the countries. For some years the collecting of wild rubber was the chief industry of eastern Nicaragua, but the increasing supply of East Indian plantation rubber in the market has so lowered the price that the pursuit has become unprofitable. The same conditions exist in Honduras, the dealers being unable to pay living wages to the laborers. As a consequence, rubber-gathering has nearly ceased. In British Honduras the rubber industry is carried on along the banks of the Mullins River and in the valleys of its tributaries, along the Sittee River and the Rio Grande in the south and the Sibun River and the upper Belize River in the west. There are also several plantations in the country. In Mexico, south of the parallel of 22° north latitude, there are no less than nine species of rubber-yielding Castilloas, C. lacti- fiua being the most productive. Some of these Castilloas flourish on the Pacific coast, some in the semi-arid regions and others on the humid Atlantic coast lands. The rubber area includes the states of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco and Campeche and the terri- tory of Tepic. In recent years large plantations of Castilloas have been set out in the Soconusco and Palenque districts in the state of Chiapas. The “guayule” rubber country lies in the northern part of Mexico in what is known as the Chihuahua Desert on the great central plateau. It covers an area of about 125,000 square miles, though actually occupying only about one-tenth of the acreage. In gen- eral its habitat may be delimited as the Texas boundary on the north, the northern boundary of the Mexican state of Durango on the south, the meridian of Santa Barbara, Chihuahua on the west and the meridian of San Luis Potosi on the east. The plant grows most freely LATIN AMERICA — SUGAR INDUSTRY (16) 73 along the lower portions of the slopes and on low ridges, but not on the alluvial bottom lands. As to elevation, it is found on levels from 2,000 feet to 10,000 feet aLove the sea, but is most plentiful at 6,000 to 6,500 feet, and where the rainfall is from 7 to 10 inches annually. The average stand is about one plant to each square yard. The full-grown plant is 30 to 36 inches high and 40 inches in diameter and weighs from 8 to 10 pounds. The yield of rubber is from 7 to 8 per cent of the weight of the plant. It is estimated that the guayule-growth amounts to 500,000 tons, with the total possible yield of 35,000 to 40,000 tons of rubber. The annual output is about 5,000 tons. Formerly, and in some sections to-day, the guayule plants were torn up bodily with the roots. This had the effect of extirpating the plant in those locali- ties. The conservative practice is to cut the plant above the root-stock which sends up new branches, and is ready to be cut again in three or four years. The guayule rubber is of supe- rior quality when a part of its large content (30 per cent) of resin is removed. The rubber industry of Latin America has had to meet the momentous industrial fact of the rapid increase in recent years of cultivated rubber raised on plantations where labor is’ plentiful and cheap. This supply has doubled the market offerings since 1908, during which the cost of collecting wild rubber has been continually increasing. To meet the new con- ditions which still larger yields of plantation rubber will bring into the market situation a reorganization of the labor system and a great improvement in transportation facilities seem imperative, if the wild-rubber industry is to continue prosperous. RICHARD FERRIS, Editorial Staff of The Americana. 16. SUGAR INDUSTRY IN. LATIN AMERICA. The cane sugar production of the world for the past few years has averaged ap- proximately 10,280,000 tons or 22,670,400,000 pounds. Of this quantity the countries of Latin America —not including any foreign posses- sions in America—produce about 4,138,000 tons or 9,124,290,000 pounds, which is equivalent to more than 40 per cent of the world’s total crop of cane sugar. The following tabular statement fairly represents the cane crops of the countries named (in tons): [PTL aye ee, Sie an ate 3,000,000 Mexico...... qe er oo, 000 Argentina........ 336,000 Central America.. 35,000 emits itis tres. 263,000 Venezuela....... 20,000 Brazil. . G6. - .o03« 240,000 Paraguay........ 2,821 Dominican Repub- Colombia-:.. 34. 2 1,667 TFET) ARS. 150,000 a The United States, the largest consumer of sugar per capita of all other countries, in 1915- 16 imported from all sources 2,455,366 tons or 5,414,081,941 pounds of cane sugar, and of this quantity 2,451,329 tons or 5,405,180,430 pounds were imported from Latin America, leaving only 4,037 tons or 8,901,585 pounds brought in from all other countries. Our imports from Latin America increased from 1,963,485 tons in 1912-13 to 2,451,329 tons in 1915-16, or 25 per cent. Cuba.— The republic of Cuba is now the largest cane-sugar-producing country in the world. For a long time it ranked next to British India, but since the establishment of the republic it has risen to the first rank. These two countries together furnish approximately one-half of the world’s supply of cane sugar, each producing from two to more than three million tons. Climatic conditions and the soil of Cuba are so well adapted to the growing of sugar cane that nearly one-half of the tillable area of the island is devoted to this crop. The cane ma- tures in from 12 to 18 months, but the crop is so planted that it is harvested more or less throughout the year, though the principal har-. vest season is from December to June. The lands in the western provinces have been planted in cane so many years and have be- come so impoverished that not more than four to seven crops can be harvested without re- planting. In the newer and richer lands of the eastern provinces 10 or 12 crops and some- times twice as-many may be harvested without replanting. Recent statistics show that the yield of sugar per acre was 4,900 pounds har- vested from 1,384,812 acres. The Cuban sugar factories have ‘been greatly improved within the past few years. Keen competition has forced Cuba to adopt more economical methods in the manufacture of sugar, and this has re- sulted in an almost constant decline in the number of factories, but an increase in their size and capacity. Some years ago there were 473 factories, but now there are only 190 to 200. The plantations are equipped with pri- vate railway lines to transport the cane from the fields to the factories. There are approx- imately 3,000 miles of these railways. Recent statistics show that of the total area under cane about 56 per cent was either culti- vated or controlled by the factory owners, while 44 per cent was cultivated by independent farmers who sold their cane to the factories. As an incentive to produce high grade cane it is paid for according to the sugar content and not the gross weight. During the 10 years ending with 1912-13 there was an average of 175 factories in operation, which ground an average of 15,925,000 tons of cane annually and produced 1,687,000 tons of sugar, or 3,778,880,- 000 pounds annually. The production since 1912-13 in tons is as follows: 1916-17, 3,000,000 tons; 1915-16, 3,007,915 tons; 1914-15, 2,592,667 tons; 1913-14, 2,597,732 tons. The greater por- tion of the Cuban crop of sugar is exported, the average the past 20 years being about 95 per cent, of which the United States has taken about 90 per cent. In 1913 the United States took 2,129,748 tons, valued at $107,975,360, and 2,164,621 tons valued at $116,479,869 in 1914. Great Britain took 240,870 tons, valued at $12,- 598,817, in 1913, and 231,541 tons, valued at $10,910,416, in 1914. The total exports in those years were 2,411,188 tons, valued at $122,388,062, in 1913, and 2,454,334 tons, valued at $130,413,- 769, in 1914. In 1915 the United States im- ported 2,136,110 long tons of sugar from Cuba, and 2,299,488 long tons in 1916. The following values of the sugar crops since 1910 will serve to indicate the remarkable growth of this in- dustry, as well as how prosperity has come to Cuba in recent years: a he) Ih I OS $121,468,000 1914-15...... $205 ,000 ,000 1912-137... 115,395,000 1915-16...... 250,000 ,000 1913-14..... 130,424,000 1916-17...... 246,000 ,000 Dominican Republic.— The sugar planta- tions of the republic are located on the south- 74 LATIN AMERICA — SUGAR INDUSTRY (16) ern coast. In the adjoining hinterland are many of the most. important sugar centres of the island,, namely, Angelina, Consuelo, Porvenir, Cristobal, Colon, Santa Fé and Quisqueya, and the value of the sugar exported through the chief sugar port, San Pedro .de Macoris, in 1915 amounted to over $3,000,000. The sugar land extends along the coast, and going westward in the vicinity of-the city of Santo Domingo are to be found the centrals Italia, San Isidro and San Louis, and toward the western border of the republic in the Azua and Barahona district Azana, Ocoa and An- sonia estates. Nearly all of these sugar estates have prospered greatly in recent years. The sugar acreage is increasing annually and new centrals are in process of construction. The soil is well adapted for sugar cultiva- tion and produces on an average 25 years of ratoon crops with an output of .70 tons of cane per acre from virgin land: during the first year. The sugar’ season. extends from December to June or July. The local labor supply is lim- ited, and in normal times is increased by im- portations from. the «nearby British West Indies. cs Ie ) The estimates in tons of the sugar crops of the three seasons, 1914 to 1917, are as follows: DISTRICT 1914-15 1915-16 -1916-17 Macotisi:. = 4uh5 een aS 75,970 91,738 112,273 Santo Domingos. -2..... 20,205 21,925 33 ,906 Azua ORD, Pe. Vee 3,472 5,071 5,812 {LOtal’ on: ay, cote eek 118,734 151,991 99 , 647 The imports of raw sugar into the United States from the Dominican Republic were 1,927 tons in 1914, 34,012 tons in 1915 and 47,992 tons in 1916. Peru.— The area suitable for growing sugar cane on the west coast of Peru-is limited only by the available supply of water for irrigation. There is also a small area east of the Andes planted in cane, but at least 97% per cent of the crop is. grown in the rich valleys along the coast. The crop is planted and harvested throughout the year, but the principal harvest season is from October to February. The cane in the coast region requires 18 to 20: months to mature and from 8 to 12 crops may be harvested from one planting. The area of cane under cultivation is about 101,000 acres. .The number of laborers employed-in the industry is estimated at 21,881. The average produc- tion per hectare of 2.471 acres is a little over 10 metric tons (equal to about 4%4 short tons per acre). In the Chicama Valley where there are a number of fine modern mills the produc- tion runs as high as 13% metric tons per hectare (equal to a little more than six short tons per acre). The growth of the sugar industry of Peru may be seen from the following, showing: the yield in metric tons for the years specified of white and granulated, muscovado and Chancaca sugar. The exports for the same years are given as an indication of the growth of this branch of the industry: Production, Exports, YEAR tons tons 10 errr cicle slgpel sicce 0 wie av eelons 192,754 147,410 POU Seite beats cee bee oe ormsagiaas 183 ,954 142,901 TOTES CAN Se eres Se ate SAN. 228,054): 176,670 TOUS Ws Hat iid Ha). shy S 262 , 840 220, 257 The disposition of the crop of 1915 to the various countries was in the following propor- tions: . Chile, 39.93 per cent; United States, 21.69 per cent; Great Britain, 17.80 per cent; Spain, 4.17. per cent; Bolivia, 1.68 per cent; consumed locally or stored, 18.73 per cent. From 1911-16 the United States imported the following amounts of raw sugar from Peru, the imports in the last two years being remarkable as compared with former years: 1911-12, 5,917 tons; 1912-13, 6,201 tons; 1913-14, 3,126 tons; 1914-15, 32,252 tons; 1915-16, 37,549 tons. Mexico.—Almost the whole of the lowland region of Mexico is adapted to growth of sugar cane, and it is grown in 18 of the 28 states, but approximately one-half of the crop is pro- duced in the two states— Morelos and Vera Cruz. The two other states of most import- ance are Puebla and Sinaloa. In the lowlands along the coast as many as 10 crops may be harvested from one planting. In this: region very little cultivation is needed, and the yield has been as high as 35 tons to the acre. Owing to the disturbed condition of the country the sugar industry has not made the progress that may be noted in other Latin-American coun- tries and very litthe modern machinery is in use, the old open-kettle process being still mostly in use, which extracts only about 6 per cent of sugar per weight of cane. Notwithstanding the continuous: revolutions of recent years the quantity of sugar produced in Mexico increased considerably, until the past two seasons. The crop of 1903-04 decreased from 112,930 to 102,931 in 1905-06, increased to 178,134 in 1910-11, decreased to 167,258 in 1911-12, to 143,000 in 1913-14, and to 121,000 in 1914-15. But the crops of the last two seasons are estimated at only 65,000 tons for 1914-15, and 50,000 tons for 1916-17... The quan- tity of sugar, in tons imported into the United States from Mexico in recent years, is as fol- lows: 1913-14, 922 tons; 1914-15, 34,371 tons; 1915-16, 6,636 tons. Brazil.— The cultivation of sugar cane, one of the oldest industries of Brazil, owing to in- creased demand for sugar, has again been re- vived and promises to assume much greater importance. It is now grown in more than half the. states, from the mouth of the Amazon down to the Laguna Mirim. The most flour- ishing centres of sugar production are in the state of Rio de Janeiro, where Campos is the focus of sugar deliveries, and Pernambuco, a thousand miles farther north; Sao Paulo has also an increasing sugar industry as may be seen from the following list of large sugar mills in each state: Alagoas, 9; Bahia, 7; Ma- ranhao, 3; Minas. Geraes, 7; Parahyba, 2; Per- nambuco, 46; Rio de Janeiro, 31; Santa Catha- rina, 2; Sado Paulo, 20; Sergipe, 15; Piauhy, 1; Rio Grande do Norte, 3; total, 139. The cane is planted at the beginning of the rainy season and is harvested from 12 to 18 months later in the southern states and from 11 to 14 months-in the northern states: From 4 to 6 crops are cut from one planting. The yield of cane per acre varies from 15% to 16%4 tons, depending upon the character of the soil and season. The sugar extraction is low compared with other cane-growing countries and ranges from 4 to 9 per cent of the weight ._ of the cane. LATIN AMERICA — SUGAR INDUSTRY (16) 75 The low yield is due mainly to continuous planting in the same soil for many years. The sugar production in recent years is as follows: 1912-13, 343,000 tons; 1913-14, 203,394 tons; 1914-15, 240,000 tons : 1915-16, 194,000 tons. The principal markets for Brazilian sugars are Great Britain, the United States,. Uruguay, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Cape Verde and France. The exports to the United States increased from 312 tons in 1910-11 to 14,937 tons in 1914— 15 and to 9,095 tons in 1915-16. Colombia.— Sugar cane grows in the rich valleys of Colombia year after year without replanting, and it is said that there are fields in the valley of Cauca that have been har- vested every year for nearly a century without renewal, although in Cuba the cane yields only from 5 to 10 crops, and in many sugar-pro- ducing countries it must be set out every year. The yield of each hectare (2.47 acres) is also very high, being 800 to 1,000 quintals (112 pounds), in comparison with 600 to 800 in Cuba and 900 to 950 in Hawaii; and with irri- gation, which is available without much diff- culty on account of the nature of the land, the yield would be still higher. There are no statistics available, other than the exports to the United States, that would indicate | the production of sugar in Colombia, though it is well known that the industry has shown a rapid development in recent years. The imports into the United States in 1910-11 amounted to 2,447,314 pounds, but for some un- accountable reason there appears to have been no receipts from that country either in 1911- 12, 1912-13 or 1913-14. . In 1914-15 the imports reached 3,675,812 pounds, and in 1915-16, 3,376,- 700 pounds. Guatemala.— Next to coffee, sugar is the most important crop of Guatemala. While the cane flourishes in almost every region from the level of the sea to an altitude of 5,000 feet, the chief sugar districts are in the provinces of Escuintla, Mazatenango and Solola, all on the Pacific coast. The principal variety cultivated, known as “Jamaiquina,» was brought into the republic from Jamaica. The area devoted to sugar in 1916 was 76,352 acres. The average production is about 4,200 pounds per acre, In the Pacific coast region there are 20 sugar mills. The grades of sugar manufactured are 86 to 89 brown sugar and from 96 to 99 white sugar. The quality is said to be excellent and there is a large local demand for the product. The sugar exported is principally the raw prod- uct known as “moscabado”” The following are the estimates of the production of sugar in tons for the years named: 1913, 10,884 tons; 1914, 11,338 tons; 1915, 13,605 tons. In 1915 10,918,800 pounds, equal to 4,952 tons, were ex- ported, all of which was sent to the United States and Central American countries. The exports to the United States for the years named are as follows: 1913-14, 1,258,202 pounds; 1914-15, 3,193,297 pounds: 1915-16, 3,459,144, pounds. Costa Rica— The cane sugar lands of Costa Rica are located in the central and Pacific coast regions. About two-thirds of the cane area is in San José and Alajuela, and one- third on the Pacific coast. The area devoted to cane increased from 25,590 acres in 1905 to 27,636 in 1907-08, to 32,331 in 1910, but de- creased to 29,474 in 1914. The high prices and great demand for sugar has, however, undoubt- edly resulted in a considerable addition to the area since 1914. This is plainly evident from the fact that Costa Rica exported to the United States 1,598,737 pounds of raw sugar in 1915 and 4,947,289 pounds in 1916, whereas previous to these dates the crops did not meet the local demand and sugar had to be imported every year. The cane grown along the coast ripens in about 18 months, while that grown in the. more elevated regions of the interior requires 24 months to ripen. Venezuela.— The high prices and great de- mand for sugar have resulted in plans being consummated for its manufacture on a large scale in Venezuela, The progress already made is evidenced from the large increase in the ex- ports of raw sugar the past two years. The sugar plantations in the vicinity of Caracas are all under irrigation, and the same is true in lesser degree of the plantations in the states of Aragua and Cafabobo. The most remarkable cane in the republic grows around and especially at the south end of Lake Maracaibo, where four big centrals are in operation. It is said that the cane at the south end of this lake produces readily for 25 years. The exports of cane sugar from Venezuela to the United States in 1910-11.amounted to 653,077. pounds and in 1911-12 to 269,530 pounds. There were no exports worth men- tioning in either 1912-13, or 1913-14. In 1914 15 there was a revival of this trade and 330,- 789 pounds were sent to the United States and the year following 8,293,531 pounds. Argentina.— The cane sugar lands of Ar- gentina are located in the northern part of the republic, chiefly in the province of Tucuman, which comprises about 80 per cent of the total area planted. In 1912-13 this province con- tained 72 per cent of the sugar mills, and pro- duced 84 per cent of the cane and 83 per cent of the sugar. The principal harvest season is from 1 June to 31 October. The yield per acre is estimated at from 10 to 20 tons. The pro- duction of sugar increased from 157,513 tons in 1903-04 to 304,389 tons in 1913-14. The do- mestic supply of sugar in Argentina is approx- imately equal to the demand. Some years the production exceeds the home demand and the surplus is exported. At other times the short crops necessitate the importation of a consid- erable quantity, as was the case in 1913 when 83,289 tons were imported, and again in 1916 when 75,000 tons were imported. But mean- while (1914) 71,308 tons were exported. The government, to encourage the industry, pays a bounty on all sugar exported. A maximum price has been fixed by law which is equal to the import duty; when the price of domestic sugar exceeds the price fixed by law, sugar is imported to equalize prices. The production of cane sugar the past five years is estimated as follows: 1912-13, 221,- 004 tons; 1913-14, 280,319 tons; 1914-15, 335,- 833 tons; 1915-16, 152,301 tons. There are 37 mills in the republic, with an estimated capital of $31,594,882. The annual sales of these mills is put at $19,841,855, and the raw material employed is valued at $7,820,907. Other Latin-American Countries,— There are no available data or statistics for other 76 LATIN AMERICA — TOBACCO INDUSTRY (17) Latin-American countries producing cane sugar, but in addition to the countries already reviewed (and excluding European colonies) | considerable quantities of sugar are produced in Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, Haiti, Hon- duras and smaller quantities in Bolivia, Ecua- dor, Paraguay and Chile. The imports from these countries into the United States are given in the introductory table, which will in some degree indicate the production of those coun- tries. James L. WATKINS, Statistician, New York City. 17. TOBACCO INDUSTRY IN LATIN AMERICA. Argentina.— The domestic pro- duction of tobacco in the Argentine Republic is used exclusively in the domestic cigar and cigarette factories. Due to its medium and inferior quality it is used for the cheaper grades of consumption, either by itself or mixed in proportions of 50 per cent or 55 per cent with the imported leaf. In 1895 the num- ber of acres under tobacco cultivation was 39,- 030, and in 1912, 23,860, a decrease attributed to the high internal revenue taxes and the low import duties for the imported product. In view of this phase of the Argentine tobacco situation, the Section of Tobacco of the Argen- tine Department of Agriculture in July 1916 issued a report on the subject, in which it was stated that, despite the inferior quality of the product, it was of domestic importance, and recommendations were made to increase both the acreage and quality, the latter by the intro- duction of the approved scientific methods of cultivation and handling, as otherwise the do- mestic leaf will continue selling in the market for a third of the price of the imported leaf. The production for the decade, 1903-13, in pounds, was 149,995,150.8, the individual years being as follows: 1903, 8,382,675.4; 1904, 17,- 749,214.4; 1905, 18,417,847.8;. 1906, 8,312,191.8; 1907, 10,051,960.6; 1908, 13,750,024.2; 1909, 21,- 829,029.2; 1910, 15,146,760.2; 1911, 12,825,696.4; 1912, 12,241,435.8; and 1913, 11,238,315, showing a wide variation in the amount raised, the greater part of which is cultivated in the prov- inces of Corrientes, Salta and Tucuman, all situated in the northern part of the republic. The principal tobacco consumption of the country is of cigarettes, most of which are of domestic manufacture, and retail, per box of 14, for from 4% to 17 cents, the demand for foreign cigarettes being supplied chiefly by the foreign element. Of cigars, the “Toscano,” an Italian imported cigar, is the most popular, re- tailing for four and one-fourth cents, and an Argentine imitation known as the “Avanti,” retailing at two and one-twelfth cents. The well-to-do Argentinian smokes Habanas exclu- sively; in addition there are various Brazilian, Dutch and German brands that have a consid- erable sale. Very little tobacco is chewed. The imports during the five-year period, 1908- 12, were as follows: Habana leaf, 1,587,344 pounds; Paraguayan, 2,554,665 pounds; others, 10,604,643 pounds, of which about 70 per cent came from Brazil and 18 per cent from the United States. Of manufactured tobacco dur- ing the same period, 74,097 pounds from Uru- guay, United Kingdom, Cuba, Italy, France, Spain, Egypt,: etc.; Habana. cigars in boxes, 87,989 pounds; other cigars in boxes, 2,044,902 pounds — three-fourths from Italy and the re- mainder largely from Switzerland and The Netherlands; other cigars, not in boxes, 55,193 pounds — Switzerland arid:, Italy; 2eut tobacco (“picadura”), Paraguay, 7,738 pounds, and other, chiefly United Kingdom, 4,969 pounds; and snuff, 6,534 pounds, Italy and France. Brazil Brazil, of the Latin-American countries, is the greatest producer of tobacco, an industry that has been carried on since the days of the colonial governments. In 1796 the exportation of tobacco to Portugal amounted to more than 18,000,000 pounds, an amount that has steadily increased since that time until the formation of the republic, since which time, due to labor conditions, the production has changed but. little, being conservatively esti- mated at 77,640,000 pounds annually. In 1912 the exports amounted to 54,449,820 pounds; in 1913, 64,771,152 pounds. Ninety-five per cent of the exports are made from Bahia, the chief port of the tobacco district, and the greatest amount is sent to Europe. Taken in its_en- tirety tobacco is the sixth in size of all Bra- zilian exports, the republic, besides supplying her own domestic needs, supplying the greater part of the requirements of her neighboring countries. Besides the state of Bahia, the entire east coast is interested in tobacco cultivation, particularly the state of Maranhao, and lately it has become an industry of future promise in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catha- rina, Minas Geraes and Pernambuco. The average exports from Bahia to the other non- producing parts of Brazil is about 6,600,000 pounds annually, in addition to about $500, 000 worth of cigars, cigarettes and other elaborated tobaccos. In 1915 these last amounted to 37,- 000,000 cigars and 17,000,000 cigarettes. Prior to the outbreak of the European War 40 per cent of the exports went to Hamburg, 40 per cent to Bremen and 17 per cent to Ar- gentina, with practically none to the United States, the figures being as follows: 1913, total, 29, 388 metric tons (2,204.6 pounds), of which to the United States, 6; Germany, 24,- 473; Argentina, 4,359; Uruguay, 343 ; 1914, ‘total 26,980, of which to the United States, 192: Germany, 22.133: Argentina, 2,873; Uruguay, 664; 1915, total 27,096, of which to the United States, 1,953; Germany, 1; Argentina, 7,302; Uruguay, 866; the Netherlands, 3,980; and France, 6,581. The shipments made to the United States were largely for re-export and for temporary storage to avoid the tobacco worm prevalent in Brazil. Imports of tobacco leaf, for blending with the domestic leaf, were, 1914, total, $386,069, of which the United States supplied $100,136; Holland, $60,805; Turkey in ae bs $30,818; China, $40,202; and Cuba, 16,012. Cuba.— While Cuba is not as great a pro- ducer of tobacco as certain other countries, the reputation that its raw and manufactured product has achieved has made the name Habana synonymous for excellence of tobacco, a reputation that the island has held since its first discovery. Next to sugar, it is Cuba’s most important crop. The manufactures of this staple amounted in 1913 to $29,014,114, of which 387,376.230 cigars were valued at $22,- 055,008; 289,334.064 packages of 16 cigarettes valued at $6,516,344; 918590 pounds of cut LATIN AMERICA — TOBACCO INDUSTRY (17) 77 tobacco, valued at $442,762. In 1914 the total was $23,564,686, of which 312,767,343 cigars were valued at $17,626,391; cigarettes, 247,872,- 578 packages of 16, valued at $5,574,887 ; 770,- 829 pounds of cut tobacco, valued at $363,408, a general decrease in every class. In addition there remained leaf to the amount of $18,093,-_ 754 unmanufactured. Of the cigars manufac- tured in 1914, 188,816,225 were consumed in Cuba, and 123,951,118 exported. The exports for the year 1914 amounted to $26,353,170, divided as follows: Leaf, $16,584,078; cigars, $9,129,661; cigarettes, $429,147; and cut tobacco, $210,284. Of the leaf tobacco the number of bales exported in 1913 was 322,121; in 1914, 314,732. Of these amounts the greatest buyer was the United States, 1913, 259,758; 1914, 239\- 922; followed by Germany, 1913, 20,572; 1914, 18,838; Canada, 1913, 16,880; 1914, 7,861; Spain, 1913, 4,518; 1914, 25,802; and Argentina, 1913, 12,102; 1914, 10,281. Of cigars exported in 1913, the number was 183,226,330, the nine countries buying more than 1,000,000 each being: England, 66,842,801; United States, 53,577,563; Germany, 14,028,326; Canada, 13,- 319,147; France, 9,362,492; Australia, 6,316,505 ; Spain, 5,428,515; Argentina, 3,928,061; and Chile, 3,488, 234. Of the 123,951, 118 cigars ex- ported in 1914, the nine countries buying more than 1,000, 000 were: England, 43,951,994; United States, 37,732,728; Spain, 8,274, 730; Can- ada, 8,229 412: France, 7,230, 825 ; Germany, 5,187, 946: Australia, 5121; 363 ; Chile, 1,730,502 ; and ‘Argentina, 1,146,432. In 1917 the total ex- ports of leaf and manufactured tobacco amounted to $22,617,648, a decrease of about $2,500,000 in leaf and $1, 800,000 in manufactured tobacco, caused in part by. the European War and in part by the deflection of the ordinary transport service. This resulted in a depression among tobacco growers and a disorganization among labor, the result being that many of the plantations were temporarily planted with sugar cane, due to the great demand for this com- modity. In Cuba the greatest attention has been paid to the scientific raising of tobacco, so that the product of each locality has its spe- cial characteristic, it being said that the poorest tobacco grown on the island is equal to the best grown elsewhere. The highest prized, as being the choicest cigar leaf in the world, is the “Vuelta Abajo,» grown in the aE. of Pinar del Rio, near the western end of the island. It in turn is divided into other classes known as “Mantua,” “Remates,»” “Guane” and “Vinales,» all of the heavier type, used in blending, “San Luis” and “San Juan y Mar- tinez,” superior wrapping leaves, “Rio Hondo,” aromatic, “Consolacion del Sur,» “Pinar del Rio,” and the less desirable grades known as “Bajas,> “Consolacion del Norte,” and “Parti Sur.” The annual production of these is about 250,000 bales. Likewise in the province of Pinar del Rio is the “Simi- Vuelta,” heavy and aromatic, a favorite with smokers in the United States, and produced to the amount of about 20,000 bales annually. In the province of Habana, with an annual yield of about 80,000 bales, is the “Partidos,” lighter in quality than the “Vuelta Abajo,” and producing a desirable wrapper leaf. Of its subdivisions, the “Tum- badero” is the most prized, followed by “La Salud,” “Artemisa,” a filler, “Govea,” supplying produced also wrappers, “Bejucal,” and its three ordinary classes, “ka Seiba,” “Wajai Caimito” and “San José de Jas Lajas” The province of Santa Clara is noted for its “Remedios,” a name that is erroneously applied also to tobaccos grown in the province of Camagiiey. Santa Clara another excellent. leaf, the “Santa Clara,» in addition to other classes, less known, called “Cienfuegos,” . “Colonia,” “Santo Domingo,” “Sagua” and “Trinidad,” all of the last four named being substituted at times for “Remedios.” Another, and a medium grade, is the “Sancti Spiritus,» also of Santa Clara. The province of Oriente produces the “Yara,” the least desirable of all. Cuban to- baccos, subdivided into “Mayri” and “Gibari.” The annual yield of “Yara” is about 12,000 bales, exported chiefly to Germany, Canada and Central America. Its leaves are heavy and coarse, and being totally unlike the other grades, is unsuitable for use in cigars for export. For the purpose of protecting the reputa- tion of tobaccos and cigars produced in Cuba, a law was passed on 16 July 1912, providing for a national collective trade mark on the containers of all tobaccos and tobacco products intended for export, under heavy penalties, and in consequence the Bureau of Agriculture, Com- merce and Labor registered a distinctive mark for each, “tobaccos and cut tobacco” and “cigars manufactured in Cuba.” Paraguay.— The most widely cultivated, al- though not the most important, crop in Para- guay is tobacco. Its production was formerly carried on on an extensive scale, and a ready market was found in Europe, particularly in Germany, but due to internal troubles its acre- age decreased and until recently it was prac- tically unknown beyond the Paraguayan bor- ders. It is now under the special patronage of the Banco Agricola, the government institu- tion concerned with betterment of agricultural matters. Soils have been analyzed, seeds from Cuba introduced and scientific instruction given as to the cultivation and handling to meet the demands of export buyers. In 1910 a regula- tion was passed providing for the classification under the Tobacco Revision Office (Oficina Revisadora de Tobacos) as follows: Pito,» “Media,” “Regular,>, “Buena,” “Doble,” “Para la» “Para 2a,» and “Fuerte,” the “Pito” to “Buena” being mild, and “Doble” to “Para” strong, to standardize the production and pre- vent fraud, unclassified exports being subject to a special export tax. The exports in 1900 amounted in pdéunds to 6,590,644; 1901, 5,103,265; 1902, 6,200,014; 1903, 7,012,870; 1904, 9,997,724 ; 1905, 7,980,119: 1906, 5,076, 104; 1907, 3,391, 762: 1908, 10,977, 164; 1909, 10,580,998 : 1910, 11,259,230; 1911, 14,219,- 781; 1912, 8,842 216: 1913, 11,897,609: 1914, 9,908,921 ; ‘and 1917, 18, 479, 000. The great bulk of the lighter grades is exported to Europe, more than half going to Amsterdam and Bremen, being in large part destined for the Spanish trade. Of the heavier grades Argentina is the greatest buyer. Chile— In the year 1913 there were under cultivation in Chile 3,430 acres of tobacco, producing 8,523,645 pounds. For 1914, with a slightly smaller acreage, the production was 6,282,228 pounds. All of this was consumed in the republic. In addition there were imported, in 1913, 411,031 pounds of tobacco, valued at 78 LATIN AMERICA — TOBACCO INDUSTRY (17) $456,384, of which 115,181 pounds were ciga- rettes, valued at $229,032; 67,623 pounds cigars, valued at $111,943; 156,762 pounds, leaf to- bacco, valued at $77,913; and 71,465 pounds cut tobacco, valued at $41,406. The cigarettes were imported from 16 countries, of which France supplied 27,119 pounds, Belgium, 25,- 097 pounds, Cuba, 24,286 pounds, Great Britain, 19,923 pounds, Germany, 9,217 pounds, the re- minder from other countries, the United States being credited with 888 pounds. Of the cigars, Cuba supplied 36,854 pounds; Italy, 7,553 pounds; Germany, 8,305 pounds; France, 3,640 pounds; Panama, 3,494 pounds; Great Britain, 3,225 pounds; and Belgium, 3,045 pounds, the remainder being distributed among seven other countries, the United States supplying 547 pounds. Of the leaf tobacco, Cuba supplied 131,548 pounds; Germany, 11,224 pounds; the United States standing third with 3,741 pounds; the remainder being distributed among eight other countries. Of the cut tobacco, Cuba sup- plied 22,297 pounds; France, 14,850 pounds; Belgium, 11,173 pounds; Great Britain, 11,164 pounds; the United States standing fifth with 6,292 pounds, the remainder being distributed among six other countries. According to the United States Commerce Reports, the imports in 1914 of leaf tobacco amounted to $66,135, cut tobacco $40,369, cigars $78,876 and ciga- rettes $157,106, a total of $342,486; and in 1915, the imports of leaf and cut tobacco amounted to $129,377. ; . In 1913 there were 192 tobacco factories in Chile, of which 59 were located in Valparaiso and 61 in Santiago, 129 being of Chilean owner- ship and 63 belonging to foreigners. The num- ber of persons employed was 1,960, and the value of their production, from foreign and domestic leaf, was $3,338,807. The greater part of the manufactures was of cigars, with a small portion of cigarettes, and a still smaller one of smoking tobacco, The favorite form of tobacco is the cigarette, the domestic being the cheapest. Of the foreign brands, nearly all the well- known English cigarettes are sold, as well as the French, Italian, Cuban, Turkish and Egyp- tian, the black Cuban type being a favorite by a large percentage. Of cigars, the Cuban and Mexican are most popular. Due to the war many of the lighter brands of European cigars and cigarettes have been unobtainable, a deficiency that is beginning to be supplied by the United States. Colombia.— With proper encouragement, Colombia promises to be one of the important tobacco producing countries of America, as the plant thrives in almost every portion of the country. It is even claimed that certain small sections produce a quality rivaling the Cuban tobacco. Due, however, to the failure to adopt approved scientific methods of raising, handling and grading, the qualities of the better grades are not uniform from year to year, and for export purposes the whole crop is considered under one standard —a leaf of average quality, largely used as filler. The country produces more than sufficient for domestic consumption, quantities being raised near the coast and in the department of Santander, while the leaf of the best quality comes from the district of Ambalema, where also the greatest quantity of tobacco is found. The exports of tobacco (mostly leaf) in 1913 amounted to 13,811,000 pounds (esti- mated) ; and in 1914, to 5,806,737 pounds, valued at $393,096; 1915, 4,562,122 pounds, valued at $334,642. Of the total amount, 5,089,342 pounds, exported in 1914, from the port of Barranquilla, 5,089,893 pounds were consigned to Europe, and 15,449 pounds to the United States. Of the amounts shipped from the port of Carta- gena in 1914 and 1915, the respective figures are as follows: France, $378 and $52,476; Ger- many (1914 only), $149,371: Great Britain (1915 only), $29,583; United States, $3,051 and $31,810; other countries, $26,100 and $25,404. During the fiscal year ending 30 June 1916 the amount exported to the United States was $35,325, of which $1,013 was cigar wrappers and $34,325 leaf. The decline of exports following 1913 is indicative also of the reduction of the quantity raised, the reduced demand by Germany — the greatest customer— being discounted by the utilization of much of the former tobacco acreage for other purposes. Notwithstanding this, the immediate result of the European War was the sharp breaking in prices, in June 1915, being as low as $0.06 per pound, a fact that has been discouraging to the industry. Some relief is afforded, however, to the native indus- try by the increase (1915) of duties on im- ported tobaccos, leaf and manufactured, from 80 cents to $1 per kilo (2.2046 pounds), in con- nection with the high internal revenue taxes. There is necessarily a demand for foreign tobaccos for blending purposes, in addition to special demands for the manufactured product. Of manufactured and leaf tobacco imported in 1915, amounting to $148,433, the United States furnished a large percentage. Costa Rica— The importance of the ba- nana and coffee industries in Costa Rica has made of tobacco growing a lesser industry serv- ing at present for domestic demands. This notwithstanding the fact that its production is a success, the climate and soil being favorable. In 1914 the number of acres under tobacco cultivation was 2,734. Partly as a means of revenue, and partly to protect the domestic tobacco interests, the government has levied a very high duty onthe imported product — about $0.85 per pound, plus a surtax of 5 per cent on imports for consumption at Port Limon. The result has been that, due to the high prices necessarily demanded for imported tobaccos and cigars, local factories have been lately es- tablished throughout the republic, a very large one being located at San José. This local de- mand has encouraged the growing of the native leaf, with a result that imports have decreased by half, the imports being largely of foreign cigars and cigarettes for which there is a special demand. The quantity of tobaccos exported is negligible. The imports through Port Limon in 1914 amounted to $124,000 of which the United States supplied $52,000; Germany, $15,- 000; Great Britain, $18,000, and France, etc., $39,000. For 1915, the imports at the same port amounted to $37,100, of which the United States supplied $31,200; Great Britain, $10,000, — and France, etc., $5,900. Dominican Republic— Of all the Latin- American countries, the Dominican Republic at present ranks third in the raising of tobacco, the production for 1913 being 28,000,000 pounds, and the normal yield annually being 17,250,000 LATIN AMERICA — TOBACCO INDUSTRY (17) 79 to 23,000,000 pounds. Due, however, to internal troubles, the production decreased somewhat in 1914 and 1915, the yield for the latter year be- ing between 6,900,000 and 8,050,000 pounds, which was increased in 1916 to (estimated) be- tween 23,000,000 and 25,000,000. pounds. ; The exports of tobacco leaf from the coun- try in 1913 amounted to 21,539,876 pounds, valued .at $1,121,775, of which Germany re- ceived 20,099,803; the United States, 285,412: France, 355,400, and other countries, -788,260. In 1914 the amount exported: was 8,152,208 pounds, valued at $394,224, of which Germany received 7,286,382; the United States, 128,953; France, 78,492, and other countries, 653,981. In 1915, 13,717,900 pounds, valued at $972,896, of which the United States received 7,624,839; France, 1,944,872, and other countries, 4,146,188. In 1916, 17,438,332 pounds, valued at $1,433,323, of which the United States received 6,825,584; France, 1,278,746, and other countries (unspeci- fied), 9,334,002. Ecuador.— Ecuador produces some excel- lent qualities of tobacco, it being claimed that for delicacy of flavor they are the equal of the best Cuban. The acreage is scarcely more than enough for domestic requirements, and the methods of raising and handling are not such as bring out its best qualities. The greatest quantity is raised in the Guayas fluvial region and in the province of Esmeraldas. In 1914, 107,616 pounds of leaf tobacco, valued at $19,- 922, were exported, the amount for 1915 being 596,445 pounds (to Peru), valued at $89,825, an increase that is due to the encouragement of the government. | ) _ In October 1915, a law was passed, effective 1 Jan. 1917, for the government control of the tobacco industry, raising, manufacturing and selling, on the basis of concessions to producers and selling agencies.. By its. provisions, the production and manufacture are exempt from all fiscal taxes; written notice to the competent authority is required of all persons desiring to raise tobacco, and license is given without charge. Subject. to confiscation, tobaccos and products may not be transported from one place to another, even in the same town, with- out a permit. Taxes were provided for all tobaccos on hand on 1 Jan. 1917, and in the future the privilege of selling tobaccos is to be auctioned annually, for the various districts or provinces, or for the whole republic, fiscal taxes being likewise imposed upon the conces- sions, varying from $87.60 to $4,672. . Guatemala In quality, Guatemalan to- bacco ranks high. Due, however, to antiquated methods of handling it, it has not acquired the commercial value that its qualities merit. It is raised throughout the republic, but the favorite leaf is produced in the vicinity of Zacapa, at Barberina and vicinity, and also at Chiqumulilla on the west coast. The quantity raised in 1903 was 1,065,000 pounds. The total annual production has recently been estimated (1916) at from 250,000. to 300,000 pounds, when, judging by the quantity manufactured, it should he five times this. Due to the high-duties on imported tobacco and its products, the domestic leaf is largely used in the local factories, .al- though a very large quantity is impotted from Honduras, which is incorporated with the native leaf in the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes for export, Rapid progress has been. made ‘Cuban leaf. during recent years in the manufacturing of tobacco, both as to the quantity worked and the methods employed. ‘While the small factory predominates, there being hundreds of shops producing hundreds of thousands of fine and ordinary cigarettes, there are also four ma- chine-made factories in the country, produc- ing an aggregate of 640,000 cigarettes per day. To protect the small shop, the government on 23 Nov. 1916 issued a notice requiring the pay- ment of a tax. of.one centavo on each box of - machine-made cigarettes. All domestic cigars are made by hand, the industry being an im- portant one. Guatemala and Honduras tobacco are generally used, with a Sumatra wrapper bought in the United States. Most of the ordinary cigars are made by Indian women and children, whose labor is cheap, some of the cigars selling as low as $2 per thousand; those of better quality sell for from $0.02% to $0.05 each. The cheapest machine-made cigarettes sell for about $1 per thousand. The domestic con-- sumption of both cigars and cigarettes is large. In 1915 Guatemala imported leaf tobacco to the value of $2,575; manufactured, $10,398. Of the leaf tobacco, $2,205 worth came from the United States, the .remainder from Holland. Of the tobacco manufactures, the United States supplied $4,265; Cuba, $3,262; Germany, $950; Mexico, $760; England, $827; Jamaica, $163, and the remainder from Holland, France, Japan and China. As showing the consumption of cigarettes in the country, the imports of cigarette paper for 1915 amounted to $29,666, of which Spain supplied $26,311 worth; the United. States, $1,637; the remainder coming from Ger- many, England ‘and. Denmark. During the same year exports amounting to $18,954 were made to the United States, Colombia, Honduras and British Honduras. Of this, $13,054 was manu- factures, and $5,900 leaf tobacco. _ Honduras.— Statistics regarding the pro- duction of and trade in tobacco in Honduras are lacking, but from the reports of the United States consular agents in that country and Guatemala, it is apparent that tobacco of a commercially fine quality grows in the country, but that through poor methods of curing it has not generally become an article of world ex- port, but is sufficient for domestic needs. A large quantity is shipped to Guatemala, where it is manufactured, some of it being returned and some re-exported, and Peru. In 1913-14 there were imported tobacco and tobacco manufac- tures to the value of $17,146, of which. the United States contributed $10,386; 1914-15, $20,520, of which the United States contributed $13,436. Mexico.— The revenues derived from the profits of the tobacco monopoly in Mexico amounted, in 1783, to $777,651; and in 1801-02, to $4,000,000 silver, the monopoly of the tobacco industry having been a. prerogative of the Crown from the time of the Spanish conquest. With. independence, the industry languished until 1868, from which time it has gradually in- creased. In 1889, Mexican tobacco qbtained the gold, silver.and bronze medals at the Paris Ex- position, being adjudged superior to the best Later, the. French governtnent gave official notice - through “la Regie,” the special department concerned with the monop- oly, that Mexiean tobacco was acceptable for its uses, - - »_w 80 LATIN AMERICA — WOOL INDUSTRY (18) In Mexico the use of tobacco is universal, and its consumption large, with the result that large quantities are raised of which no esti- mates are given. Being of universal use, it 1s grown everywhere. Experts credit the district of San Andres Tuxla, in the state of Vera Cruz, with the leaf of the choicest quality. The soil here is similar to that of the Vuelta Abajo in Cuba. In the Tuxla section, how- ever, the same care has not been shown in the cultivation and handling of the leaf, for which reason it has failed of general commercial demand. Despite the fact of cheap and un- scientific labor and methods, Mexican tobacco for years has been an article of export in the markets of the United States and Europe. Until the war in Europe and domestic politi- cal dissensions, the chief European markets were Hamburg and Havre, with a growing de- mand in England. At Hamburg, the Valle Nacional leaf, selected, grown by government convict labor, sold for $0.18 per pound, at which figure it was in great demand. Recent figures as to the yield and export are not obtainable. In 1906, the estimated crop of the chief tobacco districts amounted to 26,180,- 000 pounds, divided among the following dis- tricts: San Andres Tuxla, 3,300,000- pounds; Acayucan Talixpam, 759,000 pounds: Cordoba, 7,700,000 pounds; Tlapacoyan, 3,795,000 pounds; Tepec, 3,795,000 pounds; Ojitlan, Valle Nacional, 3,530,000 pounds; Playa Vicente, 3,- 530,000 pounds; other districts of Oaxaca and Chiapas, 1,265,000 pounds, and districts of San Luis Potosi, 506,000 pounds. The foregoing was but a small part of the crop for the year, as figures are not given for the remainder of the republic. Luring the fiscal year ending 1911, the exports of tobacco (leaf and manu- factured) to the United States amounted to $14,011; 1912, $31,039; 1913, $43,331; 1914, $58 - 941; 1915, $77,003, and 1916, $142,383. Peru.— The tobacco industry in Peru is a government monopoly, the special department having charge of same being known as the Estanco del Tobaco, founded in 1904. Since 1909 it has been administered by the Compafiia Recaudadora de Impuestos (National Tax Col- lecting Company) under contract for a term of years. The territory devoted to the cultivation of tobacco is designated by law, and the importation, manufacture and sale of all forms of tobacco are in the hands of this company. In addition to this control, the government is otherwise encouraging the -tobacco industry. In the latter part of 1916, the government is- sued an order through the Department of Fomento (National Industry) commissioning two Peruvian graduate students to spend a year in ‘Cuba to study the practical cultivation and handling of tobacco, to the end of intro- ducing the approved scientific methods of carry- ing on industry in Peru. The prices for tobaccos of all kinds are fixed by the government. The greatest and best quality of leaf is grown in the provinces of Huancavelica and Tumbes, the former supply- ing the government in 1915 with 619,490 pounds, and the latter with 421,600 pounds. In addi- tion there was imported from Ecuador 596,445 pounds and 82,895 pounds from Honduras. In 1914, the quantity of domestic leaf used was 798,659 pounds, there being imported in addi- tion 65,714 pounds from Ecuador and 101,707 pounds from Honduras. Of cigarettes, the domestic manufacture in 1914 amounted to 404,429,700; cigars, 175,400. In 1915 the re- spective numbers were 369,299,052 and 152,100. The average cost of the domestic cigarettes was $0.74 per thousand. During 1914, there were imported 38,825,232 cigarettes; 1915 (esti- mated), 8,800,000; cigars, 1914, 245814; 1915, 31,099, the great bulk of each coming from Cuba, most of the remainder from England. Venezuela.— The production of tobacco for domestic consumption is carried on throughout Venezuela, in addition to which an export of more than 200,000 pounds is made annually, the greater part, until the European War, to Ger- many. The tobacco of Capadare, a special dis- trict, is noted for its strength and aroma, and by some is preferred to Habana _ tobacco. Besides Capadare, tobaccos of excellent quality are raised in the districts of Yaritagua, Mérida, Cumanacoa, Guanape, Maturin, Upata, Aragua, Carabobo, Barinas, Rio Negro, Caripe and the Federal district. The greater part used in the country is of domestic manufacture, Cuban and Virginia leaf being imported for blending. The imports of leaf and manufactured tobacco in 1914 amounted to $10,912; 1915, $3,643. W. B. GRAHAM, Trade Expert, Latin-American Division, War Trade Board, Washington, D. C. 18. WOOL INDUSTRY IN LATIN AMERICA. The wool industry is subject to climatic influences, it being found that, while sheep thrive in the tropic and semi-tropic zones, nature, by its law of compensation, relieves them of the necessity of clothing themselves to withstand the cold and their wool loses those qualities that the requirements of commerce have standardized. Applying this to Latin America, we find that the most successful ex- ploitation of the wool industry is in the ex- treme southern countries of South America, or on the high table lands free from tropic in- fluence. Argentina. Next to Australia, and on a par with the United States, Argentina occupies a pre-eminent position in the wool industry. Unlike the cattle and meat industry, wool grow- ing has been of long standing. In 1885 the ex- ports of this commodity amounted to $35,950- 111; 1890, $35,521,681; 1900, $31,029,522; 1905, $27,991,561; 1910, $58,847,699. The best year during this period was 1899, during which the total amounted to $71,283,619. Throughout the entire statistics of the country, a fact generally true elsewhere, a close relation is noted be- tween the production of wool and the price of mutton. When the latter is in demand at a good price, entire flocks of sheep are slaugh- tered, with a resulting diminution of the wool clip for the following few years. On 1 Jan. 1915, the estimated number of sheep in the republic was 80,000,000, and the es- timated clip amounted to upward of 300,000,000 pounds per annum (Commerce Reports, 1 Dec. 1916). Sheep are pastured throughout the re- public, particularly in the central and southern part. Requiring cheap lands, they have been pushed further south each year, with the re- sult that parts of Patagonia and of Tierra del Fuego, considered a generation ago as unin- habitable for civilized man, have been found to be peculiarly adapted to the industry. The LATIN AMERICA — WOOL INDUSTRY (18) 81 rapid development of this territory to its new capabilities, in connection with a similar devel- opment in the corresponding latitude of Chile, has made a distinct sheep-raising section of the southernmost part of the continent, tributary to a great extent to Punta Arenas, Chile, which until recently was a free port. Vice-Consul J. W. White, at Buenos Aires, en 17 Oct. 1916 made an extended report on the wool industry to Washington, calling attention to the conditions permitting Argentina to de- mand unheard-of prices for her wool. The ac- tion of the, British government in placing an embargo on the sale of the previous year’s clip of the United Kingdom had operated to the di- rect advantage of the republic, enabling her to supply the wants of neutral countries in addi- tion to filing orders from the Entente Allies for such varieties as the British colonies do not produce. Seventy-five per cent of the wool comes from the white-faced, long-wool sheep of the Lin- coln and Leicester breeds, the quantity and the quality being such that in the markets of the world it is known as Argentine crossbreed. Its grades, when sorted into coarse and medium crossbred, correspond to the domestic commons and domestic one-fourth bloods in the United States. The fine Argentine crossbred is the equivalent of the United States three-eighths blood. Of the yearly total, merino fleeces con- stitute 20 per cent, the equivalent of the do- mestic fine in the United States, and the re- maining 5 per cent is from the black-faced and domestic sheep. The average clip per animal is 5.3 pounds. t Prior to the European War, the principal buyers of Argentine wool were France and Germany. Exports to France in 1911 amounted to 51,501 tons; 1912, 51,138 tons; 1913, 31,342 tons; and 1914, 23,794 tons, a total for the four years of 157,775 tons. During the same period, Germany bought in 1911, 31,693 tons; 1912, 47,839 tons; 1913, 41,362 tons; and 1914, 30,386 tons, total, 151,280 tons. During the same years the purchases of the United Kingdom amounted to 93,225 tons; Belgium, 55,731 tons; United States, 42,521 tons; Italy, 14,849 tons; and other countries, 18,989 tons. From these figures the total exports of wool for these four years totaled 534,370 tons, being divided as follows: 1911, 132,056 tons; 1912, 164,964 tons; 1913, 120,080 tons; and 1914, 117,270 tons. Re- cent economic changes have made the United States the principal purchaser of Argentine wool. Of the total export, 298,939 bales (925.9 pounds each) for the fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1916, 152,330 bales went to the United States, as compared with the 102,429 bales purchased of the export of 303,402 bales in 1915, and 34,000 bales out of 304,268 bales in 1914. The strong demand from the United States contributed largely to the increase of prices, the average sales in 1912 being, per pound, $0.165; 1913, $0.175; 1914, $0.175; and 1915, $0.201. During the August-September market season of 1916, the foreign demand plus speculation forced the price from $0.327 to $0.404 per pound, quotation - that covered all classes, including lambs’ wool, shorts, belly wool and sweepings, the spirit of speculation being so strongly instilled into the market that to-day no settled price is recog- nized. VOL. 17 — 6 Chile In Chile the raising of sheep for their wool to be used in the domestic textile industry has been carried on since the first settlement of the country. It is within the present generation that the industry has as- sumed export proportions, a result of the development of the southern portion of the republic, including the extensive territory of Magellanes. The number of sheep in the coun- try, according to the estimate of the govern- ment (Commerce Reports, 16 March 1916), is - 5,000,000, of which 2,000,000 are in the terri- tory tributary to Punta Arenas. Formerly the centre of the government penal colony, founded in 1840, Punta Arenas, on the Strait of Magellan, in time became an im- portant coaling station for steamers. Later, Scotch shepherds from the Falkland Islands, noting the excellence of the pastures in the vicinity, brought their flocks and started the industry that promises to become one of the most important in the country. The result has been that the Chilean government has recog- nized the possibilities of this part of the re- public, and has thrown open the territories of Llanquihue, Chiloe and Magellanes to settle- ment, and thousands of acres of land have been occupied, the greater part devoted to sheep farming. There are many settlers from the British Isles, and English is everywhere spoken. Punta Arenas, population 17,000, was a free port until 1912, one cause of its rapid growth and importance. The territory, all devoted to the same industry, of which it is the chief city, includes not only Chilean pastures, but those of southern Argentina. The estimated clip for 1916 (Commerce Reports, 21 Oct. 1916), was 25,000,000 pounds. Argentine wool also to the amount of 1,347 metric tons (2,204.6 pounds) passed through this port in 1914. In 1913 and 1914 Chile exported the follow- ing amounts (metric tons): To Great Britain, 9400 and 8115; France, 1,938°and 1,264; Bel- gium, 583 and 39; Germany, 742 and 2,185; and the United States, 7 and 358. Due to the demand caused by the war, exports increased greatly to the United States, those for 1915 (fiscal year ending 30 June) amounting to 2,369,359 pounds, valued at $599,650, and 1916, 9,611,489 pounds valued at $2,562,792. Chilean wool is divided into two general classes — merino, which is fine, soft, curly and comparatively short, and English, which is long, straight and glossy. Between these two grades there are various “crossbreeds,” the quantity of these increasing each year. After 1914, the price of merino wool fell, while the crossbred rose appreciably. Export wool is unwashed (Commerce Reports, 16 March 1916), weighing twice as much as that prepared for spinning. The lack of facilities for washing had the effect of causing difficulty in the dyeing of wools for native industry. Of this latter there are two factories in the country, at Santiago and at Tome, the annual consumption being about 550 metric tons of wool, and their output 435,000 yards of fabric, which is used in part for army, navy and police uniforms. In addition, the manufacture includes cash- meres, broadcloths, blankets and shawls. Uruguay.— Uruguay, as regards the pro- duction of wool, is subject to the general con- ditions that affect Argentina. The country 1s 82 LATIN CHURCH — LATIN essentially pastoral, and the greatest interest has been taken by the government in the intro- duction and propagation of fine stock.- The ex- ports of wool in 1913 amounted to 63,571 metric tons. Since 1914, the greatest. trade in this commodity has been with the United States, the exports in 1914 (fiscal year ending 30 June) amounting to 7,965,817 pounds, valued at $1,- 854,065; 1915, 14,612,703 pounds, valued at $3,956,216; and 1916, 8,941,506 pounds, valued at $3,206,191. Brazil.— Brazil, due to the tropical nature of the greater part of its surface, is not destined to become one of the great wool producing countries. However, in the southern part of the republic—notably in the staté of Rio Grande do Sul—the climate is adapted for sheep raising, and a considerable quantity of wool is produced. The principal market of the country for wool is at the port of Rio Grande. Success is also reported in sheep raising for wool in the states of Parana and Minas Geraes. Exports for the country in 1911 amounted to 2,147,970 pounds, valued at $311,386; 1912, 4,198,630 pounds, valued at ee ; 1913, 2,838,804 pounds, valued at 394,155; 1914, 2,448,193. pounds, valued at ee and 1915, 997,639 pounds, valued at 193,065. Exports to the United States during the fiscal year ending 30 June 1915 amounted to 115,147 pounds, valued at $29,389; and 1916, 87,864 pounds, valued at $15,590. Native in- dustry consumes a large amount, the quantity ' increasing rapidly. Other Countries of Latin America.— Of the Latin-American countries, there are none that do not produce some wool, many in large quantities, and some a product of a special quality, this latter being particularly true of Peru, Bolivia and Chile, where, in the Andes region, the alpaca, vicufia and llama thrive. In the supplement to Commerce Reports of 18 April 1917, the United States Minister at La Paz says: “Throughout the arid region that lies between the two Cordilleras a species of bunch grass grows which is capable of resisting the rigors of winter and which provides abundant pasture for sheep and other wool-bearing animals. Experiments conducted under gov- ernment supervision seem to indicate that the alpaca is better suited to live in the highlands than is the sheep or any other wool-bearing animal. The government of Bolivia is making a special effort to stimulate the industry, and the production of alpaca wool is attaining con- siderable importance in the country.” (Samples of alpaca and llama wool, raw and woven into native fabrics, may be seen at the Bolivian Con- sulate-General at New York). Four animals closely related to the camel of Africa and Asia inhabit the Andean high- lands. Of these the vicufia and guanaco are wild and hold no important position as a source of wealth. The skin of these animals 1s covered with a coat of soft hair and has value as a fur. Efforts to prevent their. ex- termination, however, are of little effect in a country so sparsely settled and so- difficult to police, and the fear is that they may eventually disappear’ altogether. . The alpaca and _ the llama are domesticated .. The alpaca, al- though closely related to the llama, with which it interbreeds freely; differs. ., tn the char- KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM acter of its wool. The wool of the alpaca is generally black or white; occasionally, however, brown or spotted ones are found. It is cus- tomary to shear the alpaca every second year, but it has been, found that the wool continues to grow for a longer period and that it would be profitable to shear them only every third year. The present yield averages about 10 to 15 pounds, every second year ... Among the wools alpaca is superior because of its re- markable strength, its flexibility, and the fine- ness of its texture ... The production is lim- ited entirely to the Andean highlands of Peru and Bolivia. . Peru, in addition to her production of alpaca and llama wool, has large domestic sheep interests. The exports of alpaca wool in 1913 amounted to $1,573,670; 1914, $1,538,427; and 1916, $1,696,213. Of llama wool, the exports in ‘1913 amounted to $141,493; 1914, $90,477; and 1915, $144,152. Domestic wool, $797,868; 1914, $841,165;°and 1915, $1,066,844. Exports to the United States in 1915 (fiscal year ending 30 June) amounted to 819,347 pounds, valued at $192,284; and 1916, 2,426,279 pounds, valued at $069,174. Colombia, although using a considerable quantity of wool in domestic manufacture, also produces some for export. The quantity sent to the United States in 1915 amounted to 915 pounds, valued at $218. No shipments were made in 1916.. Paraguay also produces wool for export, the quantity sold abroad in 1914 being 93,634 pounds; and 1915, 129,127 pounds. Of this latter, 24,651 pounds were shipped to the United States, the remainder to Argentina, Uruguay, Italy and France. As to Venezuela, no figures regarding wool production are avail- able. Of the northern group of Latin-American states, Mexico is the greatest grower of wool. In normal times it is an important industry. Even during the recent troubled perod, her ex- ports to the United States amounted in 1914 (fiscal year ending 30 June) to 849,991 pounds, valued at $108,004; 1915, 1,154,626 pounds, value at $134,863; and 1916, 1,321,213 pounds, valued at $170,518. Of the remainder of the group, the only states exporting to the United States during 1916 (fiscal year ending 30 June) were Costa Rica, 19,574 pounds, valued at $8,935; Guatemala, 572 pounds, valued at $257; and Panama, 200 pounds, valued at $50. W. B. GRAHAM, Trade. Expert, Latin-American. Division, War Trade Board, Washington, D. C. LATIN CHURCH. See CizurcH, ROMAN. LATIN CROSS (crux immisa or capita), cross with the upright considerably longer than the transverse beam which crosses it near the top. It is generally regarded as the type used in the crucifixion of Christ and therefore be- comes a symbol of the Christian faith. LATIN EMPIRE. See BYZANTINE EMPIRE. LATIN HYMNS. See Hymns, LATIN. LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM, kingdom established and maintained by the Crtisaders in Jerusalem in 1099-1187, and after- ward re-established around Saint-Jean d’Acre and maintained until 1291. The kingdom was the common property of Christendom and dur- ing its two centuries of existence its character CATHOLIC LATIN LANGUAGE 83 was international. The French, however, were strongest among the ruling officials, while the Italians attatned a considerable economic in- fluence. The kingdom reached its greatest di- mensions toward the middle of the 12th cen- tury when it extended on the Syrian coast from Beirut to Raphia, from the Lebanon district on the northeast to beyond the Dead Sea on the southeast, extending along the Jordan to the Arabian Desert and including the port of Aila on the Red Sea. The kingdom was organized on the feudal system and the sovereignty was vested in the body of feudatories who composed the high court rather than in the king whose authority was chiefly military. The court’s au- thority governed the succession to the throne, made the laws and constituted the high tribunal from whose decisions there was no appeal. The “Assizes of Jerusalem” was compiled by the court. Later in the 12th century a court of burgesses was organized, this having power over the burgesses, sentence of either exile or death being vested in it, a power withheld from the king and at first non-existent in the kingdom. The great feudal chiefs, however, really maintained inedpendent kingdoms within the limits of the greater kingdom, and on occasion even waged war without consent of the king. However, the royal authority had ample financial resources, derived from customs, caravan taxes and the monopoly of special industries. The right to coin money was vested --within the king’s authority, and with the consent of the high court he could levy additional taxes in case of threatened invasion. On the occasion of Saladin’s arming against the kingdom in 1182 a tax of 2 per cent was levied on all revenues, even those of the Church. The vassals owed military service but received payment for it. Godfrey de Bouillon was elected Lord of Jerusalem, 22 July 1099, but did not assume the crown. He was succeeded by his_ brother, Baldwin of Odessa, who was crowned king of Jerusalem, 25 Dec. 1100. Baldwin I (q.v.) reigned until 1118 and was the real founder of the kingdom, greatly extending its territory and effectively organizing its power. He was succeeded by his son Baldwin II, 1118-31, who was followed by his son-in-law, Fulk, Count de Anjou. He also succeeded in increasing the importance of the kingdom, reigning in 1131-41, and succeeded by his son, Baldwin ITI, 1143-62, under whom the kingdom reached its zenith, although the principality of Edessa was wrested from it in 1144. He was succeeded by his brother Amaury I, 1162-74, who aroused Saladin by his attempted subjugation of Egypt. His son Baldwin IV, 1174-85, ruled through a regent, owing to his illness from leprosy, and was succeeded by a nephew, Baldwin V, a child who was supposed to have been poisoned a year later. Dissensions among the barons had by this time weakened the royal power and Jerusalem fell to Saladin in 1187 under the reign of Guy de Lusignan and his wife, Sibylla, mother of Baldwin V. The siege of Saint- Jean d’Acre was then begun and upon its sur- render, 13 July 1191, the kingdom of Jerusalem was re-established there. It continued in exist- ence until 1291, Jerusalem itself being within its jurisdiction in 1229-44. LATIN LANGUAGE, The. One of the Indo-European family of languages, spoken in Latium and especially in Rome, and extended with the Roman rule over the ancient world; the source from which the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese) are de- rived. As one of the Indo-European languages Latin shows a relationship in vocabulary, in inflected forms and in syntactical structure to other branches, Greek, Sanskrit, Germanic, Slavic, but according to the theory now gener- ally accepted this indicates linguistic relation-. ship only and does not necessarily imply an ethnological connection between the races speaking these languages. It was long held that the resemblance between the Greek and the Latin was so close as to warrant the belief that the two languages (and races) were de- rived from a common stock, but this theory (of a Greco-Italian unity) is now generally abandoned. Probably the closest connection of Latin is with the Celtic languages. Latin was one of a group of dialects spoken in central Italy. The other best known and most closely related Italic dialects are the Faliscan (which is scarcely more than a local variety of Latin) and the Osco-Umbrian. The latter was an extensive family of dialects spoken in the mountain districts of central Italy, especially in Samnium, and in early times was more widely distributed than the Latin and of at least equal advancement. The Oscan is represented by a number of inscriptions, of which the Tabula Bantina is the longest, and the Umbrian by the Iguvinian Tables, of some 4,000 words in length. The Latin language was reduced to writing at an early period by the use of an alphabet derived from the Greek alphabet of the town of Cume. Of this earliest period we have scanty records in inscriptions from about 500 B.c. down (the Fibula of Palestrina, the Duenos inscription) and in the rituals of the Salii and the Arval Brethren. These were not wholly intelligible to the Romans of the classical times and are still in part obscure; but enough is clear to show that the language was at that period a raw dialect of limited vocabulary, in- capable as yet of expressing the thoughts or emotions of a highly civilized people. The change from a rustic dialect to a lit- erary language took place in the 3d and 2d centuries B.c. It was brought about by two causes. In the first place, through the exten- sion of Roman power over the whole of Italy, Latin became the language of trade and of ofh- cial intercourse throughout the peninsula; in this process of expansion the language Teflected the expanding interests and necessities of the people who spoke it, becoming by use richer in vocabulary, more varied and at the same time more regular in structure, and gaining by its contact with the Oscan and Umbrian. ‘This process was aided also by the constant practice of oratory, which the workings of a free con- stitution called forth. In the second place, the contact with the Greeks of southern Italy gave an immense and lasting stimulus to literary production. At first this took the form of the drama and the epic, and the necessities of verse, particularly of the Greek hexameter, re- quired a conventional distinction between long syllables and: short, such as the native rhythms, which were ‘mainly accentual, had not required, The quantitive character thus given to the lan- 84 LATIN LITERATURE guage and the imaginative enrichment which came from its employment in poetry affected chiefly the language of literature. On the other hand, in the spoken Latin, the giving up of the Indo-European accentuation and the adoption of a new accent-law, by which the main accent was restricted to the penult and ante-penult, resulted in the frequent shorten- ing of the unaccented final syllable, especially in iambic words, and in the occasional dropping of final consonants. Acting in different di- rections, as a conservative force in the literary Latin, as a cause of rapid change in the spoken language, these influences produced the begin- ning of that separation between the language of books and the speech of the common people, which, though it occurs to some degree in all languages, is a most marked peculiarity in the development of the Latin language. For about a century and a half before the beginning of our era and for an equal time after that date the Latin of books remained almost unchanged in sounds and forms; its his- tory during this time deals with its growth and change as an instrument of literature. The Classical Period (the Ciceronian and Augustan) saw the culmination of Latin style, first in prose and then in poetry. Cicero was an extraordinary master of style and in his hands the language lost its archaic stiffness of struc- ture and became a flexible and a complex means of expression. Better than any other Latin writer he used the periodic form of sentence, ‘not as a mere rhetorical device, but as a suit- able expression for a complete thought, with all its subordinations and interdependence, in a unified and harmonious structure, Czsar also represents the simplest narrative prose, free from archaisms and absolutely unaffected and unadorned. In verse Virgil and Horace are types of the artistic use of imaginative speech, in which by a careful felicity of selec- tion and combination language is made to con- vey poetic suggestion, without either the affec- tation of the Alexandrian school or the heavi- ness of Ennius or Lucretius. The change from the Classical Period to the “Silver> Latin of the early empire is likewise chiefly stylistic and from this point of view it must be regarded as a change for the worse. To a considerable extent pleasure in the mere arts and tricks of expression took the place in Ovid and Martial of true poetic force and poetry became contaminated by rhetoric. In prose, however, the rhetorical and individualistic tendencies were less injurious; Tacitus, though he abandoned the periodic structure of Cicero and introduced into prose many words from the vocabulary of poetry, nevertheless used a style suited to his tempera- ment and subject. It is not worth while to follow in detail the later history of the literary Latin. It was in the main rhetorical and imitative and it lacked that vigor of thought which alone can main- tain a vigorous linguistic life. To this general statement there are two exceptions. The Latin af the jurists kept up the tradition of accuracy and clearness, employing a technical vocabulary without rhetorical artifice, and the Christian writers, possessed by the supreme desire to convey a serious message to unlettered readers, continued the spirit, if not the form, of the better Latinity. With these exceptions, how- ever, the Latin of literature is, after the 2d or 3d century, no longer in the fullest sense a living language. Meanwhile the Latin of daily life, the lan- guage spoken by the common people of Rome, by slaves and provincials and soldiers, had con- tinued to exist under the level of the literary language, from which it was separated about 250 sp.c. The evidence for the spoken Latin during the later republic and the early empire is somewhat scanty, consisting of occasional inscriptions like the wall-writings of Pompeii or passages in authors like Petronius, in which the colloquial Latin is intentionally imitated. But the effect of the accent in the shortening of final syllables is to be seen even in Horace and Virgil and-this tendency leads in some in- scriptions to the loss of final consonants. After the 3d century of our era we have increasing evidence of change in sounds and forms. The vowel e and the diphthongs @, @ were no longer clearly distinguished in sound, and were there- fore confused in writing; au became o; b and v were interchanged; the softening of c, tf and g before e and 7 began; initial h was lost or was misplaced (this had begun in the time of Catullus). Still more marked was the loss of the distinction, probably never made with great precision in the ordinary speech, between long and short vowels, and the consequent re- appearance of accentual verse. The disappear- ance of final consonants, especially m and s, destroyed the distinctive marks of gender and even of case, so that cases, being no longer distinct in form, were not clearly differentiated in usage. In syntax the older paratactic con- structions, which are found in Plautus and oc- casionally throughout Latin literature, again appear and analytic idioms (habere as an auxiliary verb) began to displace the inflec- tional verb-forms; the use of prepositions weakened the force of the cases; conjunctions lost their original meaning quod, for example, driving out other conjunctions. All these are steps toward the passage from Latin to the Romance languages. They went on at differ- ent rates in different parts of the empire and under different conditions, but the beginning of many can be traced back to early Latin and they are not to be thought of as accidents by which the Latin language was destroyed, but as entirely normal and natural changes which mark the progress of the language from the inflected stage to the comparatively uninflected condition of the Romance languages. From this point of view the Latin of literature is to be regarded as a deviation, in some sense artificial, from the normal life of the language. See ALPHABET. Bibliography.— There is a good sketch of the history of the Latin language in the ‘His- torische Grammatik der latinische Sprache? (I, 1) by Stolz, and a longer history and dis- cussion by Weise, ‘Charakteristik der latin- ische Sprache. — Epwarp PARMELEE Morris, Professor of Latin, Yale University. LATIN LITERATURE. Within the brief limits of the following sketch it will not be possible to describe fully the characteristics of single writers (for these special articles must be consulted) ; only a general history of Latin literature will be given, with a summary esti- mate of its value. LATIN LITERATURE 85 A division into periods will be found con- venient, though such divisions in a continuous development must not be understood to imply abrupt changes. 1. The Prehistoric Period down to 240 B.C.— No complete writings from this period survive in their original form, but from frag- ments and chance allusions it is known to have been a period of native ‘beginnings, as yet un- touched by foreign influences. In poetry, which from its nature takes literary form before prose, we possess partly modernized fragments of religious ritual in verse, the forerunners of a kind of lyric. A few allusions seem to indi- cate the existence of the custom of chanting lays in honor of national or family heroes, which might under favoring conditions have flowed together into an epic, and many refer- ences and some later fragments show that vil- lage festivals, in Italy as in Greece, were cele- brated with songs and dances of a mimetic and humorous character, out of which a _ subor- dinate kind of drama actually arose, even after the introduction of Greek comedy. Semi- ritualistic charms and farmers’ maxims, of which Cato gives us specimens, might easily have been collected into a didactic poem on agriculture. In prose the legal codifications were already well advanced, and the many forms of official record furnished the material for history and, indeed, dictated its earliest annalistic form. Oratory, as might be expected, was in constant use in the Senate, in popular assemblies, and for purposes of eulogy, and a speech of Appius Claudius Czcus, delivered in the Senate in 280 B.c., was still extant in the time of Cicero. Thus in several directions the germs of a native literature had appeared be- fore the Greek influence was felt. 2. The Period of Greek Influence, Begin- ning with 240 B.C. and Lasting for about a Century.— Through the conquest of the Greek cities of southern Italy the Romans first be- came fully aware of the treasures of Greek literature, by that time practically complete. Its introduction into Roman life was due to a Greek slave, Livius Andronicus, who translated plays of the Greek “New Comedy” (Meander and others) for presentation at the Roman festivals and put the ‘Odyssey? into Saturnian verse to be used as a reading-book in schools. He thus gave a new impulse and direction both to draniatic and to epic poetry and he was fol- lowed in the drama by native Italians, Naevius, Plautus and Ennius, and in the epic by Naevius, who wrote a history of the First Punic War in the native accentual verse-form. Ennius, the most influential writer of the period, continued the epic still further by writing in hexameters a history of the Roman race, which remained the national epic until the appearance of the “7Eneid.?> Other dramatic writers followed, the tragedy being less original and less popular than the comedy. Ennius also gave literary form to satire, a peculiarly Italian product, written by him in various metres and on a variety of subjects and put into final form at a later period. The prose of this time was still mainly of a practical character. Cato the Censor wrote out and published many of his speeches for use as political pamphlets, com- posed a book of maxims drawn from his active life for the benefit of his son, some at least being in the form of letters, and wrote a treatise on farming which, in a partially modernized form, is still extant. The writing of history had already begun, in the Roman annalistic form, though in the Greek language, but Cato wrote a history of Italian towns in Latin. There was also considerable activity in legal writing, though systems of juris- prudence came somewhat later. This last was purely Roman and in general the Greek in- fluence was less felt in prose, and the impulse to stylistic finish was less active than in poetry. The period was thus one of beginnings in many lines. The stimulus of the Greek litera- ture was almost a tyranny as to the form, espe- cially in poetry, but in the writers of more original mind the Italian spirit and something of the Italian form, like the music and dances of comedy, still maintained itself. In the period of transition to Cicero’s time (about 150-84 B.c.) the further growth of oratory, history and jurisprudence in prose, and the writing of plays on Italian subjects and in native form, showed that the Latin spirit was recovering from the first dominance of the Greek artistic form. In particular, it was during this time that the purely national satire received its permanent form and direction at the hands of Lucilius. 3. The Ciceronian Age, 83-43 B.C.— In this period, which is defined by the beginning and the end of Cicero’s literary activity, Latin prose reached its culminating point, combining at last into a ‘harmonious whole the earnestness of the Roman and something of Greek artistic skill. The practical -national tendencies were still exemplified by Varro, who gave a long life to investigation and published works in many fields, in law, history, philosophy, gram- mar and agriculture, with an almost exclusive attention to the matter rather than to the style. In ‘history Sallust may be called the first of Roman historians, in the true sense of the word as distinguished from the annalists and antiqua- rians, but his style is intentionally archaic and not wholly natural. The period was especially rich also in political writings, in the form of biographies and memoirs, among which must be included the commentaries of Cesar, historical in form, but written for a political purpose, and models of perfectly simple narrative in the pur- est diction. But the chief-figure in the litera- ture of the period was Cicero. He was a man of wide knowledge both of the earlier Roman oratory and of Greek rhetoric; he was equally interested in the theory and in the practice of public speaking, and his warmth of ‘tempera- ment and purity of taste-in composition made him an eminent master of style. His writings have remained since his time the models and standard of Latin jprose. Aside from his speeches, of which some 50 are extant, he left valuable works on rhetoric, some well-written treatises on philosophy and a large and ex- tremely interesting collection of letters, gathered and published after his death by his secretary. In poetry also this period was second only to the Augustan Age. Lucretius, continuing the tradition of didactic poetry, wrote in hexam- eters an exposition of the atomic theory of Epicurus. The subject was in itself unsuited to poetry, but Lucretius has so infused into it his own moral earnestness and so interspersed and adorned the doctrines with passages of 86 LATIN LITERATURE lofty beauty that the work is intensely Roman and is undoubtedly the greatest didactic poem in existence. In lyric poetry Catullus left be- hind him at his early death a few score of poems, almost all quite short and some of them overwrought with imagery and allusion in the Alexandrian manner, but of the purest lyric strain and in this one respect superior to the ‘Odes? of Horace. If the fame of Catullus rested on the ‘Attis> alone he would be called a great poet. 4. The Augustan Age, 43 B.C. to 14 A.D. This period was, in contrast to the preceding, mainly an age of poetry. The loss of political freedom affected unfavorably both the public oratory and the political and historical prose. Scarcely an orator of the period has left more than an empty name and public speaking sank into declamation and rhetorical display. | In his- tory there is the one great name of Livy, but even he, though a friend of Augustus, found in the history of the past a kind of refuge from the political hopelessness of his own time. His style, in the narrower sense, was an adaptation of the periodic sentence structure of Cicero to the purpose of narrative, to which it is not en- tirely suited, but his descriptions—his “pic- tured page» —are wonderfully vivid. From him and from Plutarch’s ‘Lives? most of our popular conceptions of Roman history and character are derived. But the conditions which were unfavorable to the highest kinds of prose composition fos- tered production in the unemotional and imper- - sonal fields of technical writing. To this per- iod belong the work of Vitruvius on archi- tecture, the extremely learned work of Verrius Flaccus on lexicography and grammar, now unfortunately lost, and some important writers on law. It was, however, in poetry of high quality that the age was especially productive. Virgil, after some imitations of Theocritus and a very perfectly finished poem on farming, left behind him at his death the ‘A*neid? in almost complete form, to become at once the great epic of Rome and in later times the most widely known of Latin poems. Horace, a Republican in his youth, who had fought at Pharsalus, continued the tradition of satire after the man- ner of Lucilius and wrote the four books of the ‘Odes, inferior to the poems of Catullus in lyric feeling, but superior in their attitude toward life and perhaps in their close stylistic texture. He also became at once a classic and has ‘been the favorite poet of many men of society and of affairs. Tibullus and Propertius introduced elegiac poetry and seem in this field to ‘have surpassed thzir Greek models. Ovid wrote a long poem embodying Greek myths, an account of the festivals of the Roman calendar and a number of minor poems, all with an unrivaled technical skill: but he was a man of weak fibre and lacking in genuineness and his personal failings have lowered the tone of his writings. Taken all together, this roll of names, though no one of them is quite of the very highest rank, entitles the Augustan Age to a place among the great periods of literary production. The Ciceronian and Augustan periods are sometimes put together and called the Classical Period, or, in contrast with that which follows, the Golden Age of Latin Literature. 5. The Silver Latin, 14-117 A:D.— Two characteristics mark the literature of the early empire. On the one hand, technical skill in the craft of writing was never greater nor more generally exercised. Verse-composition was common and the versification was accurate and finished. But, on the other hand, the in- creasing tyrannies of Tiberius, Caligula, Nero and Domitian suppressed independence of ut- terance and even of thought and the decrease in race-vigor weakened the nobler impulses to expression. Technical skill was therefore put to frivolous or ignoble uses and was directed by petty vanities into mere affectation, instead of being controlled by a reserved taste and a sober purpose. Poetry borrowed the rhetorical devices of prose and prose used the vocabulary of poetry. a4 But while this description is fairly appli- ‘cable to most of the writers of this and. the succeeding period, there were not a few writers who, though they were inevitably affected by the character of their times, were yet raised by interest in their subject or by refinement of taste almost to the level of the Classical Period. This was true in a measure of many of the writers on technical subjects, grammar, agricul- ture, medicine, law; such, for example, was the elder Pliny, who collected a sort of compendium of knowledge in his ‘Naturalis Historia.» The philosopher and poet Seneca has been at times highly esteemed, but it is difficult to acquit him of insincerity and his closet-dramas betray his tendency to bombast. Quintilian, however, was a great teacher of rhetoric in the best sense and a writer of learning and taste, who would have been distinguished in any age. With him may be ranked, though on different grounds, the younger Pliny; the collection of this letters was made by himself and the letters were doubtless written for publication, so that they lack (ex-| cept the correspondence with the Emperor Tra- jan) the interest of Cicero’s letters, but Pliny was a man of excellent taste and of creditable aspirations and his character as revealed in his correspondence’ is distinctly attractive. The greatest prose writer of the period was Tacitus, the historian. He had endured and been em- bittered by enduring the dreadful oppressions of Domitian’s rule and under the liberal reign of Nerva and Trajan he used his opportunity to write truthful and independent histories of the empire. His style is individual and. difficult from its condensation, but better suited to his subject than the Ciceronian periods would -have been, and his treatment of his theme, though not free from prejudice, is extremely powerful. Herodotus and Thucydides in Greek and Livy and Tacitus in Latin are the four great histo- rians of the ancient world. On the side of poetry, though there were many writers of some merit, only a few deserve mention here. Martial composed epigrams, Lucian wrote an epic of the civil war between Cesar and Pompey, and Persius and Juvenal were satirists. The latter is, in spite of rhetor- ical blemishes and a repellant savageness of tone, one of the greatest writers in Latin litera- | ture and his satire has been the model for much writing of the same kind in English literature. 6. The Later Empire.— Of writers after the end of the first century of our era few are of importance from the strictly literary point of view and there is a certain justice in closing LATIN LITERATURE 87 the ‘history of Latin literature with Tacitus. But in the long list of writers of the next four or five centuries there are many whose works have, apart from their form, an intrinsic in- terest, in some cases a very great interest. From them may be selected the following names: In history, Suetonius, Ammianus and the ‘Scriptores Historie Auguste? ; in literary commentary and criticism, Gellius, Donatus Servius and Macrobius; in grammar, Marius Victorinus and Priscian. The most original and perhaps in a true sense literary work of these centuries is to be found in the legal writings, from Gaius to the ‘Code of Justinian, and in the Church Fathers, Lactantius, Ambrosius, Jerome, Augustine and many others; in writers of both of these classes interest in the subject checked the prevalent inclination to regard the art of writing as an end in itself rather than as a means. This chronological review of Roman litera- ture may be supplemented by a brief summary and estimate of Latin writers by classes accord- ing to their form or subject matter. In the comparative simplicity of the ancient literatures the connection between writers in the same class was more direct and therefore more note- ‘worthy than it is in modern times. The Roman drama, having been early checked in its possible growth by the introduc- tion of Greek models, took almost entirely a Greco-Roman form. Of the tragedies nothing has been preserved except the book-plays of Seneca, and the writing of tragedy for the stage had come to an end before the time of Cicero. The form of drama which took its subjects from Roman legend appears to have been only slightly successful and it is evident that the serious drama had little hold upon Roman life. The comedies, even those of Greek form like the extant plays of Plautus and Terence, expressed more of the Italian spirit and retained their hold upon the stage, and the farces, the mimes and the Atellan plays were even more popular. The Italian interest, then as now, was more in the acting and impersonation than in the dramatic form or story. ; In epic poetry the glory of the Homeric poems was so great as to determine, somewhat to its disadvantage, the form of the Roman na- tional epic. It is not unlikely that Ennius was in this respect more truly national than Virgil. The poet of the ‘/Eneid? was in truth hampered by the Homeric machinery of gods and heroes and by the supposed necessity of imitating in one part of his poem the wanderings of Odys- seus, in another the battles of the Iliad. These things were not real to him; they were epic conventionalities which he felt obliged to adopt, as he adopted at times the phrases and the similes of the Homeric style. In all these re- spects, in which the ‘Afneid? is most fre- quently and quite properly compared with the Greek epic, Virgil is plainly the inferior and they are sufficient to exclude him from the small company of the world’s greatest poets. But in the occasional passages where he is in- spired by the opportunity of expressing his real theme — the greatness of the Roman state — he writes with a proud dignity and a conscious understanding of the meaning of history, to which there is no parallel in the Homeric poems. His verse also is suited to the dignity of his thought; his hexameters are composed as wholes, while the Homeric hexameter ap- pears to retain the traces of its composition out of two short half-verses. The Virgilian verse is less suited to the simplicity of nar- rative, but is unequalled in elevation. Didactic writing in prose and verse was es- pecially natural and attractive to the Roman mind and the series of didactic works extends from the earliest times down to the end. The most notable in verse are the great poem of Lucretius ‘De Rerum Natura? and’ the “Georgics? of Virgil. Both depend largely — Lucretius wholly—on Greek authorities for their subject matter, but two more thoroughly Roman poems could’ not be named. In’ form the work of Lucretius is incomplete; the “Georgics? is one of the most perfectly finished poems in Latin literature. Lyric poetry in Latin has an especial inter- est from the fact that the Greek lyrics of the best period are preserved only in fragments and our conception of this important form of poetry in ancient literature must be derived chiefly from Catullus and Horace. Apparently the best qualities of Alczeus and Sappho are better re- produced by the free spontaneity of Catullus than by the careful workmanship and mature intelligence of Horace. We are fortunate in the possession of both. Lucretius, Catullus, Virgil and Horace are the four cornerstones: of Latin poetry. The elegy is closely allied to the lyric, from which it differs chiefly in the use of the elegiac couplet, hexameter and pentameter. The ex- amples that we have in Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid do not conform to the rule of ancient grammarians that elegy should deal with melan- choly themes. But the somewhat despondent temperament of Tibullus and the simplicity of his treatment are well suited to elegy. Proper- tius is more virile, but is over-much given to the display of Alexandrian learning. In the amatory elegiacs of Ovid his extraordinary cleverness has a congenial field and his lack of essential manliness is less detrimental than elsewhere. Epigram and satire were also natural forms of expression for the Italian, and many epi- grams are extant in inscriptions or are pre- served anonymously in the Anthology. Martial is the’ only writer whose collected. epigrams have come down to us. They are often neat, often amusing, but this form of art is of course not very high. In satire the Romans claimed complete originality and apparently with justice. The satirical spirit may ‘express itself in comedy or epigram or in semi-lyrical iambics like the ‘Epodes? of Horace, but the grammarians meant that in Latin the satire had been given a distinct conventional form — a short poem in hexameters—in which was expressed a distinct tone of critical comment on persons or on social life. In this sense satire can be clearly traced from Lucilius through Horace to Persius and Juvenal. Of the four Horace is incomparably the most humorous and in reality the most penetrating; Lucilius is preserved only in fragments, Per- sius is obscure, and both the objects of Juve- - nal’s satire and the indignation with which he attacks them are too real to give pleasure. In the prose literature of Rome, oratory and history hold the first place. In both the art 88 LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES took substantial form before the national tend- ency was overwhelmed by the finished Greek productions. tant literature only by some late Panegyrics and the speeches of Cicero, a small amount in comparison with the volumes of the Attic ora- tors. It is peculiarly unfortunate that we have none of the political speeches which played so large a part in the history of the republic; they would undoubtedly illustrate the prevail- ingly practical character of Roman oratory and would show how steadily it grew tothe height of Cicero’s ‘Second Philippic.? Up to this point, while it was increasingly stimulated by the best Greek models, it was able to resist the influence of Greek rhetoric. After Cicero’s time the teaching of rhetoric, which had be- come common in Rome, brought about an un- due attention to form and a consequent loss of power. The writing of history also long served a practical end. It began as a mere expansion of the official annual records, including the names of magistrates, the important public events and the recognized prodigies. This kind of history continued to be written after Naevius and En- nius had composed more elaborate histories in verse, and, even when Roman history was writ- ten in the Greek language, it was but little in- fluenced by the great Greek models. It is with Sallust and Nepos that the writing of history really began and its importance in Latin litera- ture is attested by the long line of minor historians. Roman philosophy can make no claim to originality. It is found, in prose, in Cicero and Seneca. The former gave free renderings of the best Greek works on ethical philosophy with special reference to its value in the training of the orator; the latter wrote without much sys- tem brief essays on ethics. Of epistolary literature, either letters act- ually sent to the persons addressed or essays in epistolary form, a considerable amount is known through allusions and the two collections by Cicero and Pliny have been mentioned. They are a unique feature of Roman literature, since it happens, perhaps from the concentration of Greek life in single cities, that no such collec- tions are extant in Greek. Of the technical writings enough has been said. They belong to all periods of the litera- ture and cover almost all fields of study, agri- culture, grammar, literary criticism, architec- ture, medicine, rhetoric, military strategy, engi- neering, astronomy, law; the first and the last subjects in this list being by far the most abun- dant and important. In comparison with the Greek seratare the Latin is inferior in imagination and 1 in form — two important characteristics; it is superior in the directness of its human appeal and in its practical worth to the modern world. It is sometimes said to be an imitative literature, but it is rather a continuation of Greek literature in new surroundings. The influence of Greek lit- erature upon Roman is not different in kind from the influence which modern literatures exert upon each other. A comparison with modern literature is less easy, because the differences are greater. The ancient literatures follow more strictly defined lines of tradition, especially in poetry. The Roman circle of readers was more limited than Oratory is represented in the ex- the modern and literature was therefore less broadly based and less representative of a wide variety of interests. And the comparative ab- sence of the romance or novel and the slight use of the motive of romantic love makes a ‘very obvious difference. See articles on the in- dividual authors mentioned, for further bio- graphical and critical material. See also Latin WRITERS; CLASSICAL LITERATURE. | Bibliography.— Schanz, M., ‘Geschichte der romischen Literatur? (in Miller, ‘Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft,? 3d ed., Munich 1905-14) ; Teuffel, W. S., and Schwabe, L., ‘Geschichte der r6mischen Literatur? (Eng. trans. by C. C. Warr, London. 1891-92) ; Mackail, J. W., ‘History of Latin Literature? (New York 1895); Sellar, W. Y., ‘Roman Poets of the Republic and Roman Poets of the Augustan Age? (Oxford 18%); Tyrrell, R. Y., “Lectures on Latin Poetry? .(Boston 1893) ; Moulton, ‘The Ancient Classical Drama? ° (2d ed., Oxford 1898) ; Fowler, ‘Roman Lit- erature? (New York 1903) ; Mayor, John E. B., ‘Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature? (based on the work of Dr. E. Hubner, Lon- don and Cambridge 1875); Duff, J. D., ‘A Literary History of Rome from the Origins to the Close of the Golden Age? (London 1909); Howe, George, ‘Recent Grito of Latin Literature (Baltimore 1913); Peignot, Charles, ‘Bibliothéque choisie des classiques latins? (Paris 1813) ; Plessis, ‘La poésie latine? (Paris 1909). EDWARD PARMELEE Morris, Professor of Latin, Yale University. LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MID- DLE AGES. The very greatness of the Roman Empire gives the reason for its dis- solution, even apart from the barbaric invasions, and the vicissitudes attending this dissolution were reflected in the cultivated and the popular language alike. There was this exception, how- ever; the latter preserved its vitality upon the tongues of the people, while the former tended to become a sort of official lingua franca with the monks and notaries, and even with the learned was modified by the influence of the colloquial dialects and new forms of thought, until it lost nearly every vestige of its former elegance and grace and became the barbarous Latin which, after serving as vehicle for the thought of western Europe for seven centuries, contributed to the later revival of that tongue in its classic purity that was so important a feature of the Renaissance. The Latin language during the centuries of the literary decadence could not of course be maintained in this classic purity. On the one hand, the prevalence of vulgar idioms and the accumulation of foreign elements through the granting of citizenship to all the subjects of the empire, and, on the other hand, the rapid transformation of thought which, to give ex- pression to new ideas, constrained the words to new meanings often far removed from their origin — these were the elements which con- tributed to the rapid corruption of the literary language. Meanwhile, in the individual prov- inces, the mixture of the official language with the dialectal elements and the natural differ- entiation due to a variety of causes had brought about the birth of different forms of the lan- guage from the 3d century on; so that the Gallic Latin, for example, had its own charac- LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 89 teristics which distinguished it from the Afri- can Latin with its bombastic sonority. These were the first germs of new languages which were to spring from the root of Latinity. Nevertheless, although it is probably impossible to determine just when Latin ceased to exist as a spoken language among the common peo- ple, it continued ‘throughout the Middle Ages to be the language of the Church, of the law courts and of both religious and secular edu- cation and in this way became the medium of no inconsiderable number of real literary pro- ductions. It is generally conceded that the Middle Ages began with the fall of the Empire of the West in 476, for it was then that the civil- ization and culture of the ancient Romans suc- cumbed to the barbarians. It is from this point, then, that we begin the history of the Latin literature of the Middle Ages, continuing from that date to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. For purposes of discussion, it will be convenient to make roughly a division into pe- riods, although this does not necessarily con- note abrupt changes. From 476 to the 8th cen- tury Latin literature is found in a condition of deepest decline, from which it recovers by progressive steps through the ecclesiastical re- naissance (from the 8th to the 10th centuries) and the period of scholasticism (from the 11th to the 14th centuries) to the world Renaissance (from the 14th century on). Without making these arbitrary limits too hard and fast, we shall proceed to enumerate briefly the chief authors in the various fields of literature. 1. Pre-Carolingian Period,— With the tri- umphant spread of Christianity, the things of the world had lost their appeal and the think- ing man begins to look within; after the con- version of Spain and France, the only worthy objects of human endeavor are the restoration of God’s kindom on earth and the struggle against earthly enticements to sin. There arose a natural antagonism to pagan literature and consequently to pagan literary forms and ideals, many Christian writers professing to despise exactness in writing, “since I think it utterly unworthy,” as Pope Gregory said, “to constrain the words of the divine oracles under the rules _of Donatus.” At any rate, the fall of the Western Empire and the supremacy of the bar- barians ended by giving the last blow to the language ef Cicero and Virgil, reducing it very quickly to a language of official formulas, which the people were certainly not at all anxious to learn, content as they were with their own vulgar dialect. Latin literature then became identical with the record of Christian writers and the purely Roman element, or one might say the purely literary element, was bound to suffer in conse- quence. The apologetics and polemics of the early patristic literature disappeared with the spread of religion and Christian literature tended to go in new directions, chiefly toward mysticism and away from dogma, which was no longer of prime importance because of its universal acceptance. This tendency was mani- fested, for instance, in the abandonment of the ‘purely textual criticism of the Holy Scriptures for interpretative criticism and also in hagiog- raphy, that fertile field of holy romance so im: portant throughout the Middle Ages. More- over, the influence of the Christian hymns caused accentual rhythm and rhyme to be firmly established in literary Latin upon the same footing as classic metre. Although all literary life gradually became extinguished with the transfer of the seat of the empire to Byzantium and the supremacy of the barbarians in all the Western provinces, some remnants remained, especially in Africa and Gaul, and in Italy too during the reign of Theodoric, which was a time of peace. Poetry was cultivated by the African school under the dominion of the Vandals likewise. Among the African poets were Dracontius, Luxorius and Corippus, and of the non-African poets men- tion should be made of Alcimus. Ecdicius Avitus, Magnus Felix Ennodius, Maximianus and Venantius Fortunatus, the latter being famous as a hymn-writer. This period of barbarity also saw a few truly great examples of prose-writers. First of all, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boethius (480-524), the celebrated Roman sen- ator who was imprisoned by Theodoric and condemned to death. While in prison he com- posed his most famous work, ‘De consolatione philosophiz,» a mixture of prose and verse after the manner of Martianus Capella in which the author imagines that Philosophy appeared to him in prison and consoled him for his sufferings. Boethius composed many other works on philosophy and mathematics as well as on Christian doctrine. Next to Boethius in importance is Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c. 480-575), the secretary of Theodoric, outliving him as well as the fall of the Goths and the coming of the Lombards. The last years of his life were passed in the retirement of a cloister founded by himself, and it was he who introduced the rule of copying manuscripts which has pre- served for us the treasures of the ancient classics. His activity as a writer embraces two periods, that of his political life and that of his cloistered life. To the first period belong panegyric orations in praise of the Gothic kings; ‘Chronica’?; ‘History of the Goths, of which we have only the epitome made by the Goth Jordanis, and a collection in 12 books of everything written in connection with his office. To the second period belong ‘Institutiones divi- narum et secularium litterarum? and several other works. The chief historian of the period is Gregory of Tours (538-593), author among other works of miraculous legends of the saints, but more especially of 10 books of ‘Historia Francorum,” which won for him the appellation, ‘Herodotus of the Franks.» Only improperly does one number among the historians the Briton Gildas, called the Wise. Among the theological writers should be mentioned Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-543), the founder of Monte Cassino, who wrote a ‘Regula? which was extremely important in later monastic development. But ahead of all stands Pope Gregory I, surnamed the Great (c. 540-604), from whom, besides biblical com- mentaries, homilies and a book on the duties of the sacred ministry, we have many (800) let- ters, important for the history of the time, and eight or nine hymns. Excluding these and Eugippus (511), the author of the incomparable biography of, Saint Severinus, the theological writers of the period belong to the provinces 90 LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES of North Africa (Verecundus and others) and Spain (Leander of Seville and Martin of Bracara). Grammar and erudition also in this period found some valiant cultivators. Besides Fa- bius Planciades Fulgentius, there was at the time of the Emperor Anastasius (491-518), the grammarian, Priscian of Caesarea, who wrote at Constantinople, but in Latin, 18 books ‘Insti- tutionum grammaticarum,? in which. he has handed down to us the most complete work on the Latin language, especially important for the many remnants of ancient literature which are there preserved. From a pupil of Priscian, Eutyches, we have an ‘Ars de Verbo? in two books. Although living in the East, these were the last grammarians of any value; in the West studies were entirely decadent, as may be seen, for example, from the grammatical writings of Virgilius Maro, a Gaul of the 6th or 7th cen- tury, full of ridiculous questions and whimsical speculation. In the midst of such great agitations of peoples and changes in government as were at- tendant upon the incursions of the barbarians, it is natural that there was felt the need for establishing a standard of law by combining. the dispositions of the Roman laws with the new barbarian constitutions. In the West attempts to satisfy the new needs are found in the ‘Edictum Theoderici Regis? (500), the ‘Lex Romana Visigothorum? or ‘Breviarium Alarici? (506) and the ‘Lex Romana Burgundionum? _ (516). But the most important was the ‘Corpus Iuris? prepared in the East by Justinian (527- 565), consisting in two principal parts, the law of the jurisconsults (“ius vetus”) and the im- perial law (“us principale”). The latter was codified in the ‘Codex Justinianus? (528 and 534), the former was divided into 50 books called ‘Digesta? or ‘Pandecte? and was pre- pared (530-532) by a commission of jurists under the leadership of the famous Tribonian. Contemporaneously there was prepared a new book of fundamental doctrine in the ‘Insti- tutiones? (four books), based principally on that of Gaius. Later, to this Justinian collec- tion were added the subsequent dispositions under the title of “Novellz in several private collections. This grand collection of juridical works is perhaps the greatest inheritance that Roman antiquity has bequeathed to modern civilization. By the 7th century all literature had ceased in Italy and in France. Only in the Visigothic kingdom in Spain did some remnants of the ancient culture remain. There we find the bishops Eugenius and Julian of Toledo, but the most prominent figure of this time is Isidore (c. 570-636), bishop of Seville, the author of many historical, grammatical and theological writings. The most important is the work en- titled ‘Etymologiarum Libri XX, containing the exposition of the seven liberal arts, of med- icine, of jurisprudence, of religious history and finally the treatise (books 9-20) on questions of language. For the knowledge assembled there, it has considerable importance, notwithstanding the lack of critical discrimination. The deterioration of classical culture be- comes very marked in this century. Quite bar- haric is the Latin of the Frank Fredegar and his continuators, who wrote an extremely valu- able chronicle of the times. An echo of classic culture, however, resounds in England with Aldhelm (c. 650-709), the writer on prosody, with the Venerable Bede (674-735) of North- umberland, whose erudition arose above the standard of his time, with Tatwine (d. 734), archbishop of Canterbury, grammarian and poet, and with Boniface (683-755), the author of a grammatical manual, who later became the “Apostle of the Germans.” Bede was a prolific writer in nearly every field of literature. Be- sides lives of the saints in metrical form and other poems, he wrote grammatical, mathemat- ical and theological treatises, sermons, and espe- cially the ‘Historia ecclesiastica gentis An- glorum> and the ‘Chronicon.» In the works of all of the above writers, however, with the classical elements are now commingled many elements of strictly medieval culture. To this century also belong the Irish poet, Columbanus . (543-615), the founder of the monastery of Bobbio which later became famous as the home of learning’ in northern Italy, and his fellow-countryman, Adamnan (c. 624-704), the author of a biography of Saint Columba, “the most complete piece of biography that all Europe can boast of through- out the Middle Ages.” 2. Carolingian Period. The Carolingian Age marks a comparatively sharp division in the literary history of Latin. It brought learn- ing into good repute again and furnished ma- terial for writers. Besides a theological litera- ture of imposing proportions, this period pro- duced a vast body of poetry, epistles and his- torical writings, all based more or less con- sciously on classical models. The leader of this revival was Alcuin (c. 735-804), although his importance as a teacher surpasses that as a writer. After teaching 15 years at York he went over to France and presided over the court school of Charlemagne. Besides several treatises on grammar and rhetoric in dialogue form, he also composed scriptural commen- taries, works upon astronomy and metrics and poems. The teacher of Greek at Charlemagne’s court school was Paul Warnefrid, better known as Paulus Diaconus (c. 725-797), the first import- ant historian of the Middle Ages after Gregory of Tours. He was also prominent on account of the extent of his classical culture and lit- erary skill, which were singularly displayed in the six books of his ‘Historia Langobardorum,? written at Monte Cassino, and in his sum- mary of the abridgment of Varrius.Flaccus by Pompeius Festus. In the latter half of the 8th century the Irish monk, Dicuil, composed a summary of geography. Linking the 8th to the 9th century the tradition of learning which Alcuin had brought from York to Tours was transmitted through Rabanus Maurus (c. 776-856) to Fulda. Apart from extensive commentaries on the Old and New Testaments, he wrote several educational treatises and a sort of encyclopedia entitled ‘De universo.» Among the pupils of Rabanus was the future abbot of Reichenau, Walafrid Strabo (c. 809-849), who studied Christian and pagan poets and wrote on sacred as. well as secular themes. His ‘Hortulus,? a description | of plants in the monastery garden, was widely read during the years following, while his ‘Visio Wettini? is justly regarded as a proto- type of Dante’s ‘Divine Comedy.? Four biog- LATIN LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 91 raphies of saints, two in prose and two in verse, are also attributed to him. In the middle of the 9th century flourished Sedulius Scotus, the author of a commentary on Porphyry and a guide for princes entitled ‘De rectoribus Christianis,’ and Joannes Scotus Eriugena, the author of a commentary on the Gospel of Saint John and glosses on Martianus Capella and Boethius, besides his philosophical work, ‘De divisione nature.» In the latter half of this century appeared the monk of Saint Gall, Notker Balbulus, who wrote legends and anecdotes, ‘Gesta Caroli Magni.’ Besides the writers mentioned above, each of whom wrote in several departments of lit- erature, there were several authors during the first part of the Carolingian period who at- tained prominence in some one particular field. In philology and grammar, mention might be made of Servatus Lupus, abbot of Ferriéres, and Eric and Remi of Auxerre, authors of glosses and. commentaries on the Bible, Pris- cian, Boethius, Martianus:Capella and Aristotle. In poetry stands forth the name of Theodulf (c. 760-821), who occupies the first place among the Carolingian poets, and in history, the names of Anastasius Bibliothecarius (c. 810-879), the compiler of an historical work, ‘Chronographia tripartita,? and other historical works, Willi- bald, the author of a life of Saint Benedict, and Einhard (c. 770-840), a layman, educated at Fulda. The latter composed in admirable Latin a ‘Life of Charlemagne,’ modeled after the ‘Life of Augustus? of Suetonius, and sev- eral other works of an historical character. In the 10th century the monastery of Gan- dersheim was famous as the retreat of the nun-poetess, Hroswitha (c. 930-c. 1002). With a view to providing the age with a purer litera- ture than that of Latin comedy, she composed six moral and religious plays, in which she imitates Boethius as well as Terence. Two biblical poems, six legends and two epics are ample evidence of her industry and an excep- tional number of recent editions of her plays attests -her enduring popularity. In the mid- dle of this century also appeared an epic which in some ways indicates the high-water mark of pure literature in medieval Latin. This is the ‘Waltharius? of the monk Ekkehard. The fas- cinating story of the elopement of Walter of Aquitaine with the Burgundian princess Hilde- gunde forms the theme of the poem and is treated with exceptional good taste and dra- matic skill—a Teuton legend in Latin dress. Other important personages in this century were Gerbert, later Sylvester I], a writer on phil- osqphical, mathematical and physical subjects who was a great admirer of the classics, and Luitprand, a Lombard, important for Italian history. The 11th century saw the rise of the Goliard songs popular with itinerant clerical students. These were lyrical in form, but they were often far from lyrical in substance and feeling, so that the Goliards were finally suppressed. These songs seem to have beén the precursors of modern college songs of the type of the “Gaudeamus igitur.” 3. Scholastic Period.— Although during the two centuries following the reign of Charle- magne letters suffered a partial eclipse due to the last great invasion from the North, in the monasteries the classic authors were still read and Asia. and studied and copied —#in fact it is to the tireless work of the monks that we owe the preservation of the classical texts — and in this manner the way was paved for the great scholastic movement which followed. The rise of the tniversities and the elaboration of scholastic philosophy after the’ Crusades brought about another linguistic creative pe- riod. Scholasticism, however, in the broad sense of the word, began much earlier than the medizval schools. There is no absolute break between the patristic and the scholastic literature. The Church Fathers who flourished before the fall of Rome were followed by the writers of compendia of universal knowledge, such as Cassiodorus, Isidore and Bede, through whom the slow demarcation of the field of philosophy was brought about and philosophical problems gradually assumed their proper place, but until the 12th century there was a lack of systematization. ' The last great representative of scholastic philosophy cast in the non-system- atic form is Saint Anselm (c. 1033-1109), a native of Lombardy who later became arch- bishop of Canterbury. Scholasticism, in the more restricted sense, begins with the 12th century. On the ground that truth cannot contradict truth, it seeks to harmonize the teachings of the Christian re- ligion with the results of philosophical investi- _ gation. This is not the proper place, however, for a history of scholasticism, except in so far as it produced works of literary merit. It will be sufficient for our purpose to mention merely its chief exponents. After Roscelin and Wil- liam of Champeaux comes Peter Abelard (1079-1142), famed as a teacher and of great influence in the next century. His most im- portant contribution to philosophy and theology was his ‘Sic et non,? although he composed other works on a variety of subjects. Adelard of Bath was one of the first medieval scho- lastics to seek knowledge by traveling in Greece Other writers of prominence in scholasticism of the 12th century were Hugo and Richard of Saint Victor, Alain de I’Isle and Peter Lombard (c. 1100-c. 1160). The latter was the author of four books of ‘Sen- tences,? which became the object of innumer- able commentaries in the years that followed. Strictly literary productions, however, were comparatively rare in the 12th century. John of Salisbury (c. 1115-80) has left us lives of Saints Anselm and Thomas of Canterbury and several other historical and philosophical works, and Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) has left us, among other works, his ‘De con- sideratione ad Eugenium,? the chief idea of which is that the reformation of the Church should begin with the sanctity of its head. In the field of poetry the writers are more numer- ous. Among these are the prolific hymn-writer, Adam of Saint Victor, “the foremost among the sacred Latin poets of the Middle Ages” (Trench); Bernard of Cluny, author of the hymn ‘Jerusalem the Golden, besides a satiric poem ‘De contemptu mundi? ; Joseph of Exeter with his epic on the Trojan War; Hildebert, author of lives of Queen Radegundis, etc., be- sides hymns and other poems, and Walter of Chatillon, in whose ‘Alexandreid? occurs’ the well-known hexameter ‘Incidit in Scyllam qui vult vitare Charybdim? (He falls into Scylla’s jaws whe would escape Charybdis). 92 LATIN QUARTER—LATIN UNION The greatest representatives of scholastic-_ ism come in the 13th century, after the works of Aristotle had become thoroughly known. The first of these, in the point of time, is Alexander of: Hales (d. 1245), a Franciscan. Then in rapid succession come the Dominicans, Albertus Magnus (c. 1206-80), an indefati- gable writer upon a multiplicity of subjects be- sides philosophy and theology, and his famous pupil, Thomas Aquinas (1225 or 1227-74), with his ‘Summa theologica? and ‘Summa contra gentiles, besides commentaries upon Aristotle and Peter Lombard. Other commen- taries on the ‘Sentences» were composed by Saint Bonaventure (1221-74), who also wrote mystical and exegetical works, and Joannes Duns Scotus (c. 1270-1308), author of numer- ous treatises on disputed questions. Besides these, mention should be made of the natural philosopher, Roger Bacon (c. 1214-94); the controversialist, Raymond Lully (c. 1235- 1315) ; the encyclopedist, Vincent of Beauvais (c. 1190- c. 1264), and the liturgical writer, Durandus (c. 1237-96), called “Speculator” Few scho- lastics are to be noticed after the 13th century. Outside of William Ockam (c. 1280-c. 1349), there are the mystics, John Ruysbroek, Denis the Carthusian, and Maitre Eckhart. The 13th century also witnessed the produc- tion of such famous hymns as ‘Dies Ire, ‘Pange Lingua? and ‘Stabat Mater,? and it was in this century that Jacobus de Voragine wrote his ‘Legenda Aurea,» and Matthew of -Paris, the last and perhaps the greatest of monastic annalists, lived. In the early part of this century a striking contrast to _Ekkehard’s ‘Waltharius> is found in the ‘Troilus? of Albertus Standensis, whose theme is classical as well as the metre and innumerable centos borrowed from Virgil. A valuable contribu- tion to the political science of the Middle Ages was the ‘De Monarchia” of Dante (1265-1321), which is comparable with the ‘De regimine Principis? of Saint Thomas Aquinas. During the last three or four centuries of the Middle Ages canon and Roman law were making rapid progress. Gratian (1160) com- menced the codification of the former, and his work was continued by Innocent III, Gregory IX, Raymond of Penafort and Boniface VIII, until a “Corpus Iuris Canonici? was ready to take its place by the side of the ‘Corpus Iuris Civilis.2 Some of the chief commentators on canon law in the various stages of its codifica- tion were Ivo of Chartres, Henry of Segusic (Hostiensis), Joannes Andreae, Baisio and Agostino Trionfi. Many of these commentaries appeared in the form of a ‘Summa,’ arranged logically or alphabetically. With regard to Roman law some of the chief commentators were Irnerius, Azo, Accursius, Cino da Pistoja and Bartolus. During the 13th century the Institutes of Justinian were used as a model by Bracton in his collection of English laws and customs. This brings to a close the Latin literature of the Middle Ages, for Petrarch, Boccaccio and Poggio, though living before the fall of Con- stantinople, logically belong. with the Renais- sance and are generally so considered. A retro- spect over the period covered by this article leads. to the conclusion that the Middle Ages were. not so “Dark” as they have been pic- tured; that Latin literature did not die with Guido da- the fall of the Western Empire, although it inevitably felt the adverse influence of barbar- ism, but on the contrary created or developed several literary forms of no mean value, such as hymns, romances and history, the latter rep- resenting every variety of style from the dryest of annals and mere records through real his- tories and biographies to historical romances; and that it was due to this preservation of the Latin language and literature and its spirit in the monasteries side by side with the vernacular that contributed in large measure to the re- vival of learning in the 15th century. Bibliography.— Chevalier, Ulysse, ‘Réper- toire des sources historiques du moyen 4ge: bio-bibliographie? (Paris 1907); Clark, Victor S., ‘Studies in the Latin of the Middle Ages? (Lancaster, Pa., 1900); Ebert, A., “Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters im Abendlande? (Leipzig 1889); Groéber, Gustav, “Grundriss der romanischen Philologie? (Vol. II, part 1, Strassburg 1893); Manitius, Max, ‘Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des Mittelalters?> (Vol. I, Munich 1911); Sandys, J..E, ‘A History of Classical Scholarshi’ (Cambridge 1908) + Teuffel, W. S., “Geschichte der rémischen Literatur» (many ‘editions and English translation); de Wulf, M., ‘Histoire de la Philosophie médiévale? (Louvain 1900; English translation by Coffey, New York 1909) ; Hurter, Hugo, ‘Nomenclator Literarius? (3d ed., Innsbruck 1903-13). HeErBerT F. WRriGHT, Sometime of the Department of Latin, The Catholic University of America. LATIN QUARTER (Quartier Latin, kart’ya’la’tan’), celebrated student district of Paris, im which are located the Collége de France, the Sorbonne, the Institut, the Luxem- bourg, Panthéon and other schools. The term is connected with youthful Bohemianism and the extremely radical views always current among certain elements of a student body. ‘See ARIS LATIN UNION, The. The institution of the Latin Union marks an important epoch in the history of bimetallism, for, while it was the gold discoveries of California and Australia which were the direct cause of the organization of this monetary convention, it was the down- ward tendency in the price of silver that re- sulted in the practical suspension of that coin- age by the parties to the treaty. In 1853, when the subsidiary silver of the United States had begun to be seriously affected by the cheapened price of gold, the Treasury Department found it ‘necessary to reduce the quantity of silver in its small coins in order that they might still remain below the value of gold. A few years passed and Switzerland also found herself face to face with the same financial problem, but she, instead of following the example of the United States, solved her difficulty by lowering the fineness of standard for her small coins to 800 thousandths fine. This method of equalizing the coinage nat- urally had a tendency to act disadvantageously for those countries, like France and Italy, where © the standard remained much higher than that of Switzerland, for, as the coins of one nation circulated commonly in all the countries that had adopted the franc system, it was soon re- alized that, in accordance with Gresham’s law, LATIN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES— LATIN WRITERS 93 the cheaper Swiss coins would eventually super- sede the dearer coins. It was unreasonable to suppose that the coins of France or Italy, con- taining as they did so much more pure silver, could hope to compete with the cheap coins of Switzerland, so long as the latter passed cur- rent at the same ‘nominal value. Such was the fear, and it was not long be- fore these predictions began to be fulfilled. The Swiss coins, being only 800 thousandths fine, soon crossed the French frontier, where they were exchanged for French coins of the same nominal value. The latter were then exported to Switzerland, where, after having been melted and recoined, they netted a considerable profit for the speculator. By April 1864 the situation had become so thoroughly unsatisfactory that the French government was compelled to issue a decree prohibiting the receipt of the Swiss coins at the customs-house and other public offices. In response to overtures from metas ont a conference of delegates representing four of the interested states— France, Italy, Switzerland and Belgium — met in Paris 20 Nov. 1865 and agreed to establish a uniform coinage, the new system to be based upon the principles adopted by the United States in 1853. Thus, the silver coins —the 2 franc, 1 franc, 50 centimes and 20 centimes pieces—were reduced from a standard of 900 thousandths fine to a uniform fineness of 835 thousandths; a policy which low- ered the small coins of the several countries to the position of a subsidiary currency. In adopting this policy the members of the Latin Union had not discarded the principles of bimetallism. Gold coins of the value of 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5 francs, and a 5-franc_ silver piece, were all to be coined at the old standard of 900 thousandths fine and free coinage, at a ratio of 15% to 1, was granted to any holder of gold or silver bullion who desired to obtain any of the gold coins or 5-franc silver pieces. The subsidiary currency was formally declared legal tender in all business transactions between individuals of the states that coined them for an amount not in excess of 50 francs. The treaty under which the Latin Union was formed was ratified by each government and went into effect 1 Aug. 1866. In 1868 Greece also became a party to the convention, which, by its own terms, was to exist until 1 Jan. 1880, but the downward tendency shown by silver during 1873 compelled the delegates to call an- other conference. On this occasion the fear most generally entertained was that the German mints would flood the several countries with their demonetized silver. A meeting was held at Paris, therefore, 30 Jan. 1874, at which the full power of free coinage of silver was with- drawn from individuals and the amount of sil- ver 5-franc pieces to be coined by the several treaty states was greatly reduced. The last convention of the Latin Union was held 29 Oct. 1897 and the monetary agreement accepted at that time is tacitly continued from -year to year, although practically in abeyance, and it may be denounced at any time by any of the contracting states. According to its terms, the five contracting states have adopted a gold and silver coinage of the same fineness, weight, diameter and current value, and the allowance for wear and tear in each case is the same. The coinage of 5-franc pieces, of gold as well as of silver, is temporarily suspended and the issue of subsidiary silver is, with certain exceptions for special reasons, limited to 7 francs per head of the population of each state. The most im- portant exception to this section of the con- vention is in the case of Greece, where the issue is limited to 6 francs per head. It is further agreed between the contracting countries that each government, in all its pub- lic offices, shall accept payment in the silver 5-franc pieces of each of the other states, - anl in the subsidiary silver to an amount not in excess of 100 francs. Moreover, each state engages to exchange the excess of its issues over its receipts of subsidiary silver for gold or 5-franc silver pieces, and each binds itself that, at the termination of the convention, it will resume also its 5-franc silver pieces, pay- ing in gold a sum equal to the nominal value of the coin resumed. The only exception to this section of the treaty is made in the case of Italy, in which the government is freed from this obligation to take back its fractional coins upon the dissolution of the convention, it being stipulated instead that it will forbid the exportation of such coins while the Union continues and will not change its present sys- tem of subsidiary coinage for five years follow- ing its separation from the Union. Other countries which have adopted this monetary system without joining the union are Finland, Rumania, Serbia, Russia and. Spain, while the following American countries have as- similated their coinage to that of the union — Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela. Consult Arnauné, “La monnaie, le crédit et le change? (2d ed., Paris 1902) ; ‘Palgrave, R. H.-I., ‘Dictionary of Political Economy? (New York 1900); and Willis, H. P., ‘History of the Latin Monetary Union? (Vol. II, New York 1900). LATIN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIP- TURES. See BIBLE, VERSIONS: OF. LATIN WRITERS. The following list of writers presents the more famous names which the general student of literature is likely to meet in his reading. The authors are ar- ranged according to the year of their birth so far as it can be determined. For further mate- rial on each author, see the separate articles on each. See also LATIN LITERATURE. Lucius Livius ANDRONICUS. 284 — 204-B.c. With his translations of cee tragedy and comedy Latin literature is said to begin, 240 B.c. He also translated Homer’s ‘Odyssey.’ We have a few frag- ments. GNAEuUS NAEVIUS. c. 269 or 264—c. 199 B.c. Reckoned the first native Roman poet. He was the first to compose a Latin play. His greatest achievement was an epic on the Punic War. Only fragments survive. Titus Maccrus PLautus. c. 254.— 184 B.c. Roman comic poet. Twenty of his comedies are still extant. P QUINTUS ENNIUS. 239 — 169 B.c. The ‘“‘Father of Roman Literature.’’ Wrote tragedies and comedies, and other poetry. His chief work is an epic poem, ‘The Annals,’ covering the whole history of Rome. Marcus Porcrus Cato. 234 —149 s.c. Author of the first Roman historical work in Latin prose. He published orations and didactic treatises. His work on ‘Agriculture’ is the oldest volume of Latin prose extant. Marcus PAcuvius. c. 220 —c. 132 B.c. Roman tragic poet. His writings are now preserved only in fragments. PuBLIUS TERENTIUS AFER. c. 184 — 159 B.c. Extant works, six comedies. Garus Lucitius. 180— 103 B.c. First Latin satiric poet. We have only fragments, 94 Lucius Accrus. 170— _ B.C Author of adaptations of Greek tragedies, original Latin tragedies, and various prose works. Fragments extant. Marcus TERENTIUS VARRO. 116— 27 B.C. Most learned of ancient Roman scholars. The major portion of his prose and poetry is lost, but we have con- siderable remains of his works on ‘The Latin Language’ and on ‘Agriculture.’ Marcus Tu.Liius Cicero. 106 — 43 B.c. his numerous writings, we have over 50 orations, many rhetorical. and: philosophical treatises and about 800 letters. Gaius JULIUS CAESAR. 100 — 44 B.C, His memoirs, ‘The Commentaries,’ CorNELIUS NEpPOS. c. 99 —c..24 B.C. Author of biographies of many eminent men. Titus LUCRETIUS CARUS. 96 (probably)— 55 B.C. Famous for his didactic poem ‘On the Nature of Things,’ which we still have. Gaius VALERIUS CATULLUS. 87 or 84—c. 54 B.C. First important and perhaps the greatest Latin lyric poet. We have a collection of over a hundred of his poems. Garus SALLustIUs Crispus. 86 — 34 BC. § 3 : Best known by his monographs on Catiline’s conspiracy and the Jugurthine war. PusBiius VirGiLtius Maro. 70— 19 B.c. Most representative Latin poet. His greatest works are the ‘Eclogues,’ the ‘Georgics,’ and the ‘Aineid,’ but we also have some of his minor poems. Quintus Horatius Fiaccus. 65 — 8 B.c. Left satires, epodes, odes, and epistles, but is most distinguished for the perfection of his odes. Titus Livius. °59 B.c.— 17 A.D. I Wrote a history of Rome in 142 books, of which we have alone remain, ALBIUS TIBULLUS. c. 54—c. 19 B.C. An elegiac writer, from whose pen we have about two dozen poems. Lucius ANNAEUS SENECA. c. 54 B.C.—c. 39 A.D, Of his rhetorical works we have about six books. SEXTUS PROPERTIUS. c. 49—c. 15 B.C. Elegiac poet, from whom we have four books of verse. Pusiius Ovipius Naso. 43 B.c.— 17 or 18 A.D. His important extant poems are the ‘Art of Making Love,’ ‘Remedies for Love,’ the ‘Metamorphoses,’ ‘Epistulae ex Ponto,’ Tristia, Fasti, Heroides. A famous tragedy, the ‘Medea,’ has not survived. GatIus VELLEIUS PATERCULUS. c. 19 B.c.— 30 + A.D. Author of a compendium of Roman history which is still extant. _VALERIUS MAXIMUS. - We have his collection of anecdotes in nine books. Lucius ANNAEUS SENECA. c. 4 B.C.— 65 A.D. From him have come a satire-on Claudius, moral essays, philosophical epistles, physical treatises, and a few tragedies. AULUS CORNELIUS CELSUS. c. 2 A.D.—? Author of an encyclopedic work, of which we have only the eight books on medicine. PHAEDRUS. Author of an extant collection of fables. Pomponius MELA. His geographical work in three books is the earliest work of the sort that we possess. Lucius JuNrUS MoODERATUS COLUMELLA. Author of an important work in prose and verse on agriculture, in 12 books. QuInTus CurtTiIus RUFUs. ‘History of Alexander the Great,’ in 10 books, all of which, except two, have survived. Gatus PLINIUS SECUNDUS. 23— 79 A-D. Author of the ‘Historia Naturalis,’ work in 37 books, still-extant. SiLttus ITALICcUS. c. 25—c. 101 A.D. Composed an extant epic poem on the Second Punic War, in 17 books. Autus Persius FLAccus. 34-—62 A.D. Writer of six satires, still extant. Marcus ANNAEUS LUCANUS. 39 — 65 A.D. Of numerous works in prose and verse we have only his epic, the ‘Pharsalia.’ PETRONIUS ARBITER. ? — 66.A.D. Author of a satirical romance in at least 20 Ee ks, of which we have considerable fragments. Titus CALPURNIUS SICULUS. Left us seven eclogues and'a poetical panegyric. Gatus VALERIUS FLAcCcUS SETINUS BALBUS. —c. 90 A.D. Composer of an extant poem on the Argonautic expedition, in eight books. Marcus Fasius QUINTILIANUS, c. 95 A.D. Known chiefly by his enti in 12 books upon the training of an orator. PuBiius PApiInius STATIUS. c. 40 — 96? A.D. There have survived of his works five books of occasional poems (the ‘Silvae’), and two epics, a Thebaid and an Achilleid, an encyclopedic Between 35 and 40 — LATIN WRITERS Marcus VALERIUS MARTIaLIs. c. 40 —c. 102 to 104 A.D. The world’s greatest writer of epigram, from whom we have 1,575. PUBLIUS CORNELIUS TACITUS. c.55—c. 120 A.D. One of the chief ancient historians. His surviving works are a treatise on oratory, a biography of Argicola, a monograph on Germany, his ‘Annales’ and ‘Historiae.’ DEcIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS. c. 60 —c. 140 A.D. Composed 16 poetical satires, which we have. : Garus PLINIUS CAECILIUS SECUNDUS. 62 —c. 113 A.D. Of his published speeches only the panegyric of Trajan has reached us, but his nine books of letters in semi-essay form, and a tenth containing his correspondence with Trajan, have survived. GAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS. 75?— 160? A.D. Latin biographer, best known by -his extant of the Caesars.’ biographies. Lucius (?) ANNAEUS FLORUS. H somborct an extant epitome of Roman history in two ooks Marcus CornELius FrRontTo. c. 100 —c. 175 A.D. Besides less important works in incomplete form, we have most of his correspondence with Marcus Aurelius. Gatrus. c. 110 —c. 180 a.p. The famous jurist, large amounts of whose writings have ceme down to us. Marcus AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 121 — 180 A.D Besides his letters in Latin, we have the "well- one al ‘Meditations,’ written in Greek, in 12 books. Lucrus APULEIUS. c. 125—? A.D. Composed works on a great variety of subjects, of which few have reached us. Most important is the novel ‘The Golden Ass.’ c. 130 — ? ALD. ‘Lives although we have fragments of other AvuLus GELLIvs. His miscellanies, the ‘Attic Nights,’ in 20 Ales i have reached us almost intact. Marcus MInucrius FELrIx. Author of a dialogue, the ‘Octavius,’ which is our earliest extant work in Latin Christian literature. GETS SEPTIMIUS FLORENS .TERTULLIANUS. c. 150—c. 230 A.D. The great Christian apologist. theological treatises from his pen. THASCIUS CAECILIUS CYPRIANUS. c. 200—c. 255 A.D. Author of numerous theological works, many extant. Marcus AURELIUS OLYMPIUS NEMESIANUS. We have a portion of his didactic poem on the chase. ARNOBIUS. ? — 326? A.D. Author of a Christian apology in seven books, which have come down to us. LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS. -— after 315 A.D. Known as the Christian Cicero. We have his chief theological works in prose and verse. Most important is his ‘Institutiones Divine.’ EuTRoOpPIus. 4th century. A historian whose epitome of the-entire history of Rome, in 10 books, is still valued. HILARIUS (Bishop of Poitiers). — 367 A.D. A Christian: controversialist and commentator on the Bible; of whose numerous works we still have remains. (PopE) Damasus. 305 — 384 A.D. One of the first Christian poets. Epitaphs and poetical eulogies of departed Christians have come down to us. Decimus MaGnus AusOoNIusS. c. 310 —c. 395 A.D. A Roman poet from whom we have many works in various departments of literature, epigrams, elegiacs, epistles, etc. AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS. c. 330 —c. 400 A.D. Composed a continuation of ‘Tactius,’ of which we have only 18 books of contemporary history. HIERONYMUsS.. 331 — 420 A.D. Famous for his translation of the Bible and his com- mentaries. A. Latin version of Eusebius’ Chronological Tables, many letters and Christian biographies require mention: AMBROSIUS.: c. 340 — 397 A.D. One of the Church Fathers. His writings include letters, orations, hymns and didactic works, of which we have large amounts. Quintus AURELIUS SYMMACHUS. c. 345 —c. 405 A.D. Besides fragments of his orations, we have official reports, and 10 books of letters which are of great historical value. AURELIUS PRUDENTIUS CLEMENS. 348 —c. 410 A.D. The greatest poet of his century. We have hymns and other Christian poetry: CLAUDIUS CLAUDIANUS. ? —c. 408 A.D. Last important non-Christian poet. Extant are his- torical and mythological poems and many shorter pieces. Most famous is his epic, ‘The Rape of Proserpina.’ Meroprius Pontius ANIcIuS PAULINUS. 353 —431 A.D. A Christian writer from whom we have letters and poems. AURELIUS AUGUSTINUS, 354 — 430 A.D. Widely known by his: ‘Confessions,’ he has also left us letters, sermons, theological treatises, and his famous work, in 22 books, on ‘The Kingdom of God,’ We have numerous ’ LATINI— LATITUDE Macrosius THEoposius. 4th, 15th century A.p. commentary on Cicero’s ‘Dream of Scipio’ and a book instructive to the student of Roman literature and antiquities, which he called ‘Saturnalia,’ have been preserved. MARTIANUS CAPELLA. 4th, 15th century A.D. We have his encyclopedic work, in nine books, on the ‘Seven Liberal Arts,’ which was of great importance in medizval education. LEo (the First, surnamed ‘‘the Great’). c. 395 — 461 aA.p. Sermons and letters of his composition are extant. Garus SOLLIUS APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS. c. 430—c. 480 A.D. A collection of his poems and nine books of letters are instructive for the life of his time in Gaul. Biossius ASMILIUS DRACONTIUS. 5th century A.D. We have from him poems that are very creditable for this age, on mythological and Christian subjects, as well as two epithalamia. MaGnus FELIx ENNopDIUS. 473 — 521 A.D. A prolific writer in several fields, whom we know through his letters, speeches, a panegyric and numerous poems. ANICIUS MANLIus ToRQUATUS. SEVERINUS BOETHIUS. c. 480 — 524 A.D. Translator of many Greek philosophical’ and math- ematical books. His famous ‘Consolations of Philosophy’ is often accounted ‘‘the last work of Roman literature.”’ FLavius MaGnus AURELIUS CASSIODORUS SENATOR. cc. 480 —c. 575 A.D. Historical, theological and encyclopedic works, a con- siderable portion of which has survived. PRISCIANUS. 6th century A.D. Besides some unimportant works, we have his eight books on the Latin language, the most influential gram- matical work in that tongue. VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS ForTUNATUS. cs 535 —c. 600 A.D. Best known through his epic poem on Saint Martin of Tours,. although others have come down to us, together with lives of the Saints in prose. GREGORIUS OF Tours. 538 — 593 A.D. Author of theological books, including lives of: the Saints. Most important to us is his ‘History of the Franks’ in 10 books. (Pore) GREGORIUS (the First). c. 540 — 604 A.D. We have theological: works composed by him, and over 800 letters of high value to the historian. Isiporus (Bishop of Seville). .c. 570 —c. 636. A theological, historical and grammatical writer of great influence upon the Middle Ages. Chief among the works which we have from him is his ‘Origines,’ in 20 books. Watton Brooks McDANIEL, Professor of Latin, University of Pennsylvania. LATINI, .la-té’né, Brunetto, Italian phi- losopher and. scholar: b. Florence, about 1220; d. about 1294.. He was a notary by profession and in. 1250 participated in the revolution which established a Guelph democratic government. He was sent as Ambassador to Alfonso X, of Spain, in 1260, to obtain aid in the stabilizing of the new government, but in his absence the Guelphs were overthrown and he took refuge in Paris where he remained in 1261-68. He returned to Tuscany in 1269 and forthe, next 20 years occupied various government offices of importance. He was an eloquent speaker and held an honored place in the. councils, of the government. His friendship for the poet Dante is dwelt upon in ‘Inferno, canto xv. He wrote the earliest Italian didactic. poetry, - his poem ‘Tesoretto,? written in rhymed couplets of heptasyllabic metre, ‘Favolello,? a rhymed letter written to Rustico Filippo, and one can- zone, being all-of his authentic verse, although other compositions are credited to him. He wrote while in France an encyclopedic work, ‘Trésor,» which was translated from French into Italian by Bono Giamboni .under..the title ‘Tesoro.? Consult Chabaille, “Li Livres don Trésor par Brunetto Latini>? (Paris 1863). LATINS (Latini), the ancient inhabitants of Latium, in Italy... Janus, Saturn, Picus and Faunus, who were deified by their subjects, are represented to have been the most ancient Latin 95 kings. These ancient. Latins formed a league of 30 cities, of which the town of Alba Longa became the head. Although Rome was a colony from Alba she became powerful enough in the reign of her third king to seize upon that city and raze it to the ground. Under Servius Tul- lius, Rome entered the Latin confederacy and in the reign of his successor, Tarquinius Super- bus, was acknowledged as head of the league. On the fall of the Tarquins the Latins regained their independence and struggled long against the republic to maintain it; it was. finally lost, — however, by the decisive victory of the Romans near Mount Vesuvius (340 B.c.). LATINUS, 1a’tin-tiz, Roman legendary king of the Laurentians in Latium and eponymic ancestor of the Latin race of anciént Italy. In Hesiod he is king of the Tyrsenians, son of Ulysses and Circe. In Virgil’s CFneid? (VII- XII). he is the son of Faunus and the nymph Marcia and reigns over Latium. He welcomes /Eneas upon his landing at the mouth of the Tiber and AZneas subsequently marries La- tinus’ daughter Lavinia and succeeds to the throne. There are other legendary accounts of Latinus but his importance in mythology lies in the effort to make him a connecting link be- tween Rome and Troy. LATITUDE. The astronomical latitude of a place is the altitude of the celestial pole. on the declination of the zenith. From the me- chanical point of view it may be defined.as the angle between the plane of: the earth’s equator and the observer’s plumb-line or vertical. Neither of these definitions makes an assump- tion as to the form of the earth and this astro- nomical latitude is seldom identical with the geocentric, nor even with the geodetic latitude of a place. It is, however, the only kind of lati- tude which can be directly determined from astronomical observations. There are six methods of determining latitude: 1, By Circumpolars.— This most obvious smethod is.to observe, with the meridian circle or some analogous instrument, the altitude of a circumpolar star at its upper culmination, and again, 12 hours later, at its lower. Each of the observations must be corrected for refraction and the mean of the two corrected altitudes will be the latitude: This method has the advantage of being an independent one and does not re- guire any data (such as the declination of the stars used) to be accepted on the authority of previous observers. . But to obtain much. ac- curacy it requires considerable time and a large fixed instrument. -In low latitudes the refrac- tion is also very troublesome. 2. By the Meridian Altitude or Zenith Dis- tance of a Body of Known Declination.— If we use the meridian circle, we can always se- lect stars that pass near the zenith where the refraction -will be small; moreover, we can se- lect them in such a way that some will be as much north of the zenith as others are south and thus eliminate the refraction errors. But we must take our star declinations’ out of cata- logues made by previous observers and so the method is not an independent one. At sea the latitude is usually - obtained by. observing with the sextant the sun’s maximum. altitude, which of course occurs.at noon. Since at sea it is sel- dom that. one knows beforehand precisely the moment of local:noon, the observer takes care 96 LATITUDINARIAN to begin to observe the sun’s altitude some 10 or 15 minutes earlier, repeating his observa- tions every minute or two. At first the alti- tude will keep increasing, but immediately after noon it will begin to decrease. The observer uses, therefore, the maximum altitude obtained, which, corrected for refraction, parallax, semi- diameter and dip of the horizon will give him the true latitude of his ship. On account of the sun’s motion in declination and the northward or southward motion of the ship itself, the sun’s maximum altitude is usually attained not precisely on the meridian, but a few seconds earlier or later. This requires a slight correc- tion to the deduced latitude, explained in books on ‘navigation or practical astronomy. 3. By Circum-meridian Altitudes.— If the observer knows his time with reasonable ac- curacy, he can obtain his latitude from ob- servations made when the body is near the meridian, with practically the same precision as at the moment of meridian passage. The great advantage of this method is that the observer is not restricted_to a single observation at each meridian-passage of the sun or of the selected star, but can utilize the half-hours preceding and following that moment. The meridian-cir- cle cannot be used, as the instrument must be such as to make extra-meridian observations possible. Usually the sextant or universal in- strument is employed. 4. The Zenith Telescope Method.— This method is generally known as the American, because first practically introduced by Captain Talcott of the United States engineers, in a boundary survey in 1845. Its essential charac- teristic of the micrometric measurement of the difference between the nearly equal zenith dis- tances of two stars which culminate within a few minutes of each other, one north and the other south of the zenith and not very far from it; such pairs of stars can always be found. When the method was first introduced, a special instrument, known as the, zenith tele- scope, was generally employed, but at present a simple transit: instrument, with declination micrometer and a delicate lever attached to the telescope tube, is ordinarily used. The telescope is set at the proper altitude for the star which first comes to the meridian and the “latitude level,” as it is called, is set horizontal; as the star passes through the field of view its dis- tance north or south of the central wire is measured by the micrometer. The instrument ' is then reversed and so set by turning the tele- scope up or down, then the level is again hori- zontal. After this reversal and adjustment, the telescope tube is then evidently elevated at ex- actly the same angle as before, but on the op- posite side of the zenith. As the second star passes through the field, we measure with the micrometer its distance north or south of the centre of the field; the comparison of the two micrometer measures gives the difference of the two zenith distances. The great advantage of the method consists in its dispensing with a graduated circle, and in avoiding almost wholly the errors due to refraction it virtually utilizes the circles of the fixed observatories by which the star declinations have been measured, without requiring them to be brought into the field. Years ago it was not always easy to find accurate determinations of the declinations of the stars employed, but at present the star cata- logues have been so extended and improved that the difficulty has practically disappeared, so that this method of determining the latitude is now not only the most convenient and rapid, but is quite as precise as any, if the level is sufficiently sensitive. 5. By the Prime Vertical Instrument.— Here we observe simply the moment when a known -star passes the prime vertical on the eastern side, and again upon the western side. Half the interval will give the hour-angle of the star when on the prime vertical. The dis- tance of the star from the pole is the comple- ment of the star’s declination. The observa- tions are not so convenient and easy as in the case of the zenith telescope and the number of stars available is less; but the method presents the great advantage of requiring nothing but an ordinary transit instrument, without any special outfit of micrometer and latitude level. It also evades the difficulties caused by refrac- tion. 6. By the Gnomon.— The ancients had few or no instruments and of course could not use the preceding methods of finding latitude. They were, however, able to make a very re- spectable approximation by means of. the sim- plest of all astronomical instruments, the gno- mon. This is merely a vertical shaft or column of known height erected on a perfectly hori- zontal plane; and the observation consists in noting the length of the shadow cast at ‘noon at certain times of the year. It is easy to com- plete the sun’s zenith distances when farthest north and south; and, since the sun travels equal distances north and south of the celestial equator, the mean of the two results will give the angular distance between the equator and the zenith; ie., the declination of the zenith, which is the latitude of the place. This method is an independent one, like that by the observation of circumpolar stars, requiring no data except those which the observer determines for himself. Evidently, however, it does not admit of much accuracy, since the penumbra at the end of the shadow makes it impossible to measure its length precisely. The ancients in- stead of designating the position of a place by means of its latitude, used its climate instead —the climate being the slope of the plane of the celestial equator, which is the complement - of the latitude. Many of the Egyptian obelisks were erected primarily for use as gnomons and were used for that purpose. Since the moon and the principal’ planets keep within the Zodiac, the ecliptic is a most convenient circle of reference and was used as such by the ancients. Consequently great care must be taken to avoid confusion of celestial latitude and longitude with right ascension and declination or with terrestrial trial latitude and longitude. The terms right ascension and decli- nation are of comparatively recent introduction, celestial latitude and longitude being much older. See LONGITUDE. LATITUDINARIAN, a term applied to a school of religious thought which flourished in England in the 17th century. It was character- ized by a tolerant. spirit toward dissenters and an insistence on adhesion to the fundamentals of Christianity rather than to any professed ec- clesiastical system as the basis of church mem- LATIUM — LATROBE | 97 bership. Its principal leaders were Hales, Chil- lingworth and Taylor. The Cambridge Plato- nists (q.v.) and later the Broad Church party are the heirs of the Latitudinarians. LATIUM, 1a’shi-tim, a name given to the country inhabited in ancient times by the Latins, between the Apennines and the sea. The prin- cipal part of this country was the Campagna di Roma (q.v.). After the conquest of the neighboring tribes, the Volsci, the Hernici and the Aurunci by the Romans, the name Latium was used to denote all the country between the Tiber and the Garigliano (formerly Liris). The chief early cities were Ardea, Lavinium, Tus- culum, Laurentum and Alba Longa. Rome kept pushing toward the coast, absorbing all those who opposed her and eventually con- auered the communities of Latium which had banded together in the Latin League. In 340 B.c. these cities revolted, but were unable to prevail against Rome and so lost their political unity. They were finally and completely con- quered in the Social War 89 B.c., when the in- habitants of Latium became full Roman citi- zens. LATONA, 14-td’na, was the mother of Apollo and Artemis. During her pregnancy she was persecuted by Hera, by whose command the dragon Python threatened her with death and the earth was not permitted to allow her a place for her delivery. After long wanderings she found rest on the floating island of Delos which granted her refuge on the strength of Leto’s promise that the island should become the seat of the deity to whom Latona would give birth there. Latona is represented as a mild, benevolent goddess, in a sea-green dress. With Artemis she cured the wounded /®neas and crowned him with glory. When Artemis fled to Olympus from the anger of Hera, La- tona carried to her her quiver and arrows, which she had left behind. She was worshipped chiefly in Lycia, Delos, Athens and other cities of Greece. In Crete a festival was celebrated in honor of her, called Ecdysia. LATOUR D’AUVERGNE-CORRET, Théophile Malo de, ta’6-fél ma’lo dé 1a-toor d6-varn-yé-kor-ra, French soldier: b. Carhaix, Brittany, France, 23 Nov. 1743; d. Oberhausen, Bavaria, 27 June 1800. He early decided to be- come a soldier and when the French Revolu- tion broke out was among the first to rally round its standard and distinguished himself in the army of the Pyrenees. Higher appoint- ments were offered him but he declined, de- claring that he was only fit to command a com- pany of grenadiers and was _ consequently named by Napoleon “First “Grenadier of France.» His corps generally made the van- guard and was called “the infernal column.” In 1799 he fought under Massena in Switzer- land and fell while attached to the army of the Rhine. His heart was embalmed and carried in a silver box by one of the company in which he had served; his name was always called, the oldest sergeant answering — “Died on the field of honor” As an author he made himself known by a singular work on the early history of Brittany, entitled, “Nouvelles recherches sur la langue, l’origine, et les antiquités des Bre- tons? (1792). vou. 177% LATREILLE, la’tra’y, Pierre André, French naturalist: b. Brives-la-Gaillarde, Cor- reze, 20 Nov. 1762; d. Paris, 6 Feb. 1833. He entered the College Lemoine at Paris in 1778 and was ordained a priest in 1786, afterward re- tiring to Brives, where in addition to his duties he made a study of entomology and zoology. He returned to Paris in 1788 and’ was elected to the Society of Natural History; the Revolu- tion, however, interrupted his career and he was for a time imprisoned at Bordeaux as a sym- pathizer of the royal cause. corresponding member of the Institute in 1798 and was given charge of the arrangement of the entomological collection at the Museum of Nat- ural History, Paris. He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1814, and in 1821 a chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He was appointed professor of zoology of crustaceans, arachnids and insects at the Museum in 1830. His fame rests chiefly upon his reforms in en- tomological classification: Author of ‘Mémoire sur les mutilles découvertes en France?; ‘Pré- cis des caractéres génériques des insects, dis- poses dans un ordre naturel? (1796); ‘Histoire naturelle des singes? (2 vols., 1801); ‘Histoire naturelle générale et particuliére des crustacés et insectes? (14 vols., 1802-05) ; ‘Genera crus- taceorum et insectorum, secundum ordinem naturalem in familias disposita? (4 vols., 1806— 07); ‘Familles naturelles du régne animal. (1825); ‘Cours d’entomologie? (1 vol. com- pleted, 1831), etc. LATROBE, la-trob’, Benjamin Henry, American architett: b. Yorkshire, England, 1 May 1764; d. New Orleans, 3 Sept. 1820. He studied at the University of Leipzig, served in the Prussian army as cornet of hussars, became an architect in England, achieved dis- tinction aS an engineer in London and came to Norfolk, Va., in 1796. He built the James River-Appomattox Canal and the Rich- mond penitentiary; removed to Philadelphia and there designed the Bank of the United States, the Bank of Pennsylvania, the old Art Academy and other structures; and supplied the city with Schuylkill water tn 1800. The Roman Catholic Cathedral at Baltimore is also his work. In 1803 he was appointed surveyor of public buildings in Washington and later was chosen architect of the capitol. After the burning of the capitol by the British in 1814, he was appointed to rebuild it, but in 1817 re- signed. His ‘Journal: Notes and Sketches of an Architect, Naturalist and Traveler» was published in 1905. LATROBE, John Hazlehurst -Bonval, American lawyer: b. Philadelphia, 4 May 1803; ‘d. Baltimore, 11 Sept. 1891. He was the son of Benjamin H. Latrobe (q.v.). He studied at the United States Military Academy, was called to the bar in 1825, from 1828 until his death was counsel for the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- way Company. He was the founder of the Maryland Institute. He also invented a stove commonly known as the “Baltimore heater.” Latrobe was long identified with the American Colonization Society and succeeded Henry Clay in its presidency in 1853. He also became presi- dent of the Maryland Historical Society and published a ‘Biography of Charles Carroll of Carrollton”? (1824); a ‘History of Mason and Dixon’s Line? (1854); ‘Personal Recollections He was elected - 98 of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad? (1858) and other works. LATROBE, Pa., town and borough in Westmoreland County, on the Loyalhanna Creek and on the main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad and the terminus of the Ligonier Val- ley Railroad, is situated 40 miles east of Pitts- burgh and 40 miles west of Johnstown at the foot of the Chestnut Ridge and the opening of the rich Ligonier Valley. It is the centre of a large agricultural district; valuable deposits of coal and iron ore are worked and coke manu- facturing is carried on to a considerable extent. Latrobe has a large number of factories, includ- ing large steel mills, woolen mills, paper mills, flour mills, mattress factory, sand works, brick works. Its public institutions include eight ele- mentary schools and high school, 12 churches, a girls’ academy and men’s college, both within three miles, also hospital and city building. Pop. (1920) 9,484. LATROBITE, a mineral named after C. I. Latrobe. It is found massive and crystal- lized tn forms belonging to the triclinic system; but the crystals are not well defined; color, pale pink; scratches glass; specific gravity, 2.8; opaque; lustre vitreous. It is composed of silica, alumina and lime, being a rare variety of anorthite (q.v.) or lime feldspar, See FELDSPARS. LATRODECTUS, a genus of spiders of the loose-web building family Theridide, which contains certain large American species pop- ularly considered poisonous, especially one (L. mactans) known in the tropics as the katipo. This spider, according to Emerton, is sometimes half an inch long, with a round abdomen and the whole body black except a bright red spot on the under side and one or more red spots over the spinnerets and along the middle of the back; the small and few males have in addition red vertical stripes on each side. This spider makes a large funnel-shaped nest among loose stones, which may spread out two or three feet. It is found all over the country from Canada to Argentina and Chile, and is every- where feared, but there is no good reason for considering it any more poisonous than other spiders. LATTEN, a compound or mixed metal re- sembling brass used in the Middle Ages for metal work. Mines of latten are mentioned as existing in the time of Henry VIII, and the compound is often alluded to in ancient public records, without students of antiquity being able to determine what composition is meant. Three varieties were distinguished, the black, the shaven and the roll. That used by English ‘workmen used to be imported from Germany and the Netherlands, the known as Cologne plate. Latteners formed one of the recognized crafts of London. In some localities the term is still applied to plate-tin. finest kind being LATTER DAY SAINTS, Church of Jesus Christ of. See Mormons. LATTER DAY SAINTS, Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of. See REORGANIZED CuurcH oF Latter Day SAINTS oF JESUS CuristT. LATTICED DRAINAGE. LISED DRAINAGE, See TREL- LATROBE — LAUBE LATTICELEAF, |at’is-léf, or LATTICE- PLANT (also called laceleaf and water-yam), a remarkable aquatic plant (Aponogeton fenes- tralis) of Madagascar, noteworthy for the structure of its leaves. The blade resembles latticework or open needlework, the longitudinal ribs being crossed by tendrils, and the interstices between them being open. The root, which is fleshy, and resembles that of the yam, is farina- ceous and edible. LATTIMORE, Samuel Allan, American educator and chemist: b. Union County, Ind., 31 May 1828; d. 17 Feb. 1913. He was gradu- ated at Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) Uni- versity in 1850, acted as classical tutor there in 1850-52, and after taking his M.A. in 1853 he was appointed to the chair of Greek. He was professor of chemistry in Genesee College in 1860-67, and in 1867-1908 professor of chemistry at the University of Rochester. He retired in 1908. He was chemist to the New York State Board of Health in 1881-1908, and to the New York State Department of Agri- culture in 1886-1908; also serving as chemist to the Rochester beard of water commis- sioners. He was an earnest worker for the exposure of adulteration in food products and did much to popularize, and stimulate interest in, his branch of science. He was active in the establishment of the Western New York Institution for Deaf-Mutes; was a Fellow, and in 1880 vice-president, of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, and was the recipient of several honorary degrees from American universities. LATTMANN, lat’man, Julius, German educator: b. Goslar, 4 March 1818; d. G6ttin- gen, 20 Aug. 1898. He was educated at the University of Gottingen, taught in the gym- nasium at G6Ottingen in 1847-60, and in 1870- 90 he was director of the gymnasium at Claus- thal. He was deeply interested in theories of linguistic teaching and reforms therein, and wrote a large number of textbooks. LATVIA, a republic situated along the southern part of the Baltic littoral. It is bounded north by the Gulf of Riga, Esthonia and Russia, east by Russia, south by Lithuania and west by the Baltic Sea. Its area is about 24,440 square miles with a population (15 June 1920) of 1,503,193. The chief city is Riga (Pop. 569,100). The republic is inhabited chiefly by Letts, the majority of whom are Protestants. There is a university at Riga. An independent republic was proclaimed 18 Nov. 1918, Latvia being previously included in the Russian prov- inces of Courland, part of Livonia, and part of Vitebsk. Agriculture is the chief industry of the inhabitants. Flax and timber are the chief exports. Riga and Libau are its principal ports. See Letts; LettisH LANGUAGE and LITERATURE. LAUBAN, city of Silesia, on the Oueis, 38 miles southwest of Liegnitz. Pop. 15,467. LAUBE, lou’bé, Heinrich, German novel- ist and dramatist: b. Sprottau, Silesia, 18 Sept. 1806; d. Vienna, 1 Aug. 1884. He studied theology at Halle and Breslau, and settled in’ He engaged in literary work © Leipzig in 1832. and an active participation in the movement known as “Das junge Deutschland.” political essays and a series of novels which scored the existing government got him into His— | LAUD — LAUDER oy difficulties, and he was subjected to police sur- veillance, while his writings were confiscated. He was expelled from Saxony in 1834 and served a nine months’ prison sentence in Ber- lin. Shortly after his marriage he was again imprisoned for a year because of his political sympathies, and in 1839 he returned to Leip- zig and entered upon his career as a dramatist and theatre director. He served in the Frank- fort National Assembly in 1848-49, resigning in order to accept an appointment as artistic director in the Hofburg Theatre in Vienna. He was director of the Leipzig Stadtheatre in 1869-70, and in 1872 returned to Vienna as head of the new Stadtheatre there, a position he held until his retirement in 1880. He was a master of stage-craft and his work in this field won him higher rank than either his dramas or novels. His dramas are notable particularly for theic adaptability for stage reproduction. He wrote several novels and his memoirs after his retirement from public life. Author of the political essays ‘Das neue Jahr- hundert? (1833); ‘Politische Briefe? (1833); a three-volume novel, ‘Das junge Europa’ (1833-37) ; the dramas ‘Monaldeschi? (1845) ; “Gottsched und Gellert? (1847); ‘Die Karls- schtiler? (1847); “Graf Essex? (1856) ; ‘Mont- rose? (1859); the novels ‘Der deutsche Krieg? (9 vols., 1865-66); ‘Die Bohminger? (1880) ; “Louison® (1881); ‘Der Schalten-Wilhelm? (1883); a record of his theatrical work in ‘Das Burgtheater? (1868) ; ‘Das norddeutsche Theatre? (1872); ‘Das weiner Stadtheater? (1875) ; and ‘Erinnerungen, 1841, 1881? (1882). His non-dramatic works were ‘published (16 vols., 1875-82); his dramatic works (13 vols., 1845-75; pop. ed., 10 vols., 1880-92). Consult Proelss, J., ‘Das junge Deutschland? (1892) ; Bulthaupt, H., ‘Dramaturgie des Schauspiels? (Vol. III, 6th ed., 1901). LAUD, lad, Willers: English prelate: b. Reading, Berkshire, 7 Oct. .1573; d. London, 10 Jan. 1645. He was educated at Saint John’s College, Oxford; took priest’s orders in 1601; becamé vicar of Stanford, Northamptonshire, 1607, and rector of West Tilbury, Essex, 1609; was made archdeacon of Huntingdon in 1615 and dean of Gloucester 1616, and as king’s chaplain in 1617 accompanied James I to Scot- land, where he attempted to enforce Episcopacy with no success. In January 1621 he became a canon of Westminster and in the following June, bishop of Saint David’s. After the acces- sion of Charles I, Laud was translated in 1626 to the see of Bath and Wells, and in 1628 to that of London. In 1629 he was elected chan- cellor of the University of Oxford, which he enriched with a valuable collection of manu- scripts, establishing also a professorship of Arabic. In 1633 he was promoted to the see of Canterbury. In 1634 he instituted rigorous proceedings against all who would not conform to the Church of England, and sought to ex- tinguish all forms of dissent by means of fines, imprisonment and exile. When the Long Par- liament met (1640) the archbishop was im- peached for high treason at the bar of the House of Lords by Denzil Holles and com- mitted to the Tower. After three years he was brought to trial, but the Lords deferred giving judgment. The House of Commons, however, passed a bill of attainder (January 1644), de- claring him guilty of high treason, and con- demned him to death. He met his end on the scaffold at Tower Hill with great firmness. He was opposed to Rome on the one hand and to Puritanism on the other, laid stress on sacra- mental grace and apostolic succession and or- der in public worship, favored a national ob- servance of Sunday, had a high repute for learning, but was tactless in Ins handling of his opponents. Consult -Gardiner, S. R., ‘The Personal Government of Charles I? (1871) and ‘The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I (1881); and ‘Lives? by Benson (1887); Hut- ton (1885); Mackintosh (1907); Simpkinson (1894), and Waterman (1912). LAUDANUM, la’da-nim. See Opium. LAUDER, Harry (real name MacLen- NAN), Scottish singer: b. Portobello, 4 Aug. 1870. He was employed in a flax-spinning mill when a boy and later worked in the coal mines. His natural talent for music and gift for entertaining soon won him considerable reputation as an amateur entertainer and he chose the stage as a profession. His first tours were of Scotland and Ireland, but he appeared in London in the early nineties and speedily be- came a great' favorite. His ‘first tour-of the United States was made in 1907 and was phenomenally successful. He toured the coun- try repeatedly afterward, always enthusiastic- ally welcome. He toured Australia and New Zealand in 1914 and returning to England threw himself whole-heartedly into the recruit- ing service. He organized and personally paid the expenses of a band of Scottish pipers which became famous and himself toured Eng- land in the work of recruiting. Later, after many difficulties, he secured government per- mission to sing on the actual firing line and in the front line trenches in France. While generally regarded as a comedian, his songs and characterizations range from those of rollicking humor to the tenderest tributes to home, love and country. After the death of his only child, Capt. John Lauder, at the front in France 28 Dec. 1916, Lauder for a time re- fused to return to the stage, but the call was so insistent that he obeyed it. After his first visit to the front he organized the “Harry Lauder Million Pound Fund for Maimed Men, Scottish Soldiers and Sailors.» Lord Rosebery is honorary president of the fund and Lord Balfour is its secretary. The pur- pose of the fund is to present the maimed soldiers and sailors of Scotland with a_suf- ficient amount to establish them in business or in a suitable calling, not as a charity, but as an- acknowledgment of their country’s debt. Both words and music of Lauder’s songs are his own composition and include many that are widely popular. Among them are ‘Roamin’ in the Gloamin’?; ‘Wee Hoose WOES the Heather?; ‘She’s “the Lass for Me: ‘The Laddies Who Fought and Won,” etc. ’ He is author of a Scottish comedy and (Harry Lauder at Home and on Tour? (1906); ‘Harry Lauder’s Logic? (1917); ‘A Minstrel in France? (1918). LAUDER, Sir Thomas Dick, 7TH BARONET of Fountainhall, Haddingtonshire, Scottish author: b. Edinburgh, 1784; d. 29 May 1848. He served in the 79th Regiment . (Cameron. Highlanders) and succeeded to the baronetcy in 1820, He began his literary career in 1815 100 with contributions to the Annals of Philosophy, published at Glasgow, and in 1817 his story entitled ‘Simon Roy Gardener at Dumphail? | was published in Blackwood’s Magazine with the editorial announcement that it was “writ- ten, we have no doubt, by the author of Waverley” He continued writing for Black- wood’s and also for Tat’s Magazine. He was active in politics; enthusiastically supported the Reform Bill; and in 1839 was appointed to the Board of Scottish Fisheries as secretary, also serving in that capacity for the Board of White Herring Fishery after the consolidation of the two. In his official capacity he devoted much attention to the foundation of technical and art schools. His most important work, from the modern standpoint, is his vivid and sympathetic ‘Account of the Great Floods of August 1829 in the Province of Moray and Adjoining Districts») (1830). Author of ‘Lochindhw? (1825); “The Wolf of Badenoch? (1827); ‘Highland Rambles and Legends to Shorten the Way? (3 vols., 1837); ‘Legends and Tales of the Highlands? (3 vols., 1841), etc. LAUDER, William, Scottish literary for- ger +). Db: latter,.part/-of 17thi,century ; d. Bar- badoes, 1771. He was educated at Edinburgh University, where he afterward engaged in tutoring. He was an excellent classical scholar and in 1739 published ‘Poetarum Scotorum Musae, Sacrae2i3- -volsas> @ icollectiontxor poems by various authors, chiefly paraphrased from the Bible, and accompanied by an over- - Jaudatory preface concerning one of the authors, Arthur Johnston. He was unsuccess- ful.in his efforts to secure an appointment at Edinburgh and in 1742 settled in London. In 1747 the first of a series of articles endeavor- ing to prove Milton a plagiarist appeared in Blackwood’s Magazine, so cleverly written that men like Dr. Samuel Johnson were for a time inclined to support Lauder in his allegations. He attempted to prove that ‘Paradise Lost? was largely composed of plagiarisms from dif- ferent authors, whom he increased to about a hundred, presenting inaccurate quotations and going so far as to make use of a Latin trans- lation of ‘Paradise Lost.» His venture suc- ceeded for a time, but was thoroughly exposed by scholars conversant with the sources from which Lauder supposedly drew his informa- tion; and he was finally induced to make a con- fession, Dr, Johnson taking a leading part in the proceedings. The forgeries are included in ‘Essays on Milton’s Use and Imitations of the Moderns in his “Paradise Lost”? (1750), and ‘The Grand Imposter: or Charles I Vindicated from the Charge of Plagiarism Brought against Him by Milton, and Milton Himself Convicted of Forgery? (1754). Practically forced into exile he went to Barbadoes, where he died. LAUDERDALE, Tae Maitland, 8TH EARL oF, Scottish statesman: b. Ratho, Mid- lothian, 26 Jan. 1759; d. Thirlestane Castle, Berwickshire, 13 Sept. 1839. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, Trinity College, Oxford and Glasgow University, read law at Lincoln’s Inn and in 1780 became a member of the faculty of advocates. He was elected to the House of Commons in 1780 and in 1781 he was an advocate of Fox’s demand for a com- mittee on the state of the American War, LAUDER — LAUDERDALE > maintaining that the authors of the war were “no less inimical to the liberties of Great Britain than America.” He supported Fox’s East India Bill in 1783, and in 1787 was one of the managers of Hasting’s impeachment. In 1789 he succeeded to the peerage and was elected a Scottish representative peer. He was in Paris at the time of the attack upon the Tuileries; and later strongly opposed the French War, but without appreciable support from his associates. His continued opposition to the ministry prevented his re-election in 1796 and in 1802, but with the return of the Whigs to power he was in 1806 created a peer of Great Britain and Ireland with the title Baron Lauderdale of Thirlestane, Berwick. He declined the appointment as governor-general of India, but accepted the office of Lord High Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland and was Sworn a member of the Privy Council, 21 July 1806. Upon Lord Grenville’s downfall in 1807 he resigned and became an active mem- ber of the opposition in the House of Lords. He was leader of the Whig party in Scotland, and received the Order of the Thistle in 1821. He afterward became affiliated with the Tory party and exerted a considerable influence with its leaders. With the Duke of Bedford he at- tacked the pensioning of Burke, calling forth Burke’s famous ‘Letter to a Noble Lord (1796). There are 86 of his protests in ‘Jour- nals of the House of Lords,’ for which consult Rogers, ‘Protests of the House of Lords? (Vols. II and III). He wrote a large number of political pamphlets, and his ‘Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Public Wealth? (1804; enlarged ed., 1819) was translated into Italian and French. Of his political writings the best known is ‘Letters to the Peers of Scotland? (1794). LAUDERDALE, John Maitland, Duxe oF, Scottish politician: b. Lethington, 24 May 1616; d. 20 or 24 Aug. 1682. He was the eldest surviving son of John, Ist Earl of Lauderdale, and made his entrance into public life as a staunch supporter of the Presbyterian cause. He embraced the Covenant and in .1643 was sent to England as one of the commis- sioners for the Solemn League and Covenant, later carrying it before the two houses at Westminster. In 1644 he was instrumental in securing the surrender of Charles I, but he afterward espoused the royal cause, and suc- ceeded in obtaining a supreme influence over Charles II. _He accompanied Charles II from Holland to Scotland but was taken prisoner at Worcester in 1651 and kept in prison until 1660 when he returned to Charles at Breda and despite opposition was appointed Secretary of State. He triumphed over all his opponents in Scotland, became practical administrator of that kingdom and soon turned against the Covenanters, whom he persecuted mercilessly. Able and unscrupulous, his position as the favorite of Charles enabled him to employ methods which were reminiscent of the scan- dals and abuses of the Stuart administration before the civil war. He was created Duke of Lauderdale and earl of March in 1672; and in 1674, earl of Guilford and Baron Petersham in the peerage of England, and was made a Privy Councillor of England. His hold upon the king withstood repeated demands of the House LAUDIAN MANUSCRIPT —LAUFF of Commons for his removal, and he remained in favor with the monarch until he voted for the execution of Lord Stafford, 29 Nov. 1680. He was then stripped of all his pensions and public offices except that of the life appoint- ment of extraordinary lord of session. His health had already failed and he died in retire- ment. He left no male issue and his English titles became extinct. LAUDIAN MANUSCRIPT (Copex Lav- DIANUS), manuscript of the Acts of the Apostles presented to the University of Oxford in 1636 by Archbishop Laud and now No. 35 in the Bodleian Library. It is a manuscript of great value and has 226 leaves of from 23 to 26 lines, nine by seven and a half inches in size. ’ The quality of the vellum is poor and the ink is faded. It is written in parallel columns and uncial letters. The Latin words are invariably opposite those of the Greek text and are a closely literal version, not a transcript of either Jerome or the Vulgate. The leaves covering xxvi, 29-— xxvii, 26, are missing. Its origin is fixed at about the 6th century and it was probably written in western Europe. Readings from it were taken by Fell (1675), and Mill (1707). The Hearne edition (1715) is very rare. Later editions are by Hansell (1864), and Tischendorf (1870). Consult Davidson, ‘Biblical Criticism? (Vol. II, p. 293) ; Gregory, ‘Canon and Text of the New ‘Testament? (1907). LAUDON, lou’dén, or LOUDON, Gid- eon Ernst, Baron von, Austrian general: b. Tootzen, Livonia, 2 Feb. 1717; d. 14 July 1790. He was of Scottish descent and served in the Russian army in 1732-39. He settled in Austria in 1742, became a colonel at the outbreak of the Seven Years War and in the following year was promoted major-general. He fought at Rossbach and Hochkirch, and with the aid of the Russian General Soltikoff defeated the forces of Frederick the Great at Kunersdorf in 1759. He won further victories at Glatz and Landshut, was ennobled in 1758 and became field-marshal in 1778 after service in Bohemia. He fought in the Turkish War of 1788-89, capturing Belgrade, and in 1790 he became generalissimo. Consult Janko, ‘Das Leben des Feldmarshalls yon Laudon? (1869). LAUDONNIERE, René de, ré-na dé 16- d6-né-ar, French navigator. Nothing is known of the date of his birth or death. His first appearance is in 1562, when he shared in Ribault’s attempt to establish a Huguenot colony at Port Royal in South Carolina. He built a fort and founded a colony in 1564 at a point 12 miles up the Saint John’s River, Florida. But his colonists were more men of adventure than of industry and were much molested by the Indians. They eventually compelled him to sanction an expedition against the Spaniards in Cuba. But the colony fell subsequently into such straits that 3 Aug. 1565, when Capt. John Hawkins reached Fort Caro- lina, as they had named their settlement, he found them without supplies or ships. On 29 August, Ribault arrived with seven ships and 300 men, and superseded Laudonniére, who was ordered home to defend himself against charges of treason and tyranny. In Ribault’s absence the Spaniards attacked Fort Carolina and massacred the colonists. Laudonniére escaped, 101 took refuge in England and did not return to France till 1566. LAUENBURG, lou’én-poork, Prussia, town in the province of Pomerania, 38 miles north- west of Danzig and 68 miles northeast of Ko6slin on the right bank of the Leba River. It has textile and leather manufactories, and also produces matches, stoves, machinery and cement bricks. There is a considerable trade in lumber, wines and dive stock. Pop. 13,916. LAUENBURG, Prussia, administrative cir- cle in the province of Schleswig-Holstein, bordering Hamburg, Liibec, Mechlinburg- Schwerin and Hanover, and bounded on the south by the Elbe River. It has an area of 455 square miles, is well wooded, with a fertile soil, and is principally occupied with agricul- ture and stock-raising. Its chief towns are Lauenburg and Ratzeburg. Its ancient in- habitants were Polabs and later it formed a part of the duchy of Saxony. It was ruled in succession by the dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg, house of Hanover and the kings of Denmark. -It became Prussian in 1866, and in 1890 Bis- marck received the title of the Duke of Lauen- burg, his largest estate, Friedrichsruh, being located there. Pop. 54,571. LAUENBURG, Prussia, town in the cir- cle of Lauenburg, Schleswig-Holstein, 26 miles southeast of Hamburg on the Elbe River and Trave Canal. It has a castle built in 1181 by Duke Bernhard of Saxony. The modern town has shipbuilding and manufacturing industries. Pop. 5,178. LAUFER, lou’fér, Berthold, American an- thropologist and Orientalist: b. Cologne, Ger- many, 1! Oct. 1874. He was educated at the universities of Berlin and Leipzig, and the Seminary for Oriental Languages, Berlin. He came to United States in 1898, and in 1898~ 99 he was a member of the Jesup North Pacific expedition .to Saghalin Island and the Amur region of eastern Siberia for an ethnological survey. He accompanied the Jacob H. Schiff expedition to China in 1901- 04, and the Mrs. T. B. Blackstone expedition to Tibet and China in 1908-10. He was as- sistant in ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History, New York, in 1904-06; lecturer on anthropology and East Asiatic languages at Columbia University, in 1905 and 1906-07; became assistant curator of Asiatic ethnology at the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, in 1911, and curator in 1915. He is a member of the leading scientific socie- ties of America, Europe and Asia. Author of more than 100 scientific papers; and ‘Descrip- tive Account of the Collections of Chinese, Tibetan, Mongol and Japanese Books in the Newberry Library? (1913). LAUFF, Joseph von, German poet, -novel- ist and dramatist: b. Cologne, 16 Nov. 1855. He was educated at Miinster, Westphalia, en- tered the army as lieutenant ‘of artillery in 1877 and reached the rank of major in 1898, at the same time being summoned to Wiesbaden by William II and ordered to devote his dra- matic gifts to the Royal Theatre. His earliest literary work took the form of epic poems, of which the first was published in 1886. He later wrote several novels which enjoyed a consider- able success, but he found his greatest rewards 102 in the writing of dramas. He was ennobled in 1913. Author of the epic poems ‘Jan Van Calker, ein Malerlied vom Niederrheim? , (1887; 35 ed, 1892) 5) .uDers dteliensteinen, ein Sang aus dem Bauernkriege? (1889; 3d ed., 1896); ‘Die Overstolzin? (1891; Sth: ed, 1900) ; “Herodias? (1897; 2d ed., 1898) : ‘Geis- lerin? (1900; 4th ed. 1902); the novels ‘Die Hexe? (1892; 6th ed, 1900); ‘Regina coeli? (1894; 7th ed., 1904); ‘Die Hauptmannsfrauw? (1895; 8th ed, 1913); ‘Marie Verwahnen? (1903) ; the dramas ‘Ignez de Castro? (1894) ; a Hohenzollern tetralogy, ‘Der Burggraf? (1897); ‘Der Eisenzahn? (1900); ‘Der Grosse Kurfurst? (1900); ‘Friedrich der Grosse, Vorwarts? (1900); ‘Ruschhaus? «© (1900); “Heerhom? (1902), etc. LAUGEE, 16’ zha, Désiré Francois, French painter: b. Maromme, 29 Jans 1823; :-d.| Paris, 24 Jan. 1896. He studied under Picot and at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and first exhibited in the Salon in 1845. His work covers portraits, historical, genre and religious paintings. Among his paintings are ‘Van Dyck a Savelthem et la Mort de Zurbaran? (1850); ‘Leseur chez les chartruex? (1855); ‘Sainte Elisabeth de France lavant les pieds des pauvres> (1865); mural paintings in the church of Saint Clotilde, Paris (1870) ; a decorative painting, ‘Le Triomphe de Flore? in the Hotel Continental (1879) ; ‘Victor Hugo sur son lit de mort? (1880); “Les Approches de l’automne? (1892); ‘Le Fil de la Vierge? (1893), etc. Examples of his work may be found in the museums of Amiens, Lille and Luxembourg. LAUGEE, Georges, French painter: b. Montvilliers, 19 Dec. 1853. He studied under his father, Désiré Francois Laugée (q.v.), and under Pils and Lehman, and made his first exhibition in the Salon in 1877. His work is chiefly of the genre type. His paintings include “Le Repas des Moissoneurs? (1877); ‘Arra- cheuses de betteraves en ‘Picardie? (1879); “En Octobre? (1881); ‘Soliel Couchant? (1886); ‘Au printemps de lavie? (1891); pays normand et les Lapins? (1894), etc. LAUGHING GAS, a name given to ni- trous oxide after its remarkable physiological effects were discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in his ‘Researches, published in 1800. The effects are generally of a pleasurable kind and the person under the influence of the gas is more or less excited, dancing, singing, laughing or indulging in other violent motions. This by prolonged inhalation ceases and stupor and anesthesia, or insensibility to pain, supervene. Hence the use of this gas in dental and surgical operations. See AN#STHETICS; NiTrRoUS OXIDE. LAUGHING GULL, black-hooded gull of the North American coasts (larus atricilla), which: migrates to the Amazon in winter. It is between 15 and 17 inches in length, has a mantle of slate-gray with white beneath, and in breed- ing season the hood, or capistrum, is nearly black. culiar cry which resembles boisterous laughter. It nests on sandy inlets from Florida to Maine, building a carefully-constructed nest of sea- weed and grasses on the ground. The Euro- pean species (larus ridibundus) is similar in character except that it is smaller in size. Both species are very numerous. fAu,. Its popular name comes from its pe- | LAUGEE — LAUGHTER LAUGHING PHILOSOPHER, a char- acterization of Democritus of Miletus (q.v.). He laughed at the follies of man and is dis- tinguished by this epithet from the “weeping philosopher,” Heraclitus, who mourned for human depravity and infatuation. LAUGHLIN, laf'lin, James Laurence, American political economist and educator: b, Deerfield, Ohio, 2 April 1850. He was gradu- ated from Harvard in 1873. In 1878 was ap- pointed instructor of political economy there and was assistant professor 1883-87. From 1887 to 1890 he was president of the Manu- facturers’ Mutual Insurance Company of Phila- delphia; in 1890-92 professor of political econ- omy at Cornell; and in 1892 became head professor of the same department in Chicago ° University. In later years he has given special attention to the study of financial questions; in 1894-95 he prepared a scheme of monetary reform for the San Domingo government which was later adopted; and he has been a member of the monetary commission created by the Indianapolis Monetary Conference in 1897. He is a member of the International Institute of Statistics and of the Political Economy Club, of which he was one of the founders. He has written ‘Anglo-Saxon Legal Procedure in Anglo-Saxon Laws? (1876); ‘Study of Polit- ical Economy? (1885) ; ‘History of Bimetellism? (1886), a comprehensive treatment of the sub- ject; ‘Elements of Political Economy? (1887) ; “Gold Prices since 1873? (1887); ‘Facts about Money? .(1895); ‘Report of Monetary Com- mission? (1898); ‘Principles of Money? (1902); ‘Reciprocity? (1903); ‘Industrial America? (1906); ‘Aus dem Amerikanischen Wirtschaftsleben>? (1907); ‘Latter-Day Prob- lems? (1909); and has prepared an abridged edition of Mill’s ‘Principles of Political Econ- omy? (1884) with a short biography and a sketch of the history of political economy, He was editor of the Journal of Political Economy, and was one of the founders of the Quarterly Journal of Economics, to which he has con- tributed frequently. LAUGHTER, in physiological-psychology, an expression of emotion, consisting chiefly in certain convulsive and partly involuntary activ- ities of the muscles of respiration by means of which after an inspiration the explosion of air from the lungs in a series of interruptions pro- duces a succession of short abrupt movements of the muscles of the face and often of other parts of the body, along with an emission of chuckling sounds from the throaty It is usually accompanied by a peculiar expfession of the eyes, indicating merriment, keen amusement, satisfaction or derision ; and even sometimes by tears. A gentle and inaudible form of laughter is called a smile. It is expressed merely in the movement of the lips and eyes. Dr. Boris Sidis discovered in the course of his investigations of the causes of laughter the primary law that “all unrestrained activities of normal functions give rise to the emotion of joy with its expres- sions of smiles and laughter”; and with this as the initial point of his discussion, he begins with a consideration of the “play-instinct” in all young animals. Upon this hypothesis Dr. Sidis builds up a_ tolerably convincing theory that very nearly all human activity is based upon the “play-instinct.”. Widely differing human ac- LAUGHTER tivities church ceremonies, theatricals, out- door games — contends Dr. Sidis, are at bottom things which subserve the same function. All satisfy the play-instinct. “Laughter, smiling, grinning, are all external manifestations of the play instinct” (Dr. Sidis). In all he perceives expressions either of satisfaction, derision, con- tentment or inner emotion of joy —and they all accompany the play-instinct. Thus church services and a football game become inwardly connected. From the coarse roar of an amused mob enjoying to the full the laughter induced by suffering(!), we reach, after gradation upon gradation, the inner glow of the human soul, a glow which comes to all reverent worshippers of the divine; and the ultimate, supreme manifestation of joy expressed outwardly only by a rapt expression of the countenance or by the gleam in the eye, it is yet none the less of the very essence of laughter. Laughing is the privilege of man. It is the outburst of. senti- ment. Yet it is limited to the domain of rational mentality. Homer tells us that the followers of Ulysses died with laughter at the sight of Irus writhing in anguish on the ground after Ulysses had broken his skull. Sir Thomas Urquhart is said to have died in a paroxysm of laughter, on hearing of the restoration of Charles II; a statement which is rendered sufficiently prob- able by the record of similar cases and by the eccentric character of the individuals said so to have died. Areteus, an ancient physician, specifies unextinguishable laughter as one of the causes of death. And other ancient writers have mentioned the names of different persons who died of excessive joy. According to the common account, even Sophocles was among this number. ; John Kendrick Bangs has pointed out that the conclusion that laughter is necessarily sar- donic would be a half-truth only. Yet he admits that he who endeavored to trace the causes of laughter, induced by a Broadway librettist, would find himself inevitably en- meshed in a miasmatic ooze emanating from the emotional morasses of an unspiritual bed- lam. The only common element in both the mirth described by Homer: and in the case just mentioned seems to him a sort of unwitting cruelty. “The highest point reached by laugh- ter” says Dr. Sidis on the other hand, “is inti- mately related to the highest intellectual, es- thetic and moral development of man.» These words recall the statement of Addison, that it annoyed him to see the talents of humor and ridicule in the hands of an ill-natured man. The better of our professional humorists re- member this. They know that ridicule and social decadence are capable of mutual under- standing, and therefore keep them apart. Pro- fessional humor never forgets that to laugh with and not at people is the mission of him who would work great ends through the laughter of sympathy. They never stoop will- ingly to the caustic ridicule which leaves be- hind it the sting of resentment and the scar of injury and injustice. (J. K. Bangs). They teach us to laugh aright. They dis- cover for us relationships where they are least expected, and the reaction is laughter. Or they show us how relationships appearing to exist are preposterous, which being done sud- denly we laugh. The expression of laughter is 1038 not always indicative of a physical apprecia- tion of enjoyment, for it is well known that idiots are prone to laughter which is often with- out any such significance. Many idiots con- stantly show a laughing countenance, the smile being more or less stereotyped; or they may grin, giggle or chuckle at the slightest stimulus, whether of food, color, music or personal con- tact. It is probable that in such cases laughter is purely an expression of physical content- ment, rarely associated with higher or more complex ideas. In children, laughter is more sensible, but the expressions of joy usually contain an ele- ment of uncontrolled exuberance. Thus they clap their hands, stamp their feet and jump around in pure excess of vital spirits. In adults the subject of laughter is extremely com- plex. As a rule, during laughter, the mouth is more or less open, the corners being drawn backward and usually somewhat wpward. The -upper lip is commonly raised. The drawing- back movement is seen best in the broad smile or in moderate laughter; in out-and-out mirth the teeth are usually exposed by the raising of the upper lip. The cheeks are ordinarily drawn upward at the same time and wrinkles are formed under the eyes. This movement in old persons makes a very characteristic feature, and the wrinkles so frequently found in their faces largely assist to interpret the sense of content- ment indicated. Associated with laughter, there is often a change in the character of the eye. The bright and sparkling eye described by Darwin and others who have devoted much time to this subject is the eye of laughter. Often tears suffuse the eyes and destroy this appearance of brightness, but this is usually due to excessive laughter. Numerous signs are produced during these expressions of joy. During laughter, the move- ments of the chest and larynx are almost ex- actly opposite to those that accompany the screams and cries of distress. In these latter the expirations are prolonged and continuous, and the inspirations short and interrupted; whereas in joy the expirations are usually short and the inspirations long. “In all races of men,” says Darwin, “the ex- pression of good spirits seems to be the same, and it is easily recognized”; and he adds that “from the natives of New Zealand to the highly civilized Caucasian, much the same forms of emotional expression are to be observed.” Laughter is often an indication of general char- “acter; it is seldom two persons laugh exactly alike; and the study of laughter becomes a study of muscular movements. The “spontane- ous, hearty laughter of sincere feeling is very different from the affected and constrained laughter of insanity.» Moreover, there are laughs which betoken peculiar constitutions of mind and character; laughs that are mechanical, nervous spasms, expressing nothing and ex- pressed when there is nothing to laugh at, or perhaps something not to laugh at; laughs which, when they have not been acquired and are unconsciously formed, are signs of neu- rotic instability, but sure signs of guile when they are affected and consciously used — un- trustworthy, anyhow, as laughter. Maudsley describes what he terms a “quasi-pathological laugh,» which is the abortive and incoherent laugh of the person of insane temperament, 104 which is laughter pulled up abruptly, followed by a sudden facial seriousness or a change which affects only a part of the features, while the rest are unmoved. Consult Bergson, Henri, ‘Laughter? (New York 1912); Darwin, ‘Ex- pression of the Emotions in Man and Ani- mals? (latest ed, New York 1910); Hughes, ‘Die Mimik des Menschen? (1900) ; and Sidis, B., the ‘Psychology of Laughter? (New York 1913) : Sully, James, ‘An Essay on Laughter? (ib. 1902). LAUGHTON, 1a’t6n, Sir John Knox, British naval officer and historian: b. Liverpool, 23 April 1830; d. 14 Sept. 1915. He served in the Baltic during the Russian War, 1854, and in China from 1856-59. He was mathematical and naval instructor in the Royal Naval Col- lege, Portsmouth, 1866-73 (afterward holding the same post at Greenwich) ; and was lecturer on naval history, 1876-89. In 1885 he was ap- pointed professor of modern history in King’s College, London. He was the author of ‘Phys- ical Geography in its Relation to Prevailing Winds and Currents? (1870); ‘Treatise on Nautical Surveying? (1872): “Studies in Naval History? (1887); ‘Nelson and his Com- panions in Arms? (1896), etc. He was the founder of the Navy Records Society, for which he edited some important publications, and he contributed largely to the ‘Dictionary of National Biography.’ LAUGIER, 16’zhya, Paul Auguste Ernest, French astronomer: b. Paris, 1812; d. 1872. He studied at the Polytechnique and at the Paris Observatory under Arago. In 1843 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and was afterward attached to the Bureau of Longi- tudes. He was favorably known for his work on the subjects of solar equator and sun-spots. LAUMONTITE, 1a’mon-tit, one of the zeolite family of minerals. It usually occurs in.masses made up of white, vitreous to pearly, monoclinic prisms. It is a hydrous silicate of aluminum and calcium, HiCaAl.SisOu + 2H:20. Upon exposure the normally colorless and transparent crystals quickly lose part of their water of crystallization and become white, opaque, brittle and much below the normal hardness of 3.5 to 4. Laumontite is rarer than most of the zeolites with which it is associated in many localities. Especially fine specimens are found at Nagyag, Transylvania, in Nova Scotia, New Jersey, Lake Superior, etc. LAUNCESTON, lans’ton, England, a_bor- ough and market town in ‘the county of Corn- wall, 24 miles north by west of Plymouth, and on the river Kensey near its confluence with the Attery and Tamar. It is situated on the side of a hill, is generally well built, and has a fine church, built of granite in the 16th cen- tury in a debased perpendicular style and oc- cupying the site of an older building of which a detached tower remains of date 1380; a guildhall in castellated style; a town-hall (1887), and a grammar school founded in the reign of Edward VI. There are the ruins of the old castle, the seat of the earls of Corn- wall, in which George Fox the Quaker was imprisoned in 1656 for distributing tracts, and of a fine priory. A fine Norman doorway is to be seen in the White Hart Hotel. Agricul- ture, tanning and iron-founding are the chief emplovments. This town was until 1838 the , moment. LAUGHTON — LAUNDER capital of Cornwall; but Bodmin is now the assize town. It gives name to one of the six Sl Ma ee divisions of the county. Pop. 4,11 LAUNCESTON, Tasmania, the second city in the island, in the county of Cornwall, 133 miles, by rail, north of Hobart, at the con- fluence of the North and South Esk rivers, the united stream taking after this the name of the Tamar, which is navigable up to the town from the sea, a distance of 40 miles. With the floating dock access is readily ob- tained by vessels of large tonnage. The streets are regularly laid out and lighted by one The principal buildings are the town-hall; Albert Hall; the mechanics’ — institute, Lisi library; technical schools and school of mines ; and art gallery. Wheat, oats, peas and pota- toes are the chief crops grown in the neighbor- hood, but fruit culture is steadily extending, and gold, oil, hardwood and bark are also ex- ported. Launceston is the seat of a United States consular agent. Pop., with suburbs, 23,726. LAUNCH, in shipbuilding, a term com- prehending the apparatus for removing a ves- sel from the land to the water. The keel of a ship is laid upon a series of blocks, placed six or seven feet apart, the tops of which lie in a line which slopes downward to the water at an angle of about five-eighths of an inch to the foot. Timber shores on either side support the vessel in an upright position upon the keel blocks. When ready for launching “ways” of planking are laid parallel to the keel under the bilges of the ship and extending into the water a considerable distance. A cradle is now built under the ship, with its bottom resting on the ways. Just betore launching the keel blocks are lowered away or otherwise removed, trans- ferring the weight of the ship to the cradle and ways. .Dogshores are put in place to prevent the ship from sliding down until the right When the time arrives the dogshores are removed and the vessel begins to slide, at first slowly, downward, the cradle slipping along the ways and breaking into pieces as soon as the water takes the weight of the vessel from it. Some vessels are built in dry dock and are floated out when ready. Hydraulic machinery of a special type 1s used to insure the cradle starting on the ways. LAUNCH, the largest boat belonging to a ship of war. It is only used for service which cannot be performed by the smaller boats. There are steam, .motor and _ sailing launches. In large men-of-war launches 40 to 60 feet long are carried. They are used as picket boats to guard against surprise by torpedo or other craft, and some are capable of steaming 18 or 19 knots. Two types of sailing launch are supplied to vessels of the United States navy—one propelled ‘by oars or sails and the other by gasoline or heavy-oil engines. The latter is from 32 to 45 feet long, has a speed of five to eight knots and is much used in carrying men and stores to and from ships. The corresponding boat of merchant vessels is called the long boat. LAUNDER, in mining, a_ water-gutter, conduit, pipe or trough, usually of wood, for conveying water to a stamp-mill or other hydraulic apparatus for comminuting or sort- LAUNDRY MACHINERY ing ore. Also a trough or box to receive the slimes from the stamps. LAUNDRY MACHINERY. Laundry machinery as it is understood from the com- mercial standpoint, includes a class of mechani- cal devices developed during a comparatively recent period, to supplant the primitive proc- esses of laundering that have existed during all time. While the use of laundry machinery in crude forms dates back for a. considerable period, the past three or four decades mark the era of the development and manufacture of power machinery for Jaundering purposes, in a sufficient degree to warrant recognition as an independent branch of industry. This is due to the fact that the steam laundry is a modern institution; and the development and extent of manufacture of laundry machinery has gone hand in hand with the growth of the laundry interest. The steam laundry of to-day _per- forms on a large scale, and ‘by improved mechanical devices, the processes of cleansing, that for centuries had been confined to hand work in connection with the running stream, or the wash tub of later years. The growth of the laundry as an organized business has been so rapid during the past quarter of a century that its changing needs have made, and _ still keep, the invention and production of laundry machinery in a state of constant development of new ideas and forms. So that while the laundry machinery business has passed the em- bryotic stage, it may fairly be said in the open- ing years of the 20th century to be in an era of great advance, holding and to hold a much more important position as an independent and recognized branch of: mechanical industry. The city of Troy, N. Y. (the birthplace of the collar, cuff and shirt industry, as set forth in an article under that head) was practically the home, and for many years was the centre, of the steam laundry interests of the country; an interest which has now extended to every city or place of any importance in the land. So general is the recognition of this fact, that the name “Troy Laundry” is still retained by hun- dreds of jJaundries in various. parts of the United States, and is even seen abroad. It was natural, therefore, that the earliest organized movement to produce the machines demanded for laundering purposes should have been made in Troy. That city has always been and still remains a strong factor in the: laundry machinery industry, which, however, with its diversified and growing interests is now located and strongly intrenched in various sec- tions. All the manufactories of laundry ma- chinery are, however, located east of the Mississippi River. The introduction, use and development of laundry machinery has been much more rapid and general in the United States than in Europe. American. manufacturers. are com- peting actively for the trade of all foreign markets. The greatest limitation to the de- velopment of the trade abroad is the conserv- atism. of foreign nations in adopting the more advanced methods of laundering calling for the modern types of American machinery. While there are very many forms of laundry machinery in use, the most prominent examples of the art are included in those that perform the three most important functions of launder- ing, namely, washing, drying and ironing. 105 Washing Machines.— The first process, washing, is performed by two types of rotary machines, the dash wheel and the reverse wheel. The dash wheel consists of a large cylinder divided into pockets by baffles and revolving in one direction inside of an outer case. This machine is used principally in new work laundries. The more generally used washer is the reverse wheel. In this the goods are placed in an inside cylinder having perforations to admit the free passage of water, steam and soap among the goods. This cylinder runs in an outside shell or case, the water and steam being let in by pipes, and by automatic re- versing devices the inside cylinder revolves several times in one direction, then an equal number in the opposite one. This action loosens up the goods and subjects them freely to the action of water and soap, and so re- moves the dirt from the garments. The inside cylinders are made of wood and brass and the outside cases of wood, galvanized iron or brass. Another form of the interior cylinder has its sides of copper rods with sufficient space be- tween to allow the free entrance of the hot soapy liquid in the outer case. An improved and very efficient type of this machine has the inner cylinder pivoted off the centre, with the result that the cleansing liquid is scooped up by the revolving eccentric and _ surges through the “wash” as it falls back to the bot- tom of the case. These washing machines are made in several sizes, graded to the economical performance of the work they are expected to do. They may be had either for the ordinary laundry work at low pressure, or with steam- tight covers and connections to support the high steam pressures used particularly for sterilizing or disinfecting. A different type of washer is used in washing flannels and other woolens, for which the temperatures must be much lower, the revolving motion slower, and the baffles and paddles arranged to produce a kneading effect. The operations of rinsing and blueing are carried out in the same machines in which the washing is done. Drying Machinery.— The next process is that of drying. The goods are first taken from the washer and placed in what is known as a centrifugal extractor. This machine consists ARPS ATESTIMPROVED "Cg YAMS LAUN ER Ont MACHINERY co, £ 20 TR of a perforated copper basket, revolving rapidly inside an iron or steel curl or case, and making from 800 to 1,400 revolutions per minute. The water is thrown out through the perforations in the basket by centrifugal force, and in about 20 minutes the goods are partially dried and ready to be taken out. The drying process is completed by the use of a dry-room. The 106. improved types include the cabinet room, made up of a series of racks or trucks arranged with bars or hooks to hold the collars, cuffs, shirts or other garments, and running on tracks into a cabinet made of wood or metal. The heat is supplied by a series of steam coils arranged horizontally or longitudinally in the room, and often heated by the waste wash water. Fans are used to circulate the heat among the goods and accelerate the drying process. The most recent development is the automatic dry-room. In this the goods are hung on hooks attached to an endless chain or wire cable, which enters into and passes through the room in a series of loops, and out at the other end of the room. The goods are dried in one journev and are re- moved from the hooks by an automatic device so that they fall into baskets on the outside of the room, Ironing Machinery.— The third general division of laundry work is the ironing, for which many forms and styles of machines are used. For collars and cuffs, it is done on machines consisting of a combination of re- volving covered drums coming in contact with revolving heated rolls, the goods being ironed as they pass through. The covered drum is wound with layers of felt, cotton flannel and muslin, forming a padding much the nature of that which covered the old-fashioned family ironing board. The heated rolls are highly polished and are heated by gas or steam. Formerly all these machines required the goods to be passed through several times for a per- fect finish. The more modern types of ironers are known as “one pass machines.” These have a series of heated rolls and drums so that the collar is put in at the front of the machine and comes out at the back perfectly ironed. Some of these ironing machines of modern production have a. capacity of from 250 to 300 dozen collars or cuffs per hour. The length of the ironing surface of the heated rolls of collar and cuff ironing machines of different sizes varies from 12 to 48 inches. For the ironing of flat pieces such as sheets, table linen and towels, a machine known as the mangle is used, by which the goods are dried on revolving cylinders heated by steam. In the recent types of mangles great capacity is attained; in some the Jength of ironing sur- face reaches 10 feet and requires several operators to feed the machine. For shirts, a separate class of ironers is required. These are the bosom, body, sleeve and band ironers. The general principle and operation are, how- LAUNE — LAUNITZ ever, the same as in the collar and cuff ironers, previously described. The most recent de- velopment of shirt ironing machinery is a series of machines steam heated, and on which the finish is produced by pressing instead of iron- ing. Flannels are pressed on a hollow table having a perforated surface through which steam comes up in sufficient amount to dampen the goods. Special padded forms of various shapes are employed in the pressing of ladies shirtwaists and fancy skirts. Other important machines not described above and which are used in laundering are starchers, shapers and dampeners. There are many other forms of laundry machinery made to cover parts of processes, and new forms and types are constantly being invented and put on the market. The special census of manufac- tures taken in the United States in the year 1914 reported a total of 6,097 power laundries of factory grade, operating machines aggregating 174,881 horse power. These establishments em- ployed 130,641 wage-earners who received an- nually a total of $59,483,000 in wages. The capital invested amounted to $98,055,000, and the amount received for the work done was $142,503,000. Consult Rothery, G. C., and Edmonds, H. O., ‘The Modern Laundry’ (London 1909). Joun T. Brrcer, Vice-President and Treasurer, Adams Laundry Machinery Company. LAUNE, loén, or LAULNE, Etienne de, or DELAUNE, French engraver: b. Paris or Orléans, 1518; d. Strassburg, 1595. He was by trade a goldsmith and medallist, but is said to have had lessons from Benvenuto Cellini, and from 1561 appears to have devoted himself to engraving. Political affairs caused him to leave France, and the later part of his life was spent at Augsburg and Strassburg. His finest work is shown in his small prints, some of which may be seen at the Louvre. They are for the most part designs for coins, and for goldsmith’s and armorer’s work. His larger prints are not important. LAUNFAL, Sir, knight of the Round Table and steward to King Arthur. He is celebrated in James Russell Lowell’s ‘Vision of Sir Launfal? and his story more fully told by Thomas Chestre in ‘Sir Launfal Tryamour, the sweetheart of Sir Launfal, supplied him with a never-failing purse and promised to ap- pear to him when he was alone. His loyalty to her incensed Queen Guinevere, daughter of the king of Ireland, whom Sir Launfal declared to be unworthy to kiss Tryamour’s feet. Im- prisoned by King Arthur and threatened with death unless he could prove his assertion, Sir Launfal: is rescued and freed by the appear- ance of Tryamour. The two then journeyed to the isle of Oleron and were seen no more. LAUNITZ, lou’nits, Robert Eberhard, Russian-American sculptor: b. Riga; Russia, 1806; d. New York, 1870. He studied under Thorwaldsen in Rome; emigrated to America in 1828, and in 1833 became a member of the National Academy. Among his works are the Pulaski monument at Savannah, Ga., and the battle monument at Frankfort, Ky. LAUNITZ, Vladimir von ver, Russian soldier and government official: d. Saint Peters- burg, 3 Jan. 1907. He served in the Turkish LAUPEN — LAUREL IN ART AND SYMBOLISM War of 1887-88, was governor of Tamboy for three years, and in 1906 was appointed prefect of police at Saint Petersburg. He was partic- ularly severe in his suppression of revolutionary _tendencies, and after the assassination of Gen. Count Alexis Ignatieff, 22 Dec. 1906, and the attempt to kill Vice-Admiral Dubassoff he redoubled his efforts. His published report showed the arrest in Saint Petersburg of 588 persons, accused of revolutionary agitation, in the three days 25-27 Dec. 1906. He was. shot and killed at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg, 3 Jan. 1907, the assassin himself being immediately afterward shot by an officer who was present. LAUPEN, low-pén, town in canton of Bern, Switzerland, situated at the junction of the Sense and Saane, 10 miles west-southwest of Bern. It was the scene of a victory of Bern over Fribourg and allies in 1339. Pop. about 1,000. LAURA, the French lady celebrated by Petrarch as the object of his lifelong passion: b. Eaumont, Provence, 1308; d. Avignon, 6 April 1348. Petrarch (q.v.) has told us that he saw her for the first time in the church of Santa Chiara at Avignon, on Good Friday, 6 April 1327; that she was the mother of several chil- dren and died on Good Friday at the hour in which he had first seen her, and was the same evening laid to rest in the Franciscan church. It would appear that Laura was the daughter of Audibert de Noyes and was married 10 Hugo de Sade and bore him 11 children. There is no ground for supposing that Laura was a mere creature of the poet’s fancy. Consult Minich, ‘Sulla Persona della Celebre Laura,’ in ‘Atti dell Instituto Veneto? (Vol. IV, series 5, 1877-78) ; D’Ovidio, ‘Madonna Laura? (in the ‘Nuova Antologia,> 15 July and 1 Aug. 1888). LAURA, a small monastic community, such as was common in Egypt, Palestine and Syria. It formed a mean between the solitude of the hermitage and the community life of the medizval monastery. There was a superior, but no very definite rules. The cells were sepa- rately clustered like an encampment round the chapel. The brethren only met together twice a week and subsisted on bread and water. Three monks occupied one cell, under Pacho- mius. A famous laura was founded by Chari- ton, a hermit, at Pharan near Jerusalem, one by Saint Euthymius several leagues from Jerusalem, and others in the 5th century by Sabas, a celebrated ‘hermit. The» Empress Eudocia, wife of Theodosius II, also insti- tuted a laura. Consult Genier, R., ‘Vie de Saint Euthyme le Grand, 377-473> and ‘Le moines et l’église en Palestine au Ve siécle? (Paris 1909). LAURACEZ. See LAurEL. LAURANA, lou-ra’na, Luciano da, Ital- ian architect: b. Dalmatia, 15th century. He is supposed to have been a pupil of Brunel- leschi, and among his own pupils was Bramante (q.v.). He designed the ducal palaces at Urbino and Gubbio for Federigo of Urbino, between the years 1468-82. His work is char- acterized by strength and simplicity of line and splendid proportions, and he is considered with- out a rival in his period. 107 LAUREL, la’rél, Miss., city and county- seat of Jones County, on the Gulf and Ship Island, the Mobile, Jackson and Kansas City and the Queen and Crescent railroads. 110 miles northwest of Mobile. In 1890 this was a village of 100 people, while in 1910 it had 8,465 population. The town owes its beginning to the sawmills of East- man, Gardiner & Company, and of the Kings- ton Lumber Company. These sawmills have timber sufficient to last them at least 25 years. Laurel has the following important industries in addition to its sawmills: .Laurel Cotton Mill, having 10,000 spindles and 640 looms, and employing 400 hands; Laurel Oil & Fertilizer Company, using 40 tons of cotton seed daily; ° Lindsey Wagon Company; Brick & Tile Com- pany, having a capacity of 30,000 bricks per day, and Mississippi Knitting Mills, with a capacity of 125 pairs of hose per day. It also has many smaller factories, as a machine shop, railroad repair shops, foundry, cotton compress, ice factory and electric-light and power plant. The town has two national banks. It contains a fine city hall building and the State Agri- cultural Farm. The waterworks are operated and owned by the municipality. Laurel has adopted the commission form of government. Pop. (1920) 13,037. LAUREL, a tree or shrub of the family Lauracee, having alternate, simple, often ever-- green, exstipulate leaves; panicles or umbels of perfect flowers and one-seeded drupes or berries. The species, of which there are more than 1,000, mostly tropical, are divided into about 40 genera and are most largely repre- sented in Brazil and southwestern Asia. Among the best-known North American members are the red bay (Persea borbonia), sassafras (Sas- safras sassafras), pond spice (Litsea genicula- ta), and wild allspice (Benzoin benzoin), all of which are found east of the Mis- sissippi. The tropical species are, however, more important. Among them are avocado or alligator pear (Persea. gratissima), cinnamon, camphor-tree and cassia (Cinnamomum), and greenheart (Nectandra rodi@). The name is usually restricted, however, to the two trees of the tvpe genus Laurus, which are natives of the Mediterranean region, and are char- acterized by dark, evergreen leaves, small, dicecious or perfect inconspicuous flowers in little axillary umbels and_ small, suc- culent,* purple, cherry-like berries. They sometimes attain heights exceeding 50 feet, but are usually scarcely more than a third of this height. The more popular species is the poet’s or wreath laurel (L. nobilis), called in America sweet-bay. See Bay. Among the numerous other shrubs known as laurels are the mountain-laurel (q.v.) and other species of Kalmia, the ,Portugal laurel (Prunus lusitanica), the cherry-laurel (Prunus laurocerasus and carolimana), and _ the ground-laurel (Epige@a repens), better known as “trailing arbutus.” LAUREL IN ART AND SYMBOLISM. The laurel was dedicated by the ancients to Apollo. The very earliest belief of the mys- terious virtues of the laurel was that it had purifying qualities. Ancient writers say that Apollo purified himself with laurel after slaying Python, the snake monster who was making 108 Parnassus (near Delphi), home of the oracle, inaccessible. And every eighth year Delphi commemorated this purification of the god by a festival; hence laurel is said to have been used by the ancients for purification from evil consequences that might follow through the slaying of a living animal. The laurel tree was supposed to be inhabited by spirits — this belief and that of purifying influences may have arisen from the fable that Diana (Artemis), the virgin goddess, guarded the purity of her nymphs with great jealousy, and when Daphne offended she was turned into a laurel tree. Hence the ancient terming of the laurel plant Daphné. In depictions Apollo frequently fig- ‘ures in purification ceremonies and the laurel accompanies the rite. An ancient writer says that during a pestilence at Miletus, Branchis, the founder of the oracle there, sprinkled the people with laurel leaves and purified them. Of a certain priestess (Gaia) we read that in delivering Apollo’s oracles she “regularly chewed laurel and fumigated herself with it” before giving her responses. Now, Asclepius, or A@sculapius, was a son of Apollo and the laurel was made also sacred to him as well as his paternal god (this besides the better-known serpent emblem on his staff, also borrowed from Apollo). And, as ZEsculapius was master of the mysteries of the therapeutic values of the vegetable kingdom (taught him by physician Chiron), the connection between the laurel’s medicinal values and the persons of Apollo and ZEsculapius in the minds of the ancient classic '-pagans becomes clear. But both Apollo and his son were close patron gods of the oracles, hence their symbolic presentment, the laurel, became the attribute of divination’: and poetry. The poet Hesiod relates how the Muses (Apollo, as Musagetés, was their leader) put into his hands a branch of laurel and immediately he became a poet. We are told that the guests at feasts who did not know how to play the lyre, recite rhapsodies or poems and could not sing acquired the necessary talent when holding a branch of myrtle or laurel in the hand. The laurel which the diviners carried in the hand they termed ithynterium and those who chewed its leaves for purposes of divination were known as daphnefagi. It was but a short step from the carrying of laurel for purpose of in- spiration to the crowning of the inspired with laurel, and the laurel wreath evolved into a symbol of fame in poetry and the arts ‘of the Muses. Thus we soon see Clio, Muse of His- tory, wearing a wreath .of laurel ; Calliope, Muse of Heroic Poems, -gets laurel woven into her wreath; Melpomene, Muse of Tragedy, al- though often crowned with cypress, also is seen frequently with a laurel wreath; Thalia, Muse of Comedy, has a laurel wreath as attribute; Polymnia wears.a laurel wreath; Terpsichore and Erato are generally so crowned. But their relationship to Apollo permits each of the group a right to the laurel emblem. By some means the before-mentioned connection of spirits with the laurel tree appears to have brought it into contact with the underworld, for we find (in magic) Medea, as a witch, had twigs of laurel in classic art. Leaving the realm of the Muses, the laurel wreath as emblem of fame of the art gifted reached later to the brow of the successful competitor in Greciar: athletics; and German satirist: LAUREL HILL — LAURENCE thence it was but a short step to the brow of the conqueror in battle and the Roman em- peror. And the pupils of A‘sculapius, who had been prescribing laurel medicinally as cure for “fever, convulsions, the afflictions of lethargy, . headache and coughs,” naturally assumed the emblem. Young doctors were decorated with laurel branches (having berries on them)— whence is said to be derived the term “bac- calaureatus.». The person crowned with laurel was called “laureatus.» The origin of the Eng- lish poet-laureate title is obscure. There was a king’s poet (Versificator Regis) in the reign of Henry III (13th century), but Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title of poet-laureate, and obtained an annual allowance of wine from 1389. Edmund Spenser (died 1599) is generally considered as the first of the officially appointed line of poet-laureates, which have been continued down to our present day. As a decorative art motif the laurel was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans. In copying the classic arts the French styles Louis XIV and Empire, of course, used the laurel liberally as one of their favorite decora- tive elements. In wreaths, borders and other uses, the laurel is retained in art of recent times. CLEMENT W. CouMBE.. LAUREL HILL, Pa., long range of the Alleghany Mountains, forming a boundary be- tween Somerset County on the east and Fayette and Westmoreland counties on the west, and extending from Cambria and Indiana counties into West Virginia, where it is named Chest- nut Ridge. Its altitude is above 2,000 feet. The ridge has rich deposits of coal. LAUREL-MAGNOLIA, the See Bay. LAUREL WATER, or CHERRY-LAU- REL WATER, liquid distilled from the leaves of the cherry-laurel and water. It standardizes to 1 per cent of hydrocyanic acid and consti- tutes a powerful poison. It is used as a flavor- ing for medicines, and as a sedative and nar- cotic. It has been used ignorantly as a flavor- ing in cooking with fatal results. LAUREMBERG, lou’rém’bérk, Johann, b. Rostock, 26 Feb. 1590; d. Sor6e, Denmark, 28 Feb. 1658. He studied medicine at Paris and Rheims, traveled exten- sively in England and on the Continent, and in 1618 was appointed professor of poetry at Rostock. He became professor of mathematics at the Ritterakademie at Sorde in 1623 and re- mained there until his death. His use of the Low German dialect mirrored wittily the pecu- liarities of the people and scenes he portrayed. He wrote a Latin play ‘Pompeius Magnus? (1610), and a Greek epithalium. His most notable work, however, is his ‘Veer olde berOmde Schertzgechichte.? .Consult Classen, J., ‘Ueber das Leben und die Schriften des Dichters J. Lauremberg? (1841). LAURENCE, Richard, Anglican arch- bishop, younger brother of French Laurence: b. Bath, 1760; d. Dublin, 28 Dec. 1838. He was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and was ordained in the Church of England. He held the vicarage at Coleshill in 1787 and later was vicar of Great Cheverall and sweet-bay. LAURENCE -—— LAURENS rector of Rollstone, Wiltshire. He became deputy regius professor of civil law under his brother at Oxford in 1796; and in 1804 deliv- ered the Brampton lectures, “An attempt to illustrate those articles of the Church of Eng- land which the Calvinists improperly consider Calvinistical,» later published (1805; 3d ed., 1838). He was appointed rector of Mersham, Kent, in 1805, and of Stone, near Dartford, in 1811. A well-versed student of theology, canon law and Oriental languages, he was in 1814 ap- pointed regius professor of Hebrew and a canon of Christ Church, Oxford. In 1822 he became archbishop of ‘Cashel, Ireland. He was instrumental in having the study of Oriental languages given a more important place in English universities, was a zealous defender of the Church of England against the Calvinists and Unitarians, and succeeded in recovering from‘ the Ethiopic manuscripts several sup- posedly lost apocryphal works, among them ‘The Ascension of the Prophet Isaiah? (1819), and ‘The Book of Enoch the Prophet? (1821). Author of numerous sermons and essays, and ‘Dissertations on the Logos of Saint John’? (1808) ; ‘On the Existence of the Soul After Death? (1834); ‘Poetical Remains? (1872; 25 copies, privately printed), etc. LAURENCE, 1a’réns, Saint, Roman Chris- tian martyr: d. Rome, 10 Aug. 258. He was of Spanish race, and when in the Valerian perse- cution Pope Sixtus II was carried to martyr- dom, Laurence as deacon and treasurer of the Church refused to give up the keys of the treasury, and according to tradition was put to death by being laid over a fire on bars of iron, The Escurial was built by Philip II in fulfil- ment of a vow made on Saint Laurence’s day, 10 August, to the honor of that saint, the ground plan being after the pattern of a grid- iron. LAURENCE, Samuel, English painter: b. Guilford, Surrey, 1812: d. London, 28 Feb. 1884. He was one of the most successful portrait painters of his day, and had as sitters many of his most eminent contemporaries, including Whewell, Browning, Carlyle, Dickens, Froude, F. D. Maurice, Thackeray and Tennyson. While on a visit to ‘Longfellow in 1854 he painted a portrait of John Russell Lowell which has been engraved. LAURENS, 1a’réns, Henry, American pa- triot and statesman: b. Charleston, S. C., 1724; d. there, 8 Dec. 1792. He was a mercantile clerk in London and Charleston and in the latter place established a successful business. An opponent of royal aggression, he was in- volved in numerous disputes with the Crown judges regarding their decisions in marine law and the admiralty courts. Having withdrawn from active business, in 1771 he went to Eng- land and was there one of the 38 Americans who in 1774 signed a petition to advise Parlia- ment against passing the Boston port-bill. In 1775 he became a member of the first South Carolina provincial congress, in 1776 vice-presi- dent of the Council of Safety in that colony and from 1 Nov. 1777 to 10 Dec. 1778 was presi- dent of the Continental Congress in succession to Hancock. He sailed in 1779 as Minister to Holland for the negotiation of a treaty with that country, but his packet, the Mercury, was 109 captured by the British, he was examined by the Privy Council and from 6 Oct. 1780 was imprisoned for about 15 months in the Tower on suspicion of high treason. Having been exchanged for Cornwallis, he was sent to Paris, where, with Adams, Franklin and Jay, he signed the preliminary treaty of’ peace with Great Britain 30 Nov. 1782. The collections of the South Carolina Historical Society con- tain many of his papers. Consult “Henry Laurens: Narrative of his Capture and Con- - finement in the Tower of London,” in ‘Collec- tions? of the South Carolina Historical Society (Vol. I, Charleston 1857) ; Moore, Frank, ‘Cor- respondence of Henry Laurens of South Caro- lina,» in ‘Materials for History? (New York 1861) ; Dawson, H. B. (ed.), ‘Laurens Petition and Letters? (Morrisania, N. Y., 1866-67). LAURENS, Jean Paul, zhon pol 16-r6n, French artist: b. Fourquevaux, Haute-Garonne, 1838; d. Paris, 24 March 1921. He studied in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts at Toulouse, and became a pupil of Cogniet and Bida in Paris. His work is distinguished for boldness and vigor, and the tragic elements of his subjects are heightened by the dramatic realism of the artist. In point of moderation, in treatment and of taste in coloring, his compositions have received some adverse criticism, but his powerful effects are not called in question. In_1886 he became a professor at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, in 1891 he was elected a member of the Institut and president of the Société des Artistes Fran¢ais and in 1900 commander of the Legion of Honor. Among his pieces are ‘Death of Tiberius? (1864) ; “A Voice in the Desert? (1868); ‘Exe- cution of the Duc d’Enghien? (1872); ‘The Pool of Bethesda? (1873); ‘The Interdict? (1875); ‘The Austrian General Staff Around the Deathbed of General Marceau? (1877); ‘Napoleon and Pius VII at Fontainebleau? (1894), and the ‘Proclamation of the Republic in 1848? (1902). He is also distinguished for his decorative work; notable frescoes from his brush adorn the Panthéon and the Paris Hotel de Ville. Consult Van Dyke, C. J., ‘Modern French Painters. LAURENS, John, American soldier: b. Seuth Carolina, 1753; d. there, 27 Aug. 1782. He was the son of Henry Laurens (q.v.). He was educated in England, and in 1777 became an aide to Washington, whose secretary he also frequently was. From the battle of Brandy- wine (11 Sept. 1777) he participated, it is said, in all actions in which Washington commanded, He was severely wounded at Germantown, commanded the light infantry when the united American and French troops under Lincoln and D’Estaing attempted the capture of Savan- nah, and aided in the defense of Charleston when besieged by Clinton. In the spring of 1781 he was sent to France to obtain money and supplies. Contrary to diplomatic precedent, he requested and obtained an audience with the king, and secured the necessary assistance. He captured one of two redoubts at Yorktown and received Cornwallis’ sword. He was killed in a skirmish on the Combahee River, S. C. What Washington called his “intrepidity ‘bordering on rashness” won for him the sobriquet of “the Bayard of the Revolution.” His correspond- ence, with a memoir by William Gilmore Simms, was privately printed in 1867. 110 LAURENS, formerly LAURENSVILLE, C., village and county-seat of Laurens County, 38 miles southwest of Spartansburg | and 75 miles northwest of Columbia, on the Charleston and Western Carolina and the Columbia, Newberry and Laurens railroads. It is situated in an agricultural district, has cotton mills and a glass factory. Pop. (1920) 4,629. LAURENT, Auguste, 06-gust 10-ron, French chemist: b. La Folie, Haute-Saone, 14 Nov. 1807; d. Paris, 15 April 1853. In 1838 he became professor to the Academy of Sciences of Bordeaux, which post he held for eight years. In 1848 he was made assayer to the mint and chemical adviser of the Minister 9f War. His researches were very numerous, em- bracing all departments of the science, organic and inorganic, and opening up new fields and new views. He was one of the champions of the unitary system against the dualistic held by most of the chemists of the time. He was op- posed also to the electro-chemical theory, which his investigations into the derivatives of naphthaline did so much to shake, and main- tained the doctrine of types — forms of consti- tution of bodies which admitted of parts being substituted by other elemental or compound substances without the type of the original body being altered. His views on general chemical theory appeared in a posthumous work entitled “Méthode de chimie,’ translated into English by Odling, and published by the Caven- - dish Society, 1855. LAURENTIAN (1a-rén’shi-an) MOUN- TAINS, the crescent-shaped plateau-like height of land in British North America, ex- tending for over 3,000 miles from Labrador to the Arctic Ocean, surrounding Hudson Bay, forming the watershed between Hudson Bay, the Saint Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and dividing the same bay from the sources of the Mackenzie River. The average elevation of this range is about 1,500 feet, while some of the peaks attain a height of 3,000 feet. The system is remarkable for its number of lakes and sheets of water. The rock formation be- longs to the sedimentary deposits known as the Laurentian system. LAURENTIAN SYSTEM. The term Laurentian has been applied by certain Cana- dian geologists to a great series of rocks, partly of sedimentary and partly of igneous origin, that is typically developed.on the Laurentian Hills north of the Saint Lawrence River. Sim- ilar rocks occur elsewhere along the Height of Land, from Labrador to the western end of Lake Superior. The rocks are of very ancient date, but the exact significance of the term Laurentian as a time division or as a lithologic name is in dispute. The typical Laurentian in- cludes a series of gneisses, mica, schists, quartzites and crystalline limestones with in- trusive granites and green stones of the Archean group, including also the Huronian. The total thickness may be 30,000 feet. By the United States Geological Survey, Laurentian is made an epoch of the Archean period. Dur- ing this epoch the Laurentian series of granite batholiths (q.v.) were intruded into the Keewatin (q.v.) series of greenstone schists (q.v.). The proper application of the term is in much dispute. LAURENS — LAURIA LAURIA, lou’ré-a (LURIA or LORIA) Ruggiero di, Spanish-Italian admiral: b. Castle of Lauria, Lauria, Basilicata, 13th century; d. Valencia, 2 Jan. 1305. Of his early life little is known. His father was an adherent of King Manfred of Sicily, and his mother, Bella of Lauria, accompanied Constanza, the daughter of Manfred, to Spain where she was married to Peter, son of James, conqueror of Aragon. Lauria was reared in the court of Aragon, and received estates in Valencia after the subjection of that kingdom, but little is known of his life until 1282, when he accompanied Peter III on his expedition to Sicily. The Sicilian revolt, known as the “Sicilian Vespers,” had broken out against the ruler established by Charles of Anjou after the death of Manfred. Peter III claimed the kingdom by right of his wife as daughter and heiress of Manfred, and with the support of the Sicilian nobles. The expedition against the Anjou forces was successful and in 1283 Peter III was crowned king by the Sicilians. Lauria. was. thereupon made com- mander of the fleet, but while this first docu- ment concerning him refers to him in the high- est terms_it gives no clue to the nature of his services. As commander of the Aragon fleets, Lauria in the succeeding 20 years proved him- self one of the greatest naval commanders in history, his career recording continuous vic- tories. He fought in both the south Italian waters and off the coast of Catalonia, his first recorded victory being that over the naval force of Charles of Anjou off Malta in 1283. His fleets were maintained in a high~ degree of efficiency, and his methods included the use of the ram and of powerful crossbows instead of depending, as did the French, upon boarding and hand-to-hand fighting. He won a decisive - victory over the Angevin fleet in the Bay of Naples, 1284, capturing Charles of Salerno, heir’ to the kingdom, who continued for years a prisoner in Sicily and Spain. His most brilliant exploit was the ‘defeat of the French fleet off Catalonia in 1285, which ‘still ranks as a_su- preme achievement in nayal history. The French king, Phillipe le Hardi. invaded Cata- lonia with the purpose of aiding his cousin, Charles of Anjou, in his effort to regain Sicily. The invading’ army was supported by the French fleet off the coast, from which it drew reserves and supplies. Peter II] summoned Lauria from the Sicilian coast, the commander reaching Barcelona 24 August. The nature of the French campaign necessitated the French fleet’s being extended along the entire coast of the invaded territory, and while Lauria’s fleet was greatly inferior in numbers his naval strategy was fully equal to the emergency. On 9 September at night he struck at the French centre near the Hormigas in full force and gained a com- plete Victory. He then sailed for Rosas, in- duced the enemy fleet to come out by raising the French colors and visited upon it a defeat as crushing as the first blow upon the centre. The capture of the town followed, together with the stores massed there for the invading army. The retreat of King Phillipe soon fol- lowed, nearly his entire army being lost through hunger and the attacks of the mountaineers. The French naval power was so broken that it did not recover for many years, and Lauria re- turned to Sicily to resume command of King Peter’s forces against those of Anjou. LAURIA — LAURIER The death of King Peter in 1286 materially changed the situation. He was succeeded on the throne of Aragon by his son James and in Sicily by Alphonso. Upon Alphonso’s death James inherited the throne of Sicily and placed his younger brother Frederick there as vice- roy. James made peace with the Angevin line, but the Sicilians offered the crown to Fred- erick who successfully withstood both his elder brother and the forces of Anjou. Lauria re- mained for a time with Frederick, but his dom- inating allegiance appears to have been to the house of Aragon and he returned to the sup- port of James. Frederick thereupon confiscated Lauria’s estates in Sicily and put his nephew to death, a retaliation which was afterward repaid in full in two crushing defeats of the Sicilians at sea. However, although badly beaten at sea, Frederick’s land operations were more successful and the Peace of Calatabellota ended the war in 1302. Lauria retired to his vast estates in Valencia in 1303, where he died two years later. Lauria undoubtedly was merci- less as a conqueror, a characteristic.of his age, but his brilliancy as a commander was not rivaled for many generations. Consult Amari, M., ‘Guerra del Vespro? (2 vols., 8th ed., 1876) ; Ramon de Muntaner, ‘Chronicle, edited by Karl Lanz (1844); Charles de la Ronciére, “Histoire de la marine francaise? (Vol. I, pp. 189-217, 1899). LAURIA, Italy, city of Basilicata in the province of Potenza, near the borders of Cala- bria, seven miles south of the nearest railway station at Lagonegro, and 121 miles south of Naples. It is built upon the side of a steeply sloping hill, 1,821 feet above sea-level, and is in two parts, a walled portion above and the remainder on a plain below. It has a castle which was the birthplace of Ruggiero di Lauria (q.v.) in the 13th century. The French, under Masséna, destroyed the town in 1806. It is situated in section producing fruit, wine, pota- toes and’ grain, and it manufactures rope, woolen goods and leather. Pop. 9,769. LAURIC ACID, or DODECOIC ACID, a fatty acid occurring (as glyceryl ether) in the berries of the bay-tree (Laurus nobilis), in pichurim beans, in cocoanut oil and elsewhere. It may be prepared from the oils in which it occurs by saponification, followed by the frac- tional precipitation of the acids by means of barium acetate. Lauric acid has the formula CH»O., and is insoluble*in cold, and slightly soluble in hot, water, but very soluble in both alcohol and ether. From its solution in alco- hol it crystallizes in the form of silky needles, melting at 110° F. With the metals it forms a series of salts. called laurates, which, with the exception of barium laurate and the lau- rates. of the alkali metals, are mostly insoluble in water. The laurates of the alkali metals and of barium are soluble in water, and much more soluble in salt water than the alkali metal salts of the other fatty acids. Hence “marine soap” is made from cocoanut oil. The glyceryl ether (also known as ttrilaurin, or laurostearin), has the formula CsHs(C12H23O2)s, melts at 113° F. and may be obtained from bay-berries by extraction with alcohol. LAURIE, Arthur Pillans, Scottish chem- ist and educator: b. 6 Nov. 1861. He was a son of Simon Somerville Laurie (q.v.) and 111 was educated at the universities of Edinburgh and Cambridge. He was a Fellow of King’s College at Cambridge and in 1891 became Cantor lecturer. He was*a member of the Home Office Committee on Pottery Manufac- ture in 1893, and lecturer in physics and chem- istry at Saint Mary’s Hospital Medical School in 1895, serving also as Gilchrist lecturer. He was examiner in chemistry to the Royal Col- lege of Physicians in 1898, and likewise exam- iner in oils and colors to the City and Guild’s - Institute. He was professor of chemistry to the Royal Academy of Arts in 1912, and is principal of the Heriot-Watt College, Edin- burgh. In 1915 he was appointed to the Muni- tions Inventions Department of the Ministry of Munitions as a member of the panel of scien- tific experts. He edited ‘The Teachers’ Ency- clopedia’ (7 vols 1UTl-12).. and seeauthor OL ‘Scientific Investigations in Phvysico-Chemis- try”. “The “Pood of” Plants?’*€1893) *“Proe- esses, Pigments and Vehicles —a Manual for Art Students? (1895); ‘Greek and Roman Methods of Painting? (1910); “The Pigments and Mediums of the Old Masters? (1914), ete. LAURIE, John Wimburn, British Cana- dian soldier and legislator: b. London, 1 Oct. 1835; .d..20.May 1912... He was. educated. at Sandhurst and at the Staff College, and entered the 2d Queen’s Royals as ensign in 1853. He volunteered for service in Crimea in 1854-56, where he saw service at Sebastopol and in both attacks on Redan. He was a staff-officer in the Indian Mutiny 1858-59, and was inspect- ing field-officer of militia in Canada in 1861- 81. He joined the expedition to the Transvaal in 1881, and took an active part in the sup- pression of the half-breed rebellion in north- western Canada in 1885. He was Red Cross commissioner in the Serbian-Bulgarian War in 1885, and was promoted lieutenant-general in 1887. In 1874-80 he was president of the Board of Agriculture in Nova Scotia,-and in 1887-91 he served in the Canadian House of Commons as member from Shelburne. He was mayor of Paddington in 1907-08, and served in the English Parliament as member from Pembroke Boroughs in 1895-96. He received numerous medals in his military service and was likewise decorated in several foreign coun- tries. He was a lecturer on agriculture, Scotch regiments in the army and on Imperial Fed- efation. LAURIE, low’ri, Simon Somerville, Scot- tish educator: b. Edinburgh, 13, Noy. 1829; d. there, 2 March 1909. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh; for five years was a teacher on the Continent; and. returning to Scotland held important positions in connec- tion with education. In 1876 he was appointed to the professorship of education in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. He published many works, among which are ‘Philosophy of Ethics? (1866); ‘Language and Linguistic Method in the School? (1892); and ‘Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education» (1895); ‘Synthetica> (1906). ; LAURIER, lo’ri-a, Str Wilfrid, Canadian statesman: b. Saint Lin, Quebec, 20. Nov. 1841; d. Ottawa, 17 Feb. 1919, the only son of Carolus Laurier, whose ancestors came from France in the latter half of the 17th century, and of Marcille Martineau. He received his early 112 education at L’Assomption College, and studied law at McGill University (Montreal) ; in 1865 and 1866 was a vice-president of the Institut Canadien (Montreal), which formed the nu- cleus of a movement toward intellectual liberal- ism on the part of the younger French and was strongly opposed by the clergy; and in 1866 opened a law office at Arthabaskaville. In 1868 he married Miss Zoé Lafontaine of Montreal. In 1871 he was elected to the Que- bec legislature, and in 1874 he was chosen as Liberal member of the Dominion House of Commons for Drummond and Arthabaska. He was soon recognized as one of the most elo- quent speakers in the Canadian Parliament. At the outset he was regarded as the leader of the Liberals in Quebec province; a speech of his in defense of Catholic liberalism, delivered in Quebec June 1877, was received with en- thusiasm throughout the country; a few months later he was selected for the portfolio of inland revenue in the Mackenzie administration. On 7 June 1887 he succeeded Blake as chief of the Liberal opposition, though he himself ad- vised the choice of an English-speaking Prot- estant; and in 1896, on the return of the Lib- erals to power, he became Prime Minister of Canada. That position he filled with remark- able distinction until the return of the Con- servatives in 1911. Measures associated with his premiership were the framing of a British preferential tariff and a consequent tariff war - with Germany; a compromise settlement of the Manitoba schools question; the organization of two new provinces, Saskatchewan and Alberta; extensive railway developments; and the fram- ing of the Taft-Fielding reciprocity agreement, on which his party was defeated at the polls. Of all the representatives of the colonies in England on the occasion of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, he was the most remarked for the refinement of his manners and the elegance of his diction, and was recognized in Paris as in London as one of the most eloquent speakers of his time either in French or Eng- lish. While a great admirer of England’s polit- ical institutions, and a Liberal of the English rather than of the Continental school. he was an ardent Canadian and a thorough believer in Canada’s destiny. He opposed the imperialistic policy of Chamberlain and contributed more than any other man to prevent him from draw- ing the colonies into the “vortex of warlike imperialism,” to use his expression. He had to pass through all kinds of political and religious difficulties, and gave evidence of qualities and talents which would have made him distinguished as a speaker and a states- man in any country of the world. Not the least of his services to Canada has been the splendid contribution he made, through- out a long life, to the furtherance of good relations and mutual helpfulness between the two great races of which the population is mainly composed. As leader of the opposition he approved of Canada’s participation in the European War,- and he addressed a number of meetings in the province of Quebec with the object of stimulating recruiting among French-Canadians for service in the forces being sent overseas. Consult his ‘Speeches,’ edited by Barthe (1890); Willison, ‘Sir Wilfrid Laurier and LAURION — LAURIUM the Liberal Party” (1903); and His Time’; and Skelton, Sir Wilfrid Laurier? (1916). LAURION, or LAURIUM, GASTERIA, Greece, mountain range and mining town in southern Attica. The silver mines through which the town and district be- came famous apparently were known from very early times; but their historic importance dates from the time of the Athenians, for whom they produced a large revenue and whom they materially aided in maintaining commercial as- cendency. Themistocles seized the opportunity after the battle of Marathon to secure the devotion of the mining revenues for the build- ing of a navy and the adoption of his plan resulted in the Athenian naval power and the victory at the battle of Salamis. The mines were let out to individuals, the state receiving a fixed rental in addition to a percentage of the profits, and they were worked by slaves. Toward the end of the 5th century the im- portance of the mines declined and while they were worked up to the opening of the Christian era the output steadily diminished until it came chiefly from the working over of tailings. The ancient workings are still in_a good state of preservation. French and Greek companies took over the rights to the mines in the mid- dle of the 19th century and they are now worked for lead, manganese and cadmium. The mining district is connected by rail with the port of the same name. Pop. about 10,000. LAURISTON, 10’ré’ston, Jacques Alex- andre Bernard Law, Marouis pe, French general and diplomat: b. Pondicherry, India, 1 Feb. 1768; d. Paris, 12 June 1828. He re- ceived a military education at Paris and Brienne, and as a cadet was on friendly terms with Napoleon. He was commissioned in 1786, served in the earlier Revolutionary campaigns in the Netherlands and on the Rhine, and in 1795 was promoted brigadier-general of artil- lery. In 1800.he was appointed aide-de-camp to Napoleon. He was director of Le Feére Artillery School, special envoy to Denmark, and in 1802 was sent to England to present the ratification of the Peace of Amiens. He became general of division in 1805, fought in the war against Austria, and in 1806 occupied Venice and Ragusa. He was appointed gover- nor-general of Venice in 1807, was present at the Erfurt negotiations of 1808, and later par- ticipated in the Spanish and Italian campaigns, He commanded the artillery at the battle of Wagram in 1809 and by his furious onslaught at the Austrian centre won a decisive vic- tory. He served as Ambassador to, Russia in 1811, and in 1812 he rendered important sery- ice in covering the retreat from Moscow. He was in command of different army corps at Liitzen, Bautzen and in the autumn campaign, and was taken prisoner in the retreat from Leipzig in 1813. He was released upon the fall of the empire and joined Louis X VIII. He was given a seat in the House of Peers, a command in the royal guard, was created a- marquis in 1817 and marshal of France in 1823. In the invasion of Spain in 1823 he com- manded the siege and capture of Pamplona. LAURIUM, la’ri-ttm, Mich., village in Houghton County, on the Copper Range and Mineral Range railroads. It adjoins Calumet, Daniel, ‘Laurier ‘The Day’ of also ER- LAURVIK — LAUTERBRUNNEN and is seven miles from Lake Superior and 12 miles north by east from Houghton. It is situ- ated in the Keweenaw Peninsula, in the northern part of the State, in one of the richest copper regions of the United States. There is con- siderable local trade. Conper mining is the chief occupation. Pop. (1920) 6,696. LAURVIK, lour’vék, or LARVIK, or LAURVIG, Norway, seaport and watering re- sort, on the Larvikfjord, at the mouth of the Laagen River, four miles south of Fredriks- vaern and. 98 miles southwest of Christiania, on the Skein Railway. The port has a depth of from 18 to 24 feet. The city has a con- siderable industrial activity and exports tim- ber, ice, woodpulp and granite. There are sulphur and mineral springs, and the mud baths are famous. Pop. 10,105. LAUSANNE, 10’zan, Switzerland, capital of the canton of Vaud; situated on the Jorat Mountain Range, on the river Flon, one mile noith of Lake Geneva at a junction of rail- ways from Geneva, Brieg and the Simplon, Freiberg and Bern, and from Vallorbe for Paris. There is a funicular railway between the town proper and Ouchy, its port on Lake Geneva. The older portion of the town was built upon five hillocks, to which was due much of its picturesque beauty. The improve- ment project of filling the valleys and hollows between the hills was begun in 1836 and com- pleted in the early part of the 20th century with considerable impairment of the natural beauty of the city, although some fine squares have been built on the filled-in portions. The Flon Valley is spanned by the Grand Pont, a two-story viaduct built in 1839-44, and the bridge of Chanderon was constructed in 1905. The railroads have given the modern Lau- sanne a considerable commercial importance as it is now on the international route from Paris to Milan, and the town is growing, extending its limits chiefly on the south and west. The cathedral of Notre Dame was conse- crated by Pope Gregory X in 1275 and is con- sidered the finest structure of its sort in Swit- zerland. It was sacked after the Bernese con- quest, when the cathedral became Protestant. It is Gothic in type and was restored under the direction of Viollet-le-Duc in 1875-1906. Sharing with the cathedral the highest ground in Lausanne is the castle, dating from early in the 15th century, built by the bishops, but now used as an administration building by the canton of Vaud. Near these on the Place de la Ri- ponne is the Palais de Rumine, opened in 1906, wherein are lodged the libraries of the canton and the university, the collection of the Musée Arlaud and the canton’s collections of nat- ural history, archeology and industrial art. The university was founded as an academy in 1537 and was raised to its present rank in 1890. Lausanne has besides a Protestant theological school in connection with the cathedral, a ‘num- ber of boarding schools and many scientific and literary societies. It is a recognized literary centre, is much frequented by foreigners and has a large resident foreign population. It was the birthplace of Benjamin Constant and the historian Gibbons lived there many years. The population is in the main French-speaking and Protestant. vou. 17—8 118 The ancient town was on the shore of the lake southwest of the present site and was de~- stroyed by the Alamanni in the 4th century. The inhabitants re-established their homes iti the hills and in 590 the new town was chosen by Bishop Marius as his see city. There was a Burgundian settlement across the Flon and another settlement around the church of Saint Laurent, both of which eventually became part of Lausanne. The bishops became princes of the empire in 1125, but from 1368 their powers over the municipality were gradually decreased. After the Bernese occupation, 1536-1798, Lau- sanne became capital of the canton Léman and upon the creation of the canton of Vaud in 1803 it was made its capital. Pop. 63,923. LAUSSEDAT, Aimé, 4’ma lds’da, French geodesist and-astronomer: b. Moulins, 19 Feb. 1819; d. Paris, 18 March 1907. He was edu- cated at the Ecole Polytechnique, where, after some years in the engineers, engaged princi- pally in the fortifications of Paris and the Spanish frontier, he returned in 1856 to take the chair of eeodesy and astronomy. In 1871 he became professor of applied geometry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers and in 1881 he was appointed director there. The unifica- tion of French time to that of Paris became a law through his efforts 14 March 1891. He. invented and improved many instruments in use in geodetic photography and astronomical observations and was keenly interested in the development of aerial transportation, serving as president of a commission appointed in its in- terests. Author of ‘Lecons sur l’art de lever les plans? (1860); ‘Recherches sur les instru- ments, les methodes’ et le dessin topograph- iques? (2 vols., 1898-1903), etc. LAUT, Agnes C., Canadian author: b. Stanley, Ontario, 11 Feb. 1871. In childhood she was taken to Winnipeg. She attended Manitoba University, afterward spending her summers in the Rocky and Selkirk mountains. In 1895-97 she was an editorial writer for the Manitoba Free Press, Winnipeg. She has written ‘Lords of the North (1900); ‘Her- alds of Empire? (1902); ‘Pathfinders of the West? (1904); ‘Vikings of the Pacific? (1906); ‘The Conquest of the Great North- West? (1908); ‘Freebooters of the Wilder- ness? (1910); ‘Pioneers of the Pacific Coast? (1915). LAUTERBRUNNEN, lou’tér-brin’én, Switzerland, village in the canton of Bern, in a valley of the same ‘name traversed by the White Liitschine River, seven miles southeast of Interlaken and 33 miles southeast of Bern on the Bernese Oberland Railroad. The val- ley has some of the most magnificent scenery in Switzerland and the town is built at the foot of the Jungfrau, while the Schwarz Mouch and Breithorne combine so to shadow it that the strn does not touch it before seven in the summer nor until noon in the winter. The view of the Jungfrau is superb and the valley, which takes its name from its numerous springs, has some splendid cascades, among which is the Staubbach, 980 feet in height. Others are the Triimmelbach and Schmadri- bach. The altitude of the town is 2,580-2,645 teet. Tourists come here in great numbers. Pop. 3,318. 114 LAUTREC, 1d’trék’, Odet de Foix, V1- COMTE DE, Erench general : b. 1485; d. Naples, 15 Aug. 1528. He was brother to Francoise de Chateaubriant, mistress of Francis I, through whose influence he gained high offices. He served in the campaign of Marignano in 1515 and in 1516 became governor of Milan where he enacted measures of the utmost severity. He was successful in defending the duchy in 1521, but he met disastrous defeat at the bat- tle of the Biocca in 1522, He was created mar- shal of France in 1527, and in command of the army of Italy he succeeded in again occu- pying Milan; he then undertook the siege of Naples, but died of the plague without accom- plishing his mission. Authorities differ_con- cerning him and his rank as a general. He is by some considered brilliant and able although unfortunate, while others maintain that such assertions are without grounds. LAUZON, Jean de, zhé6n dé _ 16-z6n, French colonial administrator: b. 1582; d. 1666. He was a member of the Hundred Associates, who organized to promote the settlement of New France. He seems to have directed most of his energies toward acquiring landed prop- erty in Canada for himself and his family and gained for his son the sole right of fishing on 60 leagues of the Saint Lawrence, with a title to the adjacent lands. His own title to the island of Montreal he sold to the Jesuits in 1640. He was for five years governor of New France (1651-56), but his policy was feeble and short-sighted. He returned to France before his second term was over. LAUZON, or SAINT JOSEPH, Canada, village in Lévis County; in the province of Quebec, on the south bank of the Saint Law- rence River, five miles east of the city of Que- bec, on the Intercolonial and the Quebec Cen- tral railroads. It has a ferry to Quebec and is connected with Lévis, two miles distant, by an electric railway. Its industries include ship- building and it sells aérated waters. Pop. 3,978. LAVA AND LAVA FLOWS. The fluid rock poured out by a volcanic vent is known as lava. If this is very viscous it may accumulate near the vent and form a cone. If it is very fluid it may flow out into a thin sheet spread- ing far over the surrounding country. The rate of flow is rarely over a mile an hour. As the lava advances it destroys all life in its path, burning and scorching the vegetation, As the mass begins to cool its surface may solidify and break open many times, becoming exceedingly rugged, or scoriaceous as it is called. Very rough cindery surfaces are called Aa (q.v.) and smooth surfaces Pahoehoe, from the Ha- waiian, Lava surfaces are often highly vesicu- lar or amygdaloidal (q.v.). In some regions lava flows have accumulated one above another to great depths, as in the Columbia Plateau, where as many as 40 distinctive flows can be seen along the side of a canyon wall, sepa- rated by thin layers of soil. See VOLCANOEs, and section on Volcanism in article on GEOLOGY. LAVAGE. The washing of any cavity of the body, by means of a flow of water by gravity through a rubber tube, and the with- drawing of the water and whatever comes with it through the same tube. Thus the bowels and the bladder may be irrigated, as it is then called. LAUTREC — LAVAL-MONTMORENCY Specifically lavage is a term generally used of the removal of the contents of the stomach for various purposes. A rubber tube about five feet long is used. The patient, in a sitting position, with head thrown back, inserts the tube into his mouth, and it is then forced gently downward for about 22 inches, with the help of swallowing movements. To the other end of the tube a vessel, such as a funnel is attached and into this is placed a pint to a quart of warm sterilized water or weak alkiline solution. The funnel is then raised to a height above the patient’s head sufficient to allow the water to flow gently into the stomach. When it. has disappeared from the funnel, the funnel is lowered and the water, with the contents of the stomach, flows out into it. This process is used either in the analysis of test meals, to discover conditions of acidity, secretion of mucus, the rate of digestion, etc. or for the purpose of treating such disorders as catarrh of the stomach. The patient can easily learn to carry out the whole process himself. With a still greater amount of skill a special form of tube can be passed through the stomach, the pylorus and into the duodenum, and thus that part also can be lavaged. For the lavage of children’s stomachs a smaller tube and quantity of water is used. SmitH ELy JELLIrrFE. LAVAL, la’val’, France, capital city of the department of Mayenne, on the Mayenne River, 46 miles east of Rennes and 188 miles by rail southwest of Paris. The town is built upon both sides of the river, the ancient portion occupying the hills to one side while the mod- ern town stretches over the plains on the op- posite banks. The river is 124 feet wide at this point and is spanned by a railway viaduct; the stone bridge, Pont Neuf, and the Pont Vieux with its three pointed arches, which dates from the 16th century. The town is considered one of the most beautiful in France. In the ancient portion with its narrow, twisting streets are the cathedral, built in the 16th century; the castle of the counts with a donjon built in the 12th century; the 14th-15th century church of Notre Dame; the 12th century church of Notre Dame d’Avéntirés and the 15th century church of Saint Vénérand. It has many houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. There are also an art museum, a museum of natural history and archeology, a library and a linen hall. The modern town has fine promenades and modern educational institutions. The town existed in the 9th century. It was taken by Talbot in 1428, and suffered considerably in the Vendean war, the Vendeans under Rochejacquelin here defeating the Republicans 24-25 Oct. 1793. Its chief and oldest industry is the manufacture of cotton and linen cloth, introduced from Flan- ders in the 14th century. There are other manu- facturing interests, including foundries, flour- mills, shoe factories, tanning and ‘dyeing. There is a trade in marble and in grain. The bishopric was created in 1855. Pop. 25,540. LAVAL-MONTMORENCY, Frangois Xavier de, fran-swa ksav-€-a dé 1a-val-mon- mo6-ron-sé, French Roman Catholic prelate: b. Laval, France, 30 April 1623; d. Quebec, 6 May 1708. He became a priest in 1645 and in 1651 was appointed missionary bishop of Cochin- China, a post which he declined to become arch- 9g LAVAL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL deacon of Evreux. In 1659 he came to Canada ; as apostolic vicar, with the dignity of bishop of Petra in partibus. There he established (1663) the Quebec Seminary. In 1674-83 he was titular bishop of Quebec. He was an active and in- fluential figure in governmental affairs. He op- posed the sale of intoxicating liquors to In- dians. He is regarded with great veneration by the French Canadians. Laval University is named in his honor. LAVAL UNIVERSITY (now Unversity © oF MonrtTREAL), until 1919 a branch of the uni- versity founded at Quebec, in 1852 and named for Mgr. Francois de Montmorency-Laval first bishop of Quebec. The directors of this institution obtained then from Her Majesty Queen Victoria a charter which in confirming the rights and privileges they had enjoyed up to that time also conferred upon them university rights and privileges, for the instruction of youth in secondary and profes- sional studies. In 1876, following a request from Mer. Bourget, bishop of Montreal, to secure a Cath- olic university in his episcopal city, the Sacred Congregation of the Propaganda enjoined Laval University to establish a section at Montreal, to give therein the same instruction as at Que- bec. This curriculum was inaugurated in 1878, in the faculties of theology and law, in 1879 in the faculty of medicine and in 1887 in the faculty of arts. By virtue of an apostolic constitution of 1919, the section became independent of the establishment at Quebec and assumed the title of University of Montreal. It now possesses its own government and a complete local administration. It comprises four faculties, those of theology, law, medicine and of arts (sciences and letters), seven aggregated schools, the Polytechnic, the School of Comparative Medicine and Veter- inary Science of Montreal, that of Dental Sur- gery, that of Pharmacy, Notre Dame Ladies’ College, the Agricultural College at Oka and the School of Higher Commercial Studies. The French language is used in all sections ex- cept that of theology, where Latin prevails. The professors of the faculty of theol- ogy are appointed by the Grand Seminary of Montreal, directed by the priests of Saint Sulpice. The ordinary course is three years and three months. Some pupils prolong their stay six months to prepare themselves for doc- torship. A greater number, after completing their course at Montreal, go to take their de- grees in Rome, where the Seminary of Saint Sulpice of Montreal has opened a college for Canadian students. The faculties of law and medicines are in- _ stalled in an edifice on Saint Denis street, where they have large classrooms, sectional libraries, playrooms, a gymnasium, etc. The faculty of medicine has a lecture- room, a dis- secting-room and four laboratories, for chem- istry, histology, bacteriology and medical elec- tricity. The present faculty of medicine con- tinues the School of Medicine and Surgery of Montreal, founded in 1845 and affiliated to the Victoria University of Coburg (Ontario), from which it received its degrees until the year 1890. At this period the school had its charter modified by the Quebec government and allied itself to the Montreal section of the faculty of medicine of Laval University, with which ‘to- 115 day it forms one body. It receives its degrees from Laval University, but has maintained its charter and autonomy. As the scientific and literary course which is usually followed by this faculty in the Eng- lish universities is given, dn this province, to Catholic youths by the colleges and seminary schools affiliated to Laval University, where the pupils obtain the degrees of bachelor of letters, of sciences or arts, a complete instruction of ‘this kind is not imposed on the university. - Seven courses, relevant to this faculty, are actually given ‘there, that of Fren¢h literature, founded in 1898, by the late Abbé Colin, supe- rior of the Seminary of Saint. Sulpice of Montreal. Up to that time this course had been given by a Fellow of the Paris University. The second course has for its object ecclesi- astical public law, and comprises 20 lessons. The five other courses are those of history of fine arts, economics, Gregorian plain-chant, pedagogy and French- Canadian history. The other professors, ecclesiastic or lay, of the faculty of arts give a regular course in the colleges affiliated to the university, or are occa- sionally called to give public conferences at the university. To this faculty have been an- nexed a college for the higher education of young girls, which is under the immediate su- pervision of the congregation of Notre Dame, and a college of modern literary teaching for members of religious communities and laymen also. This year the faculty gave a summer school for masters of secondary and primary instruction. The Polytechnic School of Montreal, founded ih 1874 and aggregated to Laval Uni- versity in 1887, is largely supported by the gov- ernment of the province of Quebec. It corre- sponds, by the nature of its curriculum, to the faculty of applied science in other universities. It prepares for the different branches of civil and industrial engineering, such as public works, railways, engines, mines, bridges and steel construction, etc. A branch of decorative and industrial arts has been connected with it recently. Previously the school also was pro- vided with a prosperous School of Architecture. The School. of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science of Montreal exists since 1886. Aggregated to the university, it is under the control and submissive to the inspection of the Minister of Agriculture of the government of Quebec, from which it receives a grant. Its system requires a four years’ course and the final degree is that of doctor of veterinary medicine. The school, which occupies very fine premises at 387 De Montigny Street East, has a very interesting pathological museum at the university. The number of pupils, nearly all from this province, is not great, but it tends to increase as the farmers are beginning to recognize the value of the services which can be rendered them by veterinary doctors, who are well up in their profession. The School of Dental Surgery of Montreal, located at 380 Saint Hubert Street, spaciously and richly, 1s the continuation of the French section of the Coltege of Dentistry of the Province of Que- bec founded in 1894. It was affiliated to Laval University in February 1904, and obtained legal existence by an act of the legislature of Quebec, in the month of May of the same year. This school, intended for the French Canadian rou 116 of this country and the need for which arose from the rapid progress dental surgery has made within the past few years, is now launched, left to its own resources and depend- ing solely on the devotedness of its professoxs. The course covers a period of four years and the final degree is that of doctor of dental surgery. The infirmary is open every day from 1 October to 1 April, from 9 A.M. until noon, and the poor receive, under the direction of competent professors, gratuitous attention or at a slight outlay to cover the cost of material. The School of Pharmacy, affiliated in May 1906, with 124 students actually; the Agricul- tural College at Oka, affiliated in March 1908, and which numbers nearly 200 pupils, mostly graduates of the secondary colleges; finally, the School for Higher Commercial Education, founded by the government itself and affiliated in April 1915, form three of the most interest- ing departments of this prosperous institution. The latter constitutes one of the most im- pressive buildings of the city, facing the old and famous Viger square and the actual Viger station. In the very present, an understanding is working to the effect of soon connecting with the university a school of music, both vocal and instrumental. An ecclesiastical vice-rector, chosen by the bishops of the province of Montreal, is ap- pointed by the University Council. He repre- sents, for discipline and general administra- tion, the university, the corporation of ad- ministrators and the bureau of governors; an executive committee of five members, dele- gated by the bureau, assists him in the manage- ment of current affairs and in the execution of the decisions of the corporation and bureau. The archbishop of Montreal, by rank of” vice-chancellor, controls the nomination and dismissal of the professors, and exercises a strict surveillance over doctrine and discipline. He is by right the president of the corporation of administrators, which owns the university and manages its finances. The suffragan bishops of the ecclesiastical province of Montreal, the delegates of all the affiliated colleges and sem- inaries of the same province, the delegates of faculties and former graduates also’sit in this corporation, which generally operates through a bureau of governors, composed of eminent personages in finance and the liberal pro- fessions. Emite CHARTIER, Registrar of the University. LAVAL UNIVERSITY, Quebec, Canada. The first establishment of higher education in Lower Canada was founded in 1852. The di- rectors of the Seminary of Quebec, the pioneer institute in the educational field, secured from her majesty, Queen Victoria, a charter, which conferred on the seminary the privileges of a university. A petition signed by the arch- bishop and bishops of the ecclesiastical province of Upper and Lower Canada was presented at Rome, requesting that the Seminary of Quebec be accorded the customary rights of a Catholic university, and in particular that of conferring diplomas in theology and canon law. Pius IX did not at once grant what was asked. At that time Great Britain refused to recognize the ecclesiastical titles given by the Holy See; she also denied legal existence to the Catholic ny ¥ LAVAL UNIVERSITY, QUEBEC University of Dublin, and it was feared in Rome that the foundation of a Catholic uni- versity in Quebec would prove an impossibility. For this reason Rome wished to be assured of the grant of a royal charter before it extended canonical privileges. As soon as the official document was received from London, which was toward the end of December 1852, an au- thentic copy was forwarded to Rome and on 6 March 1853 the Holy Father sent a brief which granted to the archbishop of Quebec the right to confer theological degrees upon those who completed their ecclesiastical studies at the Quebec University. . In the Royal Charter, the Roman Catholic archbishop of Quebec, by virtue of his office, is named the visitor of the university, which shows the broad-mindedness of the English government which permitted the French- Canadian Catholics to organize their university teaching without any control save that of an archbishop of their own nationality and faith. The state renounced all interference in ques- tions of program or inspection. The visitor received the most extensive powers, he was given the right to veto on all regulations and nominations, and on presentation of the coun- cil, he could appoint the professors of the faculty of theology. As to the office. of rector, the highest in the university, it de- volves, by right, by the terms of the charter upon the superior of the Seminary of Quebec. This office is, therefore, essentially temporary, since the superior of the seminary, elected for three years and re-eligible after the first trien- nial, cannot occupy the post entrusted to him longer than six consecutive years, unless a special authorization be accorded by ecclesias- tical authority. The charter also provides for the establish- ment of a council which conjointly with the rector administers the affairs of the university. This council is composed of all the directors of the seminary and of the three oldest titulary professors of each faculty. It has the power to make the statutes and regulations which it may judge suitable, with one condition, that these statutes and regulations contain nothing contrary to the laws of the United Kingdon or of Canada. . This council held its first session on 21 Feb. 1853, when it resolved that Laval University should. include four faculties: those of the- ology, law, medicine and arts. Each faculty is provided with a special council which dis- cusses and submits to the university council all questions which may directly interest one or the other of these faculties. The faculty of theology was not immedi- ately created at Quebec. The number of aspi-. rants to the priesthood was limited and the needs of the parochial ministry so urgent and so multitudinous that the seminarians could not be allowed the time to devote themselves freely to the study of the higher ecclesiastical sciences. It was only in the year 1866 that the basis of a faculty of theology was laid. The faculty of medicine, on the contrary, was organized and put in motion in the year 1853. A School of Medicine already existed in Quebec. The di- rectors of the university found therein a certain number of professors who were prepared to give medical instruction. The School of Medi- cine was willing to efface itself and make way LAVATER for the budding faculty of Laval, and six of its professors resigned and accepted professor- ships at the university. The course in medi- cine was fixed at four years. As there were two large hospitals in Quebec, those of the Hotel-Dieu and the Navy, the students of the faculty were enabled to follow numerous and various clinics. It was not such an easy task to organize a faculty of law, and in the year 1854 the first steps toward this end were taken. However, of all the branches of the university, teaching of law was the one for which the greatest need existed, as there was no school of law in Que- bec. There were many distinguished lawyers who could have filled professorships but they lacked the enthusiasm to devote themselves to teaching and were not willing to sacrifice, however little, without sufficient compensation, a numerous clientele. There was great diffi- culty in realizing the plan first conceived. After various proceedings, two professors were found, one being a judge of the Superior Court, who was named dean. In 1855 the university council was able to add four other representa- tives to the faculty of law. Unfortunately the greatest number of these professors were pre- vented, by reason of their external occupations, from preparing and giving their courses so much so that during several years the teaching of the faculty of laws was limited to the - courses of civil and Roman law. In _ 1857, it was necéssary to call a professor from France to give lectures on Roman law. The faculty of arts was at first the least favored of all the faculties. The students who had received at the colleges and seminaries the basis of a literary or scientific education were not inclined to further pursue these studies. Being obliged to earn a livelihood by entering one or the other of the liberal pro- fessions they commenced their studies in the- ology, law or medicine immediately upon ter- minating their classical course. They had neither time nor money to devote to the study of the higher branches of letters and sciences. For this reason Laval University did not deem it opportune to establish, in the first years of its existence, professorships of advanced in- struction in the faculty of arts. In 1855 a faculty of arts was outlined. Laval University had by virtue of its charter the power to confer diplomas of bachelor, licen- tiate or master, and of doctor in the faculties of law, medicine and arts. It could not con- fer degrees in theology. The papal brief ac- corded by Pius IX granted this privilege to the archbishop of Quebec. The university did not receive all the rights of a canonical uni- versity until the year 1876. In 1870 the faculty of medicine of Laval had the favor and honor of being affiliated to the Royal College of Surgeons of London. This granted the university and the students of the faculty of medicine the following privi- leges: (1) The enrolment examination of Laval University is recognized as equivalent to the preliminary examination of the Royal College of Surgeons of London; (2) the cer- tificates of assiduity gained by’ enrolled stu- dents of the medical course are recognized by the Royal College; (3) doctors in medicine of Laval University are admitted to the examina- 117 tion for diploma as member of the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons of London. In 1865 the rector asked and obtained from Rome an indult which gave the archbishop of Quebec the power to confer degrees in theology upon all students of the grand seminaries of the Canadian province. In 1866 Laval Univer- sity organized its faculty of theology. The library of the Quebec Seminary in- cluded at the time of the foundation of the university over 15,000 volumes; 1,000 volumes for the faculty of law, and 2,000 volumes for the faculty of medicine, were then added. In 1876 this library contained about 55,000 vol- umes. At the present time it contains over 140,000. The seminary cabinet of physics is one of the most complete in America. In 1897-98 a bacteriological laboratory was installed and in the following year a labora- tory in experimental chemistry for analytical work was placed at the disposal of the stu- dents. The university has a number of splen- did museums as. follows: (1) Invertebrate Museum, comprising of several distinct collec- tions. The entomological collection numbers over 14,000 specimens of insects from all parts of the world. The conchological collection contains nearly 1,000 species of Canadian and foreign mollusks. (2) Museum of Ethnology, in three divisions: (a) the Indian collection; (b) the Chinese and Japanese collection; (c) the general collection. (3) Religious Museum, containing religious souvenirs, etc., and particu- larly the lead tomb with remains of the wooden coffin in which reposed for nearly two cen- turies the remains of Francis de Laval, first Catholic bishop of Canada and founder of Quebec Seminary. (4) Museum of Paintings, containing many old and valuable paintings by the old masters. (5) Mineralogical and Geo- logical Museum, containing over 5,000 speci- mens. (6) Botanical Museum. (7) Zoological Museum. (8) Numismatic Museum containing over 3,000 coins and medals. The faculty of theology numbers 650 and there are 380 students in the other faculties. The faculty of theology has 35 pro- fessors and 25 auxiliary professors, and the other faculties have 21 professors and 18 auxil- iary professors. LAVATER, la’va-tér, Johann Kaspar, Swiss physiognomist: b. Zurich, 15 Nov. 1741; d. 2 Jan. 1801. As a youth he was not distin- guished for studious methods, but early mani- fested a fervent piety and remarkable powers of persuasion in public discourse. He de- veloped a distinct poetic gift, and was first known through his verses in 1767. Two years later he took orders, became pastor of a Ztirich church in 1764, and served in that calling with different churches in his native city until his death. He also enjoyed a contemporary popu- larity through his mystical writings, now almost forgotten. He is best remembered as the origi- nator of a system of physiognomy, which, al- though of little practical account to-day, is often referred to by students and writers. The book in which he set forth his system is entitled “Physiognomische Fragmente zur Beforderung der Menschenkenntniss und Menschenliebe? (‘Physiognomical Fragments for the Promotion of a Knowledge of Man and of Love of Man, 1775-78). It was ornately published, with a 118 profusion of striking illustrations, including portraits of distinguished. persons, features to which its fame is considered to have been largely due. a penetration and insight into human nature and its varying traits which entitle him to some consideration as scientist and philosopher, and there is a residue of his teachings which the inquiring world still appreciates. He enjoyed an intimate acquaintance with Goethe, who con- tributed to the ‘Fragments? a chapter on the skulls of animals, and strikingly portrayed Lavater in ‘Wahrheit und Dichtung.? Goethe afterward became estranged from him, accusing him, not without some grounds, of hypocrisv and superstition, but probably in fact repelled by Lavater’s intellectual bigotry. Still Lavater was a man of large and open heart, personally and socially as hospitable as he was mentally intolerant, and with characteristics of true saintliness. During the French occupz‘ion of Switzerland he gave proof of his patriotism, and his death resulted from a wound inflicted by a French soldier at the capture of Zurich in 1799. There are several English translations of the ‘Fragments.? Consult Lives by Gessner (1802), Heisch (English 1842), Muncker (1883), and monographs by Steck (1884) and Von der Hellen (1888). See PHysiocNomy. | LAVEDAN, Henri, 6n-rée la-vé-dan, French journalist, critic, wright: b. Orleans, 1859. He began life as a journalist and novelist, but his best work has been as a dramatist. He was elected to the Academy in 1898. He contributed under the pseudonym of “Manchecourt” a series of bril- liant articles to Vie Paristenne, Gil Blas, etc., and in fiction has published ‘Mam/’zelle Virtue? (1885); “Queen Janvier? | (1886); “Lydie> (1887); ‘Inconsolable? (1888); ‘High Life? (1891); “A New Game? (1892); ‘Teur beau physique? (1894); ‘Leurs soeurs? (1895); ‘Crest servi? (1904); ‘Baignoire 9» (1905). Among his plays the most notable are ‘A Fam- ily? (1890), awarded a prize of 4,000 francs by the French Academy, and ‘Prince d’Aurec? (acted in 1892); ‘Le vieux marcheur? (1895) ; ‘Les deux noblesses? (1897); ‘Le marquis de Priola» (1902); ‘Viveurs? ‘and ‘Varennes,’ with G. Lenotre (1904) ; ‘Le duel? (1905), pro- duced in New York in 1906; ‘Le bon temps? (1906); ‘Sire? (1910), produced i in New York in 1911; “Servir? (1913 ). LAVELEYE, Emile Louis Victor de, a-mél loo-é vék-tér dé lav-la, Belgian political economist: b. Bruges, 5 April 1822; d. Doyon, near Liege, 3. Jan. 1892. He was educated at the College Stanislas, Paris, and at the Uni- versity of Ghent, where he studied law, and in 1864 became professor of political economy in the University of Li¢ge. Among his numer- ous writings are ‘History of the Provencal Language and Literature? (1846) ; ‘The Ques- tion of Gold? (1860) ; ‘Property and its Primi- tive Form? (1874), his best-known work; ‘The Religious Conflict in Europe? (1875); ‘Con- temporary Socialism) : ‘Elements of Political Economy” “Money and In- ternational Bimetallism> (1891); ‘Govern- ment in Democracies? (1891). LAVELLE, la-vél, Michael J., American Roman Catholic prelate: b. New York city, 3 May 1856. He was graduated at Manhattan LAVEDAN — Yet Lavater’s observations display | novelist and play- | LAVENGRO College in 1873 and at Saint Joseph’s Seminary, Troy, in 1874. He was ordained in the priest- hood 7 June 1879, and was appointed assistant rector at Saint Patrick’s Cathedral in that year. Since 1886 he has been rector there. He was appointed vicar-general of New York in Ane and domestic prelate to Pope Pius X in 1 LAVENDER, a genus (Lye of perennial herbs, stib- shrubs and shrubs of the order Labiate, consisting of about 20 species, native to the Mediterranean region and south- western Asia. The best known are true laven- der (L. vera) and spike lavender (L. spica), which like other members of the genus have narrow leaves crowded near the ground, and blue or violet two-lipped flowers in whorls which form more or less interrupted spikes. All the lavenders contain similar volatile oils (oil of lavender, oil of spike, etc.), for which the plants are cultivated and which are ob- tained from the flowers by distillation with water. The principal use of these oils is in perfumery, but they have been used in medi- cine as stimulants, tonics and stomachics. The dried flowers are placed with clothing laid away in bureaus and chests, partly because their aroma repels moths, but chiefly for the sake of the pleasant odor imparted to the garments. The perfume called lavender water is a solu- tion of oil of lavender in spirit, along with attar of roses, bergamot, musk, cloves, rose- mary and other ingredients, which after stand- ing for some time is strained and mixed with a certain proportion of distilled water. Laven- der plants do not thrive as well in America as in English gardens, but succeed best in light, dry, friable soil, well exposed to the sun. They are best propagated by means of cuttings of one year’s growth; seeds are unreliable, since they are slow to germinate and usually produce plants of inferior quality. Arabian lavender (L. stoechas) yields an oil used in varnish. In California and a few other places in the United States lavender is grown but not on a com- mercial scale. ° LAVENGRO. George Borrow’s ‘Laven- gro,’ published in 1851, and its sequel, ‘The Romany Rye? (1857), constitute virtually a single work dealing with the author’s experi- ences as a wanderer in England and particularly with his adventures among the gypsies. Within the scope of the picturesque and whimsical narrative is contained a strange medley of novel incidents and curious lore — conversa- tions with apple-women and post-boys and wayfaring priests, much talk of prize-fights and prize-fighters, and many remarkable de- tails of gypsy life and manners. The inimi- table personalities of the gypsies, Mr. and Mrs. Petulengro, with whom the author is on terms of intimacy, recur at intervals, and their in- teresting domestic arrangements, their naive ideas of morality and their strange dialect afford an abundance of humor. The name Lavengro, word-master, is applied by them to the author because of his knowledge of lan- guages and his interest in the curiosities of — philology. Beginning in ‘Lavengro? and running half through “The Romany Rye? is the delightful episode of the author’s encounter with Isopel Berners. mae ti an Amazon in strength, ca- LAVERAN — LAVEZARIS pable of defending herself against all comers, but dignified, beautifully simple and as pure in spirit as the stars under which she sleeps alone, is a uniquely interesting heroine, and the brief romance between her and the author is handled with a delicacy and charm which ally Borrow with the great masters of English fiction. ‘Lavengro? and ‘The Romany Rye? are not as widely read as they deserve to be. Of all books which embody the romance of the open road they are the most delightful. Con- sult editions of ‘Lavengro,? with introductions, ‘by W. I. Knapp (1900) and by F. Hindes Groome (1901); Seccombe, Thomas, ‘Isopel Berners,” selected from ‘Lavengro”? and ‘The Romany Rye?; Walker, Hugh, ‘The Literature of the Victorian Era” (1042 ff.). JAmes H. HANrForp. LAVERAN, la’ve-ran, Charles Lotis, French military physician: b. Dunkirk, 30 May 1812; d. Paris, 7 Aug. 1879. He was, educated at Lille, was appointed assistant at the hospital at Algiers in 1840, and in 1841-50 he was pro- fessor at the hospital at Metz. He returned to Algiers in 1850 as professor of epidemiology, director and resident physician of the Ecole Val de Grace. He served in the Franco-Prussian War as sanitary inspector for the Army of the North, and was for .a time in charge of the military school at Montpellier, but in 1872 ac- cepted a call to return to Algiers as chief di- rector of the Ecole Val de Grace. He was author of many valuable scientific papers, con- tributed to the ‘Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales» and wrote ‘Traité des maladies et des épidémies des armées? (8 vols., 1875). LAVERAN, Charles Louis Alphonse, sharl loo-é a!-f6ns 1a-vé-ran, French physician: b. Paris, 1845. He was graduated at the School of Military Medicine of Strassburg in 1867. In 1873 he was made a member of the faculty of Val de Grace and after traveling in Algeria to investigate the subject of malarial fever was appointed professor of military hygiene and clinical medicine in that institution in 1883. In 1894 he was appointed director of the 11th corps in the Army Medical Service -and subse- quently physician-in-chief of the Lille Hos- pital and member of the French Academy of Medicine. He was an authority on malaria, dis- covering the plasmodium. His works include ‘Traité des Fiévres palustres? (1884); ‘Elé- ments de pathologie medicale? (with Tiéssier, 1894); and ‘Traité de Hygiene militaire? (1896). In 1907 the Nobel prize in medicine was awarded him. Died at Paris, 18 May 1922. LAVERDIERE, la-var-dé-ar’, Claude Honoré, Canadian author and teacher: b. province of Quebec, 1826; d. 1873. He was educated for the priesthood, which he entered 1851, and was appointed professor in Quebec Seminary and assistant librarian in Laval Uni- versity. His claim to recognition rests on the efforts he made to unearth and publish to the world the heroic achievements of early French- Canadian settlers and*® explorers. His works are of extreme value and interest and include the completion of Ferland’s ‘History of Can- ada, the editing of the ‘Jesuit Relations? and of the “Voyages? of Champlain, with notes and a life of the explorer. 119 LAVERY, lav’ér-i, John, British painter: b. Belfast, 1857. He studied art in Glasgow, London and Paris. His first exhibition of note was his ‘Game of Tennis? at the Academy in 1886 and in 1888 he received a commission for a painting, ‘The State Visit of Queen Vic- toria to the Glasgow Exhibition of 1888? which hangs in the Glasgow Art Gallery. He was elected associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1892, of the Royal Academy in 1896, and is also a member of the Royal Hi- bernian Academy. He is famous chiefly for his portraits and figure-work, although he has ac- complished excellent work in landscape and his- torical paintings. His work is characterized by a free and vigorous line, brilliant execution and exceptional mastery of color harmony. He is especially famous for his portraits of women and a portrait of himself hangs in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. An exhibition of his work was held in New York in 1915. His work is especially well represented in public galleries, among them the Pinakothek, Munich, the na- tional galleries of Rome, Berlin, Dublin, Brus- sels and Toronto, Canada, the Philadelphia Gallery, Luxembourg Gallery, the modern gal- leries at Leipzig, Mannheim and Venice, the New South Wales Gallery, the corporation galleries of Glasgow, Manchester and Brad- ford and at the galleries in Santiago de Chile and Buenos Aires. LAVES, 1a’vés, Kurt, American astrono- mer: b. Lyck, Germany, 24 Aug. 1866. He studied at the wniversities of K6onigsberg and Berlin and in 1892-93 he was assistant at the Royal Observatory in Berlin. He has been a member of the faculty of the University of Chicago since 1893, and since 1908 has been associate professor of astronomy there. He is a member of various American and foreign scientific societies and has devoted much time to research. LAVEZARIS, 1a’va-tha’rés, or LABA- ZARES, Guido, de, Spanish adventurer: b. Bilboa, 1510; d. Manila, 1580. He sailed on the expedition to Spice Islands under Ruy Lopez de Villabos in 1542 and was prevented from leaving there until 1549 when he went to the city of Mexico. In 1558 he was com- missioned by the viceroy, Luis de Velasco, to explore the coasts of Florida preparatory to the dispatching of an expedition for the ex- ploration and conquest of the interior of that country. ~ His principal objective was the searching out of a suitable landing place, and he discovered a bay which he named Filipina, which undoubtedly is Mobile Bay. He accom- panied the exploring expedition to Florida under Luna de Arellano in 1559. Upon _ his return to the city of Mexico he joined the expedition for the conquest of the Philippines, serving as treasurer, and sailed in 1564. He later sticceeded to the command of the islands; added to Spanish control the provinces of Pangasinan and Ilocos; and routed the Chinese pirates, compelling them to surrender Manila, which he afterward fortified. Upon the arrival of a regularly appointed governor- general in 1575 his administration was officially approved, and he was granted the honorary title of lieutenant-governor, with salary, which he enjoyed until his death. His narratives of his experiences in Florida and in the Philippines 120 were published by the Spanish government (Madrid 1578). LAVIGERIE, 14-vézh-ré, Charles Mar- tial Allemand, French missionary: b. Bayonne, 31 Oct. 1825; d. Algiers, 26 Nov. 1892. After passing through the Seminary of Saint Sulpice at Paris he was appointed professor of eccle- siastical history to the Sorbonne in 1853. In 1863 he was made bishop of Nancy, and four years later archbishop of Algiers. His life work began by the establishment of his Central- African mission. On betng made ecclesi- astical administrator at Tunis he began fight- ing the slave-hunting and slave-barter which desolated the Dark Continent. For this purpose he agitated in the chief capitals of Europe, and secured pledges from England and Ger- many to enforce rigidly the anti-slavery article of the Kongo Conference. In 1890 he urged in France the Church’s acceptance of the republic, in which counsel it was considered that he was not without the concurrence of Leo XIII. He was made cardinal in 1882. His published works include ‘CEuvres choisis” (Paris 1884). LAVIGNAC, la’vén’yak’, Albert, French teacher and critic of music: b. Paris, 1846. He was educated at Paris and in 1882 was appointed professor of solfeggio at the Conservatory, where he later became professor of harmony. Author of ‘Cours complet théorique et prac- tique de dictée musicale? (1882): “La musique et les musiciens? (1895; English ed., 1899) ; - Le- voyage artistique -4 Bayreuth? (1897), translated into English as ‘The Music-Dramas of Richard Wagner? (1898); ‘Les gaités du Conservatoire? (1900); ‘Notions scolaires de musique? (1905). He completed in 1913 the first volume of an ambitious undertaking ‘Encyclopédie de la musique,’ of which he is editor-in-chief. LAVISSE, la-vés, Ernest, French histo- rian: b. Nouvion-en-Thiérache, France, 17 Dec. 1842: d. Paris, 18 Aug. 1922: In 1888 he was appointed to the chair of modern history in the Paris Faculty of Letters and in 1892 was elected to the French Academy. His historical researches had chiefly to do with Germany, with which coun- try he endeavored to promote more friendly rela- tions; and they are marked by a ripe scholarship which enhances their authoritativeness. Among important works by him are ‘The Mark of Brandenburg under the Ascanian Dynasty’ (1875); ‘Studies of the History of Prussia? (1879); ‘Frederick the .Great Before his Accession? (1893); ‘The Three Emperors of Germany: William I, Frederick III, William II (1888); ‘Political History of Europe? (1890); ‘The Youth of Frederick the Great? (1893-1901) ; a “Histoire génerale? (with Ram- band); a monumental ‘History of France? (9 vols., 1900-11) ; and a volume of ‘Souvenirs? in 1912. LAVOISIER, Antoine Laurent, 4n-twan 16-r6n la-vwa-zé-a, French chemist: b. Paris, 26 Aug. 1743; d. there, 8 May 1794. He was the son of a wealthy tradesman; was educated at the College Mazarin; studied mathematics and astronomy under Lacaille, chemistry in the laboratory of Rouelle and botany under Jus- sieu. In 1766 he received a prize offered by the Academy of Sciences (of which in 1768 LAVIGERIE — LAVROV he became an associate), for an essay on light- ing the streets of Paris. Soon after this he traveled through France collecting material ' from which he constructed the first geological chart produced in that country, during the same period publishing a number of scientific treat- ises. In 1769 the was appointed one of the farmers-general of the revenue. By means of his wealth and influence he secured special ad- vantages for extending his investigations, which were also stimulated by the new dis- coveries of Priestley, Cavendish and-> Black. | In 1776 he was director of the government powder-works; sat on the commission of weights and measures in 1790; and in 1791 be- came commissary to the treasury. In May 1794 he was accused before the Convention as an ex-farmer-general, condemned by the Rey- olutionary tribunal and guillotined. To Lavoisier modern chemistry looks as its chief founder; he organized its methods, re- formed the old nomenclature and virtually established for this science a new terminology. By his work mainly the old phlogistic chem- istry was. displaced, and he shares with Joseph Priestley (q.v.) the distinction due to the dis- covery and analysis of oxygen, to which he gave its name, Priestley having already called it “dephlogisticated air.” “Lavoisier,” says Huxley, “first showed, by the most conclusive experiments, what was really the composition of atmospheric air” (1777). His chief works, as containing his most important discoveries, are his ‘Traité élémentaire de Chimie? (1789) ; and his posthumous ‘Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie? (1805). Among his others are ‘Sur la combustion en général? (1777); ‘Réflexions sur le phlogistique? (1777); ‘Considérations sur la nature des acides? (1778); ‘Méthode de nomenclature chimique? (with Guyton de Morveau, Berthollet and Fourcroy, 1787). His complete works were published by the French government under the title of ‘C®uvres de Lavoisier publiées par les Soins de son Excel- lence, le Ministre de 1’Instruction Publique? (6 vols., 1864-93). There are many accounts of his life and work. Consult Grimaux, ‘La- voisier d’aprés sa correspondance, ses Manu- scrits, ses papiers de famille et d’autres docu- ments inédits? (Paris 1888) ; and Schultze, ‘La- voisier, der Begrtinder der Chemie”? (Hamburg 1894); Thorpe, ‘Essays in Historical Chem- istry» (New York 1911). LAVROV, lav-rof’, Peter Lavrovitch (Mirtov), Russian revolutionist, scientist and scholar: b. province of Pskov, 2/14 June 1823; d. Paris, 6 Feb. 1900. He received a military education at Saint Petersburg and became colonel of artillery and instructor in ‘mathe- matics at the’ Academy of Artillery, re- maining there for 22 years. It was not until 1862 that he joined the Land and Liberty party, thereby identifying himself with the revolutionists. He was arrested for his political activities in 1866 and in 1868 was sentenced to banishment in the Ural Mountains. He succeeded in making his escape to France and ‘settled in Paris. He — was elected a member of the Society of An- thropology in Paris in 1870, and in 1871 he was in England and Belgium as a representative of the Paris Commune. He founded and edited, 1873-77, a Socialist periodical, Forward, in LAW which he gave particular consideration to Rus- sian politics. “ Before leaving Russia he had contributed extensively to the literature of the revolutionary movement, and he now continued anonymously to contribute to various publica- tions in its interest. He was well grounded in history, science, philosophy and psychology and spent the greater part of his time after leaving Russia in writing. His political pam- phlets are voluminous in number and made him widely popular in Russia, because of their clarity, sanity and belief in the power of the people through education to bring about the reforms he so earnestly advocated. Author of ‘The Hegelian Philosophy? (1858-59); ‘An Attempt at a History of Modern Thought? (2 vols. 1859); ‘Outline of the Physico- Mathematical Sciences? (1866); ‘Historical Letters? (1879), etc. LAW, Andrew Bonar, British statesman: b. New Brunswick, Canada, 16 Sept. 1858; d. London, England, 30 Oct. 1923. Educated in Canada and Glasgow, he engaged in the iron business in the latter place and acted as chair- man of the Scottish Iron Trade Association. He entered Parliament as Unionist (Conserva- tive) member for the Blackfriars division of Glasgow in 1900. He was defeated in the Jan- vary 1906 election, but found a seat a few months later for Dulwich. In 1910 he contested North- western Manchester on a straight Tariff Reform issue, but lost. In 1911 he was returned for the Bootle division of Lancashire, and in December 1918 for the Central Division of Glasgow. Be- tween 1902 and 1905 he was parliamentary sec- retary to the Board of Trade. In 1911-15 he was leader of opposition in the Commons and in 1915 when a coalition ministry was formed Mr. Law became Colonial Secretary. He had succeeded Mr. Balfour in the leadership of the Unionist party in 1911. In 1916 he became Chan- cellor of the Exchequer. In October 1922 he became Premier, but resigned within a few months owing to ill health. LAW, Edmund, Anglican bishop: b. Cart- mel, Lancashire, 6 June 1703; d. Rose Castle, Carlisle, 17 Aug. 1787. He was educated at Saint John’s College, Cambridge, and was later elected a Fellow of Christ’s College. He be- came rector of Graystoke, Cumberland, in 1737, and was made archdeacon of the diocese of Carlisle in 1743, which office he resigned upon his becoming master of Peterhouse in 1756. He was appointed proto-bibliothecarius at the University of Cambridge in 1760, and in 1764 he was made Knightbridge professor of moral philosophy. In 1768 he became bishop of Car- lisle. His writings are characterized by a broad religious toleration, and he regarded his ap- pointment to a bishopric as a proof that free- dom of religious inquiry was not rebuked. Be- sides translations and numerous religious papers he wrote ‘An Enquiry into the Ideas of Space and Time? (1834); ‘Considerations on the State of the World with Regard to the Theory of Religion» (1745), etc. LAW, John, of Lauriston, Scottish specu- lator: b. Edinburgh, 21 April 1671; d. Venice, 21 March 1729. His father was a goldsmith in Edinburgh. He was educated at Edinburgh University, where he was remarkable for profi- 121 ciency in arithmetic and algebra. He early migrated to London deep in debt, and while in that city killed a man in a duel, but managed to escape to the Continent. He returned to Scotland in 1700, and the following year pro- posed to the Scottish Parliament the establish- ment of a bank with paper issues to.the amount of the value of all the land in the kingdom and the abolishment of the farming of the rey- enues; but his scheme was rejected. The years from 1708 to 1715 were spent on the Conti- nent, and his success as a gambler caused him to be banished from Venice and Genoa as a designing adventurer. He accumulated a large fortune by gambling, and at length secured the patronage of the Duke of Orleans, regent of France, and in company with his brother, Wil- liam, established his bank: in 1716 by royal au- thority. It was at first composed of 1,200 shares of 3,000 livres each, which soon bore a premium. ‘This bank became the office for all public receipts, and there was annexed to it a Mississippi company, which had grants of land in Louisiana, and the exclusive right of trade in that territory for 25 years, and of receiving and exporting the beaver skins of Canada, and it was expected to realize im- mense sums by planting and commerce. In 1718 it was declared a royal bank, and shares rose to 20 times their original value. A vast quantity of paper money was issued, the credit of which was unquestioned, whilst the national bonds remained at a price far below their nominal value. In 1720 Law became a Roman Catholic and was made a councillor of state and comptroller-general of the finances; but the shares sank in value as rapidly as they had risen. He was obliged to resign his post, after five months, and for personal safety to quit the kingdom. (See Muississippr Bus- BLE). He lived afterward in great obscurity, finally settling in Venice, and died still occupied in vast schemes, and fully convinced of the solidity of his system, the failure of which he attributed entirely to enmity and panic. Vari- ous opinions have been entertained of the merit of his project, and by some it has been thought to have possessed feasibility, had it been carried more moderately into practice. A volume entitled ‘CEuvres de J. Law” was pub- lished (1790). Consult Wood, ‘Memoirs of the Life of John Law? (1824); Mackay, ‘Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions? (1850) ; Thiers, ‘Histoire de Law? (1858); Weston- Glynn, ‘The Financier Law: his Scheme and Times? (1907). LAW, John, American lawyer: b. New London, Conn., 1796; d. Indiana, 1873. He was graduated at Yale and admitted to the bar in 1817, but soon after emigrated to Indiana, where he settled at Vincennes. He was quickly brought to the front as a lawyer; became suc- cessively prosecuting attorney, judge for eight terms aad in 1838 receiver of public moneys. In 1855 he was appointed judge of the Court of Land Claims. He afterward served in the 37th and 38th Congresses on committees of li- brary, agriculture and Revolutionary pensions. He was descended from a long line of lawvers, which included the chief justice of the Connec- ticut Supreme Court, Jonathan Law, and was president of the Indiana State Historical So- ciety, 122 LAW, William, English clergyman and writer: b. King’s. Cliffe, Northamptonshire, 1686; d. there, 9 April 1761. at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1712, hav- ing been ordained and elected a Fellow of his college in 1711. He afterward lived at Cam- bridge, tutoring and occasionally acting in his capacity as a clergyman. His loyalty to the Stuarts prevented his taking the oath of alle- giance to George I, and he was deprived of his fellowship. He is thought afterward to have become a curate in London, but from 1727 he was a member of the household of Edward Gibbon, grandfather of the historian, as tutor and spiritual adviser. His influence extended over a widening circle of friends, among them Charles and John Wesley, and Archibald Hutcheson, M.P. from | Hastings. His writings extended his influence over a wider sphere, Dr. Samuel Johnson, Lord Lyt- telton, Bishop Horne and others attesting the worth of his teachings. In 1740 the Gibbon household was broken up and Law returned to his house at King’s Cliffe. There he was subsequently joined by the wealthy widow of his old friend, Archibald Hutcheson, who had counselled her to place. herself under Law’s spiritual guidance and by Miss Hester Gibbon, sister of his former pupil, who also possessed considerable means. The three formed a household devoted to the following of Law’s famous book, ‘The Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life, spending most of their in- _ come in charity, and their time in religious study and devotion; an arrangement which con- tinued until Law’s death, 21 years later. As a writer Law had among his contempo- raries no rival except Richard Bently in the field of controversy, always supporting the High Church party; while in matters of practical divinity his influence was indispu- table. The Wesleys, however, broke with Law after his teachings and writings _be- gan to evince a tinge of mysticism. This tendency appears to have been the out- growth of his admiration for the Teuton theosophist, Jacob Boehme, although Law was by no means a disciple of that writer. Author of ‘Three Letters to the Bishop of Bangor? (1717); ‘Remarks on Mandeville’s Fable of the Bees? (1723); ‘Treatise on Christian Re- flection? (1726); ‘Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life? (1728); ‘Case of Reason” (1732) ; ‘An Appeal to all that Doubt and Dis- believe “the Truths of the Revelation? (1740) ; ‘The Way to Divine Knowledge? (1752); ‘Dialogue Between a Methodist and a Church- maim (iC 1/GU), “etG-. CONSULABOVEMOR, \ |a ora. ‘Law, Non-Juror and Mystic? (1881) ; Walton, ies ‘Notes and Materials for a ‘Complete Biography of W. Law? (1848). ‘LAW (M.E., lawé; A.S., lagu). The An- glo- Saxon form is of rare occurrence, except in compounds; but from these, and from the cognate Icelandic lég, pl. lag — i.e., “things ly- ing in due place,” like strata of slate, for in- stance — the original meaning of /Jagu as, “that which lies in order,” is inferable. The transi- tion of the idea to sheets of parchment or other material, upon which an order is in- scribed, and, ultimately, to that which had been written, ordered or ordained, could not have been difficult, The derivation of the English He was graduated | LAW word “law” from the French Joi (Norm. Fr. lay) or from the Latin lex, legd, is incorrect. But the Latin and Teutonic words evidently come from the same Aryan root (lagh, to lie). The oldest meaning of lex was “a bill” — prob- ably so called because it was laid before the people in comitia for approval (cf. Ger. vor- lage, a bill). When a-lex, or bill, had been agreed to it was still called a lex, just as we speak of a “McKinley Bill? or a “Hepburn Bill» even when it has become an act of Con- gress and been a law for many years. This word-history shows that the term “aw” is used in its original and proper sense only when it is used as the generic name for that which has been ordered and made applicable to the conduct of human beings. In medizval times animals were regularly tried and condemned for their defaults and we still speak of trivial and defective evidence as “insufficient to hang a dog. This practice of trying and passing judgment on dumb creatures, however, was an aberration. When ancient law declared for- feited an animal or inanimate object, which had caused the death of a person, it was a liability of the human owner of the offending thing that was enforced. When a well was filled up because a child had been drowned therein, this was a penalty enforced upon the owner of the well; when an ox was made to furnish forth funeral baked meats for the rela- tives of the man whom the animal had gored, it was at the cost of the owner of the ox— the owner, not the thing that had caused a mis- chief, was responsible to the law. In admiralty practice ships are made defendants in actions for debt and are libelled in suits for damages, just as if they were persons, but the liability enforced in every case is that of the master or owner of the vessel. A law, therefore, is a rule of human conduct. This being so the in- appropriateness of the term, “laws of na- ture,” in its modern sense, becomes apparent- Records of natural phenomena and their se- quences, though set down with mathematical preciseness and logical perfection, are not. rules of conduct at all; they are descriptions. The statement that “an apple falls to the ground from a height of 15 feet in one second,” is not a “law” of gravitation, but a fact —just as if one should say “he stole,» one would merely be describing an act. The commandment, “thou shalt not steal,” however, is a law. The distinction is obvious. Mathematical laws are rules of quantity, not of conduct. In the do- main of esthetics such terms as the “law of beauty” or the “law of harmony” are familiar expressions; but these, like all the others men- tioned, are “laws” merely in figure of speech. Terms like “Grimm’s law,” the “laws of pho- netics,» or the “laws of metre,” are justified, because they are rules of human conduct in the use of language, having their origin in cus- tom. The commandment “thou shalt not covet” is a rule of ethics, a moral precept and also a law; but the science of ethics is concerned with resolutions and operations of the human will, or with states of mind, which have not found expression in action. The rules of this science, therefore, are not, properly speaking, laws. Covetousness is a sin and invites no legal penalty until it has manifested itself by the infraction of some legal right. Law is a rule LAW of conduct governing external human acts. Speaking and writing are actions, but thinking is not an external act and a mere inclination to do is not an act at all. Rules of human conduct are most varied in their origins and degrees of sanctity. The “laws of etiquette” and “fashion” need not be . observed by anybody who has no fear of being laughed at for his oddity or of being shunned for his boorishness; yet few laws are more generally and more willingly obeyed. “No- body,” as Locke remarks, “escapes the punish- ment of their censure and dislike who offends against the fashion and opinion of the com- pany he keeps.” He would be a brave man who should defy a college class custom by supplanting the members at a club table, and the rules of the Stock Exchange are bet- ter enforced than some statutes. The “laws of honor” have points of exceeding delicacy and “conduct unbecoming a gentleman” could be such as neither ordinary morality nor com- mon custom would condemn. Though not en- forceable by law, “debts of honor” are more scrupulously paid than commercial obligations. The rule of the “code of honor,” that duels may be fought only among equals, has an in- teresting parallel in early English criminal procedure, which allowed trial by battle on an appeal for assault and wounding only when the wounds were caused by sharp weapons, such as would be borne by gentlemen. An in- jury done with a cudgel, and, presumably, in- flicted by a churl, gave merely a right of ac- tion for damages. The special rules of con- duct above mentioned (and many others of like character) are outgrowths of custom and have their sanction in the general opinion of the larger or smaller classes of persons who observe them. But practically the whole body of human law grew up in the same way and had the same point of departure. Customs, indeed, were not merely the sources, they were the law itself. Insofar as the commands of the patriarchal or patrician chiefs of early so- cieties were not arbitrary expressions of irre- sponsible power, they recorded only rules of conduct that had become habitual in the tribe or clan. Legislative promulgation of these customs was an unessential formality. Their general obsevyvance was proof of their exist- ence. General observance also proved that they had the sanction of public. opinion and that they were matters cf common knowledge. No man, as Dr. F. J. Stimson remarks, had to be told what the law was; everybody knew the law just as he knew hunting or fishing. It was the business of nobody in particular to com- pel obedience to the law. When a man’s en- closure was broken into, his house set afire or the lives of his family menaced, he did not run to a judge for advice nor call in the sheriff and his posse. He repelled any attack with his strong right arm and, if an assailant was killed, the resulting lawsuit would not be concerned with assigning a penalty for the violation of a custom by the attacking party; the question would be whether the defender of his home and his customary rights should suffer any pen- alty for killing a lawbreaker. In fact, the fear of being killed in the act of violating an- other’s rights was the only real restraint upon lawbreakers in early times. In our own “Wild 123 West” the rule was “Shoot first, then palaver.” At the stage of social development here spoken of law would be definable as a rule of con- duct governing external human actions, sanc- tioned by public opinion and enforced by indi- viduals with the acquiescence of the commu- nity. The idea of a law as a rule promulgated and imposed by legislative act, and enforceable only by the public authorities, was a later con- ception — meaning later in the stage of sociai growth, not later in historic time. Some com- munities had laws in the strict sense of the word thousands of years before others. Early Codes.— ‘The earliest known sys- tem of secular law is contained in the legisla- tion (circa 2350 B.c.) of Hammurabi, king of Babylonia, who was a contemporary of Abra- ham and of Chedorlaomer the Edomite. This legislation took the form of a code of 282 paragraphs, regularly arranged under heads and subheads, dealing with the rights of per- sons, property, the family, contracts, torts and procedure in a very adequate manner. It for- bade widows to remarry, without first making provision, under the direction of a judge, for the care of her deceased husband’s household and children; it penalized surgeons for injuries done by them in unsuccessful operations, and various other tradesmen for damages caused by their neglect. It demanded retribution, “an . eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” in the very words of the Levitical law made over a thousand years later. It was a civil code throughout, containing no religious ordinances; in fact, it transferred the judicial function from the priests to the elders. The idea of the Single Taxers that land held out of use should be burdened as heavily as land under cultiva- tion was anticipated by 4,000 years. The as- sumption would be unwarranted that a code, which reflects an advanced social order and rather complex economic conditions, was evolved out of the innermost consciousness of a lawgiver. On the contrary, it is a reasonable supposition that the Babylonian codifiers did little more than restate, in orderly form, an existing body of customs. The transition from unwritten customs to written code marks a stage in the history of almost every juristic system. As human societies developed and hu- man relations increased in complexity so did the rules for the government of human conduct; a few simple customs, with which everybody was familiar, no longer sufficed. Knowledge of the law became the privilege of a class—ofa priesthood or a military and political aristoc- racy. Various motives impelled these privi- leged repositories of legal knowledge to part with a monopoly so advantageous to themselves. The religious oligarchies of Asia embodied their legal learning in codes either for their own guidance, to relieve their memories, or to instruct their disciples. The opportunity inci- dentally afforded them to magnify and con- solidate their influence was too tempting to be resisted and their monopoly of knowledge en- abled them to pass off on the public collections, not of rules actually observed, but of rules which the priestly order thought proper to be observed. Such a collection is that known as the Laws of Manu. The claims to the highest antiquity made for this Hindu code are not well founded—and, while it is evidently of 124 Brahmanical origin and enshrines many genu- ine observances, it does not embody a set of rules that were followed, as a whole, any- where in India. It gave general sanction to localized cruel practices, like the suttee, and it hardened the law of status into the abhorrent social institution of caste. Another reason for codification may be found in territorial expan- sion through conquest. This probably was the motive for the compilation of the early Baby- lonian code. Hammurabi had forced his sov- ereignty on Assyria and would, naturally, de- sire all his subjects to obey one law. The writing down of the laws of Minos, additional fragments of which have recently been found in the Gortyna inscriptions, was probably sim- ilarly influenced — Minoan sovereignty having been extended over practically all the city- states of Crete. Lycurgus of Sparta took from these laws the institution of the syssitia —public tables at which all citizens dined in common — and also their general policy, which was to train and control, not only the young but mature citizens as well, in all the habits and relations of life from the cradle to the grave. This policy comported with the pur- pose of Lycurgus to create an invincible mili- tary machine. The laws of Sparta cultivated the soldierly virtues at the cost of nearly every- thing else. A warrior who returned from bat- tle without his shield suffered disgrace, inef- faceable during life, and scarcely effaced by subsequent death in the performance of a dis- tinguished heroic action. A Spartan boy, on the other hand, was encouraged to practice dis- simulation and to appropriate whatever he de- sired and was disgraced for lying and stealing only when caught at it. Aristotle damns the Minoan law with faint praise and, if its moral level was no higher than that of the Spartan institutions, the high respect accorded to the former by the ancient Greeks seems hardly deserved. But the 180 or more codes of the Greek cities and their colonies in Asia, Africa, Italy and Sicily were not, generally speaking, inspired by the desire to confirm and perpetu- ate the power of a ruling class. On the con- trary, they were usually the outcome of suc- cessful assaults by the plebeian or popular elements of the community on the aristocratic repositories of legal lore and on the latter’s monopoly of knowledge. The rules of con- duct were graven on stone or written on scrolls, so that they might be known to all whom they concerned and who were expected to observe them. The communities in which they were promulgated were fairly advanced in their institutional development and familiar with rules of conduct imposed by public au- thority and enforced by a public magistracy. This ideal was fully realized by the promulga- tion of a written law. . The Civil Law.— The Roman Law of the Twelve Tables; more clearly than some other of the codes mentioned, was the fruit of a pop- ular revolt against the legislative monopoly of a class. The institution of the tribunate had subjected the pronouncements of the patrician Senate to the veto of a popular representative ; the Publican Law had given the plebeians the right to make laws in their own assemblies; finally the Decemvirate was established for the express purpose of ordering and declaring LAW a law which should be applicable to all citizens of Rome, and known to all through its pub- lication. When its task was completed, the Decemvirate was dissolved. One should not expect these early collections to be codes in the modern sense. Solon’s Constitution of Athens had but little order and usually these compilations mingled religious and civil ordi- nances and moral precepts without regard for their essential differences in character. The Roman code is a mere enunciation of customs existing at a time when Roman society had barely emerged from the intellectual condition in which religious duties and civic obligations are invariably confounded. Its provisions re- specting contracts, and many other things, might have more properly found place in a book of rites than in a book of laws; and it embalmed cruel and superstitious practices. The body of a bankrupt might be cut up and divided among his creditors. The inflexibility of a code would not at first be regarded. as an evil comparable with the evil of living under a law held in guardianship by the privileged few and altered by these at will to suit their pur- poses. Their strict adherence to the letter, moreover, enabled the Romans to preserve their legal institutions intact amid great social changes and to avoid the dangers of a too rapid development — such as reduced some of the Greek codes to formlessness and made the law as administered by Athenian juries, for instance, very little better than the rule of the mob. When the Roman jurists had to adapt their code to new circumstances they did so with great caution and, at the outset, by legal. fictions. These fictiones, as they were called, while concealing, or affecting to conceal, any change in the letter of the law, permitted a change in its operation or direction. For in- stance, the jus civilis (literally the law per- taining to citizens) gave strangers no standing in court. But justice could not be denied to the great number of aliens who had flocked to the city; so a rule of pleading was made that a plaintiff might aver his citizenship and that this averment could not be traversed, even though it might be untrue. The form of mar. riage known as usus required continuous co- habitation for one year to establish the rela- tion with all its legal consequences; a woman thus married (and usus became the prevalent form of marriage) could, by absenting her- self from the marital domicile for one day in each twelvemonth, defeat the law which gave the husband absolute power. over the person and property of his wife. The legal fictions were many. In their responsa prudentum, learned jurists applied the law in a sense other than literal. But a more effective solvent of the harshness of the code was equitas. This was an outgrowth of the jus gentium. The Pretor annually published-an edict (it after- ward became perpetual) containing a statement of the law which he proposed to apply in the cases of foreigners seeking justice in the courts of Rome. The pretorian edict was a collation of alien laws on various topics which seemed likely to be brought into judicial consideration. In the beginning the edict was a contemptuous concession to the gentiles; but the uniformity of the legal rules on given subjects, though drawn from many and quite unrelated sources, LAW could not fail to become impressive. It seemed reasonable that rules, which served the ends of justice between Syrians, Egyptians, Gauls and Greeks, would produce equitable results also when applied to Romans. If strangers could transfer all kinds of property by simple deliv- ery, or could make contracts by simple memo- randum, by letter or by word of mouth, why should a Roman be obliged to go through an elaborate ceremonial, which had become mean- ingless and superfluous, in order to achieve the same purpose? While the rules of equity, which were published by the Pretor from time to time and added to the perpetual edict, could not supersede the rules of law, they could, and did, make the latter inoperative. A Roman woman and her property might still be left (by the law) in lifelong wardship of her mate rela- tives; but a rule of equity would enable her to snap her fingers at her guardians by recog- nizing her right to use and dispose of that which was hers as she wished. Wills originally could be made only in the presence, and with the consent, of the comitia calata; they might be regarded, therefore, as special acts of legis- lation. The object of a will was to enable a father to direct who should be his heir and thus to defeat the law of inheritance which made an emancipated son incapable of taking his heritage by regular legal succession. The Pretor, however, actively intervened to pre- vent the abuse of testamentary power. An “indutious will” could be set aside and any disposition of the patrimony contrary to the equitable rights of a wife or children would be disregarded. There was comparatively little legislation affecting private Roman law until the time of the later emperors. But the fic- tional and equitable exceptions ultimately be- came the rules and the moral speculations of the Greek philosophers exerted a profound in- fluence. Aristotle mentions a distinction be- tween written law and “the law which is ac- cording to nature and immutable” The Stoics habitually opposed to the law imposed by human authority “the common law, which is the right reason, and which pervades all things.» In the same strain, Cicero speaks of law, as “implanted by Nature, commanding those things which ought to be done and pro- hibiting the reverse.” This “highest law,” he says, “was born in all ages before any- statute was written or any state was formed” ‘The Roman lawyers had already perceived a ma- _ terial unity in the laws of all nations in their contemplation of the jus gentium; they were well prepared, therefore, for the reception of the ideal of a universal law, to which all legal systems tend and to which they should con- form— and which has its basis in an all-per- vading sense of justice. This conception of a “law of nature” is a little different from and more rationalistic than that of the moral phi- losophers. And it led to an ever-increasing conformity of the jus civilis to natural ideas of right and the elimination therefrom of wn- reason and non-essential formality. The devel- opment of the jus civilis was complete in the time of Hadrian; the codification of Justin- ian, four centuries later, was little more than a recension. It became practically a universal law when Caracalla’s decree enabled every in- habitant of the empire to say “civis Romanus ‘labor. 125 sum,” and the distinction between citizens and gentiles ceased to exist. Its general provisions, regulative of the rights of property and of per- sons in their private relations to one another, have since been bettered in only few respects and have deteriorated in some. The original barbarity of the patria potestas had been re- fined, so that the power of the father over the persons of his children had been reduced to a conditional veto of their marriage, while his power over the property of unemancipated sons was modified through the general practice of emancipating them when they had attained the age of discretion. Children, irrespective of sex, shared equally in the patrimony, though the estate might be held in trust by the gen- eral heir appointed by will. Marriage, rest- ing on the consent of the married, it was con- sidered “immoral” to hold the parties in the bonds of matrimony when consensus no longer was present. Milton postulated his theory of divorce on the same premise and the doctrine is really not moré shocking coming from a heathen Roman lawyer than from an English Puritan pamphleteer. The jus civilis gave more freedom to women, married or unmar- ried, than most modern laws do; but it recog- nized chattel slavery. The Feudal System.— The barbarian erup- tion broke the continuity of the develop- ment of the law on a Roman foundation. The customary laws of the Teutonic in- vaders were modified here and there through contact with the Roman _ system. Theo- doric the Goth had received his education at the imperial court at Constantinople; but the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy was too short lived to permit the growth of a Romanized system of Teutonic law. The Forum Judicum is the only extant code in which a fusion of the two systems was made with a measurable degree of success. This code was framed (649- 652 a.D.) during the reigns of Chintasvintus and Recesvintus, two Visigothic kings in Spain, and is a combination of the Visigothic laws, re- duced to writing in the second half of the 5th century by Euric at Arles, and of the Brevia- rum Alaricum, compiled from the Roman codes at the beginning of the 6th century. The Visi- gothic kingdom was overthrown in 711, but its code was adopted by Ferdinand III of Ara- gon about 1350. The Christian Church intro- duced and administered the Roman law of in- heritance and of marriage and the family — modified by Christian concepts and the Leviti- cal canon —and influenced the embodiment of the principle of the widow’s dower into the cus- tomary law of all western Europe. In almost all other respects, however, the rupture with the past became complete when the feudal sys- tem had become firmly established. The ex- clusive right of the first-born to the succession and the rules for the entailment of estates were originally promulgated in the “house laws” of the great feudatory chiefs, who com- pelled weak sovereigns to incorporate them in their land grants; but these regulations did not have long to wait for their embodiment into the customary law. On top of the institution of chattel slavery, or serfdom, feudalism im- posed the institution of villeinage, with the right of the lord to heriots and unpaid forced While the right of unmarried women to 126 hold property, as recognized by the Roman law, was continued, the property of a married woman passed absolutely under the dominion and ownership of her husband. As a legal per- son a woman ceased to exist when she became a wife. When European society worked its way out of these conditions, after centuries of struggle, it was with little help from the Ro- man law. There was no central source of au- thority. The empire of the Franks fell to pieces after the death of Charlemagne and the medieval empire of the Germans, sometimes called “Holy” and “Roman,” was a mere thing of parchment and ink. It was not recognized in France after the 10th century. Germany from the beginning was a loosely-knit aggre- gation of duchies, whose chiefs were as often at war with the Kaiser as in his allegiance. The grand seigneurs of France were more pow- erful than the king. Conditions were not pro- pitious for the development of a common law and became less so as political and class divi- sions grew smaller and more numerous.. The organization of secret courts (Ger. Vehm- gerichte) whose judgments, made in the dark, were executed in the dark by the daggers of oath-bound brotherhoods, was only one of many indications of the general lawlessness. What law developed was of limited application with respect to the territory, or the social classes, affected. Every province in France had a dif- ferent legal system, every German principality had its “Landrecht”; every incorporated city had its “liberties,» every guild its institutions and ordinances, and every robber baron was a law unto himself. A lex maritima was devel- oped for mariners and over-sea traders, and a lex mercatorum for merchants. The two last named had some claim to universality, for they were observed, by the classes for which they were made, throughout Europe, irrespec- tive of nationality and were administered and enforced by special courts. - Their basic prin- ciples were taken from the Roman law, as were those of the ail-pervading canon law, and in these three systems the jus civilis mani- fested the most of its posthumous power. The revival of the study of the corpus juris civilis at the University of Bologna and other seats of learning toward the end of the Middle Ages produced a flow of knowledge in many streams. But human societies were becoming nationalistic and patriotic; the universities were cosmopolitan and scholastic, with little sympa- thy for the new spirit that was actuating the nations of western Europe. It is not sur- prising, therefore, that the product of the new learning was a groundwork of ideas rather than a body of laws; academical theorizing that led to nothing practical. Neither is it sur- prising that the finest fruits of the legalistic renaissance were works on international, rather than civil, law. Grotius’ treatise “De Mare Liberum” has its basis in the Roman law of the freedom of navigable waters; his “De Jure Bellum et Pace” is a negation of the Roman rule that enemy property (invaded territory included) is “ownerless”—— just as wild animals are—and, therefore, subject to capture and appropriation by the captor. The Reformation in Germany in its political aspects was mainly a struggle for legal order —on the part of the burgesses for a supreme imperial law; on the- LAW part of the peasants for liberation from feudal serfdom. The struggle was bootless. The corpus juris, indeed, became authoritative, when it was not in conflict with local law, but German peasants remained serfs for three more centuries. France, notwithstanding the consolidation of the monarchy, remained un- der the curse of an anomalous and discord- ant jurisprudence. The south continued to be the Pays du Droit Ecrit; the north, the Pays du Droit Coutumier; but province differed from province. One influence might have been ex- erted for betterment. The French lawyers had attained a political and social position beside the feudal nobility; they were organized in great chartered corporations with large powers and larger claims; they excelled their compeers throughout Europe in the qualities of the ad- vocate, legislator and judge; their generaliza- tions displayed an elegance of diction and a refinement of logic, unexampled since the pass- ing of the jurisconsults of ancient Rome. But not one venerable or lucrative quiddity would they sacrifice in the interest of legal harmony and clarity. .For the “law of nature” they de- veloped an almost passionate admiration. It overlapped all provincial boundaries; it did not distinguish between noble and burgess, nor be- tween burgess and peasant; it exalted lucidity and system — and it did not commit its devotees in any specific improvement. Affecting to be- lieve that the vices of the French law were in- eradicable, the legal profession obstinately re- sisted the reform of abuses. Montesquieu tried to instill a different spirit, but French law was to be purified in the fires of the Revolution. English Legislation.— In England the evo- lution of a homogeneous legal system was favored by the concentration of the law- making power. As early as the 13th cen- tury the common law was centralized in the King’s Court; and it was the law spoken by the king’s judges. There was no other school; and there was no other masters from whom it could be _ learned. The systematic study of the Roman civil law was discouraged, and, finally, its citation as precedent was interdicted. The courts, making law by working on material presented for their consideration, demanded skilful pleaders — and in the course of a few generations a learned profession arose and became established in the societies of the inns of court. The processes whereby the English law was adapted to the changing needs of society were much the same as those which had been employed in Rome © a thousand years before. By the legal fiction of levying a fine and suing for a common re- covery the strictest entail could be broken; by the transformation of a tenure in fee into an equitable use, an inalienable feudal benefice be- came property, which could be conveyed by deed or devised by will; by the substitution of money for personal labor in the payment of rent, and the recognition of leases as freeholds, the tenants became freeholders and, conse- quently, free men. The law did not permit married women to own personal property; but equity enabled them to hold any kind of prop- erty in trust for their own benefit, and to dis- pose of the same at pleasure. The private law remained mostly unwritten until modern times. All the statutes enacted between the LAW time of the Conquest and the time of the Com- monwealth, embracing topics of the private law, would scarcely cover 30 printed pages of an ordinary law book. The Statute of Merton (1233) declared it to be the English law that children born out of wedlock could not be legitimized by the subsequent marriage of their parents. The Statute of Merchants (1285) au- thorized the imprisonment of insolvent debtors, but it also provided that the goods of travelers who died while passing through England could not be seized and withheld from their heirs — in which respect English law was centuries in advance of that of the Continent. The guilds, generally speaking, were treated with consider- dtion, though there were several statutes pro- hibiting and penalizing restraints of trade and combinations to unreasonably enhance prices. Artificers, however, received much unfriendly attention from the law-makers. In 1304 a com- bination to bring about, by lawful means, an injury to a third person was declared con- spiracy; in 1360 all “alliances and covins” be- tween masons, carpenters, etc., were declared void; the act of 1452, empowering the Chan- cellor to issue writs of proclamation against disturbers of the peace, and to punish disobe- dience by outlawry, is believed to have orig- inated the suppression of strikes by injunctive order. The Statute of Victuallers (1548), while it gave freedom of employment to skilled me- chanics in any town, forbade artificers to form oath-bound confederacies not to work, or to make agreements among themselves as to hours of labor. In 1349, and persistently for 100 years thereafter, efforts were made to fix wages by law; and they were abandoned only when masters complained that they could get no servants unless they paid more than the statutory wage. Worst of all fared the agri- cultural laborers or villeins. They were com- mitted without bail by any justice of the peace for refusing to work. Wat Tyler’s rebellion (1383) was a plebeian revolt, and samong the demands of the rebels was one that labor in husbandry be commuted to a money rent. In part the demands were allowed. Villeins were thereafter paid wages, but the act of 1585 re- stricted them to labor in their hundreds and required them to follow the calling of their fathers. Willeinage was formally abolished in 1425, but as late as 1574 commissioners were appointed by Queen Elizabeth to manumit bond- men.and bondwomen. The Statute of Labor, passed (1562) in the reign of Elizabeth, re- quired unmarried artisans with incomes of less than 40 s. to serve at their handicrafts. Per- sons under 30 having no trade could be com- pelled to labor at the request of any person having an art or mystery; all persons between 12 and 60, not otherwise employed, might be compelled to labor at husbandry. Employment was for a year and masters could not dismiss, nor servants leave, without good cause. Un- skilled and agricultural laborers could not de- part from the parish without the certificate of a constable and two good citizens. The wages of artisans were fixed by justices of the peace. The statute against the monopolies by royal patent was passed in 1623, after 50 years of shilly-shallying by Elizabeth and~ James. Feudal tenures were abolished by a statute of Charles I. Era of Rationalism.— Philosophy in the ‘plicated. 127 18th century had become a rationalistic ideal- ism. Every philosopher, moreover, was dupli- cated as a publicist, seeking new principles on which to base a reconstituted social order, Man, in a state of nature, was imagined to have lived under conditions of almost absolute liberty. Society was assumed by Rousseau to have been established through a “social con- tract,» whereby each individual surrendered only so much of his complete freedom as was necessary to the enjoyment of the equal right of every other individual to perfect liberty of action. To ensure this equality was con- sidered the only function of government. This was the theory; what were the facts? The political condition of France was that of a feudal aristocracy, succeeded, when the Revo- lution had been accomplished, by an imperial despotism with a limited elective franchise. The population was largely agricultural; the burgesses were mostly engaged in petty indus- try. Land was burdened with feudal charges and movable property practically non-existen’ Legal relations between persons were few and well-defined, and were wholly individualistic. Unrestricted private ownership was considered the basic principle of private law. ‘The prop- ertyless workingmen were disunited and ignored. “Egalité? was understood to mean_ political equality. During the whole revolutionary pe- riod legislation was regarded the only right ~ source of law. Legislators, however, were not expected to weigh the morality of each indi- vidual action; if the law secured a maximum of liberty to each, that was sufficient. Every- body favored a code—the economist-philoso- phers because it tended toward:a desired har- mony and universality of legal principles, not because they believed a perfect system could be created at one stroke. They were rather partial to the coutumes, which they deemed to reflect present social needs more nearly than the jus civilis. But when the radicals had ob- tained supremacy in the convention all previous legislation was pronounced barbarous and un- civilized. Cambacérés and a legislative commis- sion were directed, in 1793, to prepare a brici code. The first draft was rejected as too com- The second effort of Cambacérés, “The Code of Nature, Sanctioned by Reason and Guaranteed by Liberty,” was criticised as a mere table of contents. It was under the Consulate that codification was finally accom- plished. Tradition had reasserted its power; it was agreed to retain what was good from the past; land was to be unburdened of feudal obligations and no inequalities growing out of personal status could be tolerated; but, other- wise, the code prepared under the supervision of Portalis was a compromise between the cus- tomary and civil laws. The “Code Civil” was to be regarded as a book of institutes, rather than as a book of laws. In the report accompany- ing the draft, Portalis remarks, that it is im- possible to provide for everything in advance; much must be left to usage, the discussion vf learned jurists and the decision of judges. The function of a statute is to fix, in broad lines, the general maxims and to establish principles that will be fertile in consequences; to descend in detail to every question that might possibly arise would not be conducive to the required simplicity and lucidity. The liberty of the in- dividual — who is assumed, with respect to his 128 private affairs, to act in his own interest and not the interests of the public— remained the ideal. The absolute right of private ownership and freedom of contract were the cornerstones of the edifice. the French Revolution was reactionary and quiescent. The Combination Act of 1800 out- lawed workingmen’s associations, transitory or permanent, which had for their object the in- crease of wages or other regulations of the terms of employment. Any person offering to assist in the maintenance of a strike might be proceeded against summarily before a peace officer. The Health and Morals Act of 1802, though an emergency law called forth by an epidemic, may be regarded as the beginning of factory legislation. The slave trade was pro- hibited in 1806; the whipping of women at the pillory for misdemeanors was abolished in 1820, and in 1822 the first law for the preven- tion of cruelty to animals was passed. The era of individualistic and utilitarian law reform -(1825-70) was ushered in by the writings of Jeremy Bentham and was dominated by his ideas. According to Bentham, legislation is a science; its aim is to carry out the principle of utility, hence the proper end of every law is the greatest happiness to the greatest number. Every person is, in the main, the best judge of his own happiness; hence, all restrictions on free individual action, which are not necessary to the security of like freedom to other per- sons, should be removed. Maine’s aphorism that, “modern law substitutes contract for status,» embodies the fundamental conception of the Benthamite Liberals, who regarded the unrestricted exercise of the right of contract as the most satisfactory way of disposing of the whole body of antiquated legal institutions. The British utilitarians, like the French ration- alists, fell short of the conception that posses- sion and ownership might impose legal duties as well as give legal rights, and that it may be a function of the law to protect individuals —even mature normal men— from, their own weakness, as well as to ensure to the strong freedom in the exercise of their legal powers. Modern Development.— American legisla- tion did not become fecund until 50 years after the adoption of the Constitution, receiving its impetus from the great moral movements — anti-slavery, woman’s rights and prohibition. The legal right of married women to own and dispose of property separately from their hus- bands was generally recognized by statutes en- acted before the 19th century had passed its meridian. After the Civil War came other moral and social movements, resulting in laws for the benefit of labor and for the suppres- sion of trusts. Peaceful strikes have ceased to be criminal conspiracies. The principals underlying the anti-trust laws are as old as the early English statutes against combinations in restraint of trade and price-fixing agree- ments. The law restricting woman and child labor and the minimum wage laws, however, are limitations upon the liberty of contract, and they are among the few in which the right of the state to restrict this freedom is recog- nized. The compensation laws transfer the burden of insuring against industrial accidents from the workingmen themselves to the indus- tries in which they are employed. The regu- lation of injunctions in labor disputes gives In England the first effect of~ LAW expression to the thought somewhere enter- tained that judge-made law is more “aristo- cratic” than that made by democratic legislators. The provisions of the constitutions of North Carolina, Missouri and Oklahoma, that men have “a natural right to enjoy the fruits of their own labor,» are less broad than those of the fundamental laws of most of the States respecting the sanctity of private property. But the interdiction by the Federal Constitution of State laws impairing the obligation of con- tracts is a safeguard against radical departures from conventional rules — though prohibition laws and police and health regulations, confis- catory in their effect, have passed the test of constitutionality. The jurists of Continental Europe have been more receptive to advanced ideas in legislation than those of Great Britain or America. The Code Civil protects spend- thrifts from their own weakness by preventing them from squandering their fortunes. Why, it is asked, should not the law also protect those who possess nothing but their physical strength from squandering all they have by making improvident bargains under compulsion of necessity? This thought lies at the bottom of a whole mass of modern social legislation. There has been a complete transformation ot ideas with respect to the proposition that the state can impose no affirmative obligation upon the individual beyond the payment of taxes, —in money, in kind or in blood—nor any negative obligation except that of respecting the rights of his neighbor. It is asserted that restraint may be put on the interest of the individual in himself, or in that which he owns. No person, for instance, has the legal right to commit suicide. Property is not to be re- garded as a subjective right; ownership is a “social function.” The argument runs thus: every individual is under obligation to per- form a function in the community; the pos- sessor of wealth, by reason of his possession, is enabled to accomplish certain work which others cannot accomplish; he alone can increase the general stock by putting his capital to use. For social reasons, therefore, he is under a duty to perform this work, and society will protect him only if he accomplishes it and in accord with the measure of his accomplish- ment. This juridical idea has found legislative expression in laws obliging owners to cultivate their land and in the taxation of unearned increment. The misuse of property, says the Swiss Code, is unlawful and one who clearly misuses his right will not be protected. Of course, the rule might be extended, beyond the misuse of ownership, to the unsocial use of anything, aptitudes or even of mere physical capacity for work. A code thus motivated would be a body of laws to enforce duties, rather than to enforce rights. Morality and legislation would have become one. Bibliography._Ames, Jas. B., ‘Lectures on Legal History? (Cambridge, Mass., 1913); Austin, John, ‘Jurisprudence or the Philosophy of Positive Law? (5th ed. London 1885) ; Bentham, Jeremy, ‘Principles of Morals and Legislation? (Clarenden Press 1879); Dicey, A. V., “Law and Public Opinion? (London 1905); Gaius, ‘Institutes? (Engl., by E. Poste, Oxford 1890); Ihering, Rud. v., ‘Law as a Means to an End? (tr. by I. Husik., Boston 1913); same, ‘Law in Daily. Life? (tr. by H. LAW — LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF Goudy, Oxford 1904); same, ‘Struggle for Law? (tr. by J. W. Lalor, Chicago 1879) ; Lee, Guy Carleton, ‘Historical Jurisprudence? (New York 1900); Maine, Henry Sumner, ‘Ancient Law? (New York 1888; London 1906) ; Montesquieu, Charles Louis de, ‘Spirit of the Law’ (lst ed., Paris 1748); Pollok and Mait- land, ‘History of Law in England? (2d ed., Boston 1899); Savigny, Fr. Carl v., ‘Jural Relations» (2d ed., book of the ‘System of Modern Roman Law,” tr. by W. H. Rattigan, London 1884); Stimson, Fred. J., ‘Popular Law Making? (New York 1910); Continental Legal History Series, published under auspices of Association of American Law Schools (11 vols., Boston 1912-18; Vol. I, General Survey; ‘Vol. II, Progress in the 19th Century). STEPHEN PFEIL. LAW, in. science and in philosophy, a gen- eral formula expressing either a de facto uni- formity of nature as we actually find it or a necessary property of all conceivable worlds. The first type is exemplified by the law of gravi- tation, which asserts that two particles attract one another with a force varying directly as the product of their masses and inversely as the square of the distance separating them. It is. quite conceivable from the purely logical standpoint that there might be a world where the attractive force might vary as the sum of the masses of the particles.concerned; observa- tion, however, teaches us that our world is not of this sort. On the other hand, the law of contradiction, which says that no proposition can at once be true and false, is ot necessity valid in any universe whatever. The distinc- tion between the two types of laws has been minimized into one of degree by those who hold the consistency theory of truth, for these writers claim that even such laws as that of gravitation follow from the nature of any possible universe, and that their denial involves an inconsistency, or at any rate a greater degree of inconsistency than their assertion. How- ever, from the standpoint of those who main- tain the correspondence theory of truth believ- ing that the truth of a statement depends on whether it correctly portrays a certain con- tingent real state of affairs, the distinction be- tween necessary and de facto or empirical laws may well be absolute, and usually is absolute. Both necessary and empirical laws differ funda- mentally from laws of right and wrong or the laws established by states. Ethical and polit- ical laws are either descriptions. of things as they ought to be or schemes of procedure in- tended to create some desired state of affairs. Ethical and political laws may be violated without falsifying them; the violation of an ethical law is a sin; of a political law, often a crime; and many political laws contain clauses contemplating their own violation. On the other hand, to precisely the extent to which a scientific law is violated, it is not a law at all. The laws of ethics speak in the imperative; those of a natural science in the indicative. Notwithstanding the fact that, strictly speaking, a law of science is rendered invalid by a single exception, all empirical laws are either marred by exceptions or by the possibility of exceptions. Owing to the general uniformity of nature, and especially to the particular uni- formities. which ages of observation have dis- yoL.17—9 — 129 closed to us in certain fields, when a certain conjunction of circumstances have occurred time and again, while a certain component part of that conjunction has never or but rarely been known to occur in isolation, we are able to formulate the law that the component part is an index of the presence of its associates, and to expect that whatever exceptions this law may have will be rare in proportion to the number of times it is satisfied. Further than this we can never go; the law of gravita- tion itself, that image of all a law of nature . should be, has recently been suspected of small variations from the facts. Of small variations be it noted; the fact that we can make the quantitative errors of the laws of nature re- cede further and further is what renders a mathematical physics, and in general a precise science of any sort, at once pos- sible and valuable. In the case of such laws as that of recapitulation in biology and of many psychological generalizations, the enormous quantitative error is concealed by a loose termi- nology, which is able to assume just such slight changes as to cover the facts throughout all the changes of the observations. Laws such as these are sometimes called empirical laws or generalization in a sense narrower than that in which this term has been employed in the present discussion. The justification for the larger sense of the phrase which has been employed here is that the distinction between the rawest generalization of a new science and the law of universal gravitation is simply one of degree: of the clearness of the terms employed, the measure of interrelation of the facts em- braced with the other facts of the science, the amount of observation. and research that. has been made, and the rarity of observations con- tradicting the law. The law of gravitation is not equally fallible to the law of recapitulation in biology, but it is similarly fallible. For a discussion of the methods by which scientific laws are established (see INDUCTION) ; the dis- cussion of induction under Loaic. NorBERT WIENER. LAW, American Schools of. Among the notable features of educational progress in the United States during the 19th century, there was, possibly, none more remarkable in scope or destined to exert weightier influence upon the future of the nation than the marvelous in- crease in number and growth in importance of our American schools of law. That this statement is conservative rather than extray- agant is demonstrated by the fact that while at the opening of that century there existed in our nation but a single professional law school —and that a private enterprise which never conferred a degree —at its close, more than 100 publicly chartered academic institutions were given official recognition as such by the national commissioner of education. And the American school of law is to-day an institution peculiar to itself, for the reason that there existed in the mother country from which our common law and so large a propor- tion of our earlier statute law, as well as the formal machinery of our administration of justice, were derived, no similar scholastic or- ganizations which could serve as models in the development of a system of. instruction in jurisprudence. 130 Among the Continental nations of Europe, of course, and particularly among races. of Latin derivation, schools of law had been firmly established from a period of remote antiquity and were held in exalted importance. Thus, great schools of jurisprudence flour- ished, long prior, even to the time of Justinian, at Berytus, Rome and Constantinople, and be- came especial objects of the sedulous watch, care and protection of that great emperor to whose enlightened supervision the Roman law owed its systematization and codification at the hands of Tribonian and his colleagues. Al- though, in the earlier period of Roman history and under the republic, the youthful student who aspired to master the principles of juris- prudence usually attached himself to some law- yer of prominence from whose discourse and practice he might acquire the desired knowl- edge, this custom became obsolete to the degree that, under the emperors, nowhere in Rome’s vast domain, outside of these three schools, of which the Sidonian was pre-eminently the most famous and successful, was professional in- struction in law permitted to be given. The impetus given by these law schools of antiquity, not alone to the study of legal principles but to the cause of learning in all branches, was incalculable. And, similarly, the renaissance ‘of modern education has been justly held to date from the successful effort of Irnerius, at the dawn of the 12th century, to revive scholastic imterest in the juridical learning of the civilians. This notable scholar and teacher, himself an alumnus of Constanti- nople, by the establishment, under the auspices of Frederick I of Germany and at the sugges- tion of Hildebrand’s friend, the Countess Ma- tilda, of his wonderfully successful lectureship on the Corpus Juris Civilis, provided the actual nucleus around which was eventually assembled the great university of Bologna, forerunner of all modern institutions of the kind. But such was the history of the growth of the English common-law that slight parallelism existed between the methods by which instruc- tion in its principles and practice could be gained by the neophyte and those open to stu- dents of legal science in Continental countries and especially among peoples whose jurispru- dence was derived from or dominated by the elementary fundamentals of the Roman civil law. Thus, while elaborate and erudite courses in the history and principles of jurisprudence, ancient and modern, including both the canon and the civil law, have for centuries figured prominently in the curricula of the two great English universities, neither the highest profi- ciency in their scholarship nor any degree in law conferred by Oxford or Cambridge ever led to the bar in England. On the contrary, the wardship of the door to the practice of the legal profession in our mother country has ever been in the keeping of the Inns of Court, curi- ous bodies politic which, while neither hostelries nor seminaries, partook in some respects of the nature of both, and have remained the peculiar custodians of instruction in ‘the arcana of com- mon-law practice and pleading. Whether or no acceptance be accorded to the view of that eminent American jurist and legal educator, Judge Simeon E. Baldwin, that the unsystematic texture of the common law was less friendly to its pursuit as a scholastic LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF exercise, acquiescence must be full and unre- -served in his conclusion that the absence of English law schools in modern times left Amer- ica no guide in this direction; and that, great as seems the present measure of her success, whatever our country has done she has done for herself, slowly, painfully, with hesitating and uncertain step. To Tapping Reeve, lawyer, judge and legal writer of eminent distinction, belongs the honor of establishing the first American law school, at Litchfield, Conn., in 1784. Judge Reeve, a graduate of Princeton in the class of 1763, had settled in the practice of law at Litchfield as early as 1772, and had married a sister of Aaron Burr, who was'an early student of law under him and an inmate of his. household. Under’ the able guidance of its founder, who remained its sole instructor until his elevation to the judgeship of the Superior Court of Connecticut, in 1798, the Litchfield Law School speedily gained a widespread and favorable reputation. Upon his assumption of the duties of the bench, Judge Reeve associated with himself in the con- duct of the school; James Gould, the well-known legal author and jurist. The Litchfield school, though, as has been said, never conferring a degree, maintained a successful career for a round half century, and during its existence numbered more than 1,000 students upon its rolls. Of its thousand alumni, some 40 rose to be justices of courts of last resort in the States of their various residences, while others reached positions of eminence as legislators in both houses of Congress. To the experience of its founder and his colleague in this pioneer school, American students and practitioners of law unquestionably owe the production of two valuable and important textbooks, each of which for more than half a century remained a stand- ard of authority in its line. These were Judge Reeve’s treatise on the ‘Law of Baron and Feme; Parent and Child; Guardian and Ward (1816), familiarly known as “Reeve on Domestic Relations»; and Judge Gould’s mas- terly work on’ ‘Common Law Pleading.» In passing, mention should not be omitted of the second proprietary or private law school in America which was that founded at Northamp- ton, Mass., in 1823, by Judge Samuel Howe and Mr. E. H. Mills, a lawyer, who later be- came a Federal senator. The Northampton school, however, had but a brief existence of six years, and its attendance was never large. Coming now to the question of the estab- lishment of regular academic courses of instruc- tion in law in publicly chartered institutions, while a professorship in English law had been established, largely through the efforts of Thomas Jefferson, in the ancient College of William and Mary in Virginia in 1782, the earliest course of collegiate law lectures ever given in America was that delivered in 1790 by Justice James Wilson of the Supreme Court of the United States, as incumbent of the chair of law in the College of Philadelphia, the institu- tion founded by Benjamin Franklin, and merged © in 1792 in the University of Pennsylvania. Auspicious circumstances attended this opening - of American collegiate instruction in law, the lecturer being not only one of the best read and most deeply learned lawyers of his time, but, by reason of his distinguished record as a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF a member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787,.a van-leader of public thought and action. In deference, we may suppose, to his high dig- nity as a member of the Federal judiciary, his introductory lecture on 15 Dec. 1790, was at- tended by a brilliant concourse of public officials, including the President of the United States and his Cabinet, as well as the governor of Pennsylvania, members of Congress and of the State legislature.’ But the course, or rather series, for Judge Wilson delivered three courses of lectures during that academic year, ended with its close; and no further instruction in the subject was attempted in the University of Pennsylvania until 1817, when-law lectures were once more given during the period of a single year; following which came another interval of fe a inactivity in that institution lasting until 1850. In New York, the history of academic legal instruction began with the appointment of James Kent, in 1793, to a professorship of law in Columbia College, his first course of lectures being delivered to a small class, during the following year, and succeeding courses in 1795 and 1797. Owing to the slight attendance, how- ever, he resigned the chair in 1798, upon his accession to the bench of the Supreme Court of New York, of which he became chief justice in 1804. In 1823, at the age of 60, having served in the previous year as a member of the convention to revise the State constitution, and having been chancellor of New York since 1814, he retired from the bench and was re- elected to his former chair at Columbia. The incalculably valuable service which he had ren- dered to the cause of American jurisprudence and especially to the administration, develop- ment and extension of equitable jurisdiction, he now supplemented by elaborating his learned and lucid lectures into those incomparable com- mentaries on American law in four volumes (1826-30), which for more than three-quarters of a century have remained for the lawyers of our country as solid and standard an authority of reference as were the works of Coke and Blackstone to English practitioners. Attend- ance upon the chancellor’s lectures appears, however, to have been perfectly vountary with the student body, no regular law course being prescribed, no examinations on the subject being held and no degrees in law conferred. In point of fact, no department of law appears to have been regularly organized at Columbia until 1858; and it seems'that prior thereto no law school existed in New York city. Eldest of existing American law schools organized as such is the Harvard Law School, which was established in 1817. While it is true that as early as 1779 Isaac Royall, a Massachu- setts citizen, then resident in London, had be- queathed property to Harvard College for the establishment of a chair of law, the fund did not become available until 1815, and the duties of the incumbent, up to the time of the ap- pointment of Hon. Asahel Stearns as university professor of law in 1817, consisted merely in the delivery of 15 lectures annually to the senior class in the college. Professor Stearns re- mained 12 years at the head of the law school, and it may justly be said with every desire to render due credit to this distinguished and faithful instructor that they were years of small beginnings and of little advancement for 13] the institution. The Litchfield school enjoyed such.a high repute that it easily attracted a far larger and more enthusiastic attendance, while even the Northampton school was a dangerous rival. In 1829, however, a new phase was placed upon the condition and prospects of the Harvard Law School by Hon. Nathan Dane’s generous donation of $10,000 for the endowment of a new professorship of law, coupled with his request that Mr. Justice Story of the United States Supreme Court, Marshall’s great co- ~ adjutor and the only one of his associates who fairly divides with him the fame of the early administration of that mighty bench, be ap- pointed the first Dane professor. Simultaneously, John Hooker Ashmun, then head preceptor of the Northampton school, was tendered the chait of the Royall professor- ship. The average of attendance at the Cam- bridge school had then sunk to that of a single student, but upon the acceptance of its head- ship by Judge Story a revival of interest was manifested and the close of his first year’s administration saw in the neighborhood of 30 pupils enrolled. The Northampton school im- mediately ceased to exist and the Litchfield school was abandoned four years later. Pro- fessor Ashmun’s death in 1833 was followed by the election, as Judge Story’s colleague, of Simon Greenleaf, an advocate of eminence, the first official reporter of the decisions of the’ Supreme Judicial Court of the State of Maine, and the distinguished author of that treatise on the law of evidence, which at once became, as it has since remained, a standard of au- thority in all countries ruled by English law. The Yale Law School is second in age only to that of Harvard, and, while ordinarily spoken of as established in 1824, practically dates from the appointment in 1826 of Hon. David Daggett, a judge of the Superior Court of Connecticut, to the professorship of law in the college—a chair which had been established, indeed, as early as 1801, under the presidency of Rev. Dr. Timothy Dwight, and had been previously ad- ministered by the Hon. Elizur Goodrich, but merely as a lectureship on the leading principles of legal science with no view to qualifying students for the bar. Professor Daggett, how- ever, had been, up to the time of his appoint- ment, associated with a leading advocate, Sam- uel J. Hitchcock, in the conduct of a private law school in New Haven, and, under his su- pervision, the Yale department of law speedily took: shape as a practical law school. In 1833, graduates of the Litchfield school established a law school at Cincinnati, and similar schools were founded at Louisville, Ky., in 1846 and at Lebanon, Tenn., in 1847. The number of American law schools prior to 1850 was thus extremely limited and the aggregate attendance upon their courses was correspond- ingly small. Twenty years later, in 1870, the number of law schools had increased to 28, with an aggre- gate attendance of 1,653 students. In 1880 there were 48 schools, serving 3,134 students; in 1890, 54 schools with 4,518 attendants, and in 1901 the number of schools had reached 100, with more than 13,000 pupils enrolled. The report of the United States Commissioner of Educa- tion for 1910 gives statistics of attendance at 114 law schools of a total student body num- bering 19,567, of whom 205 were women. The 132 distribution of these schools among the various States was as follows: One each in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Idaho, Maine, New Jer- sey, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington and West Virginia; two each in Colorado, Florida, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Oregon and Wisconsin; three each in Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nebraska and Vir- ginia; four each in California, Pennsylvania and North Carolina; five each in Kentucky and Tennessee; six each in the District of Columbia, Indiana and Missouri; seven in Ohio and nine each in Illinois and New York. The signifi- cance of this vast and rapid growth may- per- haps be more readily grasped when one remem- bers that from 1875 to 1899 the number of students enrolled in professional schools in the United States increased as follows: In theol- ogy, 58 per cent; in medicine, 177 per cent; in law, 343 per cent. In 1910 there were 184 American schools of theology, with an attendance of 11,012 students, an increase of 3,000 students over the number of students in 1900, while the number of stu- dents in the 114 law schools rose from 12,516 in 1900 to 19,567 in 1910. At 55 law schools the course essential 1o graduation covers three years; at 38 a two- years’ course leads toa bachelor’s degree, while five institutions in the Southern States have only a one-year course. Under the influence of the section on legal education of the American Bar Association, a constant and gratifying ad- vance in the standard of instruction and in the lengthening of the course for the bachelor’s de- gree in American law schools is to be noted. In 1890, only eight schools required three years’ attendance for the bachelor’s degree, while eight years later progress in this direction had been so great that no less an authority than Joseph H. Choate, in the annual address delivered be- fore the American Bar Association, did not hesitate to declare, “The standard of legal edu- cation has never before been advanced to its present height. The young men who come annually from the law schools to recruit our ranks, are better equipped and qualified — far more so, than we ever were—to enter upon the arduous and responsible duties that await them.” The marked elevation in the requirements for admission to American schools of law~is shown by the fact that while, prior to 1877, no entrance examinations were prescribed. in any of them, and so late as 1890 there was but a single institution demanding a demonstration of precedent educational attainments equivalent to the requirements for college matriculation, nearly ‘one-half of the recognized law schools of this country now deny admission to appli- cants except upon terms that would practically secure their entrance to the average college of liberal arts. The highest standard of admission is that prescribed by Harvard, which for some years past has refused to admit, as candidates for degrees of law, students not holding the degree of bachelor of arts, conferred by some college of recognized standing. In this position the Cambridge authorities have been followed, not without great hesitation and well-founded reluctance, by Columbia. The strongest objec- tion to such a requirement may be summed up in the statement that, there being no necessary LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF correlation between the courses of study pur- sued by various students in different institu- tions leading up to the academic degree, its possession is not strong evidence of any special equipment for the pursuit of legal studies; and that the object aimed ‘at might be better and more directly attained by the establishment of entrance examinations at the various schools of law sufficiently comprehensive in scope and exhaustive-in character to establish the appli- cant’s fitness to enter intelligently upon the study of the principles of law. \ Ninety-seven schools, with an enrolment of 8,464 students, constituting the Association of American Law Schools, have united in the uniform requirement that each school belonging to the association shall maintain an entrance examination equiv- alent to that required for graduation from a high school. It is a matter of singular interest that with the steadily advancing standard of entrance re- quirements, there has followed an almost equiv- alent decline in the importance of a diploma of graduation from a law school as a factor in securing admission to the bar. Formerly, in many jurisdictions, such a diploma was by statute an immediate passport to the practice of the profession, but with the stiffening of the educational requirements demanded of the law student there has most fortunately concurred a quickening of the conscience of the courts as to their duties and responsibilities in the prem- ises; with the result that the sound judgment of lawyers and legal educators has been gradu- ally led to endorse the proposition that it is neither logical nor desirable for schools of law in no way subject to the supervision of the courts to possess the unrestricted power to create officers thereof. The influence of the American Bar Association and its junior organ- ization, the Association of American Law Schools, has for some years been steadily and wisely directed to securing the abolition of the exercise by law schools of this power, which should properly be exercisable only by the courts. While there can be no doubt of the eventual establishment of this reform wuniver- sally, a law school diploma still admits to the bar in the States of Alabama, Georgia, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia and Wisconsin. In many of the States this matter has now been wisely regulated by placing the matter of admission to the practice of law exclusively within the jurisdiction of State boards of law examiners, the members of such boards being usually appointed in rotation for fixed terms by the justices of the highest appellate courts of the respective States. As the American school of law was prac- tically compelled to construct its own road to success, it is not unnatural that there should have arisen considerable divergence of opinion and of practice in the matter of methods of instruction. Roughly, it may be said that three systems have prevailed; a system of instruction by lectures and dictation; a system of instruc- tion by the study of and recitation from pre- scribed textbooks of authority; and a system of instruction confined largely to the reading and expounding of selected cases of leading imfort- ance, indicated by the instructor, through which the student is encouraged to delve for a mas- LAW, CANON tery of the principles involved. The latter method, first generally introduced on a scientific basis by Prof. C. C. Langdell, Dane professor of law at Harvard, and since greatly elaborated by his colleagues, Profs. James Barr Ames, Joseph H. Beale, Jr., and Samuel R. Williston, as well as by Prof. W. A. Keener, of Columbia, and Prof. Ernest Huffcut, of Cornell, may be justly considered the prevailing system in ‘our law schools of to-day, although justice requires the statement that none of these methods is or ever has been exclusive of the others, but rather that the curriculum of every well- directed law school in the present, as in the past, has ever included a greater or less pro- portion of attention to each of these systems. No review of the history of American law schools would be just or complete which failed to note the remarkable debt under which the practice and the administration of law in this country has been placed by the contributions to legal literature made by members of their vari- ous faculties in the form of standard textbooks, usually, if not universally, the outgrowth of carefully prepared courses of lectures primarily designed solely for the guidance of their stu- dent bodies. Reeve’s on ‘Domestic Relations,” Gould on ‘Pleading? and Kent’s ‘Commen- taries on American Law? have already been instanced. Story’s treatises on the ‘Elements of Constitutional Law? and on ‘Equity Juris- prudence? ; Greenleaf’s exhaustive summariza- tion of the law of evidence and Parsons’ great work on the ‘Law of Contracts? constitute three monuments of this sort which alone would re- flect imperishable renown on the Harvard Law School could it point to no other ground of claim to its present distinction. And an inter- esting parallelism subsists between the facts that, as it was the donation to Oxford by Viner of the profits of his compendious abridgment of English law which furnished the foundation of the Vinerian professorship, the first and greatest fruit of which was the elaboration by Sir William Blackstone of his course of lec- tures into the imperishable ‘Commentaries on the Law of England, so it was the donation to Harvard by Dane of the profits of his later abridgment of law which directly stimulated the production of Joseph Story’s masterly work on ‘Equity Jurisprudence.” Other notable instances of legal authorship in point are the great work on ‘Constitutional Limitations,» by Judge Cooley of the law school of the University of Michigan, the elaborate and finished analysis of private international law by Prof. Raleigh C. Minor of the University of Virginia, and the learned exposition of the ‘Law of Estoppel? by Melville M. Bigelow, of the ‘Law of Wills and Administration, by James Schouler, and of the ‘Law of Wills,” by George Enos Gardner, of Boston University. C. Vey Hotman, LL.M., Lecturer on Mining Law, University of Maine. LAW, Canon. See Canon Law for history previous to the new Code. LAW, Canon, The New Code of. That the Catholic Church, as a perfect society, en- joys the right of directing her members by positive laws in the attainment of her end, the sanctification and salvation of souls, no one will deny. Early Christians, strong in their belief and diligent in the observance of di- 133 vine precepts, were guided chiefly by apostolic men and by the Sacred Scriptures. Increasing in number, spreading over the world and grow- ing less fervent in religious practices, Chris- tians were of necessity subjected more and more to positive regulations. Various laws to meet various conditions of time and place were enacted, for while the Church is immu- table in her doctrine, her discipline is neces- sarily subject to change. Indeed of the many ecclesiastical laws promulgated throughout the. centuries, not a few had been abrogated by the supreme authority of the Church, some had become obsolete, while others, owing to changed conditions, were found to be difficult of execution or less useful and expedient for the common good. Because too of their number and the fact that they were not easily acces- sible, Pius X, soon after his election as Pope, 4 Aug. 1903, realizing how helpful it would be for the stable restoration of ecclesiastical dis- cipline to put an end to these inconveniences resolved to arrange in a clear and orderly col- lection all the laws of ‘the Church that had appeared adown the ages, abolishing those that had become obsolete, adapting others to present needs, and enacting new ones as neces- sity or expediency might suggest. The first steps were taken in March 1904, a commission, as it is called, of cardinals being put in charge of the project under the leadership of Cardinal Gasparri, while canonists of note from various countries were asked to aid by their counsel and labors. The work when nearing completion was submitted to the bishops of the world, whose suggestions had been sought in the beginning, as well as to the superiors of re- ligious orders, for a final expression of opinion on the prepared canons. Meanwhile Pius X had been succeeded in the chair of Peter by Pope Benedict XV, to whom it fell to give to the world on Pentecost, 27 May 1917, the com- pleted code, over 13 years after the inception of the task. The prescriptions of the new code, however, did not become effective till the fol- lowing Pentecost, 19 May 1918: The bull of promulgation, which is styled, as is the custom, from the first words Providentissima Mater Ecclesia — Most’ Provident Mother Church, is addressed: To our venerable brethren and beloved ‘sons, the patriarchs, primates, arch- bishops, bishops and other ordinaries, and also to professors and students of Catholic uni- versities and seminaries. The code, as might be expected, is in Latin, the language of the Church. To translate it tnto another tongue or to reprint the original Latin text permission of the Holy See is required. Introduction—A lengthy preface to the code, written by Cardinal Gasparri, enters ex- tensively into the history of canon or ecclesi- astical law and its compilations, giving especially the particulars of the present codification. Then come the constitution providentissima and a decree (15 Sept. 1917) of Benedict XV, by which a commission of cardinals and counsellors is instituted to interpret the new code. This constitution moreover reminds the Roman con- gregations that their office is to enforce the law and forbids them to issue new regulations of general character, except the need be apparent. Such new legislation, if contrary to: the code, must have the approval of the Pope. The commission will see also that insertions or 134 additions to the code are put in the proper place and all discrepancies removed. Thus it is hoped to keep the code ever complete and consonant with actual circumstances or needs. These con- stitutions are followed by a profession of faith, in the usual form, which is obligatory at certain specified times for certain clerics, as for example in synods or on promotion to a parish. This formula then will be at hand when required. Contents and Divisions.— The code, com- prising 2,414 canons, is divided into five books. The first book contains certain preliminaries and general: ‘notions concerning laws, customs, re- scripts, privileges, dispensations and the method of computing periods of time as applicable in canon law. The other books treat respectively of persons, things, processes, crimes. and punishments. We note the following: Future laws, emanating from the Holy See, will not bind, unless otherwise stated, wntil three months after their promulgation in the official period- . ical, Acta Apostolicae Sedis. Laws, however, that are merely confirmatory of natural or positive divine law are of immediate obligation. Bishops or other legislators inferior to the Holy See are free to adopt any adequate method of making known their laws, and may insist on immediate observance of them. Laws are assumed to be territorial, not personal, unless there is evidence to the contrary. Dis- ciplinary laws, not found in the code, are abrogated; liturgical norms on the contrary ‘remain in force. Merely prohibitive laws must be clearly distinguished from those that render an act null. Subjection to local laws, with certain exceptions, is determined by domicile, namely, by dwelling in a place with the inten- tion of remaining there. A domicile is usually parochial, though a person may possess a domicile in a diocese and not in a particular parish. One who is unbaptized, or, if baptized, has not attained the use of reason or is men- tally irresponsible, is not subject to ecclesiastical laws. Those who are under 21 years of age are minors, beyond that majors; an idea that has its bearing in the application of certain laws. Dioceses are divided territorially into parishes, while in countries where dioceses do not exist, but vicariates and prefectures apostolic, these divisions are styled missions or quais-parishes. The priest who is in charge of a parish is a pastor, while a rector administers a mission, Parishes are determined by territorial lines, not by languages or nationalities, though where these latter exist they are to remain. By virtue of the constitution sapiente con- silio the Roman congregations, tribunals and offices were remodeled under Pius X. Some further changes are noted in the code... The Holy Office assumes the work of the congrega- tion of the index; a separate congregation for Oriental affairs is established while the congre- gation of seminaries and universities appears with its new title. The privileges of cardinals are mentioned in detail. Bishops for the most part are selected directly’ by the Holy See, must be at least 30 years of age and possess the qualities demanded by the office. A diocesan bishop is obliged to pay an official or canonical visit to the various parishes and institutions of his territory at least every five years, while all are required at prescribed times, varying from 3 to 10 years according LAW, CANON to the distance from Rome, to report personally to the Holy See. The bishops of America are called on also for a written report every five years. A diocesan bishop is assisted by a vicar-general, who has jurisdiction throughout the diocese, and various others who constitute the episcopal curia or official family of the bishop... An official, distinct from the vicar- general if the yolume of work involved require it, has charge of juridical matters. Deans or vicars forane enjoy minor delegated powers, each within his own section of the diocese. A bishop has his advisory board. In some coun- tries the cathedral chapter fills this office, but in America the diocesan counsellors are priests, usually six in number, selected by the bishop | for a term of three years from the clergy of the episcopal city or vicinity. All matters re- lating to them are determined in the code. Appointments to ecclesiastical offices should be. in writing. Pastors.— It is the mind of the Church that a pastor’s tenure of office, as far as the good of religion will permit; should be per- manent. In the United States some are per- manent, others not. Bishops, however, may with the advice of the cathedral chapter or council, grant permanent pastors to all parishes. Parishes that may be erected in ‘the future will have permanent pastors, unless the bishop in consultation with his advisory board decide otherwise. A concursus or competitive ex- amination, where formerly prescribed for pro- motion to a pastorate, still remains in force. A non-competitive examination is required for appointment in other cases. All pastors, even though they belong to the permanent class, may be removed, transferred or demoted for rea-. sons assigned in law. Unbecoming. conduct, physical or mental unfitness, the peculiar quali- ties of the pastor which the bishop wishes to employ elsewhere, and other causes are found among the legal reasons for removal. In all cases where the authorities proceed without the consent of the pastor in question. certain formalities must be observed, and when a criminal charge is alleged as the reason for action, formal judicial proceedings are required. Pastoral duties and rights remain | prac- tically as they were in previous. legislation, though our former rectors are now pastors with parochial rights, obligations and privileges by reason of their office. They may now grant absolution from sin in the sacrament. of pen- ance under the usual conditions, to the mem- bers of their parish, not merely within the limits of their diocese, but anywhere through- out the world. They have the obligation, bind- ing in strict justice, of applying, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass for their parishioners on all Sundays, and some other specified days during the year. The administration of the sacraments of baptism and extreme unction, and assisting at the marriage and burial of parishioners, are parochial rights, reserved to pastors ordinarily. The chief duties incum- bent on pastors are to reside in the parish, preach, instruct, visit the sick and to administer in every. way to the spiritual welfare of their people. .The administration of the temporal goods of the parish is a most important duty | in some countries. The number, appointment and removal of associate pastors or assistant priests belongs to the bishop of the diocese. LAW, CANON Clerics and Religious.— The clerical state is embraced in the reception of. tonsure. Every cleric must be attached to a diocese or to a religious community. A bishop may promote to the priesthood or other orders his own sub- jects only. In this respect one becomes sub- ject to a bishop either by reason of his birth and domicile in the diocese, or by acquiring a domicile in the diocese. For legitimate reasons a cleric, if he desire, may be transferred from one diocese to another with the approval of both bishops. The transfer, with a few ex- ceptions, must be made in writing. A novitiate or period of probation of at least one year is necessary for admission to the religious state. Then follow vows of. poverty, chastity and obedience for three years, after which perpetual vows may be made, if agree- able to superiors. Some religious are likewise clerics. The profession of perpetual vows in a religious society releases a cleric from his diocese. Should he later for any reason what- ever be dispensed from his vows or become secularized, he must find a bishop who is will- ing to accept him. A cleric: who has not made perpetual vows in religion reverts, on leaving his community, to the diocese to which he was canonically attached. The Sacraments.—As far as possible the sacraments are to be conferred in a church, not in private houses. The ordinary minister of the sacraments of confirmation and orders is a bishop; of the other sacraments, a priest. As baptism is necessary for salvation, infants receive this sacrament. At least one sponsor, if possible, is required in baptism, while more than two, one of each sex, are not allowed. — A sponsor, as a rule, should have reached the age of 14. To act in this capacity clerics in major orders require their bishop’s permission, while religious are excluded except in case of necessity, and then too permission of the proper superior is necessary. Only the spiritual relationship which is contracted in baptism con- stitutes at present a nullifying matrimonial im- pediment, and merely between the one baptized and the sponsors; a modification of previous discipline. Confirmation is not to be ad- ministered ordinarily to children under seven years of age. A sponsor is required and one only is permitted. The same sponsor acts for one or at most for two, though the prelate confirming may for sufficient reason determine otherwise. As a rule the same sponsor should not act for the same person both in baptism and confirmation. Not every priest, merely by reason of his ordination, is qualified to hear sacramental con- fessions. To pronounce sentence in _ the tribunal of penance he needs jurisdiction. This a bishop grants for his own diocese. A special authorization is required to hear the confes- sions. of religious or. novices in their own houses. . Any priest not inhibited may offer the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass once each day, twice in case of necessity on Sundays or other days on which the faithful. are obliged to hear Mass, three times on Christmas and All Souls Day (2 Nov- ember). Mass and the distribution of Holy Communion are allowed from one hour before the aurora till one hour after midday. An exception to this regulation permits Mass at midnight on Christmas eve with certain restric- 135 tions. No matter how late the hour the cele- . brant must be fasting from midnight. On Good Friday the Mass of the presanctified, without consecration, |is offered and the Blessed Eucharist is not: distributed to the people. The sick at times, under well-defined conditions, are permitted to receive Holy Com- munion when ‘not. fasting. All who have at- tained the use of reason are obliged to receive Holy Communion at Easter time> In some countries only two weeks, from the Sunday © before till the. Sunday after Easter, are allowed for. fulfilling this precept. Bishops may, how- ever, extend the period from the fourth Sun- day of Lent—and in the United States from the first Sunday of Lent—to Trinity Sunday. Frequent, even. daily, communion is -recom- mended. In Extreme Unction, the anointing of the feet may be omitted for any reasonable cause. The anointing of one sense, preferably of the forehead, with a briefer verbal form too than usual, will suffice, when death appears im- minent., The usual prayers. and unctions are supplied later, should death be delayed. This sacrament is administered conditionally, when it is doubtful whether the person. is actually sick. unto death, or is still alive, or has at- tained the use of reason. At least the theological course of candi- dates for the priesthood should be spent in a seminary. The age prescribed for the various orders remains as before, except that tonsure may not be given before the candidate has commenced the study of theology, subdeacon- ship not earlier than toward the end of the third year of theology, deaconship at the be- ginning and priesthood after the middle of the fourth. The space that should intervene be- tween the orders is practically left to the judg- ment of the bishop.. Nevertheless the reception of tonsure and a minor order, or all four minor orders, or the last minor order and subdeacon- ship, or two major orders on the same day is forbidden. While the Saturdays of the ember weeks, the Saturday before Passion Sunday and the Saturday of Holy Week are the usual ordination days, tonsure may be given on any day, minor orders on Sundays and feast days that are doubles (a, liturgical term), major orders on Sundays and holydays. All privi- leges contrary to these prescriptions have been withdrawn. Irregularities, which are certain canonical hindrances either to the reception or to the exercise of orders, have undergone some modifications. The law is precise in demand- ing testimonial letters, examinations and Spiritual exercises in preparation for orders. Announcement too is made in one’s parish that he is about to receive a major order. Espousals, to have any effect, must be in writing and properly witnessed. The marriage of a Catholic is not recognized unless it take place in the presence of a pastor or ordinary (bishop, vicar-general or administrator) within his own territory or before a priest duly dele- gated by one of these, and two witnesses. Some exceptions are made to the general rule when one of the contracting parties is in dan- ger of death, and in other cases when it is foreseen that a duly authorized priest cannot be approached within a month. The age of law- ful consent for marriage is 16 for the male, 14 for the female. A Catholic contracts mar- 136 LAW, CIVIL — LAW, riage invalidly with an unbaptized person, illicitly with a baptized non-Catholic, without . proper: dispensation. Until the code became effective a marriage between a baptized and un- baptized person was always null. At present disparity of worship, as this impediment is called, nullifies a marriage only when one of the parties has been baptized in the Catholic Church or has been received into the Church. Affinity, which arises from a valid matrimonial contract, constitutes a diriment impediment, indefinitely in the direct line, inclusive of the second degree in the indirect. Public decency or fitness, an impediment which has its origin in an invalid marriage or in public or notorious coneubinage, does not extend beyond the sec- ond degree and then in the direct line only. The impediment of consanguinity, which formerly embraced the fourth degree in the collateral line, now ceases at the third; thus second cousins are within the prohibited de- gree: in the direct line marriage is never tolerated. The reception of subdeaconship, as well as a solemn religious profession, begets a diriment impediment. The forcible retention, as well as abduction, of a woman with a view to marriage, renders her incapable of a lawful matrimonial consent, while still in duress. Fear or force may be sufficient to invalidate matrimonial consent. The Church may for sufficient reasons dispense in matrimonial im- pediments which she herself originated, not in . those which are founded on the natural or divine law. Holydays and Fasting.—Catholics on holydays are bound to abstain from servile work and to assist at Mass. The feasts of Christmas, Circumcision, Epiphany, Ascension, Corpus Christi, Immaculate Conception, As- sumption, Saint Joseph, Saints Peter and Paul and All Saints are holydays, except where, with permission of the Holy See, they have been abrogated. Thus in the United States the feasts of Epiphany, Corpus Christi, Saint Joseph and Saints Peter and Paul are not ob- served as holydays. The law of abstinence forbids the eating of flesh meat, while the law of fasting allows only one full meal a day with a small amount morning and evening. The prohibition of par- taking of meat and fish at the same meal on certain days no longer obtains. The law both of abstinence and fasting ceases on Sundays or holydays, except on holydays during Lent. Abstinence alone is obligatory on all Fridays. The law of abstinence together with fasting is binding on Ash-Wednesday, the Fridays and Saturdays of Lent, Ember Days, and on the vigils of Pentecost, Assumption, All Saints and Christmas. On all other days of Lent fasting alone is incumbent on Catholics. Both laws cease at noon on Holy Saturday. All who. have reached the age of seven years are subject ‘to the laws of abstinence, while the regulations concerning fasting affect those who are between 21 and 60, unless they are excused through infirmity, hard labor or other legiti- mate reason. Records and Examinations.— The Church is solicitous concerning her records of bap- tisms, confirmations, marriages, orders, funerals and interments, financial matters and admin- istration of property, spiritual status of pa- CONSTITUTIONAL rishioners, etc. Many minute details in regard to all these matters are now prescribed. An examination is the usual method pre- scribed for determining one’s fitness for “re- ceiving orders, preaching, hearing sacramental confessions, accepting a pastorate. An annual examination for at least three years after pro- motion to the priesthood is prescribed for the diocesan clergy, as well as conferences, essays, papers and the like at stated times on theolog- ical subjects. Delicts, Processes and Punishments.— Crimes against faith, religion, ecclesiastical au- thority, violations of the rights of others, maladministration of ecclesiastical goods, abuse of authority, neglect of one’s duties, these and similar matters have their place in the code, with the process, judicial or extrajudicial, as the case may require, to be observed in estab- lishing guilt and inflicting punishment. Pre- scriptions regarding the personnel of courts and other matters are many and varied. The penalty to be inflicted in punishment of delicts or violation of law is often stated specifically in the code, sometimes it is left, within certain restrictions, to the presiding judge. Ecclesias- tical penalties for the most part are spiritual, the most severe of all being excommunication, suspension and interdict, which ‘are included under the general term of censure. Admoni- tions, corrections, penances, loss of emoluments, pecuniary fines, denial of promotion are among the less rigorous canonical punishments. Proc- esses that are not of a criminal character are likewise noted in the code, such as civil suits, processes to determine the invalidity of a matrimonial contract, of orders received, or of a religious profession, as well as various others that are extrajudicial. Conclusion.— Some constitutions that are not new, and which relate to the Holy See while vacant, the regulations governing the conclave in which the new Pope is elected and other matters during the interregnum, are given in the: code. A most satisfactory alphabetical index of its contents completes the volume. . Very Rev. ANDREW B. MEEHAN, Saint Bernard’s Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. LAW, Civil. See Civm Law. LAW, Commercial. See Law. LAW, Common. See Common Law. LAW, Constitutional, that part of public law which regulates the political organization of a State and so named because usually em- bodied in a written instrument called a con- stitution. It is sometimes spoken of as the organic or fundamental law of the State be- cause it is the basis of all other municipal law. It differs from international law in being wholly municipal in character and from admin- istrative law in that i#t regulates only in a gen- eral way the organization of the government, leaving the details to be regulated by the rules of administrative law. It differs from ordinary statute law both as to its source and method of enactment and as to its content. While statute law 1s enacted, modified and repealed by the legislature, constitutional law is usually enacted by a constituent convention especially chosen for the purpose while its validity is, in America at least, usually made to depend upon the ap- COMMERCIAL LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL proval of the electorate, to whom it is sub- mitted by way of referendum. Hence it is commonly said that constitutional law is enacted by the people, whereas statute law is the work of their representatives. This distinction as to method of enactment, however, is not universal. In some States the same bodies which enact ordinary statute law also ordain and alter the body of constitutional law. This is true in Great Britain, where the Parliament may alter the constitution in the same manner in which it may enact or repeal an ordinary statute. Likewise in France and in Germany the Parliaments may make amend- ments to the constitution subject only to the limitation that the French Chambers are re- quired to observe certain formalities which they do not observe in passing ordinary statutes, and in Germany an _ extraordinary majority is required. In Switzerland the peo- ple participate directly in the enactment of their constitutional law, not only through the refer- endum (q.v.) but also through the so-called initiative by which they are empowered to draw up proposed constitutional amendments and submit them directly to the electorate for ap- proval. For the different types of constitutions see the article: CONSTITUTION. The distinction between the content of con- stitutional law and that of ordinary statutory legislation is largely one of degree and in the States of the American Union this distinction is fast disappearing. Among the proper sub- jects of constitutional law are (1) the struc- ture and powers of the government including a distribution of its legislative, executive and judicial functions, among separate and distinct organs; (2) a definition of the class empowered to participate in the choice of elective officers and the method by which that choice is to be exercised; (3) the determination of the qualifi- cations, duties and privileges of those em- powered to hold government offices and man- dates; (4) the creation of a (1886); ‘Grania,» her most powerful work (1892), and ‘Maelcho,? a story of the rebellion of Sir James Fitzmaurice in the 16th century (1894). She is also the author of “Treland,? in the ‘Story of the Nations? series (1890) ; ‘A Garden Diary? (1901); ‘With the Wild Geese,” poems (1902); ‘Maria Edge- worth, a biography (1904), and ‘The Book of Gilly» (1906). . LAWLEY, Alethea Jane Wiel; English historical writer: 2d daughter of the 2d Baron Wenlock. She was married to the Cavaliere Tatteo Wiel in 1890 and lives in Italy. She has published ‘Vittoria’ Colonna, a- study 1888) ; ‘Venice,» ‘Story of the Nations? series (1894) ; “The Romance of the House of Savoy? (1898) ; “Verona,? in ‘Medieval Towns? series (1902) ; ‘The Navy of Venice? (1910), etc. LAWLEY, George, American — yacht builder; b, London, England, 1823; d. 27 Feb, He took part — 143 1915. He emigrated to the United States in 1851 where he engaged in shipbuilding. His firm, Lawley & Son, Boston, built the America’s cup defenders the Puritan (1885) and the May- flower (1886). The Volunteer defender was a joint product of the Lawley yards and of build- ers at Wilmington, Del. The Vanitie, which in, 1914 failed to qualify for the America’s cup race, was also, .built under Lawley’s super- vision. > LAWN, finely woven white goods, cotton or linen, of an open texture, plain or printed. The white «sleeves, ‘which form a part of the dress of a bishop in the English Church, are made of lawn. ' LAWN-TENNIS, a modern game, played on grass, gravel, cinder or asphalt courts, with balls and rackets. The face of the racket is now invariably plane, and consists of a net formed of tightly-strung gut. The balls are of rubber covered , with white flannel, about two and one-half inches in diameter and. two ounces in weight. For a game between two players (a singlethanded game) the court is 78 feet long by 27 wide. It is divided across the middle by a net, the ends of which are attached to two posts, . which stand three.feet outside the court on each side. The height of the -net is three and one- half feet at the posts and three feet at the centre. At each end of the court, parallel to the net and 39 feet from it, are drawn the base- lines, the extremities of which are connected by the sidelines. Half-way between the side-lines, and parallel to them, is drawn the half-court line, dividing ethe space on either side of the net into two equal parts called the right and left courts. On either side of the net, at a dis- tance of 21 feet from it, and parallel to it, are drawn the service-lines, The players take up their positions on opposite sides of the net and one of them, decided by tossing, called the server, standing with one foot behind and one foot on the base-line, serves the ball from his tight court into the diagonally opposite court. The ball is served by being struck with the face of the racket while it is in the air, and the stroke is counted-a fault if the service be from the wrong court, or if the server do not stand as directed, or if the ball. do not ‘strike the ground in the diagonally opposite court within the service-line. After a fault the server must serve again from the same court, unless the stroke was a. fault because served from. the wrong court. The next.service comes from the left court, and thereafter the courts are taken alternately. The non-server is called the striker- out, and. it is ‘his business to return the ball by striking it with the face of his racket. The server wins a‘stroke if the striker-out “volley the service,” that is, strike the ball before it touches the ground, or fail to. return the service or the ball in-play, or return the service or the ball in-play so that it drop outside any of the lines which bound his opponent’s court, or otherwise lose a stroke in accordance with the recognized Jaws of-the.game. The striker-out wins a stroke if the server serve two consecu- tive faults, or fail'to return the ball in-play, or return the ball in-play so that it drop outside any of the lines which bound his opponent’s court, or otherwise lose a stroke. On. either player winning his first stroke the score is called 15 for that-player;.on either player win- 144 ning his second stroke the score is called 30 for him; on either winning his third stroke his score is called 40, and the fourth stroke won by either player is scored game for that player. However, if both players have won three strokes, the score is called deuce, and the next stroke won by either player is scored advantage for that player. If the same player win the fol- lowing stroke, he wins the game; but if he lose the next stroke, the score is again called deuce, and so on until one player win two strokes immediately following the score at deuce. The player who first wins six games wins a set, but with both at five a method of scoring similar to advantage is often introduced. Sides are changed at the end of every set.. Three-handed and four-shanded lawn-tennis differ in no essen- tials from the game as above described. The game of lawn-tennis as now known was intro- duced about 1875. Bibliography.— Dewhurst, E. B. of Lawn Tennis? (Philadelphia 1910) ; Do- herty, R. F. and H. .L.,. ‘On Lawn Tennis? (New York 1903) ; Heathcote, JM. pccnnis, Lawn Tennis and Racquets? (new ed., London 1903) ; Lambert-Chambers, D. K. D, ‘Lawn Tennis for Ladies? (New York 1910) ; Little, R. D., ‘Tennis Tactics? (ib. 1913) ; Myers, A. aS ‘Lawn Tennis at Home and Abroad? (ib. 1903) ; id., ‘Complete Lawn Tennis Player? (Philadelphia 1908) ; Paret, J. H., ‘Lawn Ten- nis: Its Past, Present and Future? (New York ~ $904) ; Walsh, G. E., ‘Making a Tennis Court? (ib. 1912); Wright and Ditson, ‘Official Lawn Tennis Guide? (Boston, annually) ; Spalding’s Athletic Library, ‘Lawn Tennis? (New York, annually) ; ‘(Lawn Tennis Handbook? (London, annually). LAWNS: Their Preparation and Care, a closely-mown turf maintained for ornament in parks and private grounds. It may or may not be dotted with trees, shrubs or other specimen plants, or even with flower beds. These are, however, mere incidents, and since they usually detract from the natural beauties of an open sward, should usually be confined to the borders in irregular, rather than formal, order. The lawn thus becomes the canvas and the side- planting the frame for a natural picture in which the dwelling or other prominent feature is placed. Whether the contour of the surface be level, convex or concave, it should always be graded so as to avoid even slight irregularities, and where the land is rolling all three contours should be harmoniously blended so as to avoid breaks such as terraces, and so as to ensure the repose that comes from such blending. Except on sand and clay, lawns do well on practically all soils if properly prepared and maintained. After the grading the dand should be plowed, dug, or forked, as deeply as the soil will permit, even to the depth of two feet, then harrowed thoroughly, removing all stones and burning all rubbish, weeds, etc. A liberal dressing of complete fertilizer containing potash, phos- phoric acid and nitrogen in readily available forms should be given, and where possible a covering of an inch or more of rich soil is often of decided advantage. Except for their con- taining seeds of weeds, animal manures are especially valuable, that of sheep and cattle be- ing usually better than ordinary stable-manure; rerigs LAWNS — LAWRANCE when the latter is applied it should always be after thorough composting and rotting to de- stroy weed-seeds. The surface being very smooth, the fertilizer well harrowed in and the wind asleep, seeding may be performed, prefer- ably just before rain. The seed should be the purest that can be obtained, and may or may not be raked in, but the land should always be heavily rolled. In the Northern States the pop- ular grasses for lawns are Kentucky bluegrass, which is especially valuable for soils rich in lime, red-top and. Rhode Island bent-grass. (See Grasses). Mixtures of several grasses are valuable because the grasses that start first choke out weeds and are later themselves choked out by the slower- -growing blue-grass. When the grass is three inches tall it should be cut with a scythe, and afterward with a lawn-mower as occasion may require. In the autumn a dressing of well-composted manure should be given, and in the spring the strawy useless parts should be raked off before growih starts. After the frost is out of the ground the lawn should be rolled to compact the turf, which usually heaves more or less during the winter. It is further essential that weeding be performed every year, but especially during the first, second and third. If desired, a sprinkling of white clover. (Trifolium repens) may be given by sowing the seed after or. before the grass seed; being of different weights, they cannot be sown together. White clover may also be sown upon heavy and poor soils, where it will often make a good stand and a good pre- cursor for grass. In the South the grasses mentioned -usually fail, and should be replaced by species that can withstand the climatic con- ditions. The most satisfactory and popular are Bermuda grass, joint grass and Saint Augustine grass. The first is usually propagated by pass- — ing the roots, freed from soil, through a feed cutter, sowing and harrowing the pieces. Small lawns are frequently made by trans- planting sod from old pastures, in which cases the turf is cut in long strips about 15. inches wide, rolled up and laid down like carpet, and then pounded or heavily rolled to press the roots firmly against the soil, The subsequent management should be that given seed-sown lawns. Owing to the dryness of the summers in many parts of the United States lawns are often considered failures. Too frequently, how- ever, these results follow imperfect preparation and improper management. As a rule lawns should not be watered while they are young or in the early part of the season, because this tends to keep the roots near the surface and to make the grasses less able to withstand dry weather. Water should therefore be withheld until the plants seem to be in dire need, and then it should be applied in what may seem ex- cessive quantities. Consult Barron, Leonard, “Lawns and How to Make Them? (New York 1906) ; Corbett, L. C., ‘The Lawn? (in ‘Farm- ers’ Bulletin No. 249 Washington 1906) ; Doogue, L: J., “Making a Lawn? (New York 1912) ; Kelligan, C. P., ‘Starting a Lawn? (in ‘Circular No. 20,? of the Michigan Experiment Station Lansing 1913) ; Schreiner and Skinner, “Lawn Soils? (in ‘Farmers’ Bulletin No. 494 Washington 1912). °°. LAWRANCE, John, American lawyer, soldier and legislator : b. Cornwall, England, LAWRENCE 1750;.d. New York city, November 1810. He emigrated to America in 1767, settling in New York, where he was admitted to the bar in 1772. He early attained a considerable success as a lawyer, and at the outbreak of the Revo- lution warmly espoused its cause. He received an officer’s commission in the First New York regiment, serving under his father-in-law, Gen, Alexander MacDougall. He was. ap- pointed aide-de-camp to Washington in 1777, and in October of that year presided over the trial of Major André. He returned to the prac- tice of law after the war, and in 1785-87 was a delegate to the Continental Congress. He was an ardent supporter of the constitution proposed by the Federalists, and lost his seat to an anti-Federalist in 1788. He served in the New York State senate in 1789 and was elected the first representative of New York city in the first United States Congress, 1789-91, succeed- ing himself in the second Congress, 1791-93. In 1794 he was the first justice appointed to the United States District Court of New York, re- signing upon his election to the United States Senate in 1796. He served as president pro- tempore of the Senate in 1798-99. Lawrance was a personal friend of both Washington and Hamilton. ‘ LAWRENCE, Abbott, American manu- facturer and diplomatist: b. Groton, Mass., 16 Dec. 1792; ‘d. Boston, 18 Aug. 1855. In 1814 he became one of the firm of A. and A. Law- rence, which for many years conducted a pros- perous business in the sale of foreign cotton and woolen goods on commission, and later established a cotton industry in Lowell, Mass., with his brother Amos (q.v.). He was a mem- ber of the 24th Congress and again, 1839-40. He was a commissioner in 1842 to settle the Northeastern Boundary question and arranged a basis for ‘settlement with Lord Ashburton which was satisfactory to both the United States and England, and was Minister to Great Britain in 1849-52. He founded the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University, to which he gave $100,000; and was a liberal phi- lanthropist. Consult Hill, A. H., ‘Memoir of Abbott Lawrence? (2d ed., Boston 1884). LAWRENCE, Amos, American merchant: b. Groton, Mass., 1786; d. Boston, 31 Dec. 1852. He was educated in his birthplace at an acad- emy founded by his father. He worked for many years as a clerk and in 1807 started at Boston a dry-goods business of his own, formed a partnership with his brother (1814) and be- gan a large wholesale business. Lawrence and Lowell became the centres of this firm’s manu- facturing activity which soon placed them at the head of the cotton-spinning and weaving trade. Amos Lawrence retired from active bus- iness in 1831 through ill health and spent much of his later years in promoting works of philan- thropy and patriotism. The academy at Groton, of which he was a liberal benefactor, was named Lawrence Academy in his honor (1843) ; he contributed liberally to the raising of the Bunker Hill monument and made large con- tributions to Williams College. Consult ‘Ex- tracts from the Diary and Correspondence of Amos Lawrence with a Brief Account of Some Incidents in His Life? (1855). LAWRENCE, Amos Adams, American philanthropist: b. Boston, Mass., 31 July 1814; VOL. 17--10 ‘By 145 d. Nahant, Mass., 22 Aug. 1886. He was grad- uated at Harvard University in 1835, invested extensively in cotton manufactories and later became interested in various industrial corpora- tions and banking firms. He served as an officer in various charitable institutions and was principal manager of the Emigrant Aid Asso- ciation ofganized to aid in the colonization and maintenance of Katisas as a free State, in which connection he was associated with Eli Thayer and others in 1853-54. The town of Lawrence in Kansas was named in his honor. In the Civil War he was active in recruiting the 2d Massachusetts Cavalry regiment. He was one of the founders of Lawrence College, Appleton, Wis., and he built Lawrence Hall, the Epis- copal Theological Seminary, at Cambridge. LAWRENCE, Frederick William Peth- ick, English social reformer and barrister-at- law: b. 28 Dec: 1871. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1897 was elected a Fellow there. He made a tour around the world investigating social conditions, and in 1899-1901 lived at the Mansfield Settlement House, Canning Town. He made an effort to enter Parliament but his opposition to the South African War defeated him. He purchased a controlling interest in the Echo in 1901 and edited it until its demise in 1905, when he per- sonally settled its obligations. He was asso- ciated with Mrs. Pankhurst in the militant demonstrations of the Woman’s Suffrage Party and was joint editor of Votes for Women in 1907-14. He was sentenced to nine months’ imprisonment for connection with a destructive raid of the militant suffragists in 1912 and was ordered to pay the costs of the prosecution. Upon his refusalehe was declared bankrupt, the bankruptcy being annulled after the court had deducted the costs of the trial from the estate. In 1916 he became honorary treasurer of the Urban District Council. Author of various papers on mathematics, economics, free trade and woman suffrage, and ‘Local Variations in © Wages? ; ‘Woman’s Fight for the Vote’; ‘The Man’s Share?; ‘Reformer’s Year Book, 1904-08. LAWRENCE, George Alfred, English novelist: b. Braxted, Essex, 25 March 1827; d. Edinburgh, Scotland, 23 Sept. 1876.. He was educated at Oxford, studied law, but soon turned his attention to fiction and became sud- denly famous by his novel, “Guy Livingstone, or Thorough? (1857). He was much read in America as well as in his own country, and “Sword and Gown? (1859); ‘Breaking a But- terfly? (1869) and other works gave him an evanescent popularity. His ‘Border and Bas- tile? (1863) has an autobiographical interest, in which he records his adventures in the United States, undertaken with a view to joining the Confederate army. He was taken prisoner by Federal troops before his purpose could be accomplished, and was only released on con- dition that he return to England. LAWRENCE, George Newbold, Amer- ican ornithologist: b. New York, 20 Oct. 1806; d. 1895. He was privately educated, was for some years in the drug business, but.in 1867 retired, and thereafter devoted himself to orni- thology. From 1846 he contributed to the litera- ture of ornithology; and the also made an _ex- tensive and valuable collection of birds, includ- 146 ing 8,000 specimens, representing almost every variety found in the United States, and an excellent series of the birds of Mexico, Central America, the West Indies and South America. This collection he sold to the American Museum of Natural History. He assisted Spencer F. Baird and John Cassin in the preparation of ‘The Birds of North America? (1860). He was a member of many scientific societies. LAWRENCE, James, American naval of- ficer: b. Burlington, N. J., 1 Oct. 1781; d.5 June 1813. He entered the navy as a midship- man 4 Sept. 1798; in 1800 was made acting lieutenant and in April, 1802, lieutenant, and served during the war with Tripoli; he was first lieutenant of the schooner Enterprise and one of the party which boarded and destroyed the frigate Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli on the night of 15 Feb. 1804.. Shortly before peace was concluded he was given. command of a gunboat, and on his return. to the United -States, served as first lieutenant of the Chesapeake and subsequently commanded the Viren, the Wasp and the Argus. In November 1810 he was pro- moted to the rank of master commandant and given command of the Hornet. In 1812 he cruised in the Hornet with Commodore Bain- bridge’s squadron along the South American coast, and at the mouth of the Memerara River he met the British brig Peacock, which after a severe action of about 15 minutes he forced to surrender. When she surrendered, the Peacock “was badly damaged and sinking, and Lawrence transferred the crew to his own ship. (See Hornet). On 14 March 1813 he was promoted to the rank of captain and appointed to the frigate Chesapeake, then lying in Boston; the Hornet was also placed under his orders and it was intended that the two ships should sail against the Greenland whale fishery. On 1 June 1813, when the Chesapeake was ready for sea, Lawrence sailed out of the harbor to.meet the British ship Shannon; after a severe battle he was forced to surrender, and his ship was taken as a prize into Halifax. (See CHEsA- PEAKE AND SHANNON, BATTLE oF). Lawrence was fatally wounded and died four days after the battle; throughout the action he showed the greatest coolness and courage, and his last words as he was carried from the deck were, “Don’t give up the ship.» Consult Gleaves, Albert, ‘J: Lawrence, Captain U. S. Navy? (New York 1904) ; Niles, J. M., ‘Life of O. H. Perry? (Hartford 1821); Roosevelt, ‘Naval War of 1812? (2 vols., New York 1904). _ LAWRENCE, John Laird Mair, Ist Baron LAwRENCE, English viceroy and gov- ernor-general of India: b. Richmond, York- shire, 24 March 1811; d. London, 26 June 1879. He was a younger brother of Sir Henry Mont- gomery Lawrence and of Sir George Saint Patrick Lawrence, both of whom attained dis- tinction in India. He was educated at Foyle College, Londonderry, at Wraxall Hall, Clifton, Haileyberry College and the College of Fort William, Calcutta. He mastered Urdu and Per- sian, and in 1830 he was appointed assistant to the collector at Delhi. With brief intermisstons he was for 20 years magistrate and land rey- enue collector in that district, gaining a thorough understanding of the natives and so adminis- tering affairs for their comfort and prosperity that he gained a wide influence with them, He LAWRENCE was responsible for beneficent land reforms and was also largely instrumental in preventing oppression of the people by their own chiefs. At the outbreak of the first Sikh war he was able to raise and forward supplies and muni- tions of war which resulted in the victory at Sobraon.’ He then administered the territory of the defeated Sikhs: with such success that in the second Sikh war he was able again to come to the rescue, with the result that the Punjab was annexéd and Lawrence appointed commis- sioner and then lieutenant-governor. seven years before the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny he so pacified the territory as to be able to send troops to the relief of Delhi and other hard-pressed points, and earned for himself the title “the savior of India.» He was knighted in 1858 and upon his return to India received the thanks of Parliament and a pension of £2,000 annually in addition to his regular pension of £1,000. He became privy councillor, acting as secretary of the state’s council for India, and in 1864 became viceroy and governor-general of India. His administration was uneventful but marked by the prudent care and wisdom upon which he had built his power in Indian affairs. Upon his return to England in 1869, after 40 years of service in Indian affairs, he was created a baron. For the last 10 years of his life he was chairman. of the London School Board and of the Church Missionary Society. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. . Consult) Smith, B., ‘Life of Lord Lawrence? (1885) ; Atchison, Sir C., ‘Lord Lawrence? (in “Rulers of India Series? 1892); Trotter, L. J., “Lord Lawrence? (1880); Gibbon, F. P., ‘The Lawrences of ‘the Punjab? (1908). LAWRENCE, Saint, tHE Deacon, Chris- tian martyr: d. about 258. He was deacon of Pope Sixtus II and in the persecution of Valerian ‘he was summoned before the judge to produce the treasures of the Church. He brought with him the poor and needy of the Church as the treasures in his keeping and upon refusal to retreat from his position was sentenced to’ be burned on a gridiron. His martyrdom followed by three days that of Pope Sixtus. While the legend and the details as related by Saint Ambrose are doubtless some- what enhanced by the narrator, there is no question of the occurrence of the martyrdom. He is supposed to have mocked his judge and executioners while under torment. His name appears in the canon of the Mass of the Roman Catholic Church and his calendar day is 10 August... There have been enumerated 228 churches named for him in England, and the Escurial was built in his honor by Philip II of Spain ‘in, celebration of the victory of Saint Ouentin which was won on his feast day in 1597: ; LAWRENCE, Stringer, English soldier: b. Hereford; 6° March 1697; d. London, 10 Jan. 1775. He entered:the army in 1727, served at Gibraltar, in Flanders and at the battle of Cul- loden, and in 1748 he went out to India to take command of the East India Company’s troops. He defeated the French attempt to capture Cuddalore soon after his arrival, but was later captured by the French cavalry patrol at Arian- copang and was held prisoner until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was in command of the capture of Devicota in 1749, at which time In the | / LAWRENCE Chie served under him, a lifelong friendship ensuing. He returned to England in 1750, but in 1752 he took command of the forces intended for the relief of Trichinopoly and succeeded in forcing the surrender of the French besieging army. Later he defeated the French at Bahur, and in 1753 he once again relieved Trichinopoly and defended it for the 17 months preceding an armistice and conditional treaty. The ar- rival of regular forces of the Crown deprived him of the chief command in 1754, but he served under the new commander, Col. John Adlercron, in the operations around Wandi- wash in 1757. He was in command of Fort George in 1758-59 during the siege by the French, and after two years in England re- turned to India as major-general and com- mander-in-chief at his old post. He presided ever the reorganization of the Madras army in 1765 and retired in 1766. The monument to his memory in Westminster Abbey was erected by the East India Company. LAWRENCE, Sir Thomas, English por- trait Tass b. Bristol, 4 May 1769; d: Lon- don, 7 Jan. 1830. His father was an inn- keeper, who in 1772 removed to Devizes, where the artist gave early proof of his ability by drawing portraits of his father’s guests or, standing on a chair, would recite passages from Pope or Milton. At the age of six he was sent to school, where he remained two years, and this, with the exception of a few lessons subsequently in Latin and French, con- stituted his whole education. The family re- moved ‘to Bath in 1779, where he had access to the galleries of some of the neighboring gentry, where he employed himself in copying historical and other pieces. From this time the was the ‘sole support of his family, and by the age of 12 his studio was the resort of the beauty and fashion of Bath, his works being mainly half-size ovals’ in crayon. In his 17th year the began to paint in oils. In 1787 the family removed to London, and Lawrence was admitted a student at the Royal Academy ; his subsequent career was successful and bril- liant. He was elected in 1791 a supplemental associate by the desire of the king, being under the age (24) fixed by the laws of the institu- tion. No other case of the kind has occurred. On the death of Sir J. Reynolds the next year he was made painter to the king. His reputation grew steadily, and he was soon considered the first portrait-painter of the age in England. His scene from the ‘Tempest? was a successful attempt at historical painting. In 1794 he was made a Royal Academician and was elected president in 1820.. In 1815 he was knighted by the Prince Regent, who also em- ployed him to take the likenesses of the allied sovereigns and the most distinguished persons of their suite. During their visit to England he finished the portrait of the king of Prussia, and went to Aix-la-Chapelle several years afterward to paint the Emperor Alexander; thence he went to Vienna, where he completed the portraits of the emperor, the archdukes, Metternich, etc., and in Rome painted Pius VII and Cardinal Gonsalvi. These portraits are now in the Waterloo Gallery at Windsor and are of great historical value. Lawrence’s portraits are striking likenesses and display a bold and free pencil; but they are, particularly 147 his later ones, chargeable with mannerism; his coloring, brilliant and effective as it is, is hard and glassy, and shows little insight into character. The ‘pleasing artificiality of his work, however gratifying to his sitters, has lowered his artistic reputation with succeeding generations. It was said of him that he never lost a sitter by an unflattering likeness. Pol- ished and courtierlike in his manners, he was an inveterate and in main a harmless flirt, his successive proposals of marriage to the two - daughters of Mrs. Siddons and subsequent withdrawals from these engagements being the only discreditable episodes in an otherwise honorable career. His income for the last 20 years of his life was very large, but he died poor, owing to the lavishness with which he spent money in acquiring the first-rate produc- tions of his art, in assisting less fortunate attists and in’ other ways. His valuable and unrivaled collection of drawings by the old masiens was unfortunately dispersed after his deat LAWRENCE, Sir William, an soni Meith surgeon and anatomist: b. Cirencester, 16 July 1783; d. 5 July 1867. In 1799 was apprenticed to the celebrated Abernethy, and was an in- mate of his house for five years. In the third year of his apprenticeship he had given such proofs of his zeal and capacity that Abernethy: appointed’ him demonstrator in anatomy at Saint Bartholomew’s, and for 12 years he dis- charged the duties ‘of his office with signal ability. From 1824-65 he became principal sur- geon to Saint Bartholomew’s Hospital. In 1816 he published an ‘Introduction to Com- parative Anatomy and Physiology,» and in 1819 “Lectures on the Physiology, Zoology and Natural History of Man,’ which provoked the hostile criticism of theologians. In 1829 he succeeded Abernethy as lecturer on surgery to Saint Bartholomew’s, and altogether he was connected with this hospital 65 years. Shortly before his death he was made a baronet. Few men of his time did more than he for the ad- vancement of surgery. His treatise on ‘Her- nia? was a standard work, and that on ‘Dis- eases of the Eye? (1833) marks an epoch in ophthalmic surgery. His lectures on surgery were published in 1863. He was twice presi- dent of the Royal College of Surgeons and on two occasions he delivered the Hunterian ora- tion. LAWRENCE, William, American politi- cian: b. Mount Pleasant, Ohio, 29 June 1819; d. 8 May 1899. He was graduated from Frank- lin College (1838) and at the Cincinnati Law School (1840). He early became prominent in politics, and from 1845 to 1847 owned and con- ducted the Logan County Gazette, and was afterward editor of the Western Law Journal. He served in the lower house of the State legislature and for five years as State senator, and from 1857 to 1864 was judge of the Court of Common Pleas and of the District Court. After seeing some military service (1862), he was elected to Congress in 1865 and in 1880 appointed first Comptroller of the United States Treasury, from which office he retired in 1885. He has published several books on law, notably “The Law of Claims against the Government? (1875), and “The Treaty Ques- tion? (1871); “Decisions of the First Comp- 148 A troller in the Department of the Treasury of the United. States (1881-85). LAWRENCE, William, American Prot- estant Episcopal bishop : b. Boston, 30 May 1850. He was graduated at: Harvard in 1871, and at the Episcopal Theological School, Cam- bridge, Mass., in 1875; was rector of Grace Church, Lawrence, Mass., 1876-84; professor of homiletics and pastoral theology at the the- ological school above named, 1884-93; dean of the. school,, 1888-93. He was university preacher at Harvard, 1888-91. .In October 1893 he was elected bishof of Massachusetts to succeed Bishop Brooks, and. was consecrated to that office, which he continued to hold, in the following year. He has published a ‘Life of Amos. A. Lawrence, his father (1889); ‘Visions and Service? (1896); ‘Life of Roger Wolcott? (1902); ‘Study of Phillips Brooks? (1903), and other works. LAWRENCE, William Beach, American jurist: b. New York, 23 Oct. 1800; d. there, 26 March 1881. -He was graduated ‘at Colum- bia College in 1818, and after his admission to _ the bar in 1823 he practised in New York, where he attained eminence. He removed to Newport, R. I., in 1850; was elected lieutenant- governor of Rhode Island in 1851 and soon after became acting governor. He became widely known by reason of his connection with the “Circassian case” in 1873, before the Ameri- can and British International Court in Wash- ington, D. C., his arguments securing the case for his clients and leading to the only reversal of a decision by the United States Supreme Court that had ever occurred. He published ‘History of the Negotiations in Reference to the Eastern and Northeastern Boundaries of the United States? (1841); ‘Belligerent and Sovereign Rights as Regards Neutrals During the War of Secession” (1873) ; ‘Disabilities. of American Women Married Abroad. (1871) ; ‘Administration of . Equity Jurisprudence? (1874) ; ‘Etudes sur la jurisdiction consulaire et sur l’extradition? (1880). LAWRENCE, Kan., city and county-seat of Douglas County, on both sides of the Kan- sas River, and on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé and the Union Pacific railroads, 40 miles west of Kansas City. It is the farming trade centre for Douglas and parts of two other counties, and is principally engaged in manufacturing, which is. greatly promoted. by the excellent water power furnished by. the river. It is the seat. of the Kansas. State Uni- versity, Haskell Institute and Government In- dian Industrial School; contains a hospital, pub- lic library, fine school buildings and several public parks, and has flour and paper mills, barbed-wire, ice, brick and tile, shirt, sash and door factories and foundry and machine shops. There are electric-light plants, waterworks, severa! national and State banks, daily, weekly and monthly periodicals and an assessed prop- erty valuation of over $1,000,000. The city was settled by an anti-slavery colony from the East in 1854 and was named in honor of Amos A. Lawrence. It was the first of the Kansas Free-State towns founded by the Emigrant Aid Society, soon after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill (q.v.).. In 1856 a band of Missouri border ruffians sacked the town, which was defended by old John Brown LAWRENCE (q.v.) and his sons. In 1863, the Confederate raider Quantrell attacked the town and killed 125 citizens. The commission plan of city gov- ernment has been in operation since 1914. Pop. (1920) 12,456. LAWRENCE, Mass., city, and one of the county-seats of Essex County, on both sides of the Merrimac River, and on the Boston and Maine Railroad, 26 miles northwest of Bos- ton. It is one of the notable and leading manu- facturing cities in the valley of the Merrimac River. Built at the lowermost available rapid on the river, the city has the concentrated power of all the tributaries of that stream and receives benefit from the entire watershed feed- ing the main current —an area of 4,450 square miles. The water power developed at. this point, amounting to about 15,000 horse power, is remarkably uniform and reliable. Water Power Plant.—In 1845-48 the’ Great Stone Dam” located at Bodwell’s Falls near the old historic “Andover Bridge” was built of hammered granite. When finished this struc- ture was considered the most complete and durable work of the kind then existing in America. It was bedded upon the underlying strata of bluestone or Merrimac schist and it was so thoroughly constructed that it has stood to this day without alteration or addition, seemingly a part of the ledges between and upon which it was built. This dam concen- trated at one point the power of three suc- cessive natural river rapids, the accomplished result being a fall of 26 feet, increased in height, when needful, by flashboards,- to 30 feet. The overfall of water is in one unbroken sheet over a crest, nearly straight in line, 900 feet in length between the granite abutments. In addition to this unbroken span of solid stonework the protecting wings of the dam | are 729 feet in combined length. There are two main canals, one along the northern bank of the river, one mile in length, and another upon the southern side, one-half mile long; these distribute water power to the large mills and workshops. In 1915 a survey was made under the supervision of a commission ap- pointed by the governor of the State for a navigable channel from the mouth of the river at Newburyport to Lowell, Mass., a distance of 36 miles. In 1917 the United States Board of Army Engineers reported favorably upon the survey, and in 1918 both branches of the Massachusetts legislature passed a bill author- izing the building of this navigable waterway in conjunction with the Federal government. Pending war induced the governor to veto the bill at that time, but it will in all proba- bility be passed as soon as conditions warrant. Such action will make of Lawrence a direct seaport town. Steam and electric power are also used in addition by nearly all manufac- turers and in some instances are exclusively relied upon. Manufacturing and Business.— Lawrence may well be known to Americans as “The Worsted City,» for the United States census returns show that in the production of worsted and woolen dress goods Lawrence leads the United States and is second in the world; Birmingham, England, being the only city which excels her in this respect. Lawrence leads the entire country in the amount of capital in- vested in any one locality in the worsted and LAWRENCE ~ woolen dress goods industry, and in the value of that class of goods produced, the sum in- vested in this distinct business in 1917 being $120,263,298 and the value of product $135 - 618,681. Among wool-growers and dealers of the world, the eity is known as a leading con- sumer of that staple. Among the great manu- facturing companies that lead in importance are the Pacific Mills, having over 10,000 em- ployees; the American Woolen Company, em- ploying 17,000 operatives; the Arlington Mills, with 8,500 operatives; the Everett Mills, employing 5,500. The total investment in the textile industry in Lawrence in 1917 was $175,534,916 and the total value of textile prod- ucts was $174,495,698. Lawrence is also famous for its manufacture of calendered book paper. In the manufacture of wooden wheels Law- rence also leads the country, the Archibald Wheel Company manufacturing government artillery wheels, wheels for fire engines and automobile wheels. . The first steam fire-engine in America was manufactured in Lawrence. Paper-mill ma- chinery is also extensively manufactured, as are also shoes, foundry products, carriages and steam fire apparatus, engines, boilers and mill fittings and findings of all description. The industrial unrest which has been gen- erally attributed to Lawrence is now the sub- ject of systematic study by a commission of citizens employing a high-grade publicity ex- pert, and seeking by co-operation with the heads of the industries to establish a new in- dustrial consciousness and relationship be- tween the workers and the employers. The means employed are to be along the lines of those advocated in the Rockefeller Industrial Plan of Shop Committees, Co-operative Man- agement, ultimate partnership and ownership by such employees as fit themselves for it; an increase in home and property ownership as a stabilizer of labor and a means of reducing labor turnover; a development of parks, play- grounds and recreational centres; the increase in interest in education, Americanization. and naturalization, and a broad comprehensive plan of housing and city planning. Site and Environment,— The site was pe- culiarly adapted to the building of an import- ant industrial centre. The small Spicket River here enters the Merrimac from the north and the Shawsheen stream enters from the south. The location is healthful. The rapid Merrimac River divides the city into nearly equal sec- tions, the northern half now having the lar- gest population and most important industrial establishments. The city was laid out in 1845- 46 by the founders and promoters, and has been built largely in accordance with original plans. : Public Works and Buildings.— The water- works, established in 1874-75, were so ample that extensions have not made it necessary to reconstruct the pumping plant or the storage reservoirs. The source of water supply is the Merrimac River. The filtration beds that cleanse the current before it is distributed for use were designed and constructed in 1892 under the care and approval of the Massachu- setts State Board of Health. The experimental station of the Massachusetts State Board of Health is established here. Illuminating and heating gas and electric lighting and power are 149 supplied by a single chartered company. The courthouse was erected in 1903, at a cost of $250,000, and the post office was erected at about the same time at a cost of $150,000. The school buildings are large and commodious. The old city hall, the original “Town House,” served fora quarter century almost every con- ceivable public use and is still’ a noticeable structure. Other notable features are the Essex County Training School, Children’s Home, Cottage and Lawrence hospitals. (New. York 1899) ; Fonger de Haan, ‘An Outline of the History of the Novela Picaresca in Spain? (The Hague and New York 1903); Menéndez . y Pelayo, M., ‘Origenes de la Novela Espafiola? (Madrid, in the ‘Nueva Biblioteca de Autores Espafioles?) ; also C. P. Wagner’s introduction to How’s translation. JoHN GARRETT UNDERHILL. LAZARISTS, or FATHERS OF SAINT LAZARUS, a congregation of the Roman Catholic Church, originally known as “Priests of the Mission,” founded at Paris by Saint Vincent de Paul in 1625 for the purpose of supporting missions and ministering to the spiritual wants of the poor at home, and in foreign parts, especially Barbary. The founda- tion was confirmed by letters patent of Louis XIII, May 1627, and the missionaries were erected into a congregation by Pope Urban VIII in 1631. At the time of the Revolution they included 1,195 members and 63 houses. In 1817 they established themselves in the United States. See Orpers, RELIGIOUS. LAZARUS (abridged form of the He- brew name Eleazar, “God has helped”), name of two persons in the New Testament. § 1. Lazarus of Bethany, brother of Martha and Mary, and a friend of Jesus. John xi, xii, narrates the miracle of Jesus raising Lazarus from the dead after he had lain four days in the tomb. Beyond the mention of Lazarus’ presence at the banquet which Simon the Leper gave Jesus (Matthew xxvi, 6-16; Mark xiv, 3-11; Luke x, 40; John xii, 1-11) there is no further reference to him or the miracle of his raising from the dead. The miracle is stated: in John xii, 1-11, to have produced a great effect upon the Jews, converting many to a belief in Jesus and thereby caused the high priests to seek the death of Lazarus as well as of Jesus. There has been a wide controversy concerning the authenticity of the miracle, grounded in part upon the failure of the other Synoptists to mention it despite its significance. Supporters of the actuality of the miracle are 160 inclined to consider doubts cast upon it as evi- dences of enmity to Christianity. (2) The beg- te in the parable “Lazarus and Dives” (Luke 20), this constituting the only occurrence of a proper name in a parable, and used prob- ably merely as characterization, and not with any thought of connecting the beggar with Lazarus of Bethany. The description of the beggar at the gate of the wealthy Dives, covered with sores and longing vainly for the crumbs from the table, doubtless gave rise to the assumption that he was a leper, an un- founded belief which nevertheless became widespread and the name passed into many languages as identified with leprosy. The story appears only in the gospel of Luke. LAZARUS, Emma, American poet; b. New York, 22 July 1849; d. there, 19 Nov. 1887. Trained at home under the personal direction of her father, Moses Lazarus, a New York mer- chant of prominence in the social and busi- ness world, she early displayed intellectual promise. From her childhood books were her most precious possession and her mind was turned to poetry for its utterance—the Civil War inspiring her first lyric outbursts. Her earliest productions, ‘Poems and Translations? (1867), were marked by a seriousness if not sombreness, incomprehensible in one so young, whose life, too, was full of happy anticipations. In her second volume, four years later, there was more artistic completeness, and a certain consciousness of power gave more strength to her verse. Her ‘Admetus and Other Poems’ (1871) was favorably received, and its classic atmosphere showed distinct talent, while, side by side with its imaginings in “Admetus? and “Tannhauser? were its flashes of personal ex- perience in ‘Epochs? and the musical rhapsodies in ‘Phantasies.» In 1874 her love for German literature was evidenced in her ‘Alide,” a story of Goethe’s Sesenheim period, so far as its background is concerned, wherein she has ad- mirably incorporated whole passages from the “Autobiography” to give naturalness to the epi- sode. It is a charming romance, which won high praise from Tourgeneffs as ‘the work of one who “is not a pupil in art any more” and “s not far from being a master.” Her next book printed for private circulation, ‘The Spag- noletto”? (1876), a five-act tragedy of the 17th century, was remarkable at least for the new note in treatment, its stormy sweep of passion, so unlike the calm, reflective emotion of her poems. It was in 1878, when she was giving the finishing touches ‘to translations from Heine, that a new theme was suggested to her —the translation into English of representative Jewish poets of the Spanish school: With en- thusiasm she responded to the appeal, and, de- siring to reproduce the spirit of the original, studied Hebrew with rare diligence and soon grew independent of German paraphrase. The ease with which she mastered the medizval Jewish poets and the interest she displayed in Jewish history were preparations for a more important work. A little volume was shown her — ‘Der Tanz zum Tode? by Reinhard, based on historical data furnished by Franz Delitzsch, as a more elaborate treatment. Her “The Dance to Death? was the result, for which she was unable to find a publisher until it was issued as a serial in a Jewish weekly, LAZARUS — LAZULI FINCH and appeared about the time of the Russian Jewish persecution of 1882, although it was written without any reference to those out- breaks. In the American movement to aid; the refugees, she took a helpful part. She wrote for The Century (May 1882) an impassioned article, ‘Russian Christianity. versus Modern Judaism, » wherein she championed her brethren and refuted their critics and assailants. In prose and verse she further strove to vindicate her ancestral creed and inspire its followers to brotherhood and useful activity. In The Century for February 1883 she pleaded for “ restored and independent nationality and re- patriation in Palestine.” After her father’s death in March 1885 her own health failed slowly and the end came in November 1887, just at the time when her powers) were ripest and her opportunities seemed at their greatest. In addition to the volumes already named she published “Poems of Heinrich Heine? (1881) ; ‘Songs of a Semite?; ‘The Dance to Death, and Other Poems? (1882). Her collected poems were issued in two volumes in 1889. ABRAM. §.- Isaacs, Late Professor of Semitic Language, New York University. LAZARUS, satestactite Motite.2 German philosopher: b. Filehne, Posen, 15 Sept. 1824; d. Meran, Tyrol, 13 April 1903. He was the son of a Jewish scholar, was educated in Hebrew literature and history, and studied law and philosophy at the University of Ber- lin. He was professor in the University of Berne in 1860-66, professor of philosophy at the Military Academy at Berlin in 1868-73, and in 1873 was appointed professor at the University of Berlin. His philosophy was. a development of the Herbartian theory and he became a leader in that school... With H. Steinthal he founded the Zeitschrift fir V olkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft in 1859, and made numerous contributions to it. He was president of the first and second Jew- ish Synods at Leipzig, 1869, and Augsburg, 1871. ‘He received the title Geheimrath on his 70th birthday. Author of ‘Das Leben der seele? (1855-57; 3d ed., 1883); ‘Ueber den Ersprung der Sitten? (1860; 2d ed., 1867) ; “Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte? (1865; 2d ed. 1872); ‘Zur Lehre von den_ Sinne- tauschungen? (1867) ; ‘Ideale Fragen? (1875; 2d ed., 1885) ; ‘Erziehung und Geschichte? (1881) ; “Unser Standpunkt? (1881); ‘Ueber die Reize des Spiels?> (1883); ‘Der Prophet Jeremias? (1894); ‘Die Ethik des Judentums? (1898; new ed., 1911); ‘Die Erneuerung des Juden- tums?’ (1909). LAZETCHNIKOV, la-zéch'nyé-kot, or LAZHECHNIKOV, or LAZJETJNIKOV, Ivan Ivanovitch, Russian novelist and dram- atist: b. 1794; d. 1869. He was engaged in teaching after his retirement from the army in 1819 and gained considerable success as a writer of historical romances and of dramas. Author of ‘Poslednii Novik? (1833) ; ‘Ledi- anyi Dom? (1835); ‘Basurman? (1838). His collected works were published at Petrograd (1858; new ed., 1884). LAZULI FINCH, a small brilliantly blue finch (Cyanospiza amena) of the Western States. frequently kept as a cage-bird. It is LAZULITE — LE BON much like its relative, the eastern indigo-bird (q.v.). | LAZULITE, a “pihevah which is not to be confused with lapis lazuli (q.v.),’is found in Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, Brazil and ‘in North Carolina and Georgia. It occurs mas- sive and also well crystallized in monoclinic crystals. of .steep-pyramidal ‘habit. It has a fine blue color and vitreous lustre and is semi- translucent. It is moderately hard, but brittle; specific gravity, 3.1.. It is a hydrated phosphate of aluminum, iron and magnesium, but it also contains lime, and sometimes silica. LAZZARONI, 1ad’zq-ro’né, Italian name for the poorest class in Naples, people who are homeless and live chiefly by begging, although intermittently they may fish and perform odd jobs. There was a rising among them in French. Revolutionary times and during the Napoleonic era, their sympathies being with the Bourbons, . At that time they attacked and pil- laged people of wealth and of the nobility whom. .they suspected of sympathy with the new era. LE BAS, Philippe, fé-lép lé-ba, French his- torian and archeologist: b. Paris, 17 June 1794; d. there, 1861: At 16 he entered the navy, which he left three years later for the army and ‘he shared in the campaigns of 1813-14. In 1820 he was chosen by Queen Hortense to act as tutor to Prince Louis Napoleon, later Napo- leon III, with whom he remained until Octo- ber; 1827. After holding professorships at Paris’ successively of history and of the Greek language’ and literature, he was commissioned in 1842 by the French government to under- take a:tour of archeological investigation in Greece and Asia Minor, during which he made many valuable discoveries. He published books on very varied subjects, embracing essays on classical inscriptions, editions of ancient au- thors, travels, ancient and medieval history, politics, instruction in German and translations from German and English. His best-known works are’ his ‘Explication des inscriptions grecques. ‘et. latines recueillées en Gréce (1835-37) - and ‘Voyage archéologique en Gréce et en Asie Mineure? (1847 et seq.). __. LE BLANT, 1é blan’, Edmond Frédéric, French archeologist : b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1818; d. there, 3. July 1897. He began his archzo- logical investigations while. on a journey to ‘Rome in 1847 and thereafter made the *study ‘his lifework, specializing in Christian epig- raphy and the history of early Christian in- stitutions in France. His investigations in these fields are of -acknowledged importance. He was elected to the Academy of Inscriptions in 1867, and in 1883-89 he was director of the Ecole Francais at Rome. Besides numerous scientific papers he was author of “Inscriptions chrétiennes de la Gaule antérieures au Viii éme siecle? (1856-65): . ‘Manuel d’épigraphie chrétienne? (1869); ‘Les sarcophages_ chré- tiens de. la Gaule> (1886); ‘L’Epigraphie chrétienne en Gaule et dans VA frique romaine? (1888) ; ‘Les. persécuteurs et les martyrs aux premiers siécles de notre ére? (1893), etc. He collaborated with Jacquemart in the preparation of ‘Histoire . artistique de la Porcelain? (1861-62). vot 17—11 | -eering in, the. Land of the 161 LE BLOND, le’blond’, Elizabeth Alice Frances (Mrs. Auprey), British author and Alpinist: b. Wicklow County, Ireland, about 1860. She was the only child of Sir St. Vincent Bentinck Hawkins-Whitshed, Bart., and succeeded to the title of a- Hanover baron- ess. She was. married to, Col. Frederick Burnaby in 1879, widowed in 1885; married to John Frederick Main in 1886 and widowed in 1892; and in 1900 she was married to Aubrey LeBlond. Sheis famous as a mountain climber making the most difficult ascents in the Swiss and Dauphiné Alps and in Arctic Norway. She was elected first president of the Ladies’ Alpine Club in 1907. She has been an extensive con- tributor to periodicals, makes the photographs used to illustrate her travel books and. has lectured on mountain climbing, using her own slides as illustrations. Author of ‘The High Alps in Winter? (1883); ‘High Life and Towers of Silence? (1886); ‘Adventures on the Roof of the World? (1904); ‘Mountain- Midnight Sum (1908); ‘A Guide to Old Gardens in. Italy” (1912); “The Life and Times (1715-1800) of Charlotte Sophie, Countess Bentinck? (2 °vols., 1912), etc. LE BOEUF, lé’béf’, Randall James, Amer- ican lawyer: b. Cohoes, N. Y., 10: March 1870. He received his education at Cornell. Univer- sity and was admitted to the bar in 1893. After practising in New York city he returned to Albany and became a member of the firm of Burlingame and Le Boeuf. Since 1898 he. has practised alone. From 1897-1901 LeBoeuf was corporation counsel of the city of Rens- selaer, and in 1909 was appointed justice of the Supreme Court of New York, retiring in 1911. He was a member of the New York State Banking Commission which revised: the banking laws in 1913. Judge Le Boeuf has traveled extensively in Alaska, West ‘Indies and on the Continent. LE BON, lé bon’, Gustave, Fpbilch physi- cian, ethnologist and ‘psychologist : b. Nogent- le- rotrou, 1841. He received his M:D. in 1876 but abandoned the practice of medicine for ethnological and psychological research. He was appointed chief of the government expedi- tion to India for the study of the architecture of the Buddhist monuments in 1884. Author of ‘L’Homme et les. sociétés? (2 vols., 1877) ; ‘Les monuments de L’Inde (1894); ‘Lois pyschologiques de l’évoluticn des peuples? (1895; English translation, ‘The Psychologies of the Peoples,’ 1898; 71 ed., 1912); ‘L’Evolu- tion des forces” (1099; Enelish translation, 1908) ; “Psychologie de l’cducation? (1904; 13th ed:, 1909); ‘L’Evolution ce la. matiére? (1905; English translat on, 1907) ; ‘La révolution fran- caise et la psychologie des révolutions? (49425 English translation, ‘The Psychology of Revo- lution,’ 1913), etc. LE BON, Joseph, French politician: b. Arras, 29 Sept. 1765; d. Amiens, 10 Oct. 1795. He entered the priesthood, was professor: of rhetoric at Beaune and later joined the revo- lutionists. He served as mayor of Arras anc administrator of Pas-de-Calais, and in. 179; took his seat in the Convention. Under < commission by the Convention he succeeded in preventing Cambrai from being taken ah the 162 Austrians, displaying marked courage and ability. ' Later) however, the severity of° his dealings with the opponents of the Revolution | in the departments of the Somme and Pas-de- Calais, coupled with the enmity of his political adversary, Armand Cuffroy, caused his trial before the tribunal of the Somme and his sub- sequent condemnation and execution. » Consult Emile Je Bon, ‘Histoire de Joseph le Bon et des tribunaux: révolutionnaires d’Arras et de Cambrai? (2d:ed., 2 vols., 1864). LE BOULENGE, 1é boo’lan’zha, or LE- BOULANGE, Paul Emil, Belgian soldier: b. Mesnil-Fglise, 11 March 1832; d. Ostend, 30 May 1901. He early entered the artillery ser- vice and reached the rank of lieutenant-general upon his retirement in 1897. He was an expert in ballistics and invented the Le Boulenge chromograph. Author of ‘Etudes de balistique expérimentale? (1868); ‘Description et emploi ‘du chronographe Le Boulenge? (1869; 2d ed., 1877); “Télémeétre de fusil? (1875); “Déter- mination des vitesses velocipediques, Volo- graphes? (1894), etc. LE BRAZ, lé bras’, Anatole, dices novel- ist: b. Duault, 2 April 1859. He was educated in Paris and engaged in teaching, becoming professor of French literature at the University of Rennes in 1905. In his literary work he has specialized in the legends and customs of old Brittany and he has lectured extensively on the subject. He made several lecture tours of the United States under the auspices of the French Alliance. Besides numerous contributions to “magazines he is author of ‘Tryphina Keran- glas’ (1892); ‘La chauson de Bretagne? (1892) ;: ‘Au. pays des Pardons? (1895; Eng- lish» translation, 1906); ‘Paques d’Islande? and ‘Vieilles histoires du pays breton? (1897) ; “La terre du passé? (1902); ‘Les coutes du soleil et de la brume? (1905); ‘Au pays d’exit de Chateaubriand? (1909); ‘Ames d’occident? (1912), .etc. LE BRUN, lé briin’, Napoleon Eugene Charles Henry, American. architect: b. of I‘rench parents, Philadelphia, 2 Jan. 1821; d. Tew. York,.% July 1901. He was,a pupil of Thomas-U. Walter, the architect, and from 1842 to 1861 practised his profession in Philadelphia where his. most notable work is the Roman Catholic cathedral in Logan Square. He re- moved to New York in 1861 and among struc- tures there which were designed by him with his son are the Foundling Asylum and the Metropolitan Life Insurance building in Madi- son Square. LE CARON, lé ka’ron’, Henri (real name THOMAS MILLER "BEACH), British secret service agent: b. Colchester, 26 Sept. 1841; d. London, 1 April 1894. He assumed the name Le Caron when he came to America in 1861 to join the Union forces in the Civil War. He served through the war, rising to the rank of major. In 1865 he learned of the Fenian plot against Canada and communicated with the authorities in England. He was thereupon engaged by the Rritish government as a military spy and until 1889 was in closest communication with the Fenian organization. His reports enabled the British government to defeat the Canadian invasion of 1870 and led to the surrender of Riel in 1871. He lived for 25 years in America, chiefly in Detroit, gathering information for LE BOULENGE — LE CHATELIER his government and making occasional trips to Europe. In 1889 he was summoned by the London Times to give his testimony before the Parnell Commission, a proceeding which auto- matically ended his career as a/secret. service agent. Author of ‘Twenty-five: Years in the Secret, Service? (6th ed., 1892)... : LE CARON, Joseph, French missionary: d. 1632. He was a» Franciscan, belonging to the congregation. of -Récollets. His work in Canada (he landed at Tadoussac, 25 May 1615) was chiefly among the Huron tribe, and he was the first European to explore the lake of that name. His indefatigable labors among the In- dians met with scant success, though” he left some valuable information concerning ‘their lan- guage, which was of great value, ‘to his suc- cessors. The name of Le Caron is of special interest in connection with the origin of the Christian religion in Canada: the first mass in what is now the province of Quebec was cele- brated by him (and Father Jamay) on the Riviére des Prairies, near the western extremity of the island of Montreal, 24 June 1615; on 12 August of the same year the first mass in Ontario was sung by him near’ Thunder Bay; and in 1617 at:Quebec he officiated at the first marriage in Canada. After Kirke’s capture of Quebec (1629) he was, deported to England with others of the French population and ‘never returned. to the monastery which he had built in that.city. LE CHAPELIER, 1&! sha'p’lya’, Teaddc René Guy, French revolutionist: b. "Rennes, 12 June 1754; d. Paris,:22 April 1794. He was a lawyer by profession and: in 11789: he was elected to the States-General. He was one of the founders of the Breton Club:and on 3 Aug. 1789 he was chosen president of the Con- stituent Assembly. He was one of ‘the prin- cipals on the committee which drafted the new constitution and he opposed Robespierre’s pro- posal that members of the Constituent Assem- bly should be barred from election to the new assembly. The extreme measures adopted by the revolutionists gradually moderated, Le Chapelier’s opinions and on 29 Sept. 1792 he introduced a measure for the restriction of the clubs. A visit to England on professional. busi- ness made a pretext for the extremists to charge him with conspiring with foreign na- tions and he was brought before the Revolu- tionary Tribunal, condemned. and executed. LE CHATELIER, 1é sha’té’lya’, Henri Louis, French chemist: b.- Paris, 8 Oct: 1850. He studied at. the Collége Rollin, the Ecole Polytechnique and the Ecole des Mines. He was appointed professor of chemistry at the Ecole des Mines in 1877, and in 1882 became professor of mineralogical chemistry there. He was called to the chair of mineralogical chem- istry at the Collége de France in 1898. He has made extensive researches, and is. the inventor of appliances for use in experiments in chem- istry and physics. He is a chevalier in the Legion of Honor, was president of the Société Minéralogie in 1898 and of the Société de Physique in 1907. He is an extensive con- tributor to scientific journals and is author of ‘Cours de chimie industrielle? (1896; 2d ed.. 1902); ‘High Temperature Measurements translated by G. Burgess (1901); ‘Recherches expérimentals sur la constitution LE CLEAR des. mortiers. hydrauliques? | (1904; English translation 1905); “Introduction a l’étude de la metallurgie? (1912), “La silice et les silicates? (1914); ‘Les explosifs® (1915), etc.. LE CLEAR, le klér, Thomas, American painter: b. Owego, Ne Y2 71818 34d. New York, 1882. He painted portraits in London, Canada, before he had received any instruction in art, and left that place about 1832 for New York, where he made his principal residence. He was elected a National Academician in 1863. Besides his portraits, which are clever in char- acterization and full of life and expression, he has painted many genres, such as ‘Marble Players”; ‘The Itinerant? (1862) and ‘Young America.” Among his portraits are those of ‘William Page? in the Corcoran Gallery at Washington; and ‘George Bancroft? in the Century Club, New York. LE CLERC, 1é-klar, John, or Johannes Cler’icus, Swiss theologian: b. Geneva, Swit- zerland, 19 March 1657; d. Amsterdam, Nether- lands, 8 Jan. 1736. He ‘began to study’ theology and philosophy in his native town, and con- tinued his studies at Grenoble, Saumur, Paris and London. He gradually adopted the views of the Remonstrants, as the adherents of Arminius (q.v.) were then called. In 1684 he was appointed to the faculty of the Remon- strant College at Amsterdam. In 1728 a stroke of apoplexy deprived him of his power of speech, which he never recovered. His in- fluence has been most widely felt through his writings, which are voluminous. He edited the ‘Apostolic Fathers of Cotelerius? (1698), and the views he held about Mosaic authorship, inspiration and kindred topics seemed to anticipate. some recent deductions from the Higher Criticism. Besides a Bible commentary he published ‘Bibliothéque universelle et his- torique? (25 vols. 1686-93); ‘Bibliothéque choisie? (28 vols., 1703-13) ; and ‘Bibliothéque ancienne et moderne? (29 vols., 1714-26). LE CLERC, Sébastien, French designer and engraver: b. Metz, Lorraine, 20 Sept. 1637; d. Paris, 25 Oct. 1714. He acquired the elements of design from his father, a gold- smith, and by the advice of Le Brun devoted himself to engraving, in which he became so distinguished that at the suggestion of Colbert he was appointed engraver in ordinary to Louis XIV. Pope Clement XI also conferred upon him the honor of knighthood. He formed his style on that of Le Brun, improving it, how- ever, by a careful study of Raphael ; and in his published works, which number between 3,000 and 4,000, and embrace every variety of sub- ject he has exhibited a singularly correct and elegant execution. He also published treatises on geometry, architecture and perspective. Consult De Vallemont, ‘Elogue historique de Sebastien Le Clerc? (Paris 1715); Jombert, eeajstoRue de l’ceuvre de S. Le Clerc? (Paris 1774 ._. LE CLERQ, Chrétien, kri-té-dn 1é klar, French missionary: b. Artois, France, about 1630; d. Lens, France, about 1695. He labored as. a. Récollet missionary in the peninsula of Gaspe, Canada, with intervals,- from 1675-87, and invented.a system of hieroglyphics which he taught the Micmacs. His works are inter- esting as throwing a side light. upon early Canadian history, but are tinged with ecclesias- —LE CONTE 163 tical partiality for Frontenac, who favored the Récollets at the expense of the Jesuits. These works are, ‘Nouvelle relation de la Gaspésie? (1691), and. ‘Establishment of the Faith in New France? (English translation by John G. Shea 1881). LE CONTE, le ként, John, American physicist: b. Liberty County, Ga., 4 Dec. 1818; d. Berkeley, Cal., 29 April 1891. He was.a son of Lewis Le Conte. He was. gradu- ated from Franklin College in 1838, from the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, in 1841; in 1846-55 was professor of natural philosophy and chemistry in Franklin College; in 1856-69 was protessor of natural and mechanical philosophy in South Carolina College; in 1869 became professor of physics and industrial mechanics in the University of California; was president of the university in 1876-81; and in 1881 again assumed his profes- sional duties. Among his publications were ‘The, Philosophy of. Medicine? (1849), and ‘The Study of the Physicat Sciences? (1858). LE CONTE, John Eaton, American nat- uralist: -b. near Shrewsbury, N. Y., 22. Feb. 1784; d. Philadelphia, 21 Nov. 1860. He was a brother of Lewis Le Conte. In » 1813 he entered the army as a topographical engi- neer, and in 1831 was retired with the grade of major. He published ‘Monographs. of North American Species of Utricularia, Gratiola and Ruellia,» and other studies in natural history. LE CONTE, John Lawrence, American entomologist: b. New York, 13 May 1825; d. Philadelphia, 15 Nov. 1883. He was a nephew of Lewis Le Conte. He. was graduated from Mount Saint Mary’s College (Emmits- burg, Md.) in 1842, from the College of Physi- cians and Surgeons in 1846, became a surgeon of volunteers in the Federal army in 1862 and was later made medical inspector United States army, with rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1873 he was chosen to the presidency of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He was generally recognized as an important authority on entomology; and pub- lished: on that subject ‘Classification of the Coleoptera of North America? (1862-73) ; ‘List of the Coleoptera of North America? (1866); and ‘New Species of North Ameri- can Coleoptera? (1866-73). LE CONTE, Joseph, American geologist: b. Liberty County, Ga. 20° Ped. 1823.5" d. Y¥o- semite Valley, Cal., 6 July 1901. He wasason of Lewis. Le Conte. He was _ graduated from Franklin College, Georgia, in 1841, from the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, in 1845; practised medicine at Macon, Ga.; in 1850 became a pupil of Louis Agassiz, whom he accompanied on an expedition to Florida;. and later was professor of natural science in Oglethorpe University, Georgia, and of natural history in Franklin College. In 1856-69 he was professor of chemistry and geology in the University of South Carolina, and from 1869 until his death held the. chair of geology in the University of California. During the Civil, War he was chemist in the Confederate medicine laboratory and later in the nitre and mining bureau at Columbia, S. C. He was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1892. His 164 contributions to geology include the determina- tion of. the character and age of the Cascade Range; the description of the ancient giacters of the Sierra Nevada: ‘the development of what is called the “contractional theory” in mountain building; and researches in © vein formation. He wrote also .on optics, .philos- ophy, biology and other subjects. .He was san editor of the Journal of Geology»:and of Science, and published ‘Religion and Science? (1873), a collection of lectures; ‘Elements of Geology? (1878), his best-known book; a ‘Compend of Geology? (1884) 3 ‘Evolution: Its Nature, its Evidences, and its Relation to Religious Thought? (1887); and other writ- ings. Consult his ‘Autobiography, edited by Armes (1903). LE CREUSOT, France. See Creusor, LE. LE CRIME DE SYLVESTRE BON- NARD. In general, modern’ French writers of fictions are models of conciseness and direct- ness: they follow the tale to its conclusion without turning from the road to wander in meadows, however tempting. The ability. to say “No to their fancy is not the least of their merits. It was. inevitable that there should be writers who attained their purpose by the opposite method— that of digressions, and detours, of an apparent neglect oe continuity and sequence. 4 These authors rely, on. the effects of surprise of whimsical fancy. Among them is Anatole France. Thousands. of readers, who. had grown tired of the: logical severity and directness of the ordinary French novel, found themselves under the spell of, his wandering fancy. None of France’s stories is more delightful in this regard than ‘The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard,’ Here is a book to charm sensitive and generous souls who, are weary of the more sordid and vulgar aspects of life. It is the love story of an aged academician and_ bibliophile — but without a dull page. It mentions; to be sure, books, tomes and parchment, but. it also mentions cats, a tyrannical and. devoted. old family maid, an extravagant voyage to. Sicily, an irresistible Russian princess, children, youth, bonbons and yiolets. The portraits of Sylvestre Bonnard, Mme. De Gabry, Jeanne are , thor- oughly and exquisitely French. ;The. style: is that for which the author is celebrated :— sub- tle, suggestive, polished to the last degree of delicacy and grace. RayMonp WEEKS. LE DENTU, 1é dan’ti, Jean Francois Auguste, French surgeon and writer: b. Basse- Terre, Guadeloupe, 21 June 1841. He took his M.D. at Paris in 1867, became a member of the faculty in 1869, professor of pathological surgery there in 1888, and of clinical surgery in 1891. He acted as surgeon at the ‘Hotel Dieu from 1872, and in 1889: he was elected to the Academy of Medicine. He collaborated with Pierre Delbet in the preparation “of ‘Traité de chirurgie clinique et opératoire (1895-1901), and “Nouveau traité de chirurgie? © (1908-09). Author of ‘Maladies de la pros- trate et de la vessie? (1881) ; ©Traité ‘des affections chirurgicales des reins, des uretéres et des capsules surrénales? (1889) : ‘Le cancer du sein? (1902); ‘Visions d’Esypte (1911), etc. : VOR < LE CREUSOT— LE FLO LE. DIABLE BOITEUX, lé d’yabl’ bwa'té, “The Limping Devil” (1707), by Le Sage, seems from its title a translation or adaptation of ‘El diablo cojuelo”» of the Spaniard Que- vara, from which, however, it took only the general idea and some two and a half chapters out, of 21. This idea was. that Asmodeus, a devil, removing the roofs from the houses of Madrid, “as one takes the top-crust from a pasty,» should reveal. to his companion the intimate life of typical personages when re- moved from the restraints of publicity. Lesage adapted this scheme to a satire on the social life of contemporary Paris. His book is thus, if: we look beneath the surface, more akin to the ‘Characters? of La Bruyére*than to Que- vara’s tale, which merely supplied Lesage with the connecting links that were lacking in La Bruyére’s studies. Much in the work is neces- sarily local and. transitory.,Many, of the witty sketches had lost their point. even in Lesage’s own time, with the disappearance of the personages they satirized. These were omitted. in a second edition..The author’s declaration in the preface that he meant no one in particular could put off the track only the very. innocent, and aroused the others to elaborate “keys” which added much to. the great vogue of the book. There are hits at Fontanelle and La Motte, at Ninon de l’Enclos andthe noted actor, Baron. In a later edition Voltaire is quipped in terms which the author of the ‘Henriade? never forgot nor forgave. But in, spite of the ingenuity with which the shifting: scenes are connected and the wit with which human foibles. are portrayed, . ‘The Limping Devil? inevitably lacks the unity of structure that alone can produce great. artistic effect in a work of fiction. It has been trans- lated under the title ‘Asmodeus.? BENJAMIN W. WELLS. LE FANU, leé-fa’nii or léf’a-ni, Joseph Sheridan, Irish journalist and novelist: b. Dublin, 28 Aug. 1814; d&there, 7 Feb. 1873. Having graduated from Trinity College, Dub- lin, he joined (1837) the staff of the Dublin Umversity, Magazine, at first. as contributor, and afterward as editor and proprietor. Among modern. Irish novelists. he stands next in popularity to Charles Lever.. ‘The House by the Churchyard? appeared in 1863, and was succeeded by ‘Uncle Silas? (1864), his most powerful work; ‘Guy Deverell (1865) : “The Tenants of Malory> (1867); ‘The Wyv ern Mystery? (1869); In a Glass Darkly? (1872), etc. LE FLO, 1é f16, Adolphe Charles fetish uel, French general and diplomatist: b. Lesnevin, 2 Nov. 1804; d. Néchoat, 16 Nov. 1887. He studied at the Ecole Militaire de Saint Cyr in 1823-25, entered the army and served in the African campaigns of 1831 and 1848, rising to the rank of, brigadier-general. He was appointed Ambassador to Russia, 23 Aug. 1848, but’ in the following year he re- turned to take his seat in the National Assem- bly. His opposition to the plans of Louis Napoleon’ caused his exile from’ France, 9 Jan. 1852, and it was not until 1857 that he was permitted to return: He took no further xavt in politics during the reign of Napoleon rif, but served as Minister of War for a time during the Franco-Prussian War and at ‘the , BSEnys LE GALLIENNE— LE/LOUTRE end of the war was reappointed to that office. He was again Ambassador to Russia in 1871- 79. He published (1887) the documents rela- tive to the Franco-German crisis of 1875, which, with the aid of Alexander II, he guided toa peaceful. termination. LE GALLIENNE, 1é gal’li-én, ‘Richard, English author: b. Liverpool, England, 20 Jan. 1866. He ‘was educated at Liverpool College and after several years spent in business served as literary critic for the Star and settled in London: Since’ 1902 he has lived in New York: Among his numerots published works are “My Ladies’ Sonnets? (1887) ;' “Volumes in’ Folio? (1888) ; ‘George Meredith? (1890) ; ‘The Book-Bills of Narcissus? (1891) ; ‘Eng: lish, Poems? - (1892); ‘The Religion pica Literary Mar (1893) ; ‘Prose Fancies? (1894-96) ;. “Robert Louis. Stevenson... and Other Poems? . (1895); ‘Retrospective. Re- views” (1896); ‘The Quest of the Golden Girl (1896); “If I were God? (1897) ; ‘The. Ro- mance, of Zion | Chapel, a movel (1898); ‘Travels in England, (1900) ; ‘Odes from the Divan. of Hafiz? (1903) ; ‘Painted Shadows? (1907); ‘Little Dinners with. the Sphinx? (1909); “Vanishing Roads. and other Essays? (1915). LE GENDRE DE MONSIEUR POI- RIER, 1é zhandr’ dé mé’zyér pwa’ryér ( (1913). He contributed extensively to the literature’ of the European War. Besides the works already’ mentioned he is author of ‘Le crucefié de Keralis? (1892); “Sur la céte? (1897) 5) “L’Erreur . de Florence? © (1904); ‘L’Ame Bretonne? (1902-08)* “La double con- fession? (1909); ‘Fétes et! coutumes popu- laires> (1911); “Dixmude; the Epic of the French Marines? (Eng. trans., Simmonds, F., 1916); “Bourguinottes et pompoms rougeés? (1916) ;. “Sans Nouvelles,» drama (produced 1916; pub.'1917).; ‘Steenstraete? (1917) ; eral Foch ‘at the ‘Marne? (1918), etc. LE JEUNE, lé zhén’, Paul, French Jesuit missionary: b. in the diocese of Chalons, 1592; d...Paris, 7 Aug. 1664, He joined the Jesuits in, 1614, "taught ines a time in various colleges and in: 1632 was sent to Canada.by Richelieu where he became superior of the missions. He founded ;the Christian Indian village, Sillery, four miles above Quebec, in 1637. He ceased to be superior of the Canadian missions .in 1639, returned to France.in. 1649 and was ap- pointed procurator of foreign missions. He was chosen in 1658 by Anne.of, Austria for the post of bishop of Canada, but the Jesuits’ rules did not permit acceptance of the dignity. Au- thor of ‘Briéve relation du voyage de la Nou- velle. France? (1632), the first. of a series of ‘Relations> edited yearly by. Le Jeune until 1640 and continued by the Jesuits until 1672: he also wrote many devotional books. LE LOUTRE, lootr, Louis Joseph, French missionary: b. about 1692: d. about 1775. He was -vicar-general of Acadia, and from about 1740,' when he. was» sent to Nova Scotia, he labored: for years'among the Micmac Indians of that: region: with great success, ‘obtaining practical control of all their affairs, spiritual and: otherwise.: He-led them against the Eng- lish, and‘when the country fell into the hands of Great» Britain succeeded in compelling the Acadians to» show their allegiance’ to King Louis, although for» years they had been sub- jects ‘of King George. The consequence was terrible suffering for.the simple people, whose miseries became historic through their deporta- tion in 1755.. Le Loutre fled to Quebec, sailed for France, was taken by the English and kept prisoner in the Isle of Jersey for eight years, “Gen- 166 vas released, he returned to France, where he ie LE MENTEUR, lé mon’tér (‘The Liar, 1642), by Pierre Corneille, is the first good French comedy, the first to emancipate this form of drama from medizval or misunder- stood classical tradition. The liberation came, with the comedy itself, from Spain. This is in part translated from ‘La Verdad Sospe- chosa,? by Juan de J’Alarcon, though .some- times attributed to Lope de Vega. In part, and especially in the conclusion, it is adapted from it, altered to-suit the more refined taste of the France of the aging Richelieu. The hardly less amusing and clever sequel, ‘La Suite du Menteur? (1643), is taken. similarly from Lope. ‘The Liar? inaugurates in French comedy a class of plays of which Moliére’s ‘Misanthrope? is the most notable member, in which interest is centred on the exhibition of some particular social type. The action passes at Paris, opening in the Tuileries and soon passing to the Place Royale, where it closes. The time is contemporary. Dorante, the Liar, having played with the study of law at Poic- tiers, has just returned to Paris, “abandoning the gown for the sword,” and relying on his tongue and ready fancy to make himself king of hearts. Cliton, his valet, with no greater scruples, has the alert shrewdness and caution of his experience and station and is a worthy predecessor of Moliére’s Scapin, as Sabine is of the whole tribe of soubrettes. Géronte, the Liar’s father, is his easy dupe. Clarice, whom he would have liked to beguile, as well.as her friend, Lucréce, with lying tales of adventures, extravagances and devotion, but whose heart is already given to Alcippe, so turns the tables upon him that he finds himself at last, after a series of scenes hilarious for the auditors, con- strained to accept the betrothal with Lucréce which his father has arranged, as he supposes, at his son’s behest. ‘La Suite du Menteur? tells how Dorante “leaves the lady and takes the money,” but “exchanging fetters of the law for those of marriage” finds his mate and match in Mélisse, while Lucréce is united, briefly, with the tich and moribund Géronte. “Le Menteur? is edited with English notes by J. B. Segall (New York 1902). BENJAMIN W. WELLs. LE MOINE, 1é moin’, Sr James Mac- Pherson, Canadian historian: b. Quebec, 24 Jan. 1825; d. Quebec, 5 Feb. 1912. He was educated in his native city and in 1850 was called to the bar. He was inspector of: the in- land revenue district of Quebec 1869-99. He was knighted in 1897. Among his works are ‘L’Ornithologie du Canada» (1860); ‘Etude sur les Navigateurs Arctiques Franklin, Mc- Clure, Kane, McClintock? (1862); ‘The Tour- ists Note-Book? (1870); ‘Quebec: Present? (1876); ‘The Scot in New France? (1880) ; ‘Picturesque Quebec? (1882); ‘The Land We Live In? (1891); ‘Legends of the Saint Lawrence? (1898); ‘Annals of the Port of Quebec? (1900); ‘The Avi-Fauna of the Province of Quebec? (1902). LE MOYNE, Antoine, 4n-twan le-mwan, SreuR DE CHATEAUGUAY, French soldier and colonist in America: b. Montreal, 17 July 1683; d. Rochefort, France, 21 March 1747. He was a son of Charles Le Moyne (1626-85) (q.v.). Pastt-and.: LE MENTEUR— LE MOYNE He entered the French army and in 1704 came to Louisiana with a company of settlers. In 1705-06 he fought under D’Iberville against the English, in 1717 was appointed commandant of the French forces in Louisiana and in 1718 king’s lieutenant of that colony. With the aid of Indians he captured Pensacola from the Spanish 14 May 1719; but he surrendered. it 7 August. Having been held as a prisoner of war until July 1720, he took command at Mo- bile upon the conclusion of the peace of that year, but returned to France in 1726. He was governor of Martinique in 1727-44, and in 1745 was appointed governor of Ile. Royale (Cape Breton), but illness prevented ey, from taking up office. LE MOYNE, Charles, Sas DE Lon- GUEUIL, French settler, soldier and proprietor in America: b. Dieppe, France, 1626; d. Ville- marie, Canada, 1685. He > came to Canada in 1641, settled at Villemarie and was interpreter between the Hurons and the colonists. In 1651 he successfully defended the fort from an attack by the Iroquois, whom he routed with great slaughter; and in 1653 he concluded a peace with the Five Nations. These Indians, however, in 1655 again made an attack upon the colony, which was saved from. destruction largely by Le Moyne’s exertions. In 1657 Le Moyne received from Francois de Lauzon, who held 60 leagues of land under royal grant, full seignorial rights; and in 1664 his possessions were largely increased by the cession of Isle Saint Héléne and other tracts. He partici- pated in the expedition led by Tracy and Courcelles in. 1666-67, and in several cam- paigns against the Iroquois; and for many years was captain of Montreal. He was made Sieur de Longueuil in 1668 and to this title that of Chateauguay was later added. — LE MOYNE, Charles, 1st Baron DE Lon- GUEUIL, French soldier in America: b. Ville- marie, Canada, 10 Dec. 1656; d. 8 June 1729. He was a son of Charles Le Moyne (q.v.). He entered the French army, with which he served in Flanders, but returned in 1683 to Canada. He promoted colonization in Canada and built a stone fort on his estates at Lon- gueuil. In the campaign of 1687 against the Iroquois he was commander of a division of militia; and in 1690 he was wounded at the repulse of Phipps’ attack on Quebec. He was made baron 1700 for services to the colony; commanded the Canadian forces. at Chambly, when the English made an unsuccessful at- tempt to take Montreal; and in 1711 became commander-in-chief of the colonial troops. He was governor of Three Rivers 1720-24 and governor of Montreal 1724-29. In 1726 he rebuilt Fort Niagara. LE MOYNE, Jacques, Sirur DE SAINTE HE£LENE, French soldier in America: b. Ville- marie, Canada, 16 April 1659; d. Quebec, Oc- tober 1690. He was a son of Charles Le Moyne (q.v.). In March 1686 he accompanied the expedition led by the Chevalier de Troyes against the English on Hudson Bay, and in the capture of Forts Rupert, Monsipi and Quit- chitchonen, and the seizure of the English governor, took a prominent part. He was second in command of the expedition that captured, plundered and burned Fort Corlear (now Schenectady), 9 Feb. 1690, In October LE MOYNE—LE PECHEUR D’ISLANDE 167 Phipps laid siege to Quebec and Le Moyne was selected to direct the defense. He was mortally wounded while leading about 200 troops in the repulse of 1,300 British at the passage of the Saint Charles. LE MOYNE, Jean Baptiste, Sreur DE BIENVILLE, French administrator in: America: b. Villemarie, Canada, 23 Feb. 1680; d. Paris, 1768. He was a son of Charles Le Moyne (q.v.). In 1729, upon the death of his brother, Charles, Baron de Longueuil (q.v.), he suc- ceeded to the title; but he was known as De Bienville. In 1697 he served in the expedi- tion of the Chevalier de Troyes against. the English settlers in Hudson. Bay. »He.-after- ward went. with his brother, D’Iberville (see IBERVLLE), to France, and °24 Oct. 1698, sailed from, Brest in the expedition led by D’Iberville to take possession of the mouth of the Mis- sissippi: Bienville was appointed lieutenant of the king, explored the surrounding region, and in 1700 became commander of a fort on the river 44 miles above its mouth. He succeeded Sauvolle in the direction of the colony and assumed command. of the camp of Biloxi, 22 Aug...1701. In December he transferred the settlement to Mobile, which prospered through the arrival.of recruits from.France with sup- plies (1703-04) and of 50 Canadians (1706). In February 1/08 he was ordered to France_as a. prisoner, but.he was later reinstated in his position... The attempt to cultivate the soil by Indian labor having-been unsuccessful, he sug- gested to the: king in 1708 the importation of negroes from the Antilles, to: be exchanged for Indians at the rate. of three Indians for two negroes. In 1713-Cadillac arrived as governor, and Bienville was commissioned lieutenant- governor. Bienville led an, expedition to the territory of the Natchez Indians in 1716, built a fort and concluded a treaty, In 1718 he be- came governor. of Louisiana, in the.same. year founded New Orleans, which was made the seat of government in 1723; in 1724 he went to France to answer charges preferred against him, but in 1733 returned as governor and holding ‘the rank of lieutenant-colonel. After unsuccessful campaigns against the Chickasaws 1736, 1739 and 1740 he sailed for France in 1743. LE MOYNE, Joseph, Sieur pE Séricny, French soldier in America: b.. Villemarie, Canada, 22 July 1668; d. Rochefort, France, “1734. He was a son of Charles Le Moyne (q.v.). .He entered the French navy and in 1604 and 1697 commanded the flotilla which co-operated with his brother D’Iberville (see IBERVILLE) in the expedition to seize Hudson Bay. Later he received command of a squad- ron, took to Louisiana Canadian settlers and surveyed (1718-19) the coast of that colony. He drove the Spaniards from their fortifica- tions at Pensacola (15 June 1719), and re- pulsed ‘them at Dauphin Island, near Mobile (19 August) ; became a captain in 1720 and in 1723 rear-admiral. From 1723 he was governor of Rochefort. LE MOYNE, Paul, Sieur pe Maricourt, French :soldier in America: b. Villemarie, Can- ada, 15 Dec. 1663; d. there, 21 March 1704. He was a son of Charles Le Moyne \(q.v.). He participated in Troyes’ expedition against the English at Hudson Bay, was wounded in the attack on Fort Monsipi (20 June 1686): and ‘remained with his brother D’Iberville (see IBERVILLE) in command of the captured district until 1690. In 1690 he distinguished himself in the defense of Quebec against: Phipps, later took part in Frontenac’s expedition against the Iroquois and in 1701 concluded peace with them. LE MOYNE, Paul Joseph, CHEVALIER DE LoNGUEUIL, French soldier in America: b. Canada, 17 Sept. 1701;.d. France, 12 May 1778. He was the son of Charles. Le Moyne (q.v.).- He entered the French army in 1718. He com- manded at Fort Frontenac, and also served as governor of Detroit’ and Three Rivers. He fought with distinction in various campaigns, and in 1747 marched 180 miles in the depth of a severe northern winter to reinforce Vau- dreuil at the siege of Fort George. LE MOYNE, Pierre: Sce PIERRE LE Moyne Steur:d’, LE MOYNE, Simon, Jesuit’ missionary: b. Beauvais, 1604; d.-Cap de la’ Madeleine, Canada, 1665. In 1622 he entered the Society of Jesus: and was sent to Canada in 1638. He was on the Huron mission with Bressani, Chaumonot and the future martyrs. He was a perfect master of the Huron-Iroquois language and was unequalled in his knowledge of Indian customs and traditions. This ability was recog- nized and he was employed on delicate and arduous embassies. He was the first European to go'among the Onondagas and his eloquence and knowledge of their traditions) won their admiration. He next was sent to the Mohawks and was well received by them, visited New Amsterdam and -pacified the Mohawks during several critical periods. At these times he was often in danger of death. In 1661 he returned to the Mchawks for the fifth time, was: tor- tured and condemned to death, but was saved by the chief, Garakontié. He died on the way to return to the Onondagas. Consult Campbell, ‘Pionecer Priests. of North America? (New York 1908). LE NOTRE, or LE NOSTRE, 1é né’'tr’. André, French landscape gardener: b. Paris, 1613; d. there, 1700. He was the son of the superintendent of the gardens at the Tuileries. He studied painting under Simon Vouet and frequented the studio of Le Brun, later studied architecture and eventually adopted landscape gardening as a profession. The position of his father enabled him to put into effect in the Tuileries gardens some of his ideas and he was later commissioned to plan the gardens of the Chateau de Vaux. _He was the originator of. the formal French garden with its stately co-ordination of grounds and buildings: He was commissioned director of the royal gardens by Louis XIV in 1657. The park of Versailles is tegarded as his masterpiece and he also laid out the gardens of Saint-Cloud, Fontainebleau, Chantilly and many others in France. He was ennobled by Louis XIV in 1675. His ‘influence was felt in many countries and he planned many gardens and parks in both England and Italy. The gardens of the Vatican are his work as is Saint James’ Park in London. LE PECHEUR D’ISLANDE, 1é pa ’shér diz’land’, ‘The Iceland Fisherman; is the most admired novel:)of:;Pierre:. Loti.: -The author passed most of his life on the ocean, IBERVILLE, 168 becoming: finally and remaining to the close of his: active ‘career a commandant in the © French navy. He thus came to know the sea invall its: aspects and moods. His books describe life on the ocean and in distant coun- tries. The Pécheur d’Islande? alone would suffice :to _prove that Loti knows not only the ocean, but the human heart as well. The views of Breton life are pictured by the hand of a master with just enough local color to create an “atmosphere” and to explain the characters as far as they are the product of environment. Even if we have never known those who go down to the sea in ships, we come rapidly to know and respect them as we read these pages of beautiful yet solemn description and narrative. -We feel the dumb anguish of the bereaved widows and the astonished grief of the orphans. Few love stories of greater delicacy have ever been told than that of Gaud, the heorine, and Yann, her. sweetheart. After six, days of marriage, he has to go away to the fishing grounds of Iceland, and ‘never returns. RayMmonp WEEKS. LE PLAY, 1é pla; Pierre Guillaume Frédéric, French engineer and economist: b. La Riviere Saint-Sauveur (Calvados), 11 April 1806; d. Paris, 5 April 1882. He was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and was later ap- pointed to a position in the State Department of: Mines. He became head of the permanent committee of mining statistics in 1834, and engineer-in-chief and professor of metallurgy ‘at the Ecole des Mines in 1840, receiving the appointment. as inspector in 1848. He was designated as organizer of the exhibition of 1855 by Napoleon III, and was later counsellor of state and commissioner-general of the Ex- ‘hibition’of 1867. He was also a senator of the empire. He received the Montyon prize of the Academy of Sciences and was elected grand officer of the Legion of Honor.- He was deeply interested in living conditions among the work- ing classes and for: many years devoted his vacations to travel in European countries for the purpose of making observations on the sub- ject. He founded the Société internationale des études pratiques. d'Economie sociale® in 1856. and edited its journal, La Réforme Sociale, which he founded in 1881. Author of, ‘Les QOuvriers européens? (1855); ‘La Réforme sociale? (2 vols., 1864; 7th ed., 3 vols., 1887) ; ‘L’Organisation de la familie? (1871); ‘La Constitution de LAngleterre) (in collaboration with: Delaire, 1875). LE chon cae Be lé plon’zhou’, Augustus, French archeologist: b. Jersey, Channel Islands, 1826; d. 13 Dec. 1908. ‘He was a descendant of De Tocqueville, was educated in France and engaged in the practice of medicine in Central America, “where he became interested in. the history of: the Peruvians and conducted in- vestigations: which are of recognized value. Author of ‘Sacred Mysteries among the Mayas and the::Quiches, 11,500 Years: Ago? (1886) ; “Queen. Moo and the Egyptian Sphinx? (1896). LE QUEUX, 1é ki, William, English novelist: b. London, England, 2 July 1264. He studied art in Paris. In 1888 was a Parlia- mentary reporter for the London Globe, and its sub-editor 1891-93. In 1900 he was appointed English consul to San Marino. He has trav- eled widely in Europe and the Near East, and LE PLAY —LE ROUGE ET LE NOIR is recognized as an authority on the spy systems of Continental Europe. Among his numerous fictions are ‘Guilty Bonds? (1890); “Sinned Against? (1891) ; ‘The Great War.in England? (1892) ; ‘Stolen "Souls? (1894) ; “Whoso Find- eth a Wife. .(1897) ;..SThe Day? of Tempta- tion (1897); ‘Scribes and Pharisees? (1898); ‘Wiles of the Wicked? (1900) ;.: “In. White Raiment? (1900); ‘The Tickencote Treasure? (1902); ‘The Invasion? (1908);: “The Hand of Allah? (1914); ‘German Spies in| England? (1915) ; ‘Britain’s Deadly, Peril; “The Way to Win? and ‘The Zeppelin Destroyers? (1916). LE ROSSIGNOL, 1é rés‘i-nyol, James Edward, American educator: b. Quebec, Can- ada, 24 Oct. 1866. He was graduated ‘at McGill University, Montreal; in 1888 and also studied at Leipzig, where he obtained the degree of D.Ph. in 1892. ° He was ‘professor of psy- chology and ethics at Ohio University 1892-94, and professor of economics at Denver 1894- 1911. In 1908-09, while on leave of absence from Denver, he was professor of economics at the University of Nebraska. In 1911’ he was appointed head of the department of economics at the latter institution, and became director of the School of Commerce ‘there in 1913.’ He was special lecturer at McGill University in 1900 and at the University of Wisconsin ‘in 1903. From August to December 1906 he was in New Zealand investigating economic conditions there. He is a member of the American Academy of Political and Social Science and other societies and has published ‘The Ethical: Philosophy of Samuel Clarke? (1892) ; “Monopolies Past and Present? (1901); ‘Taxation in Colorado? (1902) ; “History of Higher Education in Colo- rado? ( 1903) ; “Orthodox Socialism” (1907) ; ‘Little Stories of Quebec” (1907); ° ‘State Socialism in New Zealand? _ (1910); ‘Jean Baptiste, A Story of French Canada (1915) and numerous articles on economic “subjects. - LE ROUGE ET LE NOIR, 1& roog’ 4 1é nwar (‘Red and Black?) is, with the ‘Char- treuse de Parme,? written at the same time (1830) but published. eight, years. later, the chief title to fame. of. that. original . French. gentleman of letters,. Henri Beyle, who pre- ferred to call himself Stendhal and pass for an Italian. The somewhat enigmatical title of the novel symbolizes the’ contrasted caréers of the army and the Church, between which the coolly. and selfishly calculating ambition of the hero chooses. This hero, Julien Sorel, was an early superman, wholly unmoral, recognizing , no other measure of the value of conduct than its success in attaining its immediate ends. . Le appealed strongly to the thoughts and imagina- tions of a later generation, and we discover expressions of admiration for him in ‘Nitzsche and. frequent traces of. resemblance to him in the novel. In a romantic age, passionately in love with the color and costume and: wonder, of far lands and unfamiliar periods of. history, Stendhal in ‘Le Rouge et le Noir focussed the attention of the novel upon. life: under. present conditions. The novelist, he said, should . hold a mirror up to life as it passes on~the street. In his attitude and his method he thus anticipated the realism that was to dominate the novel, and ‘Le Rouge et le Noir is a kind of landmark in the history of the novel in France. Consult English translations by E. P, Robins LE SUEUR— LEA > (London 1896);-and°H.-B. Samuel (London 1914).’ A useful source of information is Adolphe Paupe, ‘Histoire des ceuvres de Stend- hal? (Paris 1903). iq ARTHUR G. CANFIELD. LE. SUEUR, Jean Francois, lé swér, zhon fran-swa, French composer; b. Drucat-Ples- siel, near.Abbeville, 15 Jan. 1760; d. Paris, 6 Oct. 1837. At six he was placed at the musical school of the cathedral of Amiens and after completing his. studies was made director of music.in the cathedrals at Séez, Dijon, etc., and in 1784. in the. church of the Innocents, Paris. In 1786. he. became master in the church of Notre Dame. He was afterward induced to compose for..the theatre, ‘Telemachus,?’ his first opera, being. given with great success in the Théatre, Feydeau. .From 1788 he devoted his time altogether to theatrical music. His opera. ‘La, Caverne? was produced in 1793; ‘Paul et; Virginie®.in 1794; ‘Télémaque? in 1796; ‘Les, bardes? in 1804, and. ‘La Mort d’Adam> in 1809. He was made professor of music in the National Institute. In 1813. he became a member ‘of the fourth class of the Institute ; in 1814 composer to the king; and in 1817 professor of composition to the Conserva- toire. His sacred music consists of 33 masses, and of oratorios ‘and motets: He also wrote several” works on’ musical subjects. LEA, lé, Henry Charles, American author: b.. Philadelphia, 19 Sept. 1825 ; d;- 1909. He was.a son of Isaac Lea, grandson of Mathew Carey, and was named for his uncle, Henry Charles Carey. He entered his father’s pub- lishing house in 1843; became, its head in 1865; and retired from: business..in 1880. He was actively .engaged in public undertakings for civil and social advancement, and during the Civil War, rendered conspicuous services in support of the Federal government. Between 1840 and 1860 he wrote. many. papers on chemis- try and conchology, and after 1857 devoted his attention to. European medieval history. He had. taken.up,this study as an avocation,. but in later years he devoted himself increasingly to the mastery , of medieval church. history. He employed copyists to duplicate for him docu- ments, dealing with the, Inquisition. He be- queathed. his books and manuscripts to the University of. ‘Pennsylvania. He was a mem- ber of the American..Academy of Arts and Letters and a Fellow of the British Academy. He received honorary degrees from Harvard, Princeton, Pennsylvania and. Giessen. His chief works are ‘Superstition and Force? (1866) ; ‘An Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Christian Church? (1867; 3d ed., 2 vols., 1907); ‘A History of the Inquisi- tion of the Middle Ages?’ (1888; new ed., 3 vols., 1906; French trans. by Solomon Reinach, 1899; German trans., 1905-06) ; ‘Chapters from the Religious: History of Spain? (1890) ; ‘Formulary of, the Papal Penitentiary in the Thirteenth Century? (1892); ‘A History of Auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church? (1896),;. ‘The. Moriscos_ of Spain: . Their ‘Conversion and Expulsion? (1901); “History of the Inquisition of Spain? (4 vols., 1906-07) ; ‘The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies? (1908). Consult Baumgarten, P. M., “Henry Charles Lea’s His- torical Writings? (New York 1909); Cheyney, special distinction. 169 E. P., “On the Life and Works of Henry Charles Lea,” in ‘Proceedings? of the Ameri- can Philosophical Society (Philadelphia 1911). LEA, Homer, American soldier and author: b. Denver, 17 Nov. 1876; d. Los Angeles, 1 Nov. 1912. He came of a Virginian colonial family and was educated at the University of the Pacific and at the Leland Stanford, Jr., University. He became interested in Chinese military affairs and in 1900-01 he attempted the relief of the Chinese emperor Kwang Hsu. - He raised and commanded the second army division in China in 1904, receiving rank as lieutenant-general. He was associated with the Chinese reformer, K’ang Yu-wei; and with Dr. Sun Yatsen in the Chinese revolution, 1911-12. He caused wide comment by the publication of his book ‘The Valor of Igno- rance? (2 vols., 1909) in which he set forth the possibilities of a Japanese invasion’ of the United States. He was also author of a novel ‘The Vermilion Pencil? (1908); >a. drama “Crimson Spider? (1909), and ‘The Day of the Saxon? (1912), the latter second of a trilogy of which ‘The Valor of Ignorance” was) .the first volume, and embodying a warning. of supposed dangers besetting the British Empire. Lea was also engaged in the preparation of.a ‘History of the Political Development of the Chinese? at the time of his death. LEA, Isaac, American ‘naturalist: b. Wil- mington, Del., 4 March 1792; d.. Philadelphia, 7 Dec. 1886.. In early life he engaged in com- mercial pursuits, and from 1821 to 1851..was partner in a large publishing business; but from boyhood he was devoted to the study ‘of natural history, and his various collections of minerals and fossils, and especially of shells, were, valu- able contributions to science. He was'a mem- ber of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and of the Philosophical Society of the same city, in whose ‘Transactions? many of his observations were published; he was also elected to membership in learned. so- cieties abroad. His work in the. study . of fresh-water and land mollusks. brought .him His principal publications ane “Observations on the Genus. Unio? (18275 33); ‘Synopsis of the Family of Naiads? (1852-70). In the National Museum at Wash- ington his vast collection of Unionide.and his gem collections are deposited. Consult .Scud- der, ‘Bulletin U. S. National Museum, No. 23? (Washington 1885). An account of Lea’s work in conchology was published at Hbsadelphip in 1861 by G. W. Tryon, Jr. LEA, Luke, American journalist ak legis- lator: b. Nashville, Tenn., 12 April 1879. He was graduated from the University of the South in 1899 and from Columbia University in 1903. He established himself in the practice of law at Nashville in 1903, and later became publisher and editor of the Nashville Tennesseean. He served in the United States Senate in 1911-17. LEA, Matthew Carey, American chemist: b. Philadelphia, 1823; d. there, 15 March 1897. His work in developing the chemistry of photography has served important purposes. Besides many articles treating. of the chemical action of light, his publications include an authoritative ‘Manual of Photography? (2d ed., 1871). He was the eldest son of Isaac Lea (q.v.). 170 LEACH, lééch, Arthur Francis, English historian and educator: b. London, 1851; d. 28 Sept. 1915. He was educated at New Col- lege, Oxford, and was a Fellow of All Souls College in 1874-81. He became a barrister at Middle Temple in 1874 and assistant charity commissioner in the Endowed Schools De- partment in 1884. He was commissioner from 1906 until his death. He was appointed ad- ministrative examiner of the Board of Educa- tion in 1901 and became assistant secretary of the board in 1903. He was an authority on the history of education in England. He con- tributed the articles on the history of. educa- tion and English public schools to the ‘Amer- ican Cyclopedia» of . Education? (1912-13). Author of ‘English Schools at the Reforma- tion (1546-48) (1896); ‘History of Wainches- ter College’? (1899) ; ‘Early Yorkshire Schools? (1899-1903) ; ‘Schools .of Medieval England? (1914), etc. “LEACH, William Elford, English natural- ist: b. Plymouth, 1790; d. Palazzo, Saint Sebas- tiano, near Tortona, 25 Aug. 1836.. He studied medicine at Saint Bartholomew’s Hospital, Lon- don, and’ took his’ M.D. at Edinburgh Univer- sity in 1812. His interest in natural ‘history induced him to abandon medicine and in 1813 he was ‘appointed assistant librarian at the British Museum. He introduced and developed there the natural’ system of arrangement in conchology and entomology devised by Latrielle - and Cuvier, and when his arrangement ‘was superseded by that of the French naturalist, Henri Milne-Edwards, Teach was ‘acknowl- edged as an investigator to whom science owed great obligations.’ In the field of crustacea he was considered the greatest naturalist of his time: Ill health compelled his’ retirement in 1821 after his becoming assistant keeper of the natural history department in ‘the British Museum. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1817. Besides numerous con- tributions’ to scientific journals and to the ‘Encyclopedia ‘Britannica? and ‘Edinburgh Encyclopedia? he was author of ‘Zoological Miscellany? (3 vols., 1814-17); ‘Systematic Catalogue of the Specimens of the Indigenous Mammalia and Birds that.are preserved in the British Museum? . (1816); ‘Synopsis of the Mollusca of Great. Britain,» published post- humously (1852). LEACOCK, 1é’kék, Hamble James, Amer- ican missionary: b. Cluff’s Bay, Barbados, 14 Feb. 1795; d. Sierra Leone; Africa,-20 Aug. 1856. _He was educated at Codrington College, Barbados, took deacon’s orders in 1826, and became assistant priest of Saint John’s parish, where he aroused great opposition by freeing his own slaves and offering to all slaves within the parish the privileges of the church. Subse- quently he was stationed at Saint Vincent, and was pastor of Saint George’s, Charlestown, and at Nevis: He removed in 1835 to Lexing- - ton, Ky. From 1836 he held various pastorates, in 1848-55 was again in Barbados, and in 1855 went to Africa as the first volunteer of the West Indian Church Association for the furtherance of the Gospel in West Africa. He developed a large mission field at Rio Pongas, Sierra Leone. Consult the biography by, Cas- wall (1857). LEACH — LEAD LEACOCK, ~ Stephen Butler, Canadian author and educator: b. Swanmoor, Hants, England, 30 Dec. 1869.. He came to Canada in 1876, was educated at Upper Canada College and the University. of Toronto, where he was graduated in 1891. After spending several years in school teaching he took a graduate course in political economy at the University of Chicago and was appointed to the staff of Mc- Gill University in 1901. Under an appoint- ment by the Rhodes Trust (1907-08) Professor Leacock made a lecture tour round the British Empire. In 1900 he married Beatrix, daughter of Col. R. B. Hamilton of Toronto, and has one son, Stephen Lushington Leacock, b. 19 Aug. 1915. .Professor Leacock is the author. of ‘Elements of Political Science? (1906) ; ‘Essays and Literary Studies, and of several works of a lighter character, such as ‘Non- sense Novels? (1911); ‘Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town? (1912); ‘Behind the Beyond? (1913); ‘Adventures with the Idle Rich (1914); ‘Further Foolishness» (1916); ‘The Hohenzollerns in America? (1919).° LEAD, léd, or.. LEADE, Mrs. . Jane (Ward), English mystic: b. County of. Nor- folk, 1623; d..Stepney, 19 Aug: 1704. She came of an excellent family and at 16 is said:to have heard a. miraculous voice during the Christ- mas festivities in. her .father’s house, . after which time she devoted herself seriously to religion. She was married in 1654, widowed in 1670, and thereafter lived in seclusion in Lon- don with her only daughter. Her inclination toward mysticism was accentuated by her study of the works of Jacob’ Boehme, and in April 1670 she began her spiritual diary in which she recorded her frequent prophetic visions. The diary was published in two volumes, ‘The Heavenly Cloud? (1681) and ‘The Revelation of Revelations» (1683). In 1693 one of the books was translated into Dutch and German by Fischer of Rotterdam and. attracted con- siderable attention. Francis Lee, a young Oxonian traveling in Holland, was induced upon his return to. England’ to make Mrs. Lead’s acquaintance and urge her to further writing. Lee was deeply influenced by her sincere piety, became her secretary and after being adopted as her son married her daughter. Lee wrote many of Mrs. Lead’s works at her dictation, and was instrumental in the organiza- tion of a society of theosophists called the “Philadelphians,»> of whom Mrs. Lead was the head, and whose membership included many. followers throughout England, Holland and Germany. Mrs.. Lead’s closing years were clouded by poverty and jealousies among her followers, one of whom, however, granted her a small annuity. She died in one of the alms- houses of Lady Mico at Stepney. Lee, who remained faithful to her, wrote a descrip- tion of her death, ‘The Last Hours of Jane Lead,» which was translated into German. During Mrs. Lead’s lifetime her voluminous writings enjoyed a wide yogue but they are now rare. She wrote also ‘Enochian Walks with God? (1694); ‘The Laws of Paradise? (1695); ‘A Fountain of Gardens? (4 vols., 1696-1701) ; ‘A Living Funeral Testimony? (1702), etc. . LEAD, led, S. D.; city in Lawrence Count i. on the Chicago and Northwestern and the LEAD 171 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroads, a slight action on lead, carbonate being formed about 18 miles from the western boundary of and dissolved, but this action is apparently the State. It was settled in 1876 and incorpo- hindered by the presence of some salts and rated in 1877. It is situated in the Black accelerated by others. When lead is heated to Hills in a gold mining region. The chief in- dustries are connected with mining, the manu- facturing of mining tools and. the outfits for mining camps. Modern methods of mining have made the Black Hills one of. the largest gold producing regions in the world, and Lead receives its share of the industrial plants con- nected with preparing the ore for market. The educational institutions are the public and par- ish schools, Black Hills Business College, the Hearst Free Kindergarten, and the Hearst Free Library. The Lead. Coliseum and_ several churches are among the prominent buildings. The value of the business transacted annually is about $17,000,000. The government is now managed on the commission plan: Pop. 5,013. LEAD, one of the most useful metallic elements, well known in chemistry and in the arts: From early times references to it are found in literature. It is mentioned in Exodus xv, 10; Numbers xxxi, 22; Job xix, 24; and. Ezekiel xxvii, 12, and is supposed to have been imported into Palestine from Tyre, although it should be remembered that there are lead mines in Sinai-and the Lebanon, as well as in Egypt. Articles made of lead by the ancient Romans, such as. water-pipes, water-tanks, weights. rings and small ornamental cylinders, are still preserved. Examples in the grounds of old churches show that the Roman method of mak- ing pipes from sheet-lead continued. in use. till late in the Middle’ Ages. Small lead-weights of curious forms. have been found among Vi- king remains dating as early as the 10th cen- tury. Many of the European countries are known to have produced lead as early as from the 10th to the 14th century. ) Physical Properties.— Lead (chemical sym- bol Pb, from the Latin name of the element, plumbum, atomic weight about 207), is a soft metal of a bluish-white color, tending to gray, with a bright metallic lustre when newly cut or melted. It is tasteless but has ,a distinctive odor when rubbed. It soon tarnishes when ex- posed to the air, taking on a thin film. sup- posed to’ be suboxide. But lead suffers less ‘than. most metals either from atmospheric agencies, or damp soils. It can be scratched with the nail, and easily cut and makes a mark upon paper. Its specific gravity varies from 11.352 in the ingot to 11.365 when rolled into Sheets. It begins to melt at 619° F., and is completely liquid at 638°. Its boiling point is about 2,700°. In cooling from a. molten condition lead crystallizes into regular octa- hedrons from which the still liquid lead may be poured away. It may also be obtained. in a crystalline. tree-like formation. known. as arborescent lead by decomposing a solution of lead acetate by the electric current. Its hard- ness is increased by repeated meltings. It is highly malleable and in a less degree ductile, but its tenacity is small—a wire I-12th of an inch being unable to carry a load of 20 pounds. Lead is not a good conductor of heat.or electricity. It can be welded at ordi- nary temperatures by pressing two freshly cut surfaces together; and when gently heated it can be forced by pressure through perforations and pipes. Water containing carbonic acid has redness in air it is oxidized, litharge (PbO) being formed. Lead is attacked by nitric acid and by hot strong sulphuric acid, but dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acids have but little action. It is, therefore, largely used for the construction of sulphuric acid chambers and for chemical works, plants. It alloys readily with many metals. Lead Ores.— Native lead occurs sparsely in some: localities in Mexico, India and Wales. Its ores are found extensively, more or less pure or associated with other ores, in various parts of the United States, in Great Britain, Germany, Spain and other European countries. The most common form is the sulphite (PbS), known as galena. It occurs usually in veins, and is often associated with zinc and. fre- quently with silver.. Ores of lead are found most plentifully in rocks belonging to the Silurian Age, chiefly in. the mountain .lime- stones. Some occurrences are true veins, others beds or pockets. In the United States the most common occurrence is as a “sheet” filling a vertical crevice, and is in such cases generally a very pure galena. The lead-silver ores of the Coeur d’Alene district in Idaho are in the form of veins, while those of the Leadville district. in Colorado occur largely as irregular replacement deposits of great size in lime- stones. In both the above districts, the ores" are believed by some authorities to have. been introduced by heated waters connected with igneous activity. Others argue that the ab- sence of other hot water sedimentary sub- stances make this theory untenable. In the Flat River district of southeastern Missouri, the ores carry little silver, and occur as irregular disseminations in Cambrian dolomites. They are believed to have been introduced by cold waters which leached the ores from adjacent rocks where they occurred in minute quan- tities. In the; Joplin district of Missouri and in southwestern Wisconsin, considerable lead is associated with the zinc ores (q.v.). Cerus- site, the lead carbonate, is common in the upper parts of certain lead deposits, where it is supposed to have resulted from the weather- ing of the galena of the original ore. In the United States the richest ores are found chiefly in the Western States, the car- boniferous limestone bearing both hard and soft ores, which contain silver chloride and cerussite. The output of smelting works in Colorado, Idaho, Missouri, Montana, Utah, etc., figures largely in the industrial statistics of the country. (See LEAp INpustTRY, AMERICAN). At the present time the main supply of lead is obtained from the Rocky Mountain regions, where the ores are argentiferous — as to some extent all galena is—and the lead-silver mines in some of ‘the States mentioned have produced much wealth for their owners. Conde lead is imported into the United States “from British Columbia and Mexico. Other minerals associ- ated with galena are anglesite or sulphate of lead, lanarkite, which is a basic sulphate, pyro- morphite, or phosphato-chloride of lead, and hournonite, consisting of the sulphides of lead, copper and antimony. Galena is very heavy and usually can be easily separated from most of 172 the lighter minerals with which it is associated. The heavier minerals, such as barytes, ‘pyrites and blende, are not so easily or completely sepa- rated. In Great Britain the ore is crushed to pass through about a half-inch sieve and is dressed to contain over 76 per cent of lead. In other countries the concentration is not so high and sometimes no dressing is resorted to.. This is specially the case in districts where the ‘blast furnace is used for smelting, since finely divided material is unsuited for the blast-furnace. Metallurgy. Galena is the principal lead ore employed for the purposes which metallurgy (q.v.) now so widely subserves. The next im- portant ores, the sulphate and the carbonate, are seldom treated except in combination with ‘oth- ers. The three main processes are the air-re- duction, the roasting and carbon reduction ‘and the iron’ or precipitation reduction processes. Galena when taken from the mine is broken ‘up into small pieces or redticed to powder, and the impurities, in so far as these’ can be removed mechanically, separated by machines. If ‘the dressed galena is nearly ‘pure, as it often is; the smelting operation is simple. The processes of lead-smelting — galena being “the ’ ore which have grown up in various’ parts’ of the world, are strikingly similar in principle, though differing much'in detail. Since 1913° flotation has been extensively resorted to: for ‘the-’con- centration of lead ores. It is estimated that in 1915 its process recovered not less than’ 50,000 tons of metal formerly lost in fines and’ slimes. In the United States lead is smelted in réver- beratory furnaces made of brick, or in’ water- jacketed blast-furnaces. ‘The blast-furnace’: is always preferable to the reverberatory where it can be used, and has now become almost uni- versal for lead- smelting. - Production:— The latest ‘complete Rene available for the’ world’s production ‘of’ lead are those of 1913; the outbreak of the Euro- pean War in 1914 demoralized the mining in- dustries of all European countries. The world’s total of lead produced in 1913 was 1,270,458 ‘tons. Of ‘this, the. United States produced 411,878 tons—32.4 per cent of the whole. The output of “the other Jéead-mining countries was as follows: Spain, 223,767 tons; Germany, 199,627 tons; Australia, 127,867 tons; Mexico, 68,343 tons; Belgium, 55,997 tons; Great Britain, 33,620 tons; France, 30,864 tons; Austria-Hungary, 26,565 tons; Italy, 23,920 tons; Greece, 20,282 tons; Canada, 18,849 tons; Tur- key in Asia, 15,322 tons. The output of lead in the United States for 1921-22 was 464,000 short tons, valued. at $75,- 579,347. Of the whole, Missouri produced 184,- 000 tons: Idaho, 98,000 tons; Utah, 67,000 tons; Colorado, 31,500 tons; Nevada, 8,000. tons; Arizona, 9,000 tons; California, 1,500 tons; Oklahoma, 53,000 tons; Wisconsin, 4,200: tons; and Kansas, 11,000 tons. The lead produced. by Missouri, Montana, Oklahoma, Wisconsin and. Kansas is. non-argen- tiferous, or what. is..known. as. “soft. lead. In 1921 the United’ States imported 42,984, tons of lead of which the bulkcame from Mexico, from South America and from Canada. In the year 1923 the lead exports of the United States totaled 1,502 short tons, valued at $188,427, as compared with 360 tons, valued at $29,805 in 1922. The output of lead in the United Montana, 16,000 tons; * evaporating the solution. LEAD States in 1919 is placed at 424,433 short tons; in 1920, 476,849 short tons. Lead Oxides.— Five oxides of lead are known, namely, the suboxide (Pb:O), the monoxide (PbO), the sesquioxide (Pb.O;), the red oxide (Pb:Os), and the peroxide or dioxide (PbO:). Of these, however, only three + the monoxide, the red oxide and the dioxide — are of any importance. Lead monoxide (PbO), lith- arge, or massicot, is largely used in the arts, and is made by heating molten lead in a shal- low reverberatory furnace with free access of air, the litharge as it forms being pushed to one side so as to expose a fresh surface of the metal. The mass thus obtained is ground and separated from intermixed lead. It is then the buff-colored powder known as ground litharge or massicot. When the oxidation’ takes place above the mélting point of the oxide, as in cupellation, the litharge'on solidification breaks up into orange-colored scales and is then known as “lake litharge.»' Litharge*melts at: about 600° C. to a clear liquid; and: at higher tem- peratures volatilizes.. Lead oxide is a powerful base and dissolves in acids forming ‘salts. At high temperatures it «combines readily with silica,. forming fusible silicates, and therefore has a very corrosive ‘action on crucibles: or firebricks which» contain ‘silica. An electrolytic process of:making red lead and litharge from galena is used at Niagara’ Falls... When lith- arge is heated to dull redness with free access of air, oxygen-is taken up and the red oxide (Pb:Ox) red -lead“is formed. It is manufac- tured by roasting ground litharge with free access of air for about 24 hours; “the opera- tion being: carried ‘on till the’ required tint is obtained on cooling. It is’ used asa pigment and in the manufacture of flint: glass and enamels. Compounds of Lead.— One of the most im- portant lead compounds is pltuimbie carbonate (carbonate of lead, white lead), PbCO;— the cerussite of mineralogists, and now largely mined in the United States as an ore of lead. White lead is manufactured on a large scalé, and ‘is extensively used in the arts asa white pigment and as a body for other colors’ in paints.’ ‘(See Paints). Another leading com- pound ‘is plumbic chloride (chloride of lead), — PbCl..'° The minerals matlockite and mendipite are both oxychlorides of lead. A basic chloride of lead is made for use as a white pigment, which is, however, not so serviceable as ordi- nary white lead. Lead acetate (stigar’of lead), Pb(C:HsO:2)2, 3H2O, is prepared by dissolving massicot in dilute acetic acid. It’ can be ob- tained in transparent crystals or in scales by It is soluble in one and one-half parts of cold water, and in eight parts of alcohol. Like litharge, itis usedin the manu- | facture of oil-varnishes. Minium or red lead is much used in the manufacture of flint- glass, as a cement and'as a pigment. For glass- making it requires to be made of very pure lead as a slight trace of copper would impart a color. to the glass. Minium is prepared by heating massicot or monoxide of lead to a temperature of 600° F. in iron trays, in an oven, carefilly avoiding fusion. More oxygen is thus gradually absorbed; and a bright-red compound is formed which is the red lead of commerce. Orange lead, made from white lead instead of from massicot, is a very pure LEAD — LEAD PENCILS kind of red lead: Yellow lead, so called some- times by manufacturers,’ is a mixture of the oxides of lead and antimony, which is to some extent used to give a yellow color to earthen- ware, and as a pigment. The so-called black lead (see GRAPHITE), Of which pencils, etc., are made, contains no lead. Lead in Medicine.— Most of the lead com- pounds used in medical practice are made into external applications for disorders of the sys- tem which manifest themselves upon the skin, although some are employed as sedatives, as- tringents, etc. Lead acetate is an approved internal remedy in typhoid fever, diarrhoea and other diseases. Of plasters, ointments and the like, lead. carbonate, lead iodide and lead oleate are familiar constituents. Lead Poisoning.— Under the influence of moist air, or of water in which air is held in suspension, the hydroxide of lead is formed, and this is soluble in water. To this condition is to be attributed many cases of poisoning by drinking water which has been standing for some time in lead pipes or vessels. The use of soluble salts of lead. in the arts is a frequent cause of painful and sometimes fatal poisoning, from the metal finding its way into the system. The effects often are not immedi- ate aS minute doses are apparently harmless, but these being oft repeated have a cumula- tive effect. and the seizure is sudden. The glazing of culinary vessels with lead; the color- ing of confectionery with the chromate,. chlo- ride or carbonate of lead; the sweetening. of sour wine by. litharge or "oxide of lead; the drinking of water which has passed through new. lead-pipes; and. living much in rooms newly painted with lead- colors, all these things may cause exposure to this peril, and often produce lead or saturnine poisoning. But the most frequent and virulent cases occur among painters and persons engaged in white-lead fac- tories. In lead-poisoning the countenance as- sumes a sallow, earthy hue, the skin becomes dry and harsh, the digestion is deranged and the bowels constipated, and a sweetish metallic taste is felt in the mouth. A specially import- ant sign is the appearance of a blue or violet line along the margin of the gums and teeth, due to the formation of sulphide of lead. There is sometimes kidney derangement, mus- cular palsy, severe disturbance of the brain, and even epilepsy and some form of insanity. The most commonly occurring result of lead-poison- ing’ is ‘lead-colic, or painters’ ‘colic. See EQECTRO-CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES; Ore Deposits. LEAD, Refining of.. See ELECTROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES, LEAD PENCILS. The earliest mention of what are known to-day as lead pencils ap- pears in records dating back to 1565 — not long after the discovery of the noted graphite mine at. Borrowdale, England, in 1554, This mine furnished the material for the first lead pencils, The graphite was sawed into strips and fas- tened. into wooden casings. In 1795 . the Frenchman Conté. improved the process by grinding the graphite and mixing it with clay, in order to; produce grades of hardness and blackness, and this is the method. of; manu- facture, at the present day. Not. all. graphite is available in making pencils. The variety known as “flake graphite” is quite useless, the 173 flaky texture allowing the pencil to slip over the paper without leaving a mark. The variety which is,.used isa, form in fine. scales ap- proaching the amorphous form and is found in localities in Siberia, Bohemia and Bavaria in Europe, and in Mexico. The graphite as it. comes from the mine is ground in a mill together with a special kind of clay mined.in Germany. This grinding is continued until the mass is perfectly homo- geneous.. The proportion of clay added is determined by the degree of hardness required: in the finished pencil,ithe very hard (marked HHHHHH),: having the most clay and the very soft (BBBBBB) having hardly any. The soft leads have to be made larger in diameter to stand the strain put upon them when in use. After the grinding, the putty-like mass is put into the cylinder. of a hydraulic. press which has a pierced plate for the bottom and a movable plunger is driven down upon the mass, forcing it through the perforations in the plate. This operation.is repeated as many times as it appears necessary to get the paste into a perfectly smooth condition. It is then put into another similar press which has only one per- foration in the plate. This may be square, round or oval, depending upon the shape of the ;lead required. As the, “string” of lead comes slowly through the plate an operator guides it into a groove cut in a tray and nips it off into lengths of seven inches. When filled, the trays of leads are covered with carbon dust and placed in an oven where they are baked at a temperature ranging from 2,200° to 2,300° F., to secure just the right degree of hardness. The wood in which the lead is encased is red cedar from the Southern forests — pref- erably in Florida, Georgia and Alabama, where the cedar grows with a smooth cheesy texture. This material is milled until it is in “slats” seven inches long, two inches wide and one- fourth inch thick, sufficient for the lower halves of six’ pencils. In these slats are cut six grooves deep enough to hold a string of lead. The slats are given a coat of glue and _ the leads are put in place, and a cover slat, slightly thinner, is glued on. The “blocks,” as they are now called, are placed in clamps where they remain until thoroughly dry and hard. Then they go into a shaping machine which mills them into six perfectly shaped pencils, - round, hexagonal, oval or any other form for which the knives are set and leaving them per- fectly smooth. Then they are fed into a ma- chine which gives them one or two ‘coats of varnish of such a color as desired. The ends are then trimmed, a strip of gold leaf laid on one end which receives the title from another press, the tin tips and rubbers are put on in an automatic machine and the pencils are ready for boxing and labeling for the market. The supply of cedar has been so rapidly dis- appearing that an attempt has been made to grow it under cultivation. In 1906 the number of lead_pencils made in the United States was about: 320,000,000, . requiring 110,000 tons of cedar, which was. then seHing at $20 per ton. Since. then cedar buyers in the South have bought up old cabins built of cedar logs, and even. replaced old rail fences with wire, in order to get the coveted wood, no other sub- 174 stance having been proved a satisfactory sub- stitute. The pencils with colored leads go through the same process, except that “China clay” is used as the binder, and colored pigments take the place of the graphite. For these, with their larger “leads,” it has been found feasible to ~ construct a casing of paper wound spirally around ithe centre. This is glued at one point on each turn, and the pencils are sharpened by unwinding as many turns as are necessary. The glued spots hold the strip from unrolling all the way down. Copying pencils are made with a coal-tar dye mixed with a gum soluble in water. Carpenters’ and markers’ pencils have a proportion of wax or tallow incorpo~ rated with the graphite. LEAD SOUNDINGS. See Sounpuincs. LEADER, Benjamin Williams, English landscape painter: b. Worcester, 12 March 1831. He studied art at.the Worcester School of De- sign and at the Royal Academy of Arts, Lon- don. He early gained recognition as an able follower of the great English landscape paint- ers and has specialized in the landscapes of western Britain. He has been an exhibitor at the Royal Academy since 1854. He was elected a chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1889, and won the gold medal at the Paris Exhibi- tion in that year. He was awarded a medal at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893, and was made a Royal Academician in 1898. Among his paintings are ‘The Valley of ‘the. Llugwy? (Tate Gallery, London); ‘A Quiet Valley Among Welsh Hills? (Worcester Gallery); ‘The Weald of Surrey? (1901). Consult Lusk, L., ‘Life and Work of B. W. Leader? in Art Annual, December 1901. LEADER, the player who takes the prin- cipal part in a musical organization, as the first violin in an orchestra, the first cornetist in a brass band and the first soprano in a chorus. Formerly the leader in bands and orchestras was also the conductor, but the duties are now separated in large organizations. In an orches- tra the leader is stationed at the conductor’s right, directs the uniform bowing of the violins, and upon him in a large measure rests the animation and precision of “attack” He also plays all solo violin passages except in concertos. Except in orchestras that are or- ganized institutions he usually makes the en- gagements with the different members. LEADHILLITE, a lead ore consisting of sulphate and carbonate with probable formula, 4PbO SO: 2CO2H:O. Found in small amounts in Pinal County, Ariz., and Tintic district, Utah. LEADING STAR. See Lonestar. LEADING TONE OR NOTE, in musi- cal compositions the note immediately below the keynote, separated from it by a semitone, the shortest interval in the system. It takes its name from the fact that it leads up to the most important note in the scale, but has no status of its own and is incapable of standing as a root note. In the Greek scales and in the ecclesiastical scales derived from them the note - immediately below the keynote was separated by a full tone and was in no sense a leading note. A growing sense of harmony among musicians demanded the use of the leading LEAD SOUNDINGS — LEAF note, but ecclesiastics were disinclined to per- mit any change in the scales and Pope John XXII passed an edict against it in 1322: How- ever, musicians usually sang it, and as it was not written the ecclesiastical authorities ignored it. By the time of Bach and Handel lines of difference between the antique and modern scales had become fused and the leading note has since had its recognized place. LEADING OF VOICES, musical term covering the correct progression of individual voices or parts in a musical)composition. See HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT. ~~ LEADVILLE, 1éd’vil, Colo., a city and the county-seat of Lake County, 80 miles by rail southwest of Denver, the State capital, on the Colorado Midland, Colorado and Southern and the Denver and Rio Grande railroads. It is situated 10,200 feet above the sea amid pic- turesque scenery, near the headwaters of the Arkansas River in central Colorado, between the Mosquito and Sawatch ranges of the Rocky Mountains. Leadville was first settled in 1869 by miners and prospectors, but after a period of comparative prosperity as a gold-mining centre declined with the exhaustion of the first discovered deposits. It revived with the dis- covery in 1877 of rich lead and silver deposits, followed by the discovery of other gold, zinc, copper, bismuth and manganese deposits, and the mineral output during the period 1879- 1905 amounted to $328,487,146. It is the mining, farming and grazing trade centre of an ex- tensive region, has fine buildings, including a Carnegie library, opera house, theatre, court- house, jail, hospital and almshouse, has a pa- rochial school, a high school and four grade schools and several churches.. The city is lighted by gas and electricity, has an excel- lent water supply and well-organized fire and police departments. Besides its large sampling, refining and reduction works, smelting fur- naces, etc., it has also iron foundries, manu- factures of machinery, ice, jewelry and novel- ties and a government fish-hatchery. The city is administered by a mayor and common coun- cil of six members elected biennially. Pop. (1920) 4,959. LEAF, Walter, English classical scholar and financier: Norwood, 1852. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was a Fellow in 1875. He entered the banking firm of Leaf, Sons and Company in 1877 and was its chairman after its reorganiza- tion as Leaf and Company, Ltd.,. in 1888-92. He was one of the founders of the London Chamber of Commerce, serving successively as its vice-president, deputy chairman and in 1887 chairman. He was president of the Hellenic Society in 1914, and his researches in classical literature gained for him additional degrees from Cambridge and the D. Litt. from Oxford. He was chairman of the London County and Westminster Bank in 1914 and was appointed to the committee of finance for the European War. Author of numerous contributions to periodical literature of the classics and of ‘The Story of Achilles» (1880) with J. H. Pratt; ‘The Iliad, Edited with Introduction and Notes? (2 vols., 1886-88; 2d ed., 1900-02) ; ‘Companion to the Iliad? (1902); ‘Troy: a Study in Homeric Geography? (1912) ; ‘Homer LEAF — LEAF-MINER and History? (1915). He also translated from the Russian ©A Modern Priestess of Isis? (1894), and published ‘Versions from Hafiz: An Essay in Persian Metre? (1898). LEAF. See LEAvEs. LEAF-BEETLE, a popular name for many members of the family Chrysomelide (q.v.), which embraces about 18,000 widely dis- tributed species, about 600 of which are found in North America. The larve, which feed upon the succulent parts, either fully exposed, in protective cases, beneath the epidermis as leaf-miners or stalk-borers, are all soft-bodied six-footed creatures with great appetites. Some larve feed on roots, some are aquatic and many cover themselves with excrement as a protec- tion against their enemies. eral tropical species are of such brilliant colors as to be used for jewelry when mounted in gold settings. The family includes many species considered serious pests of cultivated plants. Some of the most noted of these are the flea- beetles, tortoise-beetles, potato and asparagus beetles, elm-leaf beetle and the diabroticas, rep- resented by the striped and the spotted cucum- ber-beetle. These are treated under their food- plant titles. LEAF-BUG, or PLANT-BUG, bugs of the family Capsid@, which suck the juices of plants. Two hundred and fifty of the thousand or more species described occur in the United States, and all except the predaceous species are vegetable feeders, a few being considered pests. They are generally oval. or elongated, yellowish or greenish, sometimes with lines or dots of red or, black. All have a decidedly “buggy” odor. Among the best-known species are the red-bug or cotton-stainer (Dysdercus suturellus), so called. because its excrement stains the cotton in the opening boll, thus re- ducing the grade.. It is less troublesome. than formerly because the piles’ of cottonseed in which it used to breed are now used for oil instead of being thrown in heaps to decay. The insect also attacks oranges in Florida. seed will attract them away from the trees. Another species troublesome on currants, goose- berries, dahlias, etc., is the four-lined leaf-bug (Pecilocapsus lineatus). Its eggs are laid in the young twigs which may be cut in autumn or winter and burned. .The insects may also be jarred off the plants into receptacles. while sluggish in the early morning. LEAF-CUTTER BEE, one of the large bees of the genus Megachile, of which a com- mon species in the United States is M. cetun- cularis. It is a “thick-bodied bee with a large square head, stout scissors-like jaws and with a thick mass of dense hairs on the under side of the tail for the purpose of carrying pollen.” These bees make their nests in the hollow stems of elder-bushes, or, nowadays, often in crevices about buildings, and form their cells of round pieces which they cut out of tender leaves of many sorts of trees and bushes, especially the rose. Many cells.are made, each containing an egg and store of pollen, and the whole economy of the group is very interesting. There are many species in various parts. of the world. LEAF-CUTTING ANTS. > See Ants. LEAF-FROG, a small American frog of the family Cystignathide and the genus Hy- The adults of sev- - Cotton-. 175 lodes, common in the tropics. They are similar to the tree-toad, are usually prettily colored and in size are rarely quite two inches long, The fingers as well as the toes have effective sucking discs enabling them to climb trees and perch securely upon their branches. The vocal sac of the male is similar to that of the tree- toads. The most common species is the Hy- lodes martiniensis, the coqui of. the West Indies, noteworthy because of its being the first established instance of the complete metamor- phosis of the young frog before leaving the- egg. LEAF-HOPPER, any member of the family Jassid@, which includes a very large number of small bugs greatly varying in form and often grotesque. They are especially nu- merous in grass and grain, which they are be- lieved to injure to a'greater extent than .is usually supposed. Among the best-known species is the grape-vine leaf-hopper (Erythroneura vitis), which is often so abundant in vineyards that the leaves may~turn brown from the insects’ punctures. They have been effectively caught by tapping the vines to make the insects jump against a screen smeared with tar or a fan similarly covered and kept in constant motion close to the vines. This species is: sometimes erroneously. called. “thrips. (q.v.). . Among the best known of the grass-feeding host of species is the destructive leaf-hopper (Cicadula or Li- motettix exitosa). This is sometimes caught in wide pans covered with tar and dragged across the field. LEAF-INSECT, or WALKING LEAF, tropical species of. the family Phasmide, which is represented in, temperate climates by the walking-stick (q.v.).. They are so called be- cause of the remarkable resemblance of. their wings to leaves, not only in color but also in the arrangement of the veins, etc. so that the natives believe that the insects are really leaves which have acquired organs of locomotion, di- gestion, etc. Their legs also look more or less - like twigs, and their eggs, which are dropped upon the ground from the foliage where the insects feed, look very much like seeds. When leaf. food fails these insects eat one another’s wings. This likeness is of. use asa protection from enemies. See Mimicry IN ANIMALS. LEAF-MINER, any insect of the super- family Tineoidea, which comprises several fam- ilies of very small moths, most of whose larve feed upon the soft tissues (parenchyma) of leaves and green stems beneath the epidermis, sometimes eating away rounded passages and sometimes long serpentine paths. More than 4,000 species have been described, of- which fully 1,000 are American. The adults are often remarkably beautiful, exhibiting under the mi- croscope a covering of lustrous scales. Among the plants that these insects attack injuriously are oaks, pines, maples and palmettos. Some of the leaf-feeding species have developed the habit of feeding during their later larval days upon the outside of the leaf, either fully ex- posed or in a protective case. Others have as- sumed root- and seed-feeding habits; still others have become twig-borers and gall-form- ers. Some of the related species live’ upon ani- mal skins, fur, wool, etc. (See CLoTHEs- MorH). A few flies of the families An- thomytide and Oscinide are leaf-miners, as 176 are also some leaf-beetles of the family His- pim and some sawflies of the family Ten- thredimde@.. Consult. Comstock, J. H. and A. B.,, “Manual for the Study of Insects? (8th ed., Ithaca, N. Y., 1909); Sharp, ‘Cambridge Nat- ural History? (Vol. VI, London 1901). LEAF-MONKEY, an Anglo-Indian name for a langur (q.v.). LEAF-NOSED BATS, a general term for such bats as have on the snout upright leaf- like growths of highly sensitive membrane which is presumably of great assistance to them in making their way about-in darkness and in finding and ‘taking their insect-prey. (See BAT). These folds of skin are, naturally enough, called the nose-leaf, and may be com- paratively small’and simple, or so large as to forma grotesque mask, such as gives so ex- traordinary appéarance to the horse-shoe and other leaf-nosed bats of the family Rhino- lophide, and to the “false vampires” of the family Nycteride. North American bats show very little of this peculiarity. These compli- cated membranes are always fringed with long fine hairs, which serve the purpose of the tactile whiskers of cats, and the bats possessing this feature are more thoroughly nocturnal than those in which it is lacking or little developed. LEAF-ROLLER, LEAF-TYER, or LEAF-SEWER, a small moth, in most cases one of the family Toriricide, whose caterpillar rolls a leaf or a part of a leaf into a case, ty- ing it into a cylindrical case with silken bands ‘and lining this case with silk, so as to form a sort.of cocoon in which it may transform safely into the pupa stage. In some cases the nest is formed by fastening together several leaves. “In most cases,” says Comstock, “the building of the nest is the work of a single larva, but in very many instances several larve work to build a common nest.” Each species makes its nest of a particular form, and infests some special kind of plant or tree, and many do considerable “gnjury, especially among -greenhouse plants and orchard trees. LEAF-TYER. See LEAF-ROLLER. LEAGUE, lég, a measure of length vary- ing in different countries. The word is sup- posed to be of Celtic origin, but it has been in- troduced into the modern languages of Latin origin through the Latin leuca. The Romans derived it from the Gauls. It was brought to England by the Normans and at that time (1066) equalled 2.9 modern English miles. The Roman league was. equal to 1,500 paces, each of 5. feet, or 1.376 modern English miles, The English land league is 3 statute miles and the nautical league 3. equatorial miles, or . 3.457875 statute miles. The Italian league is reckoned as equal to 4 miles, each of 5,000 feet. The Spanish league varies very much according to the locality. On the modern Spanish, roads the league is estimated at 8,000 varas, or 7,416 English yards. The Portuguese league ‘was. equal to 3.84 English miles. In the old French measures the length of the league was different in every district, but the three principal leagues were the.legal or posting league; equal to rather less than 2% English miles, the marine league somewhat more than 314. English miles: and the astronomical league equal to about 234. English miles. The metric LEAF-MONKEY — LEAGUE OF THE PUBLIC WEAL league is reckoned as equal to 4 kilometres (2.49 miles). At present the league’‘is- a nautical measure equal to the 20th part of a degree, that is, 3 geographical. miles, or 3.657 statute miles. LEAGUE, | political connections | arniek have been called alliances since the French lan- guage has become the diplomatic language of Europe. Among these are the League of Cam- brai, formed in 1508 between Louis XII, king of France, the German Emperor Maximilian and Ferdinand of Spain, for the purpose of humbling the republic of Venice, and which was joined in 1509 by Pope Julius id pager 0° league was dissolved in 1510, as many similar ones have been, in consequence of mutual dis- trust, and was succeeded in 1511 by the liga santa, or holy league, between the Pope, Maxi- milian, Ferdinand and Venice. The object of this was to compel Louis XII, whose allies had now become his enemies, to renounce his con- quests in Italy; which object. was. gained, Thirty years afterward a holy league was formed in Germany. When the principal Prot- estant princes in Germany united in 1530, and again in greater numbers in 1536, to form the union of Schmalkalden, in order to protect their common faith and withstand the Emperor Charles V, the Roman Catholic princes assem- bled at Nuremberg, in 1538, to take measures for the support of their own faith and to op- pose the designs of the Protestant princes; and as their league had the protection of the Roman Catholic Church for its object, they termed it the holy league.° A fourth league ‘was headed by Henry, Duke of Guise, in 1576, against Henry III of France. Its ostensible object was the sup- port of the Roman Catholic religion, whence it was called the Catholic League: There was a fifth league in Germany in’ the 17th century known as the Holy League. See | LEAGUE AND COVENANT. CovENANTERS: te LEAGUE OF NATIONS. See Wak; EUROPEAN — PEACE TREATIES. LEAGUE OF THE PRINCES, a lediave formed under the leadership of Frederick the Great, 12 July 1785, between. Prussia, Han- over and the electorate of Saxony against Emperor Joseph II of Austria, for the purpose of defeating Austria’s project ‘of annexing Ba- varia, giving in exchange Belgium.’ The league was afterward joined by ‘Brunswick, Mainz. Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Mecklenburg, Anhalt and the Thuringian Lands. — It accomplished its purpose and continued its existence until the death of Frederick the Great, when it was dis- solved as no longer necessary. LEAGUE OF THE PUBLIC WEAL, a union of powerful French nobles under the leadership of Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- gundy, against Louis XI for the purpose of re gaining their old feudal rights which had been largely usurped by the king. The league’s vic- tory at Montlhéry, 16 July 1465, resulted in’ the signing of the Treaty of’ Conflans, in’ which Louis was forced to concede the demands of the nobles. Subsequently, however, ‘Louis suc- ceeded in dealing individually with the mem- bers of the league with the result of re-estab- lishing the power of the throne over that of the feudal chiefs. LEAHY — LEANDER CLARK COLLEGE 177 LEAHY, lé’hi, William Augustine, Amer- ican author: b. Boston, 18 July 1867. He was graduated from Harvard in 1888, was literary editor of the Boston Traveller in 1893-94, then entered general. literary work and contributed verse and, short stories to magazines: From 1902 he was secretary to the music department of the city of Boston, until 1910, when he be- came secretary to the mayor of Boston 1910-12. His works are ‘The Siege of Syracuse? (1889); - “The Incendiary? (1896), which obtained a prize offered. by the Chicago Record; and a ‘History of the Catholic Church in. New Eng- land? (1899). _. LEAKE, Sim John, English admiral: b. Rotherhithe, 1656; d. Greenwich, 21 Aug. 1720. He entered the navy and in 1673 was serving under his father on board the Royal Prince. He became commander of the Firedrake in 1688. and served under Admiral Herbert inthe action. off Bantry Bay, 1 May 1689. His achievement of setting fire to the French ship Diamant in that action secured his pro- motion to the command of the Dartmouth with 40 guns. He convoyed supply ships to London- derry with the Dartmouth and succeeded in_ raising the siege.. He commanded the 70-gun Eagle in the battle of Balfour, 19 May, 1692, and in 1701 he was appointed governor and commander-in-chief at Newfoundland. He achieved the purpose for which he was sent out, the destruction of the French fishing fleets and settlements on that coast, and upon his return to England was promoted rear-ad- miral. of the fleet. In 1702 he was knighted and promoted vice-admiral. He _ relieved Gibraltar in 1704 and again in 1705. He was made vice-admiral of the white in 1704. In 1706: he«risked disobedience to orders and suc- ceeded in relieving Barcelona, but the wisdom of his action was so'clear that he received no reprimand. Later in the year he secured the surrender of Cartagena, Alicante, Majorca and Iviza and upon his’ return to Portsmouth he was presented by the queen with a present of £1,000. » He became admiral of the white and’ commander-in-chief. of. the Mediterranean -in 1707 and captured a large fleet of the enemy’s victualers' with which he averted the famine which threatened Barcelona as a result of the French victory at Almanza. He later partici- pated. in the reduction of Sardinia and Minorca and.in 1709 he became rear-admiral of Great Britain.. He was appointed one of the lords of the admiralty in 1709, acting as chairman of the board... He was member of Parliament from Rochester in 1708-14.. Upon the. death of Queen Anne his appointments and patents expired and he, was retired. on a pension of £600. Consult Leake, S. M., ‘Life of Sir John Leake? (1750) ;, Campbell, ‘Lives of the Ad- -mirals? (Vol. TIT). LEAKE, 1ék, William Martin, English archeologist and topographer: be London, 14 Jan:.1777;' d., Brighton, 6, Jan. 1860. An officer in the West Indian: service (1794-98) and ar- tillery instructor! at ‘Constantinople in early life, he, later traveled in the East and. was engaged in; surveys,.and. diplomatic, business: for the British... government, in. Greece (1805-09). Among. his. publications are ‘Researches. in Greece’, (1814); ‘Topography of Athens? (1821), a learned and still valuable work; VOL. 17 —12 *® ‘Historical Outline of the Greek Revolution? (1826) ; ‘Travels in Northern Greece? (1835) ; “Peloponnesia» . (1846). Consult Marsden, ‘Brief Memoir of the Life and Writings of W. M. Leake? (1864). LEAMINGTON, Canada, village in Essex County, ‘Ontario, on Lake Erie and on the Michigan Central and Pére Marquette | rail- roads, 30 miles southeast of Windsor.’ The vil- lage has connection with Windsor by electric railroad and there is steamship connection with: Pelee Island. It has trade in country produce, lumber and tobacco and its industries include canning, sash and blinds and tobacco factories. Pop. (1921) 3,675. LEAMINGTON, or LEAMINGTON PRIORS, England, fashionable health resort in Warwickshire, on the river Leam near its junction with the Avon, 98 miles northwest of London, on the Great Western and London and Northwestern railroads. The town owes its importance to its springs of mineral waters, saline, sulphurous ‘and chalybeate. There are baths and a fine building houses the pump- rooms. The town is modern, dating its growth from the erection of the. baths about 1786. | Its population in 1811 was only 543 and it was not incorporated until 1875. In 1838 it received a royal license to call itself Royal Leamington Spa, but the name never became popular. There are several important schools, a college, a handsome town-hall which houses an art. gal- lery and public library, the South Warwick- shire Hospital and Midland Counties Home for Incurables. and extensive public. gardens and parks. Leamington and Warwick, two miles distant, have from 1885 formed a con- stituency sending one member to Parliament. Aside from its business as a health resort the town has iron foundries and brickworks. Pop. 26,713. 4 LEANDER, Saint, bishop of Seville: b. Cartagena, 534 or 550; d. Seville, 13.. March 600 or 601. He early entered a Benedictine monastery and afterward founded. a_ school which became famous. He converted Prince Hermenegild, eldest son. of the Gothic King Leovigild, to Catholicism and was exiled. He spent the years 579-82 in Byzantine where he gained the friendship of the future Pope Gregory the Great, with whom he afterward maintained a correspondence. He returned to Seville and about 584 was created bishop... He converted Reccared, second son and successor of Leovigild, and succeeded in securing Visi- gothic’s Spain’s rejection of Arianism ‘for the Roman Catholic faith. Pope Gregory dedicated to ‘him his ‘Moralia in Jobum” and in 599 sent him the pallium. LEANDER CLARK COLLEGE, before 1906 known as WESTERN COLLEGE, is located at Toledo, Iowa. It was founded by the Iowa Conference of the United Brethren in Christ; was incorporated in 1856; and was opened to students in 1857. It was first located at West- ern, Linn County, but was moved to Toledo in 1881. In 1889 the main building was destroyed by fire, but was immediately rebuilt. The board of trustees consists of representatives of the alumni and of five conferences of the United Brethren and three members-at-large. The college is open to men and. women on equal terms, Two regular college courses are 178 LEANDER AND offered, the classical and the scientific, and the degrees of A.B. and B.S. are conferred: Both courses are almost entirely elective in the last two years, the list of electives differing in the two courses. In addition to the collegiate de- partment, there are the Academic or Prepara- tory School, the Conservatory of Music, the College of Commerce, the School of Elocu- tion and Oratory and the Department of Art. Graduates from the collegiate courses are ad- mitted to the senior year of Yale, Chicago and Smith without examination. The buildings in- clude the main building, the Bright Conserva- tory of Music, Mary Beatly Hall (the dormi- tory for young women), Drury Hall (the young men’ss dormitory) and the College Church. The faculty. number 16 instructors; the average annual attendance of students is 240; tuition fees amount to $65; living ex- penses, board, etc., $162% productive funds are $203,000; income,. including tuition and_ inci- dental charges, $21,663; the graduates since or- ganization number 617. The library contains 7,900. volumes. LEANDER AND HERO. See Hero. LEANDER McCORMICK OBSERVA- TORY. The Leander McCormick Observa- tory of the University of Virginia owes its origin to the generosity of the late Leander J. McCormick of Chicago. The chief instrument is the 26-inch refractor, both lens and mount- ing the work of Alvan Clark and Sons. The lens when finished was the largest in the world and it was regarded by Alvan G. Clark to be his masterpiece. While testing it, before its erection at the University of Virgina, the star tT Cygni was discovered to be a double. The observatory was opened in 1882. The first di- rector was Ormond Stone. The work under his direction was entirely visual and investiga- tions were carried out along the following lines: A study of the Orion nebula, ‘a search for southern nebule, micrometer measures of double stars, satellites and comets, photometric work by means of a wedge and observations of long period variables by the Argelander method. S. A. Mitchell succeeded Professor Stone in 1913. A double-slide plate holder was attached to the eye end of the telescope and photographic work was undertaken, using a color filter and isochromatic plates. The chief work at present is the determination of the parallaxes of the fixed stars by means of pho- tography. The parallaxes of 125 stars were found as the result of two and a half years’ work. Photographic work is also done_ by placing a wire grating in front of the objec- tive. This work is for the purpose of deter- mining the photovisual magnitudes of the Har- vard standard regions and is being carried onin co-operation with Harvard College Observa- tory. The McCormick Observatory is the head- quarters of the American Meteor Society. In 1916 more than 10,000 observations on meteors or shooting stars were made in the United States and Canada, and largely by amateur as- tronomers. These observations are sent to the McCormick Observatory. and are discussed by Dr. Charles P. Olivier and the results pub- lished.. The work on long period variables has been continued. On account of the large aper- ture (26-inch) stars are visible near their min- ima and when they are invisible to the tele- HERO — LEAR scope at Harvard and to the smaller telescopes used by the American Association of’ Variable Star Observers. Micrometer work on doubles, etc., has likewise been continued. There are three fellowships available for graduate ‘stu- dents who wish to continue work for the de- gree of: doctor of philosophy. The income of the observatory is derived from appropriations by the University of Virginia, by gifts from the Leander’ McCormick éstate and from Mr. Edward D. Adams of New York and by small grants from the National Academy of Sci- ences for meteor research. ~ ~ LEANDRE, 18‘an’dr’, Charles Lucien, French caricaturist and painter: b. Champse- cret, Orne, 1862. He studied under Bin and Cabanel and made his first exhibition at the Salon tn 1887. He specialized in portraits and genre painting and was also a teacher of draw- ing until 1894 when he began the publication in La Rire of the drawings and’ caricatures which made him famous. He was also con- nected with Le Figaro and other journals. His portraits in pastels constitute a considerable success in another branch of art and his litho- graphic work is ranked as exceptional. He il- lustrated Rostand’s' ‘Cyrano. de Bergerac? (1900); and Murger’s ‘Vie de Bohéme? (1903). Among his posters may be mentioned “Yvette Guilbert?; ‘Les nouveaux mariés?; ‘Joseph Prudhomme’; ‘Les Lutteurs? ;\ and ‘La Femme au chien. He published a series of albums; ‘Nocturnes?: ‘Le Musée des souverains? ; ‘Paris et la province. _ He was eee a chevalier in the Legion of ease in 190 LEANING TOWER. See Pisa. LEAP YEAR, the name given in Great Britain to every year of 366 days: The length of the year is a little less than 365% days. Ju- lius Cesar, in reforming the calendar, ar- ranged that in every fourth year: February should have 29 days instead of 28, and that two days should be called by the same name. The day whose name was repeated was, according to the Roman method of reckoning, the sixth before the calends of March, that is, the 24th February, and the year in which this name: was given to two successive days was named bissex- tile (bis, twice; sextus; sixth). The name leap year is perhaps due to the notion that the cal- endar takes a leap of one day every fourth year to make up for its ordinary year being one-fourth day too short.. Every year is a leap © year which is divisible by four without re- mainder, except the concluding years of cen- turies, every fourth only of which is a leap year; thus the years 1800 and 1900 are not leap years, but 2000 and 2400 are. LEAR, lér, Edward, English author and artist: b. London, 12 May 1812; d. San Remo, 29 Jan. 1888. In 1831 he became draftsman to the London Yoological Society. His illustra- tions of the ‘Family of the Psittacide?. (1832) was followed by ‘many other illustrations for zoological works by Gould, Bell, Swainson, Jar- dine and Gray. In 1837 he visited Italy and the East and in those parts spent most of his remaining days, chiefly occupied with land- scape painting. He exhibited ‘Dead Birds? in 1836 and in 1850 was represented at the Royal Academy exhibition by ‘Claude Lorraine’s LEAR — LEARNED LADIES House on the Tiber.» As an author he is best known by his ‘Book of Nonsense? (1846) ; ‘Nonsense Songs and Stories” (1871); ‘More Nonsense Songs, etc. (1872); and ‘Laugh- able Lyrics? (1877). He also wrote ‘Views in Rome and its Environs»? (1841); ‘Illustrated Excursions in Italy? (1846); ‘Journal of a Landscape Painter in Greece and Albania’ (1851); ‘Journal of a Landscape Painter in Southern Calabria? (1852); ‘Views in the Seven Ionian Islands? (1863); and ‘Journal of a Landscape Painter in Corsica? (18/0). Tennyson’s verses ‘To E. L. on his Travels in Greece? were addressed to Lear. LEAR, Tobias, American diplomatist: b. Portsmouth, N. H., 1762; d. Washington, D. C., 11 Oct. 1816. He was graduated at Har- vard in 1783 and in 1785 became private sec- retary to General Washington, to whose domes- tic affairs he attended for several years, and by whom, in his will, Lear was most liberally re- membered. In 1802 he was consul-general at San Domingo and afterward consul-general at Algiers and commissioner to conclude a peace with Tripoli. He discharged this last duty in 1805 in a manner which gave offense in certain quarters, but his conduct was approved by the Federal government. He returned shortly after to the United States. LEAR OF THE STEPPES, A (‘Stepnoy Korol’ Lir’). A number of Turgenev’s friends. in 1870, were giving reminiscences of Shake- spearean characters whom they had met in life. Turgenev gave his story of the Russian King Lear, in which he meant to depict the elemental passions, as found in the rude Russian sur- roundings. Tall, awkward, harsh Kharlov, a landed proprietor, who in reality possesses the soul of a simple-minded child, has two daugh- ters, who slavishly execute his will, but are waiting for his death. Having had an ominous dream about death, he makes his property over to his daughters. Immediately they turn him out of his home, and when a street urchin taunts him with his homelessness, he is seized with the passion for revenge. He ascends the roof of his house, and with his gigantic strength pulls it to pieces, until he falls dead among the ruins. The younger daughter is seized with _ remorse and joins the dissenters, among whom, through her imperious manner, she assumes a leading position. The elder sister grows pros- perous as a landlady. Where, then, is the po- etic justice? Has she deserved her good luck? To this question Turgenev gives the significant answer that everything in the world, both the good and the bad, takes place according to a logical law, which man cannot comprehend, but which he (Turgenev) seems dimly to grasp. Leo WIENER. LEARNED, ar’néd, Marion Dexter, American educator: b. near Dover, Del., 10 July 1857; d. 1 Aug. 1917. Graduated from Dickin- son College, 1880, he studied in Germany in 1885 and received his Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins Uni- versity in 1887. He was instructor in lan- guages at Dickinson Seminary in 1880-84 and in 1886-95 he was first instructor, then associ- ate professor and professor of German at Johns Hopkins. In 1895 he became pro- fessor of German in the University of Penn- sylvania. He edited Americana Germama, later German.American Annals, from 1897 and 179 was organizer and director of the American Ethnographic Survey. Besides numerous con- tributions to periodicals he wrote ‘The Pennsylvania German Dialect? (1889); ‘Ger- man. Diaries of the American Revolution (1902-05) ; ‘The Family of Abraham Lincoln? (1909) ; “Guide to the MS. Sources of Amer- ape in the German State Archives? LEARNED LADIES, The (‘Les Femmes Savantes? ), one of the most readable, vivacious and often acted comedies of Moliére, was first produced 11 March 1672 and published in 1673. The theme is related to that of ‘Les Pré- cieuses Ridicules,? but is not the same. The at- tack there was on literary pretense in a pass- ing vagary of fashionable speech; here it deals with perennial springs of affectation and ped- antry. The play has a close modern counter- part in Pailleron’s ‘Le monde ou 1’on s’ennuie.? Its lively raillery at abiding social foibles, ebullient good humor and savory common- sense gave it lasting hold on the stage. It owed immediate success; however, in part to its hardly disguised portraiture of Abbé Cotin, a dilettant literateur, in the character of Trisso- tin, “Thrice-fool,Y>. as a contemporary inter- prets the name, which Moliére had altered from the too-recognizable Tri-cotin. Whether Vadius, the pretentious pedant of the play, is meant for Boileau’s aversion Ménage is dis- puted. Ménage had at least the wit to recog- nize no resemblance. Around Trissotin the whole action revolves. Indeed, Madame de Sévigné called the play by his name. The question is whether he shall receive the hand of the very engaging Henriette or whether it shall. go with her heart to Clitandre, a fine young fellow with less affectation to learning. But, throughout, the interest is almost wholly in portrayal of character and in the satire of the literary pedantry and affectation which are developed in that contest. Henriette knows her own mind and heart, she lacks neither tact nor resource, but she is a dutiful daughter of her time, country and station. For Trissotin is her mother, Philaminte, masterful in the home and bent on forming a circle of arbiters of taste so that “none shall have wit but our- selves and our friends.” With her is Henri- ette’s aunt Bélise, a sentimental pedant bor- rowed with little change from .Desmaret’s €Visionnaires,? and her elder sister Armande, an acidulated pedant with a personal grudge against Clitandre. On the other side is her father, Chrysale, acted by Moliére, an exceed- ingly acute study of a man of good sense, good nature but weak character, starting with right impulses, but soon thinking to compromise, and discovering that he has surrendered. Ariste supports Chrysale’s better judgment with commonsense, and Martine, the cook, with de- licious peasant shrewdness and wit. Legend says the part was studied from Moliére’s own cook who acted herself in it. Trissotin is at last tricked into revealing that he cares more for Henriette’s dowry tn for herself, and Clitandre wins the prize. The best remem- bered scenes of the play are concerned with a sonnet ‘To the Princess Urania on her Fever? and an epigram, both taken bodily from Abbé Cotin’s ‘G£uvres galantes,” published in 1663. Cotin had fatuously called himself Father of 180 LEARNING IN ANIMALS — LEAST ACTION the French Enigma and had described his monogram, two C’s facing one another, as “forming a circle that, in a sense hardly mys- tic, indicates the circumference of the world to be filled by my works» These two pieces, at least, have come near to fulfilling the proph- ecy.. Abbé Cotin is remembered for them alone. “Les Femmes Savantes» is best edited with pertinent comment by Mesnard in Vol. IX, and by Moland in Vol. XI of their editions of Moliére. There are editions with English notes by Alcée Fortier (Boston 1902) and others, and translations by H. Van,Laun (Ed- inburgh 1875) and C. H. Page (New York 1908). ; BENJAMIN W. WELLS. LEARNING IN ANIMALS. See ANI- MAL PsycHOoLoGy; EYESIGHT. IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. ; LEARY, Richard Phillips, American na- val officer: b. Baltimore, 3 Nov. 1842; d. Bos- ton, 27 Dec. 1901. He was graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1860; served during the blockade of Charleston 1863-65; promoted commander in 1882. During the Samoan revolution in 1888 he was the senior naval officer present at the critical moment. He was promoted captain in April 1897; com- manded the cruiser San Francisco in 1897-98 ; and when the New Orleans was purchased from Brazil convoyed that vessel to the United States. At the close of the Spanish-American .-War he was appointed the first American gov- ernor of Guam and. served there till relieved, on his own request, in April 1900. LEASE, a species of contract granting the possession of lands, tenements, or incorporeal hereditaments, for life or a limited term of years, or during the pleasure of the contracting parties. The grantor is called the lessor and the grantee the lessee. A’ lease may be in writ- ing or by parol, but the former is more satis- factory, as it usually sets out in regular form and binding terms the respective rights of the contracting parties. In many of the states of the Union the statutes require that leases for more than one year be in writing. A lease contract establishes the relation of landlord and tenant between the lessor and lessee, unless its terms limit the relation of the parties. A lessor who holds an estate for years only may under-lease in such a manner as to establish a technical re- lation of landlord’ and tenant between the owner of the fee and the lessee. One of the essential requisites of a lease is that its dura- tion must be: for a shorter period than the duration of the interest of the lessor in the property leased; for if the holder of an interest less than that of a fee leases his interest for the full term of its-continuance it would be in effect an assignment or sale of his interest and in no sense a lease. In a lease proper, the lessor reserves to himself a reversionary inter- est in the property included in the lease. The beginning and termination of which are to be determined. by the: agreement of the parties. This agreement mustilso include a designation of, the premises, estate: or interest intended to pass to the lessee... A. term, however, is per- fected only by the entry of the lessee: Even after the, making of a lease the estate remains in the lessor up to such time as the lessee actu- ally enters into possession, and the only right fit) the lessee has in the estate is that of making an entry, which must be exercised to give him the additional rights provided for in the lease. All persons possessed of lands or tenements, or interest therein, competent to do business and under no legal disability, as of unsound mind, immature age or the like, may enter into a lease contract. (See Estate; LANDLORD’ AND TENANT; REAL PROPERTY) ; and consult the au- thorities referred to under those heads. LEASE AND RELEASE, a form of con- veyance used in England forthe transfer of ownership of a freehold and reversion. It is said to have been devised by Sergeant Moore after the enactment of the statute of uses. The instrument is of a compound nature, consisting of a lease, covering the bargain and’ sale, and providing for a release enacted in separate deeds. The lease provides for the use of the property in question for one year upon pay- ment of a pecuniary consideration by the ten- ant; at the end of the year the tenant, being in possession, is capable of receiving a release of the freehold and its reversion, which release may be made the following day. This method of conveyance was in use in various parts of the United States until after the Revolution, when it was superseded by conveyance by bar- gain and sale, and it has since been replaced by similar conveyances in England. | LEASEHOLD. A leasehold is ak estate held under or by virtue of a lease. An estate for years usually commences by means of a written lease. It is important to distinguish between a lease and an agreement to lease, the former being a completed. contract and the latter only a stipulation for the formation of a contract at some future time. It is often diffi- cult to determine to which of the two classes an insirument belongs, without-resorting to an interpretation based upon the intentions of the © contracting parties. If a lessee fails or re- fuses to enter into possession under and in ac- . cordance with the terms of a lease, the pos- session remains undisturbed in the lessor, and the remedy of the latter would be by an action for not entering into possession and for conse- quent damages, rather than for a breach of the conditions of the terms of the lease, the rela- tion of landlord and tenant not having been established before an entry under the lease. A person can convey by lease no greater interest than he possesses in an estate. If the lessor has only a life estate it terminates with his death, although he may have executed a_lease for a term of years not completed at the time of his death. The ordinary powers, duties and obligations of the contracting parties may be increased, diminished or modified by special provisions in a lease. Many lease contracts provide for all of the contingencies which can ordinarily happen. It is not infrequent that a clause in the instrument provides that the lessee may build upon land leased to him, and that he shall have the right to remove his build- ings at. the expiration of his term, or purchase the. fee. Any. provision not illegal or incon- sistent with public policy may be an incident of a leasehold. : LEAST ACTION, Principle of, the prin- ciple,’ due to Maupertuis and first definitely enunciated by Lagrange, that the sum for all the particles in a given dynamical; system of — LEAST SQUARES the space-integrals of the momenta of these particles as they move from a position P; to a position P: is in general smaller iby the actual route which the particles traverse than by any slightly different route. The sum of the in- tegrals, or & Smvds is called the action of the system, and is represented by the letter JA. Even when 4 is not less than any of its neigh- boring values, what is known as its first varia- tion is 0. See CaLcuLus oF VARIATIONS; MeE- CHANICS. LEAST SQUARES, Method of. =m + nz, idk designate by A’ and ¢’ the actual and mean errors of N. We shall have: Seo a A23 and squaring this 2quation: A’ A’ =n Anh L2 Aatt 2 As noe If k observations have been made to deter- mine m; and nz the above becomes by summa- tion: [A’ A= bas Aa] =h [Az Az] “2 ik Lo]. In this equation, the last term, 2 [Ai Az] may be considered zero, because it) will dis- appear, or nearly disappear, in’ the general average, on account of ‘positive and negative errors being equally probable, a priori. But the squared terms remain, being always posi- tive, and we have: FA’ A] a [As Ai] a [Az Ao}. Consequently, by our equation, of definition (18), this becomes: e! e/a &; &) + &o Eo, This equation brings out the important prin- ciple that the square of the mean error of the sum of two quantities is equal to the sum of LEAST SQUARES the squares of their respective tnean €rrofs. The principle can of course be extended ‘so as tp include three, or any greater number, | ‘say 1, of observed quantities, Now let'us suppose the n’s to avd! teen 3b served with equal accuracy, so that oF and & will be equal; and we have: Et Of berneeitetas or for mn’s: gf fc M. f4,€53 —_— Vm &} 7 This last equation shows that the mean error e’ cof the sum of m equally precise quantities is \/m times the mean error of one quantity. But the arithmetical mean of m observations is 1/m times their sum, and its mean error there- fore. e’/ mi, of, according to the above: or Mean error of arithmetical mean a= irae m which -establishes the ‘principle © enenoilted above, that the mean error of the arithmetical mean ‘decreases i in proportion.as the square root of the number of observations; increases. In accordance with this principle; +o.will be more accurate than any individual average, + in the proportion of Vm to-1. Consequently, since q isthe error of, 7. and € a/sort of aver- age value for the error of any +, we may take as a good approximation for q’: E2 Pare: Substituting this value of ¢ in equation (21), we get: (m ree 1) o6 [vz], or: “ye (22) ey pl ea m—1 and equation. (22) will enable us. to calculate approximately the mean. error, ¢. frorn the known residuals .v. It would carry us too far afield in the theory, of probabilities to demonstrate the relations existing between the mean error ¢ and the robable error r. But we may remark in pass- ing that it is shown in works on the theory of errors, that, approximately: i = 2/o€ or: (23) Guo a SOU ye ee ate * | Furthermore, een that; &.cand have reference to, the precision attainable from a single observation, we can get the correspond- ing errors belonging to the arithmetical mean from m observations by the aid of the principle already used, viz.: that the diminution of error is proportional to the square root of the num- ber of observations. Denoting the mean and probable errors of the arithmetical mean from m observations by & and ro; equations (22) and. (23) give: 3 prides [vv] (24) — 0 “ pe ae eA tilt : } fool (25) . Bh jotile (m —A) - LEAST SQUARES Mean and Probable Error for Several Un- knowns.— Equation (22), so far as we have yet considered it, applies only to. the case of a single unknown # observed directly m times. Buta similar expression can also be found for the case of ‘observation: equations of the form (4), when solved by means of normal sequa- tions of, the form (9)... Having found values of the unknowns +, y, z, from the solution of normal equations, we substitute these values in the original observation equations, and thus obtain numerical values of the residuals uv, by which amounts the original observation equa- tions fail of being | exactly satisfied. With these values of the w’s we compute [vv]. If we Reith let: =the number of unknown a, ), etc, .ap- a ee in the original observation equations, it may be shown that we hau have for the mean and Brahe ls errors : | oe: Nite a m,— — 2 Fi = ™m — For he complete. demonstration of these equations: we must refer to works. on . the Method of Least Squares. ‘The equations fur- nish average approximate values for the mean and probable .errors. of any average observed quantity nm, as it appears in any observation equation of the form (4). .The unknowns x, y, z, are of course determined from the whole group of equations with much greater precision, and therefore with smaller mean and probable errors. In the case of zg, for instance, it is shown in -works on Least Squares that its mean and probable errors are smaller than those given by (26) and (27) in. the proportion of: | a Tee, 2) to 4, where, [cc. 2] is. the final coefficient. of z ap- pearing in the last reduced equation (13) re- sulting from the Gaussian elimination of the normal. equations (9). ..Consequently, denoting by & and rz the mean and probable errors of 2, (26) (27) we have: ! [vv] 28), figitts eee [cc. 2] (m — u)’ jE OF [vv] (29) ae peemonentt [cc. 2} (m — u) The corresponding mean and probable er- rors of x and y can be found by rearranging the observation equations in such a way that each unknown in turn: will come out last in the. Gaussian elimination. Weights.— It happens sometimes that the quantities nN, _heneene in the observation equa- tions (4), have been determined by the ob- servers with unequal precision. For instance, a certain # may have been observed: twice, while all the others depend upon a single observation only. In such a case, that particular n is said to have “double weight,” or the weight 2, while all;others have the weight 1 only. Obviously, we can treat this case in our reductions by simply writing the doubly weighted equation twice, with all its coefficients and unknowns, @ 185 among the observation equations, and then proceeding-as usual. There is, however, a bet- ter way of dealing with this matter of varying weights; and we can derive it from a consid- eration of the rule for the formation of normal equations from observation equations. We may use the following: Rule for Weighting Observation Equa- tions.— Multiply each observation equation throughout by the square root of its weight a then form normal equations by the usual - rule. It may be seen readily, in the simple case of one equation only having double weight, that this rule will produce precisely the same effect on the normal equations as would result from merely writing that particular observation equa- tion twice among the other observation equa- tions, in the manner just explained. But it is also shown in works. on Least Squares that the above rule for weights holds good when all the observation equations have different weights, and even when these weights are fractional. To illustrate the foregoing, we shall give the complete solution of a set of observation equa- tions resulting from a precise determination of clock érror made with the transit instrument of Columbia University Observatory in New York. The observation equations were as fol- lows, the numerical terms ” being expressed in seconds of time. x + 0.04y.+ 1.292— 08.27 x + 0.08) + 1.262 — 0.02 x + 1.36y + 2.842 — 6.52 x —0.23y + 1.542 — 1.32 = Top neh arial — 0.07) — 1.302 — 0.02 «+ 0.14) —1 212 +084 48 31 (2°) x +0.03y — 1.302 + 0. x — 0.01y — 1.332 + 0.31 x — 1.28y — 2.752 — 4.68 = 0. Each of these equations depends on the observation of a different star; the unknown + is the clock error, and the other two unknowns y and zg relate to certain errors of adjustment: in the transit instrument. The solution now proceeds as follows: _ Applying the “Rule for Normal Equations” gives: + 0.34r — 0.63y + 20.432 — 95.78 = 0, — 2.63% + 3.59y — 0.632 + 15.30 =0, + 10.00% — 2.63y + 0.342 — 11.220. The method of. equations (10) and (11) 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, I d & dl i é J d (9) .. transforms these into the following: tae en’ 0.542 + 128.35 =0, 54y +.20.422 —9.40=0. A PF : application of (12) gives: (13’) — + 29.322 — 78.10 =0. From this we obtain: (14’) = + 08,24, If we now substitute this value of zg in either of equations (11’) we obtain: y =— 48.25. These values of y and zg can now be substi- tuted in either of equations (9’), and we get: x = —.08.005. We now substitute the numerical values (11’) 186 thus cbtained for'%, y and-z in equations (2’), and obtain the following residuals, v: V | VV 05.125 - 0.015625 055 2 *°* "003025 Apia eae Nieves 025 006250 125 015625 ‘005 (000025 045 ar? F003025 045 002025 025 000625 125 018625 [vv] .060850 Applying equation (27), remembering that m is the number of residuals, in this’ case’ 10, we have: 2 --10s.060850 27")... = 2, ae 08.061. (27') Nis frorite + This is the “probable erro of:a single whe servation. To obtatn the corresponding quan- tity for the value of 2 given by equation (14’) we must use equation (29). We have from (13’) : [edi 2 |==2982: Consequently, from (29): 2 (29) re oq |__ 0000830 + 08.011. 3.N 29.32 (10 — 3) This result signifies that it isan even chance whether the actual error of our numerical value of zg is greater or less. than 08.011, so that-the probable error becomes.a sort of test of the precision of our result. To obtain the probable error of another un- known, as +, we rearrange the equations (2’) so as to make # the last-unknown, instead of 2. Written in this way, the equations are: (2) +0049. 1.29 +3" 08.27 = 0, : : etc., etc. The normal equations are: : + 3.59) — 0.632 — 2.634 + 158.300, (9°") 063) 1 29:432 + 0.344 — 9.78 = 0, ~~ 2.63y +0.342 + 10.007 — 11.220. The method of equations (10) and (11) gives: +29, 322 ='0.12x7'— 78.10 = 0, (uy 0.122 + 80776010. * The application of (12): (13 + 8.074 — 0201 = 0. And, consequently : (14’) x= + 08,00, This is practically the same as the value. al- ready obtained, and thus affords incidentally a very complete check on arithmetical: accuracy. Values of y and z can of course be obtained as before by substitution. Applying equations \(29)' again, we have the probable error of x: 0.060850 29” Ne —— S,022.: Redes Se 8.07 (103) ate ss Equation (14”) shows that the clock was exactly right; and (29”) that the precision of this clock-error determination is very high. LEATHER Bibliography.—Wright and Hayford, ‘SAd- Senet of Observations”; Chauvenet, ‘Spher- ical and Practical Astronomy? (Vol. I, Appen- dix) ; eres, ‘Vermessungskunde? (Vol: iD). HAROLD. Jacosy, | Rutherford: Professor of Astronomy, Columbia University. LEATHER, Artificial. STITUTES. LEATHER, Chamois. What is ‘known in the market as chamois skin is really an. oil- tanned sheep or lamb skin lining. The supply of skins from the chamois animal is very limited; enough could not be obtained in a year to supply the United States for more than a single day. In Switzerland about 5,000 to 6,000 skins would bea fair average yearly crop. This skin is heavier than the skin of the sheep or lamb, also much coarser. _ For strength and durability this skin is preferable, but for ordinary use jand appearance the oil- tanned sheep-skin lining would, in most in- stances, be preferred. To manufacture sheep or lamb skins into chamois leather the first step necessary is to remove the wool, which is accomplished either by painting the~ skin ‘on the inside with a solution of sodium sulphide or by immersion in milk of lime. By the former method the: wool is loosened in a few-hours; by the latter method it will require several days: When the wool is loose it is pulled off either by hand.or scraped off with'a dull instrument). The skin ‘is now again immersed in milk of lime, to swell its It is then cleaned’ (beamed, ‘as the trade calls’ it); to remove all fleshy particles that may adhere to it. -It is' now ready °for splitting... The chamois skin is really only the half of a skin. The outside, that is, that part of the skin next to’ the’ wool, known. as the ‘grain side, is not suitable for chamois leather, and is used for — other purposes, mostly for ‘hat linings, book covers, etc. In former times, when skins were prepared for oil tannage, this part of the skin was cut away with a suitable knife» and thus lost.. In our days the skin is cut through the centre (split), thus producing two skins from See LEATHER Sunt ‘ one — the outside, called. grain or skiver, and the inside, called ‘lining or flesher. The ‘splits ting is accomplished on machines spectally con- structed for this purpose. It consists of an endless knife, the edge of which is constantly grinding to keep it sharp, the skin being passed through rollers against the sharp edge of the knife. These machines require very delicate adjustment to produce good results. The lining or flesher is now ‘ready for tan- ning! This is accomplished by sprinkling it with oil, codfish ‘oil of good quality. It is im- portant that this oil should be thoroughly in- corporated into the skin. For this: purpose’'a quantity of the skins are placed into’ what are known as fulling stocks, which twist and turn the skins in every direction and distribute the oilevenly. » After sufficient milling the ‘skins are partly dried ‘andthe process of sprinkling and drying is repeated again and again ‘until they are full of oil and all the moisture is dried out. They are now allowed to hang sufficiently long to thoroughly tan’ them’ at a temperature of about 100°. The process after this is very simple... The oil is removed by pressure and the balance washed out by saponi- LEATHER, MANUFACTURE AND USES OF fication; after this they are dried and they are then ready for finishing. The oil, by the way, is recovered, by decomposing the soap solution with an acid and separating. It is sold to manufacturers of other leathers, it being useful to make them pliable, etc. The finishing is done mostly by pressing the skin against re- volving wheels, covered with emery or flint to remove all adhering substances and to present a finished surface. We now have the finished chamois leather ready for the trimming and sorting’ room, where it is cut into suitable sizes and packed for the market. Of late years a trimmed skin, that is, skins of even sizes, are preferred by the trade. For this reason most manufacturers, at least most American manu- facturers, cut their skins over patterns so as to produce uniform sizes. In former years, when .England and France supplied the United States market, the skins in the same package would vary in size and shape, thus lacking uniform- ity. See also Hives AND LEATHER. LEATHER, Manufacture and Uses of. Of all the ancient industries that of the manu- facture of leather is one of the most interesting on account of the convertibility of an easily de- composed substance into one which resists pu- trefaction. The manufacture of leather is as old as history itself. In China the manufacture and use of leather was known before the Christian era, and in Egypt leather has been found in mausoleums of the ancients, showing us that nations in the remote ages of the past were practised in the art and left slight traces of their high civilization to be admired to-day.. The Persians and Babylonians passed the art over to the Greeks and Romans and so down through the different medizval nations to us. The American Indians were also well versed in the art of making leather, although their method of tanning was entirely different to that of the ancient races, yet the fact remains that they also discovered a way of treating the skins of animals in such a way as to prevent the putre- faction of animal tissues. Composition of Hides and Skins.— The skin of an animal consists of three layers — the outerskin, middle and underskin. The outer- skin which cannot be tanned is removed with the hair, leaving the middle skin or grain and the underskin or flesh. The upper part of the skin in. which the coat of hair, wool or fur is rooted is a thin layer termed the epidermis or cuticle. Next beneath this is the much thicker A ces or true skin, and next to:this the under skin. The epidermis does not combine with tannin or other substances to produce leather. It is therefore useless to the tanner and is removed at the same time as the hair. The portion of the skin thereby exposed is technically termed the “grain” side« The corium or true skin is the actual leather skin and is made up of inter- laced bundles of gelatinous fibres. It is more or less filled with fluid matter that serves to renew the cuticle and maintain the skin in a pliant and moist condition. In the tanning process these matters are removed, reducing the weight of the skin considerably, and there remains nothing but the fibrous portion to be acted on by the tanning materials. The quality of leather which can be produced from a skin depends upon. the thickness, flexibility and 187 strength of the corium, which exceeds the com- bined thickness of all the other layers of the skin. The under skin consists of a loose con- nective tissue, in which the sweat and fat glands, the blood vessels and the muscular fibres are embedded. The side upon which the con- nective tissue of the under side is located is technically designated as the “flesh” side. The under skin or flesh is composed of- interlaced fibres which give the strength to the tanned stock and is therefore a most important factor - for the tanner while the middle skin gives the fine smooth appearance to the finished product. The skin, being organic, is composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur, which go to make up the middle and under skin. Source and Uses of Hides and Skins.— Most of the leather in common use is made from the hides and skins of domestic animals, those of cattle being by far the most important, followed by goatskins, sheepskins, horsehides, pigskins and in a small measure dogskins. Many skins of wild animals, principally those of the kangaroo, deer, peccary, alligator, seal, wal- rus and buffalo are in fairly general use. Cattle hides are used chiefly for shoe upper and sole leathers, harness, belting, upholstery, bag and case leathers, and to some degree in bookbind- ing. Goatskins are used for shoes, gloves, bookbinding and fancy leathers. Sheepskins: are used for shoe linings, gloves and the greater part of the fancy leathers. Horsehides are used for shoes and utility gloves. Pigskins are used for the inner parts of shoes, utility gloves, bookbinding, fancy leathers and saddle seats. Dogskins find limited application in glove leathers. Kangaroo is used for fine shoe leathers. Deerskins, known as buckskins, are used for both shoes and gloves, peccary for utility gloves, alligator for bag and fancy leathers, seal for bags, bookbinding and fancy leathers, walrus for jewelers’ polishing wheels and buffalo for heavy soles. Preliminary Processes.— The skin, as re- ceived by the tanner, is either green, green salted, dry and dry salted, and in whatever state received, the first process is to trim the hides to remove all useless pieces and adhering fat, but the dry salted skins are first softened. When thoroughly trimmed, so as to pass inspec- tion of the foreman, the skins are placed in the soaks. The soaks are large tanks filled with as pure cold water as can be obtained to which salt has been added in order to open the pores of the skin, and the skins are allowed to remain there for 24 to 48 hours, with periodic agita- tion or stirring, due care being taken not to heat the stock. The object of the soak is to soften the skin and to remove all foreign matter such as dirt, salt and blood. Great care must be used to remove all blood and salt, as these materials, if left on the skin, will cause stains which will show dark spots in the finished leather if colored into tan, and dull if made into blacks. Another object of the soak is to add water to the skin to bring it back again as near to the condition in which it was when taken off the animal. The water of the soak must be cold, not above 65° F., so as to prevent all bacterial action and thereby prevent the loss of what tanners call hide substance. The soak- ing is controlled by the chemist, whose duty it is to examine the .water for dissolved “hide 188 substance,” that is, to analyze the water of the soak for ammonia. As mentioned, the hide contains. nitrogen... This organic’ nitrogen “is converted either by bacteriological or chemical action into ammonia, due to over warm water or too long in the soaks or both. The skims are then taken from the soaks and placed in a re- volving drum and washed thoroughly with clean cold water in order to. remove all adhering foreign matter... They then go to the fleshing machine, a machine which consists of. spiral blunt knives, set into a revolving cylinder, to remove all superfluous fat on, the flesh side. of the skin. From the fleshing machine they go to the lime vats for loosening the hair, plump- ing the stock and.spreading the fibres apart. Depilation.— Inthe more modern.. process of liming, the skins are treated with a mixture of lime and sodium sulphide,. a. chemical. ob- tained, in the manufacture of washing soda or by other processes.- If itis not desired to save the hair, which is valuable, the skins maybe dehaired by the use of sulphide of soda alone. Hair can also be loosened. by “sweating,” that is, to hang the stock in chambers where the tem- perature and humidity can be controlled. This process is simply a partial putrefaction which affects the base of the hair roots, so as to allow them to be. easily removed. The sweating process. is used, now very seldom, in the manu- facture of sole leather, and formerly to remove the wool from sheep skins. The depilation now in. use is accomplished:by. lime. or the above former mentioned combination of lime and sul- phide. The lime vats are similar to the soaks. The skins are placed.in a saturated solution of slacked lime, in which there is always an excess of lime, so that the calcium hydrate, which is slacked lime, is absorbed by the skin, the lime liquor remains at the same strength by the water dissolving some of the excess of lime always present. Lime is used on account of its being a weak alkali and only acts upon the softer parts of the skin, such.as the hair bulbs, etc., while it hardly acts upon the harder parts of the skin; yet, by leaving the skin too long in contact with lime, the harder parts are also affected. Bacterial action of the limes must also be taken into consideration for depilating, as new limes are very slow in removing the hair, and the action of the lime is increased as it grows older. The liming takes from two to three days, and sometimes longer, according to the raw material placed in the vat and the kind of stock required. Here the chemist is called again to control the time and the action, so that the skins do not become too soft or lose too much substance, thereby making the skins flabby and loose. From the lime vat the skins are either dehaired by hand or machine. Although machine dehairing is quite satisfactory, the skins must be worked by hand in order to re- move the’ fine hairs which were left by the machine. The skins are then placed upon the ~ beam, a semi-circular board placed on end, simi- lar to-a barrel cut in half’ in length with the convex side up, with the flesh side of the skin toward the workman, who cuts off the remain- ing flesh, fat and tissue.’ From this operation the skins are washed thoroughly in clean, cold water to remove all adhering lime and as)much of the dissolved lime as possible. In order to get all the absorbed lime out of the skins, they are again placed in a vat of water in which fer- LEATHER, MANUFACTURE AND USES OF mented hen manure, dog dung or pigeon manure is dissolved, and allowed to remain in this solu- tion until by chemical reaction all alkali is shown to be removed. ‘The lime is sometimes © removed by chemical means in the use of lactic acid, the acid of sour milk; and in the newest processes: the material used is an extract made from the various organs of the animal such as the spleen, pancreas, etc. This process is known as bating. The fermented animal excrements used produce lactic acid by bacterial action, but also has the advantage of containing bac- teria which are very essential in this process of bating. The:idea -of ‘bating is first to. render soluble the insoluble salts of lime, which the skins take up, and then to bring the skin, which swells in the alkaline lime liquor, back to the state desired by the tanner to produce. leather according to his needs. The~skins are again | washed and are ready for the tan, if vegetable leather ‘is required, or for pickling in case chrome tanned stock is to be made. Tanning Materials In vegetable Damned stock the skins are hung on sticks and placed in vats and treated with a dilute water extract of bark, hemlock, oak, quebracho, a South American wood, sumac, myrobalans, mimosa or Australian willow, valonia or oak acorns from. Greece and Turkey, and many other materials too numerous to mention or com- bination of the different vegetable tannins. The liquor in the vats is strengthened daily with the extracts until the skin is thoroughly tanned or as the tanner would say “struck through» The vegetable tannages are limited only by the number of plants, barks and other. vegetable substances which yield ‘tannins in sufficient quantities for commercial use. In practice only a few tannins offering the advan- tages of cheapness, large supply and greater suitability are used. Hemlock and oak bark liquors and extracts separately or in combina- tion are used more than any other vegetable tannins. Most sole and belting leather, prac- tically all upholstery, harness, bag, strap and case leathers and some shoe and ‘bookbinding leathers are tanned with hemlock or’ ‘oak or both. Sumac is the principal tanning material for bookbinding leathers, on account of its giving a light-colored leather that is resistant to light and decay. Gall-nuts, myrobalans, divi-divi and oakwood are also used in book- binding leathers. Valonia and. chestnut ‘oak extract are used for sole leather in’ connection with oak and hemlock. Quebracho is used in various leathers, often with hemlock'and oak. — Gambier and palmetto are (used, in many of the softer leathers“for shoes, gloves, etc. Some leathers are tanned with a mixture of three or four different vegetable materials as may be necessary to give the color, firmness and other properties desired. A distinct ‘tan- nage of limited use is the oil ‘tannage used’ for making some glove © leathers, particularly chamois and buckskin. Cod oil is the oil com- monly used. Its oxidation tans the leather: The leather is then washed, oiled or placed in. a revolving drum with a’ combination of oils and greases which is called: “Fat Liquoring” and hung up ‘to drv. The skins are now ready for coloring and finishing which will “be ‘ex- plained further on under chrome or chemical tanning. Chrome or Chemical Tanning.— The vege- LEATHER MANUFACTURE YoIYM JOJ SoSsaUyIIY} OY} WoIJ YOUI uv Jo YJpoeIpuNy-asy oUO BUIAIVA JNOYJIA ‘aUO JO JNO Joy}eeT] JO SjoaqYS OM} SOYLU oUTYIY "AN ‘poossepuy zw poomiapug %4ysaddop ‘AN ‘poomsepuy wy poomsepuyy “yy saddog pesneg st yr TM SIGL “yIOM JB oUIqOvUI JuijyYIds Ioy}ea] VW Z Y}OOUIS JOY}VI] BYVUI O} UI¥IS oY} Yo Sulavys | LEATHER MANUFACTURE ‘Copyright, Underwood & Underwood, N. Y, 1 Softening raw hides with rolling machines, in a big American tannery 2 Trimming untanned hides — sulphide, lining, and washing paddles at the left ; : LEATHER, MANUFACTURE AND USES OF table method of tanning light leathers is being replaced by chemical tanning or combination of vegetable and:chrome now considered chemi- cal or chrome tanning. In order to prepare the stock for chrome tannage, it is first pickled after being washed out of the’ bate; that is, placed in a vat, fitted with a revolving paddle similar to a water wheel, in which is dissolved salt and sulphuric acid’ mixed in different proportions, according to the ideas of the fore- man. When the skins have absorbed enough of the chemicals, they are taken out of the paddle, allowed to drain and then pressed in an hydraulic press to squeeze out the water. They are then split on a machine, which con- sists of a fast running horizontal ‘belt knife or drawn over a Stationary knife being pressed on to the edge of the knife by a roll placed above | the knife. The thickness of the skin is regu- lated by the distance between the belt knife or stationary knife and the roll. Light stock such as calf, kip, goat or sheep are not split but shaved on the flesh. The chemicals used in the manufacture of chrome leather are mostly im- ported and before we enter the realm of modern chemistry as applied to tanning it -will be of interest to know where the raw materials are obtained and what they are. The raw materials are sulphuric acids, glucose, sodium thiosulphate, soda ash and chrome salts. Sul- phuric acid or oil of vitriol as generally known is obtained by burning sulphur or brimstone. Glucose or grape sugar is obtained from corn starch. Sodium thiosulphate, commonly known as “Hypo,” a salt with which every photographer is familiar, is also obtained from sulphur or brimstone by heating it with caustic soda, known as soda lye. As a by-product sodium sulphide is also obtained, which as already said is used in the dehairing process. Soda ash or calcined. soda is obtained. from salt. The chromium salts used in the tanning are made from chrome iron ore, a very hard mineral composed of the oxides of chromium and iron and mined mostly in New Caledonia, although some is mined in Canada, Turkey in Asia and California, but the quantity is so small as to be no factor in the manufacture. The chrome jron ore is mixed with lime and soda or potash, placed in a furnace with free access to the air and roasted at a ‘thigh temperature. When finished, the mass is treated with water to extract the sodium or potassium chromate formed. Sulphuric acid is then added and the liquor evaporated and allowed to crystalize, and the resulting crystals are sodium or potassium bichromate, the mother substance for ~ the manufacture of the compounds used in the tan- nery. This bichromate.is used in the tannery, as such, for the so-called two-bath tannage or converted into its salts, to be used in the one- bath process. The one-bath and two-bath “processes are chemically similar. The two-bath produces the chrome salt desired in the skin, while the one-bath process consists of forming the chrome salt desired and when so made to mill or drum it into the skin. It is interesting to note that the first prac- tical chemical or chrome tanning was invented in the United States by an American, August Schultz, in 1884. Since that time great advance- ment has been made in chrome tanning in America and Europe but the theory has re- mained the same, yet the fact remains that it 189 was discovered in the United States and due to the research of an American. Schultz’s patent was for a two-bath, while Professor Knapp of Germany published in 1858 a process for the one-bath process, though he did not recognize its value. In 1893, Martin Dennis, of Newark, N. J., recognized its value and was granted patents on this procéss. For the two-bath process, the pickled stock is taken and placed in a revolving drum with water in which com- mon salt is dissolved, the drum closed and set in motion. Then bichromate, i.e., either sodium bichromate or potassium bichromate, is dis- solved in water, a certain amount of sulphuric acid added for the purpose of changing the bichromate into another chrome salt which will be absorbed by the skin. Bichro-nate without the use of an acid (and sulphuric is used in preference) will not penetrate the skin, and this mixture is put gradually in the drum. When all bichromate thas been added ‘and the skins are “struck through,” that is, the yellow color of the bichromate has thoroughly pene- trated the skin to its fullest extent, a solution of thiosulphate of soda, “Hypo,” is added. These materials, when in contact with the yellow colored stock, will turn them blue by precipitating an insoluble chrome compound between the fibres of the skin and chrome- tanned leather, is the result of this stage. A solution of soda ash or calcined ‘soda is now added to the stock in the revolving drum to neutralize the acid present and also to convert any soluble chrome compound present to an insoluble. The stock is now thoroughly washed, pressed and sent to the machines to be split down to the required thickness and to be shaved smoothly on the flesh. The next process of tanning is probably the most im- portant to the tanner of to-day, namely, the one-bath process. The one-bath process, in which the liquor used is ‘blue, is the same with the exception, as above explained, the liquor is already made and simply milled into the skin. The tanner tests his stock from time to time in order to know when it is thoroughly tanned. This test is simply taking a piece of the heaviest. part of the skin and boiling in water for five minutes. If the stock remains soft and does. not curl after the expiration of the time, the stock is considered tanned. After tanning is finished, the stock is again washed and pressed, and is ready for the fat liquoring, coloring, drying, resoftening, tacking on boards to dry, staking and finishing. The fat-liquoring process is to mill oils, soaps and greases into the stock in order to keep them soft and pliable and at the same time render them semi-water proof. Staking is stretching the skins by machine in order to get a smooth surface. The coloring of the skins is done by the ap- plication of wood dyes:or coal tar colors. The coloring of the stock is of great import- ance. In order to prevent the dye-stuffs from going on unevenly, great care must be exercised. Blacks are made either by the use of logwood or aniline colors. Finishing Processes.—Those leathers which are not shined and which always have a dull appearance such as used in work shoes may be sponged with oils, measured and_ sorted into grades to be sold. A good many leathers are boarded in order to give them a_distinc- tive pattern. The grain side is folded on itself 190 and rolled under pressure. with a cork surface board attached tothe arm. This.makes a square pattern on the surface when done up and down.and from side to side of the skin. Leather for dress shoes on which a bright or semi-bright lustre is desired must be seasoned and glazed. Seasoning consists in. sponging the surface of the leather with a liauid dress- ing consisting of albumen or some _ similar preparation which will coagulate with the heat of friction. After seasoning and drying leather is glazed. The glazing process brings up the polish in about the same way that a brush does on shoes. The skins are glazed or rubbed over with a glass cylinder under great . pressure. This glass cylinder is placed horizon-~ tally in a pocket at the end of a long wooden arm, which is brought down over the skin by a connecting rod from the fly-wheel of the machine.. The skin is laid over a slanting board and held there by the operator who shifts its position so that all parts of the skin come beneath the glazing cylinder which moves up and down in a straight line, continually bear- ing on the skin with a heavy pressure. Some skins on which a dull polish is wanted are brushed over the surface with a _ revolving roller brush. Leathers on which a high polish is desired are sponged with finish, dried and glazed several times in succession. If an es- pecially smooth surface is desired the leather is embossed after the first glazing. This is done by placing the skin beneath the hot steel plates of a heavy hydraulic press. The last operation is sponging a light coating of oil over the skin. Shoe upper leather is sold by the square foot and is measured by power driven measuring machines. Each skin is passed through the machine and a dial on the machine indicates the measurement to one-fourth of a square foot. Patent leather is chrome tanned, dried, fat- liquored and dyed black as previously described up to the finishing process. Some of the grease given in fat-liquoring and some of the oil applied to the grain are not combined with the fibres, and unless removed will cause the varnish to slip over the leather so that finish- ing becomes impossible. Degreasing is best done by soaking the leather in naphtha, and then pressing out the naphtha and drying the leather. When ready for finishing the skin is spread out and tacked on a frame, and the varnish, which is mainly oxidized linseed oil, is applied with a brush similar to a paint brush. The skins on these frames are then placed in ovens so that the varnish: may be baked on. Generally several coats of varnish are baked on the skin. Bibliography,—‘Bibliograph Modern Amer- ican Tanning? (2 vols., Chicago) ; Allen, Fred- erick J., ‘The Shoe Industry? (Boston, Mass.) ; Burt, E. W., ‘Shoe Craft—Its Organization” (Boston); Fleming, Louis A., ‘Practical Tan- ning? (Hillsdale, Mich.); Hill, Herbert and Yeoman, Henry, ‘Manual of Boot and Shoe Manufacturers? (London, Eng.); Pfister and Vogel, ‘Leather Specimen Book? (Milwaukee, Wis.); Pratt Institute of Tanning, ‘Lecture Courses» (Brooklyn, N. Y.); and files of the Boot and Shoe Recorder (Boston, Mass.). LEATHER-BACK, or LEATHER- JACKET. See LEATHER-TURTLE. LEATHER-BACK — LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TERMS LEATHER-BEETLE, one of the der- mestid beetles (see DERMESTES), which in the grub state, damages leather in storehouses and after it is made up into articles, such as shoes, harness, etc. The species is Dermestes vul- pinus ; and it is also a pest in silk manufacture, eating the cocoons. Infested places should be thoroughly fumigated with bisulphide of car- . bon, or some other powerful gas. LEATHER-FISH. See FILE-FISHES. LEATHER-HEAD, an Australian bird, the friar-bird (q.v.). LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECH- NICAL TERMS. The following is a list of the more important terms used in the shoe and leather trade: AciD TANNED.—- Fanned by the use of a mineral acid, instead of the usual vegetable tanning substances, derived from the bark or wood of certain trees and plants. (See Tanning.) ADJUSTMENT.— A. general term applied to the fastening of a shoe, whether button, buckle or lace, etc., by means of which the shoe is adjusted to the foot, or more definitely used in referring to the amount of play of such fastening available in conforming the shoe to the foot. The lace is the easiest of all adjustments, as it is flexible and self- conforming. The strap and buckle has less adaptability. Buttons are adjustable by re-setting, effective machines having been devised for that purpose. ALAsKA.— An overshoe, having a cloth upper and rubber vulcanized sole, usually with high front and back. ALoFtT.— (Said of sole stitching.) A sole “‘stitched aloft’ is stitched without a channel on the under side, the thread showing on the bottom of the shoe. AtumM TANNED.— Subjected to a ee err or tawing with salt and powdered alum. (See T ANKLE BRACE.— A steel brace built nbs the top of a shoe to support a weak ankle or other defect. Also may be made of sole leather, molded to conform to the shape of the foot, usually built ‘into children’s shoes for the protection of weak ankles. ArRcH.— The bony framework of the foot, extending from the heel forward to the toes, which is sustained by the muscles and ligaments in the form of an irregular arch. (There is a secondary transverse arch of the foot also at the ball, the bones being slightly arched crosswise.) This part of the foot is subject to various ailments, due prin- cipally to relaxation of the muscles, ligaments and tendons, which permit the turning of the main arch inward, the ‘broken arch’’ or ‘“‘flat foot,’’ so called, being more an eversion than anything else, although its action does flatten the foot. The term ‘‘arch’” is applied also to the under portion of the shoe, curving from the heel forward toward the ball, and to the corresponding portion of a last. ArctTic.— A high, thick cloth and rubber overshoe fastened with one or more buckles. Bacxkstay.— A strip of leather covering and strengthening the back seam of a shoe; ‘‘California’’ or “‘accordeon back- stay,’ a term sometimes applied to piping, caught in the back seam of a shoe; “‘English backstay,’’ or “jockey backstay,’’ a broad backstay extending forward and meet- ing the quarter on each side. BaL.— (An abbreviation of the word ‘‘Balmoral,’’ from the original English name of the shoe.) A front-laced shoe of medium height, as distinguished from shoes that are adjusted by buttons, buckles, etc., also as distinguished in pattern from the ‘“‘Blucher.”’ Bat_.— The fleshy part of the foot back of the toes, or the corresponding part of a last or shoe. The girth here is an important point in the measurement of shoes and lasts. BALLET SLIPPER.— A specially constructed slipper for pro- fessional women dancers, with reinforced soles and no heels, made of leather, usually light kid. BAREFOOT SANDAL.— A name given to heelless low-cut shoes for children, having deeply slashed vamp and quarter and fastened by means of straps and buckles. BASEBALL SHOE.— A shoe built of canvas or leather for the sport indicated, having triangular shaped plates on both ball and heel to prevent slipping. Usually made on modi- fied gypsy or scout pattern — laced well to the toe. eral A heavy bark tanned sheepskin, used for lining or insoles. BATHING SHOE.— A heelless canvas shoe, usually fastened with laces or thongs about the ankle, and used at the shore in outdoor bathing: Batu SirpPperR.— A light, loose slipper, usually heelless and often made of cloth, fibre or even paper, and used about the house or bath. BEADED.— Having edges of upper leather skived thin and folded in, instead of being left raw. Another meaning is, trimmed with beads, as the vamps of women’s slippers. LEATHER AND SHOE TRADE TECHNICAL TERMS BEAVER-TOP.— A name applied to warm cloth shoes: BEDROOM. SLIPPER.— A soft, comfortable slipper, made of wool felt, soft cotton fabric, or soft leather, with flexible sole — either? of sole leatner, or light chrome-stock with very low heels, or spring heels; sometimes. knitted or cro- _cheted and attached to a lamb’s wool sole. BELLows TONGUE.— A broad, folding tongue,. stitched at each side to the top of a Blucher shoe or boot, for the pur- se of ma “it water-tight. . Used in work shoes, also unting boots, etc. BELTING.— The best. portion of a bark-tanned cowhide, used for the making of leather belts for machinery. BENCH-MADE.— Applied to shoes which are made at “the bench”’ —i. e., the cobblers’ bench. Shoes made entirely by hand are rare in these days, although some fine lines of factory shoes are claimed to be “‘hand-welted’’; that is, _ to have the welt, upper and insole sewed together by hand, - thus promoting fle ility. BEND.— The best and strongest part of a side of leather. BicycLe Bat.— A shoe originally designed for bicycle riders, but later adopted for use in other outdoor sports. It is usually laced well down towards the toe and has a protect- ing toe cap. BLACKING.— A general name for paste shoe dressing. BLInp EYELET.— An eyelet which is concealed on the inner side of the lace stay, the lace hole being left raw-edged on the outer side. BLooM.— A slight appearance of mildew or mold which some- times appears on shoes in stock. (See Spewing.). It may be wiped off readily. BLUCHER.— A shoe or mid-leg boot, named for its inventor, General Blucher of the Prussian Army of the time of the first Napoleon. A distinguishing feature of the Blucher is the extension forward of the quarters to the throat of the ‘circular vamp, the quarter being loose at the inner edge, and made to lace across the tongue which was originally a bellows tongue. After its adoption in the Prussian Army in form somewhat similar to the present hunting or sporting boot, it became very popular... The feature of the extended - quarter was later adopted in shoes of ordinary height and with ‘the ordinary type of tongue, as well as in Oxfords, and this form of cut is still much used in ‘all classes of shoes, ‘men’s, women’s and children’s. It is a curious fact that all three of the great generals engaged at the battle of Waterloo invented a form of, military footwear. BLUCHER BaL.— A pattern combining both the features of the Balmoral. and the Blucher, having a whole quarter vamp and top, as in the Bal with an over-lapping front as in the Blucher. — BoarpDED.— Finished with a lined surface faintly indented or _ stamped into the leather. Boot.— This term is used in England only to designate high- ‘cut shoes for men, women or children as distinguished from ‘slipper, pump or Oxford (which last only is called a ‘‘shoe’’). It is largely, although not universally, so used in this country, although the term ‘‘shoe’’ is often used here to designate a high-cut; the term “‘boot’’ is sometimes etches to the men’s solid leg boot, or laced hunting oot Booree.— HR, SnuFF.— To take“a very thin shaving from the grain side of side leather. SNUFFED CHROME Kip.— Kips are coarser skins than veals, due to an older or poorer fed animal (grass fed). The grain if scratched or defective is snuffed. off by holding grain side against an abrasive wheel. Sponged over with black dye and finished dull. Makes a durable shoe leather. Snuffed calf and sides-are also»common. Sock LininGc.— The strip of smooth leather cemented inside McKay sewed shoes, the purpose being to cover the ~ stitches, which in a McKay come directly through both outsole ‘and insole. Sort SoLe.— Infants’ shoes made moccasin fashion with soles of soft kid. Sort Tor.—A toe made without stiffening or boxing; sometimes called the globe toe. This is used in comfort shoes as well as in regular lines on men’s and women’s kid shoes for tender feet: SoLE LEATHER.— Heavy leather, dry finished, for soles of shoes. It is tanned and finished with a view to produc- ing firm, solid texture rather than extremely pliability. Hides of cattle are used, horsehides being usually too thin. Sole leathers made from green hides are best. SoLEs.— The bottom pieces of any variety of footwear. When the word is used without qualification, ‘‘outsole”’ is usually meant. (ERN TIE.— A two eyelet ribbon tie. potest HEEL.— A covered wooden heel, shaped like the uban. SPARABLE.— A heavy, chilled iron nail, spike-shaped, with a rough ‘head, commonly used around the heels of heavy work shoes. Spats.— Short for: ‘“‘Spatterdashes,” an English’ term ‘for cloth gaiters, buttoned or buckled around the ankle and fastened under the instep. SPEwinG.— A term applied’ to the formation of a substance — on the surface of leather, which is called bloom and which resembles mold or mildew. It is supposed to be caused ‘by the exuding of some of the materials used in tanning or finishing of leather, and it does no damage to the shoes in the process of becoming thoroughly seasoned while in stock. It is readily wiped off. Spticep HEEL.-—A heel of double thickness; applied to hosiery. SpLit.— To shave leather into two or more thicknesses or the leather itself thus treated. ‘This is done to reduce heavy leather to a thickness suitablé for use in the uppers of shoes, upholstery, etc. The work necessitates the use of the splitting machine. SPORTING SHOES.— Shoes made for use in various games, hunting, etc. SPRING.— The amount of variation from a straight or hori- zontal line at the toe of a shoe or in the arch. The ‘‘toe- spring” of a shoe may be measured by setting it ona flat surface and measuring from the surface to the under 199 side of the sole at the toe. Shoes with but little toe spring are said to have ‘‘a flat forepart.”’ STANDARD SCREWED SHOES.—In making this type of shoe the tacks used in lasting are driven way in and clinched against the steel bottom of tne last. The heavy cutsole is tacked in place and fastened by meansof screws. The metal which forms this fastening is in the form of wire with continuous screw thread. . The machine, immedi- ately the screw reaches the inside of the. shoe, automat- ically cuts it off and feeds it to the next fastening. It makes a strong but stiff shoe.. LASTING TACK. \ STANDARD SCREW - CUNCHING POINT of LASTING TACK. Cross Section of a Standard Screwed Shoe. STAPLE.— A general term applied to shoes embodying such features of style and make-up as render them subject to repeated demand. from: customers, as distinguished from the “novelty,” the “freak,’’ or the “ specialty’’ (which see); shoe which with minor variations in style or orna- mentation may be expected’ to sell in future seasons. STITCHED Down.— A simple form of shoe in which the upper is turned outward on the sole and stitched straight through. It was often used by soldiers in the Civil War. Stocie.— A heavy-pegged work shoe of the brogan type. It-may ‘be Blucher or straight lace. Storm Boot.— An extra high cut shoe, for women, coming well above the ankle, made of heavy leather and intended to meet bad weather conditions. Storm RuBBER.— A rubber overshoe having an extra high front and. back. : STRAIGHT Last.—’A last with comparatively little swing an of simple outlines. STREET SHOES.— Boots or low-cuts~of ‘solid construction, suitable for street use, especially in women’s’ wear, as distinguished from more delicate varieties of boot, or from most slippers. STYLE.— The material, cut, or. model, or combination of all, which is deemed to be in‘accord with favored stand- ards, or in fashion. SUEDE.— A method of finishing leather; or the leather itself. The word is French for ‘“Swedish;’’ the velvet finish is supposed: to have originated in Sweden, and it was applied originally to kid and not to calfskin. The process of making it involves buffing (which is a process 'of scour- ing or grinding) on ‘an emery wheel the flesh side of the leather, so as to produce a sort of ‘nap or velvety surface. Some makers of leather adopt a different process, buffing or scouring off the grain side of the leather to: produce the nap. SUEDE CaLr.— Skin of a very young calf finished on the flesh side by holding ‘this side against an abrasive wheel to raise a fine nap. Worn flesh side out for ladies’ shoes. Sheepskin is also treated this way. Calf makes the best suede leather for fineness and durability. ° Swinc.— The curvature of the outer edge of the sole of a shoe. Tan.— A yellowish brown color, the name of which indicates the origin. The color of unfinished oak-tanned leather is a tawny, yellowish brown or “‘tan color,’’ which is shortened into simply ‘‘tan’’ in ordinary use. TANNING.— Converting skins or hides into leather by an astringent acid derived either from vegetable sources, such as the bark of the oak, hemlock, willow, chestnut, sumac, etc., or with a-astringent mineral substances, of which Alum may be taken as a characteristic type. In general, any acid which has what would be called a ‘“‘puckery” effect will act upon a skin to convert it into leather. It toughens the skin, condenses it and coagulates all the albuminous matter so that it is no longer putrescible. That is to say, it preserves it from rotting. 200 It is only within comparatively recent years that mineral tannages have been in use. German chemists were the beginners, but the finishing development of chrome. tan- nage took place in this country, and Robert. Foerderer, late of Philadelphia, was well known as the originator of a successful process as applied to kid skins. His chosen trade name, “‘Vici,’’ has become almost a generic name for all chrome-tanned kid, although the name was simply his own proprietary trade mark. Tapr.—A partial sole; a half sole. the lifts of a heel. Taw.— To convert into leather by a species of dry tannage, such as packing of-skins in dry salt and powdered alum. This is used when it is desired to tan skins without re- moving the fur, hair, or wool for use as furs or floor mats. TENNIS SHOE.— A sporting shoe, usually with canvas upper, rubber sole and low heel. TuHonc.— A strip-or cord made of leather or rawhide. THROAT.— As applied to the vamp of a shoe, the central part of the opening, where the top joins it in front. The term is applied to thecorresponding part of lasts. Tiz.— A name for a low laced Oxford, with not over three eyelets. They are usually classified according to the num- ber of eyelets, as one eyelet ties, two eyelet ties, etc., and ribbon laces are generally used. Trp.— An extra’ piece covering the toe of the shoe, separate from the vamp, and lasted under with it; ‘‘stock tip,”’ a tip of the same material as the vamp; “patent tip,’ a patent leather tip;»“‘wing tip,” one having a point in the center and extending in curved lines’ backward at either side of the. Shoe; ‘ ‘straight tip,”’ one’ stitched straight across in distinction fromthe wing tip; ‘‘shield tip,” a tip resem- bling the wing tip-but not extending so far back; “‘diamond tip,’ one ending ina sharp. point. at the back toward the throat of -the= vamp; “Gmitation tip,’ stitching across a plain vamp to imitate a tip: ToncuE.— A strip of leather the end of which is attached inside the throat of a laced.shoe, coming up to the top of the shoe under the:lacing: «“‘Bellows tongue,” a broad folding tongue stitched’to the quarter at each side. TONGUE Pap.—A_ small pad fitted to the inner side of the tongue or button fly, to fit a shoe to a foot having an extra low instep. Top.— A. general term-applied to all’ parts of the upper of a shoe -usually ‘referring: principally to. the parts above the vamp. Top Facinc.— A binding or lining which is sewed. around the inner, part of the upper of a shoe atthe top. Leather, silk and. other materials are used, and the name. of the maker or dealer is often stamped, woven or printed thereon. Top Lirt.— The outer piece of leather in a heel. TREAD.— The floor surface of the sole of a shoe. ’ TrREE.— A last-shaped -block or. filler, usually adjustable, -» and placed.in shoes to. preserve’ their. shape. . They; have come into genéral’ use by wearers of shoes. TURNED SHOE.— A woman’s shoe having the upper stitched directly to the sole wrong side out, the shoe being then “turned” right side out, the process giving it the name. -, This method ‘is applied only to the making of ligat dress boots or slippers, with thin, flexible soles. Two-PIECE, COUNTER.— A counter. made of two: pieces of leather pasted. or cemented. together.. The same. method is sometimes used in insoles: UNION SOLE.— Tanned with a combination. of hemlock and oak bark liquors or extracts. . Not quite as firm as'oak sole. Used for women’s shoes and the: better grades for. men’s shoes. Sews well. Varies in color according to. propor- -tions of oak.and. hemlock used. UppER, — A.term applied colléctively to the upper parts of a » shoe, including vamp; quarter, lace stay or button fly, top facing, back stay, collar, etc.,.as stitched together-and - assembled. Vamp.— The. lower part, of the upper of a shoe, which is stitched .or otherwise attached to the sole. VEtourS.— A. French word meaning velvet. It-is used as a proprietary name for a soft finished calfskin, chrome tanned. VELVET.— A fabric. of. silk, consisting of a woven backing. - with a fine, closely clipped. pile or nap. heen warleties are made with foundation of cotton or linen. As used i - the -making -of shoes velvet is backed with a firm, shin cloth or pach ee which is cemented to it, to.add to its strength. Sometimes applied to VELVET FrIntsHep.— Finished ith a nap, as suede leather. ; produced. by grinding or buffing, VELVETEEN.— A’ cotton. velvet, or one mixed silk and cotton. VENTILATED .SHOE.— A shoe with cut. spaces or. perfora- tions for ventilation. . The barefoot sandal is a type, as used. in children’s shoes. Various patented. devices are also used.. One of the simplest forms consists of con- ‘cealed. perforations in the vamp near the shank of .the -shoe, others continuing through the perforations in a per- forated tip. The popular increase of hygienic tendencies will eventually make. some such method essential in the building of summer shoes. VestTinc.— A fine silk-figured cloth, originally intended, as indicated by the name, for the making of fancy vests. LEATHER SUBSTITUTES When used for the making of shoes it is backed with a cemented layer of buckram to strengthen it. |. Vici.— A proprietary trade name for a brand of chrome-_ tanned glazed kid. The name has come to be generally but incorrectly used for all makes of chrome kid. VIENNA CutT.— As applied to a shoe upper, seamless except ‘for a half circular seam down the outside of the foot. _ VISCOLIZE.— To render waterproof, as sole leather, by the use of emulsified oils or glycerine. Viscolized soles are frequently used in hunting or sporting boots. Waist.— The smallest part of that portion of the foot which lies between the instep and the ball, the corresponding part of a last. In the standard scale “of last measurements, the waist girth is five-eighths of an inch smaller than the instep and one-eighth of an inch smaller than the ball. See Last. WALKING Boot.— Any substantially built boot, for outdoor dress use. Ways Top.— A double curved cut of shoe top, highest in ront. Wax Catr.—A heavy calfskin leather with a wax finish. This is among the earliest and best methods of finishing calfskin leather. - WELLINGTON Boot.— A high leg boot, originally destened by the Duke of Wellington. for use by his cavalry soldiers. The high front comes to the knee, or above, ‘3 WELtT.— A narrow. strip. of leather stitched. to a. shoe; a strip of leather stitched, across the upper; as most definitely and commonly used, the strip of leather which in welt shoes: is stitched fast to both the upper of the shoe and the insole at one operation, called inseaming, the edge of the strip then being stitched through and through, fastening to the outsole, the seam running around the outer edge of the sole, concealed on the under side by a channel or lip, which is cut in the sole and cemented .down. after A SEES eB VN BAS Ye bree ore re reared hy pp Rmoursoue Na \OORK FILLING~---.STITCH UNITING + usa : INSOLE UPPER ;: , AND WELT. of Lie oF INSOLE---” Cross Section of a ondreis Welt Shoe, finishing the shoe. . The term. ‘‘welt’”’ applies also tel the shoe thus made. -It is considered the best'method of ma’ shoes, except where extreme lightness is desired, when the single ‘ ‘turned” sole is used. The welt method is used in men’s, women’s and children’s medium. to high-grade shoes, and is the old hand-work method. The process of making the welt shoe involves a number of incidental machines, but the principal ones are the inseamer and the . outseamer. The machines principally used are those of the “‘Goodyear ”’ patent, and the term ‘‘Goodyear: welt” applies to the product.’ »‘‘Hand welt;"''a welt shoe stitched -by hand. . ‘‘Mock welt,”’ a -square-edged. turn. WHEELING.— A finish applied to the edge of a:shoe by means of..a.corrugated wheel; sometimes used on a McKay to imitate stitching. WiptH.— This term.as ‘applied to shoes means more strictly “girth.” (See Last,-for table of width measurements in inches: for: each size.) The variations. in. measurements are given in fractions of an inch, as. measured..with a tape-line laid round the foot or last. WiLLow .CaLr.— A proprietary name for a grained. calf- skin. (Willow bark is sometimes used in tanning.) WoOoDEN-PEGGED.— Having the sole attached by woodert: pegs-extending through the outsole, upper and insole;i as in coarse boots and work shoes. Work. SHOES.— Coarse, heavy shoes, Pete those for men, as the brogan, Creedmore, Creole, Dom Pedro, etc. LEATHER SUBSTITUTES. Owing to the increasing demand for leather in the manu- facture of shoes, belting and harness, the sup- ply of thin sections of hides suitable for LEATHER-TURTLE — LEAVENWORTH upholstery, bookbinding, travel goods, etc., has steadily decreased and its cost increased. The result has been the introduction of various leather substitutes. These are of two chief classes: (1) those which imitate the appearance of leather, and (2) those which also duplicate its general characteristics and durability. Inthe first class there are embossed papers, papier mache, oilcloth and light weight cloths thinly coated with rubber, linseed oil compounds and soluble cotton. In the second class there are strong, thick fabrics heavily coated and em- bossed with rubber or linseed oil, or soluble cotton compounds. The latter successfully duplicate the coloring, feeling and embossed graining of the best hide leather. While none has at this writing been made quite the equal of real grain leather, the best grades of leather substitutes are generally more durable than what is known in the trade as “split leather,” which is composed of the weaker fleshy por- tions of the thick hide, split away from the grain or hair side to produce thin upholstery leather. Split leather, coated with soluble cotton, and embossed in various grains, is really a variety of leather substitute, its base of tanned fleshy substance being about half as strong as the better grades of leather , substitutes having heavy fabric bases. Split leather, commonly sold as “genuine leather,” is the chief cause of disappointments in leather upholstery as it does not compare in wearing qualities with grain leather. The fabric substitutes most used are coated with a jelly consisting chiefly of soluble cotton in solution which carries the pement required to produce the desired color. The jelly in a fluid condition is spread on the cloth while the latter is moving over rollers. It is scraped to a thin coating by a knife set in the machine. Each coating is quite thin, suc- cessive coatings being applied to build up the desired body. The solvent evaporates during the coating process, leaving the jelly in the form of a tough, flexible film of pyroxylin firmly. anchored to the cloth. The plain coated cloth is then embossed by hot rolls. or plates bearing the desired grain, which is the last stage of the process. Two-color effects such as Spanish or Moorish finish are obtained as in the real leather process by flooding the grained surface with a darker coating and . wiping it off in spots to give a shaded or toned effect and to show a darker color in the “val- leys” than on the “hills” Leather substitutes are now extensively used for upholstering au- tomobiles, furniture, carriages, etc, and in various industries formerly dependent on leather. — LEATHER- TURTLE, or TRUNK- BACK, a rare marine turtle of the tropical seas (Sphargis coriacea), which has a leathery case. instead of a shell. It is the largest of existing Chelona, known specimens having a case four feet in length, and a live- weight of not less, than 1,000 pounds. When young its case is thin, soft and flexible, but as age ad- vances the jacket becomes stiffened by the formation within it of great numbers of little adjoining bony plates and the exterior shows strong longitudinal ridges. These turtles are powerful swimmers and wander throughout the oceans, feeding upon jellyfishes, crusta- 201 ceans, cuttlefishes and other animal food. Late in the summer it seeks some sandy shore or islet, where the female buries her eggs after the manner of other sea-turtles. These eggs are good to eat, but the flesh of the animal’is not of good taste, and is said to be unwhole- some. Much interesting discourse upon the curious structure, relationships and ancestry of this declining race may be found in Gadow’s ‘Amphibia and Reptiles» (London 1901). LEATHERJACKET, common name for the trigger-fish of the family balistide. They. include the Balistes carolinensis of warm: At- lantic waters, including the Mediterranean, the Monacanthus of Australian waters and the Oligolites saurus. They are used as food in certain sections but are detested by sleeps as clever bait stealers. LEATHERSTOCKING TALES, a name given'a series of Indian and pioneer romances by James Fenimore Cooper (q.v.). The name Leatherstocking was given to Natty Bumppo, one of Cooper’s heroes. LEATHERWOOD. See CyriLia. LEATHES, léthz, Stanley, English clergy- man. and Oriental scholar: b. Ellesborough, Buckingham, 21 March 1830; d. May 1900..He was graduated at Jesus College, Cambridge;. in 1852 and was ordained in 1857. He was ap- pointed professor of Hebrew at King’s Col- lege, London, in 1863, and in 1868-80 he was lecturer there.. He was one of the Old Testa- ment Revision Committee in 1870-85. He was elected ;prebendary at Saint Paul’s Cathedral in 1876,,-was rector of.: Cliff-at-Hoo; . near Gravesend, in 1880-89 and at Much Hadham, Hertfordshire, from 1889 until his death. He received an honorary D:D. from Edinburgh in 1878, and Cambridge made him an honorary Fellow in 1885. In 1873 he was a delegate to the Evangelical Alliance in New York. Be- sides publishing many sermons and lectures he was author of ‘A Short. Practical. Hebrew Grammar? (1869); ‘Studies in Genesis? (1880.); . ‘The Foundations. of... Morality? (1882). LEAVE AND LICENSE, in English baie the defense to an action in trespass, maintain- ing that the consent of the plaintiff had been given to the trespass complained of,: thereby rendering the action void. LEAVEN, lév'én, a substance * producing fermentation, especially i in the making of bread, consisting of a portion reserved from dough already in a state of fermentation and used to cause fermentation in freshly mixed dough, resulting in a light, porous bread. The use of leaven is of great antiquity and has given rise to many figurative meanings of the term. Leayen is largely supplanted by its more con- venient relative, yeast, in modern bread mak- ing. LEAVENWORTH, | lév’én-wéerth, Elias Warner, American lawyer: ’b. Canaan, ey 1803; d. Syracuse, N. Y., 1887. He*was gradu- ated at Yale in 1824; studied law with William Cullen Bryant at Great Barrington, Mass., and in the Law. School at Litchfield, Conn.; was admitted to the bar in 1827, and began practice the same year at Syracuse, N. Y. He was twice mayor. of Syracuse 1849, 1859; secretary of state of New York, 1854-55: president Board £ 202 - of Quarantine Commissioners, 1860; 1875 to 1877, he was .a member of Congress. He was a member of the State Constitutional Conven- tion of 1872. President Lincoln in 1861 ap-. pointed him commissioner under the convention with New Granada, He published ‘Genealogy of Leavenworth Family? (1873). LEAVENWORTH, Kan., the county-seat of Leavenworth County and one of the most important cities in the State, 26 miles north- west of Kansas City, on the west bank of the Missouri River, here spanned by two fine iron bridges, accommodating railway and ordinary traffic. The Missouri Pacific, Union Pacific, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island) and Pacific, and the Chicago Great Western railroads enter the city. It is the eastern terminus of the Leavenworth and To- peka Railroad and is on the line of the Kansas City Northwestern Railroad. Leavenworth was founded by the “Sons of the South” in 1854, and the following year received a city charter. It derives its name from Fort Leav- enworth north of the city, the oldest and most important military post on the Missouri River, built in 1827. Prior to the Civil War it was an important trading point and it was at Leaven- worth that most of the wagon trains across the prairies were outfitted. The city is the trade centre for a farming and coal-mining region, an inexhaustible coal deposit underlying the city at a depth of 700 feet, giving employment to over 1,000 miners, and yielding 60,000 bushels of coal daily. Besides its coal ‘mines, the manufacturing industries are correspondingly extensive and include flour mills, iron foun- dries, refrigerating plants, manufactures of mill machinery, mine machinery, stoves, steam engines, furniture, brooms, wagons, light. and heavy trailers, farming implements, road machinery, bridge and structural iron and steel, washing machines, soap and chemicals, - paper bags and containers, ice, candy and cereal foods. The city, which is protected from inunda- tion by a limestone stratum, is well laid out, electrically lighted, has an excellent.. water supply, and a complete system of. electric street railroads, connecting with Fort Leavenworth on the north, and the National Soldiers’ Home and Lansing Prison on the south. There are 32 churches of all denominations, two -hospi- tals, Cushing and Saint Johns, three theatres, three national banks and three savings and State banks. Mount Saint Mary’s Academy for Girls is located three miles south of. the city and the school system of Leavenworth is one of the best in Kansas. It is the seat of a Baman Catholic bishop and has a fine cathe- ra The western branch of the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers is located three miles south of Leavenworth... It. com- prises 640 acres of beautifully kept grounds, equipped with the most modern ‘housing, amusement and welfare conditions, for accom- modation and entertainment of its 3,000 in- mates. The Army. Service Schools of. the United States army are located at Fort Leaven- worth in a magnificent building with a separate library building. The permanent capacity of Fort Leavenwoth is approximately 5,000 offi- LEAVENWORTH — LEAVES . cers and men and temporary cantonments. were erected during the Great War to accommodate approximately 3,000 more. The Disciplinary Barracks or Military Prison is located at Fort Leavenworth and in 1918 had approximately 4,000 inmates with the capacity of nearly twice that number. The Farm Colony of the Disci- plinary Barracks maintatns a herd of pure-bred Holstein Friesian cattle which is one of the best herds in the West. It also has a chicken ranch which in 1918 produced approximately 30,000 pure-bred chickens. A pure-bred Duroc Jersey swine herd is maintained by the Farm Colony on the large farm which is operated by them. The Colony also has several large greenhouses and the prisoners engage in both diversified and intensive farming and while learning these useful agricultural. trades are earning the right to reinstatement in the army and honorable discharge therefrom. ‘The Farm Colony established in 1918 an experimental de- partment operated in co-operation with the Kansas State Agricultural College and the Leavenworth County Farm Bureau for the pur- pose of experimenting in new crops. This is probably the largest development of the Farm Colony idea for prisoners in the United States. The Federal Prison occupies a corner of the Reservation and is the largest Federal Prison maintained in the United States and in 1918 had approximately 2,500. inmates engaged in general mechanical work. This prison has the most modern equipment and has night schools with extension courses from the Kansas Uni- versity and the Kansas State Agricultural Col- lege. A very large bronze statue of Gen. U. Ss. Grant is located just north of the city on the military reservation and is said to be one of the best statues of Grant in existence. During the Great War a Community House for the entertainment of soldiers was opened in the city of Leavenworth and successfully maintained during the period of the war. ‘This afforded clean and wholesome amusement for the soldiers stationed at Fort Leavenworth and gave them an opportunity to meet the better element of citizens. In November 1917 the city voted bonds for the erection of a perma- nent Community House to be used as a Civic centre and school. The. management of. this building was placed under the Board of Edu- cation and the general purpose of it is to pro- vide a place for the holding of all sorts of civic and public activities and the discussion of civic problems and the development of civic projects. The city government of Leavenworth i is ad- ministered on the commission plan since 1909, Leavenworth being one of the first cities in the State of Kansas to adopt that form of govern- ment. Pop. (1910). 19,363; (1920) 16,912. Consult Burke and Rock, ‘History of Leaven- worth? (Leavenworth 1880). LEAVES, in the ordinary sense of ‘the word, are the structures on which devolves the duty of nourishing the plant. They invariably arise as lateral protuberances from the grow- ing-points or terminal vegetative cones of the shoots, that is, from a part.of the plant which is still in an embryonic condition. Im cases where a leaf seems to arise from an older part of a plant, as from the trunk of a tree, close inspection shows that it is. really developed LEAVES from a shoot perhaps not readily visible. Its growth is first at the apex, but this soon ceases, and is. followed by continuous enlargement throughout the tissues, by which the upper part or blade of the leaf is soon distinguished from the basal part, and the stalk or petiole (where present) is subsequently formed between them. The development may result in a variety of structures, some of which are far different from typical foliage-leaves, yet are strictly homologous; such are scale-leaves, bracts and the parts of a blossom (floral leaves). The higher the rank of the plant in the scale of development the more these diversities. are manifested; and the observations here to be made apply mainly to the phanerogams from the ferns (q.v.) upward. Leaves collect from the atmosphere the great essential of plant-food, carbon, and con- duct the processes of its assimilation, or, in other words, apply it by chemical conversion to the vitality and growth of the plant. In order to understand how they perform this function it will be necessary to investigate their struc- ture and properties. Each leaf is composed of three parts, an outside layer on each surface of compact, flattened, and usually colorless cells, forming a skin or epidermis; an inner part (mesophyll) consisting of irregular cellu- lar tissue and intercellular spaces. These cells of the mesophyll contain minute bodies (chloroplasts) of green coloring matter called chlorophyll, which also abounds in the bark of the stems of herbs and all other green parts of plants, and is the working element in their composition. Through the spongy mesophyll extends the network of veins which form the skeletcn of the leaf, and are at once its sup- port and its channels of communication with the other parts of the plant; these form the third part of the leaf. One other important feature must be mentioned—the breathing- pores, or stomata, These are excessively minute openings in the epidermis, which occur wherever chlorophyll lies underneath, but are most numerous on the under or earthward side of the leaves, where, on the average, about 60,000 may be counted per square inch of sur- face, although in some leaves they are six or eight times as numerous. Each of these pores lies between the “guard-cells? which form an automatic valve, opening or closing the pore, by their swelling or shrinking, according to varying conditions and the requirements of plant-health, especially in respect to evapora- tion. The chlorophyll grains (chloroplasts) also change their positions in the cells so as to take all possible advantages of a weak illumination, or to guard against a bad effect from excessive light. Of the 10 essential elements of plant-food nine are drawn from the soil by means of the roots, but the tenth, which is the most import- ant and the largest in amount of all, is ob- tained by all green plants solely from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere and is taken up by the green leaves alone; also a little of the oxygen required. The air enters the stomata, is seized, as it were, by the chlorophyll, and within it is so decomposed (in a manner not yet explained) that the carbon is chemically ex- tracted and is transformed into plant-food and plant-substance, that is, is assimilated; and botanists restrict their use of the term “assimi- 203 lation” to this physiological absorption of car- bon alone. In order to be able to do this work, however, the leaves require the aid of sunlight, without which the chlorophyll becomes inactive, and in total darkness a green plant will speedily die of starvation, however rich may be the soil in which it is rooted. The “rest” of plants at night is thus accounted for; and also the greater rapidity of growth in northern plants where in summer they enjoy more hours of sunlight each day than southern plants get. But the service of leaves in the nutrition of - the plant does not cease here. They perform a most important function in the transpiration of water.. Plants must always draw from the soil a quantity of water far in excess of their needs, or of their capacity to hold, in order to get a sufficient supply of the mineral food dis- solved in it, but in exceedingly small quantities ; and after that sustenance has been extracted the extra useless surplus of water must be got rid of. This is accomplished through the stomata of the leaves, out of which water is always passing im gaseous evaporation or some- times even in globules. A secondary but most important accompaniment of this is the suction thus formed, by which the constant up-flow from the root-ends is maintained. A third essential office of leaves is as the lungs of the plant, which must breathe in essen- tially the same manner and for the same pur- poses as does an animal; that is, they must take up oxygen and give off carbonic acid. This independent process (the converse of the simul- taneous assimilation) is carried on steadily by all plants, night and day; but in those having leaves it is mainly performed by these organs, because they spread the greatest surface. In addition to these foremost and general services, leaves are adapted in particular cases, almost as numerous as the plant species, to such special purposes as a depository of food for the young plant in the cotyledons or seed-leaves; as bulb-scales in plants like. the hyacinth and lily, where part of the nourishment in the foliage of one year is stored up in the scales or subterra- nean thickened leaves, for the early growth and flowering of the next year; as bud-scales, form- ing the protective coverings of buds, as tendrils, pitchers, fly-traps, etc. These complicated requirements and duties, under varied conditions and circumstances, have produced the extraordinary modifications of form and texture which leaves present, and which must now be briefly considered. Forms and Arrangement of Leaves.—The typical and ordinary foliage leaf is a thin, flat structure composed of stalk (petiole) and blade (lamina) of symmetrical form, and growing in the plane of the horizon, so that one side (the dorsal) is presented upward to the sky and sun- shine, and the other (ventral) is downward and in shadow; and these sides usually present ap- propriate differences in texture, the upper sur- face being usually more smooth and compact than the lower. A great variety of textures, from. smooth, polished or waxy, to rough, downy or spiny, are distinguished by botanists and used in the description of plants; these variations of surface are largely defensive in their character. Some leaves have no stalk and are said to be sessile, in which case the base of the leaf may partly clasp or completely sur- round the stem, or be otherwise modified; 204 similarly the stalk takes many forms, sometimes with two lesser subsidiary leaves (stipules) at the base. The rigid woody centre of the stalk may continue straight on through the middle of the leaf to its apex, forming a midrib which throws out branches alternately on each side toward the margin of the blade, each again branching repeatedly and connecting with its neighbor, and so forming a network or skeleton of woody fibres which strengthen and support the leaf. These ribs are called veins or nerves, and the whole is the “venation” of the leaf. Such a simple leaf (for example of the beech) is called reticulate or net-veined. In a large class of cases, however, the branches of the midrib do not spring at approximately equal intervals along its length, but all diverge from a point near its base, making a palmately veined arrangement, as in the maple. This reticulate veining is characteristic of dicotyledons. In another very distinct type of venation, char- acteristic of monocotyledons, there is no mid- rib, but the stalk divides at the base of the blade into many equal veins which extend in a more or less curving line through the length of the leaf, converging at the apex; such a leaf’ is said to be parallel-veined, as in grasses. Upon the plan of the skeleton depends mainly the form of the leaf, of which a great number of variations are named in botanical manuals and used in descriptions of species, depending mainly on the character and extent of the in- dentation or incisions. The arrangement of leaves upon the plant is an important matter. That it follows certain regular plans is apparent in buds, which: when cut across exhibit their young leaves packed together in one or another of certain definite ways; and their relative position on the stem of an herb or the twig of a tree follows as a result of the law of growth in that group. The theo- retical perfection of arrangement, however, is often greatly disturbed by the interference of older leaves with the development of the younger, and by other causes affecting the un- symmetrical growth of the whole plant. The arrangement of leaves upon the stem, called phyllotaxis, is in most cases one of alternation, thus securing the uninterrupted exposure of the upper surface of the leaf to the sun. It is to obtain this exposure that plants struggle to become tall and bear their leaves most pro- fusely at the summit; and that the branches of trees reach outward as far as possible; and the lower early leaves of many soon die off because shaded by the later, higher growth. The arrangement is carried out in two prin- cipal ways: the leaves are either alternate, one after another, only’a single leaf arising from each node or joint of the stem; or opposite, when there is a pair of leaves on each joint of the stem; but sometimes the leaves are whorled ot verticillate, there being three or more in a circle on one joint’ of the stem. The result of this arrangement in’ an alternate-leaved stem is to cause the leaves to follow one another up the stem in.a spiral manner; while’ any two successive leaves on the same species will also be separated from each other by just and equal portion of the circumference of the stem. The same principle governs the parts of the flower in which the sepals. of the calyx typically alternate with the petals of the» corolla, the petals with the stamens and the stamens with LEAVES the pistils, but it is often disguised in a very puzzling way, especially by the absence of one or more series of ‘organs. See FLOWER. Modifications of Leaves.— Leaves exist in other forms than the typical ones of foliage. Scales, such as those which envelop and protect buds in winter, and the seeds in cones, are leaves of simple structure which have no assim- ilative powers or functions; they most fre- quently originate from an enlarged leaf-base upon which a proper leaf never develops. Bracteal leaves, or bracts, are of similar char- acter and grow beneath and about the flowers, of which, when they are colored, they often form the most conspicuous part; but fre- quently they are green and are connected with true leaves by intermediate forms.. Both scales and bracts have been forced, under experi- mental conditions, to develop into true leaves. The modified leaves which form the flowers of phanerogams are termed “floral leaves,» and, as has been said, typically succeed one another in whorls from below upward, as sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.' The sepals are usually green and much like foliage-leaves; the sepals often retain a likeness, but the interior whorls usually bear no resemblance to leaves, yet occa- sionally, in ill-health, revert to a shape which betrays their origin and genetic history. Periodicity of Leaf Growth.— Leaves are a temporary part of the plant, arising and dis- appearing at more or less regular intervals, usually once a year.’ This is especially notice- able in the higher plants, some of which (an- nuals) die in autumn completely, surviving as species only in their’ seeds; others die down to the roots in the fall and put forth entirely new stems as well as leaves the following spring; while others, as shrubs and tree, die only so far as their leaves are concerned, put- ting forth new foliage after the stated period of rest: “This period is due to the arrival of annually recurring unfavorable conditions of temperature or moisture or both, when the activity of life in the plant is suspended and it ceases to feed or grow. In such a state leaves having no function are needless —in fact often harmful—and in many cases die and fall off in so sudden and conspicuous a manner that we say such trees are deciduous; while others, which we call evergreen, retain most of their leaves in a green condition until gradually replaced by new ones, so that the foliage seems to be perpetual. The brilliant colors of the dying leaves of many trees and herbs ‘in autumn are due partly to chemical changes in the decaying chlorophyll and partly to the ex- posure of pigment cells previously concealed by the abundance of chorophyll and other features of vital activity. The leaf drops because it no longer receives nourishment from the stem or twig. The cells at its base close up, transmit- ting no more sap, and in so doing separate from those in the base of the leaf, which is thus cut off and thrown away. ® © Bibliography.— The morphology, genesis and functions of leaves have been studied most deeply by German students, as Haeckel, Fritz Miiller, Gobel, Schwender, Marchlewski, Fisher and others: These and other authorities have been well summarized in the English translation. by Porter of Strasburger’s ‘Textbook of Botany” (1903). For the forms and nomen- clature of leaves, consult the botanical manuals LEAVES OF GRASS — LEBANON and textbooks of Gray, Wood and: other Amer- ican authors. Consult also Atkinson, ‘Ele- mentary Botany? (New York 1898); Coulter, ‘Plant Structures? (ib. 1900); id:, ‘Elementary Studies in Botany (ib. 1913); Ganong, ‘The Living Plant? (ib. 1913). ERNEST INGERSOLL. LEAVES OF GRASS, a collection of Bossa by Walt Whitman (q.v.), published in LEAVITT, Erasmus Darwin, American mechanical engineer: b. Lowell, Mass., 27 Oct. 1836; d. Cambridge, Mass., 11 March 1916. He was self-educated, receiving an honorary D.Eng. from Stevens Institute in 1884. He worked his way up through various’ machine shops and in 1860-61 was chief draughtsman for Thurs- ton, Gardner and Company, Providence. He was assistant engineer in the United States navy in 1861-67, but resigned and resumed his practice, specializing in pumping and mining machinery. He was consulting engineer for the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company in 1874-1904, when he retired. He acted as con- sulting engineer at various times for the cities of Boston and Louisville, and for private con- cerns: He was a member of various engineering societies, and in 1883 was president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. LEAVITT, lev’it, Joshua, American editor: b.. Heath, Mass., 8 Sept..1794; d. Brooklyn, N. Y., 16 Jan. 1873. He was graduated at Yale College in 1814 and. was. admitted to the bar in 1819. In 1825 he graduated at Yale Divinity School and in 1831 became editor of the New York Evangelist. He was an active member of American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833, and from 1837 to 1840 was editor of the society’s journal, The Emancipator.. He was an active promoter of the “Liberty”’ and “Free Soil” parties. In 1848 he became one of the editors of the Independent, retaining a position here until his death. He compiled ‘The Christian Lyre? (1834). - LEAVITT, Mary Greenleaf Clement, American temperance advocate: b. Hopkinton, N. H., 22 Sept. 1830; d. 5 Feb. 1912. She was graduated at the West Newton State Normal School in 1851, and in 1857 was married to Thomas H. Leavitt. She taught in various district and grammar schools and in 1867-81 conducted a private school for young ladies ~ and children. She was one of the organizers of the Boston Women’s Christian Temperance Union, was a member of ‘the state board of executives and later was national lecturer. In 1883-91 she was secretary of the world’s W. C. T. U. and traveled in Europe, Australia, Asia, Africa, South America and many islands, es- tablishing branches of that organization. She became honorary life president of the world’s W. C. T. VU. in 1891. . She was a contributor of temperance and purity articles, stories and verse to the periodical press. LEBAND, 1é’band, John, English Non-con- formist divine: b. Wigan, Lancashire, 18 Oct. 1691; d. Dublin, 16 Jan. 1766. He was ap- pointed assistant of the Presbyterian congre- gation in New Row, Dublin, in 1716 and later became pastor, remaining there all his life. He is famous for his writings in connection with 205 the deistic movement of the 18th century, which, while by many considered common- place, are of unquestioned importance in the literature of that era. Author of ‘A Defence of Christianity» (1733), a reply to Matthew Tindall’s ‘Christianity as Old as Creation? ; ‘Divine Authority of the Old and.New Testa- ments Asserted? (1738), in reply to Thomas Morgan’s ‘The Moral Philosopher’; ‘Remarks on [H. Dodwell’s] Christianity not founded on Argument? (2 vols., 1741); his most important . work is ‘View of the Principal Deistical Writers that have appeared in England? (1754-56) ; “Discourses on various Subjects, with a ‘Life? prefixed (4 vols., 1768-89). LEBANON, éb’a-non, Ind., city and county-seat of Boone County, on the Central Indiana Railway and the Cleveland, Chicago, - Cincinnati and Saint Louis railroads, about 30 miles northwest of Indianapolis. The first permanent settlement was made in 1824, and the city was chartered in 1875. Its chief in- dustrial establishments are grain elevators, a furniture factory, cabinet factory, separator factory, wheel works, mitten factory, condensed milk plant and canning. plant. The govern- ment is vested in a mayor, whose term of office is four years, and a council. The waterworks are owned and operated by the city. Pop. (1920) 6,257. LEBANON, Ky., city, county-seat of Marion .County, on the Louisville and Nash- ville Railroad, about 52 miles southwest of Lexington, the capital of the State, and. 70 miles south of Louisville. It is situated in an agricultural region, and is the trade centre for an extensive section. The chief manufactures are flour, meal, furniture, wagons and. car- riages, wheels and hardwood flooring. There are also several tobacco warehouses. A large amount of livestock is shipped from Lebanon. It is the seat of Saint Augustine’s Academy. under the auspices ot the Roman Catholic Church, and of a public and parish high school and good graded schools. . Several churches and the city and county buildings are among the prominent buildings. The city owns and operates the waterworks, Pop. (1929) 3,239. LEBANON, Mo., city, county-seat of Leclede County, on the Saint Louis and San Francisco. Railroad, about 55 miles northeast of Springfield. It is situated in an agricul- tural, fruit growing, dairying and stock raising region and is the trade centre for a large ex- tent of country. Its chief manufactures are flour, machine-shop products, ice, barrels, lum- ber, bricks and dairy products. Its trade is principally in the manufactured products, live- stock, fruit, hay and vegetables. The city, though small, is a well-known health resort because of its mineral springs. The water- works and electric-light plant’: are the property of the municipality. Pop. (1920) 2,848, LEBANON, N. H., town, one of the county- seats. of .Grafton County, on the. Mascoma River, a few miles from its junction with the Connecticut River, and on. the Boston and Maine Railroad. It is. about 68 miles north- west of Concord, the capital of the State. It was settled about 1762, by people from the vicinity of Lebanon, Conn., who named their 206 new home after the Connecticut town. It is situated in an agricultural region, but the ex- tensive water power supplied ‘by the Mascoma River has made it an important manufacturing town. The chief manufactures are woolen goods, machinery, agricultural implements, wooden ware, men’s clothing, sash, doors and blinds, snow-shovels, flour, dairy products and lumber. It has large brickyards. Over 1,500 persons are employed in the manufac- tories. The annual town meeting is still the governing power. Pop. (1920) 6,162. LEBANON, Ohio, village, county-seat of Warren County, on the Dayton, Lebanon and Cincinnati and the Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern railroads, about 73 miles southwest - of Columbus, 30 miles northeast of Cincinnati and 22 miles south of Dayton. It was laid out as a village in 1802. It is situated in an agri- cultural region and its industries are connected with farm products. It is the seat of the Lebanon University. It has a Carnegie public library containing about 10,000 volumes. There is one orphan asylum; also many beautiful residences. The village owns and operates the electric-light plant, the gas plant and the waterworks. Pop. (1920) 3,396. LEBANON, Pa., city, county-seat of Lebanon County, on the Cornwall and Leba- non and the Philadelphia and Reading rail- roads, about 66 miles northwest of Philadelphia and 23 miles northeast of MHarrisburg. Lebanon was settled as early as 1700 by Ger- man emigrants. The borough of Lebanon was laid out by George Steitz, in 1750, and was first called Steitztown. It was incorporated in 1820 and chartered as a city in 1885. It is situated in the Lebanon Valley, noted for the fertility of its soil; but the largest part of the wealth of the city comes from the quarries and mines of the vicinity. The Cornwall iron mines, about five miles distant from the city, the limestone and brownstone at the base of the mountains, the brick-clay, the iron ore, all contribute to the industrial wealth of Lebanon. Its chief industrial establishments are furnaces and foundries, rolling-mills, steel plants, machine shops, a very large nut and bolt works, chain works, silk factory, cigars and organs. The educational institutions are the public and parish schools, the Lebanon Business Col- lege, the School of Telegraphy, and four libra- ries. It has a large number of churches. Some of the prominent public buildings are the court- house, county-house and_ post-office. Pop. (1920) 24,643. LEBANON, Tenn., city, county-seat of Wilson County, on the Nashville, Chattanooga and Saint Louis and the Tennessee Central railroads, about 35 miles east of Nashville. It is. situated in an agricultural region, and its trade and industries are connected with farm- ing products. Its chief manufacture is that of cedar pencils. It ships large quantities of hay, butter and poultry. It is the seat of Castle Heights Training School, of Lebanon College for Young Women. and of Cumberland University, founded in 1842 by the Cumberland Presbyterians. The city has adopted the com- mission form of government and owns the waterworks and electric-light plants. Pop. (1920) 4,084. LEBANON — LEBANON SPRINGS LEBANON, Cedars of. See CrEpar. LEBANON, Mountains of, Syria, two nearly parallel. mountain ranges which, com- mencing at about lat. 34° 25’ N., stretch south- southwest toward Palestine, enclosing between them a valley about 70 miles long by 15 miles wide, now -simply distinguished by the name of El-Bukaa, “the valley,» but known anciently by the name of Ccelé-Syria (hollow Syria). To distinguish the two ranges that on the west is called Lebanon, and that on the east Anti- Lebanon; the Arabs, call the.former Jebel- Libnan, and the latter Jebel-esh-Shurky. Lebanon, which runs almost parallel to the Mediterranean coast, and at no great distance from it, may be considered as terminating near the coast, a little north of the mouth of the Litani, between Tyre and Sidon. It is the loftier range of the two, and presents almost a continuous ridge without any marked break. Its loftiest summit — Dhor-el-Khodih, in the north, has a height as given by barometer of 10,060 feet. Anti-Lebanon has a much lower average height, and the culminating point of this chain, Herman, has.a height of 9,200 feet. The prevailing rock of Lebanon is limestone, of a whitish color, and from this its name, which means “white, is supposed to be derived, though others ascribe it to the snows. which cover it. There are iron and coal deposits, red amber and asphalt. The loftiest summits of Lebanon, presenting lofty precipices and wild narrow gorges, are almost absolutely barren; but at some distance below, vegetation makes its appearance, the pastures become verdant, and, by means of artificial terraces, cultivation is successfully carried on upon rugged slopes where it would otherwise be im- possible. The southern part of the valley is drained by the river Litany (Leontes), which has cut through the Lebanon a most beautiful gorge. A narrow gauge railway now runs through the Lebanon to Beirut. The inhabit- able districts are occupied toward the north by the Maronite Christians, a hardy and in- dustrious race, and toward the south by the warlike Druses. Numerous villages and con- vents are to be seen on the sides and summits of the cliffs. The forests of cedar for which Lebanon was anciently celebrated are repre- sented by a few groves on Lebanon, there being none now on Anti-Lebanon. (See Cerpar). The other prevailing forest trees are firs and oaks. The silkworm and the vine are largely cultivated, and olive, fig and mulberry trees abound. Considerable numbers of wild beasts, as the jackal, hyena, wolf, bear and' panther, in- habit the glens and higher peaks. Since the massacre of the Christians in 1860, which was followed by French intervention, the Sanjak of Lebanon has been under a Christian goy- ernor, nominated by the Sultan subject to the approval of the Great Powers. Pop. about * 400,000: 230,000 Maronites, 50,000 Druses and 30,000 of Moslem faith. LEBANON SPRINGS, N. Y., village, in the township of New Lebanon, Columbia County, on the Rutland Railroad, about 25 miles southeast of Albany. It is in a fertile agricultural. region, and is a favorite health resort because, of its. mineral springs. A com- munity of Shakers (q.v.) who live in the vil- lage and vicinity make brooms and baskets LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE — LEBLANC and cultivate extensive gardens. They sell considerable garden seed. See NEw LEBANON. LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE, a co- educational institution, founded, in 1867, at Annville, Pa., 20 miles from Harrisburg. It is under ‘the auspices of the United Brethren. The college has five courses which lead to the degree of bachelor of arts; and normal, art, music, oratory and preparatory departments. In 1916 there were connected with the school 25 professors and instructors, and 360 students. The college consists of seven buildings, a campus and an athletic field. There are up- ward of 10,000 volumes in the college library. The plant and grounds are valued at $293,000, the endowment $75,000, and the gross income is about $52,000. LEBEL, le’bél, Nicolas, French soldier and inventor: b. Angers, 18 Aug. ‘1835; d. Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine, 6 June 1891. He entered the Military School of Saint Cyr in 1855, served as captain in the northern army dur- ing the campaign of 1870, and ‘became director of the Musketry School at Tours, and in 1883 at Chalons. The same year he was appointed member of the commission on securing an im- proved rifle for the infantry. The commis- sion decided in favor of the small-bore rifle offered ‘by Lebel, and known as the “fusil Lebel,» which was introduced into the French army in 1886. He was present as colonel at the battle of Sedan, but sickness cut short ‘his military career, and in 1890 he was placed on the retired list. 'LEBENSOHBHN, [a‘bén-son, Abraham Bar (pseud. ApaAm), Russian Hebrew poet and grammarian: b. Vilna, Russia, about 1789; d. there, 19 Noy. 1878. He was educated as a Talmudist, became interested in Hebrew gram- © mar at 11; and at 13, in accordance with the prevailing custom, he was married. He lived with his wife’s people the ensuing eight. years, engaged in teaching and pursuing his studies. He conducted a brokerage business for about 15 years, and spent the remainder of his life in teaching. In 1848-64 he was on the teach- ing staff of the Vilna Rabbinical School. He early established a reputation as a Hebrew poet and his first volume of verse ‘Shire Sefat Kodesh? (1842) was received with enthusiasm as marking an epoch in Neo-Hebrew literature. His ‘was the first work of the new literature to rank with similar literature in western Europe and he achieved a high reputation in the centres of Hebrew learning. He was a rabbinical scholar of note and through his liberal tendencies became known as a leader of the new Judaism. He prepared an article on the condition of the Jews in Russia for presentation to Sir Moses Montefiore on his visit to Russia in 1846 in which he charged the Jews with responsibility for their own troubles, blaming their general ignorance, their lack of skills) as’ artisans, juvenile marriages, the ignorance of the rabbis and teachers, and ex- travagance for their condition. His remedy was that’ of governmental intervention. He collaborated with Benjacob in the preparation of a 17-volume edition of the Bible with a translation into German (1848-53). A second volume of his poems was published in 1856 and the third in 1869. He was author of a com- mentary on Benshew’s ‘Hebrew Grammar’? 207 (1874); an allegorical drama ‘Truth and Faith? (1867) ; ‘Poems in the Sacred Tongue, a complete edition of his verse (3 vols., 1895): LEBENSOHN, Micah Joseph, Russian Hebrew poet, son of Abraham Bar Lebensohn (q.v.);..b. Vilna, Russia,, 22 Feb....1828; . d. there, 17 Feb. 1852. He received a modern education, supplemented, by . his. father’s teachings and a course in philosophy under Schelling at Berlin. He made translations of — Hebrew songs when very young and engaged in-the writing of original verse at 16. _ His life and work were shadowed by the contraction of tuberculosis, which caused his death at 24. He produced verse which ranks above that of his father in beauty and pathos and in felicity and strength of composition, and is generally re- garded as one of the, most notable Hebrew poets. Among his translations is that .of Schiller’s version of ‘The Destruction of Troy»? from the ‘#neid? (1849). Author of ‘Songs of the: Daughter of Zion? .(1851); ‘The Harp of the Daughter of Zion) (1870). A complete edition of his works was published in 1895, and translations of his. verse have ap- peared in French, Russian ‘and German. LEBERT, la’bért, Hermann, German phy- Sician:, ‘b. Breslau, 9 June 18135; d: Bex, Canton Waadt, Switzerland, 1 Aug. 1878. He studied medicine. at. the universities of Berlin, Zurich and Paris,.and in. 1836 engaged | practice at Bex. He spent the winters of 1842 in Parts, studying comparative, anatomy, lived in Berlin the winter of 1845-46 and settled in Paris in 1846, He was professor of medi- cine at Ztirich in 1853-59 and at Breslau in 1859-74. He specialized in microscopic anat- omy, adding appreciably to the knowledge of pathology and biology. He conducted a series of special investigations in. the progress of cancer, tuberculosis and scrofula: . Author. of ‘Physiologie Pathologique? | (1845) ;. ‘Traité Practique des Maladies Scrofuleuses. et Tuber- tuleuses>:,;; (1849) ;,..;.*Traité.:.Practique,, des Maladies Cancéreuses? (1851) ;. ‘Handbuch der Allegemeinen Pathologie und. Therapie? (1865); ‘Die. Krankheiten. des Magens? (1878), ete. LEBERT, Siegmund, German music teacher: b. Ludwigsburg, Wiirttemberg, 12 Dec. 1822; d. Stuttgart, 8 Dec. 1884. He was educated in music at Prague and became a pianist and teacher of music in Munich. In 1856 he, together with Faiszt, Bachmann, Laiblin, Stark’ and Speidel, founded the Stutt- gart Conservatory... While his methods have been superseded as unnecessarily laborious, he numbered many distinguished musicians among his pupils. He received an honorary Ph.D. from the University of Tiibingen and the title of professor from the king of Wurttemberg. Together with his colleagues of the conserva- tory he published an edition of pianoforte classics; and with Stark’~he was author of “Grosse Klavierschule> which went through many editions and was translated into English, French, Italian and Russian.. He was ‘also co- editor with Stark of Clementi’s. ‘Gradus ad Parnassum.? ) LEBLANC, le’blan, Maurice, French novel- ist: b. 1864. He is a brother of Georgette Leblanc (Mrs. Maurice Maeterlinck). He be- 208 gan his career as a writer of novels and scored his. first great success in 1906 when he began writing detective stories. His principal char- acter, Arséne Lupin, enjoys.a.fame equaled only by that of Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes in the field of detective stories, and his work has attained an even greater success than that of’ Emile Gaboriau, his predecessor in this field. His skill in handling his material has caused him to be compared with Flaubert and de Maupassant. He is a chevalier of the Legion of Honor. All of his later works have been translated into English and have. enjoyed a wide vogue on both sides of the Atlantic. Author of ‘Une Femme? (1893); ‘L’CEuvre de la mort»? (1896); ‘Arnelle et Claude? (1897); “Gueule-rouge-80 chevaux? (1904) ; €Arséne ‘Lupin? (1907); ‘Arséne Lupin contre Sherlock Holmes? (1908); ‘Nouvelles aven- tures Arsene Lupin? (1910); ‘Le bouchon de cristal? ~(1912); ‘La. Confession d’Arséne Lupin? (1913); “Teeth of the Tiger? (1914); “Woman of Mystery? (1916); ‘Golden Tri- angle? (1917), etc. -LLEBLANC,. Nicolas, French chemist: b. Issoudun,; department of Indre, 1742; d. Saint Denis, 16 Jan. 1806. He studied medicine, was appointed surgeon to the Duke of Orleans and, after the Revolution, administrator of the de- partment of the Seine. His name is associated with the process of converting common salt into carbonate of soda, a matter to which he turned his atterition in 1786, after the Academy had offered a prize of 2,500 livres for the dis- covery. His first endeavors did not yield a decisive result; but led to an accidental dis- covery by Dizé, an assistant of Jean Darcet (q.v.) at the College of France, through which success was attained. Prior to this time soda was obtained from natural deposits and the ashes of marine plants, the supply of which had become insufficient. With the Duke of Orleans and another, Leblanc and Dizé formed a part- nership and began to make soda. The Revolu- tion wrecked their enterprise. Despite his pat- ent for 15 years, secured in 1791, Leblanc was compelled by the committee of public safety to disclose the secret of the process, and the manufacture became open to all. After years of poverty and fruitless efforts for redress, he committed suicide. -The discovery of the essen- tial. features of the process was assigned to him. in 1855 by a commission of the Academy, although the claim of Dizé was. strongly ad- vocated. .As to the value-of the process itself there. is no doubt. It has made soda cheap, thereby facilitating the manufacture of soap, the cleansing and bleaching of ‘cloth, etc.; has promoted. the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and thereby the utilization of metallic. sul- phides; and has originated the manufacture of chlorine and of bleaching-powder. The Leblanc soda-process is still in extensive use, but is now dependent more on its by-products than on its output of soda One-half of the world’s,soda is now made by. the ammonia-soda or Solvay process. See Sopa. LEBON, 1lébon’, Felix Frédéric Georges, French general and tactician: b. Paris, 1845; d. 1907. He was educated at the Ecole Poly- technique and the Ecole d’Application, de l’Ar- tillerie et du Génie, and was#a lieutenant in the Franco-Prussian. War. He was’ promoted LEBLANC — LEBRUN regularly, receiving rank as general of division in 1902, and was. generally recognized as an authority ,on artillery. tactics. He became a member of the superior council of war in 1907. He was .a Commander of, the Legion of Honor and was the recipient of many foreign decora- tions. Besides writing numerous articles on artillery tactics and the use of explosives, he collaborated on the Revue dartillerie. sate -LEBRET, lé-bra’; Georges, French poli- tician: b. Etampes,. 1853. He received his LL.D, at Paris and in 1879 was commissioned by the Minister of Public Instruction to inves- tigate and make a report on leases and ‘on agricultural laws and customs in)» England and Scotland. He was professor of civil and crim- inal law at the University of Caen in 1885-91, and was then appointed professor of*financial legislation there. He served in the House of Deputies in 1893-1902, and in 1898-99 he: was Minister. of Justice... In 1902 he returned to Caen as professor of civil law. He edited the Revue critique de legislation et de jurispru- dence and was a recognized authority in its field. Author of ‘Etude sur la propriété fon- ciére en Angleterre? (1882) cleo LEBRIJA, 1a-bré’ha, Spain, city in ‘the province of. Seville, 44: miles southwest ‘of Seville, on the left bank: of the Guadalquivir and the eastern border of marshes: calléd “Las Marismas, and on» the Seville-Cadiz Railway. It has a ruined Moorish’ castle and a church which was originally a mosque, and which’ ex- ~- hibits a combination of Moorish, Gothic and Roman architecture. There. are deposits. of clay which supply manufactures of bricks, tiles and earthenware, and the city has a trade in. stock and country produce, Lebrija was set- . tled by the Greeks and is the Roman Nabrissa or Nebrissa. It was a flourishing town under the Moorish domination and was captured by Saint Ferdinand in 1249, but was lost. It re- mained Christian under the Castilian crown from the time of its capture by Andrew the Wise in 1264.. It was the birthplace of Elio Antonio de Lebrija or Nebrija (1444-1522), known also as Nebrissensis, tutor of Queen Isabella and a leader of the revival of learning in Spain, who assisted Cardinal Ximenes in compiling the “Complutensian Polyglot Bible.? Pop. 11,506. . e LEBRUN, lé-briin, Charles, French painter: b.. Paris, 24 Feb. 1619; d. there, 12. Feb.. 1690. He was the son of a sculptor, but early turned his attention to painting and became the pupil of P. Perrier and. S. Vouet. He was especially attracted by the Italian masters, examples of which he copied in the gallery at Fontainebleau so that-in his 15th year his works won the patronage of. Cardinal Richelieu. Chancellor Seguier provided means for him to visit Rome, and during his residence there (1642-46) he studied under Poussin, at the same time paying much attention to the antique and the paint- ings of ‘the early masters. In 1646 he-returned to France and assisted in founding the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, in which -he was successively professor, chancellor and in 1683. director. He was also director of the Gobelin tapestry manufactory. In 1662 Louis XIV appointed him court painter, ennobled him and made him curator of his art collections. He was meanwhile engaged in decorating the LEBRUN — LECHEVALIER ‘Apollo Gallery in the Louvre. In 1668 the king appointed him superintendent of works in the building of Saint Germain. He also decorated with paintings the royal chateau at Sceaux and designed the statues and. fountains for the park, etc. In 1679 he undertook his greatest work, the interior decoration of the palace at Versailles, and in the Great Gallery portrayed the achievements of Louis XIV. Very many paintings of his are still to be seen in the Louvre. His works are characterized by abun- dant invention and facility of execution; they reflect the spirit of the contemporary Italian school, but are marred by excessive straining after effect, flatness of design and falsity of color tone. His vast canvas, ‘Portrait of the Banker Jabech of Cologne and Family, is in the Berlin Museum. He exercised a despotic influence over the French art of his time. He wrote ‘Traité sur la physiognomie? and “Methode pour apprendre a dessiner les pas- sions.” ‘Consult Generay, ‘Le Style Louis XIV? (1885), and Jovin, ‘Charles Lebrun, et les arts sous Louis XIV? (1890). LEBRUN, Charles Francois, Duc be Pia- CENZA, French administrator: b. Saint Sauveur- Landelin, 19 March 1739;.d. near Dourdan, 16 June. 1824. .He was appointed inspector of Crown-lands, later entered .the States-General and the Constituent Assembly, was appointed governor of Seine-et-Oise in 1791, sat in the Council. of Five Hundred, of which he was chosen president, and was made third consul by Bonaparte for services on the 18th Brumaire. In 1807 the reorganized the administration of the exchequer, and after a long retirement re- entered public life as governor of Holland in 1810. He translated the ‘Iliad,’ the ‘Odyssey’ and the ‘Jerusalem Delivered.» Consult his ‘Memoirs’? (1829). LEBRUN, Marie Louise Elisabeth, French painter: b. Paris, 16 April 1755; d. there, 30 March 1842. She was trained under Doyen, Joseph Vernet and Greutze, and chose portrait painting as her specialty. She left a great num- ber of portraits in oil and pastel. About 600 are identified as her works of which the most important are her portrait of herself with her little daughter (in the Louvre) ; her portrait of herself in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence; Marie Antoinette with her three children (in the museum at Versailles). In 1783 she was elected a member of the Academy. During the French Revolution she took refuge in the va- rious European capitals, where she painted por- traits of the reigning princes and members. of their families, as well as of the most famous people of the time. Few works of hers are to be met with except in private collections. She published ‘Souvenirs de ma vie? (Paris 1837). LEBRUN, Ponce Denis Ecouchard, called LEBRUN-PINDAR, French poet: b. Paris, 11 Aug. 1729; d. there, 1807. His title “Pindar” is due to the form and the mythological allu- sions of his odes, not to any great poetical merit, | either in them or the lyrics, and as a satirist he alternately groveled before and libeled the same men. His best odes are addressed to Buffon. He excelled in the composition of madrigals and epigrams; the latter relate for the most part to his quarrels with other authors. LECCE, 1ét’cha, ancient Lycita, or LuptA, ‘scuthern Italy. The town is situated in the VOL, 17—14 Baptiste, 200 province of Lecce, on a plain between the Adriatic on the north, the Gulf of Taranto on the west and the Ionian Sea on the south. It has many interesting edifices, especially churches and convents, some of which contain admirable works of art. At the gate of Saint Biagio is a triumphal arch erected in commemoration of the entrance of Charles V. There is a public library and there are well-established day and evening schools and numerous charitable in- stitutions, It is the centre of a productive agri-. cultural district, and has potteries, wool and soap and important tobacco industry. Lecce was very flourishing during the Roman period, escaped the barbarians:and in 1000 a.p. was governed by its own counts. Pop. 36,200. LECCO, lék’ko, Italy, capital city of the province of Como, at the exit of the Adda from the Lake of Lecco, the southeastern arm of Lake Como, 16 miles northeast of Como and 32 miles by rail north of Milan. The city is reached by steamer from Como and is 673 feet above sea-level. There is a medizval stone bridge over the Adda at this point, built orig- inally in 1335 and renewed in 1609. While an ancient town, Lecco is modern in its buildings. It is noted for its excellent schools, and pos- sesses a modern hospital, public library and similar institutions. It has been described in Alessandro Manzoni’s ‘Promessi Sposi,? and a statue has been erected to the author by the city. There are manufactures of silk and cot- ton stuffs, wax-candles, iron and copper works, brass foundries, olive-oil mills and wood-carv- ing. The town was presented to the bishops of Como in the 11th century, came into’ the pos- session of the archbishops of Milan in the 12th century and in the 13th century it was de- stroyed by the Visconti. In the 14th century it was fortified and the famous bridge across the Adda was built to unite it with Milanese terri- tery. It was made a countship in 1647. Pop. 12,146. LECCO, Lake of (It. Lago di Lecco), the name given to the southeastern arm of Lake Como in Italy. Some of the large streams of the northern part of Italy flow into Lake Lecco. The town of Lecco and many pretty villages are on its shores. LECH, léh, a river which has its rise in the Alps, in Vorarlberg, Switzerland, at an altitude of over 6,000 feet, flows east and north until it enters Bavaria, after which its course is almost directly north to Donauworth where it unites with the Danube. Its length is 129 miles. It is not a navigable stream, but it has extensive water power. On this. river, near Rain, about five miles below Donauworth, Tilly was defeated and killed, 5 April 1632, by a Swedish force under Gustavus Adolphus. LECHE, lé-ché, in zoology, the Onotragus leche, from South Africa. It is a water ante- lope, frequenting damp, marshy places and tak- ing to impassable swamps. It goes in consider- able herds, and may be known by the peculiar way in which it allows its horns to recline, al- most touching the withers. LECHEVALIER, _ 1é-shé-val’ya’, Jean French classical archeologist: b. Trelly, Normandy, 1° July 1752; d. Paris, 2 July 1836. He was educated for the priesthood, but in 1784 he became secretary to the Comte 210 de Choiseul-Gouffier whom he assisted ‘in archeological researches in the plains of Troy in 1784-86. During the Revolution he traveled in England, Germany, Denmark, Holland, Sweden and Russia, and after his return to France he was, in 1808, appointetl director of the Library of Saint Genevieve: He believed that the site of Troy was on the hills above Bunarbashi, and he also maintained that the ‘liad? and the ‘Odyssey? were written by Ulysses. Author of ‘Voyage de la Troade (1800; Eng. trans. by Dalzel,. “Description of the Plains of Troy’); ‘Ulysse-Homére ou du veritable auteur de I’Iliade et de l’Odyssée? (1829), etc. LECHFELD, lék’feélt, Bavaria, extensive stony plain south of Augsburg on the west bank of the river Lech. It was the scene of a de- cisive victory by the forces of Otto II over those of the Hungarians, 10 Aug. 955, resulting in the cessation of the Hungarian forays into Bavarian territory. sae LECHFORD, Thomas, American colonial lawyer: d. about 1645. He came to the Massa- chusetts Bay Colony in 1638 and was the earliest. lawyer in Boston. He was regarded with great suspicion by the colonial authorities on account of his profession and the nature of his religious opinions, and he found extreme difficulty in making a living. He, therefore, in 1641, returned to England, where his book, Plain Dealing, or News from New England,’ was printed in 1642. It is a valuable source of information respecting details of early colonial life, and in 1644 was reprinted with the: new title, “New England’s Advice to Old England. A modern edition, annotated by J. H. Trum- bull (q.v.), appeared in 1867. LECITHIN, lé-ci-thin, in chemistry, a name applied to several phosphoretted fatty bodies, of very similar chemical and physical properties, derived from brain substance, nerves, blood, gall, the yelk of eggs, etc., and also from some vegetable substances (maize, etc.), and which appear as constant constituents of the cell substance of organized bodies. They are viscous bodies, insoluble in water, slightly soluble in cold alcohol, but very soluble in boil- ing alcohol and in ether. From their saturated solution in alcohol they crystallize in radially- grouped needles, which dry up in vacuo to a white powder. They may also be crystallized from glacial acetic acid. - Every lecithin is a fat containing only two fatty acid radicals, the third hydroxyl group being replaced by neurine in combination with phosphoric acid. The structural formula is — O——_——-C.H; “he \ nS a Se ca HO Stan CH:OR’ where Rand R’ are acyl radicals. LECKY, 1Jék’i, William Edward Hart- pole, English historian: b. Newton Park, near Dublin, 26 March 1838; d. London, 23 Oct. 1903. LECHFELD — LECLAIRE He was educated at Cheltenham: College and at Trinity College, Dublin, whence he was graduated in 1859, and in 1860 published anony- mously his first work, ‘The Religious Ten- dencies of the Age? (1860), followed in 1861 by ‘Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland? dealing with Swift, Flood, Grattan and O’Con- nell, which appeared under his name in a new edition in 1871. An important ‘History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe? followed in 1861-65 and ensured him wide reputation as scholar and thinker. His ‘History of European Morals from Au- gustus to Charlemagne? (1869) displayed a profound knowledge though its. conclusions were not always sound. His most elaborate and valuable, work is a ‘History of England in the Eighteenth Century? (Vols. I-II, 1878; ITI-IV, 1882; V-VI, 1887; VII-VIII, 1890), in which he treats very ‘fully of Irish affairs to the time of the Addington Ministry. In a new edition of this history, published in 12 volumes in 1893, the chapters on Ireland were removed from their original context and arranged in a continuous narrative occupying the last five vol- umes. This work is in reality a history of civilization for the period covered; treating of the forces contributing to the making of the 19th century England, whether of native or of foreign origin.. Lecky’s other ‘works ‘are ‘Poems? (1891); ‘Democracy and ‘Liberty (1896), in which he arraigns modern British political life, and makes some comments upon Gladstone which once aroused considerable dis- cussion; and “The Map of Life: Conduct and Character? (1899); ‘The French Revolution? (1904); ‘Historical and Political Essays? (1908). In 1895 he was elected to the House of - Commons as member for the University of Dublin, and in 1897 was sworn of the Privy Council. In politics’ he was at first a Liberal and from 1886 a Liberal-Unionist with an un- disguised aversion to democratic government. He became corresponding member of the In- stitute of France in 1894, and an honorary mem- ber of the Royal English Academy upon its organization. A biographical memoir was pub- lished by his wife (London 1909). Consult also Rhodes, J. F., ‘William Edward Hartpole ORT (in ‘Historical Essays,» New York 1 ; LECLAIRE, Edmé-Jean, éd-ma-zhon le- klar, French social. scientist: |b. Aisy-sur- Armangon, 14 May 1801; d. Herblay, 10 Aug. 1872. At first a farm-worker, then apprentice to a mason, he afterward apprenticed himself to a house-painter in Paris, and in 1827 began the painting business on his own account. He proved remarkably successful, and scon took a leading position in his:trade. . In 1835, the prin- ciple of profit-sharing (q:v:) was proposed: to him and in 1842 he began to put it in practice in his own establishment, dividing the amount available in. sums proportioned to yearly wages. A mutual-aid society which he formed in. 1838 and reorganized in 1853 sustained itself from the latter year on the profits which were shared among the members: In 1864 the right to a ~ division of the funds of the society was super- seded by a system of retiring pensions. —Le- claire was elected maitre of Herblay in 1865. In the company which he founded his plan of LECLERC —LECOMPTON CONSTITUTION distribution is still adhered to with continued success. LECLERC, lé-klar, Charles Victor Em- manuel, French general: b. Pontoise, 17 March 1772; d. San Domingo, 2 Nov. 1802. He entered the cavalry service in 1791 and was aide-de-camp to General Lapoype. At the siege of Toulon he won the interest of. Napoleon, who thereafter held him in high regard. Leclerc accompanied Napoleon as his adjutant in the Italian campaign of 1796, and in 1797 he was married to Napoleon’s sister Pauline. He served in the Egyptian campaign, receiving rank as general of division, and he afterward was engaged at Fleurus and Hohenlinden. He was placed in command of the expedition against Toussaint Ouverture in 1801 and suc- ceeded in securing the surrender of the negro governor and his forces, but himself fell a victim to yellow fever and died in San Domingo. LECOCQ, 1é-k6k, Alexander Charles, French composer: b. Paris, 3 June 1832; d. 1 March 1911. He received his musical education in the Conservatory of the capital, under Bazin and Halévy, and the earliest of his operas, to appear was ‘Le docteur miracle,’ which had won the first Offenbach prize. His operetta ‘Fleur de Thé gained him the widest recogni- tion. In this as in his later productions he fol- lowed the advice he had received from Offen- bach, that the operetta should be elevated into a work of art. His principal operettas are ‘Les jumeaux de Bergame? (1868); ‘Gandolfo? (1869) ; “Le beau Dunois? (1870) ; ‘La fille de Madame Angot? (1872) ; “Giroflé Girofla? (1874); ‘La petite Mariée? (1875); ‘Kosiki (1876); ‘Le dompteur? (1877); ‘Le petit duc? (1878); ‘La, “Rousette (1881) : ‘Plutus? (1886), etc. They are 42 in number, and have attained the most remarkable popularity in France and elsewhere. LECOINTE, lé-kwant’, Georges, Belgian naval officer and scientist: b. Antwerp, 1869. He was captain of the Belgica in the Belgian Antarctic expedition of 1897-99, ranking as second in command, and later published valua- ble reports of the undertaking. He was in- strumental in the organization of the Interna- tional Polar Commission which met at Brussels in 1908, and from 1900 he was scientific director of. Belgian Royal Observatory. Author of ‘La création d’une marine nationale belge>? (1897) ; ‘La navigation astronomique et la navigation estimée? (1897); ‘Au pays des Manchots? (1904) ; “Mesures Pendulaires? (1907), etc. LECOMPTON, lé-kémp’ton, Kan., city in Douglas County, on the Kansas River, and on ‘the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Rail- road, about 15 miles east of Topeka. It was settled in 1854 by sympathizers with the slavery side of the question which was then before the people, in relation to the admission of new States. Lecompton was the headquarters of the pro-slavery men, and it was here that the Le- compton Constitution (q.v.) was framed, in the fall, of 1857.. Until 1903 it was, the seat. of Lane University, founded here in 1865. The place was named in honor of Judge S. D. Le- comte, one of the early workers in Kansas. The electric-light plant is she CORORREES of the municipality. Pop. (1920) 310 211 LECOMPTON CONSTITUTION, in Kansas history a form of territorial govern- ment, adopted by a convention held at Lecomp- ton, Kan., in 1857, the legality of which in both form and action became a matter of dispute and caused national. discussion and \Congres- sional action. For several years prior to 1857 the slave question had agitated the territory, and numerous bloody quarrels between the Free State settlers and the Missourians who came across the border into Kansas added fuel to the strife. In June 1857 the territorial legis- lature, composed entirely of pro-slavery men, chosen at an election at which the Free-State men had declined to participate on the ground of its illegality, met at Lecompton, and among other acts passed one providing for the election of a convention to frame a State constitution for Kansas. Meanwhile Congress. had passed a bill declaring void all the enactments of the Kansas legislature on the ground that they were cruel and oppressive. The election. for dele- gates to the constitutional convention was held 15 June, but the Free-State men took no part in it. Only 2,000 votes were cast, while the legal voters in the Territory numbered 10,000. The constitutional convention met at Lecompton in November and adopted a constitution, four sections of which related to slavery, declaring the rights of owners to their slaves to be in- violable and prohibiting the legislature from passing acts of emancipation. ‘This provision alone was to be submitted to the people at an election to be held 21 December. The ballots cast were to be ‘endorsed: “Constitution with slavery,» or “Constitution with no slavery,” thus securing in any event the adoption of a constitution, several clauses of which, besides those submitted, were highly objectionable to a majority of the people. A provision was in- serted preventing any amendment to the con- stitution previous to 1864. The promulgation of this ‘constitution caused great excitement in Kansas. At the election 21 December the vote re- turned was 6,143, more than one-half of which was from the counties along the Missouri border, whose total number of voters by the census did not exceed 1,000. Against the slavery clause there were but 569 votes, the Free-State men generally abstaining from voting. The constitution being thus nominally adopted, an election for officers under it was to be held 4 January. Ata special session the legislature passed an act submitting the Le- compton constitution to the direct vote of the . people on the same day with the State election, and the result was 10,226 votes against it. Con- egress after a long discussion referred the matter to the people of Kansas at an election on 3 Aug. 1858, when the Lecompton constitution was again rejected by 10,000 majority. Mean- while the territorial legislature had called an- other convention to meet in April to frame a new constitution, which was submitted to the people and ratified by a large majority, though by a’small total vote. The territorial legislature metin January 1859 and passed an act submitting to the, people the question of calling still an- other constitutional convention. Delegates were elected, and at a convention which met from: 5 July to 27 July. a constitution was finally adopted. which prohibited slavery. This was 212 ratified by a majority of 4,000 at the election 4 October, and the slavery question was at last settled and Kansas was admitted to: the Union as a State, 29 Jan. 1861. See also KANSAS; SLAVERY. LECOMTE, Paul Henri, French botanist: lb. Saint Nabord, Vosges, 8 Jan: 1856. He engaged in teaching botany and in 1906 be- came professor at the Museum of Natural His- tory. In 1897 he founded the Revue des Cul- tures Colomales, and for sometime served as its editor. He was author of several elemen- tary textbooks and ‘Les textiles végétaux des colonies? (1895); “Le cacao? (1897) ; ‘Le café? (1899) ; “Le coton en Egypte? (1904); ‘Ana- cardiares de l'Afrique occidentale? (1905); ‘Flore générale de Indo-China, etc. LECONTE DE LISLE, Charles Marie René, sharl ma-ré ré-na lé kont dé lel, French poet: b. Saint Paul, Ile de Bourbon (now Reée- union), 23 Oct. 1818; d. Louveciennes, 17 July 1894, When a young man he went to France, studied law at Rennes and after a course of travel settled in Paris. His progress was slow, but gradually he gathered a group of young writers, and expanded his own work, whereby he won recognition’ as leader of the modern Parnassian school of poetry. It’was some years before he found a publisher for ‘Poémes an- tiques? (1852), his first volume of real signifi- cance, but with ‘Poémes barbares? (1862) he gained an academic prize of 10,000 francs. In - 1884 he published ‘Poémes tragiques,» and in 1895 appeared “Derniers poémes,’ a posthumots volume containing also critiques on ‘his pre- cursors in lyric poetry. His hand gave its im- press to ‘Le Parnasse contemporain, a series of volumes published in 1866, 1869 and 1876, which is representative of his school, and in these some of his own most notable work was first seen. He also rendered valuable service to French literature by his superior transla- tions of the ‘Iliad? (1867); ‘Hesiod? (1869), the ‘Orphic Hymns? (1869); the ‘Odyssey? (1870) ; ‘Horace? (1873); ‘Sophocles? (1877) and ‘Euripides? (1885). In imitation of the Greek he wrote the dramas ‘Les Erinnyes? (1872) and ‘L’Apollonide,? based on the ‘Ton? of Euripides. His poetry embodies a philosophy of human life in which he sought to combine art with scientific principles and to weave in one poetic. fabric the mythical past with ideal visions yet to be realized by the race. In 1887 he was elected a member of the Academy. LECOT, 1é-k6, Victor Lucien Sulpice, CARDINAL, French Roman Catholic clergyman: b. Montescourt, 8 Jan. 1831; d. Chambery, 19 Dec. 1908. He was educated at the Petit Séminaire at Compiégne and at the Grand Séminaire. at Beauvais. He served as chap- lain in the French army in the Franco-Prus- sian War and in 1886 was consecrated bishop of. Dijon. He became archbishop of Bor- deaux in 1890 and cardinal priest of Santa Pudenziana in 1893. He protested against the Church Separation Law of 1901, but endeav- ored to persuade the Pope to sanction a com- promise, LECOUVREUR, | le- niche -rér, Adrienne, French actress: b. Damery, Champagne, 5 April 1692; d. Paris, 20° March 1730. Arriving at Paris in her 10th year she made her first theatrical venture three years later, and was LECOMTE — LECTIONARY immediately engaged for the theatre at Lille. For the following 10 years she was “on the road” as member of various traveling, com- panies, but in 1717 was called to the Comédie Frangaise, and made her début as Electra in Crebillon’s tragedy. Her simple and natural impersonation made a deep impression on the most fastidious of audiences, and from that time she played the role of most of the heroines in Corneille and Racine with such success that she was welcomed into the most aristocratic circles of the city and was drawn into corre- spondence with some of the most intellectual men and women of the day, among whom was Voltaire. During the last 10 years of her life she counted among her admirers Maurice of Saxony, Voltaire and Lord Peterborough. She perished by poison administered by the Du- chesse de Bouillon, a jealous rival. This dé- nouement is the subject of the play ‘Adrienne Lecouvreur,’ by Scribe and Legouvé. Consult Mouval, ‘Lettres d’Adrienne Lecouvreur? (1892). . . LECTERN, or LETTERN, the reading- desk or stand on which the larger books used in the services of a church are placed. The most ancient lecterns were made of wood, and elaborately carved. Modern ones have been Brass Lectern, Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, New York City. made of marble or ‘brass, very ornamental in design and of excellent execution. They are sometimes made in the form of an eagle, the outspread wings of which form the support for the volume. LECTIONARY (Lat. lBetionartudn), orig- inally a service-book of the church of the Middle Ages, so termed as it contained the les- © sons (lectiones) or passages of Scriptures, read in the church ‘service.’ The Roman Catholic Lectionary contained the epistles and gospels of the Roman missals, sometimes also all the Tes: sons of the various services in the Church, in which case it was termed the Plenarium. The LECTISTERNIUM — LECTURESHIPS most ancient known, the Gallican Lectionary, is believed to represent the rite of the ancient Gallican Church. It was published from a manuscript of the monastery of Luxeuil in 1685, by Mabillon (q.v.), who attributed it to the’ 7th century. It was written in Merovingian characters, it names the festival of Saint Gene- viéve, and assigns three lessons to each mass, in accordance with the ancient Gallican liturgy. In the Greek Church the lectionaries consist of lessons from the Gospels, from the Acts and Epistles. The Greek lectionary is called Syn- axarion (ovvavapio), and the oldest. synaxarion extant is that prefixed to the Codex Cyprius (K), a manuscript of the New Testament which belongs to the 8th century. The lectionary or calendar of the English Book of Common Prayer was first published in 1559, and contained two lessons, one from the Old Testament and one from the’ New for daily morning and evening prayer, and special lessons for Sundays and holidays. This lection- ary was adopted by the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States in 1789, but in 1883 the General Convention changed it by re- vision into the form which it now bears. In accordance with this assignment the Old Testa- ment is appointed to be read through in the course of public worship once a year; the New. Testament being read three times in the same period. LECTISTERNIUM, among the ancient Romans, a sacrifice of the nature of a feast offered to the gods, an evident survival of the idea common in early stages of religious development that divinities actually partook of the offerings presented to them. On occasions of extraordinary solemnity, or in. times of public calamity, the Greeks and Romans placed tables with food before images of the gods reclining on couches: According to Livy the first Roman lectisternium took place 354 Bc., when a terrible plague affected the cattle, These sacrificial feasts were of two kinds — ordinary, occurring almost daily, and. extraor- dinary, occurring at intervals, and lasting from three to eight days, or longer.. Consult Fowler, W. W., ‘Roman Festivals? (London 1899). LECTOR (reader), a minister of the church who reads the Bible, and other writings of a religious character, to the: people. The order of lectors is the second of the minor orders in the: Roman Catholic, the first in the Greek Church. The office’ is now merely looked upon as one of the steps to the priest- hood, and only in the office for Good Friday does the missal recognize the functions of the lector. Lectors were consecrated by prayers and sometimes by laying on of the hands for this office; the candidate must have completed the seventh year of his age. They are men- tioned by Justin Martyr in the 2d century, and appear’ to have been proper officers of the Church in the 3d century. The orders in the Roman Catholic Church are bishop, | priest, deacon, subdeacon, acolyte, exorcist, reader, ostiarius or doorkeeper See Orners, Hoty. LECTURESHIPS, Endowed. The lec- ture platform has provided many opportunities for extended influence and instruction. Recog- nizing their value, many lectureships are en- dowed, mainly, in connection with various edu- cational institutions. The income from the in- 213 vested funds is sufficient to pay the lecturer for his work and his expenses. Nearly all the educational institutions of England and Amer- ica have one or more such lectureships. There is another group of lectureships endowed with sufficient funds wherewith to publish the lec- tures, and thus make them of permanent value. We confine this article to this smaller group. The majority of these lectureships are theo- logical. age ie I. English Lectures.— The oldest series of lectures was founded as the result of the bequest of Robert Boyle. Dr. Richard Bent- ley was the first lecturer in the long series which was begun in 1691. The Boyle Lectures are in defense of natural and revealed religion. They are delivered in the Chapel Royal at Whitehall. The power of appointment to the lectureship lies with the bishop of London. The Bampton Lectures founded by the be- quest of John Bampton, canon of Salisbury, were given annually at Saint Mary’s, Oxford University, for many years beginning in 1781. They are now given in alternate years, due to the depreciation of the income. The incum- bent must be an M.A. from either Oxford or Cambridge University and cannot fill the lec- tureship twice. The lecturers are chosen by the heads of the colleges of Oxford Univer- sity. The subjects allowed cover almost the entire range of theology. . The Hulsean Lectures founded by John Hulse have been delivered annually at Cam- bridge University since 1820. They are con- fined to a discussion of Christian evidences or biblical difficulties. John Hulse also gave the endowment for a prize essay. The Congregational Union Lectures were founded in 1831 and began in 1833. They appear at irregular intervals. They are not confined to particular subjects, but are allowed a wide range in the field of theology. The Cunningham Lectures were founded by Dr. W. Binney Webster to perpetuate the memory of Rev. William Cunningham, prin- cipal of Free Church College, Edinburgh. The lecturer is usually selected from the Free Church of Scotland, but not necessarily. They are delivered in Edinburgh and deal with biblical and theological subjects. The first lec- tnge was delivered in 1864 by Robert A. Cand- ish. The Fernley Lectures were founded by John Fernley to explain and defend the theological doctrines and polity of the Wesleyan Metho-. dist Connexion. The first lecture was given in 1870. The lectures are given annually before the conference of ministers of the Wesleyan Methodist Connexion. The Baird Lectures were founded in 1873. The lecturers are selected by the trustees of the endowment fund which amounts to £500,000 ($2,500,000). The lecturers are chosen only from ministers of the Church of Scotland, and ministers of any other Scotch Presbyterian Church. The lectures have largely dealt with biblical and theological subjects and the church history of Scotland. The Croall Lectures are named after. their founder, Mr. John Croall, and are designed to defend and maintain the doctrines of the Chris- tian religion, “and to increase the religious literature of Scotland” The lecturer is pref- erably chosen from the ministry of the Pres- 214 byterian churches of Scotland. The lectures are delivered. at Edinburgh and were. begun. in 1875. The H'bbert Lectures were founded for the purpose of furthering the study of comparative religion.. They. are delivered at Oxford and London. The lecturers are not drawn exclu- sively from England. The first lecture was delivered by Max Miller in 1878. Lord Gifford founded the lectures which bear his name. \ They are delivered at the uni- yersities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Saint Andrews. The first lectures were deliv- ered in 1888. See Girrorp LECTURES. The Schweich Lectures dealing with Old Testament subjects have been given at the British Academy, London, since 1910. . The Drew Lectures on Immortality were delivered at Oxford University in 1912, by R. H. Charles. The Christian Evidence Society maintained a course of lectures for several years. II. American Lectures.— The Ely Lectures were founded in 1865 by Mr. Zebulon Stiles Ely of New York, and are delivered at inter- vals under the auspices of Union Theological Seminary in New York. The subjects are all within the range of apologetics. The Yale Lectures on preaching on the Lyman Beecher foundation were inaugurated in 1872 when Henry Ward Beecher gave the first course before the Yale Divinity School. The Stone Lectures of Princeton Theolog- ical Seminary were founded by Mr. Levi P. . Stoné;-of: Orange,” N:The Tp oarst lecture was delivered in 1883 by Mark Hopkins. The subjects are theological. The bequest of John Bohlen of Philadel- phia in 1874 established the John Bohlen Lec- tureship in connection with Holy Trinity Church, Philadelphia. The lecturers are. to confine themselves to the subjects discussed by the Bampton lecturers. The Lowell Lectures are given from time to time under the auspices of the Lowell Insti- tute of Boston, Mass. A course was given by Francis Bowen as far back as the winter of 1848-49. The foundation dates from the _ be- quest of John Lowell in 1836. The subjects in- clude psychology, anthropology, natural theol- ogy and apologetics. The Mendenhall Lectures are given at De Pauw University, Greencastle, Ind., and deal with some phase of the “Divine origin, inspira- tion and authority of the Bible They were ‘founded by the bequest of Marmaduke H. asi D.D., and were inaugurated: in 1915. The Louis Clark Vanuxem Foundation of Princeton University. was named after its donor after tthe receipt of his bequest in 1879. The lectures are to be on subjects of current scientific interest. The Bishop Paddock Lectureship was founded in, 1880 by Mr. George A. Jarvis of Brooklyn, N. Y., in loving memory of. his former pastor and friend, Rt. Rev. Benjamin Henry Paddock, bishop of Massachusetts. They are delivered at the General Theological Seminary,.in.New. York: city... Their .aim_ is, “to defend the religion of Jesus Christ as revealed in the Holy Bible and illustrated in the Book of Common Prayer against the vary- ing errors of the day.” LECTURESHIPS Frederick. Merrick, for 51 years a member of the faculty of Ohio. Wesleyan University, founded the Merrick Lectureship in that insti- _ tution in 1889. The lectures cover the “gen- *eral field of experimental and practical reli- gion.” In 1892 a committee of representatives of several of the leading’ universities organized ‘The American Lectureship on the History of Religions? for “the purpose of encouraging the intelligent study of religion” The first lecture was delivered in 1895. The Ingersoll Lectureship, on the immor- tality of man, was founded at Harvard Uni- versity in 1893 by the bequest of Mrs. Caroline Haskell of Keene, N. H. ; The Barrows Lectures on Christianity are given under the auspices of the University of Chicago and delivered in the Far East. They were founded by Mrs. Caroline. Haskell in 1894 as the result of the World Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893.. The first course was given in 1895-96 by John Henry Barrows, after whom they are named. In the year 1894 Mrs. Haskell also gave the Univer- sity of Chicago the Haskell Lectureship on Comparative Religion. Mr. William Belden Noble of Washington, D. C., founded the William Belden Noble Lec- ‘tures at Harvard University in 1898. The sub- jects are to be within the “large interpretation of the influence of Jesus as given by the late Phillips Brooks.» The Cole Lectures were founded by Col. E. W. Cole and wife of Nashville, Tenn. They are delivered in connection with the Biblical department of Vanderbilt University, and are restricted to “a defense and advocacy of the Christian religion.» The lecturer is nominated by the theological faculty and confirmed by the College of Bishops of the Methodist Epis- copal Church, South. . Lake Forest College, Lake Forest, Ill., re- ceived from the late lieutenant-governor of Illinois, William Bross (1866-70), funds for the endowment of the Bross Foundation in honor of his son, Nathaniel Bross, who died in 1856. The funds had accumulated so that the first course of lectures was possible in 1903. The subjects are within the range of Christian evidences. The same fund also provides for a prize to be given to the writer of the most mega book in a given period, in the same ield. The Hale Lectures were founded in 1900 in connection with Western Theological Seminary of Chicago, Ill., by the bequest of Rt. Rev. Charles Reuben Hale, bishop coadjutor of Springfield. The subjects specified are: “litur- gies and liturgics; church hymns and church music; the history of the Eastern churches; the history of the national churches; contem- poraneous church history.” The Nathaniel William Taylor Lectures are given annually before the Divinity School of Yale University and had their beginning in 1903. They deal with the evidences of the Christian religion. The Norman. W. Harris Lectures. were founded by. the late Norman Waite Harris, a banker of Chicago, Ill. They are delivered at Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. They. were founded “to stimulate scientific re- search of the highest type.» The first lectures LEDA — LEDRU-ROLLIN were given by Prof, Borden, P. Bowne of Bos- ton University in 1907. In. 1905 Mrs. Caroline E. Haskell of Chi- cago, Ill., established a lectureship at Oberlin College on “Oriental literature and its relation to the Bible and Christian teaching.» The first lecture was given in 1907, The George Shepherd Lectures on Preach- ing are delivered under the auspices. of Bangor Theological Seminary, Bangor, Me. The first lectures were delivered in 1904, There are other courses of endowed lec- tures in connection with various institutions and societies which do not publish their lec- tures. All the foundations represented above have published most of the lectures given on the foundation. There are also lectures covering one or more years which we. have not in- cluded, like the Saint Giles Lectures on Com- parative Religion, the Saint Margaret’s Lec- tures and the Ingham Lectures. SAMUEL G. AYRES, Garrett Biblical Institute. LEDA, 1é’da, in Greek mythology, the wife of the Spartan king, Tyndareus. In order to enjoy her, Zeus changed himself into a swan, in which form he iS represented with her in a picture from Herculaneum. By him she had Pollux and Helen, and by Tyndareus, Castor and Clytemnestra. LEDA, genus of bivalve mollusk with a small elongated shell concentrically striated, hinged with two rows of small saw-like teeth and an external ligament. It exists in the Silurian time and is still represented by various living species. It is of the Lamellibranchiata family and is sometimes classified as of the family Ledie. See PELEcyPoDA, LEDESMA BUITRAGO, la-dés’ma bwe- tra’g6, Alonso de, Spanish, poet: b. Segovia, 2 Feb. 1562; d. there, 15 June 1632:, His work was romantic and highly imaginative, charac- terized by fanciful exaggerations, and was the foundation of a school of verse-writers known as “conceptistas» named from the first of the poet’s books. The works of Quevedo and Lope de Vega.are supposed to have been influenced by him. Author of ‘Conceptos espirituales? (1660) ; ‘Juegos de nochebuena? (1611); ‘Ro- mancero y monstruo imaginado? ClOl oye CLDi5 grams y hieroglificos 4 la vida de Cristo? (1625). Specimens of his verse are published in Rivadeneira’s ‘Biblioteca de autores espa- fioles> (Vol. XXXV, 1872). LEDOCHOWSKI, Miecislas Halka, mé- a-kés‘las hal’ka led-6-hov’ske, Polish Roman Catholic ecclesiastic: b. Galicia, 29 Oct. 1822; d. Switzerland, 22: July 1894. He studied the- ology and subsequently entered the papal dip- lomatic service and became papal auditor suc- cessively, at. Madrid, Lisbon;. Rio de Janeiro and Santiago de Chile. In 1861 he was ap- pointed archbishop of. Thebes, while his ap- pointment to the archbishopric of Gnesen and Posen in 1866 constituted him primate ex officio of Poland. .He actively opposed the Prussian May laws by which Bismarck sought to sub- ject the Roman Catholic Church in Germany to state control, In consequence of, his oppo- sition, his property was confiscated and himself imprisoned in 1873 for two years. He was created cardinal in 1875 and in 1892 general prefect of the propaganda. 215 LEDOCHOWSKI, Wlodimir or Vladi- mir, Russian-Polish priest ;)b., Loosdorf, Gali- cia, 7, Oct. 1866. He came of a family ‘distin- guished in. Russia and in, Austria, and was educated at the Vienna Gymnasium, the Semi- nary, Tarnow, Austria, and at the Germanicum, Rome. He entered the order, of the Jesuits in 1889 and was ordained in 1894. He DOramE vice-provincial, then provincial for Poland; 1906 he was. elected assistant-general and e 1915 general of the Society of Jesus in .cen- tral Europe. He was actively connected with various undertakings looking toward a peace- able settlement of the European War LEDOUX, Albert Reid, American engi- neer: b. Newport, Ky., 2 Nov. 1852; d. Corn- wall-on-Hudson, N. Y., 25. Oct. 1923.- He was educated at the Columbia School of Mines and the universities of Berlin and Got- tingen. He was Staite chemist and a member of the State Board of Health of North Caro- lina in 1876-80, thereafter acting professionally as consulting engineer, metallurgist, assayer and chemist and’ as an expert in chemistry and engineering cases. He ‘served for two years as expert on the New York Electric Subway Commission. He was president of the Ameri- can Institute of Mining Engineers in 1903 and was a member of the leading scientific societies. LEDOUX, Louis Vernon, American poet: b. New York, 6 June 1880. He was graduated at Columbia University in’ 1902 and became associated with his father’s firm, Ledoux and Company, mining engineers and metallurgists, of which he is vice-president. He has devoted considerable time to writing verse and, has achieved a considerable success in that line. Author of ‘Songs from the. Silent Land (1905) ;,..°The ._Soul’s,. Progress...and,,,Other Poems? (1907); ‘Yzdra? (1909); “The Shad- ow,,0f,,btna.,..<1914) » aalyrical. drama, © (2.:vols., 1879-82) ; ‘Les monuments égyptiens de la bibliothéque nationale? (2. vols, 1880-81); ‘Dictionnaire des noms. propres’ palmyréniens? (1886) ;. “Traduction de la bible? (6 vols:, 1886- 90); ‘Catalogue des monuments araméens et himyarites du Musée du Louvre? (1888) ; ‘Dic- tionnaire de la langue de l’ancienne Chaldée? (1897). LEDRU-ROLLIN,. 1é-drii-rdl-lan, Alex- andre Auguste, French political agitator: b. near Paris, France, 2 Feb. 1807; d. Fontenay- aux-Roses, France, 31 Dec. 1874. Admitted to the bar in 1830, he became prominent in the defense of Republican journalists and men of similar views in the reign of Louis Philippe, and later as a democratic agitator and leader of the workingmen’s party.. On the outbreak of the Revolution of 1848 he became a member of 216 the provisional government as Minister of the Interior, and in. May was one of the five in whose hands the Constituent Assembly placed the interim government. everyone by his arbitrary conduct, and resigned. He was a candidate for the Presidency against Louis Napoleon in the following December, but was ignominiously beaten, An unsuccess- ful attempt to provoke an insurrection against his rival put an end to his influence, and for the next 20 years he lived alternately in Lon- don and Brussels, being amnestied only in 1870. After his return to France he was elected to the Assembly in 1871, and again in 1874. LEDUM OIL. See LAprapor TEA. LEDYARD, John, American traveler: b. Groton, Conn., 1751; d. Cairo, Egypt,.17 Jan. 1789. He entered Dartmouth College in 1772, with a view of fitting himself for missionary duty among the Indians. The restraints of this mode of life proving irksome, he absented himself at one time from college for several months, during which he visited the Indians of the Six Nations; and, finally abandoning the idea of becoming a missionary, he embarked on the Connecticut River in a canoe of his own fashioning and floated down to. Hartford. After a brief experience as a theological stu- dent, he shipped at New London as a common sailor in a vessel bound for the Mediterranean, and at Gibraltar enlisted in a British regiment, but was discharged at the request of his cap- tain. He accompanied Captain Cook on his third voyage around the world, 1776-80, and of this voyage he kept a private journal, which in accordance with a general order of the government was taken from him on the return of the expedition to England. Subsequently he wrote out from recollection, assisted by a brief sketch issued under tthe sanction of the Admiralty, an account of the expedition, pub- lished in 1783. During the two years suc- ceeding his return to England he remained in the British naval service, but steadily refused to take arms against his native country. In December 1782, he found means to escape. He intended to journey through northern Europe and Asia and after surmounting many obstacles arrived at Irkutsk, where on 24 Feb. 1788 he was arrested by order of the Empress Cath- erine, conducted with all speed to the frontiers of Poland, and there dismissed, with an intima- tion that he would tbe hanged if he re-entered Russia. Ledyard found his way back to Lon- don in the spring, and was cordially received by Sir Joseph Banks and others who had be- friended him. Undaunted by previous adver- sities, he eagerly accepted an offer to under- take an expedition into the interior of Africa; and when asked how soon he would be ready to set out, replied: “To-morrow morning.” . He departed from England in the latter part: of June, intending to cross the African continent in.a westerly direction from Sennaar, and had proceeded as far as Cairo, when he died. For capacity of endurance, resolution and _ physical vigor, he was one of the most remarkable of modern travelers. Many extracts from his journals and his private correspondence. .with Jefferson and others are given in Sparks’ mem- oir of him. LEDYARD, Lewis Cass, American law- yer and financier: b. Michigan, 4 April 1851. But he offended | LEDUM OIL — LEE He took his A.B. at Harvard in 1872, and his LL.B: at the Harvard Law School in 1875, afterward engaging in law practice in Boston. He became associated with various corpora- tions, railroads and telegraph companies as a director, was president of the Franklin Build- ing Company and a‘trustee of the United States Trust Company. He was trustee and vice-president of the New York Public Li- brary, president of the Lying In Hospital and = trustee of the Metropolitan Museum of Et. : LEDYARD, William, American soldier: b. Groton, Conn., about. 1750; d. Fort Griswold, Conn., 7 Sept. 1781. He held the commission of colonel in the militia of Connecticut, and during the marauding expedition of Arnold-in September 1781 was in command of Forts Trumbull and Griswold, which protected New London. He refused a demand for the surren- der of Fort Griswold, and resisted for nearly an hour the attack of a British force numbering 800 men. The command of the attacking force devolved upon Major Bromfield, a Tory, who effected an entrance into the fort after nearly 200 of his men had been disabled, including 48 killed, the Americans having lost about a dozen killed. To Bromfield’s inquiry: “Who com- mands this garrison?” Ledyard replied: “I did, sir, but you do now,” at the same time handing him his sword. Bromfield immediately plunged it through the body of Ledyard, killing him upon the spot. A massacre of the Americans ensued, which was not ended until more than 100 of them were killed and wounded... A monument has been erected near the spot to ’ commemorate this event. LEE, Agnes, American writer, formerly of Boston, now Mrs. Otto Freer, of Chicago, has written many poems for the leading maga- zines. Several years ago she published a book of poems for children. She has translated into English the poems of Théophile Gautier, Flau- bert’s ‘St. Julien, Gregh’s ‘Maison de l’En- fance, etc. In 1910 appeared her volume of poems, ‘The Border of the Lake,’ and in 1914 “The Sharing,” a book of her later poems. She has written several poetical plays. . LEE, Albert, American author and editor: b. New Orleans, 11 May 1868. He prepared for college at Exeter where he was one of the founders of the Phillips Exeter Literary Maga- zine, which still exists. He was graduated from Yale in 1891, having during his. senior year edited the Yale Literary Magazine. In 1891-94 he was on the editorial staff of the New York Sun; in 1895 became editor of Harper's Round Table; and in 1899 was for a short time associate editor of McClure’s Magazine, becoming managing editor of Har- pers Weekly in the same year. In 1901-03 he was associate editor of Collier's Weekly, tak- ing the position of managing editor in January 1903. In 1911 he went abroad for a period of travel, and‘ in June 1913 associated himself with Mr. Condé Nast in the starting of the magazine Vanity Fair, of which he is now managing editor. He has written ‘Tommy Toddles»? (1896); ©Track Athletics in Detail” (1897) ; “The Knave of Hearts? (1897); ‘Four for a Fortune? (1898); ‘He, She and They? (1899) : ‘The Pie and the Pirate? (1910), ‘Miss Phoenix» (1912), which he later dramatized LEE and produced’ at. the Harris Theatre, New York, in October 1913. LEE, Alfred, American Protestant Episco- pal bishop: b. Cambridge, Mass., 9 Sept. 1807; d. Wilmington, Del., 12 April 1887. He was graduated at Harvard in 1827, and after study- ing law practised for three years in New Lon- don, Conn. Feeling, however, that his vocation was elsewhere he was admitted to the General Theological Seminary, where he was graduated in 1837. He was elected rector of Calvary Church, Rockdale, Pa. (1838), but on being consecrated first bishop of Delaware in 1841, took charge of Saint Andrew’s, Wilmington, the following year.. He was a member of the American Committee for Revision of the New Testament (1881) and presiding bishop (1884— 87): He isthe author of “Life of Saint Peter? (1852) ; “Life of Saint John? (1854); SA ‘Treatise’ on Baptism? (1854); ‘Harbinger of Christ?’ (1857); “Co-operative Revision of the New Testament? (1881). © LEE, Algernon, American journalist: b.. . Dubuque, Iowa, 15 Sept. 1873. He was edu- cated at the University of Minnesota, and from 1895 was identified with the Socialist move- ment. He edited the Tocsin at Minneapolis in 1898-99, the Worker in Néw York in 1899- 1908, and the Daily Call in 1908-09, when he became a department editor on the Metropoli- tan Magazine. He was appointed educational director of the Rand School of Social Science in 1909; arid in 1904, 1906, 1916 and 1917 was a delegate to’ the International Socialist con- ventions. He opposed the sale of War Savings Stamps and invited considerable censure by his hostile attitude toward the conduct of the European? War. LEE, Ann, foundress of the Society of Shakers in America. See SHAKERS. LEE, Arthur, American diplomatist: . b. Stratford, Westmoreland County, Va., 21 Dec. 1740; d: Urbana, Middlesex County, Va. 12 Dec. 1792. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh; entered the practice of medicine at Williamsburg, Va.; studied law in the Tem- ple, London (1766-70); practised in England in. 1770-76; closely observed colonial questions ; was a member of the society known as “The Supporters of the Bill of Rights,» by which ministerial measures were discussed, and in 1770 was appointed associate of Franklin as London agent of Massachusetts colony. When Congress appointed. Franklin, Jay and Dickin- son a committee to correspond with friends of the colonies in other parts of the world, Lee became secret agent in London of the commit- tee: and in 1776: he was chosen by Congress joint commissioner with “ranklin and Deane to obtain a treaty of alliance with France. In 1777 he dispatched special missions to the gov- ‘ernments of Spain and Prussia; in 1778 became commissioner to Spain; but in 1779 was recalled owing to his disagreements with Franklin and Deane. He was a representative in the Vir- ginia. general assembly in 1781; a delegate to — the Continental. Congress in 1781-84, and a member of the board of treasury in 1784-89. He opposed the adoption of a Federal constitu- tion. Consult Lee, R. H., ‘Life of Arthur Lee? (1829). . LEE, Blair, American legislator and law- yer; b.. Silver Springs, Md. 9 Aug. 1857. He 217 was graduated from Princeton University in 1880. and from the Columbian (now George Washington) University in 1882, and was ad- mitted to the bar in Maryland and in the Dis- trict of Columbia. - He was elected to the Maryland State senate in 1905 and in 1909, and on 4 Nov.. 1913 he was elected to the United States Senate to fill the term of Senator Jack- son, expiring 3 March 1917. LEE, Charles, American soldier: b. Dern- hall, Cheshire, England, 1731; d: Philadelphia, - 2 Oct. 1782. In 1751 he entered the English army as lieutenant of the 44th, which he ac- companied to America in 1754, and with which he was present at Braddock’s defeat on the Monongahela (9 July 1755). He was wounded in Abercrombie’s attack on Ticonderoga (1 July 1758), took part in the capture of Montreal in 1760 and was promoted major in 1761. He served in Burgoyne’s division in Portugal in 1762, and was for a time busy with a schemé for establishing in America two colonies, one on the Ohio, the other on the Illinois; to be recruited from Switzerland. and Germany as well as New England. In 1764 he went to Poland, there was appointed to: the staff of King Stanislaus Augustus, in 1766,accompanied the Polish embassy to Turkey, in 1769 as a major-general in the Polish army’ fought in a campaign against the Turks, and having called his superior officers fools, left the service and returned to England. He was made lieutenant- colonel on half-pay in 1772,. but was. further unrecognized by the British government, and in disappointment came to America 10 Nov. 1773, and by skilful display of what military knowledge he possessed attracted the attention of the Continental Congress, then eager to ob- tain competent leaders for the Revolutionary army. His career thenceforth was perhaps the strangest in the annals of the Revolution. He wished to become commander-in-chief of the American forces, but accepted the appointment as second of the major-generals, Artemas Ward (q.v.) being the first. To inspire public con- fidence he purchased for £5,000 Virginia cur- rency (about. £3,000 sterling), an estate in Berkeley County, Va.; but he did not assume his rank until guaranteed by Congress pecuniary indemnity for possible losses incurred in so doing. He undeservedly received popular credit for Moultrie’s successful defense of Charles- ton, S. C.. (28 June 1776), and was called the “Hero of Charleston.” In 1776 he became first major-general upon the resignation of Ward. He failed:to obey when ordered by Washington to cross the Hudson from Westchester County with. his 7,000 troops and join the latter in New Jersey; but. when Washington. was. com- pelled to fall back. on Princeton (2 Dec. 1776) crossed the river to Morristown and encamped there with 4,000. troops. Gates marched from Ticonderoga. with seven regiments for Wash- ington’s aid, but Lee diverted three of the regi- ments to Morristown. Washington crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania, and Lee diligently spread reports of the commander-in-chief’s in- capacity and planned a flank movement. upon the British army whose success he. intended should secure his own appointment to’ replace Washington. . He was, however, captured at Baskingridge (13 Dec. 1776), and imprisoned at New York, where he deserted the American cause, and designed a plan for the subjugation 218 of the American colonies, the original draft of which was found among the private papers of the Howes in 1857. He was exchanged in 1778, and re-entered the American service for reasons not fully known; but his insubordination’ at Monmouth (28 June 1778) nearly lost the day, and he was suspended from'’command for one year. A subsequent disrespectful letter to Con- gress caused his dismissal from the army. His treasonable correspondence with the British au- thorities was not discovered till many. years after. He wrote ‘Strictures on a Friendly Ad- dress to all Reasonable Americans? (1774)-in reply to Dr. Myles Cooper’ (q.v.) ; and made.a foolish claim to be the author of. the “Junius” letters. Consult the ‘Memoirs, edited from his papers by Langworthy (1792), ‘and Moore, ‘The Treason of Charles Lee? (1858). LEE, Charles, American Cabinet officer: b. Leesylvania, Va., 1758; d. Fauquier County, Va., 24 June 1815.. He was a brother of Henry Lee, soldier (q.v.). He was graduated from the College of New Jersey in 1775; studied law in the office of Jared Ingersoll at Philadelphia; practised -in Westmoreland’ County, Va., and sat in the Virginia assembly. On 10 Dec. 1795 he was appointed by’ Washington Attorney- General of the United States, and this office he filled until the last month of Adams’ adminis- tration (1801). He declined an appointment by Jefferson as’ chief justice of ‘the United States Circuit Court for the fourth circuit. LEE, Eliza Buckminster, American prose writer: b. Portsmouth, N. H., 1794; d, Brook- line, Mass., 22 June 1864, She was married to. ‘Thomas Lee of Boston, Mass., where the greater part of her life was spent. She was a popular author in her day and among her books are ‘Sketches of New. England Life? . (1837) ; “Delusion, (1839) ; a translation from the Ger- man.of the “Life of Jean Paul Richter? (1842) ; “Naomi; or, Boston Two Hundred Years Ago? (1848) ; ‘Parthenia: or,:l he. Last ;}Days, of Paganism? (1858), and a translation of Ber- thold Auerbach’s ‘Barefoot Maiden? (1860). LEE, Fitzhugh, American soldier and di- plomatist: b. Clermont, Fairfax County, Va.; 19 Nov. 1835; d: Washington, D. C., 28 April 1905. He was the nephew of Robert E. Lee (q.v.). Appointed as cadet at large to West Point by President Fillmore, he entered the academy»at 16, and was graduated in 1856, ‘re- ceivingi‘an appointment to the famous Second cavalry of which A. S. Johnston’ was colonel and: R. E. Lee was lieutenant-colonel. | After serving “for:a-year: at Carlisle Barracks as cavalry instructor of recruits, he reported to his regiment’ on’ the frontier of Texas and was greatly distinguished in several fights with the Indians, being mentioned in the official reports for skill and gallantry. In a Comanches, 13°°May 1859, fié was severely wounded, but recovered and joined his com- mand. He led a part of his company in Janu- ary 1860, in a very notable and successful fight with the Indians, in which he greatly distin- guished himself in a single combat with an Indian chief. In November 1860 he was ordered to West Point as instructor of cavalry tactics. When Virginia seceded from the Union he promptly resigned his commission and ten- dered his services to his native State. He served for a time on the staff of Gen. R. S. fight with the. LEE Ewell, and in September 1861 he became lieu- tenant-colonel, and in April 1862 colonel of the First Virginia cavalry. Henceforth he was in- timately connected with Stuart’s cavalry and won constant reputation for dash, daring and intelligent execution of duty. After the battles around Richmond he was made brigadier-gen- eral, his brigade consisting of the Ist, 3d, 4th, Sth and 9th Virginia cavalry anda battery of horse artillery. In the campaign against Pope and the Maryland campaign the cavalry ren- dered most important service, and General Lee did his full duty in these operations. When Gen. Robert Lee, withdrew from Sharpsburg, Fitzhugh Lee’s brigade relieved the pickets and held the lines till. the army had crossed the Potomac. On 17 March 1863 Averell’s division of 3,000 cavalry crossed ‘the river at Beverly's Ford, and attacked him; though he could only put 800 troopers in the saddle, he successfully resisted Averell, and after’ one of the most hotly contested cavalry battles of the war drove him back across the river. In the Chancellors- ville movement he. protected Jackson’s flank, and made a very important reconnoissance by which he located the. flank and.rear of- the enemy, and enabled Jackson to attack it to the best advantage. In the autumn of 1863 he was made major-general and given command ofa division of cavalry. In the campaign of 1864 he rendered important service, holding in check the advance of Grant’s-army until Gen. R. E. Lee’s infantry could occupy Spottsylvania, re- pelling Sherman’s raid on Richmond, defeating Sheridan at Trevillians and, Samaria Church, routing Wilson. at Reams Station and. operating with Early. in the Valley, being. severely wounded at the battle of Winchester. When Hampton» was sent south Lee was given, the command of the entire cavalry corps of the Army of Northern Virginia, conducting the re- treat to Appomattox,’ was one of the council of war whom Robert Lee consulted, and one of the leaders in the last charge of the Army of Northern Virginia. He “accepted the situa- tion” after the surrender, and went to work on his farm at. Richland. From 1886 to 1890 he was governor of Virginia. In 1896 he was appointed consul-general to Cuba, in which position he kept the State Department thor- oughly informed of the Spanish policy during the rebellion, and vigorously upheld the rights and interests of the United States; after the destruction of the Maine he did much to pre- vent the premature outbreak of war with Spain, but when war was inevitable he was recalled. In.May 1898 he was appointed major-general of United States volunteers, and assigned to the command of the 7th army corps. At the close of the war he was made military governor — of the province of Havana, and. later was given the command of the Department of the Mis- souri. He published ‘Robert E. Lee? (1894, in ‘Great Commanders’ Series), and ‘Cuba’s Struggle against Spain? (1899). Fis: JonesjcD.D: LEE, Francis Bazley, American lawyer and historical writer: b. Philadelphia, 3 Jan. 1869; d. Trenton, N. J., 2 May 1914, He was educated at the State Model School in Trenton, J., and was graduated from the Wharton School of Political Economy in 'the University of Pe isy eee in 1890, He was admitted to LEE the New Jersey bar in I893 and thereafter prac- tised his profession in ‘lrenton. In addition to various historical monographs relating to New Jersey, he is the author and editor-in-chief of “New Jersey as a Colony and a State.? LEE, Francis Lightfoot, American patriot: b. Stratford, Westmoreland County, Va. 14 Oct. 1734; d. Richmond County, Va., 3 April 1797. He was‘elected to the Virginia house of burgesses’ for Loudoun County in 1765, and later represented Richmond County in that assembly. He signed the Westmoreland decla- ration against the Stamp Act (1765), and on 15 Aug. 1775 became a member of the Con- tinental Congress, where he served until the spring of 1779. On 4 July 1776 he was one of the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independ- ence. He also was a member of the committee that prepared the Articles of Confederation, and was prominent in debate, particularly on the questions of the Newfoundland fisheries and the navigation of the Mississippi.. After his retirement from Congress he served for a brief term in the Virginia legislature. Consult San- derson, ‘Lives of the Signers? (Vol. IX, 1827). LEE, Frederic Schiller, American physi- ologist: b. Canton, N.:Y., 16 June 1859. He studied at Saint Lawrence University, at Johns Hopkins and at Leipzig, and in 1886-87 he was instructor in biology at Saint Lawrence Univer- sity. He was instructor and associate professor of physiology and histology at Bryn Mawr Col- lege’ in 1887-91. In 1891 he was. appointed demonstrator of physiology at Columbia Uni- versity and he was. subsequently adjunct pro- fessor and Dalton professor there, becoming essup lecturer in 1911. He was appointed to the United States Public Health Service in 1917. He edited the American. Journal of Physiology in 1898-1914, and since 1900 has edited the Columbia University Quarterly. He has translated and edited a number of medical treatises, has contributed to the leading scien- tific journals and is author of. ‘Scientific Features in Modern Medicine? (1911). LEE, Gerald Stanley, American author and lecturer: b. Brockton, Mass.,.4 Oct. 1862. He was graduated from Middlebury College, Vermont, in 1885, and from Yale Divinity School in 1888. He was a Congregational minister for ‘the ensuing nine years at Princeton, Minn., Sharon, Conn., and West Springfield, Mass. He was lecturer in the English department, Smith College, 1897, and has lectured on liter- ature and the arts since 1898. He is editor of Mount Tom, an All-Outdoors Magazine, and author of numerous magazine articles.and the following books: ‘About an Old New England Church? (1893) ; “The Shadow Christ? (1896) ; ‘The Lost Art of Reading? (1902); ‘The Child and the Book? (1902); “The Voice of'the Ma- chines? (1906) ; ‘Inspired Millionaires? (1908) ; “Crowds— A Moving Picture of’ Democracy” (1913); “Crowds, Jr.> (1914); “We—A Con+ fession of Faith for the American People? (1916); ‘The Lonely Nation» (1917); ‘The Air-Line to Liberty? (1918). LEE, Guy Carleton, American publicist: -b. 1862. He was graduated at Rutherford Col- lege, North Carolina, in 1889 and was admitted to the bar of North Carolina in 1894, Pennsyl- vania in 1895 and Maryland in 1897. In 1895 he was professor of English history and common 219 Jaw at Dickinson College; in 1896-98: he was scholar, honorary scholar and Fellow, and ‘in 1898-1905 instructor in history at Johns Hop- kins University. He lectured on comparative politics at George Washington University 1900- 02, was literary editor of the Baltimore Sun 1901-08, and since 1900 has been editor-in-chief of the International Literary Syndicate. He has published ‘Hincmar— An _ Introduction to the Study of the Church in the Ninth Cen- tury’? (1898) ; ‘Public Speaking? (1899) ; “His~. torical Jurisprudence? (1900); ‘Source Book of English History? (1900); ‘True History of the War Between the States? (1903); ‘Robert E. Lee: A Biography? (1905); ‘The Heart of a ‘Child (1910); ‘The Soul of a Woman’ (1910) ; ‘The Mind of Man? (1911); and was editor-in-chief of ‘The World's Orators?. (10 vols., 1900); ‘The History of Woman? (10 vols., 1902-03) ; ‘The History of North Amer- ica? (20 vols., 1903-05). He has also -con- tributed to reviews: and journals on legal, his- torical, political and social. subjects. LEE, Harriet, sister of Sophia Lee (q.v.) p..London, 1756;"'d.- Clifton, -T Avg’ 1851." -in 1786 she published the ‘Errors of Innocence,” _a novel succeeded by several others now for- gotten. In 1797-1805 appeared. her ‘Canter- bury Tales, 8 of the 10 tales of which were her own, the others being ‘by her sister Sophia. They enjoyed a great popularity in the early part of the 19th century, and a new edition was published in New York in 1856-57. One of the most. remarkable is’ the German tale, “Kruitzner,? from which Lord Byron borrowed not merely the plot and the machinery down to the most trivial incidents, but in some instances the language, of his “Werner.? She also wrote two dramas, the “New Peerage? and the ‘Three Strangers.? LEE, Henry, American soldier: b, Leesyl- vania, Westmoreland County, Va., 29 Jan, 1756; d. Cumberland Island, Ga., 25 March 1818. He was graduated from the College of New Jersey in. 1774; in 1775 became a captain in Col. Theo- doric Bland’s legion of Virginia cavalry, and in September 1777 joined Washington’s army in Pennsylvania. Promoted major for services in battle (January 1778), he was given command of a partisan corps consisting of two troops of horse, and latter increased by a third troop and an infantry company. This corps, which was employed in the annoyance of the British march and camp, was known as “Lee’s legion,” and its commander as “Light Horse Harry.” On 19 Aug. 1779’ Lee surprised and ‘captured the British post at Paulus. Hook (q.v.), -N. J. For this achievement, which is regarded as one of the most brilliant exploits of the Revolution. Congress voted him a gold medal. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel, and in the autumn of 1780 was sent to South Carolina to join Greene’s army. He covered the American re- treat through North Carolina (February 1781). and was involved in some smart skirmishes with Tarleton’s dragoons. After Greene had crossed into Virginia, Lee remained in North Carolina to. harass the enemy, and, although he could not surprise Tarleton, did: defeat) 400 loyalists under Colonel Pyle. He outfought Tarleton at Guilford Court House (15 March 1781), and with Marion, by. cutting Rawdon’s line of communication, compelled that officer to 220 abandon» Camden (10 May 1781). He took Augusta, Ga. (5 June 1781), and having te- joined Greene, fought with distinction at Eutaw Springs (8 Sept. 1781), and captured some of Rawdon’s: rear-guard: in the British retreat. After having been present at Yorktown, he shortly resigned his commission. In 1785-88 he was a Virginia delegate to the Continental Con- gress; in 1788 was a member of the Virginia convention for the ratification of the Federal Constitution; in 1789-91 sat in the general as- sembly of the State and in: 1792-95 was. gov- ernor. In 1794 he was appointed by Washing- ton to command the 15,000 troops sent to sup- press the “Whiskey Insurrection” |(q.v.) in western Pennsylvania. . After service as a rep- resentative in the Sixth Congress: (1799-1801), he withdrew from public life. In his ‘Funeral Oration upon President Washington,’ pro- nounced in 1799 before both Houses of Con- gress, occurs the since famous phrase, “First. in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his countrymen.” In 1801. he retired to private life, but received a commission in the War of 1812 as major-general. He was prevented from assuming’ duties of this office by a gun shot wound which he received while aiding his friend, Alexander Contee Hanson, whose house was attacked by a mob of political opponents. He wrote ‘Memoirs of the War in the South- ern Department of the United States? (1812), published in revision with a memoir by his son, R. E. Lee -(q.v.), in 1869. LEE, Hildegarde Langsdorf (Mrs.. Guy CARLETON Lee), American physician: b. Cen- terville, Pa., 26 March 1868. She was graduated at, Dickinson College in, 1888, and at the Woman’s Medical College, Philadelphia, 1891. In 1912 she married Guy Carleton Lee -(q.v.). She has practised her profession at Carlisle, Pa., since 1892; was on staffs of Harrisburg Insane Hospital, Norristown Insane Hospital, Tewksbury Almshouse. She is also assistant editor Pennsylvania ‘Medical Journal, and sec- retary-treasurer National Society for Broader Education and many other societies; is espe- cially interested in plans for financing charitable organizations, and is known as a lecturer on social and economic subjects and contributor of articles on sanitation, hygiene, etc. LEE, James Prince, English bishop: b. London, 28 July 1804; d. Manchester, 24 Dec. 1869.. He was graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1828, ordained in 1830. and in 1830- 38 he served as a master at Rugby under Dr. Thomas Arnold...He was elected head-master of King Edward’s School at Birmingham in 1838. and numbered among his pupils E. W. Benson, archbishop of Canterbury, J. B. Light- foot and B.. F. Wescott, bishops of Durham. He became first bishop.of the newly-created see of Manchester in 1848, and was. especially notable. for his work in church extension, con- secrating 130 churches in the 21: years he served as bishop. He was active in the establishment of the Manchester Free Library, and bequeathed his own library to Owens. College, Manchester. LEE, Jennette Barbour Perry, American novelist: b. Bristol; Conn., 10 Nov. 1860. She was graduated from Smith College, Massachusetts, in 1886, was professor of Englishat Vassar 1890_ 93, and in the College for Women at Western Reserve University 1893-96, and in the year last . (1907) ; LEE named was married to~ Rev. G. S. Lee (q.v.). In 1901-04 she was instructor in English and in 1904-13. professor of English language and literature at Smith College. She has published ‘Kate Wetherell? (1900); “A Pillar of Salt? (1901); ‘The Son. of, a Fiddler? (1902) ; ‘Uncle William? (1906) ;.‘The Ibsen Secret? ‘Simeon Tetlow’s Shadow? (1909) ; ‘Happy Island? (1910) ; “Mr. Achilles» (1912) ; ‘Betty Harris? (1912) ; ‘The Taste of Apples? (1913); ‘The Woman in the Alcove? (1914); “Aunt ‘Jane? (1915); ‘Unfinished Portraits? (1916) ; “The Green Jacket? (1917), and nu- merous sketches and stories. LEE, Jesse, American Methodist clergy- man: b. Prince Edward County, Va., 1758; d. September 1816. He was admitted to the Conference as a preacher among the Methodists in 1783, and was chosen as a friend and travel- ing companion by Francis Asbury. His writ- ings have been the basis of much of the his- tory of early Methodism in America. In 1789 he traveled over New England and preached Methodism from’ Connecticut’ to Maine. He formed the first Methodist congregation in New England at Stratfield, Conn., 26 Sept. 1787, In 1792 he preached in Massachusetts, and gathered the first class at Boston 13 July 1792. He was chaplain to Congress during six suc- cessive terms. He is known in New England as “The Apostle of Methodism.» He wrote ‘A History of Methodism in America? (1807). Consult’ Lee, L. M., ‘Life and Times of Jusst Lee? (1848). LEE, John Doyle, Mormon bore ciate a Kaskaskia, Tll.; 1812; d.23 March 1877. He became a Mormon in 1837, and after doing some missionary work began his. official career. He was captain. of militia, probate judge of Iron County and member of the Territorial | legislature. In the Mountain Meadow Mas- sacre he was indicted as one of the chief instigators and was condemned to death. Con- sult ‘The Mormon Menace; being the Confes- sion of John Doyle Lee, "Danite, an Official Assertion of the Mormon Church under the Late Brigham Young? ‘(with an ‘introduction by Alfred Henry Lewis, New York 1905). See Mountain. Mrapows Massacre, mY LEE, Luther, American Methodist clergy- man; b. Schoharie, N. Y., 30 Nov. 1800; d. Flint, Mich.,. 13 Dec. 1889. _He_ entered "the Genesee Conference, in 1827, became an itiner- ant preacher. and a temperance and anti-slavery lecturer, and. was several times mobbed on ac- count of his abolitionist sentiments. From 1843 to 1867 he was a member of the Wesleyan body, having, as_a_ Wesleyan clergyman been. presi- dent. in 1853 of Michigan Union College at Leoni and pastor of churches at Syracuse and elsewhere, but in 1867 returned to the Methodist Episcopal denomination. He, was the author of. “Universalism Examined and Exposed? (1836) ; ‘The Immortality of the SouP (1850) ; Slavery Examined in the Light of the Bible? (1855); ‘Elements of Theology? (1856); ‘Natural Theology” (1866). His “Autobiog- raphy” was published in New York (1882). LEE, Nathaniel, English dramatic poet: b. Hatfield, about 1653; d. London, 1692. He was educated at Cambridge, turned his attention to the drama and in 1675 produced his tragedy of LEE ‘Nero,’ and from that time to 1681 produced a tragedy yearly. From 1684 to 1688 he was insane and confined in Bethlehem Hospital, and after his discharge two more tragedies of his were produced. He is the author of 11 plays, all of which were favorably received; but his natural fire and pathos were buried in a torrent of words and clouded by a tendency to “furious .fustian and turgid rant” In his play, ‘The Rival Queens? (1677), occurs the oft-quoted line: “ When Greeks joined Greeks then was the tug of War” LEE, Richard Henry, American patriot: b. Stratford, Westmoreland County, Va., 20 Jan. 1732; d. Chantilly, Va., 19 June 1794. He was educated in England, but returned in 1752 to Virginia, where he soon became prominent in public affairs and was elected to the house of burgesses. In 1773 he became a member of the committee of correspondence to communicate with the other colonies, and in 1774 was a dele- gate from Virginia to the first Continental Con- gress. There he attracted attention by his eloquence and drafted the petition to the king. In the second Congress he prepared the address to the people of Great Britain. Both of these documents are remarkable state papers. On 7 June 1776 he moved “that these united colonies are and of right ought to be free and inde- pendent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown; and that all connection between them and the states of Great Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved.” He was in the’ Virginia legislature in 1780-84, was elected president of Congress in 1784, in 1786 was again a member of the State legis- lature and in 1787 also sat in Congress. Upon the adoption of the Federal Constitution, to which he was opposed, he was elected one of the first two senators from Virginia and there remained, at first as an Anti-Federalist, until his. resignation in 1792. He was one of the notable orators of his time. Consult Lee, R. H., (his grandson), ‘Life and Correspondence of R. H. Lee? (1825). His ‘Letters? have been edited by J. C. Ballagh (Vols. I, II, New York 1910, 1914). LEE, Robert, Scottish Tweedmouth, England, 11 Nov. 1804; d. Tor- quay, 14 March 1868. He was educated at Saint Andrew’s University and in 1833 was elected minister of the Presbyterian chapel at Arbroath, Forfarshire. He was in charge of the parish of Campsie, Stirlingshire, in 183643, and from 1843 until his death was minister of the old Grayfriar’s Church, Edinburgh. He also served as professor of biblical criticism and dean of the Chapel Royal at the University of Edin- burgh from 1847. He was an earnest advocate of more graceful forms of worship within the Church of Scotland, working for the adorn- ment of church edifices, written prayers, the sanction of suitable postures and the introduc- tion of instrumental music. He was respon- sible for the installation of the first organ used in the national church, that at Grayfriars, in April 1864. In 1859 he was charged before the Presbytery of Edinburgh with unlawful innova- tions, but hecably’ vindicated’ his action and defeated his accusers. Other actions followed and the case: of his distribution of printed prayer books among his congregation was in progress at the time of his death, Author of clergyman: — b. 221 ‘The Holy Bible. With the Marginal Refer- ences revised and improved? (1854; 2d ed., 1855); ‘Prayers for Public Worship, with Ex- tracts from the Psalter and other parts of Scripture? (1857) ; ‘The Reform of the Church in Worship, Government and Doctrine? (Part I, 1864), etc. Consult Story, ‘Life of Robert Lee? (2 vols., 1870). LEE, Robert Edward, American soldier: b. Stratford, Westmoreland County, Va., 19 Jan. 1807; d. Lexington, Va.,_ 12 Oct. 1870. His father, Gen. Henry Lee (q.v.), popularly known in the War for Independence as “Light- Horse Harry,” left his home at eAlexandria (whither he had moved in 1811), when Robert was only six years of age, for a sojourn in the West Indies, on account of his health. After being away nearly five years, he re- turned, but the march of the fatal disease which had attacked him could not be resisted. When off the coast of Georgia, at his request he was put ashore on Cumberland Island and carried to the home of Mrs. Shaw, a daughter of Nathanael Greene, his old commander, where he died. Robert never saw his father after lhe left his home and was only 11 years old when he died. His mother was Anne Hill Carter. Observant, respectful and dignified, the youth was reaching out for manhood over a route that might 'be used as a model for those who followed him. He obtained his early educa- tion in good private schools in Alexandria, Va., and being sedate and studious, stood high in the estimation of his teachers and was. be- loved by all his comrades. At 18 the inherited instincts of his nature became aroused and he resolved to be a soldier.. A cadetship at the United States Military Academy at West Point was obtained for him by Gen. Andrew Jackson, and the natural bent of his mind was confirmed. To all. duties he gave his closest attention; to all studies his profound thought; to all military drills, evolutions, tactics, strat- egy and commands, his perfect obedience. He became an officer in the cadet battalion at the proper time and was the adjutant of his class, when a first classman—a post of honor ina cadet’s aspiration. After many who first. en- tered the academy in his class had fallen by the wayside in the various examinations, semi- annually held, 46 still remained to receive graduating diplomas. In 1829 Lee graduated second in his class without having received a single demerit during his whole course of study, because he conscientiously discharged all the duties confided to him; convinced then as he said many years afterward, that “duty was the most sublime word in the English lan- guage” He was at once commissioned brevet second lieutenant and was assigned to the engi- neers corps, the “Scientific Corps of the Army” as it was called, and won high reputation in that important branch of the service. On 30 June 1831, two years after leaving West Point, he married Mary Randolph Custis, daughter of G. W. P. Custis, who was a grandson of Mrs. George Washington, and thus became proprietor of “Arlington on the Potomac and other estates. Five years after, in 1836, he was promoted to first heutenant and two years later, in 1838, was made captain. In’ 1834-he became assistant to the chief engineer of the 222 army in Washington and in 1837 took charge of erecting works,to protect Saint Louis from the erosion of the Mississippi. From 1841 to the outbreak of the Mexican War he was at Fort. Hamilton in. charge of the’ defenses. of New York. During the Mexican War, the op- portunity was presented for the first time to show the military mettle of the engineer officer, and Winfield Scott, when placed in command of the army to. invade’ Mexico, constantly consulted with Lee, acted largely on his advice and mentioned him repeatedly in his official reports. Lee was responsible for the arrange- ment of the batteries used to reduce Vera Cruz. In that campaign he made a reputation superior to all officers of his grade. He sur- passed them in personal daring, scientific coun- sels—a coup d’a@il of the battle-field — and for felicitous execution of orders. In the re- connaissances before the victory of Contreras he especially distinguished himself, as was also the case at Chapultepec, where he was wounded. He was brevetted major at Cerro Gordo, 18 April 1847, liewtenant-colonel at Contreras and Churubusco and colonel at Chapultepec. His veteran commander said that his “success was largely due to the skill, valor and undaunted courage of Robert E. Lee,” and that “f oppor- tunity offered, he would show himself the foremost captain of his time.” At the close of the Mexican War his serv- ices aS an engineer were again demanded by the government and he was made’a member of the board of engineers of the United States army, being employed at Baltimore from 1849 to 1852 in the construction of forts for harbor defense; 1 Sept. 1852 he was made superin- tendent of the academy at West Point—a complimentary detail—and the school derived such benefit from his great ability and sagacious administration of its affairs that there was a general desire to retain him. Three years af- terward, in 1855, the boundary lines of the United States having been extended, making it difficult to protect American citizens on the frontier, two new cavalry regiments were added to the three then in service and Lee was of- fered the position ‘of lieutenant-colonel of the 2d cavalry by Jefferson Davis, the Secretary of War, and accepted, serving with his regi- ment at various posts in westetn Texas and giving very efficient service in protecting the settlers from the depredations of the Coman- ches and other Indians. Lee was at Arling- ton on a furlough to settle up the estate of his wife’s father, Mr.:Custis, when on 16 Oct. 1859 John Brown with a small force marched into Harper’s Ferry to liberate slaves and in- augurate’ war between the whites and the blacks. No one then knew the limit of the aggressive action of Brown, but the War De- partment knew that an officer of balanced judgment, combined with experience and cour- age, should represent the government at that point. Lee was selected and he promptly re- sponded to the summons to go to Harper’s Ferry. His judicious plans to capture Brown were successful, and the latter’s trial, convic- tion and execution followed. Lee then re- turned-to Washington and.in a short time was again on his way to resume his duties in Texas, “having charge of the department of Texas until February 1861. Though absorbed by the conscientious dis- LEE charge of his duties, Lee’s letters show that he had noticed the increasing chasm between the northern and southern sections of the republic, and that the citizens thereof were ranging themselves upon their-respective sides. Hon- ing to the last that the diverging views could be brought together, Lee was at last face to face with the “irrepressible conflict” and could only consider. on what side his sword, already famous, should be drawn. “We are between a state of anarchy and civil war. May God avert us from both. I must be patient and wait the end, for I can do nothing to hasten or retard it» he said. “I cannot anticipate a greater calamity for the country than the dissolution of the Union,” he wrote in 1861. The. plead- ing of the veteran Scott, who said that Lee’s services to the Union would be worth to it 50,000 men, and the long friendship of his comrades must be resisted; but beyond all, the command of the army of the United States, offered him on 18 April by President Lincoln, had to be respectfully set aside. His reply to Francis Preston Blair, who had been designated to approach him on the subject, is the key to his action. “I declined the offer he made to me to take command of the army that was to be brought into the field, stating as candidly as I could, that though opposed to secession and deprecating war, I could take no part in an invasion of the Southern States.» His inabilit to accept forced a prompt resignation, whic read ARLINGTON, WASHINGTON Ciry, P. O.. April 20, 1861. Honorable Simon Cameron, Secretary of War. S1r:—I have the honor to tender the resignation of my commission as colonel of the first regiment of cavalry. Very respectfully your obedient servant, R. E._ LEE, Colonel First Cavalry. Having once decided the question he never faltered in his allegiance or doubted the cor- rectness of ‘his decision. He said to Gen. Wade Hampton in 1869, as they were discuss- ing the war and its results: “I could have taken no other course without dishonor, and if it were all to be gone over again, I should act in precisely the same manner.” Going to Rich- mond at the request of the Virginia Conven- tion, he was made major-general and com- mander-in-chief. of the Virginia forces (23 April) .and when Virginia joined the Con- federacy he was commissioned in the Con- federate service and made one of the five full generals. In July 1861 the endeavored from a distance to direct the Confederate attempts to hold what is now West Virginia and in August took personal charge of the difficult campaign, but the campaign failed through: the fault of others and he was severely criticised by the newspapers. He was then put in charge of the sea-coast defenses in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, and here his knowledge and practical experience in engineering’ came into play, for there is little doubt but that the heroic defense which that department after- ward made was only possible through his skill and energy in placing it in proper condition. In March 1862 he was made military adviser to President Davis and occupied that position till the wounding of Gen. J. E. Johnston at Seven Pines. He quickly demonstrated his power of “a 3 ASavanees oe Photograph by Geo. S. Cook, Richmond _GEN. ROBERT E. LEE » \ 3 5 Fact “4 ry . ; a in * 5 x t j Ms * b+ ~ es “4% ' . ; - ji S ; : b ‘ " . . L. * A j ma: : Med | ¥ * L ‘ yy yeas wet ae Sake: 4 ‘oer — eee a 3 s! y . ¥, : 4th eee | ' e é * i ' - nat . . § ' b 5 Py 4 ; : : ‘- 7 ‘ om, 4 : . “> - ; “ 5 « & i : = ° z j 4 . . i \ be > r . c ? 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Everything had to be created — armies organized and the various necessary departments constructed, and on 1 June he was placed in command of the Army of Northern Virginia. He at once determined to drive Mc- Clellan from the siege of Richmond... He sum- moned “Stonewall” Jackson to his’ aid, col- lected all the reinforcements he could. and, after sending J. E. B. Stuart on a scouting circuit of the Union army, on 26 June opened the “Seven Days Battles, attacking McClellan’s lines on the Chickahominy. Several battles were fought (Oak Grove, Mechanicsville, Gaines’ Mill, Peach Orchard, Savage Station and.Glendale, qq.v.), and, while repulsed. in a bloody battle at Malvern Hill (1 July) where McClellan had made a last stand to save his army, Lee had prepared for a combined ajtack the next morning, but found that McClellan had retreated during the night under cover of his. gunboats at Harrison’s Landing, 30 miles below Richmond. He captured 52 pieces of artillery and quantities of stores of all kinds and left McClellan’s. army in. a demoralized condition, and though he had not annihilated it, as he had designed and might have so done but for the failure of some of his subordinates, he had driven it away from Richmond, raised the siege and by a series of manceuvres brought it to. pass that McClellan and Pope, who had taken command of the Army of Virginia, united forces near Washington. ‘Here Lee, completely routed Pope, the campaign culminating in the battles on the old field of Manassas on 28, 29 and, 30 August and finally drove him. to the fortifications in front of Washington (see Butt Run, SeconD BATTLE oF). Then fol- lowed the Maryland campaign, in which Jack- son. captured Harper’s Ferry with 11,000 prisoners and large quantities of arms and stores. On 14 Sept. 1862 a part ‘of Lee’s army under D. H. Hill was worsted in a battle at South Mountain (q.v.) or Boonsboro because McClellan had come into possession of Lee’s orders. Accordingly Lee abandoned his in- tention of invading Pennsylvania, ordering an immediate retreat into Virginia on the 15th and deciding to fight McClellan on the heights and banks of ‘the Antietam near Sharpsburg. At Sharpsburg (Antietam), 17 Sept. 1862, Lee re- pulsed every attack made by McClellan’s well- equipped troops and advanced his own lines, only retreating across the Potomac when ‘he learned that the Union army had. received large reinforcements (see ANTIETAM, BATTLE or). On 7: November Burnside superseded - McClellan in command of the Union forces and crossing the’ Rappahannock at Fredericks- burg, tried to take the Confederate army by surprise (13 December). Lee, however, had divined his purpose and, occupying a naturally strong position, not only repulsed his attack, but administered a crushing defeat, compelling him’ to recross the river, where his strong works and heavy artillery rendered him safe from a counter attack by Lee. (See FREDERICKSBURG, BATTLE OF). In’ February 1863 Hooker succeeded Burnside and was de- feated by Lee at Chancellorsville (q.v.). .In the Gettysburg campaign of 1863, Winchester was captured by Ewell, and at Gettysburg (q.v.) 1-3 July, Lee faced: Meade} gained a de- cided victory the first day, gained some ground (ae second day, ‘but was repulsed. with heavy ‘hhausted 223 loss on the third day.. He remained in line of battle all day the 4th of July and for several days at Hagerstown, but Meade did not attack him, and he later retreated into Virginia, in November. and. December 1863. compelling Meade to withdraw after the Mine Run cam- paign (q.v.), though the latter had 70,000 men to Lee’s 50,000... In March. 1864. Grant was made commander-in-chief of the Union army, “which was to crush Lee and capture Rich- mond.» He had 120,000 well-equipped and provisioned troops, while Lee had not more than 62,000 men, badly armed, wretchedly equipped and poorly supplied with rations, clothing, ordnance stores and. transportation. And yet he outgeneraled and defeated Grant in every battle in that campaign from_ the Wilderness. to Petersburg, from the Rapidan to the lines in front of Richmond, compelling him to camp before Petersburg and. remain practically idle for several months,;or until March 1865. (See WILDERNESS; ‘TopD’s TAVERN; Po River; SpoTTSYLVANIA. CouRT House; North ANNA; Hawes’ SuHop; Pa- MUNKEY and TotorpotoMoy; Drewry’s BLUFF; PETERSBURG; TREVILIAN STATION; . SAINT Mary’s CHurRcH; WELDON and. SouTH SIDE RAILROADS; JERUSALEM PLANK ROAD; DEEP Bottom; GLoBE TAVERN;. REAM’S;. STATION; Fort Harrison; Poplar. SPRING. CHURCH; HatcHer’s Run; Fair Oaxs)., These great contests against enormous odds are. a monu-- ment of the strategic and tactical ability of Lee as well as to the courage of his troops. His defense of Richmond and Petersburg alone was a marvelous example of defensive warfare. Now the supply of money was ex- and the question of feeding the soldiers was daily becoming more troublesome. A. discontinuance in the supply of arms. and ammunition. was imminent. .His gallant army had ‘been exposed in a violent campaign. to overwhelming numbers and he no longer had “Stonewall” Jackson and J. E. B. Stuart by his side. During the remainder of the war Lee had. to: guard 40 miles of breastwork with a bare skirmish line and yet meet every move of the enemy, to supply his army, to recruit his thinned ranks from a country already stripped of its men, and to witness. the starving out of his army — yet he met and overcame all these obstacles with a resourcefulness which was ‘born of. the highest. order of military genius. (See Hatcuer’s Run; Fort STEDMAN). Hav- ing been made commander-in-chief of all the Confederate armies in February 1865, he deter- mined to unite with Johnston and attack, Sher- man before Grant could reinforce him, but, on account of the poor condition of the roads.and the lack of transportation facilities, Grant fore- . stalled him with ‘his 101,000 infantry, 14,700 cavalry, 9,000 field artillery, and 369 guns at- tacked Lee’s army. (46,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry,.5.000 field artillery and 190 guns) at Dinwiddie Court House and White Oak Road (qq.v.), 30-31 Marchj,and at Five,,Forks. (q.v.) 1-2 April, inflicting a crushing defeat and caus- ing him to retreat. Upon, reaching Amelia Court House he found that his provisions had been sent.in error to the capital, and so being unable to retreat or give battle with any degree of success, on 9 April, at Appomattox Court House, the Army of Northern Virginia surren- dered. (See. FARMVILLE and. HicHsripcr}), 224 The number of men surrendered was about 27,000, but when the troops marched out to stack their arms hardly 8,000 were able to present themselves with muskets in their hands. When the time arrived for him to yield to the inevitable and surrender his splendid army, with whose courage and heroism the whole world was familiar, he was greater if possible than ever before. “When you return to. your homes,” he said to his troops at Appomattox, “you will take with you the satisfaction that proceeds from the consciousness of duty faith- fully performed, and I earnestly pray that our merciful God extend to you his blessing and protection.” “In August 1865, General Lee was formally elected President of Washington College, and notified of his election by Judge Brockenbrough, Rector of the Board of Trustees. He was offered a salary of $1500 per annum, and re- fusing all kinds of offers of wealth and high position at home and abroad, General Lee ac- cepted the task of rebuilding the fortunes of his great kinsman’s bankrupt and looted institution, and dedicated his life to the reuniting of the North and South, the rebuilding of his de- vastated section, and the training of the future leaders of the new era to solve the problems and bear the burdens of the social, economic, and political reconstruction of the Old South, (From Letter of Henry Louis Smith, President of Washington and Lee. University, 17 May 1924.) When tendered the presidency of the college, General Lee at first declined, saying he was “an object of censure to a portion of the country and might draw upon the college a feeling of hostil- ity.’ “I think it is the duty of every citizen” he further added, “in the present condition of the country to do all in his power to aid in the restoration of peace and harmony and in no way to oppose the policy of the State or general government directed to that object” He finally accepted, however, saying that after what he had written if the board still thought his ser- vices would be advantageous to the college and country he would yield to their judgment, and in October 1865 was installed. He con- tinued to refuse highly remunerative positions because he preferred to continue the educa- tional work he had undertaken. At last, how- ever, the labor and exposure of his campaigns and responsibilities attendant to his position as president of the college brought bodily distress. In the spring of 1870 he was persuaded to go south for his health, but the steady progress of the disease could not be checked and his life work rapidly drew to a close... On the evening of 28 Sept. 1870 he was stricken with apoplexy from which he never recovered; he lingered on for a fortnight, breathing his last on the morning of 12 Oct. 1870. Early in the war Lee’s home at Arlington, Va., had been seized by Federal troops and in January 1864 was purchased by the national government at a tax sale for $26,800, the Arlington National Cemetery being established there later in the same year. In 1868 G. W. C. Lee, one of the heirs under the Custis will, sued for the recovery of the property in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia which rendered a decision in his favor. This was affirmed upon appeal by the United States Su- preme Court, 4 Dec. 1882: Thereupon Congress by Act of 3 March 1883, appropriated $150,000 LEE for the purchase of this property, and on 31 March 1883, G. W. C. Lee conveyed to the United States, by deed, the title to the property in question for the sum appropriated. . Lee had for 63 years lived and moved among a people who will cherish his memory through succeeding generations, as long as the sun, moon and stars endure. He was a most remarkable man whether soldier or citizen. Benjamin Hill, of Georgia, summed up Lee’s character in splendid form when he said: “He was a foe without hate, a friend without treachery, a soldier without cruelty, and a victim without murmuring. He was a public officer without vices, a private citizen without wrong, a neighbor without’ reproach, a Chris- tian without hypocrisy, and a man without guilte He was Cesar without his ambition, Frederick without his tyranny, Napoleon with-— out his selfishness, and Washington without his reward. He was as obedient to authority as a servant and royal in authority as a king. He was as gentle as a woman in life, pure and modest as a virgin in thought, watchful as’ a Roman Vestal, submissive to law as Socrates, and grand in battle as Achilles.” Bibliography.—Allan, W. M., ‘The Army of Northern Virginia in 1862” (Boston 1892) ; “The Correspondence of Gen. Robert E. Lee, Chancellorsville to Gettysburg? (in ‘Southern Historical Society Papers,» Vol. XXVIII, pp. 148-155, Richmond 1900); Adams, C. F., “Lee at Appomattox’ and Other Papers? (Boston 1902) ; Bradford, Gamaliel, ‘Lee the American? (Boston 1912); Barnard, J..G.,° ‘The Penin- sular Campaign» (New York 1864); Bruce, P. A., “Robert E. Lee? (Philadelphia 1907) ; ‘Battles and Leaders of the Civil War? (New York 1884-88) ; Cooke, J. E., ‘Life of General Robert E. Lee?’ (New York 1871); Deering, J. R., “Lee and His Cause? (New York 1907); Evans, C. A., (ed.), ‘Confederate -Military: History? (Atlanta, Ga., 1899); Freeman, D. S. (ed.), ‘Lee’s Dispatches? (New York 1915); Lee, R. E., Jr., “Recollections and Letters of General Robert E. Lee? (New York 1909) ;: Gilman, Bradley, ‘Robert E. Lee? (New York: 1915); Hill, F. T., “On the Trail of Grant and Lee? (New York 1911); Jones, J. W., ‘Life and Letters of Robert E. Lee? (New York 1906), and “Personal Reminiscences, Anecdotes and Letters of Gen. Robert E, Lee? (New York 1876); Lee, Fitzhugh, ‘General Lee? (New York 1894); Longstreet, H: D., ‘Lee and Longstreet at High Tide? (Gainesville, Ga., 1904); Long, A. L., ‘Memoirs of Robert E. Lee (New York 1887); .Page,..-T. Ni, ‘Robert E. Lee, Man and Soldier? (New York, 1911), and ‘Robert. E. Lee, the Southerner? ' (New York 1908); Pollardj.KreA., ‘The Early Life, Campaigns and: Public Services of Robert E. Lee? (New York 1871); Shepherd, H..E., ‘Life of Robert Edward Lee). (New. York: 1906); Stiles, R., ‘Four Years under Marse: Robert? (New York 1904); Taylor, W.-H., ‘General Lee, His Campaigns in Virginia, 1861- 65> (Norfolk 1906) ; Trent, W. P.,, ‘Robert E. Lee? (Boston 1899); White, H. A., ‘Robert E. Lee and the Southern Confederacy’? (New York 1898); Webb, A. S., ‘The Peninsula» (New York 1881). FitzHucH LEE; ©. Revised by Irvine E. RINEs. LEE, Samuel, English clergyman and Orientalist: b. Longnor, Shropshire, 14 May LEE 1783 ; d. Barley, Hertfordshire, 16 Dec. 1852. He acquired Greek, Hebrew and a knowledge of Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Persian and Hindu- stani without instruction and was. graduated from Queen’s College, Cambridge, in 1818. He was appointed professor of Arabic at Cam- bridge in 1819, held several parishes, was regius professor of Hebrew at Cambridge in 1831-48 and in 1838-52 he was rector of Barley. He was a linguist of rare attainments and was re- puted to have mastered 18 languages. Author of ‘Novum Testamentum Syriace? (1816); “Vetus Testamentum Syriace? (1823); ‘Gram- mar of the Hebrew Language’ (1830; 6th ed., 1844) : ‘Hebrew, Chaldee and English Lexicon? (1840), and numerous scholarly translations. LEE, Samuel Philips, American naval of- ficer: b. Sully, Fairfax County, Va., 13 Feb. 1812; d. Silver Springs, near Washington, D. C., 5 June 1897. He entered the navy as midshipman in 1825 and was promoted passed midshipman in 1831. He reached the rank of commander in 1855, and served on the board of examiners in 1858-60. He was assigned to blockade duty off the coast of South Carolina on the outbreak of the Civil War. He was appointed acting rear-admiral in 1862 and placed in command of the North Atlantic blockading squadron and perfected a blockad- ing system by which the Confederacy was com- pletely isolated. In 1864 he received command of the Mississippi squadron and moved up the Cumberland to the support of Hooker, keeping communications open and gaining a vote of thanks from Congress. He was promoted commodore in 1866 and rear-admiral in 1870, receiving at that time command of the North Atlantic squadron. He was retired 13 Feb. 1873. Author of ‘The Cruise of the Dolphin? (Reports of the United States Navy Depart- ment, 1854). LEE, Sir Sidney (formerly SoLomon Laz- Arus), English author and editor: b. London, 5 Dec. 1859. He was educated at the city of London School and at Balliol College, Oxford, from which he was graduated in 1882. In 1883 he became assistant editor of the ‘Dictionary of National Biography, in 1890 joint editor with Sir Leslie Stephen, and on the retirement of the latter in 1891 was appointed editor-in- chief. Under his editorship appeared the last 37 volumes (Vols. XXVII-LXIII, 1891-1901), together with two supplements (6 vols.) and the ‘Index and Epitome.’ To this work he contributed 820 articles. His ‘Memoir on King Edward VII, contributed to the ‘Second Supplement, provoked a storm of controversy, his portrayal of that monarch not ‘being re- garded by many critics as sufficiently eulogistic. He was Clark lecturer in English literature at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1901-02, Lowell Institute lecturer at Boston in 1903, and lecturer for the Common University Fund at Oxford in 1909. He was knighted in 1911, and in 1913 was appointed professor of English language and literature in the University of London. He has published ‘Stratford-on- Avon from the Earliest Times to the Death of Shakespeare? (1885; new ed., 1906); ‘Lord Herbert of Cherbury’s Autobiography, with a Continuation of his Life’ (1886; new ed., 1906); ‘A Life of William Shakespeare? (1898; popular ed., 1900, 1907; rev. and re- VOL. 17—15 225 written, 1915); ‘A Life of Queen Victoria? (1902; new ed., 1904); ‘Shakespeare’s First Folio Facsimile, with Introduction, and Cen- sus of Extant Copies? (1902); ‘Elizabethan Sonnets”? (1904); ‘Great Englishmen of the 16th Century? (1904); ‘Shakespeare’s Poems and Pericles? (1905); ‘Shakespeare and the Modern Stage” (1906); ‘America and Eliza- bethan England, in Scribner’s. Magazine (1907); ‘The French Renaissance in Eng- land? (1910); ‘Principles .of Biography,’ Cambridge Lecture (1911); ‘Shakespeare and © the Italian Renaissance,’ British Academy Shakespeare Lecture (1915); ‘The Life of William Shakespeare’? (1916). LEE, Sophia, English author: b. London, May 1750; d. Clifton, near Bristol, 13 March 1824. She was the eldest daughter of John Lee, an actor. She was the author of a comedy en- titled ‘The Chapter of Accidents, brought out at Haymarket Theatre in 1780 with great suc- cess. The next year her father died and she - removed with her sisters to Bath, where she de- voted the profits of her play to the establish- ment of a young ladies’ seminary over which she and her sister Harriett (q.v.) long pre- sided. She wrote two or three novels and contributed ‘The Young Lady’s Tale? and ‘The Clergyman’s Tale? to the “Canterbury Tales,” published by herself and her sister. LEE, Stephen Dill, American soldier: b. Charleston, S. C., 22 Sept. 1833; d. Vicksburg, Miss., 28 May 1908. He was graduated from West Point in 1854; served on the frontiers of Texas, Kansas and Nebraska; was promoted to the rank of first lieutenant in 1856 and served in Florida in 1857. On the secession of South Carolina he resigned from the United States army and was made captain of South Carolina volunteers, and gradually rose from this rank to that of lieutenant-general. He was at Seven Pines, at the Seven Days’ Battles around Rich- mond, in the campaign against Pope and at the second battle of Bull Run. He was placed in command of the forces at Vicksburg, but was succeeded by General Pemberton before the capture of the city by the Federals. After the war he settled at Columbus, Miss. He was elected to the State senate in 1870 and was a prominent member of the Constitutional Con- vention in 1890. In 1880 he was made president of the State Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege at Starkeville, holding this position till 1899, when he became commissioner of the Vicksburg National Park. He was. president of the United Confederate Veteran Associa- tion after 1904. LEE, Thomas George, American profes- sor of anatomy: b. Jacksonville, N. Y., 27 Nov. 1860. He was educated at the universities of Pennsylvania, Wurzburg, Harvard and Munich, and in 1884-86 he was assistant professor of histology and embryology at the University of Pennsylvania. He was lecturer and director of the laboratory at Yale in 1886-91 and as- sistant professor of histology at Radcliffe in 1891-92. In 1892 he went to the University of Minnesota as professor of embryology and histology, became professor of anatomy and director of the Institute of Anatomy in 1909, and since 1913 he has been professor of com- parative anatomy there. He is associate editor 226 of the Anatomical Record and has written several monographs on the embryology of vertebrates. LEE, Vernon, the nom-de-plume of the English writer, Violet Paget (q.v.). LEE, William, English clergyman and in- ventor: b. probably at Calverton, Nottingham- shire; d. Paris, about 1610. He was educated at Cambridge University and while either cu- rate or incumbent at Calverton he, in’ 1589, invented the stocking-frame. Failing to secure royal patents in England, owing to the aversion to supplant hand-labor by machinery, he re- moved to France upon the invitation of Henry IV, who promised the patronage withheld by Queen Elizabeth. He established his. frames at Rouen and was highly successful in his un- dertaking until the assassination of Henry IV, and subsequent unsettled conditions caused the withdrawal of royal patronage. He died, dis- appointed and unremunerated, and his work- men returned to England where the foundation of the manufacture of hosiery by machinery was then laid. LEE, William, American diplomatic repre- sentative: b. Stratford, Va., 1737; d. near Wil- liamsburg, Va., 27 June 1795. He-was a brother of Arthur Lee (q.v.), Francis Lightfoot Lee (q.v.) and Richard Henry Lee (q.v.). Prior to the Revolution he was active as a merchant in London; and there he was for a time agent of Virginia colony. In 1777 he became asso- ciated with Thomas Morris (q.v.) as superin- tendent of the commercial affairs of the United States at Nantes, France, and in 1778 was ap- pointed commissioner to Prussia and Austria, but accomplished nothing, A treaty drawn up by him with Neufville, a merchant of Amster- dam, in the year 1778, and approved by the burgomaster of that city, became the avowed cause of the war declared by Great Britain against Holland. Consult Wharton, ‘Revo- lutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States? (1889). LEE, William Little, American lawyer: b. Sandy Hill, ‘N,_Y.,.25 Feb. 1821; d; Honolulu, 28 June 1857. He was educated at Norwich University, Vermont, and at the Harvard Law School, and engaged in the practice of law at Troy, N Threatened with tuberculosis, he in 1846 decided to remove to Oregon, making the journey by sea; but repairs on the vessel detained him at Honolulu and he undertook some important legal commissions from the Hawaiian government. He afterward accepted the appointment of chief justice and chancellor and remained in those offices until his death. He framed a new constitution with civil and criminal codes; was president of the commis- sion governing the distribution of lands to the common people, a proceeding due to his good offices; and in 1855 he negotiated a reciprocity treaty with the United States. His death was due to a recurrence of his old trouble follow- ing overwork in the Hawaiian small-pox epi- demic of 1853. LEE, Mass., town, in Berkshire County, on the Housatonic River and on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, about 33 miles northwest of Holyoke and 10 miles south of Pittsfield. The town includes the villages of South and East Lee. Lee is situated in an agricultural region; but the country is traversed LEE — LEE FAMILY by the southern spurs of the Green Mountains, known as the “Berkshire Hills” in this region. The delightful climate and beautiful scenery make Lee and vicinity favorite summer resorts. ‘The town was settled in 1760 and incorporated in 1777. A fine white marble found in the town is much used for building purposes. The principal manufactures are paper and dairy products. The government of the town is administered by a town meeting or by officials elected at the annual town meeting. Pop. (1920) 4,085. Consult Hyde and Hyde, “Centennial History of Lee — LEE, nautical term designating the side of a ship sheltered from the wind. The word comes from the Anglo-Saxon hleo and it is likewise found in other languages, the Icelandic hle, the Dutch lj, the Danish Je. A “ee shore” is one unprotected from the wind, as the wind blows straight upon it. To “get under the lee» is to take a position placing some object between one and the wind. “Lee- way” is when a ship drifts away from her- course before the wind. “Leeward” means the direction away from the wind. “Lee anchor” is the one not held taut by the swinging of the ship in the wind. A “lee-board” is one of two long, flat pieces of wood placed on the sides of a shallow boat and kept close-hauled except when the one on the lee side is let down to prevent the boat from drifting too rapidly to “leeward.” LEE-BOARD. See CENTRE-BOARD, LEE FAMILY, The, a family of Virginia, some of whose members have been conspicuous in public affairs at almost every stage of Ameri- can history. Among all the eminent names of the South there is none that outranks this in the number or prominence of those who repre- sent it in the records of the nation. Sprung from a cavalier line of old and distinguished English stock, the Virginia Lees have continued in the New World that order of Old-World aristocracy ——an aristocracy of character and culture, of honor and of public service — which has legitimated itself under the broadening con- ditions of democratic development, and to which, as well as to the plainer but not less masterful middle-class English element that elsewhere entered into the making of the re- public, democracy in the American Common- wealth owes its most essential traits. That Richard Lee who, during the reign of Charles I, brought his large household to Virginia and himself ‘became the first of this illustrious line in America, brought also to the Northern Neck in Northumberland County, where he settled, an English yeoman’s sturdiness, raised and enlightened and nowise debilitated by the re- finements of gentility. A stout partisan of the Stuart cause, he supported Sir William Berke- ley (q.v.) in his resistance to Cromwell’s policy, and through this attitude the colonists, threat- ened by the Protector’s fleet, forced {ts com- mander into a treaty styling the colony an independent dominion. Lee is said to have joined successfully with Berkeley in having Charles II proclaimed king in Virginia nearly two years earlier than his final coronation in London... Richard Lee’s son, Richard, and the second Richard’s third son, Thomas, were leaders in the colony, Thomas dying just as his governor's commission was made out, By LEE-HAMILTON — LEECHES his wife, Hannah Ludwell, he had five sons, who became distinguished for public and patri- otic acts. Of these, Richard Henry Lee (q.v.), by reason of the diversity and singular. effi- ciency of his services, rendered for many years before the Revolution, during that struggle and for 10 years afterward, to Virginia and all the colonies and later States, stands among the pre-eminent figures of his day. The steps pre- liminary to the Declaration of Independence can never be recalled without remembrance of him as mover of the resolutions which led to its adoption in the Continental Congress. The address to the people of Great Britain, which he wrote, is perhaps surpassed in weight and loftiness of spirit by no, American state paper. His brother, Francis Lightfoot Lee (q.v.), not only was one of the signers of the Declaration, but also made liberal sacrifices for the patriot cause, all the more to be remembered to his honor when it is considered that by temper and education he was fitted rather for the occupa- tions of a student, and for social elegancies, than for the turmoil of politics and the trage- dies of war. Arthur Lee (q.v.), youngest son of Thomas, was educated in two. professions, medicine and law, and distinguished himself by public services both at home and abroad. “As representative of the colonies in Europe dur- ing the Revolution, he displayed abilities as a _man of learning, versatility and political saga- ‘city, which he applied in ways highly. useful to his country in critical times. William Lee (q.v.), another of the sons of Thomas, also repre- sented the United. States in Europe at that period, with less distinction than others of this family attained, but not without some exhibition of their unusual qualities.. The fame of Henry Lee. (q.v.), the “Light Horse Harry” of the Revolution, unique in several respects, is endur- ing by reason of his political and military serv- ices, while his name is endeared to the Ameri- can people for his noble eulogy of Washington. As first cousin of Richard Henry Lee and of Arthur Lee, his rights are as valid as theirs in the name to which he adds a lustre in return for that it sheds on him. His son, Robert Edward Lee (q.v.), not only stands as a con- nector of the two great epochs of his country’s history — the Revolutionary period and that of the Civil War—but in his life and deeds, he worthily perpetuated the fame of the great family whose name he bore, whose blood, whose spirit, whose traditions he inherited. His nephew, Fitzhugh Lee (q.v.), whose name may fittingly close this sketch, was one of those Americans who, in civil and in military life, proved themselves efficient factors in the final restoration of the Union. LEE-HAMILTON, Eugene, English poet: b.. London, 6 Jan. 1845; d. 9 Sept. 1907... He was, educated at Oxford and entered the diplomatic service in 1869, resigning in 1875. He was for many years an.invalid, obliged to maintain a recumbent posture continually and turning to his art for solace. In 1896 he re- covered his health, and in the following year visited the United States and Canada. Among his published works are ‘Poems and Tran- scripts? (1878); ‘The New Medusa’. (1882); ‘Imaginary Sonnets? (1888) ; of Youth? (1891); ‘Sonnets of the Wingless Hours? (1894); ‘Forest Notes? (1898); ‘The ‘The Fountain. 227 Lord of the Dark Red Star? (1900); and ‘The Romance of the Fountain» (1905). He is a half-brother of Violet Paget (q.v.), “Vernon Lee,» and married in 1898 the novelist, Annie E. Holdsworth (q.v.). LEE-METFORD RIFLE, a _ military weapon formerly manufactured for the use of the United States navy and now displaced by the Springfield rifle. It was a gun discharging a steel-jacketed bullet with smokeless powder. The velocity of the bullet was 2,460 feet per - second and the penetration at the regulation range of 15 feet was 62 pine boards each seven- eighths of an inch in thickness. The pressure on the gun when fired was 60,000 pounds to the square inch. The rifle could kill at over a mile. LEECH, John, English illustrator: b. Lon- don, 29 Aug. 1817; d. there, 29 Oct. 1864. He studied at the Charterhouse School nine years, where Thackeray was his school-fellow; began the study of medicine at Saint Bartholomew’s Hospital; ‘but soon he gave up his medical studies and began making drawings. The first of his important works were the illustrations to the ‘Ingoldsby Legends.» He joined the staff of Punch in 1841. In that field he worked with pre-eminent success, supplying weekly pic- tures of all sections of English life — scenes of field and forest, of the busy streets, of the rustic cottage and alehouse, and the elegant city dwelling and club; the huntsman, the swell, the injured paterfamilias; the fast young lady and her grave, portly mother; the housemaid and her follower, etc—all thrown off with remarkable precision and showing a_ steady growth in artistic power. He was buried be- side Thackeray in Kensal Green Cemetery. His designs for Punch have nearly all been published separately as ‘Pictures of Life and Character? and as ‘Pencilings from Punch,’ He also executed the illustrations for ‘The Comic History of England,? ‘The Comic His- tory of Rome? and various other books. Con- sult Brown, ‘John Leech? (1882); Everitt, ‘English »Caricaturists? (1886); ‘Life, by Frith (1891). 3 LEECH LAKE, a body of water in Cass County, Minn., the largest of the lakes which constitute the headwaters of the Mississippi River. It is about 1,300 feet above the level of the sea; 24 miles long and 15 miles wide. The short stream, which is the direct outlet of the lake and flows into the Mississippi, is called Leech Lake River. The United States has built a dam at its outlet, which drains into the Mis- sissippi. On the south and east shores is the Leech Lake Indian Reservation. The country round is well wooded and fish and game are plentiful. LEECHBURG, Pa. borough in Arm- strong County, 34 miles northeast of Pittsburgh, on the Pennsylvania Railroad. The first use of natural gas in iron making in western Pennsylvania was made here in 1874. There are cement, steel and iron works and rich coal mines. Pop. (1920) 3,991. LEECHEE. See LitcHt. LEECHES, highly specialized Annelida constituting the order Hirudinea or Discophora. They are distinguished from most other anne- lids by the nearly complete obliteration of the celom or body-cavity, owing to the develop- 228 ment of parenchymatous connective tissue, muscles, etc., the presence of an anterlor or oral sucker and a posterior or subanal sucker, | and by the absence of sete, except in Acan- thobdella. In all leeches which have been care- fully studied there are exactly 34 segments or somites, each represented by a ganglion in the central nervous system, and being of smaller size and simpler structure toward the ends than in the middle of the body, where each is divided into from 2 to 12 rings, one of which, sometimes regarded as the first, sometimes as the middle ring, bears metameric,.eye-like sense organs. Most leeches are temporary parasites, a few nearly permanent parasites; the rest are predatory hunters or scavengers, or they may change from one mode of life to another. They are marine, fresh-water or terrestrial. The first class is most abundant, both in indi- viduals and species, in cold seas, the second is both temperate and tropical and the third is confined to warm regions. Four families are distinguished: the Jchthyobdellide or fish- leeches, the Glossiphonid@ or tortoise and snail leeches, the Herpobdellide or .worm-leeches and the Hirudinide or jawed leeches. The first two families possess a long protrusible pro- boscis and are much more closely allied than the Herpobdellide and Hirudinide, which have no proboscis. The Ichthyobdellide are chiefly parasitic on fishes and, except a few-fresh- water forms, are marine. Some of them, as Branchellion, are branchiate. The Glossi- _ phonide are richly represented in the fresh- water lakes and streams of North America by a great variety of species, most of which attach themselves to tortoises, whose blood they suck, or else they devour water-snails and small worms. A few are parasitic on fishes. In all of them the oral sucker is small and the eyes in one to four pairs placed near the median line. The Herpobdellide contains slender, six or eight-eyed, predaceous leeches, which are extremely abundant in fresh-water ponds and feed on small leeches and worms. They have no toothed jaws and the digestive tract is simple and straight. The Hirudinide have 10 eyes, generally three-toothed jaws and a spacious sacculated digestive tract. Here belong the true blood-sucking leeches, the medicinal leech of Europe and our native Macrobdella decora, also formerly largely employed in this country for blood-letting. The only terrestrial leech of the United States belongs to this family. It inhabits garden soil, feeds on earthworms and is one of the largest leeches known. Consult Beddard, F. E., ‘Earthworms and_ Leeches? (in “Cambridge Natural History,? Vol. II, Cambridge 1901); id., ‘Earthworms and their Allies» (New York 1912); Leuckart and Brandes, ‘Parasiten des Menschen”; Moore, J., “The Leeches of the United States National Museum? (in Proceedings» of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXI, Washington 1899); Verrill, A. E., “Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound (ib. 1874); Whitman, Quar- terly Journal Microscopical Science (1886); Moore, ‘Bulletin Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History? (1901)... — LEEDS, England, a municipal, parliamen- tary and county borough and large manufactur- ing city, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the river Aire, 18544 miles north of London. LEEDS The river, which in passing through the city is spanned by eight bridges, is navigable from its mouth in the Humber, and connects with the Leeds and Liverpool Canal (127 miles long) which gives communication with the west. The town extends for about seven and one-half miles from east to west and about seven from north to south. From the extent of the manu- factures the town is naturally smoky, and on the whole its appearance is not prepossessing, although much modern improvement has ‘been effected. The most conspicuous building is the Roman-Corinthian town-hall, considered one of the finest municipal buildings in the kingdom. The greater portion of one wing is allotted to the Free Public Library, to which has been added the Fine Art Gallery. Other notable buildings are Leeds Infirmary, in the Gothic style; the new general post office, in the Renaissance style; the school-board offices, the Royal Exchange, the stock exchange, Leeds University (q.v.), the Leeds Institute of Science, Art and Literature; the Grand Theatre, the new Empire Theatre, the gram- mar school, the Coliseum (a public hall), ete. Among the places of worship are the parish chugch of Saint Peter’s; Saint George’s, with a tower and spire 160 feet high; Holy Trinity, a fine building in the Early English style; some of the Dissenting places of worship, and the Roman Catholic church of Saint Ann’s, Other institutions are the Leeds Medical School (1894), Young Men’s Christian Institution, a large training college for students for the. Wesleyan ministry and a literary and philo- sophical society. There is an admirable central library with 24 branches. The grammar school dates from 1552. The charitable institutions of Leeds are numerous. Parks have been laid out by the corporation and recreation grounds, — the chief being Roundhay Park (two miles from Leeds), 300 acres in extent and contain- ing a lake of 33 acres. The fine ruins of Kirkstall Abbey (q.v.) (three miles from Leeds), a Cistercian foundation dating from 1152 with the adjacent grounds, presented to the town by Colonel North in 1889, form an attractive re- sort. Adal Church, nearby, dates from 1140. There are interesting Roman remains in the vicinity. The waterworks supply Leeds with water from the Washburn, a tributary of the Wharfe. The street car system, which is rail- less overhead trolley, is owned and operated by the municipality, as is electricity supply. An extension of the city boundaries took place in 1912, which brought in the Roundhay, Shadswell and Seacroft districts. Leeds is and has been for generations the chief seat of the woolen manufacture of York- shire and has become the seat of other im- portant industries. Chief of these is the whole- sale clothing trade, in which several thousand hands are employed, many being also employed ~ in the steel works, iron foundries, rolling-mills, tool and machine factories; in the boot and shoe factories and the leather trade, and in the cloth-cap trade, which is also ‘becoming a great branch of industry. There are also locomotive works, tobacco manufactories, color-printing works, extensive chemical and glass works, important works for the making of drainage pipes, firebricks, ornamental terra-cotta and pottery ware, etc. One of the great sources of LEEDS — LEES the wealth of Leeds is its abundant supplies of coal and iron. Nearly 100 collieries are worked in the district. y The history of Leeds extends over more than 1,200 years, the town being mentioned under the name of Loid or Loidis by the Venerable Bede as the capital of a _ small British kingdom about 616. Its first charter was obtained in 1208, and it was incorporated by Charles I in 1626. It was made a city in 1893, and its mayor was raised to the dignity of lord-mayor in 1897. The vicinity is crowded with villages, most of the inhabitants of which are employed in manufacturing for the Leeds market. Pop. about 453,170. Consult the publications of the Thoresby Society; Jack- son’s ‘Guide to Leeds,? and A. Tait’s volume on ‘Some of the Public Institutions of Leeds? (London 1903). LEEDS, University of. The Leeds School of Medicine, founded in 1831, and the Yorkshire College, established as a college of science in 1874, were united in 1884; from 1887-1903 the college formed part of Victoria University, Manchester, and from the latter year until it received its charter as the Uni- versity of Leeds (25 April 1904) it was asso- ciated with Owens College of Victoria Uni- versity. It has four faculties — arts, medicine, science and technology. There is an observatory, and the museums and laboratories are excel- lently equipped. The university owns a farm and dairy school at Garforth, and a new build- ing has recently been opened for the agricul- tural department at the university. The uni- versity is supported by grants trom the city of Leeds and the Yorkshire County councils, and it also receives liberal financial aid from the Clothworkers’ Company of London which has in all contributed not less than £160,000, for buildings and technical equipment, and from the Skinners’ Company of the same city. The students in 1913-14 numbered 1,262. LEEDS MUSICAL FESTIVAL, a three- day, triennial musical event in England inaugurated in 1858 as part of the ceremonies connected with the opening of the town-hall by Queen Victoria. Sterndale Bennett was the first conductor. While the festival was a suc- cess, giving £2,000 of its profits to the Leeds medical charities, it was not until 1874 that it was organized on a permanent basis. It pro- duces new compositions, both choral and orchestral by native and foreign composers, and reached a high state of development under the direction of Sir Arthur Sullivan, who was its conductor in 1880-98; inclusive. Sir Michael Costa conducted the festival in 1874-77, and since 1901 Sir C. V. Standford has been con- ductor. Consult Bennett, J.. and Spark, F. R.,, ‘A History of the Leeds Festivals, 1858-89? (1892). LEEK, England, market town in Stafford- shire, 26 miles southeast of Manchester and 157 miles northeast of London, on the Churnet Val- ley branch of the North Staffordshire Rail- way. The church of Saint Edward the Con- fessor was built in 1180 but has been greatly changed through different restorations. There are ruins of the Cistercian Abbey, De la Croix, dating from 1214, and there are also remains of the Roman invasion. The town received its grant for a Wednesday market 229 from King John. It has at the height of sum- mer a double sunset, caused by the sun’s sink- ing behind one hill to reappear and sink be- yond another. The town has broad, regular streets, modern educational and municipal insti- tutions and important manufactures of silks and of agricultural implements. Pop. 15,487. LEEK, a mild onion-like plant: (Allium por- rum), native to the Mediterranean region and much cultivated for culinary purposes. For table use its stems are usually blanched by mounding earth about them as in blanching - celery several weeks before they are needed for use. Leeks are used in soups and other- wise. They are the more tender and succulent the richer the soil. The flower stem is about two feet tall, and the flowers are disposed in large compact balls, supported on purple peduncles. The leek was well known to the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and is a Welsh national emblem. Several species of the genus grow wild in the United States, fur- nishing the wild leeks, wild onion, field garlic, etc., of the country folk. When cows eat these plants their milk and butter is tainted in con- sequence. See GARLIC. LEEMPOELS, lam’pools, Jef (Joseph), Belgian painter: b. Brussels, 15 May 1867. He studied at the Brussels Academy of Art under Portaels and Stallaert and specialized as a por- trait and figure painter. He received the great state medal at Vienna in 1895 and was awarded gold medals at Saint Louis (1904), Antwerp, Paris and Buenos Aires. He is a chevalier of the Legion of Honor and of the Order of Leo- pold. His portraits include those of Belgian royalty and nobility, and he also spent a sea- son in New York engaged in portrait work. His figure paintings are on the symbolic order and he is noted for his strong technique, fine coloring and careful finish. His ‘Hymn to a Family? is a portrait group of himself and family, and his portrait of King Leopold hangs in the Senate House, Brussels. His figure paintings include ‘Friendship?; ‘Destiny and Humanity? ; ‘Angel or Demon? ; ‘Les Eplorés? ; ‘Dominique? ; ‘Men Going to Work,’ etc. LEER, lar, Prussia, city and riverport in the province of Hanover, 58 miles east of Groningen, on the river Leda near its con- fluence with the Ems, and at a junction of railways to Bremen, #mden and Minster. The town is very old but its municipal privileges date only from 1823. The heathen place of sacrifice is near here. Leer furnishes steam- boat connections with the North Sea health resorts, Borkum and Norderney, holds markets for livestock and has an extensive trade in foodstuffs, paper, hardware and Westphalian coal. Manufactures include textile industries, iron foundries, shipbuilding yards, and soap, cigar, vinegar and earthenware: factories. Leer has broad, well-paved streets, a harbor im- proved in 1903, fine churches, a town-hall with a tower 165 feet high, and schools for the study of navigation and the classics. Pop. 12,690. LEES, Charles Herbert, English physicist: b. Glodwick, Oldham, 28 July 1864. He was educated at Owens College, Manchester, and at Strassburg University. He was appointed assistant lecturer and demonstrator in physics at Owens College in 1891; became lecturer in physics at the University of Manchester in 230 1900, and was afterward professor of physics at the University of London. He has col- laborated in the production of textbooks on practical physics and is author of papers on conduction of heat and electricity, and kindred subjects, published in the Philosophical Maga- gine, the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society and similar publications. LEE’S MILL, Engagement at. Lee’s Mill is a point on the Warwick River, in Vir- ginia, near which occurred the first consider- able collision of the Peninsula campaign. The Confederate forces under General Magruder occupied the line of the Warwick, and between Lee’s Mill and Wynn’s Mill Cobb’s brigade threw up intrenchments and constructed _re- doubts for artillery. On 16 April 1862 Gen. W. F. Smith, with his division of Keyes’ corps, was ordered by General McClellan to recon- noitre Cobb’s position, stop his work and, if deemed judicious, drive Cobb from it. Brooks’ Vermont brigade was thrown forward, and after an artillery fire of more than six hours, part of the time from 18 guns, four companies of the 3d Vermont crossed the stream below a dam and seized the rifle-pits of the 15th North Carolina, but were driven back with severe loss. The effort was renewed later in the day, when, under cover of a heavy artillery fire, which was sharply replied to, detachments of the 4th, 5th and 6th Vermont endeavored to cross the Warwick, but were driven back. The Union loss during the day was 156 killed and wounded, and 9 missing. The Confederate - loss did not exceed 75 killed and wounded. The result confirmed McClellan in his convic- tion that the line of the Warwick could not be carried by direct assault, and he directed all his efforts to the siege of Yorktown (q.v.). Consult ‘Official Records? (Vol. XI); Webb, A. S., ‘The Peninsula? (New York 1881-1908) ; McClellan, J. B., ‘McClellan’s Own _ Story? (New York 1887); Allan, W., and Hotchkiss, J., ‘The Battlefields of Virginia» (New York 1867). LEESER, Isaac, American rabbi and journalist: b. Neuenkirchen, Prussia, 12 Dec. 1806; d. Philadelphia, 1 Feb. 1868. In his 18th year ‘he removed to Richmond, Va., where he at first engaged in business. In 1829 he became Hazan or minister of Congregation Mikveh Israel of Philadelphia. His first work, ‘The Jews and the Mosaic Law,’ appeared in 1833, followed in 1837 by his sermons in two vol- umes. He edited in 1841 ‘Grace Aguilar’s Spirit of Judaism,’ and-began in 1843 his monthly magazine, The Occident, which he conducted until near the end of its 25th vol- ume. In 1845 he published his Pentateuch in Hebrew and English, and in 1848 his edition of the ‘Daily Prayers, according to the German ritual. Retiring from the ministry in 1850, he issued an English translation of Schwarz’s clas- sic ‘Geography of Palestine,’ and an edition of the Hebrew Bible, with Jaquett. He began now an English translation of the Old Testa- ment, completed in later years. In 1857 he was elected minister of the Beth El Emeth Syna- gogue, but continued his literary labors, editing ‘Dias Letters? (1859); ‘The Inquisition and Judaism» (1860); ‘Mrs. Hester Rothschild’s Meditations and Prayers? (1864): Grace Agui- lar’s ‘Jewish Faith and Spirit of Judaism? LEE’S MILL — LEEUWARDEN (1864). In addition to his work as editor, translator, author and lecturer, he gave the im- petus to nearly every Jewish charity in the city, while he suggested institutions that have since been established, so far-sighted was his ~ vision. He was for decades the leader of the conservative party in American Israel and was aggressive and fearless in his opposition to the reform movement, whose progress, however, he could not check. LEETE, Frederick De Land, American Methodist Episcopal bishop: b; Avon Springs, N. Y., 1 Oct. 1866. He was graduated at Syracuse University in 1889, and was ordained in the ministry in 1888. He held various pastorates, was general secretary of the Young Men’s Christian Association at Utica in 1891- 94, and in May 1912 he was elected bishop in charge of Georgia, South Carolina, Florida and Alabama. He is well known as a public speaker, and is author of ‘Everyday Evangel- ism? (1909); ‘Christian Brotherhoods? (1912) ; ‘The Church in the City? (1915). LEETE, William, English colonial gov- ernor of Connecticut: b. Dodington, Hunting- donshire, England, 1613; d. New Haven, Conn., 16 April 1683. He was destined for the pro- fession of law, and after being called to the bar practised in the Bishop’s Court at Cam- bridge, but joined the Puritans who were emi- . grating in great numbers to America, and reached the western continent in 1637. He made his home in the New Haven colony in 1639 and became a religious leader in Guilford, which he had helped to found. From 1658 to 1661 he was deputy governor of New Haven. From 1661 to 1665 he was governor, at which latter date the colony was united with Con- necticut by royal charter. He was deputy govy- ernor of the colony of Connecticut from 1669 to 1676, when he was appointed governor, a position he held till his death. LEETONIA, Ohio, village in Columbiana County, 58 miles north of Wheeling, W. Va., on the Youngstown and Ohio River, Pennsylvania and Erie railroads. It is situated in a coal- mining district and there is a supply of natural gas. There are manufactures of machinery and tools. Pop. (1920) 2,688. LEEUWARDEN, 1a’war-dén, the Nether- lands, Holland, capital city of the province of Friesland, 31 miles west of Groningen, on the canal between Harlingen and Groningen. The town grew around the courts of the Friesian stadtholders and is comparable to The Hague for its general attractiveness; possesses many handsome buildings and is one of the most important cities of second rank in the country. It was originally a walled city, but the old gates have been demolished, and the walls more or less obliterated. There is a town-hail built in 1715; a royal palace built for the Friesian stadtholders: the Kanselarji, dating from 1502; the unfinished church tower, Old- hove, built in 1529. Notable is the Friesian Museum, containing relics of several strata of civilizations from the stone to the modern age, gathered from the terpen, or artificial mounds, once very numerous itn the province, richly illustrating the evolution of the race, and especially of the Teutonic migrations. The city has an. extensive trade in grain, cattle, LEEUWENHOECK — foodstuffs, wines and brandies, flax, chicory and woolens; and manufactures sewing-ma- chines, musical instruments, gold and _ silver wares, cardboard and tobacco. There are shipbuilding yards and copper, iron and lead works. Its history dates back to 1149 and in 1190 it received its rating as a town. It had free access to the sea until about 1300 when the estuary on which it was built was silted up. It was important in the military history of the 15th and 16th centuries, and be- came a bishopric in 1559, but came under the Reformation in 1580. During our Revolu- tionary War, this city was the centre of inter- est in the American cause. On 26 Feb. 1782, after the pro-American excitement at Franeker (q.v.), the first vote to recognize the independence of the United States of America was taken in the legislature; the example of Friesland being quickly followed by the other six states of the Dutch Republic and then by the national body, the States-General, John Adams being received soon after as persona grata by the stadtholder, 19 April 1782. The Burgher’s Club of Leeuwarden “in grateful recognition of the Acts of the Assemblies,” had a silver medal struck showing a man in ancient “Free Friesian” costume, between two female figures, holding back Great Britain and welcoming the United States, while a cherub from the skies confers upon the latter the hat of freedom. The States-General medal, com- memorating recognition of the American by the Dutch Republic, represents the Dutch maiden, grasping over an altar the hand of the American “libera soror”; the reverse showing a steed free from all trammels, rushing to the mountains of freedom, with Latin mottoes meaning “Tyrants repulsed by valor,” and “inder French auspices” Another medal, rich in emblems, dates and Latin mottoes, struck 7 Oct. 1782, commemorates the Treaty of Com- merce and Navigation made on that date be- tween the two republics, Dutch and American. On 15 July 1909, in the presence of the queen’s representative and an audience of notables, a bronze tablet “Memorial of Gratitude” erected by the De Witt Historical Society of Tomp- kins County, N. Y., was unveiled. Consult Griffis, ‘The American in Holland (1899). Pop. 37,897. LEEUWENHOECK, 1a’wén-huk, or LEU- WENHOEK, Antonius van, Dutch anatomist and microscopist: b. Delft, 24 Oct. 1632; d. there, 26 Aug. 1723. He early gained a reputa- tion for the high quality of the lenses he manufactured for the use of microscopists, demonstrating the superiority of single lenses of short focus to the double lenses hitherto in use. cation his natural talent for investigation in- duced Leeuwenhoeck to make personal observa- tions and his discoveries caused him to be termed the “father of scientific microscopy.” He was introduced to the Royal Society of London by De Graef in 1673; and in 1680 was elected a Fellow of the French Academy of Sciences, becoming corresponding member in 1697. His reputation for lenses, which he con- tinued to manufacture during his life, was not surpassed in Europe, and a collection of 26 of the lenses bequeathed to the Royal Society, but subsequently lost, are stated to have been of While not possessed of a scientific edu- . LEFEBURE-WELY 231 double convex construction ranging from 40 to 160 diameters in magnifying power. His most important discovery was that of the capillary circulation of the blood, announced in 1690, and completing the theory of Harvey. His investigations definitely overthrew the theory of “spontaneous generation” supposed by even the learned at that time to be the origin of many insects and animals. His discovery of the spermatic animalcules, while made a few months later than that of Ludwig Hamm of Leyden, was nevertheless an independent | investigation. He was the first to discover the mischievous effect of the aphides upon plant life, and he made careful observations on the structure of plants. Among his other discov- eries were those of the red corpuscles of the blood, the fibrous structure of the crystalline lens, the nature of the brain, nerves, hair and epidermis. While his physiological specula- tions were at times wide of the truth they were not more so than those of the best physi- ologists of the day, and in the main display remarkable powers of observation coupled with Sagacious deductions which anticipated many modern physiological discoveries. His method of scientific research set a high standard among biologists. Of his papers concerning his dis- coveries 112 were first published in the Philo- sophical Transactions of the Royal Society, and 26 appeared in the Memoirs of the Acad- emy of Science. His collected works were pub- lished ‘Sendbrieven, outledingen en outdekkin- gen oudervindigen en beschouwingen? (7 vols., 1685-1718) ; a Latin edition, ‘Opera Omnia, sive Arcana Nature Ope Exactissimorum Mi- croscopiorum Selecta? (7 vols., 1715-22: an abridged English edition translated by S. Hoole, 2 vols., 1798-1801). LEEUWIN, 1a’vin or 1é’win, Cape, the name of the point of land which is the south- western extremity of Australia. It was named after the vessel Leeuwin, in which were the Dutch navigators who discovered in 1622 this part of the continent. The light from the light- house can be seen 20 miles away. The place is subject to severe storms. LEEWARD ISLANDS. EsTABLISH MENTS IN OCEANIA. LEEWAY, the deviation of a ship from her course caused by her lateral drift to lee- ward. Likewise, the angle caused by the line of a ship’s course and that of her keel. When a strong wind is blowing the steersman makes a proportionate allowance between the headway and the drift to leeward. When steeting in a smooth sea little or no leeway is made. LEFEBURE-WELY, lé-fa'bir-va'lé, Louis James Alfred, French musician: b. Paris, 13. Nov. 1817; d. there; 21 Dec. 1869. See FRENCH .In 1832, at the age of 15, he succeeded his father as organist of Saint-Roch, and in that year entered the Conservatoire. He was awarded second prizes in piano and organ in 1834 and first prizes in both in 1835. He after- ward studie composition privately with Adolphe Adam, and the organ with Séjan. He retained his position as organist of Saint-Roch and engaged in teaching and composition. In 1847-58 he was organist at the Madeleine, and he succeeded Séjan at Saint Sulpice in 1863. 232 He was noted for his improvisations, which, together with his compositions, were remark- able for their brilliant harmonies. He was elected to the Legion of Honor in 1850. He was especially famous as an organist and for his compositions for the organ. He was au- thor of 50 études; three symphonies; three masses; an opera-comique, ‘Les recruteurs? (1861); a cantata, ‘Apres la victoire? (1863), etc. LEFEBVRE, le-favr, Charles, French composer: b. Paris, 19 June 1843. He studied at the Conservatoire under Ambroise Thomas and in 1870 won the first prize with his can- tata, ‘Le jugement de Dieu.» He was after- ward a professor at the Conservatoire and engaged in composition. He was author of several symphonies, sonatas, much instrumental music and ‘Judith? (1879); ‘Melka? (1883) ; ‘Zaire’ (1887); ‘Eloa? (1889); “La messe du fant6me’? (1899); ‘Toggemburg? (1906), etc. LEFEBVRE, Jules, French painter: Db. Tournan, Seine-et-Marne, 10 March 1836; d. Paris, 24 Feb. 1912. He was apprenticed to the trade of his father who was a baker, but through his mother’s interest he was sent to Paris and became the pupil of Léon Coignet. His ‘Death of Priam,’ exhibited in the Salon (1851), won for him the Grand Prix de Rome, since which he gained many medals and honors. His ‘Femme Couchée? in the Salon of 1868, a nude of singular freshness and power, established his reputation as an artist of the first rank, and the votes of the judges were divided equally between this picture and a painting of Corot’s for the medal of honor, which was, however, bestowed on Brion. Among his best-known canvases are ‘Grass- hopper? (1872) in the Saint Louis Museum; “Mignon? and ‘Graziella? (1878) in the Metro- politan Museum, New York; ‘Diana Surprised? (1879) ; ‘Lady Godiva, a painting popularized by many reproductions; ‘Psyche? (1883). ‘La Vérité in the Salon of 1870 attracted wide attention, and in recognition of its merits the painter was decorated with the cross of the Legion of Honor. ‘Truth? is represented as holding aloft to the world a shining mirror. The action is impressive, the lines and propor- tion of the figure admirable, although the coloring is a little cold. Asa painter of ideal heads Lefebvre has become widely popular. His ‘Vittoria Colonna» is one of the most effective of these. ‘La Liseuse? (1889); ‘La Poésie Antique,» ‘Laure? and ‘Violetta, all exhibit the classic beauty, the repose and ex- quisite refinement of the ideal school while ‘Clemence Isaure? is a study which is very human and life-like. _Lefebvre was one of the first of French painters, and his influence was great in the Julien School where he was one of the in- structors. realists and impressionists, he stood in the same class as Hector Leroux, Baudry, Bou- gereau and Puvis de Chavannes, as an advanced idealist. Yet in opposition to such artists as Courbet, Manet and Bonnat, he was immensely popular, being in his love of ideal beauty and his refined technique “French of the French.” LEFEBVRE, or LE FEVRE, Nicolas or Nicasius, chemist, probably a native of France: b. about 1620; d. London, 1669. He was edy- Among the romanticists, classicists,. LEFEBVRE— LEFEBVRE-DESNOUETTES cated at the Protestant Academy at Sedan, acquired a knowledge of chemistry and became his majesty’s apothecary and distiller. In 1660 appeared his ‘Traité de la Chemie Théorique et Pratique,> which went through several edi- tions, and was translated into German. In 1660 he was invited to London by Charles II to take the post of royal professor and apothe- cary in ordinary to the household. He was also elected to the Royal Society, which had just ‘been founded. In 1664 appeared a trans- lation into English of his ‘Traité entitled “A Compleat Body of Chymistry.» The whole work is very well done, the author shows thorough familiarity with his subject, and his descrip- tions of apparatus, of substances and of prep- arations are clear and systematic. His work served as a-model for those of succeeding chemists. LEFEBVRE, Pierre Francois Joseph, DuKE oF DANzic, marshal of France: b. Rouf- fach, Alsace, 20 Oct. 1755: d. Paris,. 14 Sept. 1820. At the outbreak of the Revolution he was a sergeant in the Guards. He espoused the cause of the revolutionists, rose to the rank of officer and was noted for his courage and humanity in the street fighting in Paris. He was promoted general of division in 1793. He served at Fleurs, Altenkirchen and in other actions of the Revolutionary campaigns, and in 1799 he was wounded at Stokach. He returned to France and aided Napoleon in the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire, and became one of the first marshals of the First Empire. He was at Jena, received his ducal title for his services at the siege of Danzig in 1806-07, served in Spain in 1808-09, and commanded the Bavarian forces at Abensberg, Rohr and Eckmiihl. He was in command of the Imperial Guard in the Russian campaign and fought through Napo- leon’s last campaign against the Allies. He gave allegiance to Louis XVIII and was made a peer, but joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days and was not permitted to return to his seat in the Upper Chamber until 1819. He was one of the ablest of Napoleon’s subordinate commanders, fearless, unassuming, trustworthy and loyal. His wife, nicknamed by the court, ° “Madame Sans Géne” (q.v.), was, like himself, a child of the people and suffered much criti- cism, but retained his unquestioning loyalty. LEFEBVRE-DESNOUETTES, 1é-féy’r’- da’-noo’ét’, Charles, Count, French cavalry general: b. Paris, 14 Sept. 1773: d. at sea, 22 April 1822. He volunteered in the Revolution- ary army in 1792 and in 1798 had risen to the rank of captain, and was appointed aide-de- camp to Napoleon. He won promotion at both Marengo and Austerlitz, served in the Prussian campaign of 1806-07, and in 1808 became gen- eral of division and was created a count. He participated in the Spanish campaign and was taken prisoner by the English late in 1808. He escaped after two years and joined Napoleon’s invasion of Russia. He took part in the Aus- trian and Prussian campaigns, served again under Napoleon in the Hundred Days and was wounded at Waterloo. He was condemned to death for his allegiance to Napoleon but made his escape to the United States. Eventually he obtained permission to return to France, but was lost at sea off the coast of Ireland when the Albion went down with all on board. LEFEVRE ~— LEG LEFEVRE, FAVRE, fa’vr’, or FABER, fa’bar, Pierre, ‘Tesuit priest: b. Villaret (now Villard), Savoy, 13 April 1506; d. Barcelona, 1 Aug. 1546. He studied at the College of Sainte-Barbe, Paris, and became the tutor of Ignatius Loyola. He was ordained in 1534 and on 15 August of that year he was one of the six original associates of Loyola in the founda- tion of the Order of the Jesuits. In 1537 he was professor of theology in the Collegio di Sapienza in Rome, and in 1538 he was sent to Parma and Piacenza where he labored for a revival of Christian piety. He was sent to Germany in 1540 to uphold Catholicism at the Diet of Worms, and he was called to that of Ratisbon in 1541. He then worked for a time in Spain, but returned to Germany in 1543 and established the Jesuit College at Cologne. In 1544 he was again sent to Spain where he founded Jesuit colleges at Coinbra, Madrid, Valencia and Valladolid He was selected to attend the Council of Trent in 1546, but died on the way. He was revered next to Loyola in the original order of the Jesuits. He was beatified 5 Sept. 1872 and his feast day is 8 August. LEFFERTS, Marshall, American engineer: b. Bedford, Long Island, 1821; d. 1876. After receiving a common school education he took up various occupations, finally settling down in the profession of electrical engineer, which he pursued from 1849 to 1860. He patented an automatic system of telegraphic transmission. During that time he was in the employ of the American Telegraph Company, and consult- ing engineer to the Atlantic Cable Company. He made many improvements in inventions in the department of electrical transmission while in the service of these companies. During the war he commanded the 7th regiment. In 1867 he became connected with the news department of the Western Union Telegraph Company; two years later, president of the Gold and Stock Telegraph Company, and 1871 he took control of the commercial news department, which had been purchased by that company. LEFFMANN, Henry, American chemist: b. Philadelphia, 9 Sept. 1847. He was gradu- ated from Jefferson Medical College in 1869 and from the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery in 1884. He -was elected assistant professor of chemistry at the Philadelphia Cen- tral High School and served from 1876 to 1880. He was port physician 1884-87, and 1891-92, and in 1888 was appointed but not confirmed, coiner United States Mint, political reasons interfering. After 1888 he was professor of chemistry at the Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania and professor of chemistry at the Wagner Free Institute of Science. Among his works are ‘First Steps in Chemical Prin- ciples»; ‘Compend of Organic Chemistry” ; “Compend of Chemistry”; ‘Analysis of Milk and Water Products’; ‘Sanitary Relations of Coal Tar Products>’ (from the German) ; ‘Structural Formule for the Use of Students? ; ‘Analysis of Water; ‘Select Methods in Food Analysis” (2d ed., ” 1905) ; ‘About Dickens? (1908); ‘States-Rights Fetish» (1913). He edited Reese’s ‘Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology? (4th and 5th eds.), and ‘Allen’s oo Se Organic Analysis» (Vols. I and II, 3d ed.). 233 LEFORT, leé-for’, Francois Jacques, Rus- sian admiral and statesman: b. Geneva, 1653 or 1656; d. Moscow, 2/12 March 1699. He was of Scottish descent, was educated at Geneva, and after service with the French and Dutch navies he joined the Russian army in 1675. He served in the wars against the Turks and Tatars and afterward became a sort of mili- tary monitor to the future Peter the Great. He was a close supporter and adviser of Peter in the struggle against his sister, Sophie, for the rulership in 1677-79 and gained the undying © gratitude of the monarch. He reorganized _ the army with the assistance of Patrick Gor- don, materially aided the realization of Peter’s project of creating a navy, and was largely instrumental in introducing Western ideals in the court of Russia. He became grand admiral and generalissimo in 1694, and shared in the naval triumph in which Peter wrested Azof from the Turks in 1695-96. He was chief of the embassy in the expedition in which Peter the Great traveled incognito through Europe in 1697-98. Consult Bassville, ‘Précis histoire la vie de Francois Lefort? (1784); Posselt, oe General und Admiral F. Lefort (2 vols., 1 LEFRANC, 1é-fran’, Abel Jules Maurice, French historian: b. Elincourt-Sainte-Marguer- ite, Oise, 27 July 1863. He was educated at Paris and at the universities of Leipzig and Berlin. He was secretary, and later professor, of the College of France, was exchange pro- fessor at the University of Chicago in 1913 and was thrice a laureate of the French Acad- emy. He was a collaborator on the ‘Grande Encyclopédie? and attained general recognition as ‘an authority on the literature of the 16th century. Author of ‘Histoire de la ville de Moyon et de ses institutions jusqu’ a la fin du XIITe siécle? (1887) ; ‘Histoire du Collége de France depuis ses origines jusqu’ a la fin du premier Empire? (1893); ‘Lecons sur Moliere et sur le roman francais au XVIIe siécle? (1904-09); ‘Défensede Pascal: Pascal est-il un faussaire?? (1906); ‘Etudes sur Maurice Guérin et sur ses ceuvres inédites? (1908) ; ‘Les ceuvres de Francois Rabelais? (1912-13) ; “Grands ecrivains francais de la renaissance? (1914); ‘CEeuvres inédits de An- dré Chenier? (1914), etc. LEFUEL, lé-fwél’, Hector Martin, French architect: b. Versailles, 14 Nov. 1810; d. Paris, 1 Jan. 1881. He studied under his father and Huyot, and at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and in 1839 won the Prix de Rome. He designed in 1848 a mantel for the Palais de Florence which won great admiration, and in 1854 he succeeded Visconti in the direction of the work at the Louvre and at the Tuileries. He built the temporary palace for the Exposition des Beaux-Arts in 1855, and the facades of the Grand Galerie and the Rue de Rivoli were his work. He remodeled the pavilions Marsan and Deflore, and built the national porcelain works at Sévres. He was a professor at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and in 1855 he was elected to the Institute. LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, Icelandic leggr, Danish leg, Swedish lag; the Anglo-Saxon word was scanca or sceanca, from which is derived the English word “shank”), one of the two lower limbs of man, and any 234 one of the limbs of an animal, used in sup- porting and moving the body, in standing, walking, running, climbing or swimming. The sense of the word is occasionally restricted to the designation of that portion of the body between the knee and the ankle, but more gen- erally it is used in describing the entire lower limb. LEGACY, a gift of a chattel, money, or other personal’ property made through the will of a person deceased. Such bequests are either specific or general; a specific legacy as the name indicates is confined to the gift .of a specific article, as a piece of plate, a painting, etc.; a general legacy is one which is paid out of the general assets of the estate. If the subject of the specific legacy fail, that is, if it goes out of the possession of the testator, the legacy becomes null, whereas a general legacy, which of its very nature is not to be paid out of any particular property or possession, does not lapse provided the general assets of the estate are sufficient to cover it. When the assets are insufficient, debts being first paid off, specific legacies take precedence over general, the latter being then reduced pro rata. A demonstrative legacy is a term given to a bequest which to some extent partakes of the character of the two preceding forms of bequest. It is one in which the testator orders to be given the lega- tee out of specific property or funds. Such is a bequest of a number of shares of stock out of a large number. In the case where the _legatee dies before the testator the legacy lapses and is included in the share of the residuary legatee, or in case such a legatee is not named, passes to the testator’s next of kin. Legacies may be satisfied by the testator previous to his death, in which case they are said to lapse by ademption. Legacies to a married woman are subject to the law governing the property of this class of persons, and legacies to a minor are payable to the guardian who holds such in trust for his ward. ‘The testator’s powers are in some States limited by statute. For these and for rules as to the interpretation of clauses giving bequests, the provisions in regard to illegitimate children, etc. (see WuILL). Con- sult the references there appended. LEGAL EDUCATION. Instruction in law schools is given by lectures, by eee from textbooks and by discussion and explana- tion of selected cases. Each of these systems has its advocates. In a majority of the schools instruction is given mainly by lectures. Next in popularity comes the method of recitations on lessons previously assigned. There are only a few schools that depend mainly on the dis- cussion and explanation of selected cases. See COUNSELLOR AT LAW, EDUCATION, PROFESSIONAL. LEGAL HUNDRED, The, the govern- ing conference of the Wesleyan Methodist Church established by John Wesley in 1784 in order to give to his Church organization a legal standing before the civil authorities. The pow- ers of the body are defined in a paper called “the Deed of Declaration,” its purpose being to secure the property and safeguard the unity of the Church. A hundred members. were named from the General Conference, of which all ministers in the Church were members; vacancies are filled by election, thus rendering the body perpetual. The Conference meets LEGACY — LEGAL TENDER > once a year, its sessions never less than five days, nor longer than \three weeks, and con- trols all Church procedure whether of denom- inational or business nature. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, all proceedings, whether civil or criminal, provided for by law and brought or instituted in a court of law, or legal tribunal, for the purpose of establish- ing or acquiring a right, or enforcing justice or a remedy. The term covers all the processes of a suit from its initiation to the filing of records. A secondary meaning of the term makes it distinguish between cases tried in common-law courts and those of ecclesiastical courts or courts of admiralty, chancery or equity. LEGAL REPRESENTATIVE, or PERSONAL REPRESENTATIVE, one who personally represents another and suc- ceeds to his rights and place, as the executors or administrators of a will or estate of a de- ceased person; the heirs of a deceased oe ig either through relationship or bequest, and, the case of a living person, a representative in cases of bankruptcy or insolvency, as an assignee or receiver; or a guardian, partner, an assignee of a mortgage or a grantee of land. The term originally designated only the ex- ecutors or administrators of the estate of a decedent. The approval of the court is neces- sary to the confirmation of any such appoint- ment. LEGAL TENDER, in its widest sense, an offer to perform a contract according to speci- fied conditions. It also designates the coin and paper money which a creditor may tbe com- pelled to accept in payment of debts. Gen- erally speaking, all kinds of United States money are legal tenders in ordinary transac- tions, either with or without limit as to amount. — Specifically, gold coins are a legal tender for any amount; gold and silver certificates are not legal tenders; silver dollars, United States notes and the few United States treasury notes of 1890 still outstanding are unlimited tenders unless otherwise contracted; subsidiary silver coin are legal tenders for all dues to the amount of $10, and minor coin for all dues to the amount of 25 cents. National bank notes are not really legal tenders, but in ordinary busi- ness they pass as such. They are receivable at par in payment of dues to the United States, except duties on imports and for payments by the United States, except interest on the public debt or redemption of the national currency. Certificates of deposit payable to order are issued to national banks for United States notes; they bear no interest, and are chiefly used in the settlement of clearing-house bal- ances and in the reserves of the banks. State banks are governed by varying local laws, and their circulation is almost wholly within the several States. Consult Breckenridge, S. P., ‘Legal Tender? (Chicago 1903); Hepburn, A. B., ‘History of Coinage and Currency in the United States? (New York 1903); Hunt, A. R., ‘Treatise on the Law of Tender (Saint Paul, Minn., 1903) ; Laughlin, J. L., ‘Economic Ef- fects of Legal Tender,” in Vale Review (Vol. X, New Haven 1902) ; Smith, J. C.)\,“Legal Tender: Essays? (London 1910), and United States Revised Statutes, §§ 3584-3590, as amended. LEGAL-TENDER CASES — LEGAL TERMS LEGAL-TENDER CASES, in American finance, a series of cases before the United States Supreme Court, involving the question whether certain acts of Congress declaring United States notes a legal tender in payment of all debts, public and private, were constitu- tional. The cases were first argued in Decem- ber 1867 and decided in November 1869, by a divided court. Five members of the court de- cided in the affirmative and three dissented. In 1871 after a reorganization of the Supreme Court, the cases were again brought up for argument. Again the court divided, five judges upholding the constitutionality of the act and four dissenting. All the judges agreed that Congress had full power to direct issues of paper money. In 1878 Congress decreed that legal tender notes which had been redeemed or received in the Treasury from any source should be reissued and kept in circulation. This latter act was assailed in the courts and the Supreme Court decided, with but one dis- senting voice, that Congress had full power to make United States notes a legal tender in the payment of private debts in times of peace as well as in times of war. This decision closed all judicial action upon the subject. Consult Thayer, ‘Legal Tender? in Harvard Law Re- view (1887); Legal Tender Cases (110 U. S. 421, 1884); Bancroft, George, ‘A Plea for the Constitution? (New York 1886); Miller, ‘Lec- tures on the Constitution of the United States? (ib. 1891), LEGAL TERMS. The following is a list of the most important legal terms commonly employed in the United States and Canada. As it would be impossible to give anything like a complete list of such terms within any reason- ably brief space —there being, in number, sev- eral thousand of them,—care has been taken to select only those which are most frequently used, and, in each case, as far as possible, to specify in what particular branch of law they are applied — whether in civil law, criminal law, pleadings or elsewhere: ABALIENATION.— In civil law, the act of transferring a title in real or personal property from one person to another. ABANDONMENT.— (a) The act of voluntarily leaving a per- son to whom one is bound by ties of obligation, as hus- band, wife, etc.; (b) the relinquishment of one’s rights in a possession or claim. ABATOR.-— (a) One who, without legal right, enters a free- hold upon the death of its possessor, and before the heir or devisee; (b) a person who removes a nuisance. ABETMENT.— In criminal law, the act of encouraging, coun- selling or inciting a felony. ABEYANCE.— A state of uncertainty or of expectation. ABJUDICATION.— In civil law, the act of divesting a debtor of his real estate for the benefit of his creditors by means of judicial decree. ABJURATION.— The negative part of the oath of allegiance by the taking of which foreigners desiring to become citizens of the United States solemnly abjure their alle- giance to the former sovereign. AsLe.— In civil law, having the necessary qualifications; fit. ABOLITION.— A suppression of proceedings, or permission to stay further prosecution. ABROGATION.— A term denoting the annulment of a law by the act of legislature or by usage. ABSENTEE.— One who is not within the jurisdiction of a particular court. ABSOLUTE EstaTEeE.— An estate the right in which has been determined so unconditionally that the owner is deemed qualified to take immediate and unlimited possession. ABSOLUTION. —In civil law, a formal sentence or decree declaring a person to be innocent of the crime with which he has been charged. ABSQUE HOC.—A term used in law in the denial of some matter of fact that has been alleged and is repeated. ABSQUE TALI CAUSA.— A term used in law to denote ‘“‘with- out such cause.” 235 Ass. RE.— An abbreviation of the Latin phase ‘‘absente reo,’’ used in law to indicate the absence of the defendant. ABUSE OF DiISTRESS.— Such use of an animal or chattel distrained that the distrainer lays himself liable to prose- cution for misappropriation. ABUSE OF POWERS.— Used (a) in civil law to denote the act of resorting to intentional irregularity in order to gain a legal advantage over one’s opponent; (b) in criminal law to denote a use of legal processes for illegal purposes, as when a criminal complaint is made merely for the purpose of coercing the payment of a debt, or when valuable Rey, is sold on execution to satisfy a very small ebt. ACCEPTILATION.— In civil law, a release made by a creditor to a debtor without consideration and when the debt has not been paid. AccoMPLICE.— In criminal law, any participator in an offense, either before or after its commission. AccRuE.— In civil and criminal law, to become an enforce- able right, as the statute of limitation, which accrues by lapse of time. ACCUMULATIVE JUDGMENT.— A second judgment, which does not begin to exercise its effect until after the first judgment has expired. ACQUIESCENCE.— (a) Used in Canadian law as a synonym for “free consent’’; (b) a term used to denote any neglect to take legal proceedings that might naturally imply con- sent to the matter in hand. ACT IN pAIs.— A term denoting an official act that has been performed out of court and has not been recorded. Acts oF Court.— See Law, Legal Acts. AcuERDO.— A formal decision or decree of a qualified court. Ac ETIAM.— A term used to denote the introduction to the statement of the real cause of action in a case where it was necessary to allege a fictitious cause of action. AvppRESS.— In equity pleading, the technical introduction in a bill of the court in which a remedy has been sought. ADEMPTION.— The annulment of a grant or the lapse of a legacy by the testator, either by satisfying it or by mani- festing an intention to revoke it. ADJUDICATION.— (a) The formal judgment of a court; (b): a decree in which the court declares an ascertained fact to be such, as in cases of bankruptcy. ADJUDICATION, FORMER.—A prior decision in a case be- tween the same parties employed to bar any subsequent litigation covering the same or similar points in dispute. ADJUNCTION.— The act of affixing one person’s property to that of another, as when one erects a building upon another’s land, etc. ADMEASUREMENT.— A term used to denote the act of ascer- taining and laying off the portion due, as in cases of the settlement of an estate, the adjustment of damages, or of dower right. Sometimes known as admensuration. ADMINICLE.— Synonymous for corroboratory evidence. ADMITTANCE.— In civil law, the act of giving possession of a copyhold estate. ADPROMISSOR.— Synonymous for security, or bail. AD QUOD DAMNUM.— (a) A term used to designate a writ issued commanding an inquiry as to the damage liable to result from the opening of a highway, or the institution of other public improvement; (b) the order under which the compensation for damage is paid when private property has been seized for public uses. vdeee Bh The right of presentation to a vacant benefice q. V.). AFFEERMENT.— A term used to denote the assessment of a ,pecuniary penalty according to the circumstances of the case. AFFILIATION.— Used to denote the act of determining the paternity of a child, that the obligation for its proper maintenance may be judicially fixed. AFFIRMANCE.— The confirmation by a higher court of the findings of a lower court. AFFIRMATIVE.— A term used in judicial proceedings to SE the side upon which the burden of proof must all. AIDING AND ABETTING.—In criminal law, a term used to denote the act of a person who, while not directly respon- sible for the commission of a felony, has supported, sus- tained and rendered aid to its perpetrators. ALEATORY CONTRACT.— A term used in civil law to denote that this document, is a contract, the fulfilment of the conditions of which depends upon a contingent event. ALLOWANCE.— A term used in law to denote an extra sum awarded in addition to regular costs. AMBIDEXTERITY.— A term applied to the act of a juror who takes money from both parties to a suit and who promises to render his verdict in favor of each of them. AMBULATORY.— A term used in civil law to denote that a thing is capable of being altered; thus, the return of a sheriff is ambulatory until it has become a matter of record. AMERCEMENT.— Synonymous with affeerment. _ AMICABLE ACTION.— A term used in law to denote that the action at issue has been commenced and is being prose- cuted by mutual consent of both parties to the proceed- ings, in order that they may obtain the decision of the court on the matter as a question of law. 236 AMORTIZATION.— The conveyance of ptoperty to a corpora- tion. ANCEsTOR.— In law, one who' has preceded another in the possession of an inheritance, whether he be a progenitor or a collateral relative. ANCILLARY LETTERS OF ADMINISTRATION.—In law, the term ‘‘ancillary’’ denotes that the administration is a local and subordinate one, covering such part of the assets of a decedent as are not only without his domicile but which the law requires should be collected and applied to the satisfaction of the claims of creditors, the surplus being remitted to the principal administrator. ANNULMENT.— A judicial act making void retrospectively as well as prospectively, as in the annulment of a marriage. ANTECESSOR.— Synonymous for an ancestor. APPELLANT.— The person appealing, or removing a cause from the lower to the higher court. APPENDANT.— Any right or privilege that may pass with an inheritance. APPLICATION.— In civil law, the appropriation of a debtor’s assets among several creditors when the payment is in- sufficient to meet all obligations in full. APPOINTMENT.— The designation, by a person having the right to do so, of a beneficiary to take the use of an estate created under a previous will or deed. ApPPROVER.— In criminal law, one who turns state’s evidence by confessing his part in a felony and giving evidence against all his accomplices in the commission of the crime. ArM.— In law an arm is any object that a man may take in hand while in anger with the intention of assaulting another. ; : j ArraAy.— (a) The act of empanelling a jury; (b) the jury itself. ASPORTATION.— Used in criminal law to denote the felonious removal of goods from one place to another. Assay.— The examination of weights and measures by the legal standard. AtTtEmpT.— An “attempt,” to be a crime in law, must be an act done in part execution of the design to commit the felony; the mere preparation, without an effort at commission, not being a criminal offense. ATTENDANT.— In civil law, a person who owes a service to another. ATTENTATE.— (a) A question improperly attempted by an inferior judge; (b) something done after an extra-judicial appeal. ATTORN.— In civil law, to acknowledge tenancy under a person who was not the original landlord but who has since: claimed to have become such. AUTHENTIC.— Designating an action which has been executed with all respect to the formalities of law, performed by the proper persons and attested before the proper au- thorities. An ‘‘authentic act’’ in civil law is a deed that has been properly performed and attested before a proper magistrate. AvER.— (a) To allege as a fact; (b) to offer in evidence. AVOIDANCE, PLEA IN.—A plea in which the defendant, without denying the plaintiff’s allegation, introduces some new facts in the hope of evading its effect. BreQuest.— Personal property left to a person by will. BILL In Equity.— The pleading in an equity suit in which the plaintiff explains the circumstances upon which he bases his prayer for relief. Britt oF Exceptions.— In common-law practice, a doc- ument drawn after a trial by the unsuccessful party in which he presents all the rulings complained of as errors at the time of trial, and all the exceptions taken thereto, in order that they may be considered by the court to which he has appealed. See BILL. Britt or PartrcuLars.— A document in which the par- ticulars of the matter at issue are set forth in detail. Bona Fine.—In law, designating an act done without fraudulent intent. Thus, a “bona-fide purchaser’ is a person who has purchased something for the price asked and without notice of an adverse claim; a ‘‘ bona-fide possessor” is one who possesses something without the knowledge that there are others who have a better right in its title. BrieFr.— (a) A systematically arranged and concisely ex- pressed, but formal, memorandum of the points of law or of fact that are to be brought out in argument or developed in the examination of witnesses at the trial; (b) a writ summoning the person upon whom it is served to answer to the action. BURDEN OF PRoor.— A term used to denote the obligation which rests upon one of the parties to a legal action to produce sufficient evidence to establish the fact that he has alleged in his complaint under penalty of having judgment entered against him, and this burden is not shifted until the party upon ‘whom it has first tested has submitted sufficient evidence to turn the presump- tion in his favor. Capias.— In civil law, a writ directing that the person of the defendant be taken into custody. The most common kind of writs of capias are (1) the ‘“‘capias ad respon- dendum,”’ under which the body is taken to answer before judgment has been declared; and (2) the “‘capias ad satis- faciendum,’’ which designates that the body execution was taken after judgment had been entered. LEGAL TERMS ~ Caption.— A document or Aust of a document setting forth the time and place that an action at law has been taken, with the court of authority before which it was performed, and such other particulars as might be required to render it valid, all of which information must have been written upon or attached to the paper to which it relates. CaARRIAGE.— A term used in equity practice to designate the party to whom the right of going forward with the proceedings has been entrusted. . CasE.— The term applied to any suit, or action in court. CauseE.— A legal proceeding calling for judicial decision. CAUSE OF ACTION.— The condition of facts which entitles one party to bring action against another. CAUSE TO SHOW.—A term usually applied to denote an order from the court commanding a person to present a reason for some action, as why he should not be punished for cigar a7 of court, etc. CESSER.— (1) A term denoting that a person has neglected to perform the service or make the payment ordered by the court for two years; (2) a cessation, as of liability. CESSION.— The voluntary surrender of a debtor’s assets to satisfy his creditors. Also termed ‘‘cessio bonorum.”’ CHARGE.— An address delivered by a judge at the conclusion of a trial in which he instructs the jury in relation to the points of law, the weight of evidence, etc. CHARGING ParT.—In a bill of equity, that part in which the plaintiff alleges other and anticipatory evidence, or introduces matter to which he wishes the defendant’s answer. CuEAT.— A fraud committed by imposition. Such an act is punishable by law: (1) when it deprives another of his property, even when it is not great enough to amount to a felony; and (2) when it is accomplished by some method other than that of mere words, as in the use of false weights or measures or in the substitution of worthless articles for those of real value. . CLAIMANT.— (a) One who brings suit to obtain something which he demands as his right; (b) in admiralty proceedings, this term is applied to the person who is permitted to defend an action “in rem”’ brought against certain goods in which he claims property right. Ciaim Notice.— A term used in mining law to denote that a miner has posted a notification of his intended occupancy upon a piece of public land. CLAuUSE.— (a) A term used to denote a collocation of words which might be removed from the instrument without affecting its intelligibility; (b) used_to specify a distinct proviso, as a clause in a contract. The term “assumption clause’’ denotes a stipulation frequently inserted in a deed . to property upon which there is a mortgage or other incumbrance, that, under its operation, the payment of said debt may be assumed by the grantee to the exonera- tion of the original debtor. The ‘‘Enacting Clause’’ is the leading declaration of a statute, which usually begins “Be it enacted,’’ etc. An “Interpretation Clause’’ defines the meaning and limitations of words used in an act, while the ‘‘Saving Clause’’ is that which exempts something which might otherwise be included in the operation of the instrument or statute. Copici..— An instrument containing anything which a testator might wish to add, revoke or explain in relation to his will. Although supplementary to the will itself it is actually a part of it. See WILL. COGNIZANCE.— (a) A plea admitting the facts as alleged in the declaration; (b) in actions for replevin, a plea that the defendant holds the goods in question contrary to his right; (c) the action of a court in taking authoritative notice of a cause. COLLATERAL ANCESTORS.— A term used in civil law to denote relatives, or antecessors who are not progenitors. COLLATERAL Facts.— Facts considered foreign to the matter at issue. CoLLATERAL IssuE.— Something outside of the main ques- tion at issue. COLLATERAL PROCEEDINGS.— Proceedings brought, not for the direct purpose of impeaching the prior proceedings, but as a fresh action, as opposed to a ‘‘direct’’ action. COLLATERAL SECURITY.— Additional security. COLLATERAL TESTIMONY.— Confirmatory testimony. CoLLaTion.— A term used in civil law to indicate that former advancements of a decedent’s property have been returned in order that the estate may be equitably divided among all the heirs. COLLOCATION.— The alfotivent among creditors of the proceeds of a judicial sale that has been made to satisfy their claims. CoLLusion — A term used in law to denote a private, or secret, understanding by which two or more parties agree to act as though at variance with one another in order that they may prejudice those who are not a party to their secret and so obtain a remedy to which they are not legally entitled. Comity oF Nations.— A term used in international law to define that spirit of courtesy which causes one nation to recognize the laws and institutions of another in such a manner as to permit them to take effect within its own territory. COMMERCIAL LAw.— The term by which the laws relating to commerce are known. These include all laws regarding LEGAL TERMS shipping, bills of exchange, insurance, brokerage and general commercial affairs. See COMMERCIAL LAw. CoMMINATORY.— Designating an act of imposing such a heavy forfeiture in a business transaction that it cannot be enforced in a court of justice. Common Law.— A term used to define that body of law that has been derived from such sources as the reports of adjudged cases, from the opinions of legal authorities, and from popular usage and custom, rather than from any statutory enactments. See Law, COMMON. ComMuNITyY PROPERTY.— A term used in civil law, and in the statutes of several States, to designate the property of husband and wife, exclusive of the antenuptial property of either, and of the property secured by either through the avenue of bequest or gift. COMPENSATION.— Used in civil law to denote the annulment of a debt by a counterclaim which the debtor holds against his creditor. See MANDATE. CoMPENSATORY DAMAGE.—A term used in civil law to define such damage as may have been estimated as a fair equivalent for the injury received. CoMPETENCE.— (a) Legal right and authority to act; (b) also weet Bice regard to evidence to denote its legal fitness to be eard. . CoMPLAINANT.— The plaintiff in, or one who commences, a legal action against another, or in whose behalf a criminal prosecution is instituted. The claim for relief upon which such an action is brought is commonly known as the complaint. ConcLusion.— (a) The decision or finding in a case; (b) the end of a pleading; (c) an estoppel or bar by which one is held to the position which he has taken. A “conclusion of fact’”’ is a decision on the part of a judge or referee as to the actual facts in the matter at issue; a “‘conclusion of law” is a similar decision in which the legal rights and obligations of the parties to the action resulting from the conclusion of fact are clearly specified. CONCLUSIVE EvIDENCE.— A term applied to testimony that possesses such weight as to preclude any contradiction of the fact in question. Concurso.— A term in civil law usually applied to the litigation, or opportunity for litigation, which exists when several creditors, acting adversely to one another, claim the right to share in an estate, the object being to make one accounting cover all the claims against the fund. Concussion.— Used in civil law as a synonym for extortion. COoNDONATION.— Used to denote an act of remission by which a husband or wife pardons a matrimonial offense which one knows that the other has committed by per- mitting the guilty party to return to al! conjugal privileges. It is by such an act that the innocent party loses all right to seek a remedy for the offense in question. CoONFIRMATION.— Used in civil law to denote the perfection of the title in an estate or possession. ConF.Lict.— Used legally to indicate the opposition existing between the laws of various jurisdictions when an effort is made to apply them in reference to each other. ConFusIon.— A term used in civil law to denote the extinc- tion of an obligation owing to the fact that the two persons necessary to its continuance have become one person, as when one has become the heir of the other, etc. ConjJOINT.— Used in civil law to indicate a person who has a mutual interest with another in an enterprise or obligation. 5 CONNIVANCE.— The act of having a secret understanding with another; usually employed in relation to a wrongful act. CONSIDERATION.— A term used in law to denote the remu- neration that a contracting party accepts in exchange for something else or in return for a service rendered. A “concurrent consideration”’ is a consideration received at the time of the making of the agreement; an “executed consideration” is one previously received; an ‘‘executory consideration,’”’ one to be received at a date subsequent to the agreement. The term ‘“‘good consideration’’ is used to define that natural love and affection which is usually considered an adequate motive for the transfer of property without a valuable equivalent, except as against creditors. A “valuable consideration’’ is an equivalent that must be admitted to be of pecuniary value. ‘‘Want of consider- ation”’ is the lack of any equivalent whatever, and “‘failure of consideration” denotes that an apparently good equiva- lent has afterward become worthless. See MANDATE. CONSOLIDATION.— Used in civil law to denote the merging of the profit of land with the property. CONSTRUCTION.— (a) Used to denote an intelligent reading with such explanations as may be necessary to define the meaning of the text; (b) when uncertainty exists as to the actual intent of an instrument; any altered reading of the text designed to show its proper application is also termed a “‘construction.”’ ConTEMpT.— A term usually applied to define the disobe- dience to, or open disrespect for, a court or legislative assemblage that has come to be known as ‘‘contempt of court,’’ an offense that may be committed either in or outside of the courtroom, and which is punishable by commitment to prison or by the imposition of a fine. The term ‘‘constructive contempt”’ is applied when the offense, while not committed in the presence of the court, is of 237 such a character that the law is obliged to take cognizance of it, whether it was performed intentionally or not. Any wilful or aggressive disobedience or disorder is termed “criminal contempt,’ while an act committed in the presence of the court is known as a “direct contempt.” A person who has been committed for this act against the dignity of the judiciary, and who has not purged himself therefrom, is said to be “in contempt.” CONTRABAND.— The term applied to goods that are pro- hibited from importation or exportation by the laws of the country. Such goods, when handled illegally, subject one to the charge of smuggling. ContTRACT.— Used in the civil law to denote a document in which the rights and agreements of the two or more parties concerned in the obligation are specifically defined that they may become enforceable by law. Among the many- terms used in relation to the making or execution of contracts, the following are among those which are most commonly employed: Accessory contract, one made to secure the performance of a previous contract; aleatory contract (q.v.); bare contract, an unconditional surrender or agreement; commutative contract, one in which each party gives and receives an equivalent; contract of record, one that had been entered before a judicial tribunal, as a judgment, etc.; executed contract, one in which the thing agreed upon has been done; executory contract, one in which the thing agreed upon has yet to be done; express contract, one in whicn the agreement is expressly stipulated in writing; gambling contract, one in which the parties agree to make good all differences that may be occasioned by chance within a specified time, but such contracts cannot be enforced at law; implied contract, one that may be imputed by construction, as when by some valuable exchange or service rendered justice demands that the contract be carried out as implied; indeterminate contract, one in which the terms cannot he fixed until other motives act; joint contract, one in which the parties are bound to perform all the obligaitons of the agreement, or are entitled to receive tne benefit of them; mutual contract, one in which the obligation assumed by each party is in view of the obligation assumed by the other party; oral contract, one depending upon word of mouth alone; simple contract, a contract not under seal; special contract, one in which the thing to be done is specified in detail under seal; verbal contract, same as oral contract; voidable contract, one liable to be made void but which is binding until such notice is given; void contract, one that is not legally binding upon either party. See CONTRACT. CoNnTRIBUTION.— In civil law, the amount levied upon each of several persons having mutual interests in the same enterprise to equalize the loss suffered or the payments made. A “suit for contribution ’’ is an action brought to compel the payment of such proportionate shares. CoNnvVERSION.— (a) An unauthorized attempt to exercise the rights of ownership over personal property belonging to another; (b) an assumption in equity that real property has been converted into personal property or vice versa when the owner has shown in a proper manner that such was his intention. Corpus Juris Civitis.— Body of the Civil Law. Cost.— The sum fixed by law as the amount to be charged as the expense for bringing suit. In actions at law such costs are usually aggregated that they may be paid by the losing party when final judgment is entered. CourtTs-MARTIAL.— See LAw, MILITARY. CovENANT.— In civil law, any agreement under seal. CovEerT.— A term used to denote that a person is under protection; usually applied to a woman, and especially to one who is married. Covin.— An agreement in which two or more parties have entered into collusion to the detriment of another party. CREDIBLE WITNESS.— One who is qualified to testify and who cannot be impeached as unworthy of credit. : CrEpIToR’s ACTION.— (a) The term applied to a bill ia equity, in which one or more creditors, acting for all other creditors, seek to reach assets that could not legally be sold on execution that they may obtain an accounting and due settlement by law; (b) the same term is applied to the bill that may be brought by creditors seeking to set aside a transfer of assets as a fraudulent transaction. CRIMINAL Law.— That body of law which relates to crimes and their punishment. See LAw, CRIMINAL. Cross-ACTION.— A suit brought by the defendant in a previous action against the plaintiff therein. CuMULATION.— A combination of causes for action, or defenses, so joined that all must be tried together. CurIA ADVISARI VuLT.— A term denoting a postponement after argument to give the court time for deliberation. Dative.— Designating something that may be disposed of at pleasure. De BENE Esse.—A legal term denoting that a thing is taken for what it is worth, as in the case of testimony that may be suppressed after more full examination. DECLARATION.— The pleading in which a plaintiff explains his claim for relief in a civil action. DEDICATE.— To surrender voluntarily (private property) that it may be applied to public uses. 238 Depit.— In Canadian law, the sum stipulated to be paid as a penalty in case of breach of contract. DE Domo REPARANDO.— (a) The term applied to a common law writ issued to a houseowner against a neighbor whose building is in danger of falling with damage to the plaintiff's property; (b) a writ issued against a cotenant to compel him to show cause why he should not share in the expense of repairing property held in common. DrED.— A document, under seal, made for the purpose of conveying real estate. See DEED. DEFORCEMENT.— In civil law, the withholding of property to which another person holds the rights but of which he cannot gain possession. DEGREE.— The term applied to the distinctions made in the culpability of various persons who have violated the criminal law; thus, the active perpetrator is charged with crime in the ‘first ’’ degree; those who aided or abetted him, in the ‘‘ second ”’ degree. ‘ DE JurEe.— A term implying right according to law. DELEGATION.— A term applied in civil law to denote that a debtor has freed himself from the responsibility for his debts by offering another person who binds himself to assure their payment. DELIVERY.— In civil law, the act of placing a person in legal possession of any property. DenmisE.— In civil law, a term used to denote a lease for a number of years. DEPART.— To deviate in one pleading from the defence made in a prior pleading. DE PLANO.— Used in law to denote that a thing is so mani- festly right as to require no argument. DETERMINABLE.— A term used in civil law to denote that a thing is liable to termination by uncertain contingencies. DeETINET.— A common law action of debt in which it is alleged that the defendant held back money that should have been paid to the plaintiff. Devest.— A term used as a synonym for deprivation of title. Dicrum.— An opinion of a judge, but not the deliberate determination of the court. DiuinuTion.— Used to denote that an omission has been made in the records of a case sent from a lower to a higher court for review. DIscLAIMER.— (a) A refusal to accept a position, as trustee of an estate or executor under a will; (b) a plea by which the defendant abandons all claim upon or interest in the subject at issue; (c) an instrument by which a patentee abandons a part of his claim of invention. DISCONTINUANCE.— A term used to imply that a suit has been terminated through the action of the plaintiff. DIsScRETION.— A judicial power that is exercised purely upon personal judgment in view of existing circumstances and not upon application of any rules of law. DisMmiss1ion.— Rejection of a suit by the court on the ground that it is unworthy of maintenance. DISTRAIN.— To seize and hold another’s goods in order to apply them to the satisfaction of the distrainor’s claim, or to maintain possession of them until such a claim is settled. — DisTURBANCE.— In common law, the wrongful obstruction of any party in the enjoyment of his personal rights. ee In civil law, the act of abandoning one’s effects. Do. capax.— A term used in common law to denote that a child is of sufficient age to be able to distinguish the difference between right and wrong. Dominus.— In civil law, the person who maintains possession of something by right. DonaTion.— In civil law, the transference of something from one person to another without consideration. DoweEr.— The portion of a husband’s estate which reverts to the wife upon his death. Dup.icity.— Used to define the act of pleading two or more distinct matters together as if they constituted only one. Duress.— Used to denote the exercise of such restraint as to practically amount to coercion. ‘‘Duress of goods’’i s the forcible seizure of goods without authority to force the claimant into settlement; ‘“‘duress of imprisonment’’ implies actual personal restraint; ‘duress per minas’, denotes coercion effected by threats of personal injury to life or limb. In law, no promise or agreement is held to be binding if made under duress. ELeciT.— (a) A judicial writ of execution; (b) a title to land held under such writ. ELIMINATION.— A term frequently used as a synonym for ejectment. ENCUMBRANCE.— The amount for unpaid services or public charges that rest upon a property to diminish its value even through changes of ownership. Enjorn.— The act of restraining a person by means of a judicial injunction. ENTIRETIES, TENANCY By.— A tenure created when an estate is divided or conveyed to a man and his wife during coverture. Escrow.— A writing that has been fully executed but which has then been placed in the hands of a third party, to be held by him until such time as the specified conditions Pate ee the instrument was prepared have been ulfilled. LEGAL TERMS EspLEees.— A term used to denote the products of the land, whether in produce, rents, or otherwise. EvocaTion.— In law, the act of taking an action from one court for the purpose of carrying it to a higher court. | ExactTion.— An offence committed by officials in authority who exact or take a fee when the law requires that none be paid. EXCEPTION.— (a) A term most frequently used to denote the action in common law practice by which all objections made to the rulings of a court are noted in writing that they may be submitted to a higher court as an explicit reason why an appeal should be granted; (b) a clause in a con- veyance exempting some portion of the estate from the sale; (c) a writing employed in a case in equity to indicate the particular portions of an adversary’s pleadings to which objection has been taken. EXCHANGE.— In civil law, a reciprocal transfer of property in which no financial consideration is offered or required. EXECUTOR DE SON TORT.— One who attempts to settle the affairs of a deceased person without authority. ; Ex FACIE.— A term used to denote what may be assumed from the face of a writing. EXPATRIATION.— The act of renouncing the country of one’s birth to become a citizen of another country. Expromissor.— In civil law, one who binds himself to pay the debts of another person. chee In civil law, to seize lands in satisfaction of a ebt. ExtTorTION.— (a) A gross overcharge which could not be upheld in law; (b) the act of obtaining money from another person when none, or a smaller amount, is due. EXTRADOTAL.— In civil law, that portion of a woman's Sablag hes that is exempt from consideration under dower Tight. Factum.— The term used to denote the statement of a case to the court. Frr.— An estate held in trust. When it is vested in the owner and his heirs and assigns forever, it is commonly known as a “‘fee simple.” FEIGNED IssuE.— A term used to denote that the issue has been prepared for court by agreement, or by judicial order, rather than by the ordinary procedure. FIDUCIARY Capacity.— A term often used to denote that the position occupied by the party referred to was one of trust and confidence, the idea being that violations of such confidence are not covered either by discharge in bankruptcy or by the laws and rulings regarding imprison- ment for debt. Freri FAcrIAS.— A civil law writ that may be issued after judgment, empowering the sheriff to levy upon goods or lands to secure the amount due. FoRBEARANCE.— In civil law, the act of restraining the enforcement of one’s legal rights. Force AND Arms.—A term used’ to denote that the act complained of was done with violence. ForciB_E Entry.— The act of taking possession of property by means of threats, or by arms, etc. ForEIGN ATTACHMENT.— The process of seizing the local property of an absent debtor in order that he must either put in an appearance or allow the claims of the creditor to be satisfied. ForeiGN Matter.— Actions that must of necessity be tried in some other: county. ForRFEITURE.— The act of having one’s property transferred to another as the result of one’s negligence or by reason of the misdeed of another person. FuRNITURE.— In civil law, personal chattels in use by a family, and, ordinarily, exempt from legal process. Gace.— A term used to denote the personal property that ~has been placed in a creditor’s hands by a debtor as security for the payment of his indebtedness. hee DEL LEY.— Used synonymously with a ‘‘wager of aw.”’ GARNISHEE.— The person who takes possession of the money or property of another with the avowed intent to keep it to answer the claim of the creditor, or until the defendant is otherwise discharged. Girt.— In civil law, a conveyance that is made without consideration, either in blood or money. Givinc Time.— In civil law, an agreement by which all the creditors agree to give a debtor time to pay his debts instead of forcing him to abide by the terms of the first agreement. ; Go WitHout Day.— A term used to denote that a case has been dismissed from court. sae GrANT.— (a) A generic term applied in civil law to all transfers of real estate; (b) the instrument by which the transfer is made, or the property which is so transferred. Gross NEGLIGENCE.— A term used to indicate that the ordinary care which even a thoughtless man might take of his own person or property has in this instance been omitted. > HaBEAs Corpus.— A term used to denote a writ issued to parties suspected of detaining another, and commanding them to produce the body of that person at a certain time and place, there to submit to such judgment as the court may see fit to make in the matter. This habeas corpus action is one of the most famous in law, it havinggbeen LEGAL TERMS used so often to protect human rights that it has come to be known as the ‘Great writ of Liberty.’”’ See HABEAS Corpus. HABITATION.— In civil law, the right of an individual to live in a house owned by another person without prejudice to the property. HABITUAL CRIMINALS.— Persons who are so well known as malefactors by reason of their criminal past history and associations as to be punishable by penalties of more severity than are ordinarily imposed upon persons who have no such record against them. HEARSAY EvIDENCE.— The term applied to testimony that cannot derive its value in credibility from the witness himself, but must depend largely upon the veracity of another person. HERITAGE.— In civil law, every kind of immovable property, whether acquired by purchase, descent, or otherwise. Hicu Seas.— A term often used in the settlement of ques- tions of jurisdiction, etc. It denotes the uninclosed water of the ocean and all those of the sea-board that may be beyond the boundaries of the low-water mark. Ho.p.— Used technically in civil law as a part of the term “To have and to hold,’ the clause known as the “tenendum,’’ by which the grantee’s tenure to the land in question is expressed. Homo.LocaTion.— A term used in civil law to denote the approbation of the award and order necessary before execution may take place. HyYpoTHECATION.— A term used in civil law to denote a creditor’s right over a debtor’s property: the power to cause it to be disposed of by sale that he may secure his payment from the proceeds. There are various forms of hypothecation recognized by law: Conventional hypothe- cation, or those effected by the agreement of parties; general hypothecation, as when a debtor hypothecates his entire estate for the benefit of his creditors; legal hypothe- cation, those that are not dependent upon a contract or agreement; special hypothecation, or the hypothecation of a special estate; and tacit hypothecation, as when ordered by the court to secure a debtor’s creditors. IMMATERIAL AVERMENT.—In pleading, a statement of unnecessary particulars sometimes included in connection with, or as description of, what is actually material to the case. IMMORAL CONSIDERATION.— A term used to define a contract based upon something which is contrary to good morals; such contracts usually being void. IMMOvABLES.— A term used in civil law to denote that kind of property which from its own nature or by its situation cannot move itself or be removed without great difficulty. IMPARLANCE.— A term denoting the continuance of a cause for a few days to give one of the parties to the issue time to answer the pleadings of his opponent. IMPEDIMENTS.— In civil law, the legal hindrances in the making of contracts, as minority, lack of reason, coverture, €tc: ImMprertum.— A term used to define a power that vests only in the executive: The right to call upon the military forces of the State to enforce its statutes. IMPERTINENT.— A term used to denote that certain matters that have been introduced into a bill, answer, or other proceedings in equity, are not properly before the court. IMPROVEMENT.— A term used in civil law to denote the betterment in the condition of a property due to the expenditure of labor and money. IN FRAUDEM LEGIS.— A term used to imply that a thing is “contrary to the law.’ In Futt Lire.—A term used to indicate that a person 1s neither physically nor civilly dead. IN LOCO PARENTIS.— Literally, in place of a parent. IN PARI CAUSA.—A term employed to denote that two parties are in equal right according to law, in which case, according to usage, the party having possession is regarded. as of best right. IN PARI DELICTO.— A term indicating that both parties to an issue are equally at fault, a case in which no relief can be obtained. : IN PROPRIA PERSONA.— Literally, in his own person. IN SOLIDUM IN SOLIDO.— A term used in the making of a contract, and meaning, ‘‘For a whole as a whole.’”’ In sTATU QUO.— Literally, in the same condition as before. In toto.— Used legally to imply “in the whole.” INALIENABLE.— Designating properties that cannot be trans- ferred from one to another, as the public highways, parks, etc. ; INCOMPATIBILITY.— A term denoting the incapability of two persons to exercise the rights and privileges when together, as in the case of landlord and tenant, husband and wife, etc. INDIRECT EvIDENCE.— A term used to denote that kind of evidence that, while it does not establish the fact in ques- tion, furnishes a presumptive proof in its favor. INDUCEMENT.— Employed in civil law to denote the con- sideration, or benefit which was used to induce the promisor to make the contract in question. INDUCIAE.— Used in civil law to indicate the declaration of a truce in judicial hostilities. INJURIA ABSQUE DAMNO.— A term used to imply that the wrong incurred was without damage or loss, in which the action at law cannot be maintained, 239 JEOPARDY.— The condition of a prisoner when a trial jury has been impanelled and sworn to try his case. If he escapes this jeopardy he cannot again be subjected to the same danger, the United States Constitution clearly defin- ing that point that ‘‘No person shall be subject for the same offenes to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.’’ JOINDER.— (a) In civil law, the merging of several causes of action in a single declaration; (b) in criminal law, the act of joining several cases of the same nature in one indict- ment; (c) acceptance by both parties to.an action of an issue tendered. Joint Action.— A term used when two or more persons are alike parties to a suit, as two or more plaintiffs against two or more defendants. Jus ABUTENDI.— A term meaning, literally, the right to abuse, but generally employed to denote that the party in ~ question has every possible right over his property. JUSTIFYING Bait.— A term used to denote that the parties who have been produced as bail have been able to justify themselves in spite of any exceptions taken by the opposition. LABor A Jury.—A term used to denote that an effort has been made to reach the jury for the purpose of tampering with it, or affecting its decisions. LAcHES.— Neglect to perform a certain duty or to protect a claim at the proper time. LAw or Eguity.— See LAw. Law or MERCHANTS.— See LAw. Law oF NATIONS.— See Law. LesE Mayjesty.— Apparent disrespect for a monarch. In some countries such an offense is treated as treason. LETTERS ‘TESTAMENTARY.—An instrument in writing, granted by a judge or other official having authorty and jurisdiction over the probate of wills, making it known that the will in question has been proved in proper form and that the estate is in order to be administered. LEVITICAL DEGREE.—A term used in law to denote the degrees of kindred that are prohibited in the 18th chapter: of Leviticus. LrEx Loci.— A term used to denote the local law, or, literally, the law of the place. LIQUIDATED DAMAGES.— Damages, the amount of which have been decided upon by an anticipatory agreement between the parties concerned. Mave Known.— A term used to denote that a writ of scire facias has been duly served upon the defendant. Martnour.— A term which literally means ‘‘found in hand,” and which is used in criminal law to denote that the goods stolen were found with the person who stole them. “To be taken in the mainour,”’ therefore, is synonymous with being caught in the act. MAINTENANCE.— A term used in law to denote any officious interference with the course of justice. ; MALFEASANCE.— A term used to denote the unlawful or wrongful conduct of a public official in office. MALpRACTICE.— A term denoting bad medical practice, whether due to ignorance, carelessness, or criminal intent. MALUM IN SE.— A term denoting that an act is evil in itself, in counterdistinction to the offenses that, while not naturally evil, have become so because of the fact that they have been specifically prohibited. MANBOTE.— The compensation paid to the relatives of a murdered man by the murderer, or on behalf of the latter. MANDAMuS.— A writ issued by a superior court by which an inferior court, a corporation, or other body is directed to perform some act therein specified on the ground that it is a part of their office and duty. A writ of mandamus which couples this command with an alternative to the effect that if this act be not done the party commanded to perform it must show cause why this order has not been obeyed, is termed an “alternative mandamus”; a writ in which the command of the superior court is absolute, is termed a “peremptory mandamus.” MANU ForTi.— A term used in pleading to denote that the entry was the most forcible that could be made. MATTER IN DEED.— A matter that may be proved by deed. MATTER OF Fact.—A matter that may be referred to a jury, as its truth is a question that may be determined by the senses, or decided upon evidence. MATTER OF Law.—A matter the truth or falsity of which must be decided by established rules of law. MATTER OF RECORD.— Mattér that may be proved by the production of an authentic record. MERCANTILE LAw.— That branch of law in which the rights and duties arising out of mercantile relations are defined. METES AND Bounps.— A term used to define the boundary lines of lands. MISFEASANCE.— The performance of official or legal duty in an improper manner by a public official. MISJOINDER.— A term used in pleading to denote the improper union of causes of action or of persons in a single suit at law. Mora. CEerRTAINTY.— A term which denotes the degree of certainty by which a jury is justified in determining its verdict. More or Less.— A term used to convey the impression that the quantity of the matter at issue is uncertain and that neither party shall find cause for complaint in its deficiency or excess. j 240 Mutct.— The fine imposed upon the conviction of an offender for the commission of an offense. MunlicipaL LAw.— See Law. Mystic TESTAMENT.— A term used to define a will under seal. NATURAL LAw.— See LAw, NATURAL. NE BAILA PAR.— A plea in detinue, in the making of which the defendant denies that the thing sued for was ever delivered to him. NEveER INDEBTED.— A plea in which the defendant asserts that he is not indebted to the plaintiff for the amount sued for. New Promise.— A new contract made after the original agreement has become invalid and by the terms of which the signers agree to fulfil the stipulations of the prior contract. NeEwty DIscovERED EvIDENCE.— A term used to denote that the proof of new facts that have been obtained since a verdict was rendered are of sufficient importance to affect the decision of the court. Nrait picit.— Literally, he says nothing. A term used to denote that judgment may be taken by default. NIHIL HABET.— Literally, he has nothing. A term used in the return made by the sheriff who has been unable to discover the property required under a writ of scire facias, Cte. NoMINAL DAMAGE.— A term used when a trifling sum has been awarded in a case where a breach of duty, or an infraction of the plaintiff’s rights, has been shown, but by which no serious injury or loss had been sustained. NONFEASANCE.— Refusal or failure by a public official to perform a legal or official duty. Nut Tort.— A plea to a real action in which the defendant enters a denial of any wrong. NuLLA BonA.— A term used in a return to a writ of fieri facias denoting that there are no goods upon which a levy may be made. OpTIonAL Writ.—A writ which contains the alternative providing that if a thing is not done cause must be shown as to why it was not done. OrGANIC LAW OF THE STATE.— See LAw, CONSTITUTIONAL. OYER AND TERMINER.— Although this name was. originally applied only to an English court for the trial of indict- ments, it has since been adopted in some portions of the United States as the title of the higher courts of criminal jurisdiction. See Court. PARTICEPS CRIMINIS.— A term used to denote that a party is a partner in the crime alleged. PENDENTE LITE.— A term used to denote that a matter is in statu quo pending the action of the court. PEREMPTORY CHALLENGE.— A privilege permitted in crim- inal cases when the prisoner’s counsel is granted the right to make a specified number of challenges of jurors with- out giving his cause. PERPETUATING TESTIMONY.— A term applied to testimony that has been reduced to writing and duly attested ac- cording to law that it may be preserved to be read in evidence at some action not yet instituted. PLAINTIFF AND DEFENDANT.— See LAw. PositivE FrAup.—A term used when the deception in question was not only successful but was so clearly in- tentional as to be beyond the possibility of doubt. Precarious Ricut.—A right that the owner has trans- ferred to another person that the latter may enjoy it until it shall please him to revoke it. Procfs VERBAL.— In French Canadian law, an act or proc- ess of apportioning the expenses for the building and maintenance of public utilities, as bridges. Quiet ENJOYMENT.— A term employed in covenants or leases by which it is agreed that the vendee or lessee shall be permitted to peaceably enjoy the premises. Quo WarrAnto.— A term derived from the name of a writ issued to compel a person or a number of persons to show by what warrant they have assumed the duties of a public office, trust, or franchise. It is, accordingly, the remedy which must be resorted to to oust usurpers from office, Rate.— In Great Britain, an amount levied upon property in the nature of a tax for legal purposes. REAL COVENANT.— A term applied to the signed and sealed agreement by which two or more persons bind them- selves to pass a real thing. . REBUTTING EVIDENCE.— The testimony in a trial in which the defendant. makes answer to the plaintiff’s surre- joinder. RECOUPMENT.— The term applied to the right accorded the defendant to claim damage, in the same action, from the plaintiff because of his failure to comply with some tross- obligation or his violation of some duty imposed upon him by the terms of the contract. REJOINDER.— The term applied to the fourth stage in the pleadings in an action at common law, in which the defend- ant makes answer to the plaintiff’s replication. A sur- rejoinder is the next pleading of the plaintiff. ReEpLEvIN.— A term applied to a personal action brought to recover possession of goods that have been wrongfully taken or detained, security being given by the com- plainant to try the right to their ownership by means of a regular suit at law, and to return the goods replevined if LEGARDEUR DE SAINT-PIERRE — LEGATION such action should be determined in favor of the defend- ant. A ‘“‘replevin in the cepit’’ is an action in which it is claimed that the defendant wrongfully took the goods, while a “‘replevin in the detinet’”’ is an action claiming that he wrongfully detained them. SALVAGE.— See LAw, MARITIME; SALVAGE. SEPARATE MAINTENANCE.— An allowance made by a hus- band for the support of his wife from whom he has separated. SPECIFICATION.— A detailed statement or description, as of a patent. STOPPAGE IN TRANSITU.— The resumption by the seller of either the actual or constructive possession of goods that have not been paid for while on their way to the vendee but before the latter has acquired actual possession of a prop- erty right in such articles. SUBORNATION oF PERyURY.— The term applied to the act by which another person is persuaded to commit the crime of perjury. See PERJURY. TENDER.— A term denoting an offer to deliver something in satisfaction of a debt, or to give to the other party the specific thing required by the contract in question. TRANSFER.— (a) The act of conveying property, right, or title from one person to another; (b) the removal, as of a cause, from one jurisdiction to another. TRUE BILL.— When an indictment is found against a party accused of a felony before the grand jury the finding is termed a “true bill.’”’ See LAw, CRIMINAL. ULTIMATUM.— In international law, a final statement, as of one power to another, before breaking off friendly nego- tiations. UNDER AND SuBjEcT.— A term used in instruments for the conveyance of land, indicating that the party taking it accepts the transfer subject to the mortgage upon it. Vapium Mortuum.— Literally, a dead pledge. A term used to denote the security given in the form of a mortgage by which the lender agrees that if the money borrowed is not repaid at the time specified the estate shall pass’ to the lender. VADIUM VIVUM.— Literally, a live pledge. A term used to denote a pledge given in the form of a mortgage under which the lender agrees to take the sum borrowed out of the profits of the land. WitHout PREJUDICE.— A term used in cases of overtures and communications between parties to an action at law by which it is specified that should the negotiations fail to result in the adjustment of the controversy nothing that has transpired at such meetings will be taken advan- tage of at subsequent hearings before the court, but all will be regarded as “‘without prejudice’ to the matter at issue. YIELDING AND PaAyInG.— A term used in the writing of a lease that it may constitute a covenant on the part of the lessee to pay the rent stipulated. LEGARDEUR DE SAINT-PIERRE, Jacques. See SAINT-PIERRE, JACQUES LAGAR- DEUR DE. LEGARE, la-gre, Hugh Swinton, Amer- ican statesman: b. Charleston, S. C., 2 Jan. 1797; d. Boston, Mass., 16 June 1843. He was graduated at the College of South Carolina in 1814, and subsequently studied at Edinburgh University. After a tour of Europe he re- turned home in 1820, and two years later en- tered upon the practice of law. In 1821 he represented his native city in the State legis- lature, and in 1830 was elected attorney-general. In the same year he established the Southern Review, a quarterly, with Stephen Elliott. In 1832 he was appointed chargé-d’affaires at Brus- sels. In 1836 he was elected to the lower House of Congress. In 1840 he was appointed by President Tyler Attorney-General of the United States. He was a brilliant orator and debater, and his contributions to the New York Review on ‘Demosthenes, the ‘Origin of Roman Law, etc., were marked by much literary ability. LEGATE, an ambassador sent by the Pope and armed with his authority to represent him at the court of a foreign prince or state. LEGATION, a diplomatic mission; also, the building in which the minister resides and the area immediately. surrounding it. A lega- tion is usually deemed immune from the juris- LEGAZPE — LEGER diction of the country in which it is situated, and to be subject only to the laws of the country which the Minister represents. It may therefore serve as a place of refuge for polit- ical offenders. All persons attached to a for- eign legation are protected by the act of 30 April 1790, from violence, arrest or molestation (Fed. Cas. No. 2,278). : LEGAZPE, Miguel Lopez de, mé-gél 16’path da la-gath’pa, Spanish soldier: b. Zu- marraga, Guipuzcoa, about 1510; d. Manila, Luzon, 20 Aug. 1572. He was for several years chief secretary of the government of the City of Mexico, and in 1564 was made commander of the Spanish forces sent to the Philippine Islands. He sailed from La Navidad, Mexico, in November 1564 and reached the islands in the following February. He took possession of several of the islands and founded San Miguel in Cebu, in May 1565; began the subjugation of Luzon in 1570, and founded the city of Manila in May of the next year. LEGEND, originally a term applied to col- lections of biographies of saints and martyrs or of remarkable stories relating to them. In the Middle Ages a collection of the lives of the saints was known by the name of Legenda Sanctorum, or Historia Lombardica. There is a celebrated collection, called the Golden Legend (Aurea Legenda), by Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, who died in the year 1298. It was translated into English by Caxton, . and printed by him at the command of William, Earl of Arundel, in 1483. Many of the medizval legends were of an uncritical char- acter, and along with true history often mingled much fable. In the course of time the legend came to mean only the fictitious parts of the story and became distinct from authentic his- tory. It has now come to mean any unauthen- tic or improbable story handed down from ancient times. Legend is also used for the motto or words engraved in a circular manner round the head or other figure upon a medal or coin. The meaning of this term is similar to that of inscription; but the latter refers chiefly to the writing placed in the middle of the coin, while the legend surrounds it. LEGEND OF GOOD WOMEN, an un- finished poem of Chaucer, planned to embrace the lives of 19 women of antiquity celebrated through their devotion to Cupid, but of which he completed eight and a part of the ninth, supposed to have been written about 1685. While nearly all the stories used are in Boc- cacio’s ‘Declaris Mulieribus? there is doubt that Chaucer had ever seen that work. He followed the original authors, Ovid, Livy and others, and ‘there are indications of influences from Virgil, Dante and Guido da Colonna. The prologue and ‘Cleopatra? are considered among Chaucer’s best work. LEGEND OF SLEEPY HOLLOW, The, one of the stories in Washington Irving’s ‘Sketch Book? (7 parts, 1819-20). It deals with the tradition of the Headless Horseman, used | to interrupt Ichabod Crane’s courtship of Katrina van Tassel, and is one of the most popular tales in the book. LEGENDE DES SIECLES, 1a’zhand’ da zé-a'kl, La (THE LEGEND oF THE CENTURIES), a collection of lyrical epic verse by Victor ““~ yor. 17 — 16 241 Hugo, published in 1859-77-83, and considered his finest work in this field. LEGENDRE, Adrien Marie, a-dré-6n ma- ré lé-zhondr, French mathematician: b. Paris, 18 Sept. 1752; d. Auteuil, France, 9 Jan. 1833. He was professor of mathematics in the mili- tary school at Paris and in 1783 became a mem- ber of the Academy. He was in 1787 employed by the French government, with Cassini and Mechain, to measure a degree of latitude be- tween Dunkirk and Boulogne, while English mathematicians did the same on the other side of the Channel, in order to determine the pre- cise location of the observatories of Greenwich and Paris. In 1808 Legendre was appointed by the imperial government councillor for life to the university. He particularly distinguished himself by profound investigations as to the at- traction of elliptical spheroids, and his method of calculating the course of the comets at- tracted great attention. His best-known work is ‘Eléments de géometrie? (1794; new ed.,, with additions and modifications by Blanchet 1845), which has been translated into English with notes by Sir David Brewster. He wrote also ‘Essai sur la théorie des nombres? (1798); “Nouvelle methode pour déterminer Vorbite des cometes? (1805); ‘Exercises du calcul integral, sur divers ordres de tran- scendantes et sur les quadratures? (1811-19) ; ‘Traité des fonctions elliptiques et intégrales Eulériennes? (1827-32), etc. LEGENDRE, Louis, French revolutionist: b. Versailles, 22 May 1752; d. Paris, 13 Dec. 1797. He was a butcher, and at the outbreak of the Revolution he speedily became a leader through his untutored eloquence and personal magnetism. He was prominent in the taking of the Bastille, in the massacre of the Champs des Mars and in the attack on the Tuileries. He was a member of the Convention and voted for the execution of Louis XVI. He repre- sented the Convention on missions to Lyons and Seine-Inférieure in 1793, was a member of the Comité de Streté Générale, and was instru- mental in securing the fall of the Girondists. He deserted Danton after his arrest, and after the fall of Robespierre he was active among the reactionaries, opposed the Jacobin Club, which he had helped to found, and as presi- dent of the Convention was prominent in the impeachment of J. B. Carrier. He afterward was elected a member of the Council of An- cients. LEGENDRE, Napoléon, Canadian poet and essayist: b. Nicolet, Quebec, 13 Feb. 1841; d. 1907. He was educated at Saint Mary’s Jesuit College, Montreal, was admitted to the bar of Lower Canada in 1865, edited Le journal de Vinstruction publique in 1871-76, and in 1876 was.appointed clerk of the French jour- nals of the legislative council of Quebec. He was -an original member of the Royal Society of Canada. Author of ‘Sabre et scalpel? (1872); ‘fchos de Quebec? (2 vols., 1877); ‘Les perce-Neige,’ poems (1886); ‘La langue francaise au Canada? (1892), etc. LEGER, 14-zha, Louis Paul Marie, French scholar and author: b. Toulouse, 13 Jan. 1843. In 1885 he was appointed professor of the Slav languages at the Collége de France, and has done much to awaken an interest in 242 the history and philology of the Slav peoples by such works as ‘Slav Studies? (1875) ; ‘His- tory of Austria-Hungary» (1878), translated into English; ‘Slav Tales? (1882); ‘The Save, Danube and Balkan? (1884); ‘Bulgaria? (1885); “Russians and Slavs? (1890); ‘Rus- sian Literature? (1892); ‘Le Monde Slav? (2d ed., 1897-1902) ; ‘Slav Mythology (1902) ; “Souvenirs d’un slavophile? (1905); ‘Moscow? (1904); ‘Prague? (1907); ‘Serbs, Croats and Bulgarians? (1913). He was elected a mem- ber of the Institute in 1900. LEGER (léj’ér) LINES, in music the short lines drawn above and below the staff for those notes which exceed its compass; the corre- sponding spaces being called “leger spaces.” The term dates from about 1700 and its origin is disputed. LEGERDEMAIN, 1éj-ér-de-man’, the art of deceptive juggling; variously styled pres- tidigitation, thaumaturgy or sleight of hand; or less correctly, magic. Properly, magic (q.v.) is the name for necromancy, divination, sorcery or unusual and apparently supernat- ural things accomplished by the aid of occult powers or discarnate spirits. The term magic has been popularly used by self-styled “magi- cians» who are really jugglers or sleight-of- hand performers, depending on their ability to trick or mislead spectators at a public perform- ance, aS in a theatre. The typical stage per- former has a stock of tricks, depending largely upon the use of apparatus calculated to de- ‘ceive or mislead, as boxes and pitchers with double bottoms or concealed compartments. There is much substitution of like objects, as coin, eggs, handkerchiefs, etc. The expert pres- tidigitator has a skilful knack of directing the attention of the public at the instant he substi- tutes one thing for another. It is this substitu- tion that has suggested the terms — legerde- main (fine hand) and sleight-of-hand. He di- rects the attention to one thing when he wishes it removed from another. When the spectator is advised to watch slowly the movement of his hands, it is likely that the important thing is done with his foot, or by an attendant, etc. The simple juggler amazes one by the celerity with which he handles half a dozen balls, plates, etc., but the legerdemain artist goes farther and is satisfied only by imitating the impossible in the work of the true magician or spiritual medium. The successful thaumaturgist may carry with him considerable machinery for the performance of his deceptions. Some of these have become widely known and advertised, as the human head resting on a plate on a small table with no apparent body. In this trick, mirrors between the legs of the table hide the person who sits under with his head through a “faked” plate. These mirrors reflect dra- pery of the same color as that at the rear and the spectators appear to see right through and under the table. Another popular trick is that of locking a man in a trunk and then tying the trunk with many ropes, after which a curtain is dropped. Within a few seconds the man ap- parently walks out, carrying the opened trunk in his hand. The obvious explanation is that there are two similar trunks and two men— twins being hired for the performance. Rob- ert Houdini was the first to bring real scientific methods to the aid of modern con- LEGER LINES — LEGGETT juring, and more recently the Herrmanns have been famous in this art. There is a_ well- known popular vaudeville deception carried on by the scientific use of liquid air. Here the performer appears to fry eggs on a cake of ice, whereas he simply freezes them. Snake-charming is largely hypnotic, and it is believed that some of the East Indian per- formers in the open air simply hypnotize the beholders into the conviction that they see what-does not really take place. Other tricks are undoubtedly magic, performed through oc- cult knowledge not generally recognized, as telepathy, clairvoyance, materialization, — etc. The true scientific conjurer makes one of op- tical delusions, as in the famous ghost trick; of reflections of sound; of expert and highly elaborate systems of signaling with a confed- erate; trap-doors, curtains, invisible wires, electrical contrivances, etc. For several hun- dred years there have been exhibitions of a person—usually a “beautiful lady” — sus- pended in mid-air, without apparent means of support. This trick undoubtedly has been ac- complished in more ways than one. The method in case of “Astarte” was a supporting iron bar of the color of the back curtains that escaped detection. Another method, in which the elbow of the subject is allowed to touch a cornice, consists in using steel armor worn under the clothing and bolted to the cornice. Consult Smithsonian Annual Report (‘Psychol- ogy of Prestidigitation?) for 1894; Hoffman, ‘Modern Magic?; Carter, ‘Magic and Magi- cians? (1903); Cochrane, ‘The Machinery of Amusement’ (in ‘Modern Industrial Prog- ress,» 1905); Houdini, ‘Unmasking of Robert Houdini? (1908); Elbiquet, ‘Text-Book of Magic? (1913). See Maaic. ‘ LEGGE, lég, James, British Chinese scholar: b. Huntly, Aberdeenshire, 1815; d. Oxford, 29 Nov. 1897. He was educated at King’s College, Aberdeen, and at the High- bury Theological School, London; was or- dained and in 1839 went as a missionary to the Chinese. He was stationed at Malacca at the head of the Anglo-Chinese College until 1842 when the college was removed to Hongkong, where he remained for 30 years. He was an earnest missionary and realized the necessity for an understanding of the language and cul- ture of China among his coworkers. He there- fore began in 1841 a translation of the Chinese classics (8 vols., Hongkong 1861-73). In 1875 a chair of Chinese language and literature was founded at Oxford University for occupation by Dr. Legge and he remained there wntil his death. In addition to his numerous transla- tions and works on Chinese religion he was author of ‘The Life and Teaching of Confu- cius? (1867); ‘The Life and Teaching of Mencius? (1875); ‘The Religions of China? (1880). ® LEGGETT, lég’ét, Mortimer Dormer, American soldier: b. Ithaca, N. Y., 19 April 1821; d. Cleveland, Ohio, 7 Jan. 1896. After graduating in medicine at Willoughby, Ohio, he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1845. In the following year he was. instru- mental in organizing the first union free school system in Ohio. He was professor of plead- ings and practices in Ohio Law College 1855- 58, superintendent of the Zanesville (Ohio) \ LEGGETT — public schools in 1858-62, and from 1862-65 served in the Federal army and was promoted to be major-general of volunteers in July 1864 and was commissioned major-general a year later. From 1871-81 he was United States Commissioner of Patents. From 1881 till his death he practised in Cleveland, Ohio. LEGGETT, William, American journalist: b. New York, 1802; d. New Rochelle, N. Y.., 29 May 1839. He was educated at the college in Georgetown, D. C., and in 1822 entered the navy as midshipman, but resigned in 1826. He had in the previous year published a volume of poems, ‘Leisure Hours at Sea, by a Midship- man of the U. S. Navy, and in 1828 became editor of the Critic, a weekly literary journal, soon united with the New York Mirror, to which he contributed ‘Tales by a Country Schoolmaster? and ‘Sketches at Sea.» In 1829 he became one of the editors of the New York Evening Post, to which journal he was at- tached until 1836. He then commenced a weekly journal called the Plaindealer, which attained a large circulation, but was soon dis- continued through the failure of its publisher. In May 1839 he was appointed by President Van Buren diplomatic agent to Guatemala, but died suddenly while preparing for his depar- ture. His ‘Political Writings,» with memoir by Theodore Sedgwick, appeared in 1840. Leg- gett was remarkable among the journalists of his day as an unflinching advocate of freedom of opinion for his political opponents as well as for the men of his own party. Among his staunch friends was William Cullen Bryant. Consult Wilson, J. G., ‘Bryant and his Friends? (New York 1886). LEGGETT’S, or BALD HILL, Battle of, an engagement of the Civil War, near Atlanta, Ga. The battle of Peachtree ‘Creek (q.v.), 20 July 1864, was a Confederate defeat. On the 2lst General Sherman advanced strong skir- mish-lines to within about two miles of the works surrounding Atlanta. In the morning Leggett’s division was ordered to carry a high, bare hill, situated about half a mile south of the Decatur Railroad. Supported on the right by Giles A. Smith’s division, Leggett advanced under cover of the hill itself, dashed forward when reaching its base, drove Cleburne’s Con- federates from it and began to entrench. The Confederates made several vain efforts to re- take it. From its summit Atlanta was in full view. Discovering at daybreak of the 22d that the advanced Confederate works had been abandoned, Sherman ordered a general ad- vance along his line to occupy the city, and the movement began accordingly. During the night, however, the Confederate General Hood had abandoned his advanced lines on the left and ordered Hardee’s corps of four divisions to march entirely past Sherman’s left and at- tack his left and rear. Giles A. Smith’s divi- sion of Blair’s 17th corps held Sherman’s left and Dodge’s 16th corps was some distance in rear of the centre of Blair’s corps and per- pendicular to it. Blair fronted west, Dodge south. ) About midnight Hardee moved out of At- lanta by the McDonough road, and about day- break, when the troops had made a _ night march of 15 miles, and passed beyond Sher- man’s left, he halted, formed line and gave his LEGHORN 243 men needed rest. In half an hour the order was given to advance and his corps went for- ward until Bates and Walther’s divisions came to open ground, where they received a most deadly fire from Dodge’s two Union divisions, which held them in check. Every effort to ad- vance was repulsed with great loss and Gen- eral Walther was killed. On the Federal side Gen. J. B. McPherson (q.v.), commanding the Army of the Tennessee, hastened troops to fill an interval between Dodge and Blair, rode to Dodge and then toward Blair’s line, and had gone but a short distance when he fell mor- tally wounded, being succeeded in command by Gen. John A. Logan. Meanwhile the left of Hardee’s line had enveloped Giles A. Smith’s division, attacking it in front, flank and rear, Smith gradually yielding ground and refusing to connect his left with Dodge’s right, the Con- federates gradually advancing to the foot of Leggett’s Hill. When MHardee’s attack on Sherman’s left and rear was being delivered, Hood ordered Cheatham’s corps to attack in front, and the attack fell upon Leggett’s Hill and the 15th corps on the right of it, just as Leggett had repulsed an attack in his rear. Leggett, by desperate fighting, held his ground. The Confederates made repeated at- tacks until nightfall, when Hardee withdrew his right wing, leaving his left connected with the entrenched line in front of Atlanta. On the right of Logan’s corps the Army of the Ohio was attacked by Smith’s Georgia militia, which was readily repulsed. On MHardee’s right Wheeler’s cavalry attacked Sprague’s brigade in Decatur and for a time pressed it vigor- ously, but Reilly’s brigade of the Army of the Ohio coming to its assistance, Wheeler was re- pulsed. The battle of Leggett’s or Bald Hill was one of the greatest of Sherman’s Atlanta campaign and involved four corps of his army and two of Hood’s. The loss of the Army of the Tennessee was 430 killed, 1,559 wounded and 1,733 missing, with 10 guns; the entire Union loss during the day was about 4,000. The Confederate loss is not known; it has been variously estimated at from 6,000 to 10,000; it was probably between 5,000 and 6,000. Con- sult ‘Official Records? (Vol. XXXVIII); Gox,.:}. .D..:.cAtlanta’,’ (New. York |. 1882) ; Sherman, W. T., ‘Personal Memoirs? (New York 1875); The Century Company’s ‘Battles and Leaders of the Civil War? (Vol. IV, New York 1887-88). E. A. CARMAN. LEGHORN, lée’horn or lég-hdrn’ (It. Livorno, lé-vér’n&), Italy, a walled city and the third commercial port of Italy, in Tuscany, on the Mediterranean. It is the capital of the province of Leghorn, which has an area of 133 square miles and a population of about. 135,- 765. It is about 200 miles northwest of Rome and 60 miles west of Florence. It is a well- built and clean city; the north part called Ve- nezia Nuova, is intersected by canals along which are warehouses and stores, and a ship canal connects with the Arno. Leghorn has an ~ inner and outer harbor and a good roadstead; the approach to the new dock has been deep- ened to 28 feet to admit of the entrance of large vessels. In the outer harbor is a light-_ house, built in 1303. Some of the manufac- tures are straw hats (originally the famous 244 Leghorn hats), leather, woolen caps, glass, paper, soap, coral ornaments, etc. Shipbuilding is one of its important industries, vessels for the Italian navy being constructed here. The chief exports are olive oil, borax, wine, marble, pumice stone, quicksilver, candied fruit, hemp, hides, soap, raw silk, etc. The chief imports are sugar, cotton, coal, tobacco, grain, spirits and petroleum. In.the middle of the 16th cen- tury Leghorn had less than 800 inhabitants; but about this time it became a free port, the first one on the Mediterranean. After the de- cay of Porto Pisano, a neighboring city, Leg- horn grew into importance. It has few build- ing of the Renaissance period; a 17th century cathedral, a synagogue dating from 1581 and the royal castle are the principal public build- ings. Some of the educational institutions are the Royal Commercial Marine Institute, the Royal Marine Academy, a library with over 72,000 volumes, a number of academies and seminaries. There are many charitable insti- tutions. It is the seat of a bishopric and a United States consul. Leghorn is a popular summer resort and its connection by electric lines with the bathing places and with beautiful villages in the vicinity make it a most desirable place of residence at any season of the year. Pop. 105,315. LEGHORN, a breed of domestic fowls. See Pouttry. LEGHORN HATS, hats made in Tuscany from straw-plait obtained from bearded wheat cut green and bleached. They are so called because imported from Leghorn. LEGION, in ancient Roman armies, a body of infantry consisting of different numbers of men at different periods, from 3,000 to above 6,000, often with a complement of cavalry. Each legion was divided into 10 cohorts, each cohort into three maniples and each maniple into two centuries. Every legion had 60 cen- turions and the same number of optiones or lieutenants and standard-bearers. The stand- ard of the legion was an eagle. LEGION, Theban, a Roman legion sup- posed to have been composed entirely of Chris- tians, which upon refusal to participate in the persecution of their fellow Christians was by the orders of the Emperor Maximianus (285- 305) twice decimated and finally exterminated. The legion was composed of 6,600 men re- cruited from the East and under command of Mauritius who later became the patron saint of Agaunum, Switzerland, the name of the town of their martyrdom being changed to Saint Maurice in his honor. The legend ap- pears to have originated with Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, and. while there are many later versions they supply details rather than change its outline. There has been much controversy concerning the authenticity of the story. It is alleged that nearly a century and a-half elapsed between its supposed date and the first written record of it. Further arguments against it are that Christian soldiers were rarely executed but given their choice of sacrificing to ithe gods or being discharged, and that an entire legion would scarcely have been put to death at a time when Maximianus sorely needed troops. Consult ‘Acta sanctorum,? edited by J. Bolland and others (Sept. vi, 308-49, 895- LEGHORN— LEGION OF HONOR 26), and Minge, J. P., ‘Patrologiz cursus com- pletus series greca? (Vol. CLXXI, 1625-30). LEGION, The Thundering, a Roman legion of the time of Marcus Aurelius. The substance of their story is that after driving the Marcomanni and Quadi from Hungary (174 a.p.), Marcus Aurelius and a portion of his army found themselves in a valley enclosed by high mountains and were in danger of perishing from thirst. The prayers of the Christian soldiers in the army brought the needed water in the form of a thunderstorm, which not only saved the army but put the barbarians to rout through terror and _ the swift attack of the Romans. The legend states that the legion was thereafter called the Thundering Legion in honor of the achieve- ment. Of the actual occurrence of the thunderstorm and its assistance to Marcus Aurelius there is no doubt; but the name Thundering Legion (Legiéd Fulminata) had ex- isted from the time of Augustus, and probably originated in the representation of lightning as the device on its shields. A marble pillar at Rome represents the deliverance of the army by means of the storm, but is not considered a memorial to the supposed prayers of the Chris- tians. Dio Cassius in ‘Excerpta Ziphilin? (I, Ixxi, 8) states that the miracle was due to an Egyptian sorcerer. The letter of Marcus Aurelius, giving credit to the prayers of the Christians, printed in the first ‘Apology of Justin Martyr, is spurious. Capitolinus at- tributes the miracle to the prayers of Marcus Aurelius himself, while Tertullian supports the Christian legend. LEGION OF HONOR, French Order of the (L’Ordre de la Légion d’Honneur), an order created by Bonaparte, First Consul, on 19 May 1802 (29 Floréal, Year X), to reward distinguished services rendered in military and civil life. The emblem of the Légion d@’Honneur is a star with five twofold-rays, the centre of the star being surrounded by an oak and laurel crown, one side representing the French Re- public (substituted for the emperor’s head), with the inscription “République Francaise 1870,” the other side being adorned with two tricolor flags (substituted for the imperial eagle), and bearing the inscription, which has not been changed: “Honneur et Patrie.» The star, white enameled, is made of silver for the Chevaliers, and of gold for the other grades. The diameter is of 40, 60 or 70 millimeters (1.57, 2.36 or 2.75 inches), according to the grades. The badge is attached to a red-watered ribbon and worn on the left side of the chest. The badge of the Legion of Honor, when worn by civilians or military and naval officers in civilian clothes, is a red-watered ribbon fixed to the left side buttonhole of the coat. The ribbon takes the form. of a “rosette” or little rose for the higher grades. The number of members of the order, orig- inally provided by the law, was not to exceed 6,000, but this amount was very rapidly ex- ceeded, and Napoleon himself, up to 1814, had granted the membership of the Legion of Honor to 36,825 individuals. The first decorations were distributed with great solemnity to the “légionnaires” in Paris, Place des Invalides, on 14 July 1804 by Napo- leon who, by that time, had become emperor: LEGION OF HONOR the decorations were therefore distributed in his own name so that the new dignitaries had to swear fidelity to him; for that reason some distinguished individuals refused the crosses which had been offered to them, their personal convictions and principles not allowing them to recognize the establishment of the new régime. Among these distinguished objectors were Lafayette and Rochambeau. Civil Medal. Among the members of the first promotion I may mention the following names which are now well known in the world of sciences, art, literature, politics and, of course, in the mili- tary and naval history of France: Monge, Berthollet, Lagrange, Laplace, Prony, Parmen- tier, de Jussieu, Cuvier, Montgolfier, Colin d'Harleville, Chénier, Fontanes, Le Brun, Da- cier, Sylvestre de Sacy, David, Le Sueur, Méhul, Monsigny, Cambacérés, Siéyés, Talleyrand, Fouché, Volney, d’Aguesseau, Portalis, Brillat- Savarin; all the Maréchaux de France, the Generals and Admirals; it may be mentioned here that Marshal Augereau refused to answer when his name was called. A second distribution of a still more solemn character was made by the emperor, at Boulogne-sur-Mer, on 17 April 1805, in pres- ence of 70,000 troops. Presently the Cross of the Legion of Honor was to smell powder for the first time at the famous battle of Auster- litz (2 Dec. 1805). According to the latest statistics there are 49,236 légionnaires, distrib- uted among the five degrees as follows: Chevaliers, 41,108; officiers, 6,713; commandeurs, 1,142; grands officiers, 229; grands-croix, 44— total, 49,236. _ The President of the Republic is “souverain chef et grand maitre de lOrdre» (sovereign head and grand master of the order). the 245 These statistics, however, were compiled be- fore the war; none of a more recent date are available, although more than 30,000 crosses have been allowed since the beginning of the war; a decree of 13 Aug. 1914 authorizes the distribution of as many crosses as circumstances will require; but a special law passed by both Houses of Parliament will be necessary to give a legal and definite ratification to all the nom- inations. Of course the bill will be passed without the slightest opposition. During peace- time, in order to be admitted to the member- ship of the Legion of Honor it is necessary to have discharged, with some distinction, civil or military functions during at least 20 years and sometimes 25 years. This rule, however, does not apply to the persons who have rendered extraordinary services in their civil or military functions, or in the arts and sciences. But, in any case, in order to be admitted to a superior grade it is necessary to have been: (1) For the grade of officier, four years a chevalier; (2) for the grade ‘of commandeur, two years an offiicier; (3) for the grade of grand officier, three years a commandeur; (4) for the grade of grand-croix, five years a grand officter. The nominations and promotions from a lower to a superior grade are made twice a year, on the lst of January and the 14th of July. There are of course exceptions to that rule when the latter are justified by extraordi- nary services and circumstances, as for in- stance in time of war, but the Legion of Honor is the highest distinction of that kind which can be obtained in France; it is not granted easily, and there is no légionnaire who is not very proud to wear the badge of an order which has been famous ever since it was created by Bonaparte. All officers, non-commissioned officers and privates in the army and the navy who are members of the Legion of Honor receive the following annual pensions according to their grade: Chevaliers, 250 francs ($50); officiers, 500 francs ($100) ; commandeurs, 1,000 francs; grands-officiers, 2,000 francs; grands-croix, 3,000 francs. No pension whatever is paid to the /égion- naires who have been admitted to the member- ship of the order for civil services. When admitted or promoted, the /Jégion- naires have to pay to the Grande Chancellerte the following fees according to their grade: For the copy For the price of the patent of the badge The Chevaliers}. 35. ..2a0.. 25.00 francs 12.00 francs “ Officiersé. aoa Gs 50.00 “ 67,503 “ Commandeurs........ 80.00 149.00 * “ Grands Officiers....... 120.00 “¢ 58.00 “ EMGrands:Gsorxeren ies ee 200.00 “ 240.00 The administration is entrusted to a Grand Chancellor who holds the seal of the Order, works up the annual budget, reports to the President of the republic all propositions con- cerning the Legion of Honor, etc. A Secre- tary-General, appointed by the President of the republic, represents the Grand Chancellor when the latter is absent for any reason whatever. The Grand Chancellor is assisted by a Council of the Order which assembles every month for general purposes (management, budget, control of the regulations, vacancies arising from the death of members every six months), distribution of the available crosses among the different ministerial departments, 246 discipline, etc. The Council consists of the Grand-Chancellor, president; the Secretary- General, vice-president, and 12 members of the Order appointed by the President of the re- public. Membership in the Legion is forfeited when- ever the l/égionnaire loses temporarily or per- manently his rights of French citizenship. The President of the republic is also empowered to suspend or suppress the use of the rights and prerogatives attached to membership of the Order, after a penal sentence of a civil or military court, and whenever it has been ascer- tained that the /égionnaire has acted in a dis- honorable manner in certain cases where the law provides no penalty. - Of course, distinguished foreigners are ad- mitted to the Order, but their admission is at the same time more easy and more difficult than is the case for Frenchmen; more easy because there are no restrictions as regards the length of time during which they have to make themselves serviceable, and more difficult be- cause the cross is allowed only on account of rather high distinction. A law provides that foreigners are “admis et non recus» (admitted, not received), and form a contingent quite dis- tinct from the French cadres. The foreign members of the Order have the same rights as the French members to a funeral with military honors. Among the Americans who are or have been members of the Legion of Honor may be men- tioned the following: GRANDS CROIX. Horace Porter (soldier and diplomat) Robert S. McCormick (diplomat) GRANDS OFFICIERS. David R. Francis, ex-Sec- retary of the Interior Francis B.. Loomis (dip- lomat) Rear-Admiral Peary Ferdinand W. Peck Charlemagne Tower (dip- lomat) Major-General Leonard Wood COM MANDEURS. Rear-Admiral Ammen Brigadier-General Baird Wharton Barker (University of Pennsylvania) Major-General John R. Brooke Nicholas Murray Butler (president Columbia Uni- versity) Andrew Carnegie (steel magnate and philanthro- pist) Rear-Admiral Higginson Major-General Howard Mer. John Ireland (late arch- bishop of Saint Paul) Perry Belmont (diplomat) Dr. Arthur W. de Roaldes (surgeon) Major-General Schofield Major-General Sickles OFFICIERS. Charles F. Beach (a distin- guished American lawyer practising in Paris) Paul Wayland Bartlett (sculptor) A. Barton Hepburn (ex- president New York Chamber of Commerce) Patrick Collins (late mayor of Boston) Deering Jones (Chicago) Charles W. Eliot (president emeritus, Harvard Univer- sity) James Howard Gore (pro- fessor of Columbia Uni- versity) William R. Harper (late president of the University of Chicago) William Jacob Holland (director of the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh) J James H. Hyde (formerly vice-president of the Equitable Insurance Co.) Harry Pratt Judson (presi- dent of the University of Chicago) A. Lawrence Lowell (presi- dent of Harvard Uni- versity) C. W. McCormick (presi- dent of the McCormick Harvesting Co.) John W. Mackay (president a es Commercial Cable 0. Ridgway Knight (artist) Robert J. Thompson (dip- lomat) Edward Tuck (banker) John Wanamaker (formerly Postmaster-General) Two weeks after the famous battle of Aus- terlitz a decree signed by Napoleon, at Schoen- brunn, on 15 Dec. 1805, ordered the creation of three schools for the education of the LEGION OF HONOR if daughters of the members of the Legion of Honor. The first of these schools was estab- lished in the Chateau d’Ecouen, near Versailles, in 1806; the second one, at Saint- Denis, near Paris, in 1808, the third one, at La Maison des Loges, i in the forest of Saint Germain, in 1811. The daughters of the légionnaires ee have no fortune are admitted free of charge to these educational establishments; the granddaughters, sisters or nieces of the légionnaires are also admitted to the same establishments, but they have to pay 1,000 francs a year at the Saint- Denis school and 700 francs at the Ecouen and des Loges schools. The total number of pupils admitted free of charge in the three schools amounts to 1,200, whilst the number of paying pupils is limited to 155 altogether. The Grand-Chancellier has the general control of the three establishments to which the pupils are admitted on his own recommendation to the President of the republic. The annual expenses of the Order are about 17,000,000 francs ($3,400,000), the two principal items being ‘the pensions of the members, about 10,000,000 francs ($2,000,000), and the pensions of the Médaillés Miulitaires, about 6,000,000 francs — ($1,200,000), (see MéDAILLE MILIrAIRE below), other minor items of ex- pense being the salary of the staff at the Grande Chancellerie about 250,000 francs ($50,000), the three educational establishments for young ladies about 300,000 francs ($60,000). The receipts are provided by an annual interest of 4,150,000 francs ($830,000) on Rentes frangatses (French Consolidated Fund), which are owned by the Order. The Domaine d’Ecouen together with the fees paid by some of the pupils give an annual income of about 110,000 francs ($22,000). The Ministry of Justice, to which the Order of the Legion of Honor is financially connected, provides every year all the funds required to balance the accounts. It may be mentioned here that in 1916 a rich American gentleman, formerly a president of the National City Bank, New York, contributed generously 1,000,000 francs ($200, 000) to the Order, the interests of which are to be distributed among the children of the /égionnaires who have been killed during the war. The Palais de la Légion d’Honneur which is situated on the Quai d’Orsay and Rue de Lille, is the private property of the Order. It was burnt down during the Commune in 18/1, and part of the records were destroyed. On the initiative of General Vinoy, who was then the Grand-Chancellier, a public subscription for the reconstruction of the building was opened on 7 June 1871. The list was headed by Monsieur Thiers with 2,000 francs; on 2 Octo- ber the subscription lists were closed. A total amount of 1,625,599 francs 19 centimes ($325,- 119.83) was provided, mostly by the légion- naires. The Palais was completely recon- structed in 1878. The Legion of Honor may be granted to privates. and non-commissioned officers, but in very exceptional circumstances only. The Meédaille Militaire (which carries the privilege _of an annuity amounting to 100 francs ($20)), “was therefore created in 1852 in order to recog- nize the services of “non-commissioned officers, corporals, privates or marines,” especially in time of war. The Médaille Militaire may also LEGISLATION be granted to field-marshals and admirals and to general officers who have been commanders- in-chief. In such cases, that distinction is con- sidered as being second to none. The Médaille Military Medal. Militaire for instance was granted to Marshal Joffre after the battle of the Marne. The médalles are granted partly on the recommendation of the Minister of War and the Minister of the Navy, and partly on the recommendation of the Grand-Chancellier de la Légion d’Honneur; but all nominations are to be approved by the Conseil de Ordre. As al- ready stated, the pensions of the Médaillés Militaires absorb about 6,000,000 francs of the financial resources of the Legion of Honor. MARC DE VALETTE. LEGISLATION. The term “legislation” in its most restricted sense has reference to the enactments of a legislative body (see LEGISLATURE). In a larger sense, legislation embraces the totality of general rules of law binding upon the community, whether they emanate from a legislative body, from the people acting by way of the referendum, from a constituent assembly (in the United States a “constitutional convention”), the chief of state (president, king or emperor), or a subsidiary law-making body, such as a municipal or county council. In a special sense it may also be applied to the body of so-called judge-made law built up by the courts as a result of their power to interpret the meaning of the constitu- tion and laws. Legislation through the agency of bodies of specially chosen representatives is of modern origin. (See LEGISLATURE). Among the ancients custom was the chief source of law, and in Rome positive written law had to conform to custom in order to be valid. This theory of the supremacy of customary law over written law persisted throughout most of the medieval period. (See Law). After the 247 close of the Middle Ages, however, legislation was exalted above custom, the idea that legisla- tion proceeded from the state took root and it was denied by the jurists that customary law might override the prescriptions of positive aw. In the United States the great body of legis- lation consists of the enactments of Congress, the State legislatures and the various sub- sidiary law-making bodies, particularly the municipal councils. The constitutions also con-. tain a large body of legislation, and not all of this is organic or fundamental in character, for in recent years there has been a marked tend- ency to insert in them many rules of private law and even rules of parliamentary pro- cedure. (See CoNstiTuTION). Formerly much of this legislation was embodied in the statutes, but the growing distrust of the legislatures has had the effect of transforming more and more the constitutional convention into an ordinary law-making body as well as a_ constituent assembly. The evidence of this tendency is found in the great length of some of the more recent constitutions, such as those of Louisiana, Okla- homa and Virginia, all of which contain a mul- titude of provisions which logically should be reserved to the statutes. The body of legisla- tion found in the constitutions and the statutes is supplemented by a mass of judge-made law consisting of the interpretative decisions of the courts. Not strictly legislation in form, it is such in effect, and a study of the text of a con- stitution or statute apart from the constructions which have been read into it by the judiciary often gives an imperfect knowledge of its meaning and effect. Where there is doubt as to the meaning of the statute the courts not only claim the right to discover its meaning, but also to give effect to the intention of the law-maker so far as that intent can be ascer- tained. “Modern courts,» says the German jurist Windschied, “may and habitually do think over again the thought which the legis- lator was trying to express,” while the Roman jurists went even further and undertook “to think out the thought which the legislator was trying to think,” that is, what he would have intended had he known what future conditions would be. English and American judges, how- ever, have always maintained that they do not legislate, that they do not “make” the law in interpreting the meaning of doubtful statutes, but that they only “find” it, between the lines as it were. Finally, in addition to the body of legislative enactments. and judge-made law there is a mass of what is in effect, though not in form, legislation emanating from the execu- tive as a result of the power to issue orders and regulations. Though far less in quantity . and importance than the body of executive legislation in Europe, where the ordinance power of the executive is much larger, it is nevertheless very considerable, and of far more importance than is generally known in this country. Thus the President of the United States, in pursuance of authority either dele- gated to him by Congress or resulting from his constitutional power to execute the laws, has issued regulations for the government of the army and navy, the operation of the postal serv- ice, the management of the public domain, the conduct of the Indian service, the civil service, 248 the customs service, the internal revenue serv- ice and various other branches of the adminis- trative service. Many of these regulations lay down rules of conduct not only for public officials and employees, but are binding upon private individuals as well and for violation of which they are subject to the penalties of the criminal law. See EXECUTIVE. In Europe this source of legislation is even more important, for there the ordinance power of the executive is much larger. In England what are known as the “statutory rules and orders in council» constitute a very extensive and important body of subsidiary legislation; they are published with the acts of Parliament and not infrequently constitute the larger bulk of legislation found within the covers of the volume of law enacted annually for the gov- ernment of the English people. They consist of orders issued by the Crown in Council either in pursuance of the royal prerogative — a more or less undefined realm of power which the Crown inherited from early times and of which it has never been deprived by Parlia- ment — or in pursuance of authority, expressly delegated to the Crown or the ministers by act of Parliament. Some of these orders are issued for the purpose of supplementing the statutes, which in England are usually brief and embody i in outline only the general will of Parliament; others regulate matters with which Parliament has not dealt at all, but the regu- lation of which has been delegated to the Crown or the minister. On the continent of Europe legislation of this character is even more extensive. There the power of the executive to issue ordinances (réglements, Verordnungen) and _ regulations (arrétés) is very large. There even more than in England acts of the legislature rarely descend into details in laying down rules of conduct or in prescribing the mode of executing the law. Usually the will of the legislature is declared only in general terms and a large discretionary power is left to the officer charged with the execution of the law. The power to elaborate the statute and supply the details so as to make it enforceable is then left to the executive through the exercise of the pouvoir réglemen- taire. ° There also much more than in the United States a large independent power of legislation in respect to matters not dealt with by the legislature is delegated by Parliament to the executive. Thus in France the power to legislate for the colonial possessions in so far as the Parliament itself has not legislated on colonial matters is exercised by the President of the republic. Regarding the procedure and methods of legislation by legislative bodies a few obser- vations may be made. It is a general though not an absolutely universal constitutional rule that revenue bills. may originate only in the more popular of the two chambers. The rule originated at a time when upper chambers were generally appointed or were largely hereditary bodies and it was, therefore, considered improper to permit them, being irresponsible as they were to the people, to initiate measures for laying taxes. Although in many countries the upper chamber is now a popularly elected body, the old restriction on its power to initiate money bills still survives in spite of the fact that it no longer has any LEGISLATION yaison d’étre. In a number of countries, nota- bly France and the United States, the exact meaning of the restriction has often been a source of controversy between the two cham- bers. In countries like the United States, where the so-called presidential system of gov- ernment prevails, legislative measures may be initiated only by members of one or the other chamber; on the contrary, in those countries where the cabinet or parliamentary system is found, it is the right of the ministry as well as of any member to introduce bills and in practice most important measures are pre- pared and introduced by the ministry. They are, therefore, known as “government” bills in contradistinction to “private” bills, or those introduced by members who do not belong to the ministry. Their passage is advocated by the ministry and the refusal of the legislature to pass them may and generally does cause the ministry to resign. (See Caprnet GOVERN- MENT). Indeed, in England, Parliament has to a large degree abdicated its legislative power in favor of the Cabinet. In practice it chooses from its members a small body of leaders to whom it accords the power to frame legislative measures, reserving to itself only the right of control. In the United States and England a distinc- tion is made between bills and resolutions. A bill embodies the will of the legislature on matters of a more permanent and funda-. mental character, while a resolution embodies the legislative will on matters of a temporary or subsidiary character. In Congress and some of the State legislatures a distinction is also made between joint and concurrent resolutions, the latter of which expressing the views of the legislature only do not require the approval of the executive. In Congress and in many of the State legislatures joint resolutions like bills must be submitted to the executive for his approval or disapproval. In England and the United States an import- ant distinction is that between public and pri- vate or local bills. A private bill, unlike a public bill, instead of dealing with matters of public interest and affecting generally all per- sons within the State or all persons within a particular class as defined according to some essential characteristic, affects only a particular person or locality. Such are bilis for the in- corporation of a city or a public service com- pany, for changing the name of an individual, for legitimizing an illegitimate child, for the settlement of a private claim and the like. It is characteristic of such bills that they are generally designed to confer a benefit, a privi- lege or an exemption upon some person, com- pany or place. In the English Parliament a special procedure has been provided for deal- ing with such bills. They may be brought be- fore Parliament only by petition and only after public notice has been given by advertisement in the community to be affected by the bill if it becomes a law. Fees are also required of the parties promoting or opposing such bills. After being reported on by two examiners of petitions they are considered by a special com- mittee on private bills which after hearing evidence for and against them makes a recom- mendation to the House. In the United States generally the procedure in respect to private bills does not differ in essential particulars LEGISLATION, DIRECT from that in regard to public bills. In a few States, however, there is a different procedure. Thus in Massachusetts private or local bills may be proposed only by petition and due notice -must be given to all the parties concerned. In some States prior notice of an intention to apply for a special act must be published in the community where the person or thing affected is found. In New York local and private bills providing for an appropriation of money require a vote of two-thirds of the members of the legislature for their enactment while bills affecting a single city must after passage by the legislature be submitted to the mayor thereof for his approval. Legislative bodies usually have the power to provide for their own organization and to frame their own rules of procedure. By the Constitution of the United States, however, the Vice-President is made the presiding officer of the Senate and by most of the State constitutions the lieutenant- governor is made the presiding officer of the State senate. The State constitutions likewise impose certain restrictions on the legislature in respect to its procedure. Thus both houses are required to keep and publish a journal of their daily proceedings; generally it is provided that no law shall be passed except by bill; that no bill shall embrace more than: one subject which shall be clearly expressed in the title; that every bill shall be read at least three times before being passed; that no law shall be amended by mere reference to its title, but the amended portion must be set out in full; that the yeas and nays of members voting shall be recorded upon the demand of a certain number of mem- bers; that every bill shall be referred to a com- mittee for examination and report; and that all bills shall be printed and placed on the desks of members, etc. Subject to these and some- times other ‘similar constitutional requirements the legislature is free to adopt such rules of procedure as it may choose. See also CABINET GOVERNMENT; CONSTITUTION ; EXECUTIVE; LAW; LEGISLATURE. Bibliography.—Alexander, ‘The Proce- dure of the House of Representatives? (New York 1916); Bryce, ‘The American Common- wealth? (New York 1910); Clifford, ‘History of Private Bill Legislation (London 1885) ; Cushing, ‘Law and Practice of Legislative As- semblies> (New York 1907); Jones, ‘Statute Law Making? (Boston 1912) ; Ilbert, ‘Legis- lative Methods and Forms? (Oxford 1901) ; ‘American Legislatures and (New York 1903). James W. GARNER, Professor of Political Science, University of Illinois. LEGISLATION, Direct. As its name implies direct legislation is a system of law- making in which the people themselves legislate instead of delegating that duty to a group of elected representatives known as _a legislature. It has come to be synonymous with the initia- tive and referendum although it may properly be regarded as a more general and inclusive term. See INITIATIVE and REFERENDUM. History.— While direct legislation seems first to have made its appearance in Switzer- land in the 16th century it is in the United States that its evolution and operation may best be studied. The germ of the modern sys- Reinsch, Paul, Legislative Methods’ 249 tem of direct legislation may tbe found in the colonial custom of authorizing the constituency of a member of the legislature to “instruct” him formally as to their wishes in relation to any problem of legislative policy. This “in- struction” did not legally bind the legislator but merely imposed a possible moral obliga- tion upon him. A second step in the direction of direct legislation was the establishment in Massachusetts in 1778 of the precedent of referring a new State constitution to the people for ratification. The spread of this system has been rapid and consistent and it may now be regarded as settled that American State con- stitutions may be neither adopted nor amended without the approval of the electorate of the State. In the third place, some of the earlier State constitutions required that upon certain specific questions any action taken by the legis- lature must receive popular ratification at the polls. The subjects upon which such referenda were necessary were not numerous and the favorites seem.to have been the State banking laws, bond issues and the location. of State capitols. Finally, the principle of direct legis- lation was applied to local problems. Where absolute uniformity of legislative policy throughout the entire State seemed undesirable “local option” was introduced whereby separate localities could adopt or reject a certain policy as their needs and desires might direct. This system of “local option” was frequently em- ployed to solve the vexed problem of the regu- lation of the liquor traffic but it has also been applied to local financial problems, boundary changes and in more recent times under the name, “municipal home rule,” to the very struc- ture of municipal government. In 1898 South Dakota adopted a constitu- tional amendment creating a system of State- wide initiative and referendum. This was the first State to place the power to enact and to veto laws directly in the hands of the people. In 1902 Oregon followed suit with a system of direct legislation which has attracted wide at- tention and has served as a model for several of the American States. The spread of the system since that time has been fairly rapid, especially in the States west of the Missis- sippi River. By January 1919 21 States have the initiative or referendum or both, the State of Massachusetts adopting the system of direct legislation in November 1918. For the names of these States together with the dates of the adoption of the system, see under INITIATIVE and REFERENDUM. Public Opinion Bills—AIt is well estab- lished that the legislature cannot delegate its law-making power to the electorate without being specifically authorized to do so by the State constitution. In other words any system of direct legislation must be provided for in the organic law of the State. Several of the State constitutions, however, definitely author- ize the legislature to consult the wishes of the people upon legislative measures whenever they desire to do so and with the understanding that this expression of popular opinion is merely advisory. In Illinois this system has been still further developed in the Public Opinion Act of 1901 which permits 10 per cent of the voters of the State by petition to secure the reference of any proposition to a_ vote of the people for an expression of opinion. 250 The vote thus taken does not bind the legis- lature but gives them an accurate knowledge of what the people desire, Voters’ Interest in Direct Legislation.— Election statistics show that in general people are less interested in voting upon constitutional amendments and statutes than upon candidates for office. The percentage of interest thus shown varies from year to year, from. State to State, and from measure to measure. Roughly speaking, the number of people who will vote in a direct legislation election seems to range from 60 to 80 per cent of those who will vote for State officers. Some questions like prohibition and woman suffrage always called forth a heavy vote while other less striking measures. sometimes come very near escaping the voter’s eye altogether. Some States try to guarantee that only measures which are of general and State-wide interest be submitted to the people by requiring not only that a certain per cent of the voters must petition for their submission but also that that per cent must be obtained in two-fifths, or half as the case may be, of the counties of the State. Thus measures of purely local concern are automatically excluded from the ballot. Advantages.— The arguments in favor of direct legislation may be summarized as fol- lows: First, it embodies the central principle of democracy for it places in the hands of the people the means of securing without in- terference or delay the enactment of their will into law. Second, the realization that it is futile to oppose the wishes of an electorate possessing the power of direct legislation will make the legislature more sensitive to the popular will and render the frequent use of the initiative and referendum unnecessary. Third, the educational value of direct legislation can- not be over-emphasized. From his share in it the voter acquires interest and-information re- garding public affairs which increase his value as a citizen. Finally, the system has proved successful in practice. The States which have it show no disposition to abandon it, the laws which the people have enacted thave been weil drawn and salutary, and civic interest has been augmented. Disadvantages.— The opponents. of direct legislation advance the following arguments: First, it destroys representative government by weakening not only the power of the repre- - sentative legislature but also its sense of re- sponsibility. Second, it tends to break down the fundamental distinction between the con- stitution of the State and ordinary statutes by making it possible for them both to originate and be changed in substantially the same way. Thus respect for the constitution is diminished. Third, it imposes upon the voter the burden of expressing an opinion upon questions re- garding which he has little or no information or understanding. Fourth, in like manner it burdens the voter with the decision of problems in which, as proved by the actual votes cast in many instances, he has little or no interest. Fifth, it turns the technical and difficult task of drafting laws over to amateurs with the result that much of this legislation is carelessly drawn and defective. Sixth, it has accom- plished nothing where it is in use which has not been done with less expense and trouble LEGISLATIVE REFORM elsewhere. Finally, it opens up vast opportu- nities for demagogues and radical minorities to persist in the presentation of their fads and programs until by virtue of the sheer weari- ness and indifference of the electorate they may secure their enactment into law. Recall While the recall of officers is hardly an integral part of a system of. direct legislation it is very frequently a_companion of the initiative and referendum. It embodies the principle of direct political action by the people. It permits a stipulated percentage of the voters by petition to compel an officer to stand again for re-election before the expira- tion of his term. If he does not receive a majority of the votes cast in this election he is thereby ousted from office and the opposing candidate assumes the duties of the office. The recall is regarded as a more radical sys- tem than the initiative and referendum, is in force in fewer States and is less frequently used where it is in force. See RECALL. For literature on direct legislation see INITIATIVE and REFERENDUM. RoBERT EUGENE CUSHMAN, Associate in Poltical Science, University of Illinois. LEGISLATIVE REFORM. Growth of Popular Distrust of Legislatures. No one can say that American State legislatures have been denied the opportunity to prove themselves worthy of the confidence and respect of the American people. At the close of the Revolu- tionary War a reaction in political opinion set in which reduced the formerly powerful State governor to the position of a figurehead and enormously expanded the importance and au- thority of the legislatures. The use made by the State legislature of these wide. powers, especially during the ante-bellum decades when corporate charters, franchises and other spe- cial privileges were being granted, forms one of the black chapters in our political history. While corruption and disregard of the public interest were not universal they were so nearly so that American public opinion came to re- gard the State legislature with a distrust which recent efforts at reform have not succeeded in removing. This popular distrust of State legis- latures has been evidenced in the constitu- tional provisions, which began to appear about the time of the Civil War, placing restrictions upon legislative powers. Some of these related in minute detail to legislative procedure but mostly they comprised long lists of subjects upon which the legislature might not act at all or might act only under rigorous constitu- tional restraints. This distrust was also shown in the very general policy of providing that legislatures should meet only every other year and that the length of the session should be restricted, provisions reflecting clearly the point of view that a legislature is a necessary evil and its term of activity should accordingly be reduced to the minimum. The recent spread — of the system of direct legislation, whereby the people acquire the power themselves to enact or veto laws, is a further indication of popular lack of confidence in our representa- tive legislatures. Present Need for Legislative Reform.— The more striking criticisms which at the present time may legitimately be urged against State legislatures may be summarized as fol- LEGISLATIVE REFORM lows: First, the quality of the men who com- pose them is frequently exceedingly poor. Without losing sight of the fact that many, probably most, of the legislators are honest and some of them are competent, it remains true that too frequently they prove to be venal and wholly unfit by training or education to per- form the functions of their office. Second, lobbying continues to prevail at most State capitols. Corporations and organizations de- sirous of securing special privileges at the hands of the legislature send paid representa- tives to exert influence upon the members. While this influence may be exerted by legit- imate means, such as arguments before legis- lative committees, it is far more likely to take the form of open bribery or other forms of corruption. Third, the demand for special and local legislation, what may be called private legislation, leads to most serious abuses. The time of the legislature is occupied with mat- ters trivial in importance while the demands of various localities and interests for legislative consideration are met by the convenient method of “og-rolling,» or “pork-barrel” legislation, whereby each legislator in order to secure the granting of his own demand supports those of every one else. Local and individual inter- ests are thus furthered; the interests of the State at large are ignored. Fourth, legislative procedure is complicated and beset ‘by technical requirements which too often result merely in confusion and delay without securing the de- liberation and caution which they were de- signed to provide. The result is hasty and ill- considered legislation turned out in enormous quantities. Fifth, there is no centralized re- sponsibility for legislation passed by a State legislature. Such responsibility is lost in a maze of committees and party caucuses as well as between the two houses of the legislature. No men or group of men can be held really accountable for objectionable legislation. Fi- nally, the laws themselves, drawn by men from every walk of life, most of whom are without training or experience, are frequently poorly drawn. No effort is made to relate them to the already existing law of the State, while they frequently do not accomplish their obvious purposes because of ambiguous or conflicting provisions. Proposals for Legislative Reform.— The need for reform in our State legislatures has long been recognized and a variety of remedies have been suggested and in some cases adopted. These proposals may be considered briefly as follows: (1) The first is a sweeping change in the structure, composition and organization of the legislature. The bicameral or two-house system is to be abolished and the size of the single house much reduced. This, it is claimed, would minimize confusion and encourage effi- ciency. This single house is to be elected by a system of proportional representation so that the various political and economic interests may have adequate representation therein. Finally greater harmony is to be established between the legislature and the executive of the State by allowing the governor and heads of the administrative departments to have seats in the legislature. This program was devised by reformers in the State of Oregon but has never been adopted in any State. (2) A sec- ond and less revolutionary measure of reform is directed against the abuse of lobbying. Two 251 schemes have been devised for this purpose: One of them, embodied in a New York statute, requires the registration in the office of the secretary of state of all lobbyists together with the names of the persons or interests they rep- resent and an account of any money spent in influencing legislation. The other plan is in force in Wisconsin and forbids entirely all efforts to influence members of the legislature privately. Lobbyists must confine themselves to appearance before legislative committees and the presentation of printed literature to in- dividual legislators. Both of these laws: have produced salutary results. (3) A third remedy for legislative abuses is the introduction of a budget plan for the control of State finances. By placing in the hands of a responsible State officer the duty of presenting a financial pro- gram which shall comprise the estimates both of income and expenditures and by taking from the legislature the power to increase the ap- propriations thus proposed the serious evils of the “pork barrel” will be removed and the energies of the legislators will be released for the consideration of matters of State-wide importance. (4) In the fourth place legisla- tive procedure must be reformed in such a way as to secure adequate and careful considera- tion of all measures. (5) Fifth, the length of legislative sessions should ‘be extended so as to permit a more efficient and leisurely transac- tion of public business. Good laws can hardly be expected from a legislature which must complete its work in 60 days. (6) Sixth, legislative salaries should be increased to a point which would make it possible for the abler and better trained citizens to become legislators without too serious financial loss. A State which pays but $4 a day to its law- makers cannot justly complain if their work is not of highest grade. (7) In the seventh place, several States, following the lead of New York and Wisconsin, have established legislative reference bureaus. To be most efficient such bureaus should not only collect data upon problems of legislative policy for the benefit of the members of the legislature but it should also be able to offer expert help in the difficult task of bill-drafting. These bureaus have materially raised the quality of legislation in the States where they exist. (8) Finally, real and permanent legislative reform cannot be expected unless the people of the State take an interest in the work of the legislature, keep informed and alert in regard to matters of legislative policy and show a willingness to let the legislators know their opinions and de- sires. Bad government cannot exist for long where public sentiment is intelligent and aroused. Bibliography.— Beard, ‘American Govern- ment and Politics? (revised 1914); Dealey, ‘The Growth of American State Constitutions (1915); Dodd, ‘Procedure in State’ Legisla- tures? ‘(Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1918) ; Holcombe, ‘State Government in the United States? (1916); Reinsch, ‘American Legislatures and Legislative Methods? (1907); Reinsch, ‘Read- ings on American State Government? (1911); Young, ‘The New American Government and Its Work? (1915). RoBerT EUGENE CUSHMAN, Associate in Political Science, University of Illinois. 252 LEGISLATURE. In the most general sense of the term a legislature is any law- mak- ing body, whether Congress, Parliament, Land- tag or other assembly of representatives charged with the enactment of general rules of conduct binding upon the inhabitants of the state. In a narrower sense the term is descrip- tive only of the law-making bodies of the States composing the American republic, al- though several of these bodies are officially des- ignated by other names. Thus in several States the legislature is officially known as the general assembly or the legislative assembly, and in two, Massachusetts ‘and New Hampshire, the Colonial name “general court” survives. Legislatures are of modern origin. Among the ancient Greeks legislation was enacted by popular assemblies rather than by select bodies of representatives. Among the ancient Ro- mans legislation was enacted by the comitia, likewise a popular assembly embracing all the citizens of Rome. Under the empire the em- peror became the chief source of legislation and his edicts and rescripts were supplemented by a large body of judge-made law emanating from the pretors and jurists. Representative law- making bodies in the modern sense never ex- isted among the Romans. Montesquieu was right when he said that the ancients had no notion of a legislative body composed of rep- resentatives of the people (‘Esprit des lois, Bk. xi, ch. 8). The English historian Free- man remarks that “the ancient world trampled on the very verge of representative govern- ment without actually crossing the boundary” (‘History of Federal Government, ch. 2). Throughout the Middle Ages the chief source of legislation was the king or the feudal lord. The beginnings of the modern representative sys- tem are found in the Wuitenagemot of early English history, out of which the English Par- liament, the first representative legislature known to history, was destined ultimately to evolve. Not popularly elected at first, its mem- bers came eventually to be chosen by the free- holders. In the 13th century, thanks to Simon de Montfort, representatives of the boroughs were added. From early times the clergy also had their representatives, so that in the end the Parliament, as it came to be called, was in- deed an assembly of the three estates of the realm: nobility, commons and clergy. On the continent of Europe the develop- ment of legislative bodies was. slower of growth. The rise of cities gave an impetus to the development of the representative principle through the demand which it created for repre- sentation of these agglomerations in the law- making bodies. In France the beginnings of legislative representation are found in the meeting of the representatives of the three es- tates in a general parliament in 1302. Called together to consult with the king, they soon ac- quired the right to give or withhold supplies from the Crown. Meetings of the estates took place at regular intervals until 1614 when they ceased to be convoked by the king until the outbreak of the Revolution. From that time on France has had a Parliament, although it has not always been a truly representative body, during the period of 1800-14. It was characteristic of the representative system of Europe until the 18th century that its legislative bodies did not represent the LEGISLATURE whole people but special classes such as the clergy, the nobility, the towns and the like. The deputies of each class ,were separately sum- “moned and often sat apart and voted sepa- rately. Thus the Parliament of Sweden until comparatively recent times was composed of four chambers. Deputies usually also bore in- structions from their constituencies and were obliged to vote in conformity with the man- dates thus given. They were, therefore, not representatives in the modern sense, with power to declare the will of the people, but only delegates commissioned to consult for the common good and to report back to their con- stituencies. Ultimately nearly all the legislative bodies of Europe came to consist of two chambers. In England this ‘transformation was completed early in the 14th century, the representatives of the nobility and clergy constituting one cham- ber; the representatives of the towns, bor- oughs and counties, the other. It was due wholly to the existence of this class system in England rather than to any considerations of policy or expediency that the organization of the British Parliament came to be bicameral in structure. Inasmuch as the distinction between clergy, nobility and commons was never intro- duced into America the reason which gave rise to the bicameral system in England never ex- isted here. Nevertheless, all of the original State legislatures, except those of Georgia, Pennsylvania and Vermont, were constructed on the bicameral principle. Benjamin Franklin stood almost alone among the founders of the republic in advocating the unicameral system of legislative organization, and it was mainly due to his influence that the legislature of Pennsylvania at first consisted of a _ single chamber. The three States which started with single-chambered legislatures, however, soon abandoned the system for the bicameral idea and it has prevailed in all the States then ex- isting and in those subsequently admitted to the Union. Likewise Spain, Portugal, Mexico, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru and other states which once had unicameral legislative bodies have all abandoned the single chamber principle for the bicameral system. “The bicameral system,” says Francis Lieber, “accompanies the Angli- can race like the common law and everywhere it succeeds” “Of all forms of. government that are possible among mankind,” said the his- torian Lecky, “I do not know any which is likely to be worse than government of a single omnipotent democratic chamber.” The superiority of the double-chambered legislature is defended on several grounds. In the first place, the existence of a second house serves as a check on hasty and ill-considered legislation. In the second place, the bicameral system affords protection to the people against the despotic tendencies of a single chamber — “t doubles the security of the people,” said Judge Story, “by requiring the concurrence of two distinct bodies in any scheme of usurpa- tion or perfidy where otherwise the ambition of a single body would be sufficient.” The ~ Americans restrain their legislatures, says James Bryce, by dividing them just as the Ro- mans restrained their executives by substituting two consuls for one king: On the other hand, there has been a growing disposition in recent years to question some of the advantages LEGISLATURE claimed for the bicameral system, and in a number of States, notably Oregon, Nebraska and California, there have been well-organized movements looking toward the establishment of legislatures composed of a single house. In Oregon the question of abolishing the senate was submitted to a vote of the people in 1912 and again in 1914, and although the pro- posal was defeated a large vote was cast in favor of it. In Nebraska a joint com- mittee of the legislature after making a careful study of the merits and demerits of the bicameral system made a report advocating the establishment of a small legislative body composed of a single chamber. Likewise tn California recently a majority of both houses of the legislature voted in favor of a proposed amendment to the constitution providing for the creation of a single-chambered legislative assembly. The arguments against the bicameral system are in brief the following: It greatly increases the cost of legislation by reason of the larger number of members and employees; it conduces to deadlocks, dissension and intrigue; and it retards the dispatch of legislative busi- ness. Moreover the checking function, which is the chief raison d’étre for a second cham- ber, works both ways; that is, it often serves to hinder the enactment of good legislation as well as to prevent bad legislation. Again, since both houses are now elected by constitu- encies composed of the same persons, each house is little more than a duplicate of the other; neither is more radical or more con- servative than the other and hence neither is by its constitution and nature disposed to re- strain the other. Advocates of the single- chambered system also argue that the execu- tive veto, the referendum and the power of the courts to declare acts of the legislature uncon- stitutional now afford adequate checks against unwise and unconstitutional legislation. Fi- nally, it may be remarked that there are al- ready more than 60 single-chambered legisla- tures in. the world to-day, including those of Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, the South African Union, all the provinces of Canada except Que- bec and Nova Scotia and many of the German states. As is well known the legislative bodies of many large cities are also unicameral in structure. The unicameral principle, therefore, is not a theory but it is in practical operation in many countries. ‘In many of the European states the upper houses of the legislature are not organized on the principle of popular representation. In some of them there is a hereditary element, in others certain public officials are members of right and in many there is an appointive ele- ment. (See GREAT BRITAIN — PARLIAMENT). In the United States since the adoption of the . 17th amendment the upper house of Con- gress has been chosen by the same method as the lower house so that both rest on the same principle although senators are chosen for longer terms, they represent larger con- stituencies and higher qualifications are re- quired of them. Both houses of the State leg- islatures are composed of representatives with only slightly different qualifications and terms, and they are chosen by constituencies made up of the same class of electors. Members of both houses are apportioned either on the basis of the total population or the number of voters. 253 Equality of representation is everywhere pro- claimed as a principle, but the principle is seri- ously deviated from in certain New England States where in consquence of the town sys- tem of representation small communities with populations of less than 1,000 inhabitants not infrequently choose as many representatives as populous cities like Providence, New Haven and Hartford. The common rule that each county, however small its population, shall have at least one representative or that each county shall have one senator often plays havoc. with the principle of equality of representa- tion. In several States constitutional limita- tions have been imposed on the representation of the large cities. Thus in New York, no county may have more than one-third of all the representatives —a provision designed to limit the representation of New York city; and somewhat similar provisions are found in the constitutions of Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. Illinois alone among the States has a sys- tem of minority: representation in the lower house of the legislature. Under this system, in- troduced in 1870, it has nearly always been possible for the principal minority party in each legislative district to choose one of the three members to which the district is entitled in the lower house, and it has often enabled secondary parties such as the Prohibitionists, Progressives and Socialists to elect a few mem- bers. (See PrRoporTIONAL REPRESENTATION). It has the disadvantage, however, of fre- quently resulting in the election of a house in which no party has a working majority, thus making difficult the enactment of important constructive legislation. Moreover, it fre- quently results in the election of a legislature, a majority of the members of which belong to a political party different from that to which the governor who is chosen at the same elec- tion belongs, thus dividing the legislative power between two politically antagonistic depart- ments and thereby paralyzing it to a degree. In all the States the upper house of the leg- islature is officially designated as the senate. - In size the State senates vary from 19 members in Arizona to 63 in Minnesota, 40 or 50 being a common number. In about two-thirds of the States the terms of senators are four years; in most of the others it is two years; in New Jer- sey it is three years; and in Massachusetts and Rhode Island it is one year. In a number of States the senators are divided into classes, the terms of one-half or one-third of them expir- ing at the same time, thus making the senate to some extent a permanent and continuous body. In all the States the senate has certain special functions such as the approval of ex- ecutive appointments and the trial of impeach- ment cases. In most of the States the lower branch of the legislature is known as the “house of rep- resentatives,” in a few it is styled the “assem- bly» and in three the “house of delegates.” In size it varies from 35 members in Arizona to more than 400 members in New Hampshire, the houses of the New England legislatures being especially large on account of the town system of representation. Their senates, however, are small bodies: 24 in New Hampshire, 35 in Connecticut, 30 in Vermont and 40 in Massa- chusetts. 254 In all the States members of the legislature receive some pecuniary compensation for their services. It is in the form either of a salary or a per diem allowance. The largest salaries are those paid the members of the legislatures of Illinois and New York ($3,500 per term and $1,500 per year, respectively) ; the smallest are those of South Carolina and New Hamp- shire ($200 per year). In about 30 States the per diem method prevails, the amount varying from $3 per day in Kansas and Oregon to $10 per day in California, Iowa and Kentucky, the most general amount being .$4 or ‘§ per day. Mileage, ranging from 10 cents per mile to 25 cents, is usually allowed and fre- quently there is a small allowance for station- ery and newspapers. In some States the amount of compensation is fixed by the con- stitution; in some the maximum amount is spec- ified, in others the determination of the amount is left entirely to the legislature, usu- ally subject, however, to the limitation that no increase may take effect during the term for which the legislature making it is elected. In the majority of States the legislature holds regular sessions every two years, but in Mas- sachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Georgia- and South Carolina annual sessions are held. Alabama alone of all the States is content with quadrennial sessions. In all the States the gov- ernor is empowered to call extraordinary ses- sions, but usually the legislature is restricted at such sessions to the considerations of only -such matters as are specified in the governor’s proclamation. In many States the length of the legislative session is limited by the constitution to a certains number of days—40, 60 or 90, with a view to preventing long-drawn- out sessions. In other States the same end is accomplished by constitutional enactments pro- viding that at the expiration of a certain num- ber of days the pay of the legislature shall cease. The powers of the State legislature, unlike those of Congress, are not specifically enu- merated by the constitution. In this respect they are more like those of the English Parlia- ment. A State legislature, therefore, may usually exercise any legislative powers which have not ‘been delegated to Congress or pro- hibited to the legislature by the Federal or State Constitutions. Their powers are conse- quently very wide and as President Woodrow Wilson thas well said in his book on ‘The State,’ the attempt to enumerate them would involve cataloguing all the business and social relationships of life— obviously an impossible task. Among their powers may be mentioned the enactment of the civil and criminal law, the law of judicial procedure, the law of busi- ness, of contracts, partnerships, agency and the like, the regulation of trade, industry and the professions, local government, public health, the public safety, education, charity, marriage and divorce, railways, elections and hundreds of other matters. As a result of the action of the courts in declaring important acts of the legislature unconstitutional for excess of power there has been a disposition in recent years to enumerate in the constitution certain matters upon which the legislature is author- ized to enact laws, the purpose being to remove doubt as to the power of the legislature in respect to such matters. .Chambers in Practice? LEGITIM — LEGITIMACY In consequence of the popular distrust of the legislatures, there has been a tendency in /recent years to impose constitutional limita- tions on their powers, particularly in respect to the incurring of debts, the levying of taxes and the appropriation of money. Many consti- tutions forbid the enactment of local or special laws where a general law would be applicable or they allow it only under certain restrictions, These restrictions have had the effect of reduc- ing the output of legislation in many States and of removing well-known evils that are in- separable from private and_ local legislation. See also CoNGress; LEGISLATION ; REFERENDUM ; PARLIAMENT; SENATE. . Bibliography.— Burgess, ‘Political Science and Constitutional Law? (Vol. II, New York 1890) ; Bryce, ‘The American Commonwealth? (Vol. X, Ch. 40, New York 1910); Dealey, ‘Growth of American State Constitutions? (Chs. XV-XVII, New York 1915); Garner, ‘Introduction to Political Science? (Ch. XIV, New York 1910); Harley and Others, ‘Second (London 1911); Lea- cock, ‘Elements of Political Science? (Pt. II, Ch. II,. Boston 1906); Marriott, ‘Second Chambers? (Oxford 1910) ; Reinsch, ‘American Legislatures and Legislative Methods? (New York 1907); Sidgwick, ‘The Elements of Politics? (Ch. XX, New York and Londen 1897) ; Wilson, ‘Constitutional Government in the United States? (Chs. IV-V, New York 1908). James W. GARNER, Professor of Political Science, University. of Ilhnots. LEGITIM, (1) in Scots law, the share of the movable property which descends to chil- dren on the death of the father, amounting to one-third when the widow survives and one- third to her as her jus relicte (q.v.). The father can dispose of the remaining third, which was called “dead’s part,” as he desires by will. If no widow survived, one-half was legitim and one-half dead’s part. (2) In civil law, that part of a man’s personal property which descends to his children at his death. It amounted to one-fourth in Roman law. It is embodied in the law of Louisiana. The word is also spelled legitime. LEGITIMACY. As a law term “egiti- macy” is employed mainly to describe the status of children born in lawful wedlock. The mean- ing of the term will be best understood by contrasting the condition of illegitimate with that of legitimate children. A child born out of wedlock is nullus filius; it has no legal parents. Neither its mother nor its putative father have any parental obligations toward it, and, when the public authorities intervene to compel a parent to support his or her illegiti- mate offspring, the action is taken in the pub- lic interest, to prevent the child from be- coming a public charge, and not because of any inherent legal right of the bastard. Primarily the authorities look to the mother to provide for the child, but where the mater- nal parent lacks ability to support it the puta- tive father may be proceded against. In some countries the law will not inquire into the paternity of a bastard, however. An illegiti- mate child is incapable of inheriting either from its mother or putative father or, from LEGITIMATION — LEGITIME the collateral relations of either; in the eye of the law a bastard has neither ancestors nor next of kin. Another child born to its parents, whether in or out of wedlock, stands in no legal relation toward it with respect to prop- erty. Nor do its own parents inherit any- thing from an illegitimate child which dies in- testate. Only the legitimate descendants of persons born out of wedlock inherit from them by law; if-they have no descendants their prop- erty escheats to the State. In other respects the civic status of a person is not affected by illegitimacy. He can hold and acquire prop- erty by gift or by will and dispose of the same like any natural person; and, though titles and estates of inheritance do not descend to him by law, he can become the founder of a family and become the possessor of a name in his own right. The bar sinister, which heraldry re- quired illegitimate sons to blazon on_ their escutcheons, was often borne by great men, conscious of their own worth, without a sense of disgrace; and to be “his own ancestor” was the pride of more than one of the heroes of history. — A child born in wedlock is presumably legitimate, though evidence that husband and wife had not lived together for a period so long as to preclude the possibility of the former having been the father would rebut the pre- sumption. Under the common law the pre- sumption of legitimacy was conclusive unless the father was shown to have been “beyond the four seas» for more than nine months prior to the birth of the child; if, during that time he was within the kingdom, the presump- tion of his fatherhood could not be combated even by proof that he was continuously absent from his domicile. This hard and fast rule has now been relaxed, and in England, as every- where, fatherhood may be disproven by any competent evidence. Children of marriages which are found to have been nullities because of legal impediments are illegitimate, just as are children resulting from illicit intercourse. The harshness of this rule has been ameliorated to some degree by the doctrine of “putative marriage.” One party to an annulled mar- riage having been unaware of the disqualifying impediment, that party and the children of the marriage are entitled to all the rights that would have been theirs if the marriage had been valid. The children of the union are to be regarded as legitimate. This canon has become a rule of equity. In England legitimacy may be established by proceedings in court under the statute (21 and 22. Victoria chap. 93) passed in 1858. It was under this law that an ignorant butcher from the antipodes tried to prove his title to the Tichborne estate; and he found many believers in his claim, includ- ing the mother of the real heir. Proposals were frequently made by the medieval church to the lay authorities that children born out of wedlock be legitimized by the subsequent marriage of their parents. In 1235 the English bishops, in their capacity of lords spiritual, endeavored to make the pro- _ posal a law. In the record of the Statute of Merton (20 Henry ITI, chap. 9) the repudiation of the principle by the lords temporal is set forth as follows: The bishops having “in- stanted the lords that they would consent that all such as were born afore matrimony should 255 be legitimate as well as they that be born within matrimony, as to succession of in- heritance, forasmuch as the church accepteth such as legitimate all the earls and barons answered with one voice that they would not change the laws of the realm which had hitherto been used and approved” The law of England remains unchanged in this’ re- spect, and the rule was also followed in the United States as part of the common law. By statute in most of the States a child born. out of wedlock is now legitimized by the mar- riage of its parents. This is, and has long been, the rule in practically all countries in- habited by people of European race. In politi- cal history legitimacy has reference to sovereign successions by “divine right.” Legitimists. re- gard all breaks in the right line of descent as usurpations of sovereignty, particularly when the ‘breaks have been caused by parliamentary depositions of kings and by popular revolution. According to the ‘Legitimist’s Almanach, published up to recent times, the Comte de Chambord was Louis XIX, king of France, Don Carlos was king of Spain; Sicily, Naples, Modena, Parma and other parts of Italy were still under their former Bourbon kinglets, while Maria Theresa, Duchess of Este and late con- sort of former King Ludwig III of Bavaria, was known as the “White Rose Queen” and regarded by the Jacobites as the legitimate sov- ereign of Great Britain, Ireland and the do- minions beyond the seas, she being a descend- ant of the elder and deposed branch of the Stuarts. STEPHEN PFEIL. LEGITIMATION, the act of conferring legitimacy (q.v.) on a person born out of wed- lock. It is effected by act of the legislature, by adoption or by the subsequent marriage of: the father and mother of the bastard. The latter means, however, can only be had provided the father and mother were free to marry at the time of the birth, and that there was no diri- ment impediment to such marriage. In Eng- land, Ireland and in a few of the United States legitimation by subsequent, marriage does not obtain, the maxim there being, “once a bastard, always a bastard.” In most States, however, such a marriage legitimizes previous offspring. Complications arise where after the child’s birth, one of the parents marries a third per- son, has children, and after the dissolution of this marriage, marry. The general rule in such cases is to confer a status of legitimacy on the bastard child, but not to displace the legitimately-born children by the latter. See BASTARD; ILLEGITIMACY; LEGITIMACY; and con- sult ‘Legitimation by Subsequent Marriage? (in Journal of Society of Comparative Legisla- tion, Vol. VI, new series, London 1906). LEGITIME, Francois Denys, fran-swa dé-né la-zhé-tém, Haitian general: b. 1842. During the administration of President Salo- mon, he was accused of aspiring to the Presi- dency, and accordingly went to Kingston, Jamaica, remaining three years, then returned to Haiti at the invitation of his followers, and on 7 Oct. 1888 was elected President of the provisional government. General Thélémaque denounced the election as a job, and attempted to make himself President, but he was killed in the battle which ensued. Légitime was elected ~~~ 256 President of Haiti 17 Dec. 1888, but resigned in 1889, owing to the opposition, of General Hip- polyte, and again retired to Jamaica. In 1896 President Sam granted a general amnesty, and he returned to Haiti. LEGITIMISTS, The, in French history the supporters of the claims of the elder Bour- bon line, descended from Louis XIV, against those of his younger brother, Philippe, Duc d’Orleans. The party existed from the over- throw, in 1830, of Charles X, who was of the elder Bourbon line and was succeeded by Louis Philippe, an Orleanist. The Bourbons became extinct with the death of the Comte de Cham- bord in 1883, and the claims of both lines were united in the Comte de Paris, grandson of Louis Philippe. In Spanish history the term is used to designate an adherent of the pre- tender, Don Carlos de Bourbon (1788-1855), second son of Charles IV of Spain, and his descendants, in claims to the throne of Spain. The word légitimiste was not admitted by the French Academy until 1878, but it had already been accepted in both French and English usage, meaning a supporter of hereditary right to govern as against parliamentary rule. LEGLER, Henry Eduard, American li- brarian: b. Palermo, Italy, 22 June 1861; d. 13 Sept. 1917. He was educated in Switzerland and in the United States. He was a member of the Wisconsin assembly in 1889, secretary of the Milwaukee school board in 1890-1904, secre- tary of the Wisconsin Library Committee in 1904-09, and from 1909 was librarian of the Chicago Public Library. In 1912-13 he was president of the American Library Association. Author of ‘Chevalier Henry de Tonty (1896) ; “Leading Events of Wisconsin History? (1897) ; “The Genesis of Poe’s Raven? (1907); ‘Of Much Love and Some Knowledge of Books? (1912), etc. LEGNAGO, 14-nya’go, Italy, city in the province of Verona, on the river Adige, 33 miles by rail southeast of Verona. It is one of the series of towns fortified by the Austrians in 1815, known as the Quadrilateral, its original fortifications having been destroyed by Napoleon in 1801. The surrounding country is low and marshy but highly productive; sugar, rice and other cereals are grown and the town has a thriving trade in agricultural produce. Pop. town, 2,731; commune, 17,000. LEGNANO, Italy, city in the province of Milan, on the river Olono, 16 miles northwest of Milan. It has a ruined castle of the Visconti and its church of San Magno, dating from 1529, has an altarpiece by Bernardino Luini which is considered among his fin- est. work. Near here the Lombard League was victorious over the forces of Frederich of Barbarossa in 1176. There are important silk and cotton factories and other textile industries, as well as machine-shops and boiler works. Pop. commune, 24,364. LEGOUIS, lé-goo’é, Emile, French literary critic: b. Honfleur, Calvados, 1861. He studied at the universities of Caen and Paris, was appointed lecturer and professor at the Uni- versity of Lyons in 1885 and in 1904 became professor of English language and literature at the Sorbonne. He was exchange professor at Harvard in 1912-13. Author of ‘Thomas LEGITIMISTS — LEGRAND | Gray; Choix de poésies? (1887) ; Beaupuy? with Bussiére, G. (1891) ; esse de William Wordsworth? trans., 1897) ; ‘Le général ‘La Jeun- (1896 ; Eng. - “Quelques poémes de Wordsworth? (1896) ; ‘Morceaux choisis de littérature an- glaise” (1905) ; ‘Défense de la poésie fran- Gaise a usage des lecteurs anglais” (1912) ; ‘William Wordsworth? in ‘Cambridge History of English Literature? (Vol. XII, 1914), ete. LEGOUVE, | 1eé- -goo-va, Gabriel Ernest Wilfrid, French dramatist and miscellaneous writer: b. Paris, 15 Feb. 1807; d. 14 March 1903. In 1827 he won a prize of the Academy with a poem on the art of printing, ‘Découverte de l’imprimerie.» While instructor in the Collége de France 1847, he lectured on the history of woman’s development; and_ later published ‘Moral History of Women” (7th ed., 1882), and ‘Woman in France in the 19th Century? (1864). These works were received with great favor, and were followed by ‘Science of the Family» (1867), and ‘Messieurs the Young Folk» (1868). Meanwhile Legouve was winning high distinction as a playwright with ‘Louise de Lignerolles? ; ‘Adrienne Lecouvreur? with Scribe (1849); ‘Medea?; ‘By Right of Conquest? ; ‘Miss Suzanne? (1867); ‘Anne de Kerwiler? (1879); ‘Considération,» etc. In 1882 he published ‘Recollections of Sixty Years, and in 1890 ‘Winter Flower, Winter Fruits: Story of my Household? In 1885 he became a member of the French Academy. LEGOUVE, Gabriel Marie Jean Baptiste, French poet and dramatist: b. Paris, 23 June 1764; d. Montmartre, 1812. He was father of Gabriel Jean Baptiste Ernest Wilfrid Legouvé (q.v.). His verse was extremely popular and of his plays ‘La mort de Henri IV? (1806) was most successful. He was elected to the Academy in 1798. The death of his wife in 1810 caused the loss of his reason and he died in a sanatorium. Author of the dramas ‘La mort d’Abel? (1792); ‘Epicharis? (1793); ‘Quintus Fabius» (1795); ‘Etéocle? (1799) ; ‘La mort de Henri IV” (1806). Of his poems ‘Le Mérite des femmes? (1801) reached 40 editions. LEGRAIN, lé-gran, Georges Albert, French archeologist: b. Paris, 4 Oct. 1865. He was educated at the College de France. He was appointed a member of the Institut Fran- cais d’Archaéologie Orientale at Cairo in 1892, and in 1894 was made inspecteur- dessinateur of the museum there. In 1895 he was given direction of the reconstruction of the great temple of Ammon at Karnak, where in 1904 the excavations made in the progress of the work disclosed an enormous collection of buried statuary, comprising 800 stone statues and 17,000 of bronze. No find of similar magnitude had been made since Mariette’s at Serapeum and it was rated as of vast historical import- ance. He was also engaged in the reconstruc- tion of the temples of Rameses III, Osiris and Ptah. Author of ‘Catalogue du Musée de Cairo”; ‘Le statuette funéraire de Pathmos? (1904) ; ‘Comment doit-on établir une généalo- gie egyptienne? (1906) ; ‘La grande stéle de Toutank-hamanou a Karnak? (1907); ‘“Lougsor sans les Pharaons? (1914), etc. LEGRAND, lé-gran’, Louis Désiré, French lawyer and diplomatist: b. Valenciennes, 30 LEGRAND DU SAULLE — LEGUMINOS March 1842. He was educated at Paris, served in the Franco-Prussian War, was elected a member of the House of Deputies in 1876 and in 1882-95 he was Minister Plenipotentiary at The Hague. He is a chevalier of the Legion of Honor and was named corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences in 1890. Author of ‘Du Divorce et de la séparation de corps’ (1865); ‘Sénac de Meilham (1868); ‘Le Mariage et les mceurs en France? (1879); ‘Compte rendu de la législature au nom de la gauche republicaine? (1881); ‘L’Organisation des Indes néerlandaises? (1887); ‘L’Idée de patrie? (1897); ‘Précis de procedure civile usuelle et pratique? (1897; new ed., 1904), etc. LEGRAND DU SAULLE, le-gran’du sol, Henri, French physician and alienist: b. Dijon, 16° Aptil 1830. “d. ‘Paris,’ 6 May’ 1886.°°-He studied medicine at Dijon, served as interne at various hospitals and in 1862 took his M.D. at Patric. ire Was,one Of the’ editors’ of* the Gazette des Hospitaux in 1854-62, engaged in the practice of medicine and tn 1868 became connected with the prefecture of police, Paris, where he shared the labors of Laségne. He was appointed physician at the Salpétriere in 1879. He was one of the founders in 1868 of the Societe de Medicine Legale and was for many years connected with Annales médico- psychologiques. Author of ‘La folié devant les tribunaux? (1864); ‘La folie héréditaire? (1873) ; ‘Traité de médecine legale? (1874) ; ‘Etude meédico-legale sur les épileptiques” (1877) ; ‘Etude médico-legale sur interdiction des aliénés’? (1880), etc. LEGRENZI, Giovanni, Italian composer: b. Clusone, near Bergamo, 1625; d. Venice, 26 July 1690. He studied under Pallavicino and was appointed organist at the church of Saint Maria Maggiore at Bergamo. He later became maestro di capella of the church of the Spirito Santo at Ferrara and about 1664 he was ap- pointed director of the Conservatorio dei benedicanti at Venice. In 1681 he became vice- maestro and in 1685 nfaestro di capella at Saint Mark’s, Venice, where he remained until his death. His most famous pupils were Lotti and Gasparini. His compositions have a wide range but he is most famous for his operas, of which he wrote 17 and which surpassed. anything then written in the instrumentation as well as pos- sessing other merits. Among them are ‘Achille in Sciro’? (1664); ‘La Divisione del Mondo? (1675); ‘I due Cesari? (1683); ‘Pertinace? (1684), etc. LEGROS, lé-gr6’, Alphonse, Anglo-French artist: b. Dijon, France, 8 May 1837; d. London, 8 Dec. 1911. In 1857 he exhibited for the first time in the Salon, but finding small encourage- ment in France, removed to London in 1863, became a naturalized Englishman and was ap- pointed in 1870 Slade professor in University College. His work, alike in painting, etching and modeling, is strongly mannered, and as a colorist his range is limited. He presents the rural scenes and peasantry of France with an austere dignity of style and force of expression, which though they did not make him popular won generous recognition from his brother artists. His more important works are the ‘Anglers,’ the ‘Pilgrimage,’ the ‘Spanish Cloister,” the ‘Benediction of the Sea, the ‘Baptism,’ the ‘Coppersmith, the ‘Dead vot 17—17 257 Christ,?> ‘Woman Praying,» ‘Public Penance,” and ‘On the Edge of the Woods,’ which last is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. His versatility was extraordinary — pen and pencil drawings, medal work, portraiture, etch- ings and sculpture having each the marks of his pronounced individuality. But his fame is per- haps greatest in his etched portrait work and this gave him a distinctive place in contempo- rary art. Among his subjects were Watts, Poynter, Leighton, Carlyle and Manning. Note- worthy etchings are ‘Death and the Woodman,’ and ‘Le Repas des Pauvres,? both ‘marked by a fine breadth in conception and handling. His monumental fountain at Welbeck Abbey is perhaps his best piece of sculpture. LEGUIA, 14-goo’ya, Augusto B., Peruvian financier and statesman: b. Lambayeque, 19 Feb. 1864. He studied at Valparaiso, Chile, served in the Chilean-Peruvian War and after- ward became prominent in financial circles. He became Minister of Finance in 1904 and was elected President in 1908. A revolutionary up- rising by the followers of Pierola endeavored to gain control of the government in 1909, and on 29 May -succeeded in taking President Leguia prisoner. Loyal government. forces came. to his rescue within an hour, however, and order was promptly restored. His ad- ministration saw the boundary dispute with Bolivia settled in favor of Peru and also the resumption of friendly relations with. Chile, with whom there had. been ill-feeling over boundary decisions. .Upon the expiration of his term as President he took up his residence in London.. LEGUME, lég’iim, the fruit or seed of plants of the Leguminose or pulse family. The seed vessel, or pod, has one cell and two valves; is generally dehiscent, opening down both sides, the seeds being borne on the ventral suture. Peas and beans form the most familiar mem- bers of the group. Indehiscent legumes, which at maturity break into one-seeded parts, are known as loments. LEGUMIN, or vegetable casein, a protein substance analogous to the casein of milk, ob- tained from beans, pease, lentils, vetches and other leguminous seeds ; the principle of the Leguminose. LEGUMINOSZ, a group of plants for- merly considered a family, but now generally divided into three families., The term, however, is a convenient one and is retained for the group -as a whole. The plants are’ herbs, shrubs and trees widely distributed in all cli- mates but most. numerous in tropical and sub- tropical regions; growing upon all kinds of soil ; exhibiting a great range of habit from creeping annual to climbing shrub; useful for a great variety. of purposes — ornament, food, timber, fodder and in the arts; and constituting one of the largest groups of plants, about -7,000 species. distributed among about 450 genera. The ‘species are characterized by alternate, stipulate, usually compound leaves ; papiliona- ceous of sometimes regular flowers commonly arranged in racemes; monadelphous, diadel- phous or occasionally distinct stamens, typically 10,' surrounding a single simple pistil which generally becomes a pod or legume containing one to many sheds 258 The spethes naturally fall into three fami- lies: (1) Fabacee@, with flowers resembling a butterfly ; (2) Cesalpiniacee, with imperfectly or not at all papilionaceous corollas, which may sometimes be nearly regular; (3) Mimosacee, with small, regular flowers. The first group contains more than two-thirds of the .species. ‘Its members are adapted for insect fertilization, especially by bees, which alight upon the lower petals, brush against the pistil which is thrust out by the insect’s weight, then come in contact with the stamens and finally carry the pollen, which has been discharged, to other flowers. Thus the pistils receive pollen from stamens not in the same flower with them. In some in- stances they may also obtain pollen from these stamens, thus having a double chance,.to be fertilized: See FLOWERS AND INSECTS. Perhaps the most interesting trait found in the group is the power possessed by the species of obtaining free nitrogen from the air by means of the tubercles or wart-like excrescences upon their roots. These tubercles are the homes of bacteria which have gained entrance to the plant’s tissue through the root-hairs and are thus the result of irritation. The plants, it is believed, furnish the bacteria with carbohydrate food in return for the nitrogenous material pre- pared by them, thus exhibiting excellent ex- amples of symbiosis (q.v.). Largely owing to this reciprocal action, the legumes are valued as green manures, a fact long acted upon but un- explained until the last quarter of the 19th century, when Hellriegel and other investigators proved it, and even went further to show that soils poor in the bacteria could be inoculated profitably. See C Lover; Nitrrocen; Root-Tu- BERCLES ; GREEN MANURING; VETCH ; ‘ CowPEA ; BEAN; “LUPINE; ACACIA ; LICORICE; INDIGO; SwEeEt PEA; Mepic: LABURNUM; TAMARIND: Mimosa. LEHAR, 1a’har, Franz, Austrian com- poser: b. Komron, Hungary, 30 April 1870. He was educated at the Academy of Music at Prague and was successively concert master at the Elberfeld Opera, a regimental bandmaster in the Austrian army 1890-1902. and conductor at the Vienna Theatre. His light opera, ‘Die lustige Witwe? (‘The Merry Widow’), pro- duced at. Vienna, 30 Dec. 1905, brought. him worldwide fame and a great fortune. He is also author of ‘Wiener Frauen?_ (1902); ‘Die ‘Juxheirat? (1904); ‘Mitislav “ der Moderne? (1906); ‘Der Graf von Luxemburg? (1909) ; “Le roi des Montagues? (1914), etc. LEHI, 1é’hi, Utah, city in Utah County, 31 miles south of Salt Lake City, on the: north shore of Utah Lake, and on the Denver and Rio Grande and -San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake railroads. It is situated in an irri- gated farming district chiefly interested in rais- ing sugar beets and fruit. There is a canning factory and a sugar refinery. Fop. (1920) 3,078. LEHIGH, 1léhi, a river, of Pennsylvania which has its rise east of Wilkesbarre, in Lu- zerne County, and flows nearly south to a point about 12 miles below Mauch Chunk, where it breaks through the Blue Ridge. From here its course is southeast to Allentown, then northeast to. Easton, where it enters the Delaware River, after a course of about 120 miles. In its upper course it is a rapid and picturesque mountain stream, broken by several falls. It passes from New York to Buffalo, N. Y., LEHAR—:LEHIGH VALLEY RAILROAD COMPANY through a rich coal and iron-ore region, and serves as an outlet for the products of the mines. It was made navigable by a series of extensive improvements to Whitehaven, 84 miles from its mouth. The Lehigh Valley "Railroad follows the course of the river for nearly its entire length. LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, an institution at South Bethlehem, Pa. founded by Asa Packer (q.v.) in 1866. - His endowment of the university, including an appropriation of land, totaled about $3,000,000, said: to: be the largest donation by one American. to. the cause of education up to that time. The‘ original object of Judge Packer was to “afford the young men of the Lehigh Valley a complete edu- cation, technical, literary and scientific, .for those ‘professions represented in the develop- ment of the peculiar resources of the sur- rounding region.” Lehigh’s growth has carried it far beyond local scope. The student. body of the first year numbered 40 young men from four States and one foreign country. In 1916 there were 775 students, representing 30 States and 12 foreign countries. The teaching staff has increased from 7 in 1866 to 78 at this time. The alumni body, including graduates and non-graduates, representing Lehigh in all parts of the world, numbers about 6,000, There is now a campus and park of more than 160 acres, with 20 buildings, a stadium and an additional playing field. For beauty of natural surroundings and architecture, Lehigh’s lay-out is regarded as one of the finest in the entire country. The 20 buildings include Packer Hall, Packer Memorial Church, Fritz Engineering Laboratory, the Linderman. Library, ~ with 130,000 volumes, Drown Memorial Hall, Col- lege Commons and Taylor gymnasium and field house. There are eight technical courses: civil engineering, mechanical engineering, metallurgi- cal engineering, electrometallurgy, mining engi- neering, electrical engineering, chemical engi-: neering and chemistry. In the arts and science department there are courses leading to the degree of bachelor of arts and of bachelor of science. A course in business. adminis- tration is included. The master’s degrees in-arts and sciences are granted in gradu- ate courses. The proximity of the plant of ithe Bethlehem Steel Company and. of cement, zinc, coal mining and other important industries affords opportunities for study by classes accompanied by instructors. In 1915 the productive funds of the university were $1,480,000 and the income $256,754. LEHIGH VALLEY RAILROAD COM- PANY, The, was incorporated by an act of. the legislature of Pennsylvania, 21 April 1846, as the Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill and Susque- hanna Railroad Company ; its name was changed re Lehigh . Valley Railroad Company 7. Jan. 1853. The Lehigh Valley Railroad system is to- day. a. double-track trunk. line extending through the States of New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania and New. York, from the Atlantic, Sea- board to the Great Lakes. The main line runs a. distance of 448 miles. The entire mileage of the system in 1916 was.1,443.69 miles, of which 596.47 miles was double track. The company possesses ter- minals on the Hudson River :front opposite LEHIGHTON — LEHMANN New York city, at Perth Amboy, N. J., and on Lake Erie at Buffalo, N. Y. The company also controls the Lehigh Valley Coal Company and the Morris Canal, 106.48 miles in length. At the eastern end of the line in New York har- bor the company owns a fleet of 286 boats. The rolling equipment of the road 30 June 1916 consisted of 971 locomotives (passenger, freight and switching), 631 passenger-car equip- ment, 43,579 freight-car equipment (of which 18,322 are coal cars). The ‘total earnings of the system for the year ended 30 June 1916 were $47,382,569; expenses of operation for the same period, $33,092,978; net earnings from operations, $14,289,591; percentage, operating expenses to gross earnings, 69.82 per cent. The amount of merchandise freight moved for the year ending 30 June 1916, exclusive of. com- pany’s material, was 19,752,591 tons. For the same period the coal tonnage, not including supply coal, amounted to 13,959,754 tons; the coal tonnage amounted to 70.67 per cent of the total tonnage hauled during the year. . LEHIGHTON, Pa., borough in Carbon County, on the Lehigh River, and on the Cen- tral of New Jersey and the Lehigh Valley rail- roads, about 75 miles. northeast of Harrisburg, the capital of the State, and 70 miles, in direct line, northwest of Philadelphia. It is a trade centre for a mining section of the county. Its chief manufactures are silk and lace, meat- packing, shirts, stoneworks, car-springs, flour, leather, stoves, furniture, brick and mining tools. The borough owns the. electric-light plant, but leases it to.a private corporation who operates it. The fair grounds of the County Industrial Society are located here. Pop. 6,102. LEHMANN, 1a’man, Alfred Georg Lud- vig, Danish psychologist and psychophysicist: b. Copenhagen, 1858. He was graduated at the University of . Copenhagen, and later studied at the University of Leipzig under W. Wundt, who greatly influenced his later career. He was in 1890 appointed docent, and in 1910 professor, -at the University of Copenhagen, where he founded a psychophysical laboratory. The Society. of Sciences awarded him a gold medal for his ‘Hovedlovene for det menneske- lige Folelsesliv?. (1892)... He is also author of “Overtro og Troldom? (4 vols., 1893-96; trans- lated into German) ;.‘De sjelelige Tilstandes legemlige Ytringer? (3 vols. 1898; German trans. 1899-1905); ‘Psychologische Methodik? (1905); “Grundztige der Psychophysiologie? (1912); “Paedagogisk Psykologi? (1913). _ LEHMANN (Charles Ernest Rodolphe), Henri, French painter: b. Kiel, Schleswig, 14 April 1812; d. 31 March 1882. He studied under his. father, Leo Lehmann, and under Ingres in Paris, visited Munich and Italy, and in 1847 settled at Paris where the, became naturalized. He as first painted scriptural sub- jects but eventually confined himself chiefly to portrait work, in which field he made a con- siderable reputation. He also’ executed mural decorations;; among them the chapel of. the church of: Saint»Merry, and the Throne Hall, Luxemburg: Palace. He became a chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1853, a member of the superior council of the Beaux Arts in 1875, and professor at’ the Ecole des Beaux Arts. His works include ‘Tobias and the Angel? (1835); ‘Jeptha’s Daughter? (1836); ‘Jere- _ Gallery, Florence; * Ingres, Edmorid About, etc. 259 miah? (1842), Angers Museum; ‘Leonidas? (1848), Nantes Museum; ‘Adoration of the Magi and Shepherds? (1855), Rheims Mu- seum; ‘Rest? (1864), Luxemburg Museum; - “Calypso» (1870); portrait of himself, Uffizi and portraits of Liszt, LEHMANN, Frederick William, American lawyer: b. Prussia, 28 Feb. 1853. He was ’ graduated at Tabor College, Iowa, in 1873 and was admitted to the bar in that year. He en- gaged in practice at Nebraska City in 1873-76, Des Moines, Iowa, in 1876-90, and since then has practised at Saint Louis. He was solicitor- general of the United States in 1910-12. He was a government delegate and chairman of the committee on plan and scope at the Univer- sal Congress of Lawyers and Jurists in 1904; and United States delegate to the A. B. C. mediation confer nce at Niagara Falls in 1914. He was president of the American Bar Asso- ciation in 1908-09, and second vice-president of the American Academy of Jurisprudence in 1914. LEHMANN, Johannes Edvard L., Danish theologian and historian: b. Copenhagen, 19 Aug. 1862. He studied in Lund, Germany, Holland, England and Paris, and took his Ph.D. at the University of Copenhagen in 1896. He became docent in the history of religion at Copenhagen in 1900, professor of that subject at Leyden in 1909 and at the University of Berlin in. 1910. Author of ‘Zarathustra? (2 vols., 1899-1902); ‘Mystik i Hedenskab og Kristendom> (1904; German trans. 1907); ‘Buddha? (1907); ‘Textbuch zur Religions- geschichte? (1912); ‘Barnelerdom og. Yug- lingsliy? (1913), etc. He also edited and revised De la Saussaye’s ‘Lehrbuch der _ Religions- geschichte? (4th ed., 1912). LEHMANN, Karl Bernhard, German physician: b. Ztirich, 27 Sept. 1858. He studied at the University of Zurich and in 1881 was appointed assistant in the physiological institute there.. He was physiological assistant . at Munich from 1883 until he became assistant professor of hygiene at Wiirzburg in 1887, where he was appointed professor in 1894. Author of ‘Methode praktischer Hygiene? (2d ed., 1901; Eng. trans., Crookes, 1893); with Neumann, R. O., ‘Atlas und Grundriss der Bakteriologie» (1897; 5th ed., 1911); ‘Der Bedeutung der chromate fiir die Geshundheit der Arbeiter? (1914), etc. LEHMANN, Lilli, German operatic singer: b. Wirzburg, 1848. Her mother, who was harp-player and prima donna under Spohr at Cassel, gave her the first musical instruction and under her training Fraulein Lehmann de- veloped a remarkable soprano voice. She made her début in Berlin (1870) and subsequently produced so good an impression that she was appointed imperial chamber singer in 1876. She became famous from the parts she took in the Nibelungen trilogy at Baireuth, and sang in Wagner’s operas in London (1884), and as principal soprano in the same operas at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, her principal réles being Brinhilde and_ Isolde. From 1885-90 she was mainly at the Metro- politan Opera House, New York, and in 1899 appeared at Covent Garden, London, in a round of parts. On her return to Germany 260 she found herself debarred from appearing on the operatic stage through having outstayed the leave given her by the Berlin Opera, but through the personal intervention of the emperor, the prohibition was removed. In 1888 she was married to Paul Kalisch. LEHMANN, Liza, English singer and composer: b. London, about 1862; daughter of Rudolf Lehmann (q.v.). She studied vocal music at London and Rome, and composition under Freudenberg and Hamish MacCunn. On 23 Nov. 1885 she made her début in London; her success was assured, and she was received well throughout. Great Britatn and Germany. In 1894 she retired from public singing on her marriage with Mr. Herbert Bedford, a well- known composer. She devoted herself hence- forth to composition and produced ‘works of freshness and. originality, many of them tinged with a refined feeling which recalls the modern German romantic or emotional school. Her most successful works are the ‘Persian Garden?; and ‘The Daisy Chain? (1901). LEHMANN, Peter Martin Orla, Danish statesman: b. Copenhagen, 19 May 1810; d. there, 13 Sept. 1870. He was educated in law at the University of Copenhagen and while of German descent early affiliated himself with the Danish national party. He was a contrib- utor to Kjdbenhavnsposten in his student days and in 1839-42 was one of the editors of the Fadrelandet, which he founded with C. N. David. He was active in the affairs of 1848, ‘was foremost in the party which insisted upon the Eider as the Danish boundary and main- tained that. Schleswig was an integral part of Denmark. He was a member of the cabinet formed by Count A. W. Moltke in 1848 and was sent to London and Berlin on missions concerning Schleswig-Holstein affairs. He was a member of the Folketing in 1851-53; of the Landting in 1854-70; and of the Reichrat in 1856-66. He was Minister of the Interior under Hall in 1861-63. He had a wide follow- ing, was liberal in his policies and a firm believer in the maintenance of Danish rights against German aggression. Author of ‘Om Aarsagerne til Danmarks Ulykke? (1864), which ran through eight editions and was translated into English. His collected works were published (4 vols., 1872-74). LEHMANN, Rudolf, Anglo-German painter and writer: b. near Hamburg, 19 Aug. 1819; d. Bushey, Herts, 27 Oct. 1905.. He was educated at the Johanneum, Hamburg, and proceeding to Paris studied painting under his brother, Henry Lehmann; he was afterward the pupil of Cornelius and Kaulbach (q.v.) at Munich. He went to Rome in 1839 and remained there 16 years. His largest picture is ‘The Blessing of the Pontine Marshes by Sixtus V,? which was bought by the French government after be- ing exhibited in France 1846. He also executed for the French government a ‘Madonna and Child.» In 1866 he settled in London and be- came a successful portrait painter, his work being distinguished by a reposeful dignity. He published ‘An Artist’s Reminiscences? (1894) ; “Men and Women of the Century? (1896). LEHMANN, Rudolph Chambers, English journalist, lawyer and politician: b. near Shef- field, England, 3 Jan. 1856.. He was educated LEHMANN — LEHR at Cambridge and became a barrister of the Inner Temple in 1880. He has been a: member of the staff of Punch from 1890 and was editor of the London Daily News in 1901. He coached the Harvard crew in 1896 and 1897. He is a keen politician and represented the Harborough: division’ of Leicestershire in the Liberal interest from 1906-11. He has pub- lished among other works ‘In Cambridge Courts? (1891); ‘Mr. Punch’s Prize. Novels? (1893) ; Isthmian Library: Rowing? (1897) ; ‘Anni Fugaces,» verse (1901); ‘Adventures of — Picklock Holes» (1901); ‘Crumbs. of Pity? (1903); ‘The Complete Oarsman? (1908) ; “Memories of Half a Century? (1908); ‘Light and Shade? (1909); ‘Charles Dickens as Editor? (1912); ‘A Spark Divine? (1913). LEHMKUHL, lém’kool, Augustinus, Ger- man Catholic theologian: b. Hagen, Westphalia, 23 Sept. 1834.. He was educated at Essen- Ruhr and at various scholasticates of the Jesuit order, which he entered in 1853. He was or- dained to the priesthood in. 1862. and became successively professor of Sacred Scripture, dogmatic theology and. moral theology at the scholasticates of Maria-Laach (1862-72) and Ditton Hall, England (1873-80). Since 1880 he has resided mostly in Holland and devoted himself to literary pursuits. . He published ‘Herz Jesu Monat? (1861; 11th ed, 1912); ‘Theologia moralis? (2 vols., 1883; 11th ed., 1910) ; “Compendium theologiz moralis? (1886; Sth ed., 1907); ‘Arbeitsvertrag und Strike? (4th ed., 1904); ‘Die soziale Not und der kirchliche Einfluss? (4th. ed, 1905); ‘Die soziale Frage und die staatliche Gewalt? (3d ed., 1896); ‘Internationale Regelang der so- zialen Frage? (3d_ed., 1896) ; “Der christliche Arbeiter? (3d ed., 1902); ‘Das birgerliche Gesetzbuch des deutschen Reichs? (7th ed., 1911); ‘Das Herz des gottlichen Menschen- freundes? (2d ed., 1906); °“Casus Conscientiz? (2 vols., 4th ed., 1900); ‘Probabilismus vin- dicatus’ (1906); ‘Das Gattesbrot? (2d ed., 1912). He collaborated in Herder’s ‘Kirchen- lexikon? and ‘Konversationslexikon, etc., and edited many compendia’ and manuals. Dr. Lehmkuhl is known far beyond his own country due to the fact that his theological works and the ‘Casus: Conscientie? are the textbooks’ in nearly all the Catholic seminaries of the world. LEHR, lar, Julius, German economist:_b. Schotten, Hesse, 18 -Oct. 1845; d. Munich, 10 Oct. 1894. He was educated at Giessen, became privatdocent in economics at Munich in_ 1868, professor at Karlsruhe in 1874, and from 1885 until his’ death was professor at Munich. Au- thor of ‘Schutzzoll und Freithandel? (1877) ; ‘Politische Oekonomie in gedrangter Fassung? (4th ed., 1905); ‘Produktion und Konsumtion in der Volkswirtschaft? (1895; ed. by Franken- stein), etc. . | LEHR, Paul Ernest, French jurist, author and educator: b. Saint-Dié, Vosges, 13. May 1835. He was educated at Strassburg and was admitted to the bar there. He was engaged in the defense of. Strassburg as a captain in the National Guard in 1870, and after the fall of the city he retired to Lausanne, Switzerland. In 1875. he was appointed professor of com- parative jurisprudence at the Academy of Lausanne, and) in 1877 he was appointed to a LEHRS — LEIBNITZ post in the French embassy in Switzerland. His contributions to the knowledge of foreign law were important. Author of ‘Eléments de droit civil germanique» (1875); ‘Eléments de droit civil russe? (2 vols., 1877-90); ‘Eléments de droit civil espagnol? (2 vols., 1880-90); ‘Eléments de droit civil anglais? (1885); ‘Le nouveati code pénal portugais? (1888), etc. LEHRS, lars, Karl, German _ classical . scholar: b. Konigsberg, 2 June 1802; d. there, 9 June 1878. He was of Jewish descent, but be- came a Christian in 1822. He was educated at the University of Konigsberg, and from 1845 until his death he was professor of ancient Greek philology there. He was the originator of a new system for the study of Homer, ex- plaining from the text itself, the method being embodied in his important work ‘De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis? (1833; 2d ed., 1882). He was also. author of ‘Questiones _ Epice? (1837); ‘De Asclepiade myrleano?. (1845); “Horatius. Flaccus? (1869); ‘Die Pindar- scholien? (1873), etc. LEIB, lib, Michael, American politician: b. Philadelphia, 1759; d. 1822. He was sent to the State legislature, and to Congress in 1798, where his pronounced political opinions made him conspicuous. Re-elected in 1800 and again in 1802; he opposed the administration of Jeffer- son, whom he had at first supported, and was politically associated with William Duane (q.v.), who published the Aurora. Returned to Congress in 1804, he there vigorously opposed Gallatin, and entering the Senate in 1808 was there especially hostile to both Madison and Gallatin. He left the Senate in 1814 to become postmaster of Philadelphia. LEIBL, Ii’b’l, Wilhelm, German genre and portrait painter: b. Cologne, 23 Oct. 1844; d. Wirzburg, 4 Dec. 1900. He was a pupil of Piloty and of Ramberg at Munich, and in 1869- 70 he was in Paris studying the methods of the French realists by whom his later work was largely influenced, although he was likewise an earnest student of MHolbein’s manner. He worked into his final representative manner — strength of line accompanied by delicacy of finish and fine coloring — through his early pe- riod of devotion to realism, and the second of painstaking particularity in detail. His work ranks among the best of his period in Ger- many, and he had a large following. He re- ceived the gold medal at the Paris Salon of 1870, the Prussian large gold medal and similar honors. He was a member of the Berlin Acad- emy. His portraits ranked high and include one of his father (Wallraf-Ricartz Museum, Cologne); the painter, Paulsen (Berlin Gal- lery) ; Frau Gedon (gold medal, Paris Salon) ; the painter, Sperl (Budapest Gallery). His genre pictures dealt mainly with sturdy. peasant types.. Among. them. are. ‘Cocotte’; ‘The Bachauer Peasant Women? (National Gallery, Berlin) ; ‘Three ‘Women in Church? (Hamburg Gallery) ;. ‘Two Poachers? (Berlin. Gallery); ‘A Provincia? (Pinakothek, Munich); ‘In the Kitchen? (Stuttgart .Museum), etc. He col- laborated with Sperl, the landscape painter, in several canvasses, and also executed a number of fine etchings. LEIBNITZ, lib’nitz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, the most universal scientific’ genius of 261 modern times: b. Leipzig, 21 June 1646; d. Hanover, 14 Nov. 1716. He early lost his father, a professor of moral philosophy in the local university, and depended for his childish education mainly upon undirected omnivorous private reading. Having passed through the University of Leipzig, he graduated doctor of laws from Altdorf, near Nuremberg, in 1666, and passed almost at once into the service of the archbishop elector of Mainz, arch-chan- cellor of the empire, in whose interests he be- gan the series of attempts to find a basis for the reunion of Western Christendom which oc- cupied him at intervals through a great part of his life. In 1672 Leibnitz was dispatched to Paris in the hope that he might be able to pro- mote the interests of the German states by diverting the ambitions of Louis XIV toward the conquest of Egypt. he mission failed of its intended effect, but the residence of Leibnitz in Paris, between 1672 and 1676, which was only broken by a brief visit to London in 1673, was of the utmost importance for the develop- ment of his thought, as it brought him into con- tact with the chief living exponents of Car- tesianism, Arnauld and Malebranche, as well as with Huygens and other leading mathematicians. From this period date Leibnitz’s critical study of Cartesianism and his introduction to higher mathematics, of which the first result was his discovery of the fundamental notions of the infinitesimal calculus. This discovery, made in 1675, was announced in 1676 to Newton, who promptly replied that he had for years been in possession of methods (the “method of flux- ions”) leading to the same results as those of his’ correspondent. The nature of these * methods was however disguised in a couple of anagrams. Leibnitz did not actually publish his discovery until 1684; Newton’s method was only given to the world in 1693. Leibnitz’s later years were unfortunately much disturbed by a bitter controversy, which reflects little credit on either party, with the friends of Newton, who accused him of having stolen the idea of the calculus from papers of Newton’s seen during his visit to England. It is now generally ad- mitted that this charge, which was never made by Newton himself, was quite baseless, and that though Newton had elaborated his methods for private use as early as 1665, the discovery of Leibnitz was entirely independent, while his notation was so much more convenient that it has completely replaced that of his great rival, even in England. On the termination of his residence in Paris Leibnitz spent several weeks in Holland in close communication with Spinoza, then living at The Hague, where he died in the following spring (1677). It appears that the two thinkers had repeated philosophical discussions, and that Leibnitz was'even allowed to see the jealously guarded manuscript of Spinoza’s ‘Ethics.» His subsequent misrepresentation of the extent of this intercourse with the greatest thinker of the previous generation, which has only been ex- posed within recent years, is perhaps the great- est blot on Leibnitz’s character. Leibnitz had already been deprived of his diplomatic position by the death of the Elector of Mainz in 1673. He now (1676) accepted from Johann Fried- rich, Duke of Brunswick, the post of court- librarian at Hanover, which he filled for the 262 rest of his life. Much of his time was hence- forward taken up with public affairs and with preparation for a history of the House of Brunswick, in connection with which he spent two years (1687-89) in research in the archives of Austria and Italy. He negotiated long, but to no result, with Bossuet and Spinoza for the reunion of the Roman and Reformed churches, did much to promote the mining industry of the Harz district, and in especial labored to advance the organization of scientific research by the foundation of academies. The sole di- rect result of these last exertions was the cre- ation in 1702 of the Berlin Academy with Lieb- nitz as its first president. Plans for similar in- stitutions in Dresden, Vienna and Saint Peters- burg proved abortive. During the lives of Johann Friedrich and his successor, Ernst August, Leibnitz remained in high favor and enjoyed in particular the friend- ship of the “two Electresses,” Sophia, wife of Ernst August and daughter of Descartes’ cor- respondent, Elizabeth of the Palatinate, and her daughter, Sophia Charlotte, queen of Prus- sia. With the accession of the former’s son, George Louis, afterward George I of England, to the dukedom he seems to have fallen into some disfavor, which, combined with the at- tacks of Newton’s partisans, did much to em- bitter his last years. Works.— In addition to his diplomatic and historical compositions, Leibnitz conducted an enormous scientific and philosophical corre- ’ spondence, but his busy life left little time for the production of philosophical works on a large scale. He preferred to make his ideas known piecemeal in correspondence and occa- sional short essays on particular points. The one extended philosophical treatise published in his lifetime, the famous ‘Theodicy,? a de- fense of natural theology against the sceptical attack of Bayle, is by general consent his poor- est performance. (The far more important ‘New Essays on Human Understanding, a penetrating criticism of the empiricism of Locke, remained in manuscript until 1765; the even more valuable ‘Discourse on Meta- physics, composed in 1685 for Arnauld, was not printed until 1846. Even the famous “Monadology,»? the best known of his shorter philosophical essays, was only published in the original French by Erdmann in 1840). There is thus no such thing as an even approximately complete edition of the philosophical writings of Leibnitz. The best substitute available is afforded by the two editions of Gerhardt of the mathematical (Halle and Berlin. 1850-63) and the philosophical works (Berlin 1875-90). But the recent publication by M. Couturat of a selection from the manuscript preserved at Han- over (Opuscules et fragments inédits de Leib- nitz, Paris 1903), has shown that many things of first rate importance have been passed over in Gerhardt’s editions, and has thrown a wholly new light on the logical foundations of Leib- nitz’s system. Though the great majority of the Hanover manuscripts are still unprinted, it is already clear that Leibnitz had anticipated to a previously unsuspected extent many of the most important recent developments in. both mathe- matics and philosophy.. Thus he had conceived the idea of projective geometry, and of the cal- culus of extension, while he had completely worked out the main principles of the exact LEIBNITZ logic recreated nearly 200 years later by Boole. Similarly the feasibility of the apparently chi- merical project of. a universal “characteristic,” or philosophical symbolism independent of spoken. language, to which so much of Leibnitz’s thought was devoted, has only been shown in the last few years by its approximate realization in the mathematical logics of Peano, Freje and others. Philosophical System.— Leibnitz makes his first appearance as a philosopher with a settled system of his own in 1685 at the age of 39, in the ‘Discourse on Metaphysics» composed for Arnauld. He had previously passed succes- sively under several different influences. In youth he had been familiar with the traditional doctrines of the great schoolmen, particularly with the nominalist system of Duns Scotus, and had afterward been powerfully influenced by the new materialist and mechanical philosophy of nature as expounded by Hobbes and Gas- sendi. During his stay in Paris, he had been a profound student and acute critic of Car- tesianism, and had subsequently, as we have seen, come into relations: with Spinoza, ‘who, however, failed from the first to satisfy him. At some-time between 1675 and 1685. he had evidently further made:a special study of Plato and Aristotle. The system of ideas at which he finally arrived bears traces of all these prepara- tory studies. In its general character it is cor- rectly described by the common statement that it represents a reaction against the exclusively mechanical interpretation of nature and mind and a return to the spiritualistic and teleological conceptions of the Platonic-Aristotelian philoso- phy. Against the purely mechanical conception of extra-human nature assumed by Cartesian- ism Leibnitz maintains that the explanation of mechanical routine itself has always in the last resort to be found in final casuality, in pur- posive activity; against the Spinozistic concep- tion of the illusoriness of all finite individual- ity, which he sincerely regarded as fatal to re- ligion, he insists upon the ultimate and absolute reality of individual finite existence. At the same time, Leibnitz’s system is one of pure and consistent rationalism; he aims at ruining the mechanical philosophy by showing that it col- lapses of itself when the attempt is made to think it out with rigorous consistency. Phys- ical science is absolutely justified in demanding a mechanical explanation of all events without exception, but the very nature of mechanical explanation is such that it cannot be finally satisfactory, but demands a further metaphys- ical explanation in terms of individual purposive activity to make it intelligible. ; In his most generally known works Leibnitz contents himself with expounding the conse- quences of this train of thought without clearly indicating the ultimate logical premises upon which it is based. What these premises are may best be learned from some of the papers recently printed by M. Couturat. In particular the little tract headed ‘Prime Veritates? (ulti- mate truths) contains a deduction of all the leading doctrines of the Leibnitian system, with one exception, from one or two ultimate logical theories. This sketch will be closely followed in the next few paragraphs. ff The fundamental assumption from which Leibnitz starts.is the doctrine (1) that all true propositions are analytical, i.e., the predicate of LEIBNITZ every true proposition is part: of the meaning of its. subject term. This is, in fact, the very meaning of the word truth. All ultimate truths are therefore identical and can be reduced to one of the two, forms, A is A (Law of. Iden- tity), A is not non-A (Law of Contradiction, which Leibnitz wrongly regards as a mere ver- bal transformation of the Law. of ‘ Identity). What we call ana priori or deductive proof is _ merely the reduction of a derivative proposition to a form in which this identity. between sub- ject and predicate is made explicit by means of logical analysis. So-called, synthetic proposi- tions, in which the predicate appears to involve a. new, determination, of the subject, are merely propositions. for which we have not succeeded in, performing this analysis.. It is this denial that any true proposition can be really synthetic which constitutes the fundamental difference between Leibnitz and Kant. It is now further assumed. (2) that every proposition is one which affirms or denies an attribute.of a substance or subject, and (3). that there. is an ultimate plurality of such logical subjects or substances. Of these assumptions (2), which is, in fact, logically a mere, trans- formation of (1), is the source of, Leibnitz’s worst logical difficulties, as it. forces him to hold. that no proposition asserting a relation between two substances can. be an_ ultimate truth. Any statement of the form, “A has the relation x to B,” must be decomposable into a pair of statements of the form “A has an at- tribute x.” “B hasan attribute x2” (3) )Con- stitutes the only real fundamental divergence between Leilbnitz and Spinoza, since according to the latter the subject of every true proposi- tion must ultimately be the one real substance — viz., God. Leibnitz’s' reason for assuming a plurality of substances seems to have been his. strong conviction that the human self is. a real and ultimate individual.- Leibnitz goes on to observe that the whole difference between. the necessary truths of: science and the contingent truths of every-day experience is explained by the distinction be- tween explicitly and implicitly analytical propo- sitions. . When. writing for others, Leibnitz habitually spoke of this difference between truths of reason and truths of fact as if it were an ultimate difference in kind.. Truths of. rea- son, he usually says, depend upon the Law of Contradiction, and: are therefore demonstrable; truths of fact depend on the Principle of Suffi- cient Reason, and are, with the one exception of the existence of God, contingent and_in- demonstrable. From the ‘Prime Veritates> it is clear that his real meaning was merely that truths of fact (propositions involving the as- sertion of existence) would require an infinitely prolonged analysis before they could be re- solved into identities, Leibnitz’s Law of Suff- cient Reason, in fact, turns out to mean simply the doctrine that every truth is analytical and therefore capable of a priori proof, though the dn ins production of the proof may demand finitely prolonged: analysis and thus be prac- tically impossible for us. It now follows (1) that no two things can be exactly alike; nu- merical diversity always: implies difference: in attributes, since there must be a reason why the things are counted as two and not as one, and this reason must, on: the principles just laid down, lie in some difference in their attributes. 263 (Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles). Hence Leibnitz denies that space is a reality, for if it were, there would be infinitely numer- ous real things (the points of space), which are all. exactly alike. (2) There are no “external” relations. between things, i.e., no relations which do not arise out of the attributes of the terms related, since every truth, reduced:to its simplest terms, consists in the ascription of an attribute to a subject, and no proposition asserting re- lation between. two things can therefore be an ultimate truth. Hence, since geometry and me- chanics consist precisely in the study of such “external”. relations, the whole world of ex- tended and moving objects must be merely ap- parent or phenomenal, not real. (3) The true concept of any individual substance logically involves the whole series of its past, present and future states. Everything that can happen to such a substance is logically a consequence of the character of that substance, each substance is causa sui, the reason for the succession of its own states. Hence God, being omniscient, can deduce the whole history, e.g., of Saint Peter or Alexander the Great, from contemplation of the concept of Peter or Alexander. (4) Every individual, substance involves in its concept the whole structure of the universe, so that from complete knowledge of any one substance we could deduce a priori, if our power of analysis were infinite, the whole history of the universe. This follows from the consideration that every substance stands in some relation to every other, while, according to the logic of Leibnitz, every relation presupposes as its foundation a corre- sponding attribute in each of its terms. Hence all the substances are different expressions of the same fundamental system: They “mirror” or “represent” the same structure but with vary- ing degrees of clearness, like perspective draw- ings, taken from different points, of the same - fort or city. ‘The connection between different substances is’ thus ideal or metaphysical, not real or causal. Strictly speaking, no finite substance exercises a real influence on another, since every substance is the sufficient reason tor the suc- cession of its own states, and the passing over of a state or predicate from one thing into another is unintelligible. Thus what we com- monly call-external causes are, in truth, merely occasions or conditions of the occurrence of a change of which the real cause is always the nature of the substance in which the change takes place. But, since all substances “mirror” the same system, the result is that there ap- pears to be causal interconnection between the states of all the things in the universe. Each thing develops from within, entirely unaffected | by any other, and yet the result is the same as it would be if everything were casually affected at every moment by all the rest. This is Leib- nitz’s most famous theory, the doctrine of the Pre-established Harmony between all sub- stances. A particular case of it is the psycho- physical correspondence between the soul and the body: The soul develops independently ac- cording: to the law-of its own nature, and the same is trie of each of the substances which, as-an aggregate, compose the body, yet the cor- respondence ‘between the. psychical and. the bodily’ series of changés: is’ as complete as it would be if each series were at every step con- ditioned by the other, nor is there any need, after the fashion of. the Occasionalists, to in- 264 voke the supernatural interference of God to effect the correspondence. The point is well illustrated by the analogy of a band of musi- cians who keep perfect time and tune simply because each of them is playing correctly from his own score without waiting for his cue from any of the others. Further consequences are (5) that empty space does not exist, since it would have to con- sist of points which are all different, and yet all exactly alike. For the same reason, bodies do not consist, as Descartes held, of mere ex- tension, since extension, if real, would be merely the infinite repetition of elements which are ex- actly alike. (6) Matter is not only infinitely divisible but infinitely divided. There are no atoms, or indivisible parts of matter. If an atom were a true substance or ultimate unit it would be theoretically possible to deduce the whole constitution of the universe from ade- quate knowledge of the motion of one atom, whereas in fact many different theories of the universe may agree in yielding the same series of positions for a given atom. ‘All matter is therefore, as we read in the ‘Monadology,? composite, and thus even the smallest particle is a fully organized world; every part of the “divine machine” of Nature is, in its turn, a further machine. In a word, space, motion and body, when body is defined as extended matter in motion, are not substances but merely vera phenomena, orderly and connected appearances of the same kind as, e.g., the rainbow; that is, they are appearances corresponding to com- posites or aggregates of individual substances. But, as there are no atoms, no body is really one, and consequently not really many, since “many” means a collection of ones. Thus the “corporeal substances” of the physical world must possess a “form,” or principle of unity, which is itself immaterial and analogous to our “soul The so-called material world must be regarded as an aggregate of immaterial units. This is why perception and volition, the funda- mental attributes of the incorporeal elements, are inexplicable on mechanical principles, which only apply to composites. Hence the philo- sophical interpretation of the universe has in- evitably to be given in terms of final causality, i.e, of the purposive activity of the ultimate simple elements. Finally (7) since substances are simple units, no substance can begin or cease to exist bit by bit, by gradual development. The simple sub- stance or monad, to adopt the technical term borrowed by Leibnitz from the younger Van Helmont, has no parts, and is a kind of spirit- ual or metaphysical “point,» and therefore can only come into existence, if at all, by instan- taneous creation, and only perish, if at all, by instantaneous annihilation. The only important doctrine of Leibnitz which does not figure in the foregoing sketch, taken from the tract on ultimate truths, is also the one doctrine which is most manifestly an excrescence on the system, the theorem of the existence of God. This is, according to Leib- nitz, the only “truth of fact» which can be proved by a finite process of logical analysis. Leibnitz attempts to prove it both from a con- sideration of the “eternal truths” or “truths of reason,» the universals of pure science, and from the “truths of fact” He holds, as a mathematician must, that the range of scientific LEIBNITZ truth is wider than that of actual existence. Besides the existing system of Laws of Nature, other systems are equally conceivable or logic- ally possible, and the truths which hold for all possible constitutions of the universe form the body of “eternal truths.” But Leibnitz holds that all possibilities must be founded on some- thing actual, otherwise there would be no means of distinguishing the possible from the impos- sible, a doctrine which is also fundamental in the philosophy of Lotze. The requisite founda- tion in actuality is provided by the existence of God. The “possible worlds” are just those systems of things which are actually present to the understanding of God. Hence the ex- istence of God is logically necessary, provided only that it is possible, i.e., that the notion of a God or most real being involves no logical contradiction. With the addition of the proof, which Leibnitz believes himself to have given, that the existence of God is logically possible, the “ontological proof” of Descartes becomes completely valid. The existence of God may also be shown by a form of the “cosmological proof,» from the “truths of fact” which are concerned with the constitution of the actual world. There must be a sufficient reason why just this one, out of all the logically possible systems, is actual rather than any other, and this reason is found in the will of God. Voli- tion, it is assumed, is always directed to the choice of the apparent best, which in the case of an omniscient God, is also the real best. Now the system of the Pre-established Har- mony is the “best” of all possible systems for the universe, precisely because, owing to the complete adaptation of every monad in it to every other, the number of “compossibles,” that is, of substances which can co-exist as members of the same system, is greater than on any other constitution of the universe. The famous doctrine that the actual world is “the best possible world thus simply means that the quantity of existence in the actual world, as measured by the number of “compossibles” is a maximum. Hence God, in virtue of the principle of the choice of the best, chooses that this system rather than any other pos- sible arrangement should exist. It is not clear how this act of choice is to be understood, nor does Leibnitz help us much by the curious conception that every possible system tends or strives to become actual with a force propor- tionate to the amount of reality, i.e, the num- ber of “compossibles” it comprises, and that God’s creative activity consists in removing from the actual world the hindrance to exist- ence which would otherwise arise from: the rival tendencies of the possible worlds to ex- istence. If “existence” is logically a predicate, it ought, on Leibnitz’s principles, to be inherent in the nature of the subject to which it be- longs, and the actual world should thus exist eternally and necessarily. If itis not a predicate but an “external” relation imposed on the particular system of the Pre-established Har- mony by the will of God, the doctrine of the analytic character of truth, from which the system of Pre-established Harmony is a mere deduction, must be false, and, as a further complication, the “ontological proof of God’s existence must also be worthless. It must be noted that God is not a monad, but stands quite outside the system. The common state- LEIBNITZ ment that Leibnitz spoke of God as the “monad of monads” seems to originate with Hegel and to have no. foundation. In the “Monadology” and the writings con- nected with it the consequences of the system are developed with particular reference to their bearing upon the nature and destiny of the soul. Every monad, or simple substance, is an incor- poreal unit possessing a capacity of adaptation to the simultaneous condition of other monads which is called perception, and a tendency to spontaneous internal change of state, which is called appetition. An organism is a cluster of such monads, the states of which are more readily seen to be adapted to one another than they are to those of any other monads. In Leibnitz’s language, each member of the cliis- ter “perceives” or “represents” the rest more clearly and with less confusion than it does any other monads. In each such cluster there is a dominant monad, analogous to a soul, which “represents” the rest with special clear- ness, and in which it is, in consequence, particu- larly easy to discover the reasons for the suc- cession of states in the others. In virtue of the finitude of every monad, however, there is in every monad some element of confused perception, or “passivity,” i.e, there are some changes of state in every monad the reasons for which cannot be discovered by us in the monad itself, but have to be found by con- sidering other monads. Hence Leibnitz infers that no soul or dominant monad is ever com- pletely devoid of a body or system of asso- ciated inferior monads. This element of limi- tation or confused perception is called “meta- physical evil,» and is treated as the source both of suffering, or physical, and of wrong- doing or moral, evil. The system of monads now falls into a hierarchy of three grades, according to the degree of the monad’s clearness of perception. The perception and appetition of the monad are not necessarily conscious. The condition of the monads which compose the so-called in- animate world is similar to that of the soul in profound sleep or swoon; their perceptions are, aS we now Say, permanently “below the threshold” of distinct consciousness. Leibnitz is thus the author of the doctrine since so fateful in Psychology, of indefinitely minute “unconscious” mental modifications. In ani- mals, when fully developed, the formation of sense-organs, which are essentially an apparatus for the collection of stimuli, renders possible the summation of such “minute perceptions” to form a single intensified and therefore con- scious perception, and thus provides a_ basis for memory and association. Those “domi- nant monads” which have thus been furnished with heightened perceptions form the second stage in the hierarchy, that of animal souls. In accord with the biological ideas of his time, Leibnitz regards the process of conception and birth essentially as one of development in size; not only is there no generation of life from lifeless matter, but each living germ, even before conception, already contains, on a microscopic scale, the whole organization. of the future animal. Death is the converse proc- ess of reduction, by which the organism re- turns to a microscopic condition; hence, strictly speaking, not only all souls, or dominant monads of organisms, but all organisms them- 265 selves, are indestructible. Rational minds form the third and highest grade in the system of monads. Their distinguishing characteristic is that, in addition to memory and the power of forming associations of ideas, they possess the power of, discerning rational connections be- tween truths, and thus of rising to reflective consciousness of the se/f as a simple substance and of God, the infinite substance. Since the perceptions of every monad are internal states of itself, Leibnitz necessarily agrees with Des- cartes in regarding the fundamental notions of rational science as innate, but is more careful than Descartes to give prominence to the neces- sity for analysis and reflection before these in- nate ideas can be brought to light. Before the reflective process has disengaged them the fun- damental categories of rational thought are present in the mind as veins, which have not yet been laid bare, are present in the unshaped block of marble. In virtue of their capacity for rational thought, spirits may be said to be living mirrors not only of the universe, like all other monads, but of God, its cause. God is related to them not merely as to all created things, after the fashion of an inventor to his machine, but as a prince to his subjects or a father to his children. Thus they form, within the uni- verse, a more special society or “city of God» over which God presides not merely in accord- ance with natural but also in accordance with moral law. The universe thus presents, within the Pre-established Harmony itself, a second harmony between the physical and moral orders in consequence of which the mechanical se- quence of physical causes and effects tends of itself, without any need for special divine in- terposition, to an ultimate adjustment of the happiness of each spirit to its moral deserts. Leibnitz’s mathematical optimism thus culmi- nates in ethical optimism at the cost of a rather hazardous identification of goodness in the metaphysical sense of quantity of existence with goodness in a specifically moral sense. Two points still call for some further re- mark: (1) Letbnitz’s conception of matter; (2) his ethical theory. Matter.—Leibnitz’s theory of matter is con- ditioned by his discovery of the fundamental defect of Cartesian Mechanics. Descartes had assumed that “quantity of motion,” or mo- mentum, is independent of the direction of motion, and had consequently been led to base his Mechanics on the assertion that the quan- tity of motion in a dynamical system remains constant. Against this view Leibnitz contended that the capacity of a moving body for doing work, its wis viva or “iving force,” as measured by its effects in moving another body through a greater or a less distance, is proportional not to its momentum, but to its momentum multi- plied by its velocity. Hence the correct meas- ure of force is not my (momentum). but mv? (vis viva, the double of what we call the Ki- netic energy of the body). It is this which is really conserved in dynamical transactions be- tween bodies. (The controversies as to the true “measure of force” to which these ob- servations gave rise have long been admitted to be largely verbal. If we measure a con- stant force by the momentum it generates in a given time, Descartes’ formula is, of course, correct; if we measure it by the distance through which it propels a body, that of Leib- 266 nitz has to be adopted. Similarly, both the Conservation of Momentum. and the Conser- vation of Vis Viva, if properly formulated, are truths). The importance of the point in Leibnitz’s philosophy is due to the fact that it led him to regard force as a real entity, different from actual motion, and thus to hold, as against the Cartesians, that the phenomenal physical world cannot be analyzed into exten- sion and motion alone. _For Leibnitz’s own theory of phenomenal matter it is further im- portant to distinguish primary from secondary matter. Primary matter itself is something more than mere extension or occupation of space. It is extension plus resistance (a con- ception which seems to combine in one inertia and impenetrability). But for this quality of resistance any one state of the physical world would be indistinguishable from any other. Primary matter is however purely passive, and is never to be found existing alone. All physi- cal existents contain in addition force, in the sense of spontaneous tendency to change of state. It is the secondary matter thus consti- tuted by extension plus resistance plus force which is studied by the physicist, and held by Leibnitz to be infinitely divided and organized. Secondary matter thus stands, so to say, half- way between the monads and the pure abstrac- tion of primary matter, and is the matter of which Leibnitz speaks as a “truthful phenome- non” There is really no very close connection between these dynamical theories and the meta- physical. system of Leibnitz, though the two ‘are made to look more intimately related than they actually are ‘by a confusion ‘between force in the dynamical sense of rate of change of mo- mentum and force in. the metaphysical sense of the inherent tendency of the monad to change of state. Ethical Views.— There is’ nothing very in- dividual in the ethics of Leibnitz (which may be generally described as a doctrine of rational- istic utilitarianism of a type common enough in the 17th and:early 18th centuries), except his treatment of the problem of moral freedom. As we have seen, the original source’ of. all change is appetition in the monad. «Conscious appetition is desire, and desire is always di- rected toward the apparent best. There is thus no such things as unmotived willing; a volition only seems unmotived when the motive im- pulse is “below the threshold © Leibnitz ‘is consequently a consistent determinist in his analysis of choice and volition, yet he regards it as one of the merits of his system: that it vindicates the reality of freedom: against the Spinozistic doctrine of universal necessity. In what sense, then, are we free?) Leibnitz replies by distinguishing two kinds of necessity, meta- physical. and) moral... That is metaphysically necessary, of which the contradictory is» im- possible. In this sense no volition is necessary. (This, however, is, of course, inconsistent with the theory that all true propositions are ana- lytical, since the contradictory of: an analytical proposition must be false). A thing is morally necessary when it is an indispensable means to the obtaining of the apparent best. In this sense all volitions:are necessary — though for reasons which merely incline, but do not com- pel the will. Spinoza, according to: Leibnitz, erred by confusing the two senses of necessity. Moral freedom, then, consists in spontaneity “Spinoza’s. . tions, LEIBNITZ plus ‘intelligence. Weare free in proportion as we have intelligence to discern the real best, a doctrine which is only nominally distinct from Leibnitz further agrees with Spi- noza in his) general conception of the moral good. Pleasure is assumed to accompany in- crease of activity; i.e, clear perception, and good and evil correspond to acts’ motived :re- spectively by clear and by confused perception. Hence Leibnitz ought to have regarded vice as equivalent to honest and unavoidable error. He tries to escape by his distinction between meta- physical and moral evil. The former is simply the element of passivity or confused percep- tion in the monads, and is not inconsistent with God’s goodness, since: a world which includes this element may contain a greater number of “compossibles,” and so be on the whole better, than one which does not. Moral evil, or vice, and physical evil, or suffering, are inconsist- ently regarded at once as being logical conse- quences of this metaphysical evil, and yet as contingent and non-necessary. The ethical sys- tem based on such ideas is naturally in the main one of enlighted egoism in which intelligence is exalted at the cost of ignorant good inten- But since, in ‘virtue of the harmony between monads, my own good and that of others are inextricably bound up together, Leib- nitz holds that doing good to others naturally gives us pleasure, and hence he agrees’ with Shaftesbury in recognizing the existence of dis- interested affection. To make the coincidence of my own good with the good of others com- plete he has further to assume, as we have seen that he does, immortality and the final proportionment of happiness to desert. Other works by Leibnitz are ‘Nouveau sys- teéme de la nature? (1695); ‘Essais de thé- odicée? (1710) ;.‘Principes de la nature et de la grace? (1714); ‘Nouveaux essais sur l’en- tendement humain? (1765). His philosophical works in French and Latin have appeared in several editions. The principal are those of Erdmann (Berlin 1840), of Jaret (Paris 1866; 1900); and of, Gerhardt (Berlin 187590). Pertz undertook the publication of a complete edition four volumes of history (Hanover 1843-47), seven volumes of mathematics (Ber- lin and Halle 1849-63) and one volume of philosophy have appeared. Some of the im- portant philosophical works have been trans- lated by G. M. Duncan (New Haven 1890) ; the “Nouveaux essais» by A: G. Langley (Lon- don 1894); ‘The Monadology? by R. Latta (Oxford 1898). Bibliography.— Cassirer, Ernst, ‘Leibnizs System in seinen : wissenschaftlichen Grund- lagen? (Marburg 1902); Couturat; Louis, ‘La logique de. Leibniz? (Paris 1901); Dewey, John, ‘Leibnitz’s New Essays Concerning’ the Human Understanding? (Chicago 1888) ; Dill- mann, Eduard, ‘Eine neue’ Darstellung der leibnizschen Monadenlehre? (Leipzig 1891) ; Feuerbach; E. A., ‘Darstellung; Entwickelung und. Kritik der» leibnizschen Philosophie’ (Anspach 1837); Guhrauer, G: E., ‘Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr von Leibniz? (1842; Eng- lish version abbreviated, Boston 1845); Har- nack, Adolf, ‘Leibniz Bedeutung in der Ge- schichte der Mathematik» (Stade 1887) ;: Heim- soeth, Heinz; ‘Die ‘Methode der’ Erkenntniss bei Descartes. und Leibniz” (2 vols., Giessen 1914); Kirchner, F., “G. W. Leibniz? (Cothen LEICESTER — 1876) ; Merz, J. T., ‘Leibnitz? (London 1884) ; Nourrisson, J. F., ‘La philosophie de Leibniz? (Paris 1860) ; Pfieiderer, Edmund, ‘G.. W. Leibniz als Patriot, Staatsmann und Bildung- strager? (Leipzig 1870) ; Russell, B. A. W.,, ‘Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leib- nitz> (London 1900); Zimmermann, Robert, “Leibnizs Monadologie? (Vienna 1847). bee LAYLOR} Professor of Moral Philosophy, Saint Andrews University, Scotland. LEICESTER, Robert Dudley, Eart or. See DuDLEy, Rosert, EARL OF LEICESTER. LEICESTER, lés’tér, England, couwnty- town of Leicestershire, on the river Soar, a southern tributary of the Trent, 99 miles north- west of London, on the Midland Railway and . cn branches of the Great Northern and London and Northwestern railways and on the Leices- ter Canal. It was the Roman Rate and the ancient British and Roman Rate Coritanorum and has interesting Roman remains, including the Jewry wall and several pavements, while the bricks in the early Norman church of Saint. Nicholas are of Roman origin. There are several fine. churches with Norman and early English remains and the ruins of an ab- bey of the Black Canons, founded in 1143. The castle has parts of the original Norman hall, two gateways and an artificial mount upon which the donjon or keep stood. It was one of the “Five Boroughs” of the Danes in the Oth century. It was a municipality in 120-121 A.D., was the seat of a bishopric in 680-874 and in the 13th century it instituted a government by a mayor and 24 jurats. It was taken by storm by Charles I in May 1645 and retaken by Fairfax in the following month. It was granted its first.charter by Robert of Meulan in 1103 or 1118 and later received charters by ‘Henry VII in 1505, by Elizabeth in 1599, by James I in 1605 and 1610, by Charles I in 1630 and by James II in 1684. It has been repre- -sented by two members in Parliament since 1295. It has a prescriptive market dating from the 13th century, held on Wednesdays and Saturdays; a fair dating from 1228, and an- other dating from 1473. There are several other fairs of more recent origin. There are ~excellent modern libraries, schools, hospitals, benevolent institutions, art museum, gymna- siums, churches and parks. It became a county borough in 1892 and was extended to consti- tute a civil parish in 1892. The manufacture of hosiery on knitting. frames was established about 1680 and still constitutes an important industry. The manufacture of boots was in- troduced in the 19th century and the brewing -and woolen industries were established in the 13th century.. Other industries include the _manufacture of cotton, lace, elastic webbing, -iron-works. and _ brick-works. . Pop. about 227,242. Consult Bateson, ‘Records of the Borough of Leicester? (1899); Johnstone, “History of Leicester? (1892). LEICESTER, Mass., village in Worcester County, six miles southwest of Worcester, at the sources of the Quinebaug River and on the ‘Boston’ and Albany Railroad. It is situated in a fertile, well-wooded farming district and manufactures’ cards, clothing» and woolen goods. Pop. (1920) "3,635. LEICHHARDT 267 LEICESTER, or THE FATAL DE- CEPTION, a tragedy written by William Dunlap (q.v.) in 1794 and credited with being the first tragedy of American authorship to be produced on the stage. LEICESTER SQUARE (formerly Letces- TER FreLcps), London, England, a square in the west end of the city; frequented by foreigners of the middle class, especially French and a refuge for the French Huguenot émigrés after the Edict of Nantes in 1685. It was unin- closed country until the time of Charles II. It was once the site of Savile House; and Lei- cester House, built for Robert Sidney, Earl of Leicester, formerly stood on the north side of the square. Here Queen Elizabeth of Bohe- mia, “the Queen of Hearts,” died 13 Feb. 1662, and Frederick, Prince of Wales, also died in Leicester House in 1737. Hunter, Hogarth, Newton and Reynolds once lived in the neigh- borhood. LEICESTERSHIRE, England, north mid- land county, bounded by Derby on the north- west, Nottingham on the north, Lincoln and Rutland on the east, Northhampton on the southeast and Warwick on the southwest, where it likewise touches Staffordshire. The area of the county is 819 square miles. The surface is undulating, the hills of the Charn- wood Forest in the northwest forming the high- est ground, Barden Hill having 912 feet eleva- tion. The county drains chiefly to the Trent through the Soar, Anker, Devon and Mease; but the south of the county drains to the Avon. The climate is mild and rainfall moderate; the soil of a loamy quality, of which nine-tenths is under cultivation. Dairying is an important industry and the famous Stilton Cheese is manufactured near Melton Mowbray. It is a famous fox-hunting county, Leicester and Mel- ton Mowbray being the principal centres, while the noted kennels of the Quorn Hunt are at , Quorndon, near Mount Sorrel... Coal mining is carried on extensively and there are quar- ries of limestone, freestone, blue slate and granite. The Leicester sheep are famous for their fine fleeces, the wool being largely used in local manufactories of wool hosiery. The district was penetrated by the Anglians in the 6th century and Leicester fell to them. about 556. It formed the kingdom of the Middle Angles in the kingdom of Mercia in 679, and in the 9th century was conquered by the Danes. The earliest inhabitants were the Celtic Cori- tani, who were conquered in turn by the Ro- mans, Anglians, Danes and Normans. The Domesday Survey of 1086 reveals the land- holders of the district to be chiefly Norman. .Leicester. was a Lancastrian stronghold dur- ing the Wars of. the Roses and was the scene of the battle of Bosworth in 1485. In the Civil _War of the 17th century Leicesteshire favored Parliament in the main, Lady Jane Grey was born at Bradgate, near Leicester. The woolen industry was important as early as Norman times and Leicestershire wool commanded a higher price than any in England in 1343. The manufacture of hosiery was inaugurated in the 17th century and continues of prime import- ance. Pop. 432,019. LEICHHARDT, lik’hart, Friedrich Wil- helm Ludwig, German explorer: b. Trebatsch, Brandenburg, Prussia, 23 Oct. 1813; disap- 268 peared in Australia, 1848. He was educated at the universities of Gottingen and Berlin, spe- cializing in philology and natural history, and in 1841. went to Australia where he was en- gaged in making a geological survey, the re- ports of which were published after his death. His second visit to Australia was at the head of an exploring expedition in which he tra- versed Queensland and Arnhem Land in 1844 45 and traveled some 2,000 miles. started from Moreton Bay in an attempt to traverse the continent and was lost, the last communication received from him being de- spatched from Macpherson’s Station on Co- goon River, 3 April 1848. Five relief expedi- tions were organized and sent in search of him in 1851-65 but no trace of him was found. A town and county were named in his honor in New South Wales as well as a district in Queensland. Author of ‘Journal of an Over- land Expedition in Australia, from Moreton Bay to Port Essington? (1847); ‘Contribu- tions to the Geology of Australia? (1855). LEIDENFROST, | li’dén-frést, Johann Gottlob, German scientist and professor of medicine: b. Rosperwenda, 24 Nov. 1715; d. Duisburg, 2 Dec. 1794. He studied at Giessen, Leipzig and Halle and from 1743 until his death he was professor of medicine at the Unt- versity of Duisburg. He was the originator of an experiment proving the spheroid shape of a drop of water by dropping it upon a hot plate and demonstrated the presence of a layer of _vapor between the plate and the water. Au- thor of ‘De Aque Communis Nonnullis Qual- itatibus? (1796); ‘Opscula Physico-Chemica et _ Medica? (1797). LEIDY, li’di, Joseph, American naturalist: b. Philadelphia, 9 Sept. 1823; d. there, 30 April 1891. He was graduated M.D. at the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania in 1844 and in 1853 was elected to the chair of anatomy in that institu- tion, a post which he long filled, as well as that of professor of natural history in Swarthmore College, Pa., to which he was appointed in 1871. In 1881 he became president of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia and in 1885 president of the Wagner Free Institute of Sci- ence in that city. He was the author of many valuable memoirs, chiefly published in the Pro- ceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, the Transactions of the American Philosophi- cal Society and the ‘Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.» -Among them may be cited ‘Ancient Fauna of Nebraska? (1853); ‘Creta- ceous Reptiles of the United States? (1865) ; ‘Fresh Water Rhizopods of North America? (1879) ; ‘Treatise on Human Anatomy? (1861- 89). Consult the Memoir by Chapman, H. C., in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences (1891). LEIGH, 1é, England, market town and municipal borough in Lancashire, 11 miles northwest of Manchester, on the London and Northwestern Railroad. The town has a church dating from 1279 which, with the ex- ception of the tower, was restored in 1873. There is an amply endowed grammar school of - unknown age, but which received its heaviest endowments in 1655, 1662 and 1681. The town was founded in the 12th century, but not incor- porated until 1899, Its officers consist of a mayor, 18 aldermen and 24 councilors. The In 1848 he ° LEIDENFROST — LEIGHTON ~ municipal equipment in gas, water, sewage dis- posal, hospital and fire departments is modern. . The town is situated in a coal-mining region, manufactures silk and cotton goods and has extensive collieries; it has also breweries, flour mills, glass works and foundries. Pop. , LEIGHTON, 14a’t6n, Alexander, English physician and clergyman: b. Scotland, 1568; d. London, 1649. He was educated at Saint An- drew’s University, became a Presbyterian cler- gyman and settled in London where he en- gaged in the practice of medicine in addition to his work as a preacher. He became in- volved in difficulties through his publication in 1624 of ‘Speculum Belli Sacri, or the Look- ing-Glass of the Holy War? and his petition to Parliament against episcopacy which the af- terward enlarged and published in Holland, ‘An Appeal to the Parliament, or Zion’s Plea against the Prelacie? (1628). These writings were violent in their abuse of the bishops, the king and particularly of the queen. He was seized by the authorities 17 Feb. 1630, sen- tenced to be degraded from holy orders, pay a fine of £10,000 and to life imprisonment after being whipped, pilloried, branded and muti- lated. He succeeded in making his escape but was recapiured and part of the sentence of mutilation was executed with the utmost barbarity, although for some _ reason the second half of the punishment was remitted. He was then imprisoned until 1640 when the Long Parliament remitted his fine and voted him £6,000 for his losses and inju- ries. In 1642 he was made keeper of the state prison, Lambeth House, where in shattered health he spent the remainder of his life. Archbishop Laud is credited as chiefly responsi- ble for the inhuman persecution of Leighton. LEIGHTON, Frederick, Baron, English painter: b. Scarborough, 3 Dec. 1830; d. Lon- don, 25 Jan. 1896. He received some lessons in art at Paris as early as 1839, and then fol- lowed further instruction at Rome. At 14 he entered the Royal Academy of Berlin and subsequent art studies were made by_ him at Frankfort, Brussels and Paris (1850). From Rome he sent to the Royal Academy exhibition of 1855 his picture of ‘Cimabue’s Madonna Carried Through Florence?—a work which called forth general admiration and was pur- chased by the queen. He resided mostly in Paris for the next four years, studying and painting, and to this period belong, among other works, ‘The Triumph of Music? (based on the story of Orpheus and Eurydice) ; ‘The Fisherman and the Siren? and ‘Romeo and Juliet. Having finally settled in London, he was elected in 1863 an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1869 a full academician. In 1878 he succeeded Sir, Francis Grant as presi- dent of the Royal Academy, was knighted and was also named an officer of the Legion of Honor. In 1886 he was created a baronet and in 1896 was raised to the peerage: From among his numerous works may be singled for special mention ‘Paolo and Francesca? (1861) ; ‘Jezebel and Ahab? (1863); ‘Orpheus and Eurydice? (1864); ‘Hercules Wrestling with Death? (1871); ‘Elijah in the, Wilderness? (1879) ; “Hero Watching for Leander? (1887) ; “Captive Andromache? (1888); ‘Greek Girls LEIGHTON — LEIPZIG Playing at Ball? (1889); ‘The Bath of Psyche? (1890) ; ‘Lachryme,’? now in the Metropolitan Museum, New York; as also the two large frescoes at the South Kensington Museum, representing respectively the ‘Arts of War? and the ‘Arts of Peace.» He achieved a high place as a sculptor by his ‘Athlete Strangling a Python» (1876) and his ‘Sluggard? (1886). The special merit of his work lies in the per- fection of his draftsmanship and design; his coloring, though possessing the unfailing charm of harmonious arrangement, is only thoroughly satisfactory from the decorative point of view. A fine poetic quality conjoined with elegance in drawing and great refinement in execution mark his whole work. His ‘Ad- dresses to the Students of the Royal Acad- emy? appeared in 1896. Consult ‘Lives? by Mrs. Lang (1885); Rhys (1895); Monkhouse, ‘British Contemporary Artists? (1899). LEIGHTON, Robert, Anglican archbishop, son of Alexander Leighton (q.v.): b. prob- ably London, possibly Ulishaven, Forfarshire, hay hea bs London, 25 June 1684. He took his A.M. at the University of Edinburgh in 1631 and afterward traveled in France, acquiring the language, and through his association with relatives of Roman Catholic faith, a broad re- ligious tolerance which remained a dominating characteristic all his life. He apparently re- turned to England after his father’s pardon in 1640, and in 1641 he was ordained a Presby- terian clergyman at Newbattle, Midlothian. He resigned his charge in the following year, find- ing himself unable to co-operate with the fiery zeal of his associates. In 1653 he became prin- cipal of the University of Edinburgh and pri- marius professor of divinity, where he re- mained seven or eight years. His addresses and prelections of that period evidence an ex- ceptionally cultivated mind and a high spiritual elevation. When, after the Restoration, Charles II determined to bring Scotland again within the fold of Episcopacy, he selected Leighton as one of his bishops. While long severed from his connection with the Presbyte- rians, Leighton was averse to accepting the ap- pointment, but was persuaded in the belief that the Episcopacy contemplated: was of the liberal order advocated by Archbishop Ussher and which he was sure the more liberal non-con- formist leaders would: accept. He chose the diocese of Dunblane and administered its af- fairs with exemplary mildness. His associ- ates, however, were if anything more intoler- ant than those he had left in the Presbyterian ministry and the persecutions inflicted upon the Covenanters induced him to go to London in 1665 with the purpose of resigning his bishop- ric. Receiving from Charles II the promise of milder methods Leighton returned to his charge, but finding no results from the prom- ises made he returned to London in 1669 again to plead for milder methods of spreading the religion he consistently believed to be the best but which was being injured by the usages in force. . Promises were again forthcoming and in the following year there appeared a slight effort to carry them out, so that Leighton, upon being promised co-operation in the conciliatory measures he deemed advisable, accepted the archbishopric of Glasgow. He occupied this post in 1670-74, when, despairing of inducing 269 his colleagues to depart from their immoderate courses, and finding himself with both the Episcopalians: and Presbyterians as antagonists, ihe resigned. He lived thereafter with his sis- ter at Broadhurst in Horsted Keyes, Sussex. His writings were collected and published after his death, but have suffered from ovér-editing. The best edition is considered that of Rev. W. West (7 vols., 1869-73), which includes a bi- ography of Leighton. Consult also Burnet, “History of His Own Times? (1723-24) ; Lang, Andrew, ‘History of Scotland? (1902). LEINSTER, lén’stér, Ireland, one of the four provinces of Ireland, occupying the mid- dle and southeastern portion of the island, ex- tending to the river Shanhon and bounded on the east by Saint George’s Channel and the Irish Sea. Its boundaries include counties Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, King’s, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen’s, West Meath, Wexford and Wicklow. The southern part formed the ancient kingdom of Leinster (Laighen), while the northern region was the kingdom of Meath. The area is 7,622 square miles and the population, which declined from 1841, is now increasing. Pop. 1,162,044. LEIPA, or BOMISCH-LEIPA, bé’mish li’pa, Czecho- Slovakia, city of Bohemia, 23 miles southwest of Reichenberg and 42 miles north- east of Prague, on the river Polz. Its population is chiefly of German origin and it is important in- dustrially. It has woolen spinning-mills, sugar refineries, breweries and_ railroad machine- shops; and manufactures velvet, cotton cloth and pianos. Pop. 13,493 LEIPZIG, lip’tsig, or LEIPSIC,. lip’sik, Germany, the largest town of Saxony and the third largest in the German Empire, situated in a broad, fertile plain at the confluence of the rivers Elster, Pleisse and Parthe.. The city comprises the inner town, the inner and outer suburbs (Vorstadte), the more outlying sub- urbs (Vororte), incorporated with the city in 1889-92, and more recent extensions since 1910, all traversed and connected by electric street railroads. The former fortifications surround- ing the inner city have been replaced by fine streets and promenades. The old city still re- tains much of its ancient appearance, but the modern suburbs are characterized by broad streets and imposing buildings. Among the squares of the city are the Marktplatz, with a Siegesdenkmal; the Augustusplatz, one of the largest in Germany, with a splendid fountain; the Konigsplatz, the Johannisplatz, with a Ref- ormation monument (Luther and Melanch- thon) ; and the Rossplatz; and among the other © monuments worthy of mention are those of Gellert and Fechner in the Rosenthal, an ex- tensive park in the northwest, between the El- ster and the Pleisse; of Hahnemann, Leibnitz, Grassi, Mendelssohn and Bismarck; together with the more recent memorial of the Volker- schlacht. Besides the parks and open spaces just. mentioned, Leipzig includes, among many others, the Johannapark, the Grassipark; the Konig Albert Park, the scene of the 1897 ex- hibition; the Johannisthal, with an observa- tory; the botancal garden; the zoological gar- den, recently much extended; the palm garden, opened in 1899. The most noteworthy churches of the city are the Thomaskirche (13th cen- tury), rebuilt 1885-89, in which Bach. was or- 270 ganist; the Nikolaikirche (11th century), re- cently restored; the University or Pauliner- kirche (1240), restored 1896-99; the Matthai- kirche, restored 1879; the Johanniskirche (14th century), rebuilt and reconsecrated in 1897, and containing the remains of Sebastian Bach and Gellert; the Peterskirche; the Lutherkirche; the Andreaskirche; two modern Roman Cath- olic churches; an Anglo-American church; a synagogue; and churches of other denomina- tions. Of non-ecclesiastical buildings the most notable are those of the university, which was founded in 1409, is now the third largest uni- versity in the German Empire and has over 5,000 students. The 500th aniversary was fit- tingly celebrated in 1909. These buildings are mostly modern, especially the Albertinum, erected in 1890-96 in accordance with the plans of A. Rossbach for completing and renewing the whole group. The university library (the Albertina) contains 600,000 volumes and over 6,000 manuscripts. Other buildings and _ insti- tutions are the old Rathaus (16th century) ; the new Rathaus, in course of construction on the site of the Schloss Pleissenburg, a 13th cen- tury building, once the citadel of the town and famous as the scene of Luther’s disputation with Eck in 1519; the old exchange (1678), now the meeting-place of the town council; the new. exchange in Renaissance style; the Ko- nigshaus (17th century), the residence till 1829 of the Saxon princes; the old Gewandhaus, where the celebrated Gewandhaus concerts were long held; the new concert hall; -the Im- perial Bank building, in German Renaissance style; the municipal library (1899), containing 130,000 volumes and many manuscripts; the municipal museum, in Italian Renaissance style; the chief post-office; the new book exchange, the headquarters of the German book trade, in German Renaissance style; the Buchgewerbe- haus (1897), with a Gutenberg hall; the pano- rama building; the Grassi Museum (1896), now including the collections of the former mu- seums of industrial art and ethnology; the building of the Land und Amtsgericht, en- larged in 1895-96; the Imperial-Supreme Court; the new conservatory of music; the old and the new theatre; the Krystallpalast, including concert halls, etc.; the market hall; the large Johannis hospital; a deaf and dumb and a blind institution; the hospital of Sarnt Jakob; the Triersches Institut, for women; three gym- nasia, namely, the Thomasschule (1221), the Nikolaischule (1511) and the Royal Gymna- sium, a Real Gymnasium; several Realschulen and many other schools; a Handelshochschule, or High Commercial School (1898), the first in Germany; the new normal college for women (1912); a school of industrial art; a Royal Academy of Arts; and the new infantry bar- racks at Mockern. Chief among literary asso- ciations is the famous Auerbach’s Cellar, in- troduced in Goethe’s ‘Faust.2 Leipzig has railway communication with all the chief towns of Germany and its situation makes it of great importance as a trading centre. The new rail- way station covers the largest area of any in Europe. It has three large annual fairs, which have been held ever since the 12th century. It is the headquarters of the book trade in Ger- many, having no fewer than 100 book-selling and publishing firms, and takes a foremost place among European towns in the many in- LEIPZIG, BATTLES OF dustries associated with the publication and printing of books. Its other industries include iron-founding, cotton-spinning, wool-combing, the weaving of jute and linen, brewing, sugar- © refining, distilling and the manufacture of ma- chinery, electrical plant, agricultural imple-. meuts, ethereal oils, dyes, essences, soaps, per- fumes, wax-cloth, chocolate, tobacco, paper, leather, tapestry, cement, musical and other in- struments, etc. Leipzig is also a world: market for furs and all similar goods. The municipality, governed by an over- burgomaster, burgomaster, police director, magistrates and councilors, is most progressive, gas, waterworks and electricity being in its hands, and there is a municipal bakery. The name Leipzig, from the Slavonic lipa, a lime- tree, is found applied to a Slavonic fishing vil- lage near the present site of Leipzig about 1017. The history of the town during many centuries is ‘one of gradually extending importance. | It suffered much during the Thirty Years’ War at the hands of both combatants. Its position of pre-eminence in the book trade dates from the latter half of the 17th century. During the earlier years of the 18th century the town be- came the centre of a literary movement under Gottsched. Leipzig and its neighborhood suf- fered greatly during the Napoleonic wars and on 16-19 Qct. 1813 a series of severe battles fought around the town resulted in a crushing defeat of Napoleon and the retreat of the French from Germany. This victory was com- memorated by the unveiling, on the centenary of the battle in 1913, of a colossal monument 300 feet high, designed by Professor Bruno Schmidt and costing $1,500,000. During the war of 1866 Leipzig was occupied by Prussian troops for 18 months. In 1879 the Supreme Court of Justice for the empire was established in the city. Since 1880, when the population, in: which Protestants overwhelmingly preponder- ate, was 149,081, the population has remarkably. expanded, being 357,122 in 1890, 456,124 in 1900, 589,850 in 1910 and (with recent suburban ex- tensions) was estimated in 1914 at 626,267. — LEIPZIG, Battles of, three important battles, two of whi h were in the Thirty Years’ War, and one in the Napoleonic Wars. (1) The first battle of Leipzig is also known as the battle of Breitenfeld: from the plain about a mile from the city, upon which it was fought. It was fought 17 Sept. 1631 between the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus and the Im- perialists under Tilly. The forces of the Im-. perial army were estimated at 44,000: men; while the Swedes, with whom were allied the Protestant Saxons under Elector John George I, had altogether about 20,000 men. The Im- perialists were defeated with losses variously reckoned as from 7,000 to 10,000 men, while the allied Swedish and Protestant Saxon troops lost 2,700. The battle is important from the military point of view in its exemplification of the prime necessity for mobility; and from the historical viewpoint as constituting the first signal advance of Protestant forces against the hitherto impregnable forces of Catholicism. (2) The second battle of Leipzig was fought 2 Nov. 1642, and is also called the second battle of Breitenfeld. The Imperialists of Aus- tria, under Leopold of Austria and Piccolo- mini, were defeated by the Swedes under Tor- LEIPZIG — LEISHMAN stenson. (3) The most important battle of Leipzig is the victory gained’ by the allied armies. of Prussians, Russians, Austrians and Swedes under the command of Prince Schwar- zenberg against the French forces under Napo- leon. The battle was fought 16-19 Oct. 1813 and practically secured the liberty of Germany, where it is called “Volkerschlach (“the Battle of the Nations”), owing to the number of nationalities involved in the two armies At the outset of the battle the allied army numbered about 200,000, which was later in- creased to 300,000. Napoleon had, all told, about 180,000" Napoleon personally directed the’ battle, which at first went in his favor, and was lost only through the inability of Marshal Ney to furnish him with reinforcements; Napo- leon failed to make use of an opportunity to effect a retreat by way of Lindenau on 17 -October, a Sunday, and in falling back on the two succeeding days was subjected to heavy losses. Of his forces 40,000 were killed or wounded and 30,000 taken prisoner. The allied losses were about 54,000. The battle, aside from its constituting a decisive victory is im- portant as marking the point from which the downfall of Napoleon became assured. Con- sult Gerlach, L., ‘Die Schlacht bei’. Leipzig? (1892) ; Maude, F. N., ‘The Leipzig Campaign, 1813? (1908) : Jomini, H., ‘Life of Napoleon’ (Vol. IV, 1864). LEIPZIG, Colloquy Of ntuserics held in Leipzig by the German Lutherans and Calvin- ists 3-23 March 1631 for the purpose of secur- ing harmony between the two churches, and a resultant union to resist the execution of the Edict of Restitution. The Landgrave, William of Hesse, the Elector Christian William of Brandenburg and the Elector John George met . at Leipzig accompanied by their leading. the- ologians Johannes Bergius, Theophilus Neu- berger and Johannes Crocius of the Reformed faith, and Matthias. Hoé, Polycarp Leyser and Heinrich Hopffner of the Saxon Lutherans. The Reformed party. proposed the Confession of Augsburg as a basis of discussion, announc- ing their willingness to sign it as it stood in the Saxon form published by Elector John George of Saxony (1628). Confession were taken up _ separately and unanimity. of opinion was found to exist on articles v-vil_ and xii-xviii, and their differ- ences on i-it were declared immaterial. The third article, on Christology,. found a wide difference of on a definite statement of their separate be- liefs. The Lutherans maintained that the human and divine natures of Christ were iden- tical in possessing ommniscience and omnipo- tence, while the Reformed party denied that Christ as a man possessed these’ attributes. They agreed on the fourth article, the Re- formed theologians confirming the ‘Lutherans in their belief that Christ did not come to_ and on the ninth article, con-- save all men; cerning baptism, they also'agreed after making some additions. Upon the tenth, however, an agreement was found impossible and it’ was treated in the same manner as the third. The Reformed party maintained that participation of the blood and body of Christ in the Eu- charist is by faith while the Lutherans held to’ the belief of actual physical participation. ~ The The articles of the. opinion, and they compromised. 271 remaining articles were agreed to, and as the conference was private, only four copies of the protocol were made, one for the faculty of Leipzig and one for each of the princes pat- ronizing the meeting. Later, however, reports of the conference were published in England, France, Switzerland, Holland and Sweden. While the meetings were conducted in an amicable spirit and many close points of agree- ment found, the conference had no lasting re- sults in the way of closer understanding or union. LEIPZIG, University of, third largest and second "oldest university in. Germany, founded in 1409 by 400 students and 40 teach- ers, who seceded from the University _of Prague as an outcome of the Hussite agita- tion, and the decree which transferred the power of the university from the Germans to the Bohemians. The statutes and_ constitution closely follow those of Prague, and the univer- sity was founded under the patronage of Fred- erick the Quarrelsome of Meissen and _ his brother William. It flourished until 1559 when its standards were lowered, and failed to make much progress until 1830 when a reorganiza- tion was effected. The university thereafter became one of the most important in the world, and for a time it enrolled the largest student body in Germany, although those of Berlin and Munich have now exceeded it in that respect. It is fortunate in possessing large revenues from house property in Leipzig and great estates throughout Saxony in addition to substantial assistance from the state. Its pro- fessorial chairs are handsomely endowed. The buildings are in the main modern, a series of building operations in 1890-96 co-ordinating and renewing the entire group. Especially notable among them are the library with nearly 600,000 volumes and more than 6,000 manu- scripts, the legal and the philosophical faculty buildings. A change was made in the govern- ing organization of the university in 1893, the new body being called the “syndicate.” Before the outbreak of the European War in 1914 it enrolled a student body of more than 5,000 in medicine, law, theology and philosophy. LEIPZIGER, Henry Marcus, American educator: b. Manchester, Eng., 29 Dec. 1853; d. New York, 1 Dec. 1917. Coming to New York in 1865, he was educated in the -City College and Columbia (Ph.D. 1878), taught in the public schools (1873-81), was assistant su- perintendent of schools (1891-96), superintend- ent of lectures for board of education (1890- 96), and from 1896 to his death supervisor of public lectures. He was identified for some years with the Aguilar Free Library, Hebrew Technical Institute and the Y. M. H. A. LEISHMAN, John G., American diplomat: b. Pittsburgh, Pa., 28 March 1857; d:: Monte Carlo, 27 March 1924. He was orphaned at an: early age’ and entered the steel industry at. Pittsburgh, learning the business: in all its intricacies. He succeeded in accumulating a considerable fortune, was senior member : of the steel-brokerage firm Leishman and Snyder in 1881-86, and vice-president of Carnegie Brothers and Company from 1887 until 1897, when he became president of the firm in its reorganized form as the Carnegie Steel Coms: 272 pany. He shortly afterward retired from busi- ness. He accepted the appointment as Muinis- ter to Switzerland from President McKinley in 1897, where he remained until his transfer to Turkey in 1900. He particularly distin- guished himself for diplomatic tact and dex- terity in his negotiations with Turkey for full rights for American citizens and schools in that country, and in his pressing with equal suc- cess his insistence that the American Minister should have access to the Sultan. His office was elevated to the rank of Extraordinary Ambassador and Plenipotentiary in 1906 and he continued service in Turkey until President Taft appointed him to the Embassy in Italy in 1909. From 12 Aug. 1911 to 4 Oct. 1913 he was Ambassador to Germany. LEISLER, lis’lér, Jacob, American colo- nial political leader: b. Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany; d. New York, 16 May 1691. He came to America as a private soldier in the service of the Dutch West India Company, and was for a time engaged in trade at Albany, and later settling in New York, was appointed in 1683 one of the “commissioners” (judges) of the Court of the Admiralty. In 1689 he was the leader of the insurrection against Gov- ernor Nicholson, supported mostly by the militia and the lower classes; the fort and the public funds were seized on the 3lst of May, and Leisler a few days later declared for William and Mary, asserting his acts to be necessary for the “preservation of the Prot- estant religion.” A committee of safety was formed, who on 8 June commissioned Leisler as “captain of the fort” In this capacity he at once began to repair the fort, and strength- ened it with a “battery” of six guns beyond its walls, which was the origin of the public park still known as the Battery. Nicholson and the council of the province, with the au- thorities of the city, attempted by pacific means to prevent the uprising, but without effect. Becoming finally alarmed for their own safety, the liewtenant-governor sailed for England, and the mayor with the other officials retired to Albany. On 16 August the committee of safety appointed Leisler “commander-in-chief of the province,” with the full power of a governor in all matters civil and military. He next at- tempted to reduce Albany and the northern parts of the colony, which from the first had refused to recognize his authority, ‘but was for some time unsuccessful; Albany finally submit- ted to him after the Indian attack on Schenec- tady (1690). In December arrived a despatch from William and Mary directed “to Francis Nicholson, Esq., or in his absence to such as for the time being takes care for preserving the peace and administering the laws in his majes- ty’s province of New York” This Leisler con- strued as an appointment of himself as the king’s lieutenant-governor. He therefore dis- solved the committee of safetv, swore in a council, and assumed the style of a royal lieu- tenant-governor and commander-in-chief. Af- ter the massacre at Schenectady he engaged with great vigor in the expeditions against the French, and equipped and despatched against Quebec the first fleet of men-of-war ever sent from the port of New York. A few months later Major Ingoldsby arrived with the news of Sloughter’s appointment as gov- LEISLER — LEITER ernor, and demanded possession of the fort, which Leisler refused. On Sloughter’s own demand immediately upon his arrival in March 1691, he likewise refused to surrender it, until convinced of Sloughter’s identity, and the lat- ter had sworn in his council. Leisler was im- mediately imprisoned, charged with treason and murder, and shortly after tried and condemned to death. His son-in-law and secretary Mil- borne was also condemned on the same charges. These trials were manifestly unjust; the judges were the personal and political enemies of the prisoners, and Sloughter for some time hesi- tated to sign the death warrants. ‘Leisler’s son secured from the English Parliament the re- versal of the bill of attainder in 1695; and the confiscated estates were also returned to the heirs. Consult Hoffman, ‘The Administration of Jacob Leisler (in Jared Sparks, “Library of American Biography,» Vol. XIII, Boston | 1844); Brodhead, ‘History of New York? (New York 1853-71); ‘Documentary History of New York? (Albany 1842-51), and E. S. Brooks, ‘In Leisler’s Times? (a_ historical story). LEIST, list, Burkard Wilhelm, German jurist: b. Westen, Hanover, 12 July 1819; d. Jena, 31 Dec. 1901. He studied at Gottingen, Heidelberg and Berlin. He was appointed pro- fessor of civil law at Basel in 1846, at Rostock in 1847, and from 1853 he filled that chair at the University of Jena. He was a pupil of Savigny. His especial field of research was: in the hypothetical field of Indo-Germanic law. Author of ‘Die Bonorum Possessio? (1844-48) ; ‘Mancipation und Eigentumstradition? (1865) ; ‘Der Rodmische Erbrechtsbesitz? (1871); ‘AI- tarisches Jus Gentium? (1889); ‘Altarisches Jus Civile? (1892-96), etc. LEITER, li’tér, Joseph, American finan- cier: b. Chicago, 4 Dec. 1868. He was grad- ~ uated from Harvard in 1891, and was agent for his father, Levi Zeigler Leiter (q.v.), in 1892- 98. In the autumn of 1897 he began buying wheat on the Chicago Board of Trade in an attempt to corner the market. Wheat prices soared to double their normal height and at the opening of the year 1898 Leiter held the largest private ownership of wheat in the history of grain trade. Concerted action on the part of his competitors broke the corner and Leiter is reputed to have suffered losses to the amount of $10,000,000. He is president of the Zeigler Coal Company, Chicago, and of the Chicago, Zeigler and Gulf Railway Company; and a director of the American Security and Trust Company. LEITER, Levi Zeigler, American finan- cier: b. Leitersburg, Md., 1834; d. 1904. He worked his way up in the retail drygoods from a clerkship in a country store to a partnership in the Chicago firm Coolidge, Wadsworth and Company. In 1865, together with Marshall Field, he sold his interest in that concern and they purchased a controlling interest in the _drygoods establishment of Potter Palmer, the firm name then becoming Field, Palmer and Leiter. Upon Palmer’s withdrawal it became Field, Leiter and Company until 1 Jan. 1881, when Leiter retired from the company and de- voted himself to the management of his large real estate holdings and corporation interests. LEITH — LEITMOTIV One of his daughters was Mary Victoria, Lady Curzon of Kedleston. LEITH, iéth, Charles Kenneth, American geologist: b. Trempealeau, Wis., 20 Jan. 1875. He was graduated from the University of Wis- consin in 1897. In 1900-05 he was assistant geologist in the United States Geological Sur- vey. He was appointed assistant professor of geology at the University of Wisconsin in 1902, and since 1903 has been professor there. He has also served as professional lecturer in structural and metamorphic geology at the University of Chicago since 1905. He is author of a number of scientific papers and ‘A Summer and Winter on Hudson Bay? (1912): ‘Structural Geology? (1913); ‘Metamorphic Geology? (1915). LEITH, Scotland, a seaport and _ parlia- mentary burgh in the county of Midlothian, encircled on three sides by Edinburgh, on the south shore of the Firth of Forth, on the Water of Leith. It is connected with Edin- burgh by Leith Walk— originally a line of earthworks built during the Cromwellian occu- pation, and by branch lines of the railways centering in Edinburgh. It is the principal sea- port in the east of Scotland. Among the prin- cipal public buildings are the stately old parish church of Saint Mary’s, custom-house, Trinity House, corn exchange, the new and well-equipped Leith Academy, including the Leith Technical College, and there are fine parks and public golf links. The chief manufactures are ropes, sail cloth, oil cake, paints, colors, artificial manures, and there are shipbuilding yards, iron foundries, engine works, flour mills, oil mills and refineries, steam saw mills, large maltings, an ice factory, etc. The foreign trade is chiefly with the Baltic and the principal French and German ports, and there is a trade in grain, flour, etc., with the United States and Canada. There are extensive wet docks and a fine road- stead, and several public graving docks, cap- able of receiving the largest vessels. It is the first of the fishery districts of Scotland. The quaint fishing village of Newhaven, on the west, is part of the burgh. The municipality is one of the most progressive in the kingdom; the water and gas undertakings are conjoined with Edinburgh, and it owns and operates its own electric plant and cable car systems. Leith is a very ancient town its earliest charter dating from 1128. It was besieged by the Lords of the Congre- gation during the Reformation period, and of the landing of Mary Queen of Scots on 1 Sept. 1561. Little of the old town remains, the narrow streets and alleys having ‘been swept away by a great municipal improvement scheme. Leith, Portobello and Musselburgh, known as the Leith Burghs, return one member to the House of Commons. Pop. over 80,000. Con- sult Stevenson, ‘Annals of Edinburgh and Leith? (1839): Irons, J. C., ‘Leith and Its Antiquities? (1898). LEITHA, lita, a river formed by the junction of two small streams near Neu- stadt, in Lower Austria, and flowing north- east on its course of 90 miles, a_ small part being along the frontier of Austria and Hungary, until it joins the Raab, a tributary of the Danube, at Altenburg. The Leitha Moun- vol, 17 — 18 273 tains rise between it and Lake Neusiedl, and it has a factitious importance in its application to Hungary as Trans-leithania and Austria as Cis- leithania. LEITMERITZ, lit'mér-its, Czecho-Slovakia, town and episcopal see of Bohemia, at the head of navigation on the right bank of the Elbe, 45 miles by rail northwest of Prague. It possesses a fine cathedral founded in 1057, and built in 1671, in which are some rare paintings. The episcopal palace was built in 1694-1701 and in - its lrbrary are maps of Bohemia made by Nicolaus Claudianus of Jung-Bunzlau in 1518. The church of All Saints was built in the 13th century; and the town-hall, which is noted for its bell tower, was erected in the 15th century. Mention is made of the town as early as 993 and originally it was the site of the castle of a royal count. Its town charter dates from 1248 and it reached its greatest prosperity under Charles IV. It suffered severely in the Hussite wars and in the Thirty Years’ War. The bishopric was founded in 1655. The town is situated in a rich agricultural region which is known as the “Bohemian Paradise.” Corn, fruit, hops, beer and wine are produced in abundance and the city has glass, leather, cement, chalk and brick industries. The river is spanned here by an iron bridge 1,700 feet long. Pop. 15,421. LEITMOTIV, lit’m6-téf, in music, the leading theme, the characteristic phrase, which occurs over and over again in the same com- position, in reference to the same_ person, phrase of feeling or scenic complication of in- tense passion or action. The phrase strikes the note of these several crises or conjunctures and recurs whenever they are repeated. While many operatic composers, such as Mozart and Weber, have employed the expedient of the ‘leading theme, Wagner does so more than any other modern musician. In his Leitfaden, or analyses of his operas, in which he lays bare some of the secrets of his artistic workman- ship, he shows that he has consciously indi- vidualized every one of his characters, every change in the scenery or action of the drama, or in the emotions and moods of the dramatis persone, by the introduction of a specific musi- cal theme, which he employs throughout the opera to suggest the same thing. This theme is worked upon and varied with the masterly skill which Wagner possesses in fugue and part writing. Thus in his ‘Parsifal,» Kling- sor, Kundry, Parsifal, Amfortas and the Flower maidens are all ushered in with a special lead- ing theme for each. There is a special theme for the Eucharist, for the spear (Speermotiv), for the Holy Grail (Gralmotiv). The chil- dren’s voices raise a strain ‘Faith is still alive? to the notes of the Glaubensthema, or faith- motive. There is a Leidensmotiv, to express the grief of Amfortas; there is the Doormotiv, expressing the promise of help; the Zauber- motiv, suggesting the devlish power of witch- craft, while the mother’s sorrow is. suggested by the Motiv des Herzleids, the heart-grief’s theme. The Bell-theme, with its _pealing sound, the Ride-theme, suggesting the clatter of horsehoofs, the Good Friday theme, with its characteristic chords, each in its way, are powerfully suggestive, and when once _rec- ognized, their recurrence has a powerful effect. 274> LEITNER, lit’ner, Gottlieb Wilhelm, Anglo-Hungarian Orientalist: b. Budapest, 14 Oct. 1840; d. Bonn, 22 March 1899. He was the son of a physician who went to Turkey in 1849, : and, already well instructed in; the classics, he quickly acquired Turkish, Arabic and modern Greek; he studied English, French and Ger- man at the British College at Malta. At the age of 15 he acted as interpreter in the Crimean War. He entered King’s College, London, in 1858, was naturalized as a British subject and in 1861 received the appointment to the chair of Arabic and Mohammedan Law at King’s College. In 1864 he went to Lahore as prin- cipal of the government college there and was instrumental in the establishment of. various schools and libraries throughout India. He made extensive researches in the origins of Indian art and in Graeco-Buddist art, and also engaged in exploration of Tibet and other northern Himalayan countries. He edited the Asiatic Quarterly Review for some years, and is reputed to have acquired. 25 languages. Author of ‘The Languages and Races of Dar- distan? (2 vols., 1867-71; 2d ed., 1877); ‘His- tory of Dardistan, Songs ‘and Legends? (1881) ; : “History of Indigenous Education in the Pun- jab since: Annexation” (1883). Consult Stoc- queler, J. H., ‘Life and Labours of Dr. Leit- ner? (1875). LEITRIM, 1é’trim, Ireland, county in the province of Connaught, bounded: on the north- west ‘by Donegal Bay, northeast by Fermauagh, east. by Cavan, southeast by Longford, south- west by Roscommon and west by Sligo. The principal river is the Shannon and the scenery is beautiful; but the land for the greater share is poor, the tilled land amounting to one-third and pastureland two-thirds. | Potatoes grown, and oats, the only grain crop, give a small yield. Cattle, swine and poultry are raised; the county has minor coal. mining in- terests, and there are manufactures of coarse linens and pottery. Leitrim was the ancient Hy Bruin-Brenny, forming the western part of Brenny, and was also called Brenny O’Rourke when in the possession of the de- scendants of Roderick, king of Ireland. It became County Leitrim in 1583. The popula- tion is 90 per cent. Roman Catholic and deple- tion by emigration is more serious than in any other county in Ireland. Pop. 63,557. LEIXNER-GRUNBERG, liks’nér_ griin’- bérg, Otto von, German poet and critic: b. Saar in Moravia, 24 April 1847; d. 1907. Among his poetical works are a volume of ‘Poems? (1868) ; the drama ‘Resurrection of Germany? (1870); ‘Twilight? (1886); ‘Proverbs. and Satiric Rhymes.».. He has also written short stories: ‘The Two Marys?; ‘Memento. Vi- vere; ‘Princess Sunshine? (1882). Still other works are “Marginal Notes by a» Hermit?; “Gossamer” (1886); “Gossipy Letters to a Young . Matron (1890) ; ‘Lay Sermons? (1894). His ‘History of German Literature? (1879-82; 7th ed., 1906) is a notable work. LEJEAN, 1é-zhan’, Guillaume, French ex- plorer: b. Plouégat-Guérand, Finistére, 1828; d. there, 1 Feb. 1874. He specialized in the study of Breton history and of geography, and traveled in the Balkans in 1857-58 and 1867-70 in charge of an official mission for the study of geography. He made explorations in Egypt LEITNER — are. LELAND and Northern Africa in 1860-61; and in 1862 he was named French consul in Abyssinia, but. with other. Europeans was driven out in Sep- tember 1863. He traveled in Kassala and the country of the Bogos in 1864, and in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, along the Persian Gulf and the basin of the Indus in 1865. Author of ‘La Bretagne, son histoire et ses historiens? (1850); ‘Ethnographie der — europaischen - Tirkei? (in Petermann’s ‘Mittelungen? 1861) ;, “Voyage aux deux Nils? (1865); ‘Théodore II, le nouvel empire d’A’byssinie et les intéréts francais» (1805). He also published maps of European Turkey and the Nile regions. Con- sult Cortambert, ‘G, Lejean et ses voyages?.. (Paris 1872). LELAND, Charles -Godfrey, American author: b. Philadelphia, 15. Aug. 1824; . d. Florence, Italy, 20 March 1903. He showed poetic talent in youthful contributions to news- papers and a growing genius, marked by un- usual versatility, during his college days at Princeton, where he was graduated in 1846. He studied afterward at Heidelberg, Munich. and Paris, giving special attention to modern languages, philosophy and esthetics. In 1848 - he took part in the revolutionary uprising in, Paris; the same year. returned to Philadelphia and studied law; was admitted to the bar in 1851, but gave up the legal profession and de-. voted himself to. literary pursuits, becoming prominent in various fields of journalism and authorship. For a time he: was editor of the New York Illustrated News; in 1861_estab- lished the Continental Magazine in Boston, and two years later returned to Philadelphia, where for several years he edited the Press. During the Civil War he published ‘The Book of Copperheads, a political satire, From 1869 to. 1880 he resided chiefly in London. In Eng- land and on the Continent he studied gypsies. and gypsy lore, in which he became one of the: leading authorities of his time, His career as poet, ethnologist and traveler, with its. mingling. of literary avocations, .was invested with an element of romance, and his more serious work was lightened. by the interchange of humor. At the same time his achievements show the practical talents of a man of -business. When in 1880 he once more returned to Philadelphia he was instrumental in establishing industrial teaching in the public schools, in furtherance of which he wrote a number of manuals and gave his supervision to the work. From 1886 he lived in Europe, mainly in Florence. He wrote and translated a large number of works, remarkable for variety as well as for literary value, the best known and most popular of. which are ‘Hans Breitmann’s Ballads? (1867-. 70, 1895), written in “Pennsylvania Dutch,” his translations from Heine, including ‘Pictures of Travel» (1856) and ‘Heine’s Book of Songs?» (1862), ‘English Gypsies and Their Language’ (1873), eunen sh Gypsy Songs? (in collabora- tion, 1875), The Gypsies? (1882) and ‘Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune- Telling? (1892). Among his other writings are ‘The Poetry and Mys- tery of Dreams? (1855); ‘Meister Karl’s Sketch-Book? (1855) ; ‘Sunshine in Thought? (1862); ‘Legends of Birds? (1864); ‘The Music-Lesson of Confucius? (1870) ; beh Egyptian Sketch-Book” (1873) ; ‘Fu-Sang: the Discovery of America by Chinese Bu fdhist LELAND — LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY Priests in the Fifth Century” (1875); kin and the Goblins? . (1876) ; ‘Pidgin- English Singsong? (1876); “Abraham Lincoln? (1879) ; ‘The: Minor Arts? (1880) ; ‘Algonquin Legends of New England (1884); ‘Etruscan-Roman Re- mains ‘in Popular Tradition? (1892) ; “Autobi- ographical Memoirs? (1893); ‘Songs of the Sea and Lays of the Land (1895) ; “Mending and Repairing? (1896) ; “One Hundred Profit- able Acts» (1897) ; ‘The Unpublished Legends of Virgil? (1899) ; and ‘(his last work) ‘Ku- loskap the Master, and Other Algonkin Poems? (1903), a volume of Indian folklore in verse, ‘Johnny- written in collaboration with John Dinely Prince. ‘Consult Pennell, E; R., “Charles God- frey Leland: A Biography? (2 vols., New York 1906). LELAND, or LEYLAND, John, English antiquary: b. London, about 1506; d. there,-18 April 1552. He was educated at Cambridge, Oxford and Paris. Returning home he took holy orders and Henry VIII made him his chaplain and librarian... In 1530 he became rec- tor of Pepeling, near Calais; in 1542 he received the rectory of Haseley, Oxfordshire, and he was a prebend of Salisbury Cathedral. In 1533 he received the title of royal antiquary and was empowered by a commission tnder the great seal to search for objects of antiquity in the archives and libraries of all cathedrals, abbeys, priories, etc., in consequence of which he spent six years in traveling and collecting materials for the illustration of the history and archeolagy of England and Wales, but died without having completed his undertaking. The great bulk of his collections was placed in the Bodleian Library. The first part to be puf- lished’ was the ‘Commentarii de Scriptoribus Britannicis,» issued in 1709 by Anthony Hall. In 1710 Hearne published the ‘Itinerary? in nine volumes and five years later the ‘Collec- tanea» ‘was issued’ by him in six volumes. Leland wrote Latin poetry with considerable elegance, and a collection of his miscellaneous Latin verse and epigrams was published in 1589,'’ Some of his autographic manuscripts are preserved in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, others in the British Museum. Consult Bur- ton, ‘Life of John Leland? (London 1896). LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNI- VERSITY, a coeducational institution at Palo Alto, California, about 30 miles southeast of San Francisco, in the Santa Clara Valley. The university campus comprises 9,000 acres of land, partly in the level of the valley and partly rising into. the. foothills: of the Santa Moreno Mountains, which separate it from the Pacific Ocean, 33 miles beyond. The Bay of San Francisco lies, in front at a distance of three miles and across it are the mountains of the Diabolo range. The university was founded by Leland Stan- ford ‘a-¥.2 and his wife, Jane Lathrop Stan- ford (q.v.), as a memorial to their only son who died in his 15th year. The founders de- sired that the university should give a training primarily fitted to the needs of young men. Both sexes are admitted to equal advantages in’ the institution, but the number of young women who may attend at any given time is limited to 500. Beginning with the academic year 1916-17 the number of first-year men students will be limited to 500 annually. The 275 object of the university, as stated by its found- ers, is “to qualify students for personal’ suc- cess and direct usefulness in life? and to “promote the public welfare by exercising an influence in behalf of humanity and civilization, teaching the blessings of liberty regulated by law, and inculcating love and reverence for the great principles of government as derived from the inalienable rights of man to life, liberty and the pursuit of’ happiness.” The endowment grant establishing the uni-_ versity was made in November 1885, under an act of legislature passed for this purpose; the cornerstone of the institution was laid in’ May 1887; and the university was formally opened to students on 1 Oct. 1891. The attendance for the first year numbered 559 and included all college classes with a number of graduate stu- dents, the university graduating its first class of 38 in "May 1892. The original faculty numbered 35 professors and instructors, under the leader- ship of David Starr Jordan as president. In 1913 John Casper Branner became president, the office of chancellor being created for Dr. Jordan. On 1 Jan. 1916 Dr. Branner retired and was succeeded by Ray Lyman Wilbur, a graduate of the university. The architecture of the university buildings is patterned after the old Spanish missions of California and Mexico. The buildings are of buff sandstone with’ red tile roofs. They form two quadrangles, one within another, with de- tached buildings grouped about them. ‘The inner quadrangle consists of 12 one-story build- ings, connected by an open arcade, facing a paved court of three and one-quarter acres in extent. Connected with this quadrangle at various points by corridors, and completely sur- rounding it, is the outer quadrangle of 12 buildings, for the most part two stories in height above the basement. This outer quad- rangle is again surrounded by a continuous open arcade. In the inner quadrangle are the departments of law, of the different languages and mathematics, and the administrative offices. In the outer quadrangle are the scientific, engi- neering and geological departments, those of history, economics and English, and the library and assembly hall. In the rear of the quad- rangles are the laboratories and shops of the engineering departments.’ The dormitories, one for young men and another for young women, with their gymnasia and athletic grounds about them, are located to the east and west. In front to the right of the main drive are. the building of the department of chemistry and the art museum. A new and permanent library building, to replace one destroyed by the earth- quake of 1906, will soon be begun. Most striking among the architectural fea- tures of the university buildings were the Me- morial Arch and the Memorial Church. The former was 100 feet in height, 90 feet in width and 34 feet deep, with an archway of 44 feet spanning the main entrance. This arch was destroyed by the earthquake and has not yet been restored. A sculptured frieze 12 feet in height, designed by Saint Gaudens, and repre- senting the progress of civilization, surrounded it. The Memorial Church opens from the inner court and is opposite the main entrance. It is of Moorish-Romanesque architecture. The church, erected by Mrs. Stanford in mem- ory of her husband, is adorned within and 276 without wiih costly mosaics, representing, as do the beautiful stained windows, Biblical scenes and characters. It has a splendid organ of 46 stops and 3,000 pipes and a chime of sweet- toned bells. The church is non-sectarian in character and method. Religious services are held each Sunday morning and _ afternoon. There is a week-day vesper service and the organ is played each day at the close of reci- tations. The church was greatly damaged by the earthquake, but has been _ practically restored. The students live in the dormitories, in club houses on the grounds or in private boarding- houses in the village, which is situated a mile distant from the university buildings. The professors live in homes_ provided on_ the grounds or in the village. Twenty Greek-letter societies for young men and 10 for young women occupy chapter homes on the campus. In the government of the students, “the largest liberty consistent with good work and good order is allowed. They are expected to show both within and without the university such respect for order, morality, personal honor and the rights of others as is demanded of good citizens. Students failing in these respects or unable or unwilling to do serious work toward some definite aim are not welcomed and are quickly dismissed.” The university council consists of the presi- dent, professors and associate and assistant professors of the university faculty. To it is entrusted the determination of requirements for admission, graduation and other matters relat- ing to the educational policies of the institution. It acts as an advisory body on questions sub- mitted to it by the president or trustees. The routine work of the faculty is divided among various standing committees with power to act and responsible primarily, some to the council and some to the president. Departmental affairs are in the hands of subordinate councils consisting of the instructing body in the de- partment, a member of which is designated by the president as presiding officer. The general control of the university’s affairs was by special provision in its: charter reserved to the founders or either of them during their lifetime, they to act in the capacity of a board of trustees the trustees themselves having only a nominal connection. This pro- vision remained in force until July 1903, when under a special act of legislature passed for the purpose, Mrs. Stanford finally turned over to the board of trustees full authority and con- trol over the university. The board of trustees numbers 15, members being elected for a term of 10 years. In educational matters the presi- dent of the university has the initiative, his acts being subject to the confirmation of the trustees. The board through a treasurer and business manager, one of their own number, administers directly the financial affairs of the institution, The endowment of the university comprises 90,000 acres of land, including the Palo Alto, Vina and Gridley estates, and interest-bearing securities, the whole amounting to about $30,- 000,000, two-thirds of which is productive of income. | In its entrance requirements the university recognizes 29 entrance subjects of different values according to the time devoted to them in LELEGES the secondary schools. The unit of value is a full year of high school work in the particular subject, and any 15 units, with certain limita- tions, chosen from this list constitute prepara- tion for full entrance standing. The university has no list of accredited schools, but considers on its merits the work of all reputable schools. The student chooses a major subject, the pro- fessor in which becomes his adviser and to which he is required to devote one-fourth of his time. His remaining time is filled up by courses chosen by the student under the advice and direction of his major professor. Fifteen hours of recitations per week constitute the regular course throughout a period of four years. Stu- dents are graduated when they have completed 120 hours of work and the requirements of their major subject. Degrees are conferred in May, September and January. The university grants the undergraduate degree of A.B. in all courses; the degrees of A.M. and Ph.D. for one and three years’ work, respectively, beyond the undergraduate require- ments; the J.D. and LL.B. degrees in law, M.D. in medicine, and that of Engineer for gradu- ate work in engineering. The university grants no honorary degrees. The work of the university is grouped under the following departmental heads: Greek, Latin, Germanic languages, Romanic languages, English, philosophy, psychology, edu- cation, history, economics, law, mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, ‘physiology, zoology, entomology, anatomy, bacteriology, geology and mining, civil engineering, mechanical engineer- ing, electrical engineering, medicine. e The university library contains 265,000 vol- umes. The attendance for the year 1915-16 was 2,197, of which 500 were women. The faculty numbers 214, Tuition is free, but all undergraduate students pay an incidental fee of $15 per semester, also the customary labora- tory and class fees. A tuition of $100 a year in law and $150 in medicine are charged tn the professional courses of these departments. In recent years the most important develop- ment in the university has been the establish- ment and growth of the medical school in San Francisco, based on the Cooper Medical Col- lege foundation, which was taken over in 1908. The laboratories of anatomy, bacteriology, phy- siology, chemistry, etc., are located on the campus at Palo Alto. The professional courses are conducted in the city. The buildings of the school consist of a clinical and laboratory building, Lane Hospital, with a capacity of 180 beds, a nurses’ home, and the Lane Medical Library building, containing 40,000 volumes. The university is about to erect a new hospital building at a cost of half a million dollars. LELEGES, 1él-é’géz’, in ancient history a people supposed to have lived on_ the coasts of Greece, Asia Minor and the Atgean Islands. Homer mentions them as _ allies of the Trojans, but does not catalogue them in the ‘Iliad,» nor is their dwelling-place given. Later writers confused them with the Carians. Pherecydes (5th century s.c.) describes them as inhabiting the coast of Caria from Ephesus to Phocza, the Carians themselves occupying the land to the south; but Philippus of Thean- gela (4th century) refers to them as slaves of the Carians, as does Plutarch. The Hesiodic i bess noe cao LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY — GENERAL VIEW ~~ 4 ee cane . A, J j . Le. A s . " 4° r rif. Tes as « ons 7 ‘ ot . 1 *) a4 ‘ - ’ i oy i : " ‘ . ’ . % r i ~ 4 * - ¥ z ' ue fs . r ay . i = j a . 4 ’ K . 7 - re , ‘ bs ' u A ; . : ae t j 1 a Pi 2 x \ « ~~ : a = 4 ‘4 } ' cae x ¢ nies 4 ee ae 5 rm = . k % i a ‘ | 7 shy r : © : 2 ‘ a F . . a a i . « YA pay w 4 ce | ‘ Jat i a ' i : J ? e aS - . 4) 4 ‘ *; coed 4 > a Ce | = ‘ 7 a v3 - ‘ i“ ? i s j * ; ’ x ; ‘ i an | = er wy eS ee we J fe Us om ’ : se t =9 Y “2 “he : : : A - - i" ~ : = i > : x ' el ee mAs ¢ ~- 2 « ie P a) t : an i . al y «| d a r) . i re ’ ry Ap eM yoga W tee ys, x Piles hn att = fea Y- ‘ meets . —, “) iS * - +e ee wept i iv a} rt ‘ i LELEWEL — catalogue has a reference to the Leleges as a primitive tribe living in Locris in central Greece. After the 4th century B.c. various writers placed them west of the A®gean; and they are often confused with the Carians, later writers assuming that they were partners with them in raids upon the coasts of Greece. They were reported from the 4th century to have been discovered as having lived in various parts of Greece and certain writers believed them to be aboriginal. Place names’ connected with their tribes are scattered through Greece and Caria and seem to substantiate the theory of migration; although some authorities be- lieve the Lelegian legends to have originated from the names of these places, such as Pedasus, Physcus, Larymna and Abae, rather than that they were founded by immigrant Leleges. The Greek accounts are considered better than the modern elaborations of them. LELEWEL, leél’év-él, Joachim, Polish his- torian, geographer and numismatist: b. War- saw, 22 March 1786; d. Paris, 29 May 1861. His family was of Prussian origin, but his father was naturalized as a Polish citizen. He was educated at Vilna, taught at Krzemieniec, Volkynia, and in 1814 became lecturer in his- tory at Vilna. In 1818-21 he was lecturer and librarian at the University of Warsaw, re- turning then to his old position at Vilna. He was highly popular among the students and so gained the disfavor of the Russian governor, Novosiltsevy, who in 1824 deprived him of his professorship. He removed to Warsaw, was elected to the Diet in 1829 and was connected with the revolutionary movement there, his activities making him so obnoxious to the government that he was forced to disguise himself to make his escape. He arrived in Paris in 1831, but was suspected by the Russian Ambassador .of complicity in Polish plots and the French government, upon request, ban- ished him in 1833. He then went to Brussels where he engaged in literary work, returning to Paris a few days before his death. His work evidences wide learning and careful re- search; and his maps, which he personally en- graved in order to assure the preservation of their remarkable accuracy, are also of im- portance. Author of ‘Bibliograficznych Ksiag dwoge,’ A Couple of Books on Bibliography (2 vols. 1823-26); ‘La Numismatique du moyen age? (2 yols., 1835) ; “Etudes Numisma- tiques? (1840) ; ‘La Géographie du moyen age” (with an atlas of 50 plates; 5 vols., 1852-57) ; ‘La Pologne au moyen age? (3 vols., 1846-51) ; Polska,» an historical survey of Polish affairs (20 vols., 1853-76), etc. LELONG, le-lon’, Jacques, French bibli- ographer: b. Paris, 19 April 1665; d. there, 13 Aug. 1721. He was educated at Malta and at Paris, was ordained a priest in 1689 and be- came librarian at the Oratory of Saint Honoré, Paris, in 1689, remaining in seclusion there until his death. His work was not completed at his death; but was carried on by Fevret de Fontette who revised and extended the ‘Bibliotheque Historique? (3 vols., 1768-72), and it was completed by Barbaud de la Bruyére (2 vols. 1775-78). Lelong was author of ‘Bibliotheca sacra,’ a catalogue of all the edi- tions of the Bible (1709); and ‘Bibliothéque historique de la France,’ containing 17,487 items and many valuable notes (1719). LEMAITRE 277 LELY, 1é'li, Str Peter, Dutch painter: b. Soest, Westphalia, 1618; d. London, 30 Nov. 1680. His real name was Pieter van der Faes, but he assumed as his artistic title a nickname, Lely, or rather Le lys, which had been borne by his father. He was the pupil of Peter Greb- ber in his early manhood, but went to England in his 23d year and began his. career as a por- trait painter. His pictures were much admired and Charles I appointed him court painter. He painted the portrait of that sovereign and also of Cromwell, but he reached his greatest emi- nence after the Restoration. He was an imita- tor of Van Dyck, whom he almost equaled in the excellence of some of his earlier work. But as he fell in with the artificiality of Charles II’s licentious court his manner. lost much of its dignity and originality, and with a fatal facility he assumed that mannerism which detracts so much from the artistic worth of his portraits. His coloring as well as his drawing became weak and conventional. He was, how- ever, a great favorite with the king and his famous ‘Beauties of Hampton ‘Court? was painted at the request of his royal master, these “beauties” being the loveliest women of the court, including the Duchess of. Cleveland. His series of 12 ‘Admirals, painted for the Duke of York, is also well known. He is best represented at Hampton Court, National Por- trait Gallery, London, at Greenwich and Wind- sor, and there are also two interesting por- traits by him, one of Sir William Temple and one of Nell Gwynne at the Metropolitan Museum. Consult Baker, C. H. C., ‘Lely and the Stuart Painters? (2 vols., London 1912). Lely founded the school of*English portrait, and up to the time of Reynolds and. Lawrence was its ablest representative. His method of handling, as well as his conception of the por- trait, were long imitated, and even to-day have their influence. LEMAIRE DE BELGES, lé-mar’ dé bélzh, Jean, French poet and historiographer : b. Bavai, Hainault, 1473; d. about 1525. He was a nephew of Jean Molinet, of whom he called himself a disciple, but whose influences he outgrew. He studied at Paris and at Lyons, and about 1503 he became librarian to Margaret, Duchess of Savoy and subsequent regent of the Netherlands. He served the duchess on several missions to Rome, became canon of Valen- ciennes and afterward entered the service of Anne of Brittany. His work is largely free from the affectations of his immediate prede- cessors and is marked by a fine sense of rhythm. He had a marked influence. over the succeeding poets of his country, Etienne Pas- quier, Ronsard and Du Bellay being among his followers. Author of ‘Epitre de l’amand verd?; and ‘Illustrations des Gaules et Singu- laritez de Troye? (1510-12). An edition of his work was prepared by J. Stecher (1882-85). LEMAITRE, 1é-ma’tr’, Francois Elie Jules, French author, poet and critic: b. Ven- necy, 27 April 1853; d. Paris, 6 Aug. 1914. On finishing his education he became a school- master, but in 1884 decided to devote himself to literature. He became editor of the Revue Bleue, in which some of his articles attracted considerable attention. But his wide reputation is based almost entirely on his dramatic criticism. He was appointed dramatic. critic on the Journal des Débats in 1886; and for 278 many years’ he wrote weekly articles on the drama of a type that revolutionized the methods of criticism. His. literary _ studies were collected under the title of ‘Les Contem- poraines» (1886-89), in which the studies of Flaubert, Zola, Victor Hugo and Ohnet created a great impression. His dramatic criticisms are collected in volumes entitled ‘Impressions du Théatre, of which some 20 have been pub- lished. He also published two volumes. of poetry and was the author of several. plays. His first was ‘Revoltée? (1889); “Le Député Leveau? (1890); ‘Marriage Blanc? (1891); ‘L’Age Difficile ; “La Massiére’; ‘Bertrade? and ‘Le Pardon. He was one of the supreme masters of lucid, witty and intellectual French. LEMAN (la-man) LAKE, a name some- times given to the Lake of Geneva. See GENEVA, LAKE OF. LEMARE, 1é-mar, Edwin Henry, English organist and composer: b. Ventor, Isle. of Wight, 1866.. He studied at the Royal Acad- emy of Music, was organist and director of music at Sheffield Parish Church in 1886-92, later filling those offices at Holy Trinity, Sloane street, and at Saint Margaret’s, Westminster. He was organist in charge of the music at Carnegie Hall, Pittsburgh, in 1902-05; afterward twice gave recital tours in Australia and New Zealand; and was organist at the Panama Ex- “position in 1915. He has written numerous articles’ for musical periodicals on the subject of organ music and is author of more than 100 organ and choral works, and about 200 organ transcriptions from the great classical composers. LEMAY, 1lé-ma’, Léon Pamphill, Canadian poet and novelist: b. Lotbiniére, province o Quebec, 5 Jan. 1837. .He was educated at the University of Ottawa and became an advocate in 1865, but never engaged in practice. He was appointed: librarian to the Quebec legisla- ture in 1867, from which office he was retired on a pension in 1892. He was awarded an honorary Litt.D. at Laval University in 1888, where he also won two gold medals for poetry. He translated Longfellow’s ‘Evangeline? into French (1870). Author of ‘Essais Poetiques? (1865) ; “Le pélerine de Sainte Anne? (1877) ; “Picounoc le maudit?; “Poemes Couronnes? (1870) ; ‘Les Vengeances? (1875; dramatized 1876) ; ‘Petits Péemes> (1883); ‘Rouge et bleu» (1891); ‘Les goutellettes? (1904). LEMBCKE, lémb’ké, Christian Ludvig Edvard, Danish poet: b. Copenhagen, 15 June 1815; d,,there,.20, March 1897. He was edu- cated in theology, and in 1850 became rector of a Latin school at Hadersley. In 1864, after the Prussian invasion, he. removed to Copen- hagen, establishing a similar school there., He was well known as a translator from the Eng- lish poets, his work including Shakespeare (18 vols., 1861-70; 3d ed., 1897-1900); Byron (2 yols., 1873-76); . Thomas ~. Moore’s...."*Lalla Rookh? _ (1878), etc. His original verse in- _cludes. ‘Digte og sang? (1870); ©‘Vort moder- smaal er dejligt,. Our Mother Tongue (1859). LEMBERG, lém’bérg, Poland, the capital of the province of Galicia, and the third city of Poland, on the Peltew, 470. miles. by rail northeast “of Vienna. Founded in the 13th century and formerly surrounded«by walls, the LEMAN —LEMERY city notwithstanding has.a modern anneananer, the walls: having: been replaced by: boulevards and promenades. It is the seat of the crown- land government, and of the important courts and public offices connected with it, also of three metropolitan sees, Greek, Armenian and Roman Catholic. The Greek church of Saint Nicholas dates from 1292, and the cathedral is a basilica (1740-79); the Armenian cathedral, in the Armenian-Byzantine style, dates from 1437; the Roman Catholic church of Saint Mary from 1363, and the cathedral is a Gothic structure of date 1480. The Dominican church contains a fine monument by Thorwaldsen. The university founded in 1784 and reorganized in 1817 is attended by over 5,000 students, and has a library of over 230,000, volumes; Since 1871 the language of instruction hds been Polish; prior to that it was German. There is. a botanical garden anda school of: forestry. National Institute founded:in 1817 by-Ossolinsk has a library. of over 180,000 volumes and 3,000 MSS. chiefly of Polish literature, and there is a museum of antiquities. The manu- factures are extensive and varied, and there is a large trade, mostly in the hands of Jews. There is. an electric, street railway. The fair of the Three Kings is held here each January. The . heterogeneous population. consisting of Jews (57,587), Poles, Ruthenians and Germans numbered approximately 206,113... Over 85. per cent of the population speak the Polish lan- guage. Lemberg was from, 1432-1772. the capital of the Polish province of. Reussen... It was captured by the Turks in 1672, and by the Swedes. in 1704, and. fell to Austria in. the first. partition of, Poland. At. the outbreak of the. European ,War.in, August’ 1914, a move- ment was made.by, the Russians to overrun eastern Galicia, and Lemberg was captured. by them on 3 September; but was retaken by the Austro-German. forces.on 22 June of the fol- lowing. year.. See War, EUROPEAN. ) LEMBERG, University of, Poland, situ- ated in the city of the same name, founded by Joseph ITI in 1784, and the third largest’ univer- sity in the country. It originated from a Jesuit school whose charter dated from 1661 but which did not receive papal sanction until 1758, 26 years before it was transformed into a state institution. It became a lycée in 1803, but was restored to its former status and re- organized in 1817, its’ marked~ growth dating from 1850. Until 1824 the language of instruc- tion was Latin, German then succeeding’ it until 1871, since when Polish has been used. It has faculties of law, philosophy (including pharmacy), medicine and theology. There are more than 100 lecturers, about. 5,000.students, and the annual budget amounts to about $275,- 000. The library contains: about 230,000 vol- umes, 900: manuscripts and) nearly 12,000 coins and medals:~ » | fn LEMERY, 1am’ré,’ Nicolas, French chem- ist: b,.Rouen, 17, Nov. 1645;,d. Paris, 19; June 1715. At an,early age he displayed a taste, for chemistry, went to Paris in 1666, and) attached. himself to. Glaser..;He soon. left Glaser and took up his abode at’ Montpelier, where, he had the free use of..a laboratory, and began. to) give lectures which, excited great interest and were attended by many of the influential inhabitants of the place. In 1672:he returned.to Paris.and LEMIEUX — LEMMING gave courses of lectures on various parts of chemistry, the success of which seems to have been very great. His ‘Cours de Chimie? ap- peared in 1675. This book went’ through numerous editions — 31, it has been calculated —and was translated into the chief European languages. The book is plainly modeled upon the prior. treatises of Lefebvre and Glaser, the opening chapters being identical in manner and treatment, but shows proof of the author hav- ing profited by the work of his predecessors. In 1681 the religious troubles began to harass him; he was required to demit his office by a given time, and had ultimately, in 1683, to take shelter in England, where he was well re- ceived by Charles II, to whom he dedicated an edition of his book. He returned later to France, graduated as doctor of medicine at Caén, went to Paris, where he soon had a very large practice; but in 1685 the revocation of the Edict of Nantes forbade him, as a Prot- estant, the exercise of this profession. Against this he struggled for a little, but in 1686 joined the Roman Catholic Church. In 1699 he be- came an associate of the Academy of. Sciences. Besides the ‘Cours de Chimie,? Lémery. wrote and published other works and papers, among ~which may be mentioned ‘Pharmacopée univer- selle? (1697); ‘Traité universelle des Drogues simples? (1698); ‘Traité l’Antimoine? (1707). It deserves to be remembered that he was one of the first to attempt the elucidation of natural terrestrial phenomena by referring them to chemical action, and to exhibit these on an experimental scale, as when he made what is still known as Lémery’s volcano, by placing a ‘mixture of sulphur and iron in a hollow, heap- ing up the earth over the mixture, moistening and leaving it to itself. By-and-by combina- tion between the iron and sulphur begins, heat is evolved, the earth heaves and swells, steam escapes, and the resemblance of the miniature eruption to the larger original is very striking. He left two sons, both of whom were after- ward distinguished as chemists. LEMIEUX, lé-myé’, Rodolphe, Canadian lawyer and statesman: b. Montreal, 1 Nov. 1866. He was educated at Laval University and became a barrister in 1891. He was elected to the Canadian Parliament in 1896, serving successive terms, was Solicitor-General of Canada in 1904-06, Postmaster-General in 1906- 11 and Minister of. Marine in 1911. He served as.special envoy to Japan in connection with the immigration trouble in 1907, and in 1910 he was Canadian delegate to the inauguration of the South African. Union.. He was ap- pointed professor of the history of, law at Laval University in 1907, and became a Fellow of the Canadian Royal Society in 1908.. Author of ‘De la contrainte par. corps? (1896); ‘Les origines du. droit Franco-Canadien? (1900). LEMIRE, 1é-mér’, Jules Auguste, French priest and social ‘reformer: b. Vieux-Berquin, Nord, 23 April 1853. He studied at the Col- lege of Saint Francis of Assisi, Hazebrouck, and was professor of philosophy and thetoric there from 1878-93... He. was elected tothe Chamber of Deputies in 1893 and was returned in 1898, 1902 and 1906. He organized the so- ciety La Ligue du coin de terre et du foyer, whose purpose. was. to secure a freehold. for every French family wishing to own one. .He lande en Australie (1892); {Manual of Strategy? 279 was a» conservative Republican and Christian Socialist in politics, and in 1893 vigorously op- -posed. the closing of the Bourse du Travail, considering it an: infringement of the rights of workers. He was appointed honorary canon ‘of Aix in 1897, and of Bourges in 1900, In 1893 he was seriously injured in the Chamber of Deputies by the throwing of a bomb by the anarchist Vaillant. Author of ‘Le «Cardinal Manning et son action sociale? (1889) ;.‘D’Ire- ‘Que feront les « religieuse?? (1903). : LEMLY, Henry Rowan, American soldier: b. North Carolina, 12 Jan. 1851. He was grad- ‘uated from West Point in 1872, and was ap- pointed second lieutenant of the Third Cavalry. In March 1898 he was promoted captain, and during the Spanish-American War commanded Battery’ C of the Seventh United States Artil- lery in the Porto Rico campaign. He took part in Indian combats on Tongue River, Rose- bud, Slim Buttes and Belle Fourche. He was retired at his own request 20 April 1899. For many years he was director of the National Military School at Bogota, Colombia, and was commander-general for Colombia at World’s Columbian Exposition 1893. He has published “What Was El Dorado??; ‘Among the Arapa- hoes? ;* “West ‘Point ‘Romance';’ ‘Padre An- selmo?; ‘A Queen’s Thoughts’; also Spanish translation of Upton’s ‘Infantry Regulations,’ and of an English translation of .a French (1887); ‘Ejercicios Gimnasticos»? (1889); ‘El Hellégrafo; Tactica de Infanteria? (1901), etc. LEMMENS, lém’éns, Nicholas Jacques, Belgian organist and composer: b. Zoerle- Parwys, province of Antwerp, 3 Jan. 1823; d. near Mechlin, 30 Jan. 1881. He studied at the Conservatoire at Brussels and in 1846 re- ceived a government pension for the purpose of studying at Breslau under Adolf Hesse. He was appointed professor of the organ at the Conservatoire at Brussels in 1849, and for some years after 1857. resided much in Eng- land.. He established a college for training Catholic organists and ~©choirmasters ~ at Mechlin in 1879. He married Miss Sherring- ton, a noted English soprano, in 1857. His work as a teacher is considered of exceptional importance in the improvement of methods which it influenced throughout the country. He composed more than’ 60 compositions for the organ, a Te Deum, two symphonies for orchestra and. many pianoforte pieces. © His ‘Ecole d’orgue? is used in the conservatoires of Paris, Brussels and other European cities. LEMMING, a short+tailed, rat-like animal, related to the European voles and’ American meadow-mice,’ which inhabits the high moun- tains of Scandinavia. Its technical name ‘is Myodes lemmus, and closely related species are found in ‘northern Siberia’ and in Arctic Amer- ica. In general appearance these animals‘ are more like miniature short-eared, yellowish rab- bits or pikas than like mice; they subsist wholly upon. vegetable. food, dwell in nests made of bark, grass, etc., in some sheltered nook, and do not hibernate but force their way about un- derneath the snow in. search of moss, lichens, sprouting woody plants and other edible things. They. are very prolific, rearing two. broods. of four to six young annually, and hence every few 280 years they become so numerous that the moun- tains can no longer support the hordes. At such times, occurring at irregular intervals of sev- eral years according to circumstances, an exodus takes place and great numbers of lem- mings descend from the mountains and spread over the lowlands. There the easier climate, more abundant food and absence of enemies, permit a still further multiplication, so that by the following season the little animals have in- creased into a plague. They wander more and more widely, overrun and damage, or some- times wholly devour crops, gardens and mead- ows, and make themselves a destructive nui- sance. Such an invasion is felt more severely in the narrow and fertile valleys of Norway than in the broader and more forested spaces of Sweden. At such a time concerted measures are devised to kill them off, carnivorous mam- mals and birds flock to the feast and epidemic diseases often break out among them. Spread- ing with a restless energy for travel, the lem- mings overcome or attempt to overcome all obstacles and heedlessly plunge into lakes too large or rivers too swift to be crossed. When the remnants of the host reach the sea many of them boldly swim out in their ignorance of its magnitude and are drowned, Such overrun- ing of the country by lemmings is not known in Arctic Asia or America, where different con- ditions exist. LEMMING-MICE, certain small, mice-like animals closely related to the lemmings and having similar traits, inhabit the region about Hudson Bay and the southern part of Green- land, of which the most prominent is Cuniculus torquatus, chiefly remarkable for its turning white in winter. Other species belong to the genera Synaptomys, Lemmus, etc. LEMMON, John Gill, American botanist: b. Lima, Mich., 2 Jan. 1832, He studied at the University of ‘Michigan, but left to enter the Federal army in June 1862, and was a prisoner at Andersonville, Ga., from August 1864 till the end of the Civil War. He has lived in Cali- fornia from 1866, where he was for four years botanist of the State Board of Forestry. He has published ‘Recollections of Rebel Prisons? (1874); ‘Ferns of the Pacific Slope? (1884); “Handbook of North American Cone Bearers? (1895); ‘Botanizing in Apache Land? (1901) ; “How to Tell the Trees? (1902), etc. LEMNIAN EARTH, a reddish earth found in the island of Lemnos, celebrated as a rem- edy for snake-bites and various diseases, and collected by the ancients in accordance with special religious observances on only one day in the year. Analysis shows it to be composed of silica, 67 percent; alumina, 14 per cent; water, 8 per cent; iron oxide, 5 or 6 per cent; soda, about 3 per cent and traces of lime and mag- nesia. Its classical name “terra sigillata” (sealed earth) is due to the fact that it. was compressed and marked with the head of the Lemnian Diana. The earth is a fair substitute for soap, but has no medicinal properties. LEMNISCATE, a curve formed by a point moving so that the product of its distance from two given points shall be the square of half the distance between the points. It is a par- ticular case of the Cassinian oval. If the two fixed points be (Ja, 0), the equation of ‘the curve will be (2°+ y A) 2 a’ («?— y?), which be- LEMMING-MICE — LEMOINE comes in polar co-ordinates p22 cos 2 6, The lemniscate can be produced by a section of a torus or anchor-ring the external radius of which is three times the internal radius by a plane tangent to the torus internally and par- allel to its axis. It may also be generated as the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the centre of an equilateral hyperbola to its tangent. The curve is shaped like a figure 8 and has the centre for a double point of inflec- tion. The tangents at this point bisect the angles formed by the two perpendicular axes of symmetry of the figure. Curves formed from other curves after the manner’ by which the lemniscate is derived from the equilateral hyperbola sometimes receive the generic name of lemniscates. The one derived from the ellipse is especially interesting. The ordinary lemniscate was first discussed by Jacob Ber- bouilli in the Acta Eruditorum for 1694. The further development of the theory of the curve is due to Fagnano and Euler. Consult Bro- card, ‘Notes de bibliographie des courbes géométriques» (Bar-le-Duc 1897). LEMNIUS, lém’ni-ts, Simon (real name SIMON LeEMM MARGADANT; sometimes called Emporicus or MercatToritus), German classical scholar and poet: b. Miinsterthal, about 1510; d. Chur, 24 Nov. 1550. He is supposed to have studied at Munich and Ingoldstadt, and was under the direction of Melanchthon at Witten- berg. He early engaged in attacks upon the followers of Luther, written in Latin verse, and supporting Luther’s enemies and the Elector Albrecht. The controversy grew so bitter that’ he was forced to leave Wittenberg. From 1540 until his death he was a teacher in the newly-established Mikolaischule at Chur. Author of ‘Epigrammaton Libri Duo? (1538) ; ‘Apologia contra decretum, quod imperio et tyrannide M. Lutheri et Justi Jonze Viteber- gensis Universitas evolgavit? (Cologne 1538); “Latii Piszi Juvenalis Monachopornomachia,? in which he surpasses himself in bitter invec- tive; ‘Bucolicorum Ecloge Quinque? and ‘Amorum Libri Quatuor? (1542); ‘“Homeri Odyssea Heroico Versu Facta, Accedit Ba- trachomyomachia) (1549); a Latin translation of Dionysius’ ‘Periegesis? (1543), and oa “Rheteis? which remained in manuscript until 1874. LEMNOS, the classical name fb ‘STALI- MENE, the northernmost island of the Grecian Archipelago, between the Hellespont and Mount Athos. It anciently contained a volcano, Mosy- chlus, which was regarded as the workshop of Hephaistos (Vulcan), and was worshipped by the Greeks as sacred. The island belongs to Turkey and consists of two peninsulas almost separated by the harbors of Paradiso and San Antonio. It has an area of 160 square miles and abounds in vineyards, wheatfields, olive and fruit groves. The chief town is Limno or Kas- tro, with 3,000 inhabitants, a fortified place: on the west coast. Pop. chiefly Greeks, about 27,000. LEMOINE, 1é-mwan’, Emile Michel Hya- cinthe, Frencli mathematician : b. Quimper, Finistére, 22 Nov. 1840; d. 1912. He studied at the Ecole Polytechnique, and for some time was engaged in teaching. He was later for many years connected with the municipal gas department of Paris, and was distinguished for LEMON — his ability in both mathematics and music. In geometry he was notable for his contributions to the development of the theory of the tri- angle. He was‘a founder of the Société Mathe- matique de France in 1871, and in 1894 he founded the scientific periodical L’intermedtaire des Mathématiciens. LEMON, Mark, English humorist and playwright: b. London, 30 Nov. 1809; d. Craw- ley, Sussex, 23 May 1870. He made his first essays in the lighter drama, and the modern London stage was supplied by his facile pen with more than 60 pieces, farces, melodramas and comedies, among which were ‘The School for Tigers,’ ‘The Serious Family» and ‘The Ladies’ Club.» On the establishment of Punch in 1841 he became joint editor with Henry Mayhew, and two years later sole editor, con- trolling that periodical for 29 years. He was also literary editor of, and frequent contributor to, the Illustrated London News. Among his later productions are several novels: ‘Loved at Last,’ ‘Golden Fetters» and others. He also edited ‘Mark Lemon’s Jest Book.? Consult pe “Reminiscences of Lemon? (London 1871 LEMON, a small tree or spreading shrub (Citrus limonia) of the family Rutacee.. It is a native of India, but has been introduced into tropical and subtropical countries through- out the world, especially those of the Mediter- ranean region, whence it was imported into Florida and California. In Florida the cold wave of 1894-95 destroyed most of the orchards, leaving only those in the southernmost coun- ties, the soil of which is poorly adapted to the trees and must be carefully mulched, fertilized and managed to yield profitable returns. In California the lemon was introduced about 1850, but did not become commercially import- ant until the closing quarter of the 19th cen- tury, during the last 10 years of which the annual shipments to Eastern markets averaged about. 1,200 carloads, although half of the 400,000 trees had not yet reached bearing age. The climate is perfect, but the water supply is deficient, so that the orchards must be irrigated. The fruit is one of the most important grown in the United States, since, in addition to its value in food and drink, the citric acid of its juice is used upon a commercial scale by calico- printers, who by its aid remove iron from pat- terns stamped with certain dyes, and the oil or extract distilled from the rind is serviceable in perfumery, for flavoring, etc. Owing to its spreading habit the tree must be carefully pruned, else it will make the neces- sary cultivation impossible, and will result in bearing fruit at or near the ends of long willowy branches. The trees are usually set about 20 feet apart each way, given clean culti- vation and fertilization like the orange (q.v.). The fruit, which ripens during the winter, is cut, not pulled, green as soon as it is two and one-quarter inches in diameter, the picker carry- ing a gauge. These details have been found necessary since lemons ripened on the tree are of inferior quality and will not keep well, and since the market demands lemons in the sum- mer. The fruit is spread in shallow trays and stored in a well-ventilated curing-house where by careful management it develops the charac- teristic yellow skin, which also becomes tougher, * LEMPA 281 thinner, more pliable and silky and less liable to injuty in handling. When properly man- aged, lemons are profitable, and because of the constant demand are more reliable than’ any other of the citrus fruits. LEMON GRASS (Andropogon nardus, a. schoenanthus and a. citratus), any of several varieties of perennial tufted grasses native to southern Asia. It is of abundant growth, both wild and cultivated. It is of no value for grazing purposes except when very young, but it has a commercial value for the distillation of essential oils used in perfumery. The variety known as andropogon schoenanthus yields the lemon-grass oil of commerce, which is often passed as verbena oil. Other varieties yield citronella oil, also used in perfumery. LEMON JUICE, the juice of lemons, a liquid usually opaque and turgid and exceed- ingly sour because of the presence of citric and malic acids. It is much used in the preparation ' of cooling drinks, usually combined with sugar and water, or with potassium bicarbon- ate. It is of value in the treatment of scurvy. LEMON OIL, a volatile oil obtained, by pressure, from lemon peel. It consists chiefly of a terpene, CH, known as limonene, which boils at 349° F., and closely resembles citrene, though differing from it in certain essential par- ticulars. Lemon oil has an agreeable odor, and is used chiefly as a flavor and perfume. ‘Tt is reputed to change spontaneously into turpentine upon keeping, but this belief probably has no foundation in fact. Lemon oil mixes in all proportions with glacial acetic acid and with absolute alcohol. LEMON VINE. BERRY. LEMONNIER, lé-m6n'nya’, Pierre Charles, French astronomer: b. Paris, 23 Nov. 1715; d. Heril, near Bayeux, 31 May 1799. He was ad- mitted to the Académie of Sciences when but 20 years of age, having prepared an elaborate lunar map; and in the same year was chosen to- accompany Maupertis and Clairaut on a geodetic expedition to Lapland. He was largely instrumental in securing the introduction of English methods and instruments in French astronomical circles, and in 1741 introduced the use of the transit instrument at the Paris Observatory. He visited England and Scotland in 1748 for the purpose of observing the annular eclipse of 25 July. He made a careful observa- tion of the disturbances of Jupiter and Saturn which later investigations confirmed ; an import- ant series of lunar observations covering a period of 50 years; investigations of terrestrial mag- netism and atmospheric electricity, and suc- ceeded in determining the places of a large number of stars. He was a lecturer at the Col- lége de France during a large portion of his career, was admitted to the Royal Society in 1739, and upon the founding of the Institute was one of the 144 original members... Author of ‘Histoire Céleste? (1741); ‘Théorie. des cométes,? .a translation with annotations of Halley’s ‘Synopsis? (1743); ‘Nouveau | zodi- aque? (1755); ‘Observations de la -lune, du soleil, et des étoiles fixes? (1751-75) ; ‘Lois du magnétisme? (1776-78), etc. LEMPA, lém’‘pa, San Salvador, a river, the largest of Central America, which rises in Lake See BARBADOS GOOSE- 282 Guija on the boundary of Guatemala and El Salvador, flows eastward through a broad and fertile valley for a distance of nearly 150 miles and: then: turning abruptly to the south breaks through the volcanic coast range of mountains and finishes its course of over 200 miles: in ;the Pacific in Jat. 13° 12’ N., long. 88° 41’ W., 35 miles southeast of the city of San Salvador, It. has numerous large tributaries and is sub- ject to sudden floods. The mouth of the river is obstructed by a bar, but the river is reached by a natural channel connected with. the Jalte- peque estuary, and is navigable by small steam- ers for 100 miles. LEMPRIERE, John, English © classical scholar: b. Island of Jersey about 1765; d. Lon- don, 1 Feb. 1824. He was graduated at Oxford University in 1790, was ordained and began life as a schoolmaster. He afterward was ap- pointed to the livings of Meeth (1811), and Newton-Petrock (1821). He is the author of the well-known classical dictionary. (1788), which was founded on Sabatier’s ‘Diction- naire des Auteurs Classiques.? He also pub- lished ‘Sermons. (1791); »Translation . of Herodotus,” first volume only (1792), and ‘Dictionary of Universal Biography’ (1808) ; enlarged and reprinted by Lord (New York 1824). LEMURES, lem’i-réz, among the ancient Romans, a term applied to departed spirits, es- pecially those of ancestors: who hovered about during the night. Probably the word was derived from the festival Lemuria held 9, 11 and 13. May, when at midnight the father of the family, with special ceremonies, nine times threw black beans over his head, thus,banishing the spirits from the household for another year. Consult Fowler, W. W., ‘Roman Festi- vals> (London 1899) and Wissowa, George, ‘Religion und Kultur der Romer? (2d ed., Munich 1912). LEMURIA, a name given by. Haeckel to a vast area assumed to exist in past. ages over the area of the present Africa, Indian Ocean and Malayan Archipelago, on the. hypothesis that the existence of such a continent was nec- essary to explain the peculiar present. distribu-: tion of the lemurs and other phenomena. of geographical distribution. The discovery of the remains of lemurs in America and Europe rendered such hypothesis futile, and the idea was. soon abandoned. Consult Wallace, A..R., ‘Geographical Distribution of Animals? (Lon- don.and New York 1876); Scott, ‘The Lost Lemuria?. (New. York 1904); Steiner, R., ‘Submerged Continents of Atl_ntis and Le- muria: Their History and. Civilization? (Chi- cago, 1911). LEMURS, 1é’mérz, the curious monkey- like animals, or “half-apes» forming the group Lemuroidea within the order Primates, where they stand’ lowest in rank. They are divisible into three families, Lemuride, Tarstide’ and Chiromyide. The last contains only the aye- aye (q.v.); and the second only the Malayan tarsiers '(q.v.). The lemurs proper (Lemuride) are confined mainly to’ Madagascar, but a few are found upon the African continent, and a few others, of peculiar genera, in the Oriental region. They. are’ chiefly arboreal,*.and “more squirrel-like than monkey-like in their. man- LEMPRIERE — LEMURS ners, and quite harmless, gentle and tamable. They are usally. mouse-gray or. yellowish, not marked in ornamental ways, the hair’ is. long and often. woolly, and the tail usually long, bushy’ and never prehensile. ‘The. hind-legs are longer than the fore-legs in the true le- mures, which move about on all fours, not using their hands as do monkeys, although the thumbs are opposable; the second toe always has a-sharp claw, while the other digits bear nails. In the internal anatomy many features are different from the rule of structure else- where in. the order: The. simplicity of the brain, the fact that certain arteries form retia mirabilia, and especially the non-deciduate con- dition of the placenta, are prominent among these lemuroid peculiarities. In general, how-. ever, the lemurs show much resemblance to the Anthropoidea. The Lemuride@, or lemurs proper, are divis- ible into four groups or sub-families.. The first group (Indrisine) is limited to Madagascar, and includes several genera distinguished prom- inently by the great size of the hind-legs, as compared with the fore-limbs; and when upon the ground these lemurs walk erect, balancing themselves by holding their short arms above their heads. The largest is the indri (q.v.), which has no yistble tail, while the smallest are the avahis (genus Avahis) which are the size of gray squirrels, but have very long tails. A third important genus is Propithecus, con- taining ‘several large brightly colored species, called sifakas, which are mainly vegetarian, go about in large bands like the indris and seek food in the daytime, whereas the avahis are nocturnal; and are often tamed and taught to hunt like dogs. . rae The most typical Lemurs are in the sub- family Lemurine, which contains several gen- era, some of which inhabit the Comoro Islands aS well as Madagascar. Their limbs are of nearly equal length, and they have a fuller dentition (36 teeth). Among the best known are the so-called “gentle” lemurs; the noctur- nal grass-eating bokomboulis (Haplemur) ; and the handsome and_ highly arboreal species of the type-genus Lemur, which vary greatly in habits, food and appearance. One of these is familiar as the “Madagascar cat” or ring- tailed lemur (L. catta), since, unlike the rest, it remains upon the ground, especially about rocks, is easily caught and readily tamed. It is remarkable for the fact that the sexes differ in color, the male being black, while the female is reddish brown with white whiskers and ear- tufts, and the tail alternately ringed with brown and white. The ruffed lemur (L. var- ius) is still more strikingly diversified in black and white, and has a ruff of long hair about the neck.. All these lemurs survive captivity well and furnish interesting specimens for all zoological gardens. The third sub-family is that of the Gala- gine, represented in the continent of Africa and in Madagascar. The galagos (q.v.) have long hind-legs, causing them to hop like kan- garoos, when on the ground (but the most of their life is passed in trees), large, semi-naked ears and long tails. Important, genera are Galago (q.v:); the mouse-lemuts. or chirogales (q.v.) 3 and the diminutive, squirrel-like dwarf- lemurs. (Microcebus). . LEMURS oS) i) \ ity Aye See — 1h ey 1 Ruffed Lemur 4 Ayeaye 2 Ring-tailed Lemur 5 Great Galago 3 Slender Loris 6 Common Loris % “2 ee 7] a ae ’ ee at a) | ‘a 3 » +e E o/ oey ‘: ; ty ‘ “| ' t 5 ’ u . >A 3 - i 4 i 4 Z ' x TRE LIORARY LENA — LENARD The: sub-family Lorisine contains a group of small lemurs, distributed widely in Africa, India| and. Malaysia. “In external -appear- ance,», remarks Beddard, “all the three genera of this sub-family agree in their small. size, their short or entirely. deficient tail, large star- ing eyes, and the rudimentary character, or absence, of the index: finger, which is never provided with a nail; in all of them the thumb diverges. widely from the other fingers, and the great toe is so divergent as to be directed backward... The ears are small and rounded; and the eyes are very large, and situated close together on the front of the head. They feed on small birds. and insects, and: are chiefly nocturnal: in habits. -They inhabit India, Cey- lon andthe. Eastern Archipelago. The genus * Nycticebus contains the remarkable “sloth mon- key» or sloth lemur (N.:tardigradus), which is nocturnal, howls dismally at times and is the object of: many fears and superstitions among the Malays and southern Chinese. ‘The genus Perodictus contains the queer African pottos and angwantibos... The most typical species of the group is» the slender loris (Loris gracilis) ,a pretty little arboreal animal of the Malayan countries. It is. described as “smaller than a squirrel, of exceeding change- ness and grace, with beautiful eyes.” The geographical and geological distribution of the lemurs is very -interesting.. Their re- mains are found in the rocks as far back as the transition period» (Puercos beds) between the Cretaceous and Tertiary, the oldest occurring in the western United. States. These are small lemuroids, and ‘similar forms are found in the, early Tertiary: rocks of Europe; Asia and, Africa. Many genera are known. The most recent, which may have survived in Mad- agascar until the discovery of that island by Europeans, was Megaladapis, which must have been ‘three or four times bigger than any mod- ern species, The circumstance that existing lemurs and certain other animals occurs only in south-central Africa, Madagascar and the Ori- ental region, and nowhere between, was so _ extraordinary a fact in zoogeography that early attempts to account for it. resulted in the hypothesis of an ancient continental land-area, called Lemuria (q.v.) which was. supposed to connect . Africa and southern Asia. This theory had little other foundation, and the subsequent discovery’, of: remains of extinct lemurs in Europe, western Asia and the two Americas showed that it. was needless. It is eyident that the existing lemurs are the sur- vivors of a once. world-wide race which has died out except in certain islands and favor- able corners of the world where they are not exposed to cold climates nor to too many enemies. _The almost complete absence of pred- atory. animals in» Madagascar doubtless ex- plains, the comparatively .great number . of lemurs characteristic of that isolated country. Consult Beddard, ‘Mammalia?. (1902),; For- bes, ‘Allen’s Naturalists’ Library? (1894) ; Lydekker, “Royal Natural History,” “Vol. _I, (1893) ; Mivart and Murie, ‘Anatomy of the Lemuroidea, (in. Trans. -Zool. Soc. of London, Vol. VII 1872) ; Ingersoll, ‘Life of Mammals’ (New. York 1909). ; LENA, 1a-na’ or 1é'nay Siberia, one of the largest’ rivers’ in the world, draining about 283 1,000,000. square miles, rising on. the’ north- western side of the mountains which skirt the western shore of Lake Baikal, about 180 miles east-northeast of Irkutsk. It flows in a wind- ing but mainly semi-circular course, north- northeast and northwest, receiving the Vitim, the Aldan, the Viliui and other tributaries. Then a mighty stream it flows generally north. About 800 miles from the ocean it is over five miles in width. Near its mouth it separates into branches, forms a great ‘number of del- taic islands and discharges itself into the Arc- tic Ocean by several mouths in lat. 73° N. and long. about 128° E., having thus passed over 21 degrees of latitude and 22 degrees of longi- tude. Its direct course, through a generally barren country interspersed with a few dense forests, but in some parts with valuable min- erals, is about 1,480 miles; its actual course, windings included, about 2,850 miles. It is navigable through the greater part of its upper course, is» rich in fish, is frozen from October to May and disastrous floods are often caused by the melting of ice in its upper parts. aA LENAPE (lén’a-pa) STONE, in arche- ology, a name given by H. C. Mercer to an in- scribed gorget found in Bucks County, Pa., in 1872, upon which was incised .a. spirited com- bat between men and a.mastodon;: lightning intervening and. aiding the men in the destruc- tion of the beast... The. stone told pictorially the legend recorded by Jefferson in his ‘Notes on -Virginia.» Since its discovery the stone has been condemned by most archeologists, and not always on the same grounds, and it is prob- able that’ it. will not be accepted generally as genuine until abundant corroborative. evidence has been obtained. If genuine, the stone estab- lishes two interesting facts concerning the In- dians of the Atlantic seaboard; that the mas- toden or mammoth was living when these peo- ple were at the climax of their cultural devel- opment, or, if not a feature of practically our present fauna, then that the advanced Indian lived at a much more remote period than is generally supposed. The evidence now_ had concerning the mastodon is that it was living about 2,500 years ago, and this antedates the Indian as so advanced an occupant of this re- gion. That man has been an occupant of our seaboard region since the Glacial. Epoch. is demonstrable and his contemporaneity with so recently extinct an animal as the mastodon is certain. The principal objection that can be brought against its genuineness is that it is so far in advance of all other known_ specimens of Indian pictographic art. Consult Mercer, ta ey (5 vols., 1865) ; the juvenile history ‘Geschiedenissen van Noord-Nederland aan mijne Kindern verhaald> ‘ vols., 1845). He was also author of several ramas. LENNGREN, lén’gran, Anna Maria (Mrs.), Swedish poet: b. probably at Upsala, 18 June 1755; d. Stockholm, 8 March 1871. She was the daughter of Magnus Malmstedt, a pro- fessor at the University of Upsala, and received an excellent education. Her verse was success- ful from its first publication, when she was 18, and she also engaged in making translations of French and Latin plays for production at the court. She continued writing after her mar- riage to Karl Peter Lenngren, an editor of ‘the Stockholmpostem, in 1780, and her verse ap- peared anonymously in that. publication for some years. She wrote in a facile, natural style with a simplicity and truthfulness that made her widely popular among’ her country- men. Her. works were published in collected form, ‘Skaldef6rsok? (1819; with a ‘Life?’ by Carlén, 1856; with a “Life? by Warburg, 14th ed., 1907). . LENNI LENAPE, 1én’i lén’a-pe, an im- portant Algonquin tribe. See DELAWARE IN- DIANS. ; LENNO LENAPES, 1én’n6 lén’a-péz, the native name for the Delaware Indians (q.v.). LENNON, John Brown, American ‘union labor leader: b. Lafayette’ County, Wis. 12 Oct. 1849; d. Bloomington, Ill., 17 Jan. 1923. He received a public school education and in 1886-1910 he was general secretary of the Journeymen Tailors’ Union of! America, edit- ing in’ those years ‘The Tailor... From 1889 he was treasurer of the American Federation of Labor.’ He was a member of the Commission on Industrial Relations appointed’ by President 4 LENNOX —LENORMANT Taft in 1912 and reappointed by President Wil- son; was. vice-president of the Illinois Anti- Saloon League, and lectured on social problems LENNOX, Charlotte Ramsay, Anglo- American miscellaneous writer: b. New York, 1720; d. London, England, 4 Jan. 1804. She was the daughter of the lieutenant-governor of New York and was: educated in England. She mar- ried and being left a widow in narrow circum- stances took up literature for support. Her best work is ‘Shakespeare Illustrated? (1753- 54). She also wrote ‘Memoirs of ‘Harriot Stuart? (1750) ; ‘The Female Quixote, popular in its day and somewhat injudiciously praised by. Fielding and Johnson (1752) ;. ‘Sophia, a novel (1763) ; ‘The Sisters, ‘a comedy (1769), etc. She was the friend of Dr. Johnson and Samuel Richardson, from the former of whom she received much encouragement. LENNOX, Patrick Joseph, American uni- versity professor: b. Nurney, County Kildare, Ireland, 12 Aug. 1862. He was educated at Rockwell College, Saint Patrick’s College, Car- low, and University College, Dublin. In 1886 he became lecturer at University College, Dub- lin, and professor of classics and English at the Dominican Women’s College of the same city. Subsequently he became senior lecturer in the intermediate department of Blackrock College and chief professor of the evening courses at University College, Dublin. Since 1907 he has been ‘professor of the English language and literature at.the Catholic University of Wash- ington, D..C. He has made particular studies of economic and sociological questions and in 1910 was sent to London by the Department of State to attend the International Congress of Chambers of Commerce. In the same year he investigated trade conditions in Europe as special agent of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor. In 1911 he was sent by President Taft to represent .the United States at the International Congress on Alcohol- ism. His works include ‘The Victorian Era in Ireland? (1887); ‘Mythology of the Ancients? (1888) ; ‘Early Printing in Ireland (1909) ; “Women Writers of English in the Fifteenth Century? (1910); ‘The National University of Ireland? (1911); ‘Addison and the Modern Essay? (1912). He is a contributor to ‘The Catholic Encyclopedia,» -the ‘Encyclopedia Americana,’ the North American. Review, the Catholic World, the Catholic Educational Re- view, etc. and ‘editorial writer on the Wash- ington Post. LENNOXVILLE, Canada, village in Sherbrooke County, province of Quebec, 105 miles southwest of the city of Quebec, at the confluence of.,the _Massawippi and Saint Francis rivers, and on the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific railroads» Bishop’s~College and Bishop’s ‘School~are located here. Pop. LENOIR, 1é’nwar’, Alexander Albert, French architect: b. Paris, 21 Oct. 1801; d. there, 17 Feb. 1891. He was educated at the Collége Bourbon and under Debret at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Through: the publica- tion of ‘Projet d’un musée historique? (1883), he ‘secured the adoption of his: plan to unite | the Palais des Thermes and the Hotel de Cluny as the Musée de Cluny and. received the appointment as an architect to ‘execute the 287 work. He became life-secretary of the ‘Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1862 and a member. of the Académie des. Beaux-Arts in 1869: His work in the reproduction of medizval buildings was particularly notable. Author of: ‘Instruction sur l’architecture monastique au moyen: age’ (2 vols., 1852-56) ; ‘Statistique monumentale de Paris? (1861-67), etc. LENOIR, 1é- -nor, N. C., town and county- seat of Caldwell County, 70 miles northwest of Charlotte, on the Carolina and Northwestern. Railroad. The Davenport. Female College is located here and Blowing Rock, whose eleva- tion is. 4,500 feet, is near. There are gold and mica mines and the surrounding country is in- terested in agriculture and fruit-raising. The town -has tanneries and planing-mills and manu- factures-of furniture and cotton stuffs. Pop. (1920) 3,718. LENOIR CITY, Tenn., city of Loudon County, 23 miles southwest of Knoxville, at the confluence of the Tennessee and: Little Tennessee rivers and on. the: Southern Rail- road. It has abundant water power, and: oper- ates carworks, lumber yards, a flour mill and cot- ton spinning and knitting factories. Pop. 4,210, LENOIR ENGINE. See INTERNAL Com- BUSTION ENGINE. LENORE, 1a-nd’ré, ballad by Birger (1773), named from its heroine and based on the old Slavic legend that the tears of a maiden shed over the death of her betrothed may cause’ him to return from the grave inthe guise of a vampire, carry her away to ‘the graveyard and destroy her, unless she should be rescued in some miraculous fashion. The name is also used: in two’ poems by:E. A. Poe, “The Raver and ‘A Pzan? (1831), afterward rechristened ‘Lenore.’ LENORMANT, § le-nor-man, Charles, French archeologist and art historian: b. Paris, 1 June 1802; d. Athens, Greece, 24 Nov. 1859. He became inspector of fine arts in 1825, pro- fessor at the Sorbonne ‘in 1835 and«was_ pro- fessor of Egyptian archeology in the Collége de France from 1848 till his death.’ Among his writings are ‘Des. artistes’ contemporains» (2 vols., 1833); ‘Questions historiques? (2 vols., 1845) 5 ‘Musée des antiquités égyptiennes? (1842); “Le° trésor» de’ numismatique © et» de 1836-50) ; ‘Elite des: monu- glyptique? (5 vols., (1844-57, with de ments ceramographiques? Witte). LENORMANT, Bh atiboia’ French ‘‘his- torian and archeologist, son of Charles. Le- normant (q.v.): b. Paris, 17 Jan. 1837; d. there, 10 Dec. 1883. He was one of the foremost of French Assyriologists and from 1874 was-pro- fessor’ of) archeology at the Bibliothéque. Among. his’ very numerous works» iare’ ‘Re- cherches archéologiques a Eleusis? (1862) ; ‘Essai sur organisation politique» et: .écon- omique de la monnaie dans l’antiquité? (1863); ‘Manuel: d’histoire. ancienne' de; I’Orient? (1868); “Chefs-d’oeuvre de Jl’art antique? (1867-68) ; ‘Les Tableaux du musée de Naples? (1868) 5, ‘Histoire du. peuple juif? (1869); ‘Les: sciences occultes en Asie? (1874-75) ; ‘Les origines de.l’histoired’aprés la Bible’ et les traditions’des peuples orientaux>) (1880-82) ; “Monnaies et médailles?: RES ) 3) ‘La Grande- Gréce? (1881-83). 288 LENOX, James, American philanthropist: b. New York, 19 Aug. 1800; d. there, 17 Feb. 1880. He was educated at ‘Columbia, and in 1839, on the death of his father, a wealthy Scot- tish merchant of New York, he inherited a fortune of several millions and 30 acres of land between Fourth and Fifth avenues. After his father’s death he retired from business and de- voted his time to study and the collection of fine books, statuary and painting. After some years he became the possessor of the most extensive private collection of books and paint- ings in the United States. In 1870 he erected a large and costly building on Fifth avenue, be- tween 70th and 7Ist streets, to contain his col- lection, On 23 May 1895 the Lenox Library was consolidated with the Astor Library and the Tilden Trust to form the New York Public Library. He founded the Presbyterian Hos- pital, his gifts to it amounting to $600,000. He also: made important gifts to Princeton Col- lege and Seminary, and gave liberally to numer- ous churches and charities connected with the Presbyterian ‘Church. LENOX, Mass., town in Berkshire County, on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, about six miles south of Pittsfield © and the same distance from the boundary line between New York and Massachusetts. It was settled in 1750 and named in honor of Charles Lenox, Duke of Richmond. The town includes the villages of Lenoxdale and New Lenox.. It is noted for its beautiful scenery and healthy climate. Within the town limits are Laurel and Mahkeenac lakes and spurs of the mountains called the ledge, Perry Peak, Bald Head and Mattoon Hill. This locality is largely resi- dential; the industries which contribute to the wealth of Lenox are located mainly in the large cities. Many noted people have been resi- dents. of Lenox, among others Nathaniel Haw- thorne, Henry Ward Beecher and Fanny Kem- ble. The government is administered by town meetings. Pop. 3,060. LENS, lonz, France, city in the depart- ment of Pas- de-Calais,; nine miles northeast of Arras on the Détile and on the Lens Canal. It is an important coal-mining centre, has iron, steel and engineering works and manufactures sugar, steel cables and soap. It is an ancient town and was at one time fortified. It was the scene of a victory by the French under Condé over the Spaniards under Archduke Leopold William, 2 Aug. 1648. It was occupied by the Germans during the European War beginning August 1914, and was the scene of severe fight- ing at both the beginning and end of the strug- gle, being retaken by the Allies 3 Oct. 1918. Pop. 31,746. LENS, a transparent body, generally glass, which refracts the rays of light convergently or divergently. Converging lenses, properly speak- ing, are called positive (trade designation plus, +), because they bring rays of light to an actual focus, thus forming a real image. Con- verging lenses give, under suitable conditions, a magnified image of an object, and one or both of their bounding polished surfaces are convex. The fact of their being thicker in the middle than at the edges distinguishes them from diverging lenses. “Diverging lenses are called negative (trade designation, minus, —) because they tend to cause the rays of light to LENOX — LENS diverge and form, under all conditions, a virtual, reduced image of an object. One or both of their surfaces are concave and they can be dis- tinguished from converging lenses by their be- ing thinner in the middle than at the edges. These two classes of lenses are each divided into three leading types. Those of the positive A Fic. 1. or convex class are (1) double or bi- -COnVeX ; (II) plano-convex; (III) convex- meniscus (trade term, periscopic-convex). Those of the negative or concave class are (IV) double or bi- -concave; (V) plano- -concave; (VI) concave- meniscus ‘(trade term, periscopic-concave). (See Fig. 1). ‘Convex lenses converge parallel rays, as shown in Fig. 2, to a point (¢) called Eien, a H Fic. 2. the principal focus or focal point, and the dis- tance from a certain point (0), called a prin- cipal point, which is usually within the lens, to the focal point (c) is the equivalent focal length. The straight line (d b c) which passes through the middle of the lens, joining the centres of the curvature of the two surfaces, is called the principal axis. et. 2 ice. ~ — sees =i = Fic. 3. For brevity, the word “focus” is often used instead of focal length. In a concave, lens, the action on parallel rays is opposite to that of a convex lens; instead of converging the light, it diverges the rays away from the axis, as shown in Fig. 3.. The imaginary extension of the di- verging rays should meet at c, and when, as in LENS the case of the convex lens, the incident rays are parallel, the distance from the virtual focus c to the principal point b is the equivalent focal length. It will be noticed from the diagrams that the rays of light entering the substance of the lens are always ‘bent toward the thickest part of the lens, Generally speaking, the real or virtual focus increases with the increase of radius of curvature of the polished surfaces. The power of any lens is the quotient obtained by dividing unity by the equivalent focal length. A lens is said to ‘be neutralized when combined with one of equal and opposite power, giving the effect of a plane glass. The distinctness of the image formed by a simple lens depends mostly on the extent to which the spherical aberration and the chromatic aberration are present, the aberrations being greater as the ratio of diameter to focal length increases in a lens of any given type. Spherical aberration of a lens is caused by the rays meeting at different intervals along the axis instead of combining at one point. In Fig. 4, ol is the spherical aberra- tion. Chromatic aberration is due to the sepa- ration of the light into its different colors, thus causing, in the case of a convex lens, the violet rays to meet at a point v nearer the lens than do the red rays at point r. In Fig. 5 vr is the chromatic aberration. Both of these’ defects are corrected in achromatic lenses. The process by which this is accomplished is the combining of two or more lens forms of different kinds of glass which have differing angles of re- fraction. These are accurately fitted together and cemented into one piece. A very common combination is a convex crown glass with a Fie. 5. concave flint glass. A still better combination is a central disc of flint glass with a crown disc on each side of it —all being optically ground so as to correct both chromatic and spherical aberration. Up to the present we have only considered Jenses in which the curved surfaces are spherical, and for this reason are called spherical lenses. There are, however, other forms of lenses used, especially for the correction of defects in vision, principally astigmatism, of which the sometimes both, of cylindrical. These are most important has one, the curved surfaces VOL. 17 — 19 289 called cylindrical lenses, or cylinders. In these lenses a line drawn along the summit of curva- ture, parallel to the axis of the imaginary cylin- FT grvweeeceeeoe eweoeeescooeo= Fic. 6. Fic. 8. der, is called the axis, and must be distinguished from the principal axis of a spherical lens. (Fig. 6). When the lens has two cylindrical sur- faces, with the axes at right angles, it is called a “crossed cylinder”; if one of the surfaces is spherical and the other cylindrical, the lens is called a “sphero-cylinder.”. Another form of lens which has come into use in recent years is the toric (toroidal). lens on which one surface is toroidal, the meridians of the surface are at right angles to each other and have radii of ~ a e .T f : . : ® 4 ‘ r) 4 & é ‘ hi e a x i: . se af « eo x Se o? ‘s q StemO@S o ce ecw we cece ce se wee oes <= — Swece we cet cee Pia HIS e . = @a sey AS Sy ° . o nN eo . e ° oe e a rn) tJ ee ) Fiat nes. @ oe x : ue s f Py ‘\ t] e LY r e a ( : } 6 : ’ g ’ nN ’ i) ‘ e LY » e \Y oN o” . ; enn JLo \ \ N * x ; %, / i ° ey Put ‘~~ s a macy o? & = oF = aa omnes? * Fic.’ 7. different curvature. Its form is illustrated by a section of a bicycle tire. (Fig. 7). These lenses are much in use for lighthouses, being 290 usually built up by a series of concentric rings of almost prismatic form. Type lenses are combined: for economic use generally in four ways: (1) to produce an en- larged image, as in the reading-glass and mi- croscope;.(2) to produce a smaller image, as in the photographic camera; (3) to gather and project rays of light in a cylindrical beam, as in the lens of a lighthouse, or the condenser of a stereopticon; (4) to condense and project to ‘a focal point, as in the burning glass. The lenses for telescopes, microscopes, cameras and ‘stereopticons require to ‘be ground and polished with the most exquisite accuracy. In a some- what less degree accuracy of form and finish is required in spectacle lenses. The following list comprises the usual forms of lenses in commercial use: Achromatic Lens.— In its simplest form is a combination of a converging crown glass lens and a diverging flint glass lens so proportioned that the chromatic aberration™is corrected for two colors. These lenses are generally com- bined by a thin transparent cement which makes them together appear and operate as one lens. (See Fig. 8). They are also made up of three, four or five lenses cemented together. Aplanatic Lens.—A lens or a lens system which is free from spherical aberration. Apochromatic Lens.—An achromatic lens in which the chromatic aberration is corrected for three colors and the spherical aberration is also very perfectly corrected. Bi-focal Lens.—A double focus spectacle lens first introduced by Benjamin Franklin, and now commonly made by adding to or inserting a segment in the lower half of the lens. Bull’s-eye Lens.—A plano convex lens of relatively short focus used for illuminating pur- poses, generally in a hand lantern. Cataract Lens.—A_ short focus convex lens to aid vision after the removal of the crystalline of the eye for cataract. Coddington Lens.— Originally the central portion of a glass sphere but is now generally made a single lens of considerable thickness with convex surfaces, with a circular groove to cut out the marginal rays. Collective Lens.— In a microscope or tele- scope eyepiece the large lens nearest the objective. Compound Lens (a trade term).—A lens in which combinations of plano, spherical, cylin- drical or toric surfaces are made, sometimes to the extent of obtaining a prismatic effect. Condensing Lens.—A convex lens or a sys- tem of lenses for concentrating light to a point or on a surface. , Coquille Lens (trade term)—A piece of colored glass of uniform thickness and having concentric spherical surfaces. 4 Crossed Lens.— Either a double convex or double concave lens with the radii of curvature in the proportion of 1 to 6, and giving the mini- mum amount of spherical aberration. ~» Crystalline Lens.— The natural double convex fluid-lens in the eye situated behind the iris and aiding to.form the image on the retina. Demonstration Lenses.—A _ series of lenses of pronounced curvatures to illustrate the various types of lenses. Doublet Lens.—A combination of two separate single lenses. These lenses may be either simple of compound. LENS _ Eye-lens.— The lens nearest the eye in eye-pieces (oculars) used for microscopes and telescopes. _ Eyeglass Lens.—A spectacle lens used to aid vision. Asa single lens it is held in position by muscular contraction. The eyeglass with lenses for both eyes is generally accepted to mean the form which is held in position by clamping upon the nose (French, pince-nez), or it may be. attached to a handle. Finder Lens.—A. lens or a combination of lenses attached to a camera to locate the bound- aries of the field of view. “Fluid Lens.—A lens produced by filling the space formed by two transparent surfaces with a suitable liquid. ~~ Fresnel Lens.—A: lens formed of a cen- tral plano convex or toric convex lens bounded by ring-shaped prisms and lenticular prisms, used to project the rays from a lamp, as in a lighthouse or railway signal light. Immersion Lens.—A. microscope objective of high power, the front lens of which is con- nected by fluid to the cover glass of an object, thus giving increased angular aperture. Kryptok Lens.—A spectacle lens com- pounded by countersinking the ordinary lens and filling the aperture with glass of a different angle of refraction and fusing the two into one in the electric furnace. Mi Magnifying Lens (Magnifier).—A lens ora series of two or three lenses used to increase the apparent size of an object, mounted so that one, two or three may be used separately or superposed one upon the others, and in con- venient form for the pocket. . Pebble. Lens (trade term).—A_ spectacle lens made of rock crystal which is harder than glass and has a different angle of refraction: Photographic Lens (also photographic ob- jective).— A lens or a combination of lenses | designed for photographic purposes. It is made in a great variety of types, the simplest being the single achromatic convex meniscus lens. The form in most common use is composed of two separated: achromatic menisci, with their concave surfaces toward one another, known commercially as symmetrical, rectilinear or aplanat. The portrait lens, another type, gen- erally of large diameter, having great light- gathering power, is composed of two separated achromatic lenses, one cemented and the other uncemented (Petzval type). The most modern photographic lens is the anastigmat, invented by P. Rudolph, which is free from astigmatism, a fault present in all earlier types. The new varieties of optical glass made in Jena were first successfully employed in these lenses, by means of which greater perfection in other di- rections was also attained. Punktai Lens.—A spectacle lens corrected for astigmatism over a field of 80 degrees. See SPECTACLES. Spectacle Lens.—A lens used to correct vision and when two are combined by a bridge which rests on the nose and provided with bows which clasp the temples is now generally termed spectacles. — ’ History.— The early history of lenses is quite vague. While the magnifying property of glass globes filled with water and presum- ably of glass beads. was known, there is no authentic information that lenses were made and used, There is in the British Museum a LENS — LENTICEL piece of rock-crystal about the size of a modern spectacle lens, cut to a plano convex form which was found by Layard during the excavations at Nimroud. Instead of having a spherical sur- face, it is made up of a series of facets and the crystal is permeated by cloudy striz. Alhazen, who. died about 1052, first described the magnifying effect of simple lenses. Spec- tacle lenses were’ well known in the 13th cen- tury, and their invention is credited to Salvino d Armato degli Armati, about 1255. The com- bination of two single lenses, thus forming a compound microscope, for the purpose of magnifying objects, is believed to be due to Hans and Zacharias Janssen of Middleburg, Holland, about 1590. The discovery of the telescope, which is credited to Galileo, about the year 1610, was in its original form a com- bination of convex lens of long focus with a concave lens of short focus, and this form is still retained in the ordinary opera glass, which is designated as a Galilean telescope. The achromatic lens was the next important inven- tion and was made by Dolland in England in 1758. The making of lenses was revolutionized in 1886 by the announcement of 19 new kinds of glass by the Jena Glass Works of Jena, Germany. In 1888, 24 other kinds were placed on the market; and eight more in 1892. Not all of these were suitable for making lenses, but some of them proved superior and new com- binations with former glasses were possible, resulting in some of the most remarkable in- strumental lenses theretofore produced. In July 1914 a practical glass maker was added to the force of the Bureau of Standards of the United States, and this bureau has since made some of the finest optical glass ever produced. See Grass; JENA GLAss; LIGHTHOUSE; MICcRo- SCOPE; Optics; PHOTOGRAPHY; STEREOPTICON ; TeLEscore. Consult Bolas, T., and Brown, G. E., ‘The Lens» (New York 1902); Fraprie, F. R., “How to Choose and Use a Lens? (Boston 1915) ; Hovestadt, H., ‘Jena Glass, and Its Scien- tific and Industrial Applications? (London 1902) ; Prentice, C. F., “Ophthalmic Lenses and Prisms? (Chicago 1917); Thorington, J., ‘Re- fraction and How To Refract»? (Philadelphia 1914) ; United States Bureau of Standards Re- print 122, ‘The Resolving Power of Objectives? (Washington 1909); Wood, R. W., ‘Physical Optics? (New York 1911). LENS, in geology. See Ben. LENSTROM, in’strém, Carl Julius, Swedish clergyman, poet and critic: b. Gefle, 9 May 1811; d. Vester-Lofsta, 6 April 1893. He was educated at the University of Upsala and took orders in 1834. He was instructor in the history of literature at Upsala in 1836-43, and lecturer in philosophy at the Gymnasium at Gefle in 1843-45. From 1845 he was rector at Vester-Lofsta. His literary productions in- cluded history, fiction, poetry, philosophy and theology. Author of ‘Bidrag till den svenska aesthetikens historia? (1840) ; a Swedish church history, ‘Larobok i allmanna och svenska Kyrkohistorien» (1843); in verse. ‘Cromwell? (1860); and “Gustaf II Adolf? (1860); ‘De fyra Standen, taflor ur svenskt sedelif? (1865), etc. LENT (from Anglo-Saxon Lenct, spring), the spring or vernal fast of the Christian Church as observed, in preparation for Easter, 201 by members of the Greek, Roman and Anglican churches. The original fast of spring which preceded Easter was of 40 hours’ duration, this being the number of hours that intervened between the death and resurrection of Christ. Additional days were added, their number vary- ing in different churches. Cassian (420 A.D.) says six or seven weeks was the period in the several churches, but none exceeded 36 fasting days. He affirms that the observance of Lent is not primitive. The historian Sozomen (440 A.D.) writes of the fast “The Quadragesimal fast before Easter some observe six weeks, as the Illyrians and Western churches; others make it seven weeks, as the Constantinopolitans and meighboring churches.” In the first three or four centuries much latitude was allowed in the observance of Lent; Chrysostom recom- mends, but does not enforce it, insisting on the prior necessity of good works and alms-giving. Distinction of foods was not made in primitive times, when the greatest ascetics ate meat in Lent, though they abstained from eating until the evening. In its present form it dates from the 9th century. See FAsTING; ASH WEDNES- DAY; Hoty WEEK. LENTHALL, William, English parlia- mentarian: b. Henley-on-Thames, June 1591; d. Besselsleigh, 9 Nov. 1681. He was educated at Oxford, was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1616 and became a bencher in 1633. He was member of Parliament for Woodstock in the Short Parliament, -April 1640, and was selected by Charles I to be speaker of the Long Parliament, beginning 3 Nov. 1640. He was a man of much pliancy of nature and was bitterly criticized as a time-server in the troubles of his day; but on the occasion of the appearance of Charles I in the House of Commons, 4 Jan. 1642, for the purpose of arresting five members, he won the gratitude of Parliament by his dig- nified refusal to disclose their whereabouts. He was shortly afterward granted the sum of £6,000 for expenses connected with “strict and long attendance” in the House. He was ap- pointed master of the rolls 22 Nov. 1643 and was a commissioner of the great seal in 1646- 48, having sided with Parliament at the out- break of the rebellion, although he was prob- ably at heart a royalist. He put the question for the king’s trial from the chair, in the belief, he afterward maintained, that the majority were in favor of clearing him. While he con- fessed that much of his conduct was based upon personal cowardice he nevertheless had the courage to use his casting vote ta save the lives of the Earl of Norwich, 8 March 1649, and Sir W. D’Avenant, 3 July 1650, both royal- ists. He was speaker of the first Parliament under Cromwell in 1654 and was member from Oxfiordshire in 1656, and was again speaker of the Long Parliament 1659. He aided the resto- ration of the Stuarts, but was not returned to the House of ‘Commons and was deprived of his office of ‘master of the rolls by the king. He was permitted to appear at court after tes- tifying against the regicide, Thomas Scott. LENTICEL, in botany, a mass of round- ish cells characterized by having a greater or less likeness in shape to a double-convex lens. It is exemplified in the inner bark of trees and woody plants of mature age, where a lenticel underlies each of the many openings through 292 the bark, usually: denoted externally by wart- like excrescences, by which the air enters to furnish oxygen and other gases to the interior of the wood, where connected openings between the cells carry the gases to all parts of the plant —a provision very necessary to its health. These openings at the lenticels are partly closed in winter by a growth of corky, cortical cells, but reopen in spring and resume their supply of air to the reviving life of the plant. The same name is given, in physiology, to one of the follicles at the base of the tongue that secrete and supply to the tongue the moisture (mucus) that it requires in order to exercise the sense of taste, and to perform its function generally. LENTIL, a European leguminous plant (Ervum lens), closely allied to the tares and vetches. Lentils are cultivated in southern Europe in two varieties — the large garden len- til and the common field lentil, for the sake of their seeds contained in small pods. The straw of lentils is good food for cattle and sheep, and when mixed with vetches, and sowed as food, is. excellent fodder. As food for man lentils are very nutritious, and in Egypt, Syria, Mexico, etc., are an important article of diet. They are used in soups, etc., in England and the United States, but not to a great extent. LENTIL, in geology. See Ben. LENTINI, lén-té’né, or. LEONTINI (anc. Leontium), Sicily, city in the province of Syra- cuse, 18 miles southwest of Catania by rail, six miles from the coast, and on Lake Lentini, the largest ‘body of water in Sicily. The town was founded by Chalcidians, from Naxos, 729 B.c. It was captured by Hippocrates of Gela in 498 B.C., appears to have been unimportant in Roman times, was destroyed by the Saracens, 848 A.D., and was practically leveled by the earthquake of 1698. It was the birthplace of Euclid. The modern town manufactures earthenware and is a market for grain, oil, wines, flax, fish and game, and cattle. The neighborhood is highly malarial. Pop. 22,904. LENTULUS, lén’tii-ltis, the name of a patrician family of Rome of the Cornelian gens. Several of its members distinguished them- selves by their virtues and services, while others were less honorably conspicuous. Pus- Lius LENTULUS SURA was questor under Sulla (81 B.c.), pretor (75 B.c.) and consul (71 B.c.). He was expelled from the senatorial order by the censors, but became pretor again in 63 B.c.,, while Cicero was consul: As one of the ac- complices of Catiline, Lentulus was indicted in the conspiracy and put to death in prison. LENTULUS SPINTHER, one of the most luxurious and ostentatious men of his age, was curule zedile (63 B.c.), pretor (60 B.c.) and consul in 57, when he was instrumental in procuring Cicero’s recall. He was governor of Cilicia and Cyprus from 56-53 p.c. Later he became a partisan of Pompey, but was pardoned by Cesar and joined Brutus and Cassius when they took the field after the assassination of Czsar. L. CoRNELIUS LENTULES Crus, who was the chief accuser of Publius Clodius for violating the mysteries of the Bona Dea. He became prztor in 58 B.c.; consul in 50 B.c., and in this capacity bent all his efforts toward encouraging an armed resistance to Cesar. Upon Cesar’s victory, he fled to Greece; and when Pompey’s LENTIL —LEO I defeat at Pharsalus made it impossible for Lentulus to return, he embarked for Rhodes. After wandering through Cyprus, he went eventually to Egypt where he was put to death by Ptolemy. LENZ, Oskar, German explorer and geog- rapher: b. Leipzig, 18 April 1848. He studied at the University of Leipzig, was appointed to the Austrian Geological Institute and was en- gaged in expeditions to Croatia, Hungary and Bohemia. He was in West Africa on a scien- tific expedition for the German African Com- pany in 1874-77; and in 1880 he succeeded in crossing the western part of Sahara and reach- ing Timbuktu. The Mahdi revolt having cut off Junker, Casati and Lupton, he in 1886 organized and headed the relief expedition.. He was ap- pointed professor of geography at the German University of Prague in 1887, was rector there in 1902-03 and retired in 1909. He collaborated with Hochstetter in the preparation of ‘Die zweite deutsche Nordpolfahrt? (1874). Author of ‘Skizzen aus Westafrica? (1878) ;° ‘Tim- buktu: Reise durch Marokko, die Sahara und den Sudan? (2 vols., 1884); ‘Wanderungen in Afrika» (1895); ‘Ueber Geld bei Naturvdl- kern? (1895); ‘Marokko, Geschichte, Land, und Leute? (1907), ete. LEO, the name of 13 popes, as follows: LEO I, Saint (surnamed THE GrREAT), Pope from 440-461: b. Rome or Tuscany; d. Rome, 10 Nov. 461.. Of the Roman popes only Leo I and Gregory I received the designation “Great.” .The earliest definite information con- cerning Leo reveals him in 429 a deacon of the Roman Church under Pope Celestine I, and al- ready a man of considerable repute for. learn- ing and sagacity. His connection with Gaul is shown by the fact that Cassianus wrote ‘De Incarnatione Domini contra Nestorium? (430 or 431) at the suggestion of Leo and dedicated the work to him. In 440 Leo was temporarily in. Gaul, sent there by Emperor Valentinian III to adjust the dispute between the general Aétius and the chief magistrate Albinus, when Pope Sixtus III died, 19 August. While still absent Leo: was elected Pope and upon. his re- turn was consecrated, 29 Sept. 440. He set about securing unity in the Church and in 443 began measures for the suppression of. the Manicheans and other heretics, succeeding in returning many to the Church and in banishing others. He greatly strengthened the central authority of the Church anda signed evidence of his success exists in the edict of the Emperor Justinian III which directed that the authority of the bishop of Rome was necessary for any innovations, and that “the decree of the apostolic see should thenceforth be law.” Leo’s correspondence with Turibius of Astorga in 447 culminated in the denouncement of Prescil- lianism by the Church in Spain; in 449 he held a council in Rome against the Eutyches, whose council held earlier in the year Leo denounced as the “Robber Synod”; and in 451 he addressed to the General Council at Chalcedon, ‘over which he presided by legates, his famous “dog- matic letter? to Flavian, defining the doctrine of the Incarnation. His letters are of great importance in Church history and 143 of them are in existence, together with 30 written to him. When Attila threatened to invade Italy, © after the fall of Aquileia, Valentinian sent Leo LEO II—LEO VIII to dissuade the invader from his purpose and the persuasive powers of the Pope made the mission successful. Leo also saved Rome from being burned by Genseric in 455 and. secured the pledge of the vandal to refrain from murder and to spare the three oldest basilicas in his pillage of the city. His achievements in the direction of establishing the authority of the successors of Saint Peter:on a monarchial basis, and the strength of his administration of Church proceedings in Africa, Gaul and Spain, no less than in Rome, marked his rule as of exceptional importance. He was famous also for his sermons, which were brief but excellent, and upon which many of the lessons in the Roman ‘breviary are based. His name day is 11 April. His sermons and letters were edited by Ballerini (Venice. 1753-57). Consult Arendt, ‘Leo der Grosse und seine Zeit? (1835) ; Gore, ‘Leo the Great? (1880). LEO II, Saint, Pope (August 682 to June 683) : b. Sicily; d. Rome, 28 June 683. He was elected Pope a few days after the death of Pope Agatho, 10 Jan. 681, ‘but was not con- secrated until 17 Aug. 682. He confirmed the decrees of the Sixth CEcumenical Council, held in Constantinople in 680-81 under the presi- dency of the legates of Pope Agatho, and which condemned Pope Honorius I for not summarily suppressing heresy. Leo wrote several letters on the subject, explaining the decree and ab- juring his bishops to subscribe it; making it clear, however, that his anathematizing of Honorius was not an accusation of his teaching heresy, but of his showing too great leniency in dealing with it. The letters are particularly important in their bearing upon the infallibility of the Pope. He succeeded in settling the diffi- culties existing between the sees of Rome and Ravenna, the archbishops of Ravenna wishing to be independent of the direct jurisdiction of the Pope. Leo abolished the tax formerly im- posed upon the archbishops when they received the pallium; but, while insisting that they come to Rome for consecration, limited their exacted visit to eight days and permitted their yearly homage to the Pope to be presented through a delegate. His name is connected with the improvement of the Gregorian Chant and he was instrumental in raising the grade of church music. His day is 28 June. LEO III, Saint, Pope (December 795- May 816): b. Rome; d. there, 25 May 816. He succeeded Adrian I, 26 Dec. 795 and was con- secrated the next day. Upon his election he sent to Charles the Great (Charlemagne) the keys of Saint Peter’s and the standard of the city of Rome in acknowledgment of the suzerainty of the king. He received in return letters of congratulation and a rich share of the treasure captured by the king from Avars, and was. thereby enabled to deal generously with the churches and charitable institutions of Rome. A conspiracy formed by two nephews of Adrian I, to deprive Leo of the papacy by destroying his eyes and tongue, thus rendering him unable to fill the office, was brutally at- tempted during a papal procession in 799, but Leo succeeded in escaping with. minor injuries and afterward made his way to Charles at Paderborn. He was received with respect and later escorted in state to Rome where he was highly’ acclaimed. The conspirators against 293 him were banished. In 800 Charles returned to Rome and was crowned by the’ Pope em- peror of the Romans. While the subordinate position of Leo became thus clearly defined the result was to ensure the protection of the em-- peror for the Roman Church and Christendom against the heathen, and the arrangement con- tinued satisfactorily during Charles’ lifetime. Upon the accession of Louis conspiracies were again formed against him, but Leo was warned in time and the conspirators were seized and punished. However, the question of sovereign - jurisdiction in Rome was again revived and Leo died before a decision was reached. He was known as a benefactor of the poor and a patron of art. Among the mosaics made under his direction is one in the Lateran, Rome, showing Saint Peter giving the pallium to Leo III and the standard to Charles. LEO IV, Saint, Pope (April 847-July 855): b. Rome; d. there, 7 July 855. He suc- ceeded Sergius II, and was consecrated 10 April 847 without waiting for the consent of the em- peror because of an impending attack of the Saracens upon Rome. He thoroughly repaired the walls of the city, entirely rebuilding 15 of the great towers, and enclosed Vatican Hill by a wall, a precaution not previously taken. The fortified portion of the city was named Civitas Leonina in his honor. He rebuilt Portus for the benent of Corsican exiles driven from their homes by the Saracens, and fortified other Roman towns. He repaired the damage done to Saint Peter’s and other Roman churches in the Saracen raids of 846. He held three synods, at one of which Louis II was crowned emperor. His alleged miracle of extinguishing a fire by prayer is pictured in Raphael’s work in the Sala dell’ Incendio at the Vatican. LEO V, Pope: d. probably 6 Dec. 903. He was a Benedictine monk who, in 903, succeeded Benedict IV, but was imprisoned by his chaplain Christopher, and died soon after. LEO VI, Pope: d. probably 3 Feb. 929. He succeeded John X, 6 July 928, and is said to have been put to death by Marozia. LEO VII, Pope: d. 13 July 939. He suc- ceeded John XI, son of Marozia. He success- fully negotiated a peace between Hugo, king of Italy, and Alberic, Duke of Rome, the son of the celebrated Marozia, and is reported to have been an irreproachable man and zealous ecclesiastic. -His successor was Stephen IX. Consult Gregorovius, F., ‘History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages? (Vol. III, London 1895). ; LEO VIII, Pope (July 964-Feb.—April, 965): d. 965. He was intruded in the pontifi- cate on the pretended deposition of John XII, in 963, under the patronage of Otho I, but on Otho’s withdrawal John re-entered Rome, and drove away Leo. John’s death occurring soon after, Benedict V was chosen Pope. The Em- peror Otho subsequently took Rome, and after the banishment of Benedict again intruded Leo, who shortly after died. He is regarded as the true Pope from the abdication of Benedict V in July 964 until his death between February and ‘April of 965. Documents purporting to vest in the emperor the nomination of popes and bishops, supposed to have been given by Leo, are generally considered forgeries. 294 LEO IX, Saint (Bruno), Pope (1049- 54): b. Egisheim, near Colmar, on the borders of Alsace, 21 June 1002; d. Rome, 19 April 1054. He came of a noble family and through his father was second cousin to Emperor Con- rad II. He was educated at Toul, became canon there and in 1026 bishop. He rendered valuable political services to his cousin Con- rad II, and to Henry III, and became famous for his wide learning and his zeal in correcting abuses. Upon the death of Pope Damascus II, in 1048, Bruno was elected Pope and was consecrated as Leo IX, 12 Feb. 1049. He put down an effort of ex-Pope Benedict IX to seize the papal chair, and immediately set about a reorganization of financial affairs. At the Easter synod of 1049 he initiated his warfare on two notorious evils, simony and clerical in- continence, continuing his efforts at later synods held in Rome and in the course of various progresses he made through Italy, Germany and France. In 1053 he moved against the Nor- mans in Italy with an army composed of Italian and German volunteers, but was defeated at Astagnum near Civitella 18 June 1053 and was taken prisoner by the Norman leader, Robert Guiscard. He was confined at Benevento for 10 months, but treated with the utmost respect, and upon falling ill he was permitted to re- turn to Rome where he died shortly afterward. His life was distinguished by his purity and strength of purpose. His name day is 19 April. Consult Hunkler, ‘Leo der Neunte und seine Zeit? (1851); Milman, ‘History of Latin Christianity? (Vol. III, 1903); Mann, ‘Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages? (Vols. IV, VI, 1910). LEO X (Giovanni DE’ Mepicr), Pope (1513- 21): b. Florence, 11 Dec. 1475; d. Rome, ‘1. Dec: 1521. He was the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, and his father had him made a cardinal by Innocent VIII at the age of 13. When the Medici were expelled from Florence, in 1494, he spent some years in travel in Ger- many, France and Flanders, and made ac- quaintance with many eminent men, returning to Rome in 1503 and devoting himself to science and the fine arts. He was appointed by Julius II legate with the papal army, and in 1512 was taken prisoner by the French at the battle of Ravenna, regaining his liberty only after the evacuation of Milan by the French. In 1513 on the death of Julius II, he was elected Pope, and made his entry into Rome on 11 April, the anniversary of his capture at Ra- venna. His pontificate of nine years is one of the most eventful of modern history, when viewed in relation to great political changes, to the revival of literature and, above all, to the Reformation. He succeeded in putting an end to the dispute between Louis XII and the court of Rome; he continued and brought to a close the Council of the Lateran; and, at a confer- ence held at Bologna, concluded a concordat with Francis I of France. In 1517 he created the unexampled number of 31 cardinals, among whom were Cajetan, Campeggio, Trivulzio and other learned and eminent men. He planned a great war against the Turks, and resolved about the same time to complete the church of Saint. Peter at Rome, and in order to raise funds for these schemes he granted to all the faithful, who should contribute by their alms, LEO IX—LEO XIII certain indulgences, the preaching of which in Saxony was one of the forces which resulted in the Reformation. Leo published his first bull against Luther in June 1520, and Luther ap- pealed to a general council and publicly burned the bull at Wittenberg. A second bull appeared against Luther in January 1521, and the papal | anathema was echoed by the doctors of the Sorbonne. At the same period war was re- sumed between the Emperor Charles V and Francis I, the Pope allying himself first with Francis and soon after with Charles. As an intelligent patron of literature and the fine arts, he was surrounded with many of the most dis- tinguished men of his time. He stimulated the study of Greek and the collection of ancient manuscripts; restored the Roman University and the great. Laurentian Library of Florence. His worldliness was regarded with extreme dis- favor by the Church, although in matters of be- lief and personal moral conduct no criticism was brought against him. But he refused to recognize the serious nature of the dangers threatening the papacy, ignored the urgent need for reforms and, on the whole, was ever the prince rather than the Pope. His good quali- ties and many achievements were of a secular instead of a religious nature, and his pontifi- cate was regarded as unfortunate for the Church. Consult Roscoe, ‘Life and Pontificate of Leo X? (1805); Creighton, ‘History of the Papacy .During the Period of the Reforma- tion? (Vols. III-V, 1882-94); Niti, ‘Leone X e la sua politica? (1892) ; Conforti, ‘Leo X ed il suo secolo? (1896). LEO XI (ALLESSANDRO OTTAVIANO DE’ ME- Dic), Pope (1-27 April 1605): b. Florence 1535; d. 27 April 1605. He was consecrated bishop of Pistoria 1573, became archbishop of Florence in 1574 and entered the college of cardinals. He was appointed legate to France by Clement VIII in 1596 and there aided in suppressing the Hugenot influence at the court of Henry IV. On 1 April 1605 he became Pope. He survived only 26 days after his elec- tion. LEO XII (ANNIBALE DELLA GENGA), Pope (1823-29): b. near Spoleto, 1760; d, 10 Feb. 1829. He entered the priesthood in 1783, was made titular archbishop of Tyre 10 years later and became a cardinal in 1816. He was bishop of Sinigaglia until 1820, when he was appointed cardinal vicar at Rome. In 1823 he succeeded Pius VII. He was a strong opponent of secret societies, such as the Free-masons and the Carbonari. Consult Artand de Montor, ‘His- toire du Pape Leon XII (1843). LEO XIII (JoAcHImM VINCENT RAPHAEL Lopovico Prccr), Pope (1878-1903) : b. Carpinto, 2 March 1810; d. Rome, 20 July 1903. His father was Count Domenico Lodovico Pecci, and this mother Anna Prosperi-Buzi. The palace in which Joachim was born was the coun- try house of the family. Count Lodovico Pecci confided. his sons, Joseph and Joachim (or Vincent) to the Jesuits of Viterbo, who very recently had been restored by Pius VII to the privileges of which Clement XIV had deprived them. In 1818, Joachim Pecci began his educa- tion in the Jesuit college of Viterbo. That de- votion to the Greek and Latin classics which later gave him fame as a poet, showed itself early, At the age of 12 he was skilled in Re POPE LEO XIII we ba | “it LAR f 3 o = se ‘ ~1 4:% 2 H a4 t 1: 1 a ‘ “a é ‘ . i 1 me, r . r f * ae hk ‘ vi ra , i F a fa Ls i ¥ ‘ P xa ‘ : d .- } Lf LEO XIII writing Latin verse. There still exists an epigram for the provincial of the Jesuits,— ‘““Oh, utinam possem Pecceius ipse sequi.”’ In 1824, Leo XII carried further the plans of Pius VII and reopened the Roman College of the Society of Jesus. This college is like- wise known as the Gregorian. University. Young Pecci entered and applied himself to his studies with so much earnestness that his health gave way, and, in 1830, though he received the highest honor — that of being chosen for a pub- lic disputation in philosophy on theses taken from the whole course,— the Prefect of Studies was obliged reluctantly to excuse him. Still he strove for that perfect health which was denied him. He was a mighty hunter and his gun,— very old-fashioned, with a _ barrel decorated in the Arabian manner,— is still pre- served, and he walked great distances. In 1832, Joachim Pecci took the degree of doctor, with all possible honors, chiefly recorded in the annals of the Sapienza University. In the College of Noble Ecclesiastics he studied. canon and civil law. In 1837, Gregory. XVI named him domestic prelate, and he became known as Monsignor Pecci. On the last day of the year 1837, he was ordained priest by Cardinal Odescalchi, the vicar-general of Gregory XVI. One of the most important epochs in the history of Monsignor Pecci is his administration of the duchy of Benevento. It was the haunt of smugglers and_brigands, licensed by public opinion and supported by noble families. It had given Gregory XVI, who was a lover of justice and order, pro- found anxiety. At the age of 28 Monsignor Pecci was made delegate and. sent to do what the Neapolitan neighbors of Benevento sneer- ingly said was “impossible.” Monsignor de Z’Saeclaes well says that his government of Benevento is “a little epic.” He was. then called to Spoleto. From there he went to Perugia, where he busied himself in perfecting - measures for the economic and _ educational progress of the place. The capital of Umbria still reveres him as its benefactor, and his records at Benevento and Perugia, indicated what his future was to be. Early in January 1843, he was chosen for a difficult diplomatic post, the Nunciature at Brussels, and on 19 February he was consecrated archbishop of Damietta. In Belgium the educational ques- tion was burning, and in March 1843, when Archbishop Pecci presented himself to the court of Brussels, the veteran diplomats smiled at the prospect of a struggle between the Papal Nuncio and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who held the winning cards. The queen’s sym- pathies were with the Nuncio; she believed in religious education, but the feeling against the “Ultramontanes” ran high; notwithstanding, the Nuncio succeeded in gaining the goodwill of all classes and gradually overcoming ran- cour. This made it all the more astonishing that he should have been recalled from: Brussels in 1845. In 1846 he visited London and Paris. He was destined to be archbishop of Perugia; Gregory XVI died shortly after his arrival in Rome. Pius VIII, the predecessor of Gregory, was followed by another Pius,— Cardinal Mastai Ferretti— who appreciated the value of Pecci so greatly that he felt that as arch- bishop of Perugia the late Nuncio to Brussels 295 could be of more service in healing internal discord than in placating foreign kings and cabinets. He was preconized,— solemnly pro- claimed in conclave,—the archbishop of Peru- gia, on 19 Jan. 1846, and on 26 July he made his solemn entry into the capital of the country of Saint Francis d’Assisi. From 1846 to 1878 he ruled in Perugia. In the Consistory of 18 Dec. 1853, he was created cardinal. During his long episcopate, he found the world in miniature in Perugia. The growing antagonism against the Church haunted him. He was all | for the things of the spirit,— the things of the mind, postulating the truth of the divinity of Christ and the reality of his birth, death and resurrection. In this line, he refutes the claims of Renan, in his “Life of Jesus, as eagerly as he refutes false Socialism later, in a Papal Let- ter: On.7 Feb. 1878 Pius IX died. On Monday, 18 February, the cardinals met in conclave. Pecci, as Cardinal Camerlengo, walked last in the procession. On Wednesday, 20 February, by a vote of 45-out of 61, Cardinal Pecci be- came Pope. From 20 Feb. 1878 to 20 July 1903, Leo XIII was constantly active. He restored the Catholic hierarchy to Scotland, early in 1878, and issued his first Encyclical, Inscru- tabile, against the forces at work for the disin- tegration of society — putting strong accent on the disregard of the sacramental character of marriage. In 1878-79 Leo XIII was in a most difficult position with the government of Ger- many. This later year marks the beginning of the decay of the Kulturkampf which strength- ened the Centre party in Germany and which made the name of Bismarck detested by Ger- man Catholics at home and abroad. In 1879 came the Encyclical, Quot Apostolici, followed by the £terni Patris—all encyclicals taking their names from the opening words. The first was aimed at that Socialism “which at- tacks all that has been wisely decreed by human and divine laws for the protection and orna- ment of life?; the second is an exposition of the claims of Saint Thomas Aquinas as a philosopher. Another important encyclical,— it is not pos- sible to name them all,— appeared on 12 Feb. 1880. It was the Arcanum, on Christian mar- riage. Another, 29 June 1881, was the encycli- cal Diuturnum in favor of rightful authority. “The Church,» he said, “was everywhere the friend of honest liberty; she detested tyranny.” In 1882 he strove to keep the Irish movement within legal bounds. The encyclical Etsi Nos, of February 1882, gave rise to the rumor that he would leave Rome, so “intolerable had the situation become. In 1890, the world gradually learned that for six years every historical docu- ment in. the Vatican had been at the service of scholars. He omitted nothing that could add to the progress of historical science. The en- cyclical, Humanus Genus, was aimed at Free- masonry, which assumes an atheistical and anti- religious aspect in Latin countries. Leo XIII was aroused to intense enthusiasm for the work of Cardinal Lavigerie in breaking down the slave-trade in Africa, and his encyc- lical, In Plurimis, 5. May 1888, is evidence of his detestation of slavery. It is addressed to the bishops of Brazil. The prudence with which Leo XIII handled the question of the Knights of Labor was due to the tact he pos- 296 sessed of discovering the best advisers. There were forces at work urging the condemnation of this society; but, owing. to the sanity and energy of Cardinal Gibbons, Cardinal Manning and Monsignor O’Connell, rector of the Catho- lic University, a disaster by which. suspicion and dislike to the Church might have: been excited was avoided. The relations between the late Pope and the United States of America were very close. He established the Catholic University at Washing- ton, and constantly expressed. interest’ in it. His solicitude for the Church in America was profoundly shown in the Apostolical etter, Testem Benevolentie, on. “Americanism, > in which he paternally determines and ‘settles a point for some time in controversy among American Catholics. In the beginning of the year 1893, Monsignor Satolli, afterward Car- dinal, became the first Apostolic Delegate to the United States. This is not a diplomatic but a purely ecclesiastical office. Cardinal Satolli was succeeded by Monsignor, later Car- dinal, Martinelli, and (1903) by Monsignor, later Cardinal, Falconio. The efforts of Leo XIII to direct attention to the study of the Scriptures are historic. Perhaps of all his letters which have a diplo- matic character, that written to the French in 1892 caused the greatest discussion. It was received by French Royalists with ill-concealed disgust. There is no question that the pontifi- cate of Leo XIII was of vital value in the history of the last quarter of the century. As a poet, Leo XIII wrote exquisite Latin verse, a translation of which has been made by the Jesuit fathers at Woodstock, Md., and a later and fuller one by Dr. Hugh Henry, of Overbrook Seminary, in Pennsylvania: Con- sult biographies by Bonghi (Citta di Castello 1884); Wienand (2d ed. Cologne 1892); Furey (New York 1904) ; and also Goetz, ‘Leo XIIDP (Gotha 1899). His encyclicals have been published in Latin and’ German (Freiburg 1878-1904) ; and in English (New York 1902). Maurice Francis EGAN, Former Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Denmark. LEO, 1é’6, the name of six rulers of the Byzantine empire, as follows: LEO I (surnamed THrax, Macnus and MAKELLES), Byzantine emperor: b. Thrace, about 400; d. 474. He was a military tribune at the death of Marcian in 457, was raised to the throne through the influence of Aspar, com- mander of the military forces, and was recog- nized as emperor by both Senate and clergy. Aspar, despite his great power, could not be- come emperor because of his being an Arian, but thought to rule through Leo. Leo, how- ever, refused to be dominated. He steadily followed the leading of his predecessor in an effort to decrease the powers of the great nobles; defied Aspar, changing his bodyguard from the Germanic one formed to uphold Aspar’s power to Isaurian; confirmed the de- crees of the Council of Chalcedon and sternly suppressed the Eutychian heresy in Egypt. He repelled the Hun invasions of Dacia'‘in 466 and A468, and in 467 had one of his generals, Authemius, elected emperor of the West. To- gether they equipped an expedition to conquer the pirate Vandals of Africa, sending™ 1,100 LEO — LEO III ships and 100,000 men; te the fleet was. sur- prised by the Vandal king, Genseric, and nearly half of it destroyed. Leo seized upon. the defeat as an excuse for having Aspar put to death as a traitor, the Vandals also being of Arian stock. The Goths, to revenge the fate of Aspar, laid waste the country as far as the - walls of Constantinople. He was sometimes called Leo the Elder to distinguish him from his infant grandson, who succeeded him; and his surname Magnus was given him by the Orthodox, while the Arians called him Makelles (butcher). Consult Gibbon, ‘The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire?; ‘Cambridge Medieval History? (Vol. I, 1911). LEO II called the YounGgErR, grandson of Leo. I, Byzantine emperor. He succeeded his grandfather under the guardianship of his father, who caused himself to be proclaimed emperor a few months afterward. He is said to have been put to death by his own father pete reigning from January to November 474 LEO III (surnamed the 1dhGarey, By- zantine emperor: b. probably in Isauria, but by some authorities in Germanicia, in the Syrian province of ‘Commagene, about 680; d. 18 June 741. He entered the army of Justinian IT, rose to distinction and under Anastasius II became supreme commander of the army in Asia. In 716 he marched against Theodosius III, who had been proclaimed emperor on the deposition of Anastasius II, and himself seized the crown in 717. His accession was immediately followed by ‘the siege of Constantinople by the Saracens under the caliph Solyman, and his stubborn resistance not only compelled the enemy to withdraw after a siege variously estimated at from one to two years, but. removed from eastern Europe the danger of a Saracen in- vasion. He then proceeded to consolidate his empire, strengthening his frontiers by the en- couragement of settlers in the war-ravaged dis- tricts, and so thoroughly reorganized his armies that he was able to visit heavy defeats upon the Saracens when in 726 and 739 they again attempted invasion. He instituted civil reforms in taxation, marital and maritime laws and raised the serfs into a class of free tenants. An uprising against Leo, headed by the deposed Anastasius II, soon after the siege of Con- stantinople, resulted in the capture and execu- tion of Anastasius. One of the most notable acts of. Leo’s reign was the order, in 726, that all image-worship in the churches must cease. (See IconocLasts). He was supported by the aristocracy and a portion of the clergy, but op- posed by most of the theologians and_ the monks. The edict caused a general revolution throughout the empire, and resulted in the loss of Ravenna, Rome and other portions of south- ern Italy and the separation of the Greek from the Latin Church. While partially unsuccessful in his attempt at religious reform the reign of Leo is on the whole noteworthy for its solid achievements. He is credited with so stabilizing the empire as to have been the means of its survival for the succeeding 500 years. Con- sult Gibbon, ‘Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire? ; Bury, ‘The Later Roman Empire? (1889) ; Hodukint F., ‘Italy and Her Invaders’ (1892), . LEO IV —LEO LEO IV (surnamed CHozar, or CHAZARUS), Byzantine emperor: b. 25 Jan. 750; d. 8 Sept. 780. In his time the controversy raged fiercely between the Iconoclasts, or image breakers, and their adversaries, both of whom he protected by turns. He repulsed the Saracens in Asia. He was succeeded by his infant son Constantine VI, who had been crowned the year after Leo’s succession, under the guardianship of Leo’s wife, Irene (q.v.). See IcoNoc Lasts. LEO V, Byzantine emperor, called the ARMENIAN, from the country of which he was a native: d. 25 Dec. 820. He rose to the rank of general by his valor, but was accused of treason, disgraced and imprisoned. Michael Rhangabus, on ascending the throne in 811, re- stored him to his rank, but Leo, profiting by the misfortunes of his master, headed a mili- tary revolt and was elected emperor by the troops in 813. While tthe chief instigator of the disaffection among the soldiers which led to his elevation Leo justified himself in so far as to meet and crushingly defeat the Bulgarians who were planning a siege of Constantinople. So thoroughly did he break their armies that a peace of 74 years ensued. He was one of the most violent of the Iconoclastic princes and was severely criticized although he was ac- knowledged a useful emperor. A plot devised for the benefit of Michael I caused the former emperor to be condemned to death in a fiery furnace, but his friends rescued him by as- sassinating Leo V before the altar on Christmas Day, and reseated him on the throne. Consult Bury, J. B., ‘History of the Eastern Roman Empire? (New York 1912). LEO VI (the PuHILosopHER), Byzantine emperor: b. 865; d. 911. He was the son of Basilius, the Macedonian, and in 886 succeeded to the throne jointly with his younger brother, Alexander, who, however, took no share in gov- erning. His reign was marked by various wars with barbarian states, including the Hungarians, Bulgarians and Saracens. Thessalonica was sacked and practically destroyed and Sicily and lower Italy were overrun. Leo VI appears to have possessed small claim to his surnames, the “Wise and the “Philosopher.”. He banished his early tutor, Photius, patriarch of Constanti- nople, upon his succession to the throne; and upon his own excommunication from the Greek Church, following his fourth marriage — an act forbidden by the Church — he deposed Nicho- las, the patriarch who had pronounced the ban upon him. His authorship of the literary pro- ductions credited to him has been questioned. Among the works bearing his name are ‘Oracula,» a poem; ‘Orationes? ; ‘Basilica, the completion of a digest of laws begun by his father; and an important treatise on military tactics, believed by some authorities to be the work of Leo III (Leyden 1612). Consult Gib- bon, ‘Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire? ; Bury, ‘Later Roman Empire? (1887); Oman, ‘Byzantine Empire? (1892). LEO, Friedrich, German classical philolo- gist: b. Regenwalde, 10 July 1851; d. 1914. He was educated at the universities of Gottingen and Bonn, and was afterward professor at the universities of Kiel, Rostock, Strassburg, Bonn -and Gottingen. .For many years he edited. the philological journal Hermes. He also edited ‘Senecee Tragedie? (1878-79); ‘Venantii For- 297 tunati Opera Poetica? (1881), and was author of ‘Plautinische Forschungen? -(1895); ‘Die griechisch-romische Biographie nach ihrer lit- érarischen Form? (1901); ‘Saturnische Vers? (1905) ; “Geschichte der ‘R6mischen Literatur: Erste Band, Die Archaische Literatur? (1913), etc. LEO, Heinrich, German historian: b. Rudolstadt, 19 March 1799; d. Halle, 24 April 1878. He was educated at the Rudolstadt Gym- nasium and at the universities of Breslau, Jena and Gottingen, and in his student days was con- nected with the radicals of the German Bursch- enshaft or “Black Band,” but was early alien- ated from them because of their extreme meas- ures and became a conservative. He became privat-docent at Erlangen in 1820, and in 1823 made a_journey devoted to historical investiga- tion in Italy. He was docent at Berlin in 1822- 27, and for 40 years after 1828 he taught at Halle, gaining a remarkable reputation for his ability as a teacher through his powers of ex- position and his unusual memory. During the closing years of his life his mind was affected. He was a collaborator on the Jahrbiicher fur Wissenschaftliche Kritik during its existence, 1827-46. Author of ‘Lehrbuch der Geschichte des Mittelalters? (1830); ‘Geschichte der italienische Staaten? (5 vols., 1829-32) ; ‘Zwolf Biicher niederlandischer Geschichten? (2 vols., 1832-35) ; ‘Die Hegelingen? (1838) ; ‘Lehrbuch der Universalgeschichte? (6 vols., 1835-44); ‘Vorlesungen tiber die Geschichte des deutschen Volks und Reichs? (1854-66); ‘Meine Jugen- zeit? (1880), etc. LEO, Leonardo, or, correctly, LIO- NARDO:»ORONZO SALVATORE DE LEO, Italian musical. composer: b. San Vito degli ‘Schiavi, now San Vito dei Normanni, near Brindisi, 5 Aug. 1694; d. Naples, 31 Oct. 1744. Hie was educated at the Conservatorio della Pieta dei Turchini, Naples, studying un- der Provenzale and Nicola Faga. hile re- puted to have studied under Scarlatti and Pitoni it is considered improbable, although his work obviously was influenced by them. He was maestro at the cathedral at Naples and at Santa Maria della Solitaria, became court organist and taught at the ‘Conservatorio Saint Onofrio, Naples. He ‘first attracted attention through his compositions for the stage, writing both comic and serious operas, but achieving his greatest success with his comic operas. His reputation as a composer, however, rests upon his sacred compositions, among which his (Miserere? and ‘Dixit: Dominus? best illustrate his masterly style and the magnificent effects he obtained with comparatively simple means, He was the first of the Neapolitan school to gain a complete mastery over modern harmonic counterpoint. The most famous of his pupils were Pucini and Jommelli. He wrote about 60 operas of which the best known was the comic opera ‘Amor Vuol sofferenze,? also known as ‘La Finta Frascatana? (1739). Among his serious operas are ‘Demofoonte? (1735) and ‘L’Olimpiade? (1737). LEO (“the lion”), im astronomy, the name given to one of 12 zodiacal constellations and denoted by the symbol Q. It contains about 100 stars visible to the naked eye, the chief star being Regulus, also called Cor Leonis, or the Lion’s Heart. The sun enters the sign Leo about 298 21 July., Leo Minor, the Lesser Lion, is a constellation found by Hevelius about 1691. None of its stars reach the fourth magnitude. Leonides are meteors radiating from _ the vicinity of Leo, usually seen about 14 Novem- ber. LEO AFRICANUS (known variously as JOHANNES LEO; JUAN LrEo; GIOVANNI LEo, or LEONE; ELIBERITANUS; and, among the Moors, as AL HAssAN IBN MAHOMMED AL WEzAz AL Fasi), Moorish traveler and geographer: b. probably Granada, about 1485 or 1494; d. Tunis, about 1552. He came of a noble Moorish fam- ily, was educated at Fez, and as early as 1512 he traveled in Morocco, Tunis, Bugia and Con- stantine. He traveled in the Sudan and Sahara regions in 1513-15; later visited Constantinople, passing through Egypt, and afterward visited the three Arabias, Armenia and “Tartary” (probably Tabriz). He also ascended the Nile from Cairo to Assuan. In 1517 or 1520, on his return journey by sea from Egypt, he was cap- tured by pirates and eventually presented as a slave to Pope Leo X. The pontiff soon learned of his captive’s. wide explorations, bestowed a ension upon him, converted him to Christianity and stood sponsor at his baptism, giving him his own name. The captive, known as Leo Africanus, acquired Latin and Greek, and in turn taught Arabic, Cardinal Egidio Antonio being numbered among his pupils. At the sug- gestion of 'the Pope he wrote his ‘Description of Africa.’ The work is stated originally to _ have been written in Arabic, but that. manu- script is lost. However, the author himself wrote an Italian version (1526) which still ex- ists. It was: printed by.G. B. Ramusio (1550), and for long was regarded as the best author- ity on Africa. He returned to Tunis some time after the death of the Pope. Of his other writ- ings, his poems, a Spanish Arabic glossary and a collection of Arabic epitaphs are lost. There remains. his ‘De viris quibusdam illustribus apud Arabes? (consult Fabricius, “Bibliotheca Greca,?. Vol. : XIII, 259-298, Hamburg 1726). The ‘Descrizione dell’ Affrica? was ek ota in French by Jean Temporal (Lyons 1556); German by Lorsbach (1805) ; in English’ ey Francis Moore in ‘Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa? (1738). Several Latin editions and English translations thereof are highly i in- accurate. LEO DIACONUS, 13’o dPatcotna (LEo THE DEACON), Byzantine historian and court priest: b. Caloé, Ionia, about 950; d. about 1000. He settled in Constantinople and witnessed the era of national recovery under, the emperors Romanus II, Nicephorus Phocas and John Limisces, saw Crete reconquered, the invasion of Syria and the expulsion of the Russians from Bulgaria. His history covers the period 959-75, and while not well written it is regarded as trustworthy. It constitutes a valuable sup- plement to Byzantine history. It was printed eso Historiz Byzantinische? (Bonn 1 LEOBEN, 1a’o’bén, Austria, town in Styria, 44 miles by ‘rail northwest of Graz, on the Mur. It was at one time a walled town and parts of the wall. and towers remain. The old parish church has stained glass of the 14th century. It has technical schools and a widely-known academy of mining. The lignite LEO AFRICANUS — LEOMINSTER ( deposits of upper Styria and the iron mines and furnaces of Vordernberg and Eisenerz give it an important trade in iron, and it has ex- tensive iron-works. Here, 18° April 1797, Na- poleon signed the secret provisional peace treaty which gave Austria the greater portion of the mainland of Venice in return for the Nether- lands, which was succeeded by the Campio- Fornio Treaty. Pop. 11,504. LEOBSCHUTZ, 1a’dp’shuts, _ Germany, town in the province of Silesia, Prussia, 20 miles by rail northwest of Ratibor, on the © Zinna River. The town dates from the 10th century and was the capital of the principality of Jagerndorf in 1524-1623. It has an extensive trade in flax, grain and wool and is engaged in glass- making, mal ine, wool-spinning and textile industries, and the manufacture of machinery, bricks and large bells. Pop. 13,081. LEOCHARES, 1é-6k’a-réz, Greek sculp- tor of the 4th century B.c. He was a pupil of Scopas, and Pliny ascribes to him the sculptures on the west side of the Mausoleum at Hali- carnassus. He was one of the artists privileged to make portraits of Alexander the Great. Three statues of Zeus are known to have been executed by him, and his “Ganymede carried off by an Eagle? was famed throughout the ancient world. With Lysippus he produced a colossal bronze group representing Alexander at a lion-hunt. The works of Leochares are all lost, but there are numerous copies of the Ganymede, the best being that of the Museo- Pio Clementino, Rome, and another larger copy in the library ‘of Saint Mark, Venice, and a bust of Alexander may be a copy of one of his. LEOMINSTER, lém’stér, England, mar- ket town and municipal borough in Hereford- shire, 157 miles northwest of London, on the Lug and on the Great Western and London and Northwestern railways. It is situated in a rich agricultural district and has some fine old tim- ber houses.. There is a parish church with a Norman nave and some of the finest examples of window tracery in England, restoration at different periods, however, making it an edifice of mixed architecture. The district produces wool, hops and fruit, and brewing and the manufacture of agricultural implements form the principal industries. The town received its first charter in 1554, but dates from before the Conquest, when it was the seat of a religious house. Pop. 5,737. LEOMINSTER, lém’in-ster, Mass., a - town of Worcester County, 40 miles west- northwest of Boston, on the Nashua River, and on the New York, New Haven.and Hartford and the Boston and Maine railroads. The town is well laid out, has handsome residential sec- tions, six churches, 20 schools, a public library and over 18,000 volumes anda fine park. Leom- inster is well lighted with gas and electricity and has a good water supply and abundance of water power, the waterworks being municipal- ized. It is a busy industrial centre, the home of the comb-manufacture of the State, of piano cases and piano-fortes, has large cabinet works, paper mills, tanneries and extensive manufac- tures of cement, bricks, yarn, jewelry, toys, but- tons, paper boxes, chemicals and hairpins. The town is surrounded by some of the most fertile farm land in the county, and horticulture and LEON floriculture are growing industries. Leominster, settled in 1725, was part of Lancaster until 1740 when it received a charter of incorporation. A disastrous fire occurred in 1873. Pop. 19,789. Consult Emerson, ‘Leominster, Massachusetts? (Gardner, Mass., 1888). LEON, 1a-én’, Antonio, Mexican soldier: b. Huajuapam, Oaxaca, 1794; d. 1847. Having abandoned the side of the royalists for that of the insurgents under Iturbide, he distinguished himself in 1821 by the capture of Tehuantepec, for which he was made _lieutenant-colonel. When, however, Iturbide proclaimed himself emperor, the support of Leon was given to Gen- eral Bravo, the Republican leader. In 1824, as deputy from Oajaca, he served in the Constitu- ent Congress, and later he aided in quelling in- surrection against the authority of the republic. He was killed at the battle of Molina del Rey in the war with the United States. LEON, Fray Luis Ponce de, Spanish mystic poet: b. Belmonte de Cuenca, 1527; d. Madrigal, 23 Aug. 1591. On graduating from the University of Salamanca he entered the Augustinian order, where his talents soon brought him prominently to the front. In 1561 he was appointed to the chair of Thomistic philosophy, and 10 years later he was also ap- pointed professor of sacred literature. But his keen, investigating intellect got him into trouble the following year, when he was charged with expressing doubt as to the validity of the Vul- gate, and also with having published unauthor- ized versions of the Bible or parts thereof. The story is that he had rendered into Spanish the “Song of Songs’? (of Solomon) for a friend, and that this was published without his knowl- edge or consent. However, the affair cost him over four years’ imprisonment. During this period much of his best literary work was done. On his release from prison in 1576, with a warning to be more careful in the future, his chair in the university was restored to him and he was assigned the subject of Biblical exegesis. But, owing to his brilliancy, his reputation as a poet, mystic and theologician, he had numerous enemies who watched ‘him closely and some of them made other charges against him in 1582. These, however, were not sustained, thanks probably to his growing power in the order to which he rose to be vicar-general shortly after- ward. This seems to have silenced his enemies, and he was raised to the high dignity of pro- . vincial of Castile; but he lived only 10 days afterward. Among his prose works are “Los Nombres de Cristo,? consisting of three books, the result of his literary activity during his four years’ imprisonment; ‘La Perfecta Casada? ; ‘Exposicién del Libro de Job?; ‘Song of Solo- mon and Commentary.” These were long popu- lar. His mystical treatment of the various names given to Christ in the scriptures appealed strongly to the mystical-loving age in which he lived. In fact to all of his works belongs that mysticism that distinguished ‘his poetical efforts. But popular though his prose was in his own day, it was as a mystic and lyrical poet that he distinguished himself above the writers of his age. His poetry is sympathetic and pleasing, scholarly and marked with a lyrical ring unsur- passed by any Spanish poetry of his century. He was widely read in the classics and his poetical works include translations from many 299 of the Latin poets, among them Horace and Virgil. He also made translations from the Greek poets. In nearly all of these transla- tions he has caught the spirit of the original. He successfully imitated Petrarch. Ledén’s countrymen are accustomed to divide his orig- inal poetry into four distinct classes and to accord him a very high place in each of these classes which are religious, moral, phil- osophical and patriotic. The moral and phil- osophical however are often classed under one head. So highly was his work ad- mired that he has been proclaimed, by his admirers, the greatest poetical genius of Spain. Leén himself rather underestimated his own rare poetical gifts, and he used them, as he himself has explained, for the greater glory of God, and not to feed his own personal vanity. There is a fervor and sincerity about his religious poetry that bear out his confession. No Spanish author has approached him in the purity of thought and language of his sacred poems. Many of them read like the inspirations that he himself seems to have believed them to be. There is a sweetness about them united with a wondrous beauty of expression and brilliant, ever-pleasing imagery, that makes their simplic- ity stand for the breathing of the breath of life. His subjective mysticism is more engag- ing, more beautifully expressed and more truly poetical than that of any other Spanish writer in an age of mysticism. As was quite natural, he exercised a strong and far-reaching influence on the development of Spanish language in liter- ature. He confirmed the love of the Classics and the ancient literature in Spain, and he has, therefore, been rightly looked upon as the greatest of 'the Spanish Classical poets. Leén’s poems, which were not published during his lifetime, were issued by Quevedo in 1631, 40 years after his death. Merino published his collected works in six volumes in Madrid in 1816. This is still the best edition. Bibliography.— Ford, J. D. M., ‘Luis de Leon, the Spanish Poet, Humanist and Mystic? (Vol. XIX, No. 2, publications of the Modern Language Association of America); Gonzalez de Tejada, J., ‘Vida de Fray Luis de Led (Madrid 1863); Gutiérrez, M., ‘Fray Luis de Leén y la filosofia espafiola> (Madrid 1885); Menéndez, de Pelayo, M., ‘Estudios de critica literaria» (Madrid 1893); Merino, ‘Obras de Luis de Leén? (Madrid 1804-16); Reusch, “Luis de Leon und die Spanische Inquisition” (Bonn 1873); Wallace, E., ‘Translation into English of the Perfecta Casada? .(Chicago 1903) ; Wilkins, C., “Fray Luis de Leén” (Halle 1866). Joun Husert Cornyn, : Editorial Staff of The Americana. LEON, Juan Vdsquez de, Spanish con- quistador and companion of Cortés during his first venture in the land of the Aztecs. He was one of the half a dozen or more com- panions of the conqueror who were of noble blood; and Leén, who was a near relative of the governor of Cuba, Velasquez, was probably the most highly connected of all the party, having a:legal right to use the title “hidalgo.” He aided Amador de Lares (q.v.) in enabling Cortés to make his preparations to leave Cuba; and he was among the small band of cavalry with which Cortés invaded the uplands of Mex- 300 ico. He’ was somewhat proud, valiant, re- sourceful and an excellent leader, and for this reason was trusted by Cortés who gave him high command in his forces and invariably de- pended upon him when something dangerous and difficult had to be done. . When Cortés marched from the City of Mexico in 1519 to Vera Cruz, Léon, who did not approve of his action, tried to raise trouble; and. he and his companions were promptly arrested by Cortés and confined aboard ship. Ledn soon repented of his action and was admitted once more into the confidence of his leader. From that time on he was ever among the most faithful fol- lowers of Cortés, who considered him the most level-headed of his officers. He was fre- quently found making a protest against bigotry in an age when practically every Spaniard was a bigot; and he strongly objected to the useless massacres of the natives of Mexico. He was one of the guard of five men selected by Cortés to effect the arrest of Montezuma I], emperor of the Aztecs, and it was by his pre- cipitate action that the arrest was made good at that time. He was also the commander of the body of troops that maintained the guard of the royal prisoner from the vantage point of the ante-chamber of his old palace where he was under arrest. He was a good com- panion and had. the courtly manner of the Spanish court, and for this reason Montezuma took a great liking to him. Ledn seems to have had more respect for the Aztec emperor than had any of his companions, and he did his best to entertain him during his captivity. Leon was sent by Cortés to plant a colony on the Coatza- colcos River on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, but the latter was forced to recall him before he had time to finish his commission, owing to trouble in his own affairs; and Leon, obey- ing the call, joined him at ‘Cholula and was with Cortés in his famous capture, at Vera- Cruz, of the forces of Narvaez, who had been sent from Cuba by Velasquez, the governor, to replace him. At this eventful time Leon was sent by ‘Cortés, with an armed force, to secure the province of Panuco. On his return to Mex- ico City he modified the anger of Cortés against the imprisoned Aztec emperor Montezuma, who was not able to force his people to supply the Spaniards with provisions. Shortly after this the Spaniards were forced to leave the capital of the Aztecs, and they attempted to do it secretly at the dead of a moonless night. But they were discovered, and a desperate battle ensued which resulted disastrously for the Spaniards, the greater part of whom were killed or severely wounded in this retreat, which is known in Spanish history as the “Dismal Night” Leén, with the famous Pedro. de Al- varado, was given command of the rearguard, the most dangerous position in the retreat. The Spaniards carried along with them a bridge which had been previously made to span the openings in the causeways which served as roads for the city of the Aztecs. At the first opening this bridge stuck fast and could not be removed in the hurry of the retreat to be used at the following openings. The place where Alvarado is said to have made a famous leap, some say on his horse, others affirm with his long lance as a vaulting pole, is still pointed out to the visitor to Mexico City. At any rate the latter came out of battle safe and sound LEON and lived to be one of. the important figures in the colony of New Spain as Mexico was called, while Leon lost his life on the “Dismal Night. » It is said that Cortés wept when he heard of his death. LEON, 1é’6n, Iowa, town and county-seat of Decatur County, 87 miles by rail south of Des Moines, on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. It is situated:in an agricul- tural region devoted to dairying, stock and poultry raising. Pop. (1920) 2,193 LEON, or LEON DE LOS ALDAMAS, Mexico, state of Guanajuato, the first city in population and second in commercial import- ance in the state. The distance from Leon to the United States border at El Paso, Tex., is 996 miles, to Guanajuato, 34 miles and to Mex- ico City 258 miles by the Mexican Central Rail- way. The altitude of the city is 5,864. feet above sea-level. The situation, in the ‘midst of a fertile and highly cultivated agricultural dis- trict, is most favorable to the industries to which the city is devoted. It was founded in 1576 and has always maintained a condition of even and locally satisfactory prosperity. While there are no great manufactories in the place, it is emphatically one of the most important manufacturing cities in the republic, a consid- erable proportion of its simple homes being given over to the making of rebosos, zerapes, leather clothing embroidered in gold and silver, saddles, harness, bridles and numerous other articles of necessity, in which labor practically all the members of the family take part. There are also numerous other and more pretentious industrial establishments, including cotton and woolen mills, but the greater part of the manu- facturing is in the modest homes of the work- ing people. Here are located the headquarters of the northern. military zone of the republic. A cathedral, a public library containing over 2,000 volumes, a church library with 9,000 vol- umes, a number of imposing church edifices, numerous creditable business blocks, well- paved streets and several attractive parks add to the advantages of the community as a place of residence. The banking. facilities are pro- vided by branches of the National Bank and the Bank of San Luis Potosi and an agency of the Bank of Zacatecas. Pop. 57,722. LEON, la-6n', Nicaragua, city situated in a large and fertile plain 13 miles from the Pa- cific coast. It is laid out on a regular plan, in spacious streets, with intervening squares. The public buildings are considered among the finest in Central America and include a large and massive cathedral, crowned by. a lofty central dome and flanked by two towers. It is also the seat of a university. Other buildings are the old episcopal palace (built 1678), sur- rounded by fine gardens; the new episcopal pal- ace (1873), the churches of La Merced, Reco- leccion and Calvario, remarkable for their size and fine facades, and various other churches; the Tridente College of Saint Ramon, once a flourishing establishment, with professorships of law and medicine and numerous students, but now possessed only of a nominal existence; the government house, Cuartel General or head barracks and the hospital, occupying the old convent of San Juan de Dios. The manufac- tures of Leon are honAnell chiefly to articles in LEON — LEONARD dressed leather and cutlery; and the trade, ow- ing to its inland situation, does little more than supply its local wants, but the railway between Leon and Corinto on the coast has somewhat improved it. The markets display fruits and vegetables in great variety and almost bound- less profusion. Leon was founded in 1523 by Francisco Hernandez on the shore of Lake Managua and was removed to its present site in 1610. It was at one time the capital of the republic and is still the largest city. Pop. about LEON, 14’6n’, Philippine Islands, pueblo of Iloilo province, Panay, about 14 miles north- west of Iloilo. Pop. about 10,000. LEON, Spain, city, capital of, the province, as formerly of the ancient kingdom of the same name, 82 miles by rail northwest of Val- ladolid. Its trade is chiefly domestic; its im- portance is historical, dating from a strong military station under the Romans, part of whose fortified walls are still standing. Situ- ated on an open plain below the neighboring mountains, Leén has two great monuments, both of deep significance in the history of Spanish civilization. Attached to the collegiate church of San Indor el Real is the Pantedn de los Reyes which preserves unharmed in’ their original state the burial places of the an- cient kings, queen and princes. The cathedral of Leén, dedicated to Santa Maria de la Regla, is one of the three great Gothic churches com- menced during the reign of Saint Ferdinando III and is noted for its beautiful 13th century French blazoned glass and sculpture. The 12th century convent of San Marcos restored in 1514 is also noted for its fine architecture and ornamental facade. Pop. 18,000. LEON, Spain, a northwestern province, area 5,936 square miles; population 400,000; density 66.6 to the square mile; capital Ledén (q.v.). It is part of the former kingdom of Leon (area 21,038 square miles; population 1,478,000) which was divided into the modern provinces of Ledn, Palencia, Zamora, Valla- dolid and Salamanca.. See SPAIN — History. LEON, Isla de (known also as the Ista GADITANA; the Greek GapEs and Roman Ga- DERIA), an island off the southwest coast of Spain, in the Atlantic Ocean, separated from the mainland by the Channel of San Pedro. It is-about 10 miles long by 2 miles broad, has a flat, marshy surface and many sand dunes. On it are the cites of Cadiz and San Fernando, and there is connection with the mainland by means of two bridges, one of them a railroad bridge. The island was the seat of the remotest west- ern colony of the Phcenicians, founded 1100 B.C. Pop. 60,873. LEON PINELO, Antonio de, Spanish writer: b. Peru, between 1585 and 1590; about 1660. He held various offices of import- ance under the Council of the Indies and the Spanish government. As he was born of Spanish parents, in the American colony of Peru and educated, at least in part, in Spain, where his parents were highly connected, he seems to have always enjoyed the confidence of the Spanish authorities. At an early age he gave much attention to collecting documents and information bearing on the history of the 301 New World and especially of Spain’s connec- tion with it. Not satisfied with the result of his investigations in Peru and Mexico, both of which countries then contained notable archives, he returned to Spain to search there the rec- ords and other documents relating to the Americas. It was due to these labors that he became historian to the Council of the Indies. This position he filled so well that he became known as the best chronicler of the affairs of the New World up to his time. He wrote nu- merous works, some of which were published during his lifetime and others of which long lay in manuscript. Among these works are “Epitome de la Biblioteca Oriental y Occiden- tal, Nautica y Geografica? (Madrid 1629) ; ‘Tratado de confirmaciones reales de encomi- endas, oficios y casos en que se requieren para las Indias occidentales? (Madrid 1630); ‘Re- copilacién de las leyes de Indias? (Madrid 1628 and 1680); ‘Aparato politico de las Indias occidentales? (1653); ‘El paraiso en el Nuevo Mundo? (1656)-; ‘Consejo Real y Supremo de las Indias, su origen y Jurisdiccion, y los presi- dentes, consejeros, fiscales y secretarios que desde su fundacion ha tenido? (Madrid 1658) ; ‘Relacion de las fiestas de la Congregacion de Lima y la limpia_ Concepcion de Nuestra Sefiora? (Lima); ‘Historia natural de las In- dias occidentales> (Madrid); ‘Fundacion y grandezas historicas y politicas de la Ciudad de los Reyes Lima»? (Madrid); ‘Historia de la Villa Imperial del Potosi? ; ‘Poema de la Con- cepcién Purisima de Nuestra Sefiora’?; ‘Velos antiguos y modernos en los rostros de las mujeres, sus conveniencias y dafios, ilustracion de la Real. Pregmatica des las Tapadas? (Madrid); ‘Questiédn moral si el chocolate quebranta el ayuno eclesiastico: tratase de otras bedidas y confecciones que se usan-en varias provincias? (Madrid); ‘Oracion pane- girica a la presentacidn de Nuestra Sefiora? (Madrid);.. ‘Por la pintura y esencidn de pagar alcavalas? (Madrid); ‘Vida del ilus- trisimo y reberentisimo D. Toribio Alfonso de Modrouejo arzobispo de la Ciudad de los Reyes Lima? (Madrid 1653); ‘Discurso sobre la importancia, forma y disposicion de la Reco- pilacién de las leyes de Indias” ; ‘Acuerdos del Consejo de Indias? (Madrid 1658) ; ‘Gobierno espiritual eclesiastico de las Indias”; ‘Anales 6 historia de Madrid desde el nacimiento de Christo hasta 1658.> A very considerably larger list of titles of works by Leon Pinelo is pre- served by the ‘Biblioteca Nova de Nicolas Antonio.2 Consult any good history of Spanish literature. ; LEONARD, lén’érd, Abiel, American Protestant Episcopal bishop: b. Fayette, Mo., 26 June 1848. He was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1870 and at the General Theological Seminary, New York city, in 1873. Entering the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal Church, he served in Missouri and Kansas until 1888, when he was consecrated bishop of Salt Lake. That bishopric he continues to retain. LEONARD, Adna Wright, American clergyman: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 2 Nov. 1874. He is the son of the late Rev. Adna B. Leonard, who was for many years secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He was graduated from New York University in 1899 and from Drew 302 Theological Seminary in 1901. He was a stu- dent in the American School of Archeology in Rome, 1901-02. He entered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church, joining the New- ark (N. J.) Conference. After a pastorate in Porto Rico and the pastorate of the American Methodist Episcopal Church in Rome he be- came pastor of important churches in Ohio, and finally in 1910 pastor of First Church, Seat- tle, Wash. The General Conference of 1916, of which he was a member, elected him bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He is the author of ‘The Roman Catholic Church at the Fountain Head? (1910); and ‘The Shepherd King? (1911). LEONARD, Daniel, American jurist: b. Norton, Mass., 29 May 1740; d. London, Eng- land, 27 June 1829. He was graduated from Harvard in 1760 and after studying law be- came a Whig member of the General Court. Disapproving of the extreme measures of the Whigs, his sympathies were with the Loyalists and nie papers, signed “Massachusettensis” and published in a Boston newspaper in 1774-75, were replied to by John Adams over the signa- ture “Novanglus.” Leonard’s articles ably de- fended the position of the English government and they constituted the strongest statement of that position put forth in the colonies. In 1776 he went with the English army to Halifax, N. S., and was among those named in the Ban- ishment Act of 1778, while his property was confiscated by the act of 1779. He went to - England from Halifax and was subsequently for many years chief justice of the Supreme Court of Bermuda. In 1819 John Adams pub- lished the ‘Novanglus and Massachusettensis? with a preface. Consult Tyler, ‘Literary His- tory of the American Revolution. LEONARD, H. Ward, American in- ventor and electrical engineer: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 8 Feb. 1861; d. New York, 18 Feb. 1915. He was graduated from the Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology in 1883, and in the fol- lowing year became associated with Thomas A. Edison’s staff of engineers. In 1887 he be- came general superintendent of the Chicago Western Electric Light Company, and in 1888 he organized the firm Leonard and Izard, en- gaging in the installation of central stations and electric railways. The firm was bought out by the Edison Company in 1889 and Leon- ard was appointed manager for the company’s combined interests in United States and Can- ada. He later founded the H. Ward Leonard Manufacturing Company at Bronxville. He patented more than 100 inventions connected with electrically-driven machinery and vehicles, among them an automatic electric-lighting sys- tem for railway trains and motor cars, and a system of motor control, which was adopted by the United States navy. His system of mo- tor control was also used at the Paris Exposi- tion in 1900 in operating the moving sidewalk and was one of the features of the exposition. He was awarded gold medals at the Paris (1900) and Saint Louis (1904) expositions, and also received in 1903 the John Scott Leg- acy medal of the Franklin Institute. He was a contributor to electrical engineering periodicals. LEONARD, James Francis, American telegrapher: b. Kentucky, 1804; d. 1862. He was practically the earliest telegrapher to read LEONARD — LEONHARDT messages by sound and for his time was the swiftest telegraph operator in the world. In the summer of 1848 he began to receive mes- sages by sound and soon afterward received and wrote out 55 words a minute for Pro- fessor Morse, as a test of the invention. He is buried in Frankfort, Ky., where his grave is marked by a monument erected by telegraphers. LEONARD, William Andrew, American Protestant’ Episcopal bishop: b. Southport, Conn., 15 July 1848. He was educated at Phil- lips Academy, Andover, Mass., and at Saint Stephen’s College, Annandale, N. Y.; was graduated at the Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn. He was ordained deacon in May 1871, and priest in July 1873; became assistant at Holy Trinity Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1871; rector of the church of the Re- deemer, Brooklyn, 1873; then rector of Saint John’s ‘parish, Washington, D. C., 1880; was chaplain of the 23d Regiment, N. Y. N. G. (1876-80) and is now chaplain of the Ohio Society of New York, and of the Sons of Colonial Wars, Ohio. He was consecrated bishop of Ohio, 12 Oct. 1889; is president of the Fifth Province of the American Church, and of the trustees of Kenyon College, Gam- pier, Ohio. His writings include ‘Via Sacra, or Footprints of Christ? (1875); ‘Brief His- tory of the Christian Church? (1878); ‘New York Church Club Lectures? (1893); ‘Faithful Life? (1888); ‘Life of Stephen Banks Leonard of Owego, N. YD (1909); ‘Witness of the American Church to Christianity? (Bedell Lec- tures, 1894). - LEONARDO DA VINCI, 14-6-nar’do da vén'ché. See VINCI. LEONCAVALLO, Ruggiero, rid-ja’rd 14-6n-ka-val’lé, Italian composer: b. Naples, Italy, 8 March 1858; d. Rome, Italy, 9 Aug. 1919. He was educated at the Naples Con- servatory of Music and for many years resided as a teacher in Paris. Under the influence anil encouragement of Wagner he wrote his trilogy ‘Crepusculum, a drama _ of Italian history, of which ‘Medici? is the first part. He is best known by his operas ‘I Pag- liacci? (1892); ‘La Bohéme? (1897); ‘Zaza? (1900) ; and ‘Der Roland? (1904). Other works by him are ‘Tomaso Chatterton? (1896), a popular opera; ‘Serafitus-Serafita,? a symphonic poem. LEONFORTE, 14’6n-for’ta, Sicily, city in the province of Catania, 2,133 feet above sea level, about 40 miles west of Catania. It is situated in an agricultural district, producing cereals, fruit and wine, and there are exports of sulphur and salt. Pop. 19,751. LEONHARDT, 1a’on-hart, Gerard Adolf Wilhelm, German jurist: b. Hanover, 6 June 1815; d. there, 7 May 1880. He was edu- cated at Gottingen and Berlin, became an ad- vocate and in 1837 was appointed to the Han- overian government service. He was appointed Minister of Justice in Hanover in 1862, served as chief justice of the High Court of ‘Appeals after Hanover was annexed to Prussia, and in 1867 received a seat in the Prussian Upper House and was appointed Minister of Justice in Prussia. He was an authority on criminal law and was instrumental in introducing many reforms in Germany’s criminal code. He re- LEONI— LEOPARD tired in 1879. Author of ‘Kommentar. tber das Kriminalgesetzbuch ftir das Konigreich Hanover? (1846-51); ‘Die Justizgesetzebung des K6nigreichs Hanover? (1859-60); ‘Zur Re- form des Ay liprozesses in. Deutschland? (1865). LEONI, 14-d’né, Leone (sometimes called In CAVALIERE ARETINO), Italian sculptor. and medallist: b. near Arezzo, or at Menaggio, about 1509; d. Milan, 22 July 1590.- He first appears in Venice where he was associated with Titian and Pietro Aretino, and he met Benvenuto Cellini at Padua in competition for the medal of Bembo. He was an engraver in the mint under Pope Paul III in 1538-40, and was afterward similarly employed at Milan under Alfonso d’Avalos. Through the influence of Ferrante Gonzaga he was appointed medal- list and sculptor in the household of Charles V. He executed many busts, statues and bas-re- liefs of the royalties and members of the court, a notable example of his art being ‘Charles V Repressing Violence,» now itt the Musée de Prado, where many other specimens of his work are exhibited. He is: represented also in the museums at Madrid, Vienna and Windsor Castle. He possessed a valuable art collection, and his house in Milan, still in existence, was famous for its sculptural decorations, He was ees aa in his work by his son, Pompeo Leoni (g.v LEONI, Pompeo, Italian sculptor, son of the preceding: b. probably Milan; d. Madrid, 1610. He worked with his father, who greatly influenced his style. Together they ’ executed the famous bronze groups of Charles V and Philip II and their families in the Escorial. Most of his life was spent in Spain, and he continued in the favor of the court after the accession of Philip II]. Among his other work is the monument to Don Fernando de Valdes, at Salas, Asturias; and the mausoleum of the Marquis Poza at Valencia; together with many busts and statues of the royal family and of the nobility. LEONIDAS (lé-6n'i-das) I, king of Sparta: b. 480 np.c.. He was a son of King Anaxandrides, and ascended the throne about 489 p.c. ~When Xerxes invaded Greece, the Greek Congress assigned to Leonidas the de- fense of the pass of Thermopyle. His force, according to Herodotus, amounted to over 6,000 men, of whom 300 were Spartans, After the Persians had made several vain attempts to force the pass, a Greek named Ephialtes betrayed to them a mountain path, by which Hydarnes led a body of Persians to attack Leonidas in the rear. Before this manceuvre could be completed, Leonidas, dismissing most of his allies, undertook to hold the pass with a forlorn hope of 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians and 400 Thebans. Here they resisted the main body of Xerxes’ army, being attacked both in front and rear. No quarter was given or taken and it was not until the entire Spartan and Thespian corps were wiped out, that the remaining small body of Thebans surrendered, Leonidas fell early in the action, and a desper- ate struggle afterward took place over his body, which was rescued by the Greeks, but after the surrender Xerxes ordered the head cut off and the remains crucified. The details of the gallant resistance are lost in a maze of myths, but numerous writers have paid their 303 tribute to Leonidas and the brave band_ be- trayed at Thermopyle. Consult Herodotus, 39-41; Cicero, ‘Tusc. Disput.,? v. I, 42-49; Grundy, ‘The Great Persian War (1901). LEONIDES, or LEONIDS. See Leo. LEONINE VERSE, a form of Latin verse, originating during the Middle Ages, con- sisting of hexameters and pentameters of which the final and middle syllables rhyme. They are so called from Leonius, a poet of the 12th century. An instance of Leonine verse is found in the lines by Tennyson: “The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps-in glory.” LEONNATUS, 18a’6n-na’tuz, Macedonian general of Pella: d. Thessaly, 322 n.c. He was considered one of the ablest commanders under Alexander the Great, and accompanied him in his invasion of Persia in 334 pc. He was kept in positions close to the emperor’s person and at Malli he and Peucestas saved the life of Alexander. He received the satrapy of the Hellespontine Phrygia after the death of Alex- ander, but soon afterward was killed in battle against the Athenians and their allies, who were besieging Antipater at Lamia. LEONTIUS OF BYZANTIUM, 1é-6n’- shi-tz ov bi-zan’shi-tim (called also SCHOLAS- Ticus. and MHrerosoLymiranus), Byzantine ecclesiastic: flourished in the 6th century. Lit- tle is known of his life. He mentions having in early years belonged to a Nestorian com- munity, and he is reputed to have introduced Aristotelian definitions into theology. There is much confusion concerning the authorship of various manuscripts bearing the name “Leon- tius” with different surnames, but he is gen- erally credited with being author of the polem- ical treatises ‘Contra Nestorianos et Euty- chianos?; ‘Contra Monophysitas?; ‘Contra Severum?: and ‘De Sectis.» His collected works are published in J. P. Migne’s ‘Patro- logia Greca? (Vol. LXXXVI). LEONTODON. See Hawgsir. LEONZIO PILATO, 14-6n’tsé-6 pé-1a’'té, or LEO PILATUS, ‘Greek or Calabrian pseudo-scholar: d. at sea, on the Adriatic, about 1366. It is supposed that he met Petrarch in Padua and Boccaccio at Milan, and upon the invitation of Boccaccio to become his guest he went to Florence where the influ- ence of his patron secured him the chair of Greek in the university. His knowledge of Greek was in no way scholarly and he was practically a barbarian. He made the first mod- ern translation of Homer into Latin under the immediate care of Boccaccio and with more distant counsel from Petrarch. The ignorance of the Calabrian, cloaked in an assumption of knowledge and defended by a surly indifference, led Boccaccio into many errors in his own work. Pilatus appeared to have accompanied Boc- caccio on his visit to Petrarch at: Venice in 1363, and later went to Constantinople. On his return journey to Italy he was killed by lightning at sea. Consult Hodius, ‘De Grecis illustribus?; Petrarch, ‘Epistole® (Vols. V, Lacs Hutton, ‘Boccaccio? (1909). LEOPARD, or PANTHER, one of the great cats widely distributed over Africa and Asia, and prehistorically prevalent in southern 304 Europe. The general color is yellowish fawn, which becomes white on the under aspect of the body, marked with black spots of various sizes, irregularly dispersed; these spots are often rosette-like, but do not. enclose a central spot as is the case with its American analogue, the jaguar (q.v.). Black examples often occur, In general appearance and conformation the leopard is tiger-like, but is considerably the inferior of the tiger in size and weight, meas- uring on the average about 3 feet and 10 inches from the nose to the root of the tail, which is almost as long as the body. This beautiful cat is, however, the peer of the tiger, making up in agility, quickness and wit for his lack of weight and power. Its prey con- sists of any animal it is able to pounce upon or overcome, and among the native villages: and herdsmen of both India and Africa it is dreaded as a destroyer of cattle and sheep, since, like the American puma, when it invades a cattle- pen or sheepfold it kills many times more animals than it can eat or carry away. Never- theless, leopards have always been among the partly tamed and trained animals of. shows, and they thrive well and breed in captivity. The leopard—which is more commonly called “panther” in India— frequents mainly wooded and rocky regions, where it can take refuge in trees, or seek among their limbs the birds, monkeys and other arboreal creatures that form a fair share of its food. It does not hesitate to attack large prey, but can rarely overcome a buffalo or one of the larger Afri- can antelopes unless the animal is taken at a great disadvantage. Not more than one pair is usually found in a given district; and they make their lair in some rocky jungle, where once a year two to four kittens are born to them, which remain with their mother until they are well grown. One hears less of man- eating leopards than of lions and tigers with the habit of attacking human beings; but the leopard is more widespread, numerous and sub- tle than either of the others and doubtless is the real perpetrator of many homicides attribu- ted to the larger cats. At any rate the leopard is regarded by those familiar with him as quite as formidable a beast to encounter, and sports- men adopt the same methods and use the same precautions as when they are pursuing the tiger. A most excellent summary of leopard-hunting experiences may be read in Porter’s ‘Wild Beasts? (New York 1894). For the leopard in India consult Sanderson, ‘Thirteen Years among Wild Beasts in India? (1893); Forsyth, “Highlands of Central India? (1889); Horna- day, ‘Two Years in the Jungle,» and similar writers. The Persian leopard is described at length in Blanford’s ‘Zoology of Persia? (1876); and the ‘African? by Baker, ‘Wild Beasts and their Ways? (1890); Drummond, ‘Large Game and Natural History of South- east Africa? (1875); Ingersoll, ‘Life of Mam- mals? (1906) ; Roosevelt and Heller, ‘Life His- tories of African Game Animals) (1914); and many other sportsmen-travelers. in that conti- nent. See CHEETA; SNOW-LEOPARD. LEOPARD, The. See CHESAPEAKE AND LEoPpARD AFFAIR, LEOPARD-CAT, a _ highly variable, tawny, much-spotted cat about two feet long in body, and with a long tail, which dwells in ~northern India but ‘is not well known. LEOPARD -—- LEOPARDI It is called Felis bengalensis ‘by Elliot and also by Mivart, but its identity is doubtful. Consult Lydekker, ‘Game Animals of India? (1907). i! LEOPARD-FLOWER. See BLACKBERRY ILY. LEOPARD-FROG. See Froc. LEOPARD-MOTH, a large European tussock-moth (Zeuzera pyrina), white spotted with black, whose caterpillars bore into the limbs. of forest and shade trees, and so weaken them that they die or are easily broken by the wind. This moth has been introduced to America in the neighborhood of New York where it is one of the pests in the parks. LEOPARD (lép’ard) SEAL (Sea Leop- ARD), a spotted Patagonian seal, Ogmorhinus or Hydrurga leptonyx of the family Phocide. It is widely distributed in southern, temperate and Antarctic seas. The males sometimes at- tain a length of 12 feet. The fur is short and lustrous, spotted yellowish white and dark gray on the back, and yellowish beneath. The fur of the females is somewhat darker than that of the males. LEOPARD-SHARK, a handsomely varie- gated small shark (Triakis semifasciatum), of- ten seen along the coast of southern California. LEOPARDI, 1a’o-par’dé, Alessandro, Italian sculptor: b. Venice, last half of 15th century; d. there, about 1512. His earliest known work is the magnificent mausoleum of the Doge Andrea Vendramini in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo at Venice. Some of the figures are missing, two of which authorities agree are in the museum at Berlin. He was charged with forgery and banished from Ven- ice in 1487, but the necessity for finishing the statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni, begun by Ver- rocchio, caused the Senate to recall Leopardi in 1490. The pedestal of this work is his own creation and he cast the bronze statue. The bronze sockets for the three standards in the square of Saint Mark’s were designed and cast by him, and he worked on the tomb of Car- dinal Zeno at Saint Mark’s in 1503-05, the tomb being finished by Pietro Lombardo. Among the works believed to be his but not fully verified are ‘Elijah in the Fiery Chariot? in the Morgan collection, New York, a bronze relief; and the three bronze reliefs of the ‘Assumption of the Virgin» in the Museo- Archeologico, Venice. LEOPARDI, Giacomo, Count, Italian scholar and poet: b. Recanati, in the marshes of Ancona, 29 June 1798; d. Naples, 15 June 1837. He devoted himself from an early age to study in the fine library of his father, and when he reached his 15th year was master of Latin and Greek, and had soon read most of the literary masterpieces of antiquity. In 1815 his translation of Porphyry’s “Life of Plotinus>? was followed by his ‘Saggio sopra gli Errori degli Antichi.» He was of profound poetic genius and mourned over the degraded political condition of his native land, a feeling which found utterance in his magnificent ‘Ode to Italy, a poem which proclaimed him the first of modern Italian singers. In 1822 he went to Rome and attracted the attention of Niebuhr by his criticism of a new edition of the “Chront- con of Eusebius’; and the great historian at- LEOPARDS 1 The Leopard or Panther 2 Snow Leopard or Ounce 3 Hunting Leopard or Cheetah LEOPOLD I tempted in vain to settle him as professor in the University of Berlin. Leopardi was broken in health, as well as in spirit, and his unhappi- ness was intensified by an unhappy love affair. Bunsen offered him such a professorship, and it was declined. He left Rome to travel in Italy, his tour embracing many of the great northern cities, and ending with Naples. He developed the most absolute skepticism, and the unhappiness of his lot made him a pessimist. His sight failed, and he was forbidden to take up a book, and though he was a linguist of rare accomplishments, wrote in Greek and Latin with equal ease, had mastered French, Spanish and English, he could apply his attainments to no practical end. His classic training had, how- ever, given him a power and precision in the use of his native tongue, which was unprece- dented in his day. His early lyrics were written between 1816 and 1824, and are distinguished for lucidity, genuine feeling and brilliant com- mand of metre and rhyme. His most famous poem, however, is ‘La Ginestra? (1836), in which he gives full expression to his hopeless creed; and of his poetic productions some 39 remain to this day the finest and most imperish- able utterances of the Italian lyre. His other works include translations and critical treatises, and after his death were published his prose - works, a miscellany of peculiar interest. His ‘Epistolario,. a collection of his letters, records in the most intimate manner his personal life. Consult Autard, ‘Essay sur les Idees philoso- phiques et V'inspiration poetique de Glacomo Leopardi? (1877); Ranieri, ‘Sette anni di so- dalizio. con. Giacomo Leopardi? (1880) ; Cap- pelletti, ‘Bibliographia Leopardiana? (1882) ; Ceaseo, ‘Nuove ricerche su Giacomo Leopardi? (1893), and ‘La Vita di Giacomo Leopardi? (1905) ; Serban, ‘Leopardi sentimental? (1913). See DIALOGUES ; ODES. LEOPOLD (1lé6-péld) I (GrorcE Saree TIAN FREDERICK), king of the Belgians: b. Co- burg, 16 Dec. 1790: d. 10 Dec. 1865. He was the fourth son of Francis, Duke of Saxe- Coburg, and after receiving a careful literary and scientific education and spending some years in foreign travel, he entered the Russian service, in which he rose to the rank of a general and commanded corps at the battles of Liitzen, Bantzen and Leipzig. On the return of Napoleon from Elba he joined the army of the Rhine and with it entered Paris. While in England after the peace of 1815 he married (2 May 1816) Princess Charlotte, daughter of the Prince Regent and heiress to the throne, and was naturalized by act of Parliament and created Duke of, Kendal. The princess died in childbed on 5 Noy. 1817. In February 1830 he was Offered the crown of the new kingdom of Greece; was proclaimed; but as conditions he had specified regarding a rectification of frontier and his entire acceptability to the Greek people were not fulfilled, he renounced the sovereignty. On 4 June 1831 he was elected by a national congress king of the Belgians. Difficulties were encountered for the first eight years of his reign with the king of Holland, out of whose territory Belgium had been carved, and these were settled by the Treaty of Twenty-four Articles in 1839. In August 1832 he married Louise, eldest daughter of Louis Philippe of France (d. 1850). During VOL. 17—20 305 the revolutionary troubles of 1848 he offered to abdicate if his rule was unacceptable to his sub- jects; but all classes rallied round the king. He ruled with great prudence, was one of the wisest monarchs of his time, was frequently called on to arbitrate on international disputes and was called the Nestor of Europe. His daughter, Carlotta, was the wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico. He was succeeded by his son, Leopold II. Consult Juste, ‘Les Fonda- teurs de la Monarchie belge, Leopold, Ier Roi des Belges” (1868), an English translation of- which appeared, entitled ‘Memoirs of Leopold I (1868); Taillandier, ‘Le roi Leopold et la reine Victoria» (1878). LEOPOLD II (Louts Puitiprpe Marie Victor), king of the Belgians: b. Brussels, 9 April 1835; d. Brussels, 17 Dec. 1909. He was the eldest son of Leopold I, and married in 1853 Maria Henrietta, Archduchess of Austria (d. 1902), daughter ‘of Archduke Joseph of Austria. He early manifested great interest in the opening up-of central Africa, and in 1876 organized at Brussels the African International Association, the purpose of which was to utilize African discoveries for commercial purposes. He aided, and to a large extent financed, Stan- ley’s explorations on the Kongo in 1879-82, By the Berlin Congress of 1885 the Kongo Free State was formed, its territory neutralized and its sovereignty conferred on King Leopold. In 1889 the king willed this domain to the Belgian people. ‘Certain grave scandals in connection with its administration and the commercial ex- ploitation of the natives—in the profits of which. the king shared — were brought to light in 1903 and action taken by the British Parlia- ment to have an inquiry into the abuses com- plained of. The result was that reforms were effected, and in 1908 the Kongo Free State be- came a Belgian colony. King Leopold was a man of notoriously immoral life. But he was an able monarch, who governed as well as reigned, and initiated many schemes for the commercial advancement of his country. Dur- ing his reign its foreign commerce increased sixfold and its merchant fleet fivefold, and: it began to take its place as a colonial power. His only son, Leopold, died in 18609; his second daughter, Stephanie, was married to Prince Rudolf of Austria who died mysteriously in 1889. He was succeeded by his nephew, Albert I (q.v.). Consult MacDonnell, J. de C., ‘King Leopold II» (London 1905); Rappoport, A. S., engl King of the Belgians’ (New York 1910). LEOPOLD I, Holy Roman emperor: b. Vienna, 9 June 1640; d. there, 5 May 1705. He was second son of the Emperor Ferdinand III of the house of Hapsburg and of Maria Anna. of Spain, and was educated for the Church, when the death of his brothers made ‘him heir to the throne of his father. Previous to the death of the latter in 1657, Leopold had (1655) been crowned king of Hungary, still mainly in Turkish hands; in 1656 he was elected king of Bohemia, and in 1658, in spite of the opposition of Cardinal Mazarin, emperor. The war with the Turks having been renewed in 1660, Monte- cuculi won the battle of Saint Gothard on the Raab (1 Aug. 1664), which was followed, how- ever, by a peace which the Hungarian partisans of the emperor regarded as ignominious. In 306 1678 occurred the great insurrection under Tokoly, due to the emperor’s persecution of the Hungarian Protestants, who in 1683 obtained the help of the Turks by their invasion of Aus- | tria under Kara Mustapha. Leopold fled from Vienna, but John Sobieski’s great victory saved his capital and thrones. Buda was retaken after a memorable siege in 1686, and the victories at Zalankemén (1691) and Zenta (1697), won by the military genius of Prince Eugene, led to the peace of Carlovitz (1699), which also se- cured the possession of Transylvania. But neither the wholesale executions of Hungarian patriots at Eperies, nor the acquiescence of the Diet of Presburg in the proposition to make the male line of the Hapsburgs hereditary in Hun- gary (1687), could make peace permanent in that long-distracted country. Leopold also had to wage three protracted wars against Louis XIV; the last, the War of the Spanish Succes- sion, which he did not live to see concluded. In the German Empire the long reign of Leo- pold witnessed the growing power of the house of Brandenburg, under Frederick William, the great elector, whose son assumed the royal title under the name of Frederick I in 1701. LEOPOLD II, Holy Roman emperor: b. Vienna, 5 May 1747 ; d. there, 1 March 1792. He was the 3d son of the Emperor Francis I, and succeeded him in 1765 on the throne of Tuscany, where he effected reforms in the land laws and confined ecclesiastical jurisdiction to purely ecclesiastical matters. The death of _ his brother Joseph II in 1790 called him to the greater cares of the vast Austrian dominions and soon after of the German Empire. He hastened to make terms with Frederick William II at Reichenbach (27 July 1790), was unani- mously elected German emperor, pacified Hun- gary by taking the royal oath to observe strictly the constitution and by various concessions, proclaimed a full amnesty and restored all their ancient privileges to the Belgians, gave Tus- cany to his son Ferdinand, concluded a peace with Turkey at Sistova (4 Aug. 1791), con- certed ‘with Frederick William, Frederick Augustus of Saxony and others, at Rilnitz, pre- liminary measures for meeting ‘the aggressions of the French Revolution, and finally made a formal defensive and offensive alliance with Prussia (February 1792). Francis, his oldest son, succeeded him on the throne. LEOPOLD, Karl Gustaf af, Swedish poet: b. Stockholm, 3 April 1756; d. there, 9 Nov. 1829. He attained distinction in Swedish letters, his first work to attract wide attention being his “Ode on the Birth of the Prince- Royal Gustavus Adolphus? (1778). He was appointed secretary to Gustavus III in 1778 and stood high in the regard of that monarch. His odes on the martial achievements of the Swedes were among his most popular produc- tions, and his tragedies ‘Odin (1790) and Virginia? (1802) were highly successful. In 1818 he was appointed Secretary of State. His “Samlade Skrifter? were published (Vols. I-III, 1800-02; Vols. IV—VI, 1831-33). LEOPOLD, Order of, name of two orders, one of Austria- ‘Hungary and one of Belgium. (1) The Austrian Order of Leopold was founded by the Emperor Francis I, 7 Jan. 1808, in honor of his father, Emperor Leopold II. It LEOPOLD II — LEPANTO-BONTOC is bestowed for “personal merit». There are three classes: Grand Cross; Commanders and Chevaliers. The two first carry the title of baron and the third receive hereditary nobility. The Grand Mastership is vested in the Crown and the officers of the order are the prelate, chan- cellor, treasurer, registrar and herald. The decorations comprise a badge, collar and star, and the habit is of the national colors. The motto is “Integritate et Merito.” (2) The Bel- gian Order of Leopold is a civil and military order, founded 11 July 1832 by Leopold I. It is divided into five classes: Knights Grand Cordons ; Grand Officers; Commanders; Officers and Chevaliers. The Grand Mastership is vested in the Crown and the three inferior grades carry pensions. The decorations con- sist of a badge, a collar and a star. The motto is “L’union fait la force.” Consult Laurence- : Archer,,.J..::H.,..*Dhe ,Osders” of oChivalma (1887). LEOPOLD II, Lake, a lake in the admin- istrative district of that name in the Belgian Kongo, West Africa. It is 90 miles long from north to south and varies in width from 2 to 30 miles. Its banks are low and subject to inundation. It empties into the Mfini, an afflu- ent of the Kwa or Kassai, which flows into the Kongo. It was discovered by Stanley in 188]. LEOPOLDVILLE, Belgian Kongo, West ~ Africa, a station on the left bank of the Kongo near the Stanley Pool, 235 miles in a direct line northeast of the mouth of the Kongo, - connected by rail with Matadi. It is the western terminus of navigation on the upper Kongo. It was founded by Stanley, February 1882, and the native population largely preponderates over that of the whites: There is a pipe line for the conveyance of crude oil from Matadi and there is a wireless station. Pop. about 15,000. LEPANTO, Battle of, a famous naval en-— gagement fought near the town of Lepanto in Greece, on the Gulf of Corinth, 7 Oct. 1571, between the Ottoman and the combined Medi- terranean fleets of the Christian allies, princi- pally Venetian and Spanish craft. Under the command of Don John of Austria they ob- tained an overwhelming victory. Cervantes (q.v.), the author of ‘Don Quixote,’ distin- guished himself in this battle, receiving three wounds. This was the concluding battle of the Crusades, destroying the Turkish fleet and ending their supremacy in the Mediterranean. Considering the primitive bow-gun weapons then in use, the loss of life was remarkable, being estimated as 20,000 for the Ottomans and 8,000 Christians. The allies brought into the fight 200 galleys and 8 galeasses (large three- masters, carrying cannon), while the Turkish fleet numbered 273, but of smaller sizé on the average and fewer. cannon. The Turks em- ployed Christian prisoners as galley-slaves and 10,000 or more were liberated by the Christian victory. Consult Maxwell, ‘Don John. of Austria? (1883); Prescott, “Reign of Philip IP (1902). “d LEPANTO-BONTOC, 14-pan’t6b6n-tok, . Philippines, a province of Luzon formed by the union of the three subprovinces of Lepanto, Bontoc and Amburayan, occupying the western central part of northern Luzon; area 1,232 square miles, The province mostly is rugged LEPCHAS — LEPIDOPTERA and mountainous; it is thinly settled and there are no roads, communication being by trails, The only industry of importance is copper min- ing. ‘Civil government was established in May 1902. Pop. 60,000, mostly Iggorotes and Ifugaos. LEPCHAS, lép’chaz, a Tibetan stock of Sikkim, India. They are a peaceful people who have suffered considerably from the incursions of more warlike neighboring tribes, and both their ancient customs and their language are falling into disuse. Their language is of Indo- Chinese origin and through the efforts of Colonel Mainwaring and others who appre- ciated its beauty, the knowledge of it has been preserved. The literature of the Lepchas, how- ever, has been practically destroyed, resulting in the loss of many of their traditions. Their language possesses an extensive nomenclature in zoology and botany, and the people are well versed in beast and bird lore. They are mostly Buddhists in religion. ‘They were once pros- perous and independent but are now poor and largely of the coolie class. Consult Mainwar- ing, ‘Grammar of the Rong (Lepcha) Lan- guage in the Darjiling and Sikkim Hills? (Cal- cutta 1876); Von Schlagintweit, “Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia? (London 1863); Donaldson, F., ‘In Lepcha Land (1900). LEPELETIER DE SAINT-FAR- GEAU, leé’pel’tya dé san far’gyo’, Louis Michel, French politician: b. Paris, 29 May 1760; d. there, 20 Jan. 1793. He came of a prominent family and inherited great wealth. Originally a conservative he was chosen presi- dent of the Parliament of Paris in 1789 and was a deputy for the nobility in the States- General. His opinions gradually changed, however, and he became an adherent of the Revolution. On 13 July 1789 he moved to demand of the king the reinstatement of Necker. He was elected president of the Con- stituent Assembly 21 June 1790, and at the Con- vention he was a deputy from Yonne, voting for the execution of the king. The Royalists had understood him as pledged to defend the king, and a member of the king’s bodyguard assassinated him the evening before the king’s death. He was given a splendid funeral by the Convention and his death was commemorated in a painting by David, which, however, his daughter destroyed: Lepeletier had been deeply interested in public education and many ideas from his notes were incorporated in later plans. Consult ‘CEuvres de Michel Lapeletier Saint- Fargeau, with a biographical sketch by his brother Felix (Brussels 1826). LEPER. See Leprosy. LEPERDITA, le’par-ditysa, a genus of fossil ostracode crustaceans of the family 'Leperditiide, extending from the lower Silu- rian to the Carboniferous Age. The shells have oblong unequal valves with a straight dorsal edge, the right valve having an overlapping ventral edge; there is a small eye tubercle and a subcentral interior muscular imprint. The ex- terior is smooth and rounded. They occur in abundance in eastern United States and in Europe. LEPIDIUM, leé-péd’yiim, a _ genus of plants of the family Crucifere and the tribe Sinapee. They are usually known as_ pepper- arranged in geometrical patterns. 307 wort, peppergrass and cress and number about 65 species scattered throughout the warm re- gions of the earth. There are about 25 species in North America, some of them of European origin, but naturalized. They are characterized by white flowers and have dehiscent pods which are almost invariably two-seeded. LEPIDODENDRON, a fossil plant oc- curring in rocks of the Carboniferous Age, sup- posed in some cases to have been important in the constitution of coal. They are usually identified by fossil-botanists with the living club mosses, although the fossil forms are of far greater size, attaining at times a growth of 75 to 100 feet in height. They are widely dis- tributed over the world and are abundant in the middle and lower divisions of the productive coal measures. LEPIDOLITE, or LITHIA MICA, an important member of the mica group of min- erals, aS it is now one of the chief sources of the lithia salts so valuable in medicine. The specific gravity is 2.8 to 2.9, the hardness 2% to 4 and the optic axial angle 50° to 70°. Its name, derived from the Greek, lepis, a scale, alludes to its usual occurrence in fine, scaly- granular masses. It rarely occurs in distinct, monoclinic crystals. It has a pearly lustre and a gray, lilac or peach-blossom pink color. It occurs in small quantities in many parts of Eu- rope and Asia, but by far the most important locality is in San Diego County, Cal., where it is now extensively mined. It is also found in Maine and Massachusetts and has been mined near Haddam, Conn. It is very frequently as- sociated with pink and green gem tourmalines. LEPIDOMELANE, a species of iron pot- ash mica. In appearance it is black and either cpaque or clear, scaly and adamantine. It crys- tallizes in the monoclinic system. It occurs in eastern United States and northern Europe. LEPIDOPHYTA. Sce PALEoBOTANY. LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. Aezic, scale; mTEpdr, wing): An order of the class Insecta, compris- ing the butterflies and moths. The name was given to the order because the wings are covered with little scales, or flattened hairs. The Lepi- doptera undergo in their development a com- plete metamorphosis, passing through the stages of the egg, larva and pupa, before appearing as the perfect insect, or imago. Eggs.— The eggs of the Lepidoptera are minute objects, though generally large enough to be seen with the naked eye. When examined under the microscope they are found to vary greatly in form according to the species. They may be spherical, hemispherical, oval, conic, cylindrical, spindle-shaped or flattened. The eggs of the Cochlidiide, or slug-moths, are cir- cular, or elliptical, and greatly flattened, resem- bling microscopic pancakes. The egg of the common cabbage-butterfly is spindle-shaped. The eggs of both butterflies and moths are generally beautifully fluted with raised lines, or ornamented with a net-work of sculpturings They are always provided with a minute opening in the shell known as the micropyle, permitting them to be fertilized. This is located at the apex in most forms, but in the case of those eggs which are flattened the micropyle is located on the side. The female deposits the eggs upon the plant on 308 which the caterpillars feed, or in close prox- imity to the food which is to nourish them, in the case of those few species which do not subsist in the larval stage upon vegetable matter. Larve,— When the eggs hatch the insects appear as larve, or caterpillars. These undergo successive molts as they increase in size, shed- ding their skins from time to time until they have attained the development at which ‘the next transformation, known as pupation, occurs. The bodies of larve consist normally of 13 segments, or somites, of which the first is the head. The forms of the larve are very various, though in the main they are vermiform and cylindrical. The larve of butterflies are for the most part smooth, though in some genera they are curi- ously ornamented with lateral or dorsal projec- tions, which may be spinous, club-shaped. or filamentous. The larve of moths are often hairy, or spinose, and in some genera of the Lasiocampide, the Cochlidude and the Satur- nud@, these spines possess stinging, or poison- ous, properties. Lepidopterous larve possess three pairs of true feet located upon the three segments immediately following the head, and corresponding to the six thoracic feet which are found in the winged form of the insects. In addition to these true feet the bodies of these larve are supported by from two to eight pairs of abdominal prolegs, or false feet, which are fleshy and do not recur in the imago. The head is always more or less conspicuous in the larval stage, and is provided with eyes and mouth “parts adapted to cutting and deglutition. One of the most remarkable portions of the anatomy of lepidopterous larve are the two long glands located in the dorsal region, which secrete a milky fluid, which is vented through a nipple-shaped organ upon the lower lip known as the spinneret, and which upon exposure to the atmosphere is transformed into the sub- stance known as silk. Pupz.— When the larva has attained ma- turity it is transformed into a pupa. Pupz may be naked, or they may be enclosed in a structure of silk known asa cocoon. The pupe of butter- flies are usually attached by their anal extrem- ities to twigs, the under side of rails or stones. The attachment is effected by means of a button of silk into which the hook-like cremaster is thrust. In some families chrysalids are in addi- tion held in place by a girdle of silk. The larve of many moths undergo pupation in a cocoon which may be densely woven or very loosely constructed of a few strands of silk mingled with hairs from the body of the caterpillar, or loose particles of adherent earth or fragments of leaves. Many of the hawk-moths and almost all of the owlet-moths undergo transformation in underground cells which the caterpillars mold for themselves in the soil before changing into pupe. The duration of the pupal stage varies in length according to the species, or the season. Many species in temperate climates pass the winter in the pupal form. Where there are two or more generations in a season the pupal period is short for the summer: broods, and the fall brood hibernates in the pupal state. The pupz of butterflies are often ornamented with silvery or golden spots, hence the name chrysalis has been applied to them, the word being derived from the Greek (y¢,pv06 gold). The pupx of moths are generally some shade LEPIDOPTERA of brown or black. “The pupa contains the imago and in almost all cases an examination will show in the pupa the location of the vari- ous organs of the perfect insect in a rudimen- tary form. The Imago.— When the period ) pupation is ended the butterfly or moth breaks through the pupal shell and emerges a four-winged, six- footed insect, known as the imago. The females of some species of moths are apterous, or pro- vided with wings so poorly developed that they cannot be used in flight. Classification.— The classification of the Lepidoptera has afforded opportunity for much divergence of opinion among naturalists, but the division into two great suborders, the Rho palo- cera, or butterflies, and the. Heterocera, or moths, is well established in usage, The Rhopalocera contains six families: 1. Nymphalide (“Brush-footed Butterflies”). — The front pair of legs greatly reduced in size, tarsi of the male with but one joint, of the female with five, but without claws, the pupa suspended by the cremaster. There are eight subfamilies in this group, more than 250 genera and about 5,000 species known at the present time. Among these are some of the largest and most splendidly colored butterflies, which are known, as well as some of the smallest and most obscurely colored forms. The family is repre- sented in all parts of the globe. II. Erycinide (“Metal-marks»).— The fe- male has the first pair of legs weakly, though perfectly developed. The coxa of the foreleg of the males is spined, and the tarsi are unjointed and without claws. There are over 60 genera and fully 1,000 species in this group. The but- terflies composing it are generally small, but gaily and curiously colored. The metropolis of the family is found in the hot lands of the New World, though it is also represented in the Eastern Hemisphere. Ill. Lycenide (“Blues,»” “Coppers” and “Hair-streaks” ).— The fore legs of the male are aborted, the tarsus having but a single joint terminated by a single claw. There are over 2,000 species known. The butterflies are gen- erally small. The upper sides of the wings are prevalently some shade of blue, bronzy green or copper, though there are some species, especially in Africa, yellow, red or white. IV. Pieride ( “Whites, » Sulphurs” and “Orange-tips”).— The six ‘legs are well devel- oped in both sexes and the feet have two hooks or claws at the end. There are about 1,200 species known to science. The “cabbage butter- fly» and the “common sulphur” of the clover fields are fair representatives. V. Papitlionide (“Swallow-tailed” Buttter- flies» ).— The six legs are well developed. The claws are simple. About 1,000 species belong to this family, among them some of the largest and most splendid tropical insects. VI. Hesperuide (“Skippers”).— The six legs are perfect. The claws are short and thick. The bodies are relatively robust. In flight the insects are very quick and powerful, hence the common name. The butterflies are generally small, though there are some quite large species. There are about 13,000 species of butterflies which have been named and described. . It is probable that when we shall have explored the entire earth the total number of existing species may be found to be 18,000. LEPIDOSIREN — LEPRA The Heterocera, or moths, may be divided into about 60 families, of which 43 are repre- sented in North America. The families which have the largest number of species in North America are the Noctuide, or “owlet-moths,” the Geometride, or “measuring-worm moths,” the Saturnitde, or “wild silk-moths,» the Arc- tude, or “tiger-moths,» the Sphingide, or “hawk-moths,” the Tortricide, or “leaf-rollers,” and the Pyralide. More than 7,000 species, of moths are known to occur in the United States and Canada, and probably more than 100,000 species at present exist upon the globe. The most important of all the Lepidoptera from a commercial standpoint is the silk-moth (Bombyx mori), which was introduced into Europe from China by way of India, and at an early date was brought to the New World. Bibliography.— Beutenmiiller, ‘Monograph of Sesiide of North America? (Memoirs American Museum of Natural History) ; Dick- inson, ‘Moths and Butterflies? (Boston 1905) ; Dyar, ‘A List of North American Lepidoptera? (Bulletin, United States Natural Museum, No. 52) ; Edwards, ‘The Butterflies of North Amer- ica?; Felt, E. Re “Gypsy and Brown Tail Moth (Bulletin, New York State Museum, No. 103, Albany 1906);.Hampson, ‘Catalogue of. the Lepidoptera Phalenz in the Collection of the British Museum?; Holland, ‘The Butterfly Book? (1898; 2d ed., 1904); id., ‘The Moth Book? (1905); Packard, ‘Monograph of Geo- metride’ (Hayden’s Survey, Vol. X);. id, “Monograph of Notodontide? (Memoirs Na- tional Academy of Science, Vol. VII); Roths- child and Jordan, ‘A Revision of the Lepidop- terous Family Sphingide? ; Scudder, ‘Butterflies of New England? (1889) ; Smith, “Catalogue of the Noctuide (Bulletin, United States Natural Museum, No. 44); Transactions of the Amer- ican Entomological Society (published quarterly since 1867); Entomological News (published monthly since. 1890); Psyche (published bi- monthly since 1877). W. J. Hotianp, Director of ectabe Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa. LEPIDOSIREN, the American genus of Dipnoi (q.v.), or lung-fishes, closely resembling the African genus Protopterus, but having a more eel-like form, smaller scales and the paired limbs reduced to mere filaments of no use in locomotion. The single species Lepido- siren paradoxa was discovered by the Austrian naturalist Natterer in the tributaries of the up- per Amazon in 1837. For 50 years the species was known from only two or three museum specimens, but in 1887 was rediscovered in abundance in Paraguay by an Italian zoologist and since then has been the object of. several expeditions which have made it well known. It lives in the sluggish, vegetation-choked streams and lakes of that region, the natives of which spear it in large numbers for food. Its large eggs, more than a quarter of an inch in diameter, are deposited in wnderground nests where they are guarded by the males, whose ventral fins become densely villous and. serve as accessory respiratory organs at this time. On the approach of the dry season the muscles of the tail.undergo fatty degeneration and the fish retires to.a mucus-lined “cocoon” in the mud at the bottom of a burrow sealed at inter- vals of three or four inches by plates of mud 309 perforated by two or three small openings. In these retreats the “lolachs,” as they are called by the Indians, remain until the rains again convert the baked earth into mud. The lepido- siren feeds on large aquatic snails, conferve and roots. LEPIDOSTEUS. See Gar. LEPIDOSTROBUS (Gr. “whirling scale”), a fossil cone from the coal measures, usu- ally found in seams or nodules of clay- ironstone, and often compressed. They con- sist of. a central axis surrounded by imbri- cated scales or bracts, each containing a spo- rangium (spore-case). They have been found united to the tip of the branches of Lepidoden- dron, and this shows that they were the fruit of that genus. LEPIDOTUS, a genus of fossil ganoid fishes of the family Semionotide, occurring in abundance from the Keuper to the lower Creta- ceous in Europe, Siberia, India and Brazil. LEPIDUS, Marcus Amilius, Roman triumvir: d. Circeii, 13 B.c. He became pretor 49 z.c., consul with Julius Cesar in 46, and in 44 was appointed by Cesar to the government of Narbonese Gaul and Nearer Spain. He came of a distinguished patrician family, and possessed great wealth and influence, but seems to have held little power, and to have been a poor. commander. He was in Rome at the time of Czsar’s death, and joined Mark An- tony. In 43 he united with Antony and Octa- vianus to form the triumvirate, obtaining Spain and Narbonese Gaul in the division. of the empire. After the battle of Philippi (42) a redivision took place, in which Lepidus received Africa, where he remained till 36, when he was summoned by Augustus to assist him against Sextus Pompey. He then tried to seize Sicily, but was overcome by Augustus, who deprived him of his triumvirate, and banished him to Circeii, where he lived under strict surveillance. LEPORIDA, a family of rodents com- prising the rabbits and hares. With the Lago- myid@ it constitutes the suborder Dupliciden- tata, distinguished from all other rodents by having two pairs of upper incisors, of which the second is much reduced in size and placed immediately behind the first and larger pair. The hind-legs are much longer than the fore- legs and are well adapted by their structure for the leaping mode of locomotion affected by these animals; the tibia and fibula are, com- pletely ankylosed and articulate with the cal- caneum by a pulley-like surface, thus combin- ing great strength with great freedom of move- ment in one plane. The family is now. cos- mopolitan, some 75 species and sub-species be- ing recognized in North America. The genus Lepus. is practically coextensive with the family. See Hare. LEPRA, in botany, a plant disease char- acterized by the exudation upon the surface of the leaves of a white mealy or scaly sub- stance. In pathology: (1) Same as leprosy (q.v.).. (2) Formerly applied as descriptive of a scaly affection of the skin now classified as psoriasis, and also known as lephra alphos and lephra Grecorum. 310 LEPRECHAUN, lép’r@han, LEPRE- CAWN, LUPRACHAUN, or CLURI- CAUNEH, in Irish folklore a pygmy sprite sup- posed to make shoes, grind meal and assist in other ways humans who are kind to him. He is supposed to reach to a man’s knee in height and when not engaged in other helpful deeds is believed to be making shoes, the sound of his hammering being one of the principal means of discovering him. He is reputed to possess the secret of wealth and to be power- less to conceal it under the steady gaze of the human eye, but if the gaze be relaxed even momentarily he escapes. In some versions he possesses a purse which “always has a shilling in it” regardless of how often a shilling is spent. The word is used in Ireland in de- scribing a dwarfed person, as “leprechaun- looking.” LEPROHON, 1é-prén’, Rosanna Eleanor Mullins, Canadian poet and novelist: b. Mont- real, 1832; d. there, 20 Sept. 1879. She was educated at the Convent of Notre Dame, Mont- real, and began her literary career at 14 with contributions to the Montreal Literary Garland. She married Jean Lukin Leprohon, a Canadian physician, in 1851. From 1860 she was con- nected with the Montreal Family Herald and she also wrote for the Boston Pilot. Many of her novels were serialized and several were translated into French. Most of her novels deal with social happenings about the time of the English occupation. Her novels include ‘EFveleen O’Donnell? (1859); ‘Antoinette de Mirecourt? (1864); ‘Armand Durand? (1868). Her collected poems were published after her death (Montreal 1881). LEPROSY, a term very vaguely used by medical and other writers to denote a disease, Lepra tuberculosa, which appears to have pre- vailed from the earliest time down to the present. The bacillus lepre was discovered by Hansen in 1868. The most prominent symp- toms of the disease are as follows: a constant but intermittent fever, dusky red or livid tubercles of various sizes on the face, ears and extremities; thickened state of the skin with diminution of its sensibility; falling off of the hair, except that of the scalp; hoarse, nasal or lost voice; ozena; ulcerations of the surface, a periodical exaggeration of perspiration, con- nected with nervous disturbances, and a feeling of anxiety with sense of impending disaster and extreme fetor. The tubercles vary in size from that of a pea to an olive. Hands, feet and-face are generally first affected. In modern times three main forms of leprosy are recognized. In the first the whole body becomes white and _ scaly, without much interference with the general health. This is the type of the Biblical leprosy, and it is rare nowadays. The second variety causes a loss of feeling in the hands and feet in its earlier stages, and later on in the arms and legs. It is known as anesthetic leprosy. It is a form of neuritis (q.v.). The sufferer from this form of the disease is much troubled with dysentery, and when the disease is advanced his hands and feet are liable to slough = off. The third variety of leprosy is known as the tubercular form. It is distinguished by horrible swellings of loose skin, which becomes dis- LEPRECHAUN, LEPRECAWN, LUPRACHAUN — LEPROSY colored. This is the commonest modern variety of the disease and the one most repulsive. Leprosy was recognized 1500 s.c. in India and in the Orient and in Palestine and the countries immediately east of it leprosy existed until the dispersion of the Jews in the Ist cen- tury of the Christian Era. As the power of the Roman Empire declined in the west of Europe a strong tide of emigration from the Levant set in. The plague of leprosy spread with the teaching of Christianity until no coun- try in Europe was free from it. It is also said that the returning Crusaders spread the disease all over Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. Between the 6th and the 15th centuries leprosy was by far the most dangerous and infectious disease of which any account has come down to us. To be a leper was to be an outcast beyond hope of any solace but the grave. All the larger towns in Europe had a place specially set apart for its lepers. This reservation was shunned as if it were the mouth of a burning hell. A boundary line was made, beyond which no leper could venture, except at the risk of in- stant death. If a healthy stranger unwittingly - wandered too near the leper’s camp he was re- morselessly thrust into it and made to share the lot of those previously afflicted. Food was furnished to these leper camps by the town au- thorities. The provisions intended for the use of the lepers were left on some exposed hill, selected for that purpose, during the daytime, and removed by the inmates of the camp at night. No office, no matter how exalted, served to keep a sufferer from leprosy from universal ostracism. In the sparsely settled country districts, solitary lepers abounded. Each one wandered about by himself in the unfrequented woods and uninhabited waste places. The rigorous compulsion of the villagers compelled him to wrap himself in a sheet so that only his eyes were exposed. He must carry a bell in his hand and ring it in order te warn wayfarers of his approach. Whenever the dismal tinkling of the leper’s bell was heard, the inhabitants fled in terror of their lives. The unfortunate victim supported life as best he might by roots and berries, and by the occasional offerings of char- itable persons left where he could find them. At an early period in the history of the Christian Church efforts were made to alleviate the sufferings of lepers. An order of Saint Lazarus was formed as early as 72 a.p., taking its name from Lazarus, the beggar who ate the crumbs which fell from the rich man’s table. Later on, in the 12th century, a military order of Lazarus was founded by the Knights Hos- pitallers. When these knights were driven out of Palestine they made France and afterward Sicily their headquarters. Numerous lazarettos were established by them in the principal cities of Europe. For many years the grand master of this order was required to be a leper. In civil law the leper was treated as one dead. His property passed to his heirs, his wife was free to marry again, and on his departure for the lazaretto prayers for the dead were repeated over him, and a shovelful of earth was thrown after him to make the ceremony complete. With the progress of civilization leprosy gradually disappeared from every part of Europe except Norway. Lazarettos gradually LEPSIUS — LERIDA fell into disuse, and only the name of leper re- mained as a by-word to express social and moral contamination. Great Britain was one of the last countries to cut clean of leprosy. As late as the 15th century, 250 leper hospitals were in existence there. The government, as well as other European governments, has practically banished the disease, by careful surveillance. In British America the disease still lingers in New Brunswick. In the hospi- tal for lepers at Tracadie there have been a score of cases regularly for many years. In the United States leprosy has existed since the Revolution and probably will continue to exist. Leprosy hospitals in secluded spots are maintained in San Francisco, New Orleans, Boston and New York, and cases are always found here in numbers from two or three to a score. In the Philippines at the time of the American occupation there were 15,000 cases in the islands, but by the census of 1902 only about 5,000 cases were reported. The disease was brought to Manila originally from Japan about 200 years ago. The number of lepers in the world is estimated to be about 3,000,000, two-thirds of which are in China. The most celebrated leper colony or settle- ment in the world is that on the island of Molokai in Hawaii; but the conditions there have been much exaggerated. Molokai lies about 25 miles from the island of Oahu, and about 56 miles from Honolulu. The leper set- tlement on the elevated, grassy plain of Kalau- papa has an area of 8,000 acres. The whole number of lepers at the Molokai settlement in 1902 was officially reported at 1,191, viz., 741 males and 450 females. There would be, therefore, nearly seven acres of pro- ductive soil for every member of the settle- ment. There are _ hospitals, dispensaries, churches and comfortable cottages for the ac- commodation of families; these cottages are well ventilated, abundantly supplied with fresh water and kept in good condition. Cottage residents requiring medical treatment are at- tended at their own homes by the resident phy- sician. Every man, woman and child may draw 21 pounds of fresh beef every week, a liberal supply of taro, flour or bread, rice, tea, sugar, salt, tobacco and matches, and as much good clothing as required. A sum of money is paid to those who do not draw the full ration, which enables them to purchase articles not included in the regular supply. It is reasonably certain that leprosy can ‘be cured by competent skin and nerve specialists. See “Neuritis” in Jelliffe and White, ‘Dis- eases of the Nervous System? (1917). LEPSIUS, lép’sé-oos, Karl Richard, Ger- man Egyptologist: b. Naumburg, 23 Dec. 1810; d. Berlin, 10 July 1884. After studying philol- ogy at Leipzig, G6ttingen and Berlin, he pub- lished his first work, ‘Le Tabulis Eugubinis? (1833) and therupon removed to Paris. In 1835 he visited Italy and took up his residence at Rome. He subsequently went to London and pro- jected with Bunsen a large work on ancient Egypt. He started in 1842 and spent three years exploring in Egypt from the Sudan north of Khartum to the coast of Syria, obtaining an enormous amount of data. His life henceforth was that of an ardent Egyptologist, and honors were showered upon him. He was professor in the Berlin University, director of the Egyptian 311 section of the Royal Museum, director of the Royal Institute, head of the Royal Library, etc. In 1866 another trip to Egypt resulted in his famed discovery of the Decree of Tawis, or Table of Canopus. He was author of a large number of important works on Egyptian antiquities, one being the ‘Nubische Grammatik? which is perhaps the best contribution to modern knowledge of the Nubian language. His ‘Chronologie der Agypter? is also a stand- ard authority. LEPTOCARDII. See Icuruyotoey. LEPUS (“the hare”), in astronomy, one of the 48 constellations south of Orion, contain- ing several bright stars, among them Alpha and Beta Leporis. LERAY, 1é-ra’, Francis Xavier, American Roman Catholic bishop: b. Chateaugiron, France, 1825; d. France, 1887. He was edu- cated at Rennes, but in 1843 crossed the Atlantic and settled at Baltimore. He went through the ordinary theological course under the direction of the Sulpicians and was admitted to the priesthood 1852. He was a chaplain in the Confederate service during the war and after- ward returned to Vicksburg, and while the plague of 1867 raged was always at hand to comfort and assist the sufferers. In 1873 he was consecrated to the see of Natchitoches, La., and 10 years later promoted to the archbishop’s chair of New Orleans. LERDO DE TEJADA, Sebastian, sa- bas’té-an iar’do da ta-ha’da, Mexican states- man: b. Jalapa, Mexico, 25 April 1825; d. New York, 21 April 1889. He was educated at the College of San Ildefonso, Mexico, was admitted to the bar in 1851 and was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court in June 1857. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1857; member of Congress in 1861-62 and in 1862-63; and ac- companied President Juarez in 1863-67, during which time he was successively Minister of Justice and Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was elected chief justice of the Su- preme Court in December. 1867, -and on the death of Juarez, 18 July 1872, succeeded to the Presidency, and in the following Novem- ber was elected to that post. In 1876 he was again candidate to succeed himself, and after a doubtful election was declared re-elected by Congress. This action resulted in a revolution headed by Diaz, and Lerdo’s adherents were signally defeated at Tecoac, 16 Nov. 1876, while Lerdo was forced to leave the-country. He lived in retirement in New York City till his death. : LERIDA, 1a’'ré-da, Spain, city, capital of the province of the same name on the river Segre, an affluent of the Ebro, 82 miles by rail northwest of Barcelona. It consists of an upper and a lower town, distinctive features of which are the two cathedrals.’ The 13th century cathedral exhibiting Byzantine, Moorish and Gothic architecture, perched on the hill, is sur- rounded by fortifications and serves as a mili- tary storehouse. It is a beautiful church, full of fine ornamental sculpture and the “Porta dels Fillols” is an excellent example of a re- markable Catalan type. In the new cathedral of Corinthian style in the lower town there is a magnificent cope of 13th century Moorish silk. There are also noteworthy Romanesque houses, old convents, a former palace of. the 812 kings of Aragon, the episcopal palace, schools and educational institutions. The streets are narrow and gloomy. Cotton, woolen, silk, leather and glass goods are manufactured. As Ilerda, an aboriginal settlement, it is noted for its resistance to the Roman invaders. © Its episcopal see dates from the Visigoth occupa- tion, and in 546 a council assembled here. Pop. 24,500. LERIDA, Spain, a northeastern province of ancient Catalonia; area, 4,690 square miles; pop. 291,850; density. 60.4 to the square mile. Capital Lérida (q.v.). LERMONTOF, Mikhail Yaryevitch, Rus- Sian poet and novelist: b. Moscow, 1814; 15 July 1841. He was descendant of a Scotch- man, named Learmont, who emigrated to Rus- sia. The Lérmontof family were small land- owners in the government of Tula. His mother _ died at the early age of 21 when he was only two-and-a-half years old and this father, of whom nothing is known beyond the fact that he was an army officer, confided. the child to the care of his grandmother, an aristocratic lady who owned the village of Tarkhanui not far from the town of Penza. She did every- thing in her power for his education so that he might take a high position in the world of fashion. When he was in his 13th year he was put into a boarding school for boys of noble birth, in Moscow, to prepare for the university and there spent five years, recognized even then for his brilliant mind and attractive qualities. He was admitted into the university but was soon involved apparently without direct fault in a trivial escapade which the stern discipline then in vogue punished by expulsion. As this cut him off from his chosen career, he went to Saint Petersburg and in March 1832 enrolled himself in the Yunker School where he re- mained two years. During this time he de- voted himself assiduously to poetical composi- tion and produced his ‘Ulansha,’ ‘Mongo? (in which he described himself under the name of “Myoshka”), and ‘Peterhofsky Prazdnik? (‘A Festival at Peterhof?) as well as several Cau- casus poems, such as Izmail-Bey and Hadji- Abrek. In these he showed a tendency to be cynical and was openly an imitator of Byron, who exercised a great influence over the young writers of Russia. In 1834, shortly after he had left the Yunker School, he wrote his drama “Maskarad? and a semi-epic poem, ‘Boyarin Orsha.? But his definite career as a writer be- gan two years later, when at the cold-blooded murder of Pushkin in an enforced duel, he published a monody ‘On the Death of a Poet? which created a sensation. In March of the same year Lérmontof was attached as ensign in the Nizhigorodsky Regiment of Dragoons and was sent to Georgia. Through the efforts and influence of ‘his grandmother he was speedily recalled, however, and was transferred to a regiment of the guards. His first im- portant work on his return was his celebrated “Song of the Tsar Ivan Vasilyévitch, The Young Life-guardsman, and the Bold Merchant Kolashinkof? which was immediately recognized as introducing a new spirit into Russian litera- ture. In this he seems definitely to have found himself, or at least to have discovered what wealth there was in the folklore of LERIDA — LEROUX the. Russian people. No longer is there any trace of the cynical romanticism of the Byronic epoch. In its way, though not so extended a work, it was a considerable improvement of his clumsily constructed but nevertheless beauti- ful epic, ‘Demon, with which his name is more familiar to foreign readers, perhaps partly be- cause portions of it were set to music by Rubinstein. ‘Demon? was written between 1829 and 1834, and when published attracted at first little attention. In 1839, after a period of comparative inactivity, he brought out a series of tales which were afterward united under the title, ‘Heroi Nasheva Vrémeni? (‘A Hero of our Time). Its chief character, Petchérin, was meant to be a type of the Russian practising the vices of. that generation, and judging from the author’s descriptions in his private letters of his own mode of life, it is evident that, like Byron, he painted a portrait of himself. Petchérin, like Tchitchikof in Gogol’s ‘Dead Souls? and Oblomof in Gontcharof’s great novel, became a household word. In February 1840, in his capacity as a hero of his time, he fought a duel with the son» of the famous French historian, De Barant, then ambassador at the Russian court, and as a punishment was transferred without loss of rank to the Tengin- sky Infantry Regiment and for the third time sent to the Caucasus. On the way he wrote his famous poem, ‘Tttchki nyebyésnuiya, vyétchnuiye stranniki? (‘Heavenly clouds, per- petual wanderers»). The same year appeared his ‘Hero in book form and the first com- plete edition of his poems, most of which had been printed in Otétchestnyennuiya Zapiski (“Annals of the Fatherland»). On 15 July 1841 he picked a quarrel with one of his comrades, by the name of Martuinof, and was killed. His friends buried him in a grave over which poured the bright sun of the Cau- casus which he loved so well; but later his body was transferred to an arched tomb in the little village of Tarkhanui where he had spent his childhood. He was only 27 years old and, like Pushkin, in the prime of his genius. His death was an irreparable loss to Russian let- ters; but even during his brief life, which was one year longer than Keats’ and only three years less than Shelley’s, he won for himself a position not much inferior to that of Pushkin. NATHAN HASKELL DOLE. LERNA. See FISH-LICE. LEROUX, lé-roo, Frédéric Etienne, French sculptor: b. Eccouché (Orne), 3. Aug. 1836; d. 1906. He studied with Jouffroy and at the Beaux-Arts, became an exhibitor at the Salon in 1863, obtained.a medal of the second class at the Paris Exposition of 1878, and a silver medal at that of 1889. Among his best- known works are ‘Demosthenes on the Shore’ ; ‘Joan of Arc?; ‘Marchand de Violettes? ; ‘“Bouquetiére.? LEROUX, Hector, French painter: b. Ver- dun, 27 Dec. 1829; d. 1900. He was a pupil of the Beaux-Arts and of Picot, in 1857 obtained by his ‘Lazarus? the second Prix de Rome, traveled in Greece and Asia Minor, and be- came known for his reposeful and dignified scenes from the ancient life of Greece and Rome. Among his works are ‘A New Vestal? | (1863), now in the museum of Verdun; ‘Funeral in the Columbarium of the House of LEROUX — LES CHATIMENTS the Czsars? (1864); ‘Messalina> (1868); ‘The Vestal Tuccia? (1874) in the Corcoran Gal- lery, Washington; ‘The Burial of Themistocles> (1876); ‘The Fall of Herculaneum? (1881) ; “News from Outside? (1891); ‘Hagar and Ishmael? (1892); ‘Joan of Arc at Domremy? (1900 LEROUX, Louis Eugéne, French painter: b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1833. He studied with Picot, became known for his genre-scenes derived from Breton life, and painted, among his more important works, ‘Le Nouveau-Né? (in the Luxembourg Gallery); ‘Avant 1’Ensevellise- ment? ; ‘La Priére? ; and ‘Avant la Confession.” LEROUX, Robert Henri (called HuGuEs), French journalist and author: b. Havre, 1860. He became a journalist at Paris where he wrote for the Temps, Matin, Figaro, Journal and other newspapers, and published two works on Russia, ‘La Russie Souterraine? (1885) and ‘L’Attentat Sloughine,? a story of the Nihilists. ‘He has visited the United States as lecturer before the Cercle Francais de l’Harvard. His further works include ‘L’Autre France? (1900), a drama, with Decourcelle; the works of fiction, ‘Un de Nous? (1886); ‘Le Maitre de Heure? (1897); ‘Le Fils.a Papa? (1900); and the studies and sketches, ‘Au Sahara? (1891); “Portraits de ‘Cire’ (1891); “En Yacht? (1892); ‘Marins et Soldats’ (1892); ‘Notes sur la Norvége? (1894) and ‘Nos Filles: Qu’en Ferons-Nous?? (1898). LEROY, lé-roi’, William Edgar, American naval officer : b. New York, 24 March 1818; d. there, 10 Dec. 1888. In 1832 he entered the navy as midshipman and served as a lieutenant on the Princeton during the Mexican War. He served in the United States navy during the Civil War also, doing good service, especially at Charleston in 1863 and Mobile Bay in 1864, became a. commodore in 18/70 and a_rear- admiral in 1874., He commanded the South Atlantic squadron 18/6-79 and retired from active service in 1884.. On. account. of his courtly manners and general fastidiousness he was often styled “the Chesterfield of the Navy.» LEROY-BEAULIEJ, lé-rwa bo-lé-é, Henri Jean Baptiste Anatole, French historical writer: b. Lisieux, Calvados, 1842; d. 16 June 1912.. He was a brother of Pierre Paul Leroy- Beaulieu (q.v.). In 1881 he was appointed to the chair of modern history in the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, and in 1887 was elected to the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. He became director of the former institution in 1906. He contributed extensively to the Revue des Deux Mondes and published in 1882 the: important work, “L’Empire des Tsars et les Russes,? a study of Russian history, poli- tics and civilization. Others of his publications are ‘La France, la Russie, et l’Europe? (1888) ; ‘La Révolution et le Libéralisme? (1890) ; “Les Congrégations religieuse et l’expansion de la France?; ‘Etudes russes et européennes? ; “Christianisme et Socialisme? (1905). LEROY-BEAULIEU, Pierre Paul, French economist: b. Saumur, Maine-et-Loire, 9 Dec. 1843; d. Paris, 10 Dec. 1916. He was edu- cated at the Lycée Bonaparte and the Ecole de Droit of Paris and the universities of Bonn and Berlin; became a journalist at Paris; wrote his ‘L’Influence d’Etat Moral et Intellectuel des 313 Populations Ouvriéres, (1868), crowned by the Academy ot Moral and Political Sciences; as- sisted in founding the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques and was appointed professor of finance there in 1872. In.1880 he became pro- fessor of political economy in the College de France. He established in 1873. L’Economiste Francais, which he continued to edit. In 1878 he was elected to the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. He came into promi- nence in 1912 by an arresting appeal to the French people, in which he pointed out the - grave dangers of the depopulation and dena- tionalization of France owing to the declining birthrate.. Among his further writings are ‘La Colonisation chez les Peuples Modernes? (1873) ; ‘Précis d’Economie Politique? (1888) ; Traité Théorique et Practique d’Bconomie Politique? (1895); ‘La Rénovation de |’Aise, Sibérie, Chine, Japon? (Eng. trans. 1900) ; “La Sahara, le Sudan et les chemins-de- fer transsahariens? (1904) ; ‘The United States in the Twentieth Century? (1906) ; ‘Le Question de Population? (1913). LERY, Jean de, zhén dé 14- -ré, French Cal- vinist preacher: b. La. Margelle, France, 1534; d. 1601. In 1556 he was sent from Geneva to preach at Rio Janeiro, Brazil, where French colonies had been established by the Huguenots, and was the first Protestant minister to preach on the American continent. He and the preach-: ers who accompanied him were obliged to re- turn to France owing to a bitter misunder- standing regarding their salaries. Léry has left an account of his travels in the west under the title “Histoire d’un Voyage fait en la Terre du Brésil (1578). LES CHATIMENTS, 14 shat’é-man’. Chatiments, “Les one of the important poetical works of Victor Hugo, was written during his exile after the coup d’Etat of 2 Dec. 1851. A partial edition published in Brussels prompted the author to give a complete edition from the Channel Island of Jersey where he was then residing (1853). It was only in 1870, after the fall of Napoleon III, that a final edition could be publicly issued in France. ‘Les Chatiments? is a collection of poems protesting against the political crime of Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, in which lyrical satire assumes the most varied forms, from sublime eloquence to abusive, al- most coarse, personalities. This protestation of right against might, of justice against violence, gives to the author full opportunity to display the qualities which characterize his poetical works: power of imagination, suggestion and association, combined in this case witha per- sonal feeling of indignation against what he considers as a public calamity and a step back- ward in the road of social and political prog- ress. Although the book is divided into seven parts, there is no real sequence nor order in this collection of satirical poems, but this defect is more than balanced by the admirable com- bination of poetical forms, the variety of tones, rhythms and metres, the richness of the vo- cabulary, the harmony of words well suited to the expression of the thought or to the char- acter of the subject. Hugo’s fondness for antithesis in words as in composition is seen throughout the work and some of the poems consist of two symmetrically balanced parts. Probably the best known of them is ‘L’Expi- 314 ation,» in which occur the epic descriptions of Napoléon I’s retreat from Russia and of the battle of Waterloo. Consult Swinburne, ‘Essay on Victor Hugo? (London 1886) ; Rigal, ‘Vic- tor Hugo, poéte épique? (Paris 1900). L. A. LorsEAux. LES LETTRES PERSANES. The Per- sian Letters (1721) of Montesquieu was a lively political satire, spiced with rather warm imaginings of life in an Oriental seraglio. Behind the transparent veil of a setting for- eign to French ways, the Letters offer a keen and trenchant criticism of the whole social and political structure of France, scourging the insatiable cupidity of the courtiers, the privi- leged idleness of the nobility, the impudence in business of parvenu financiers. In exposing the meaner side of the decaying years of Louis XIV, Montesquieu is as pitiless as Saint-Simon, But he is constructive also. Much of the future “Spirit of the Laws” is here in embryo, and in the myth of the troglodytes he touches the origin and bases of all society. This myth tells how a people by surrender to their natural instincts brought about their own destruction and how two families, escaping the general ruin, founded a stable society on the domestic and military virtues and the sanctions of an official religion. In this aspect the Letters range themselves with such tales of Voltaire as ‘Candide? and ‘Zadig?; in their ethical and artistic aspect the connection is closer with Prévost’s ‘Manon Lescaut? or Du Clos’ ‘Liai- sons dangereuses.» The position is that of a dilettante sceptic, without ideals, with scientific curiosity, a very lukewarm interest in art and letters and a peculiar libertine precocity, a coquettish Rabelaisianism, one of the beginnings of the refined indecency that was to character- ize nearly all the century. In more serious portions of the Letters the agility and variety of the thought recalls La Bruyére and fore- shadows Voltaire and Beaumarchais. In the history of fiction the Letters are significant for the stimulus that they gave to the novel by correspondence soon to be made very popular by the translations of Richardson and the novels of Rousseau. There are two English versions, BENJAMIN W. WELLS. LESAGE, lé-sazh, Alain René, French novelist and playwright: b. Sarzeau, . near Vannes, 8 May 1068; d. Boulogne-sur-mer, 17 Nov. 1747. He studied law in Paris and be- came an advocate, but soon afterward turned all his attention to literature. He made many fruitless efforts after recognition and success, principally by translating from the Greek and Spanish. At length two plays of his, ‘Crispin Rival de Son Maitre? (1707), adapted from a Spanish piece of Mendoza’s, and ‘Turcaret? (1708), a satire on the financiers of his day, had a genuine success. But he gained even greater praise’ and reputation from his comic romance, ‘Le Diable Boiteux? (1707). This was indeed merely an imitation of a Spanish tale of Guevara, which the completely Gallicized so as to direct its point against the pietism which characterized the last period of Louis XIV’s reign. But his greatest work was ‘Gil Blas de Santillane? (1715-35). To his eternal disgrace Voltaire as well as many Spaniards jealous for their country’s honor asserted that LES LETTRES PERSANES — LESGHIANS this novel was a bare-faced plagiarism from a Spanish original. In ‘Gil Blas? the wit of the author is triumphant and the surprises and ad- ventures of ‘human life, with all the ups and downs of fortune, are made to rouse our sense of humor as well as our keenest interest, and - to dazzle our fancy by the swiftness and variety of their changes. The work is, of course, desti- tute of high ideal and all moral aim, but it has been compared with those of Rabelais and La Fontaine, and its hero was certainly the pre- cursor, of Figaro. The most memorable of Lesage’s other romances are ‘Les aventures de Guzman d’Alfarache? (1732), an imitation of a Spanish romance of Mateo Aleman; ‘Este- vanille Gonzales? (1734); ‘Les aventures du chevalier de Beauchesne? (1732), founded on contemporary. memoirs; and .“Le Bachelier de Salamanque’ (1736), the latter the production of his declining years, and highly valued by him. But his most numerous works were vaudeville and comic operas (101 in all). Lesage was the forerunner of the realistic school and while not a creator he was a keen observer, painting life as he found it with a keen understanding of its foibles. The Acad- emy revenged itself on him for the graceless levity and irreverence toward the learned pro- fesstons which he exhibited in his works, by refusing to elect him to their number. But they failed to check the growth of his fame. His influence was first spread in England through Smollett and in France through Balzac. Although popular in his lifetime he was little appreciated, but his place in French literature now appears more secure than ever. A full edition of his works was published in Paris in 1828. Consult Claretie, ‘Le Roman en France an début du XVIII. Siécle, Lesage Romancier? (1890); Barbaret, ‘Lesage et le Théatre de la Foire? (Dijon 1887) ; Brunetiére, F., “Critiques? (Vol. III, Paris 1880); Faguet, E., ‘Dix huitiéme siécle? (ib. 1885); Lintilhac, Eugene, ‘Grands écrivains francais? (ib. 1893) ; Saintsbury, G. E., ‘Essays on French Novelists? ee 1891). See Git Bras; Lame Deviz, HE. LESBOS, léz’bés. See MITYLENE. LESCHETIZKY, lésh-é-tits’ki, Theodor, Austrian pianist: b. Lancut, near Lemberg, Austria, 22 June 1830; d. 15 Nov. 1915. He received his first instruction from his father, a prominent teacher in Vienna, and after a successful concert tour in 1864 was made professor of the pianoforte at the conservatory of Saint Petersburg, where he turned out many illustrious pupils. In 1878 he returned to Vienna with an ever-increasing reputation. As a pianist he was remarkable for delicacy of touch and a magic power of, expression. As a composer he published some very elaborate pieces for the piano, some songs and an opera, ‘Die erste Falte? (1867). Among his more famous pupils are Helen Hopekirk, Mark Hambourg and Paderewski. Consult’ Annette Hullah, ‘Theodor Leschetizky> (Lon- don 1906). LESGHIANS, 1és‘gi-anz, a group of semi- savage tribes of the eastern Caucasus, inhabit- ing the region of Daghestan. They have been called Lehi by the Persians, Kists by their neighbors, the Georgians, while their own gen- LESLEY — eral name is Naktchuoi. They include the Avars, Lakions, Dargis and Chechezians. Their origin is prehistoric and their relationship to each other is not clear, but probably chiefly re- ligious, they being mainly followers of Murad (q.v.), a Mohammedan prophet. They came under Russian dominion in 1859, when their chief Shamyl was defeated. Their men are large and powerful, though not as handsome as the Circassians, having prominent noses anda Mongolian cast. Some of the tribes are fair, however, showing Circassian mixture. They are very independent and fought 30 years against Russian supremacy. They raise goats and cattle on the slopes of the hills, operate primitive forges and manufacture coarse cloth- ing. Consult De Morgan, ‘Recherches sur les Origines des Peuples du Caucase? (1889) ; Hutchinson, ‘Living Races of Mankind? (1901). LESLEY, lés’li, J.. Peter, American geolo- gist: 'b. Philadelphia, 17 Sept. 1819; d. Milton, Mass., June 1903. He was graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1838, for the mext three years was engaged as assistant in the first geological survey of Pennsylvania. In 1844 he was graduated at the Princeton Theo- logical Seminary and licensed as a minister. Visiting Europe, he made foot-journeys through several countries and for a while studied at the University of Halle. From 1845 to 1848 he labored for the American Tract Society among people in the mountain districts of Pennsylvania and then served two years as minister of a Congregational church at Milton, Mass., re- signing on account of a change in his -religious views. Returning to Philadelphia, he resumed his geological researches, extending his inves- tigations throughout the coal, oil and iron re- gions of this country and Canada. In 1855 he became secretary of the American Iron Asso- ciation; in 1858 secretary and librarian of the American Philosophical Society; and State geologist of Pennsylvania in 1874. He was also professor of geology at the University of Penn- sylvania 1872-78 and there in 1886 was ap- pointed emeritus professor. In 1863 he went to Europe to examine the Bessemer iron works for the Pennsylvania ‘Railroad Company, and in 1867 was appointed by the United States Senate a commissioner to the Paris Exposition. He was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1884. He edited many works, published numerous scien- tific papers in various journals and reports, and also wrote ‘A Manual of Coal and Its Topog- raphy? (1856); ‘The Iron Manufacturer’s Guide? (1858); ‘Man’s Origin and Destiny from the Platform of Sciences?; ‘Historical Sketch of Geological Explorations in Pennsyl- vania? (1876); and ‘Paul Dreifuss, His Holi- day Abroad? (1882). Consult Ames, M. L., ‘Life and Letters of Peter and Susan Lesley? (2 vols., New York 1909). LESLEY, John, Scottish prelate and histo- rian: b. Scotland, 29 Sept. 1527; d. near Brus- sels, Belgium, 31 May 1596. He was educated at King’s College, Aberdeen, and in 1554 be- came professor of canon law there. He strongly opposed Knox and everything pertain- ing to the Protestant movement in Scotland. A firm friend of Mary, Queen of Scots, and by her appointed bishop of Ross, he was concerned in the scheme for her marriage to the Duke of LESLIE 315 Norfolk, and in the consequent rebellion in the north of England, with the plan for Spanish intervention, and was imprisoned in the Tower. While there he wrote ‘Piz Consolationes.’ Finally he was led to confess and as a conse- quence the Duke of Norfolk was executed. When released in 1573 he crossed to the Con- tinent and in 1593, as a reward for his efforts in encouraging the populace to resist a siege in the Civil War, was created bishop of Cou- tances in Normandy. His chief production is a history of Scotland (1578), in 10 books, seven in Latin and the last three Scottish dia- lect. He was also the most active in the group of commissioners who revised the laws of Scotland. and oversaw the printing of ‘Actis and Constitutionis of the Realm of Scotland? (1566). . LESLIE, Charles Robert, American genre painter: b. London, England, 19 Oct. 1794; d. there, 5 May 1859. His parents were Ameri- cans, the father being a watchmaker of Phila- delphia, and to that city they returned with the boy in 1800. There he completed his educa- tion at the University of Pennsylvania and was afterward apprenticed to a bookseller. A por- trait drawn from memory of G. F. Cooke, the actor, caused a mild sensation among certain business men in Philadelphia, and by means of a subscription, headed by his employer, he was sent in 1811 to England and studied under Allston, West and others; became the intimate friend of Coleridge, Washington Irving and Constable, the artist; began to exhibit in 1813; was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1821 and in 1826 to full membership. He first adopted a style in large historical subjects, but his genius led him into historical genre of a humorous character, in which he excelled alike in conception and execution, and in which his gentle humor was as pervasive as_ his finished manner. He was first brought into wide notice by his ‘Sir Roger de Coverley Going to Church? (1819). To this period be- long his portrait of Washington Irving? and the illustrations which he designed for that au- thor’s ‘Sketch-Book? and his ‘Knickerbocker’s History of New York. Leslie’s election as an associate of the Academy was secured by ‘May- day Revels in the Time of Queen Elizabeth. In 1824 he visited Sir Walter Scott at Abbots- ford and painted his portrait. He was elected professor of drawing at the United States Mili- tary. Academy, West Point, in 1833, accepted the position, but in a few months gave it up and returned to England. In 1838, at Windsor, he painted “The Queen Receiving the Sacrament after the Coronation.» From 1848 to 1852 he was professor of painting at the Royal Acad- emy. His principal pictures illustrate scenes from the works of great authors. His draughts- manship and composition are both good; but he was lacking in the gift of color —indeed in this respect his-later work declined. His great- est qualities are his delicate perception of char- acter, intense feeling for the domesticities, his humor which is always in good taste and the beauty and grace of his delineations of woman- hood. His best-known © paintings include ‘Sancho Panza in the Apartment of the Duchess? (1824); ‘Uncle Toby and the Widow Wadman? (1831); ‘The Dinner at Mr. Page’s House? (1831); and ‘The Taming of the 316 Shrew? (1832). He published a -volume of lectures as a ‘Handbook for Young Painters? (1855); ‘The Memoirs of Constable? (1845); an unfinished ‘Life of Reynolds? (1865); and ‘Autobiographical Recollections? (1860). LESLIE, Eliza, American author: b. Phila- delphia, 18 Nov. 1787; d. Gloucester, N. J., 1858. Her girlhood was spent partly in London, Eng- land, where her brother, Charles Leslie (q.v.), afterward became distinguished as an English artist. She returned to the United States in 1799 and the rest of her life was nearly all passed in her native city. She first became famous by her ‘Seventy-five Receipts for Pas- try, etc.? (1827), followed by ‘The Domestic Cookery Book? (1837), 40,000 copies of which were sold; ‘The Home Book? (1840); and “The Ladies’ Receipt Book? (1846). She had, however, soon after the success of her first work, begun to write juvenile and other works, and for a generation was one of the most popu- lar of American prose writers. Her books are mainly, though not invariably, written to en- force moral instruction, and among them are “The American Girls Book? (1831); ‘Stories for Helen?; ‘Kitty’s Relations?; ‘Leonilla Lynmore?; ‘The Maid of Canal Street; ‘The Dennings and their Beaux) (1851); ‘Mrs. Washington Potts?; and ‘The Behavior Book? (1853). She edited for many years The Gift, a popular annual for young women. LESLIE, Frank (assumed name of Henry Carter), American publisher and journalist: b. _ Ipswich, England, 1821; d. New York, 10 Jan. 1880. He was educated at Ipswich; entered a mercantile house at 17; developed artistic abil- ities, and under the name of Frank Leslie con- tributed sketches to the Illustrated London News. The success of these led to his giving up commercial pursuits. to become superin- tendent of engraving for that paper. In. this position he produced valuable inventions, and made himself master.of technicalities... Coming to the United States in 1848, he followed his profession. here, and in 1854 founded the Gazette of Fashion and the New York Jour- nal. In 1855 he began. the publication | of Frank Leshe’s Illustrated Newspaper (now Leslie’s Weekly), following these with the Chimney Corner, the Boys’ and Girls’ Weekly, the Budget of Fun and others. In 1867 he was appointed commissioner to the Paris Exposition, where he received a prize for his services to art. He married Miriam Florence Folline, of Louisiana, and she, having taken at his death, by legislative act, the name of Frank Leslie, successfully continued the business, from which she finally withdrew in 1902. LESPINASSE, Julie Jeanne Eléonore de, zhii-lé zhan él-4-6-nGr 1a-pi-nas, French letter writer: b. Lyons, November 1732; d. Paris, 22 May 1776. She was an illegitimate daughter of Madame D’Albon, and on the death of her mother she went to live with the Marquise De Vichy, the legitimate daughter of Madame D’Albon, and in 1754 became the companion of Madame Du Deffand (who had already become blind), at the urgent request of the latter. This position she occupied for about 10 years; but the jealousy and selfishness of Madame Du Deffand rendered her situation very uncom- fortable. She gained the friendship of all the élite of Madame Du Deffand’s society, such as LESLIE — LESSEPS Marmontel, D’Alembert and Turgot; and when the separation between the two ladies at last occurred her friends all adhered to her. Her earliest letters are addressed to a Spanish marquis, Gonsalvo de More, and the later ones to Count de Guibert, a mediocre poet and essayist. They are infused with passionate de- votion and were published by the widow of Guibert in 1800, and appeared in English in Boston in 1903. Mrs. Humphrey Ward has made her character more famous by reproduc- ing her career in ‘Lady Rose’s Daughter? (1903). Consult Asse, ‘Mlle. de Lespinasse et Mme: du Deffand? (1877). » LESQUEREUX, 1a-ké-ré, Leo, Swiss- American paleontologist: b. Fleurier, Neu- chatel, Switzerland, 18 Nov. 1806; d. Columbus, Ohio, 25 Oct. 1889. He was educated at the Academy of Neuchatel, at Weimar and at the University of Berlin; was principal of the Col- lege of Chaux-de-Fonds (Switzerland) in 1829-34; made a special study of peat; and was appointed by the Neuchatel authorities to ex- amine the peat bogs of that canton. In 1844 he received from the Neuchatel government a gold medal for his treatise, ‘Directions for the Exploration of Peat Bogs.» In 1848 he came to the United States; was for a short time as- sistant to Louis Agassiz at Cambridge; and later became assistant to W. S. Sullivant in the study of American bryology, at: Colum- bus, Ohio, where he resided until his death. He made particular investigation of the coal formations of the United States, more especially of the Pennsvlvania coal flora, and he became the chief American authority on fossil botany. He published with Sullivant: “Musci Americani’ Exsiccati? (1856; 2d ed., 1865), and ‘Icones Muscarum (1864); and with T. P. James ‘Manual of the Mosses of North America? (1884). He also contributed (1880-84) three volumes on the coal flora to the Pennsylvania Geological Survey, which has been considered one of the chief American works on carboniferous plants; and three re- ports to the volumes published by the Hayden survey. He wrote more than 50: memoirs on. scientific subjects. In 1864 he became a mem- ber of the National Academy of Sciences, and in 1888 of the Geological Society of London. LESSEPS, lés’éps (Fr. lé-séps), Ferdinand, VICOMTE DE, French diplomat: b. Versailles, 19 Nov. 1805; d. 7 Dec. 1894. _He entered the diplomatic service in 1828, and after being con- sul at various places was Ambassador. to Mad- rid in 1848-49, In 1854 he went to Egypt at the invitation of the viceroy, Said Pasha. This gave opportunity for the development of a plan that had been developing. in his mind for 20 years. He there sketched a. plan for canalizing the Isthmus of Suez, obtained a concession from the viceroy for building the same and in 1856 ptiblished a report on the subject. He encountered all sorts of opposition, chiefly from the English, who feared that the new waterway would be under antagonistic control. Prom- inent engineers questioned its feasibility, and the Turks, under English influence, refused permission to utilize Turkish territory. The work was at last begun in 1859, and carried to completion under De Lesseps’ supervision in 1869. (See Suez CANAL). He also planned the unfortunate Panama Canal (q.v.), and after the LESSING company was dissolved in 1889, judicial proceed- ings were taken against De Lesseps and other directors for maladministration of funds and bribery, and he was condemned to imprisonment. As he was then much advanced in years, it is probable that the errors of this enterprise, were mainly chargeable to others, and that his reputa- tion was borrowed for this work after he had passed his active usefulness. .The plans were changed from time to time, much money was wasted, until it became evident that the work could not be completed with available funds, and the crash came in 1888, when De Lesseps was 83 years old. (See PANAMA CANAL). He was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1875, and to the Académie Francaise. in 1884. Among his writings are ‘Mémoire a l’Académie des Sciences sur le Nile Blanc et la Soudan; ‘Principaux Faits de Il’Histoire d’Abyssinie?; ‘Letters, Journal et Documents relatifs a l’His- toire du Canal de Suez? (1875-81), crowned by the Academy; ‘Souvenirs de Quarante Ans? (1887), and ‘Origines du Canal de Suez? (1890). Consult biographies by Bertrand and Ferrier (1887) and by Smith (2d ed., 1895). LESSING, Gotthold Ephraim, German dramatist and critic: b. Kamenz, Upper Lusatia, Saxony, 22 Jan. 1729; d. Brunswick, 15 Feb. 1781. In 1741 he was sent to the School of Saint Afra at Meissen. He was a diligent student, who, according to his tutor, was a horse that needed double fodder. He went to Leipzig ostensibly’ for a theological training; but he gave his chief attention to gen- eral literature, and contributed ‘some inter- esting articles. to literary journals. His academic: studies haying been concluded at Wittenberg, he went to Berlin, where he was active as journalist and critic, was employed by Voltaire, but soon quarreled with him, and whither he returned (1758) after a two-years’ sojourn at Leipzig. He brought out ‘Vademecum fiir Herrn Samuel Gothhold Lange, in 1754, a criticism of a translation of Horace by Lange which had appeared some time before. The year following saw the is- suing of a six-volume edition of his critical and dramatic works, including the first bourgeois trauerspiel in German, ‘Miss Sara Sampson.? On his return in 1758 to the capital he instituted the famous series of ‘Letters,» which were con- tinued in 24 volumes down to 1765. In 1760 he became secretary to General von Tauentzien, governor of Breslau; and in that post continued for more than four years. His independence and fine sincerity led him to reject. several opportunities of material advancement; as when he refused the chair of eloquence at K6nigsberg, because the tenure of it involved an annual eulogy of the king. In 1767 he be- came critic and director of the theatre at. Ham- burg which an association of wealthy merchants purposed establishing for the promotion of the national drama. The scheme shortly failed, and from 1770 until his death Lessing was librarian to the Duke of Brunswick at Wolfen- buttel, where he was valued only for the prestige he lent the little state. Lessing was the one who reformed German literature and set it on the way of national growth and prog- ress. He became the. foremost German writer of his time, and one of the more remarkable writers of all time, through his ‘Minna von Barnhelm? (1767), the first national drama of 317 Germany, and ‘LaokoG6n? (1766), the best work of German criticism. ‘Minna von Barnhelm? was.an artistic presentation of contemporaneous life, and liberated the German drama from the slavish imitation of the French so exclusively preached by Gottsched. In it Lessing wished to rebuke not only the disposition toward aping the French, but also the indifference of the rulers to the soldiers that had won the Seven Years’ War; and to eliminate the provincial hate which then so often existed in Germany, especially that between Prussia and Saxony. In ‘Laoko6n) Lessing appears as one of the greatest of critics. His eagerness for truth is remarkable; his revelation of hypocrisies and falsehoods, fearless. His chief argument is that for the establishment of a clear distinction between the plastic arts and poetry, the basic difference being determined to be that while art presents objects in space, poetry presents ac- tions in time. Not all its contentions may be admitted; but Herder, who published a criticism in disagreement with many of its points, yet read it through three times in an afternoon and following evening, and praised it in high terms. Macaulay said it made him wonder and despair; and Goethe, who was greatly indebted to its teachings, declared that by it “all previous criti- cism was thrown away like an outworn coat.” Early in 1757 appeared the first of the 22 dramatic criticisms called the ‘Hamburgische Dramaturgie,? which made way for the new national drama free of all French influence. His ‘Nathan der Weise? (1778; in a good Eng- lish rendering by E. Frothingham 1868) is the most celebrated of his dramas, and indeed per- haps the most generally familiar of all his writ- ings. It was his ultimate answer to the theo- logical controversialists who had begun their attacks with the publication by Lessing of an edition of portions of a manuscript work, ob- tained by him while in the ducal library, on the origins of Christianity and written by one Sam- uel Reimarus. To these ‘Wolfenbittler Frag- mente? (1774-78) Pastor Goeze of Hamburg made the chief objection, and to Goeze Lessing gave his most elaborate rejoinders, such as “Fine Parabel,? ‘Axiomata? and ‘Anti-Goeze. He does not defend Reimarus, but he does de- fend free inquiry, and opens up the field for later Biblical criticism and the study of the growth of Christian institutions. Lessing hav- ing been directed by the Brunswick government to discontinue the controversy, made a poetic statement of his views in ‘Nathan der Weise,» a remarkable plea for religious tolerance, and a declaration that true religion is one of charac- ter, not formula. The work has been criticised from the strictly dramatic viewpoint, but as a dramatic poem has been called one of the finest works of the 18th century. Others of Lessing’s works are ‘Emilia Galotti? (1772), a skiliul tragedy; ‘Briefe die Neueste Literatur Betreff- end? (1758), with Nicolai, which first directed German thought to the study of Shakespeare, and ‘Ueber das Wesen der Fabel? (1760). He married Eva Konig in 1776. She and their son died two years later and the author’s last days were passed in sad contrast to his former gav and: pleasant life. The only work of this period is ‘Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts,’ an exposition of his religious doctrine. “Les- sing,” said Goethe, “wished to disclaim for him- self the title of poet, but his immortal works 318 testify against himself. His battle against error in all domains had notable effect in Ger- many, and has not yet failed of an even wider stimulative interest. collected editions of Lessing’s works but the best is probably that begun by Lachmann in 1838 (3d ed. by Muncker, 22 vols., Stuttgart and Leipzig 1886-1910). Good translations are Bell’s ‘Dramatic Works of Lessing? (2 vols., 1878) and Beasley and Zimmern’s ‘Laokoén, Dramatic Notes, and the Representation of Death by the Ancients? (1879). Bibliography.— Blumner, H., ‘Lessings Laokoén? (Berlin, 1879) ; Braun, T W., ‘Les- sing in Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen? (ib. 1884— 97) : Consentius, Ernst, ‘Lessing und die Vos- sische Zeitung? (Leipzig 1900) ; pore JH. J., ‘Lessings Leben? (ib. 1882) ; ‘Erlanter- ungen zu Lessings Werken? (ib, a 882) ; Dan- zel and Guhrauer, ‘Lessing, sein Leben und seine Werke? (ib. 1850-54; 2d ed. 1880); Fisher, E. K.. B.,: “G. E. Lessing, als Ref- ormator der deutschen Literatur? (Stuttgart 1881); Goedeke, Karl, ‘Grundriss 9 zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung? (3d ed., Dresden 1913); Meyer, R. M., ‘G. E. Lessing? (Leipzig 1908) ; Pabst, C. R., ‘Vorlesungen iiber Nathan ‘der Weise? (Berlin 1881); Rolleston, T. W., ‘Life of G. E. Lessing» (Lon- don 1889) ; Sime, James, ‘Life of Lessing? (New York 1877) : Schmidt, Erich, ‘Lessing Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Schriften? (3d ed., 2 vols., Berlin 1910). See German LITERATURE; MINNA VON BARNHELM ; LAOKOON ; NATHAN THE WISE. LESSING, Karl Friedrich, karl fréd’rih, German painter, grand-nephew of G. E. Lessing (q.v.): b. Wartenberg, Silesia, 15 Feb. 1808; d. Karlsruhe, Baden, 5 June 1880. He was sent about 1822 to the architectural school of Ber- lin, to fit himself for an architect. After a severe struggle between duty and inclination, he yielded to his artistic inclinations and by the production of his ‘Churchyard with Grave- stones and Ruins? (1825) fixed his profession irrevocably. This picture produced a. strong impression, and for a year or two the artist de- voted himself to landscape; but coming under the influence of Schadow, established himself in Diusseldorf, and studied historical painting with enthusiasm and success. ‘The Court Yard. of the Convent—a_ Snow Scene,?. is perhaps the most_striking of all his landscapes. ‘The Tyrant Ezzelin in Captivity refusing the Exhortations of the Monks? (1838), was his first important historical picture in -the new style. It was followed by ‘Huss before the Council of Constance? (1842), the ‘Seizure of Pope Pascal II,? the ‘Martyrdom of Huss? (1850), now in New York, and many others, under the influence of which the school of Diisseldorf divested itself of the strictly cath- olic spirit by which it was previously character- ized, and adopted a bolder and more dramatic manner, and a greater freedom in the choice of subjects. Lessing, however, is distinguished from his associates by depth of thought, energy of expression, and vivid dramatic conception, at the same time that his pictures exhibit the hard- ness of outline and defective coloring peculiar to the Diisseldorf. school; Consult Jordan, ‘Ausstellune der Werke Karl Friedrich Les- sings? (1880). There are very many LESSING — LESTRANGE ~LESSON. See Lectionary. LESTER, Charles Edwards, American author: b. Griswold, Conn., 15 July 1815; d, De- troit, Mich., 29 Jan. 1890. He studied law in Mississippi, "and was admitted to the bar, but afterward spent two years at the Auburn Theo- logical Seminary, and was duly ordained. The pulpit, however, proved not more congenial to his tastes than the bar, and ‘he employed his time chiefly with the pen. He was appointed United States consul at Genoa, 1842-47, and was after- ward prominent as a journalist and political speaker. He published ‘Glory and Shame of Higlind? (1841) ; ‘Condition and Fate of Eng- land? (1842); ‘The Artist, Merchant and Statesman? (1846) ; ‘Life and Voyages of Americus Vespucius> (1846); ‘Artists of America? (1846); ‘My Consulship? (1851) ; ‘Our First Hundred Years? (1874-75); and translations of Alfieri’s ‘Autobiography? (1845); Massimo d’Azeglio’s ‘Challenge of Barletta? (1845), and Macchiavelli’s ‘Floren- tine Histories? (1846); ‘The Napoleon Dynasty? (1852) ; “America’s Advancement, or the Progress of the United States during their First Century? (1878); ‘The Mexican Be ob- lic? (1878) ; ‘Life of Charles Sumner? (1874). LESTOCQ, lés-tdk, Jean Hermann, French physician and. adventurer: b. Celle, Hanover, 29 April 1692; d. Livonia, 23 June 1767. He was the son of a French Protestant surgeon who had left his native country on the revoca- tion of the edict of Nantes, and when 21 went to Russia to seek his fortune. He was first employed by Peter the Great, but on account of his dissolute morals, was exiled to Kasan in 1718. Catharine I, on ‘her accession in 1725, re- called him, and appointed him physician in the household of her second daughter, Elizabeth. He soon gained an influence over the mind of this princess, and when the imperial title de- volved upon Ivan VI, he persuaded ther that the only way of saving her own life was to seize upon the crown. She yielded to his sugges- tions, made the young tsar prisoner and seated herself on his throne. Lestocq was then ap- pointed privy councillor, which gave him the rank of general, physician in ordinary to her majesty, and president of the medical college. His prosperity lasted but a few years. Charged with treasonable projects, he was arrested, tor- tured and exiled to Siberia. Peter III, on his accession, gave orders for his recall, and Catharine II gave him an estate in Livonia. LESTODON, a genus of fossil animals of Patagonia, allied to Mylodon, and distinguished by the possession of canine teeth. See GrounpD- SLOTH. LESTRANGE, lés-tranj, Str Roger, Eng- lish journalist and pamphleteer: b. Hunstanton, Norfolk, 17 Dec. 1616; d. London, 11 Dec. 1704. He was probably educated at Cambridge. In 1629 he accompanied Charles I in his expedi- tion against Scotland. In 1644 he formed a plan for surprising Lynn Regis, but was seized and condemned as a spy. He was, however, respited from time to time until he had been in prison four years, when he escaped to the Con- tinent. In 1653 he returned to England, was licenser of the press from the Restoration until the close of the reign of James II, and edited the Public Intelligencer in 1663, the London LESUEUR — LETHBRIDGE Gazette in 1665,.and the Observator in 1681, the latter existing till 1687. In 1685 he was knighted, and given a seat in Parliament. He fell into disfavor in 1688, and his license was revoked, while he languished for a time in jail. He was author of a great number of coarse and virulent political pamphlets and_ translated Josephus, Cicero’s ‘Offices,’ Seneca’s ‘Morals, Quevedo’s ‘Visions? and other works of .an- sient and modern. writers. LESUEUR, Eustache, és-tash 1é-sii-ér, French painter: b. Paris, 19 Nov. 1617; d. there, 30 April 1655. He was taught drawing by his father, a sculptor, and was afterward placed at the school of Vouet, where the Italian masters became his models. His masterpiece is the series of paintings executed for the Carthusian monastery in Paris in 1645-48. These pictures are now in the Louvre, and in 22 panels depict the principal scenes in the life of Saint Bruno. In 1650 he painted for the corporation of goldsmiths the ‘Preaching of the Apostle Paul at Ephesus,? which was presented to the chapter of Notre-Dame, but has been now removed to the Louvre. He did much in decorating the old parish churches of Paris and among his later productions are some mytho- logical scenes in the Hotel Lambert. His works - are distinguished by purity of line, careful execution and are conceived in a mood of pro- found feeling.’ ‘LETCHER, John, American politician: b. Lexington, Va., 29 March 1813; d. there, 26 Jan. 1884. By his own efforts Letcher edu- cated himself at Washington College and at Randolph-Macon. He then (1839) began the practice of law and at the same time entered politics as editor of the Lexington Valley Star. In all campaigns he took an active part on the Democratic side. In 1850 he was a member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention and from 1851 to 1859 Letcher was a member of Congress where his devotion to the public. in- terest won him the title “Honest John Letcher.” From 1860 to 1864 he was governor of Virginia. He opposed secession but after the war began he organized the resources of Virginia for strong resistance and turned the State forces and equipment over to the Confederates. He was imprisoned. for several months after the war and then returned to his profession. In 1876-77 he was a member of the State legisla- ture. : LETCHWORTH PARK AND ARBO- RETUM. Letchworth park comprises a tract of land of 1,000 acres in extent, lying on either side of the Genesee River in Livingston and Wyoming counties, New York. The property was acquired in 1907, by gift from William Pryor Letchworth to the State of New York, and placed by the deed of gift by the donor in the permanent custody of the American Scenic and Historic: Preservation Society. The park is a place of rare beauty and grandeur har- moniously blended, through which the Genesee River cuts its way. Within its boundaries are the three falls long known as the Upper Falls of the Genesee, or sometimes as the Portage Falls. The custodian society, recognizing the need in America of.a practical demonstration in the growing of forest trees, and with the purpose of increasing the timber resources of America, 319 formulated plans for a forest arboretum soon after the property came into its hands. Re- specting the function of the arboretum, the director stated, “The principle upon which the Letchworth Park Arboretum is established is that it shall consist of a permanent collec- tion of the various species of the world’s tim- ber trees, likely to thrive in this northern climate, planted scientifically to test their value and illustrate the processes of development, so supplying not only knowledge for knowledge’s - sake but also knowledge. for practical use.” The possibilities of the arboretum for extend- ing exact knowledge of tree growth will be fully developed. The growth of the trees is measured periodically, their liability to disease is noted and their capacity for seed bearing; their behavior in pure stands and in mixture, their influence upon the forest floor, and other practical considerations bearing upon their value for commercial tree-planting is carefully observed and recorded. By this means. the Letchworth park arboretum will aid materially in laying an exact scientific basis for the suc- cessful extension of practical forestry in the United States. Every step is taken, not only to ensure results of the highest scientific value from forest work at Letchworth park, but also to develop its usefulness as an object lesson to all park visitors. In 1912 the custodian society planted the first tree in the arboretum. The nursery where the seeds are sown is an interesting educational feature of the arboretum work, for here the early stages in the development of timber trees may be observed — from the germination of the seed to the removal of the plants to the field plantations. Something over 500,000 plants have been transferred from the nursery rows to the fields, where they are grouped in blocks of an acre or more each, with a view, so far as possible, of showing color effects. All the important native and foreign trees that may thrive in that locality have been or will be planted, and will be made conveniently acces- sible by walks and drives through. this living tree museum for means of study and observa- tion of visitors to Letchworth park. In. all 297 different species have been planted in the arboretum. It is expected by the custodian society that this living tree museum will be to the tree planter what the laboratory is to the student, a tangible, available demonstration of processes and results. Cuar_Les M. Dow, Director of Letchworth Park and Arboretum. LETHARGY. See Consciousness, Dis- ORDERS OF. LETHBRIDGE, Canada, a city in Alberta, capital of the Medicine Hat District, 700 miles west of Winnipeg and 145 miles southwest of Calgary. It is in lat. 49° 42’ N. and long. 112° 51’ W., and is 2,990 feet above sea-level. It lies ow the Old Man (Belly) River, the valley of which, 320 feet deep and a mile and a half wide, is there crossed by a trestle bridge 307 feet high and 1 mile 47 feet long. Situated in the centre of the part of the province lying south of the main line of the Canadian Pacific, it is the chief distributing point for that dis- trict. The original settlement, “Coal Banks,” sprang from the discovery by Sir A. T. Galt in 1882 of coal along the river banks and the veaAwY 320 opening of the Galt mines in 1883. The effort to market the coal by barges failed and in 1885 the “Turkey Trail» (narrow gauge) railway to Dunmore was constructed. The name Leth- bridge, after the president of the company operating the mines and railway, was then adopted. The town, incorporated 1890, re- mained for 15 years or more a small coal min- ing and cattle ranching centre. The great influx of immigration then brought farmers who demonstrated that the land, despite assertion of the ranchers that it was too dry, was excel- lent for wheat growing and other agricultural activities. The extensive introduction of irri- gation has greatly stimulated farming. Since 1900 its development has been chiefly as a wholesale and distributing centre to the sur- rounding farming country. Over 30,000,000 bushels of the 1915 grain crop passed through the Lethbridge Railway yards. But coal mining remains an important factor, the output of the immediate district being 3,000 tons daily. In 1906 Lethbridge was incorporated as a city. In 1913 it secured a unique charter from the pro- vincial government, establishing the commission form of government. The city is governed by three commissioners, the mayor who is com- missioner of finance and public safety, and the commissioner of public works and the com- missioner of public utilities. An election for one of these (by proportional representation) is held every year, and each retains office for three years. The charter also provides for a system of initiative, referendum and recall whereby, upon a petition of a fixed percentage of the electors, an election is held to decide upon a new by-law or the recall of any of the commissioners. The city is supplied by a private company with gas from Bow Island, but the waterworks system, the electric-light and power systems and the street railway are owned and operated by the municipality. The city also owns and operates its. own coal mine from which it draws all fuel required at its power plant and for heating municipal buildings. The water is taken from the river and a mechanical filtration plant has been installed. The sewage, first purified in a sewage disposal plant, is emp- tied into the river lower down. The streets are wide and have been well planted with trees. The buildings in the business section, which overlook Galt park, are of reinforced con- crete and brick. The private residences are mostly of wood construction. There are three parks, one of which has an artificial lake of 9T acres. Pop.. (1921). 11,055, LETHE, 1é’thé (Greek, Léthé, forgetful- ness), the mythological River of Oblivion in the lower regions. The water had the power of making those who drank it forget their former existence. Souls before passing into the Elysian Fields drank that they might have no recollection of their earthly sorrows; those who were destined to return to the upper world in new ‘bodies drank that they might forget the pleasures enjoyed in Elysium. The name is also given to a daughter of Eris, as the personification of Oblivion. LETTER OF CREDIT. LETTER OF. LETTER OF MAROUE. > See MARQUE, LETTER OF. See Cnrenirt, LETHE — LETTERS LETTERN. See Lectern. LETTERS. See Lerrers In LITERATURE. LETTERS, The, of Marie de Rabutin- Chantal, Marquise de Sévigné (1626-96), pre- sent a correspondence of rare historical, social and personal interest in a style seldom ap- proached in vivacity, limpidity and deftness. | Some letters from others are included and the collection is extended beyond Madame de Sé- vigné’s life, but of her» own there are more than 1,100, extending from 1644 to within a few days of her death. Far the greater pari of the letters are addressed to her daughter, Francoise Marguerite, Comtesse de Grignan (1646-1705), who handed down the collection to her own daughter, Madame de Simiane. Meantime many of the letters had appeared in connection with the correspondence of Madame de Sévigné’s cousin, Bussy-Rabutin, in 1696 and 1697. Seven unauthorized and partial editions appeared between 1725 and 1728. Madame de Simiane, destroying her mother’s letters, which she feared savored of Jansenism, committed her grandmother’s to Chevalier de Perrin, who issued six volumes of them between 1734 and 1737, a seventh in 1751 and a second edition in eight volumes in 1754. He is thought to have used more editorial zeal than restraint. Most of the original letters were destroyed. The few that remain are now printed as they were written. The interest of the correspond- ence centres in the letters to Francoise, who married the Comte de Grignan in 1669. He was made lieutenant-general of Provence in 1670. Francoise followed him there in 1671. Mother and daughter visited one another in Paris and at Grignan from time to time, sometimes for long periods. Madame de Sévigné died and was buried at Grignan. When separated from Francoise she wrote copiously and often, in a hand that suggests an easy writer. Most of the letters are long, and 15 a month is in the early years nothing extraordinary. Love for this daughter was the absorbing passion of her life. But she was, as M. de Grignan said after her death, “a delightful companion” and her letters are companionable still. She had been carefully educated. Chapelain and Ménage were among her tutors. She had meditated Tacitus and had Italian and Spanish poets at command for apt citation. She was wealthy. She thhad and appreciated shrewd business coun- sel and had no illusions whither the extrava- gances of Versailles and the courtier nobles were leading the Old Régime. She was fond of society and moved’ easily in its highest circles, with La Rochefoucauld, Fouquet, the Cardinal de Retz and Madame de La Fayette among her intimates. She was exceptionally well informed of all that was going on before and behind political and military scenes. Her letters are thus of great value to the student of French character, for the attitude toward monarchy and the Church in the early years of Louis XIV and for the economic origins of the French Revolution. Wishing to tell all she thought, felt, heard and saw, she brought to the pleasant task a unique gift of style in which art blends subtly with nature. Writ- ten from Paris, from her uncle’s abbey at Livry, from the baths of Vichy or her country house, Les Rochers, near Vitré in Brittany, the letters show sides of life and manners, of LETTERS — LETTERS IN LITERATURE court and people, that elude the formal histo- rian. They are also wonderfully entertaining, full of ns witty sayings, sprightly gossip and genial fancies, They had become noted before her death and, long before official pub- lication, had been held up as epistolatory models in a Latin poem ‘Ratio conscribendz epistole.? They are best edited by Monmerqué, Regnier, Mesnard and Sommer (14 vols., and an album of portraits, pictures of houses and facsimiles of letters, Paris 1862-68); more conven- iently by Silvestre de Sacy (11 vols., Paris 1861-63). Among many partial editions a vol- ume of translations by Mrs. Ritchie (Phila- delphia, n. d.), Masson’s ‘Selections> (Oxford, n.d.) and ‘Lettres Choisies> (New York 1905), may be mentioned. Edward Fitzgerald’s post- humous ‘Dictionary of Madame de Sévigné (2 vols., London 1914) is very helpful. Good brief appreciations are given in biographies by Gaston Boissier (Paris 1888) and Miss Thackeray (Edinburgh 1881). The fullest memoir is by Walckemaer (5 vols., Paris 1845-52), the best is by Mesnard (in Vol. I of Monmerqué’s edition, pp. 1-316). Consult also Puliga, ‘Madame de Sévigné, her Correspond- ents and Contemporaries? (2 vols., London 1873) and Aldis, J., ‘Madame de Sévigné, Queen of Letter Writers» (New York 1907). BENJAMIN W. WELLS. LETTERS, Proportionate Use of. Among printers experience has taught the frequency of use of letters, so that the following tables have been compiled: Le ee reno ert he 1,000 a ee eee 272 ES pliner cic alae to. Fe 770 feem orig aes Be eae sea 236 A nig) Re ge Be 728 MSA as OS at Ab 190 A sew as cory Shee & eb~ 2% 704 iY Ay See ot. a 184 SBD chtial ch hie kB te ay ss dle 680 Ae ee ee 168 OMe? Ritts ais be ot 672 i recieren op each tie 168 oR MROTe, -ViLeD.. 670 WR. PS. 158 Bii2s,. asGFins lic 5: 540 Beaerasaiiet ale 120 Ricpavets bik ® + due te 528 1 MSS GRAS a ee 88 TO eral sat ere a acca 392 AiR Re ge Ae Ana eee ns 55 ERG “PREM. A. 360 Oe Aire ol 50 We. clayey Seat + 5 296 20 Be taitess. on 46 SRT Pe Ee, ts eee 280 {a Fa BGye c..ghiep. 2055-4 SE 266 ye ene eo Co ee 574 8 ee Oe ee en 228 thet hice es eee 571 Ds diate aes sir eg 206 DE SNA» Nii le ade 505 Wise to he”, PS. os, 172 B apie oat Liat he 463 N ube. wie k I - 153 DA oe eta ct ae og (AT 430 TEE een ee ee 69 DOM Oeics on xe + 5 388 no eit ee Rare ken 58 IOS. OE ie i eRe oP 377 BE Ed NE Se, 47 EGC Assia. od: 340 ee a ae eee 23 | ES ee: ee 308 ES TO ee ae ee 18 j ognll Peo het Bite ee ae 298 + ger gay er a? 4 LETTERS TO DEAD AUTHORS. Of all the volumes of literary criticism in Eng- lish published within the past generation per- haps none is saner in content and more cap- tivating in style than Andrew Lang’s ‘Letters to Dead Authors.? Written, as the author states, at the request of the editor of the Saint James Gazette, and published in 1886, this little book originally included 22 “letters,” to which were added four others in the American edition of 1891.. “For some reason,» says the brief. preface to the latter edition, “the kind- ness of readers has favored a volume which is not the author’s favorite” But the reason is plain. Lang has in the main addressed his own favorite authors, and hence writes con VoL. 17—21 321 amore; yet personal as is his criticism, it yet expresses the attitude of the majority of read- ers; and while his estimates, both literary and personal, are in the main “appreciative, » they are discriminating and sane. This excellent matter is couched in a style that varies with the subject but is always apt for its purpose — now grave, now gay, now lively, now severe; that ranges from rollicking humor, quiet mirth, sharp satire, to tenderness and pathos, and at times attains a really noble eloquence. In all - this is sheer literary craftsmanship of a high order; and here is sufficient reason why “the kindness of readers has favored the volume.” But the abiding charm of the book lies in the fact that one actually feels identified with the writer of it as the talks with many old favorites —Herodotus and Horace, Rabelais and Moliére, Scott and Dumas, Byron, Shelley and Poe, tersely sums up the fundamental qualities of their work and adequately expresses our grati- tude for their contribution to the world’s store of pleasure, beauty and truth. The warm, human, captivating “literary criticism” in these brief familiar studies is o itself literature of permanent interest and value. Marion TUCKER. LETTERS OF JUNIUS. See Junius, LETTERS OF. LETTERS IN LITERATURE. The let- ter, primarily a personal and utilitarian com- position, passes over into the field of literary interest by processes often gradual and difficult to define; so that, although we commonly dis- tinguish separate types, such as informal letters intended only for the eyes of those directly addressed and formal epistles composed with a view to ultimate publication, the dischchion cannot be made with clearness in the actual his- tory of the subject. Out of the private art of personal correspondence there must have arisen, at a very early period, the more public art of the literary letter. It was formerly supposed that the earliest extant collection of formal letters was the series (about 150 in number) of Greek epistles professing to have been written by the tyrant Phalaris, of the 6th century B.c. Around these, near the close of the 17th century, there developed a consider- able controversy, connected with the so-called “Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns? ; and Richard Bentley, the philologist, in his famous ‘Dissertation on the Letters of Phalaris” (1699), demonstrated —as is now universally admitted — that they are of comparatively late origin, perhaps of the 2d century (Riga 1872-80); Thomsen, ‘Bero- ringer melem de Finske og de Baltiske Sprog? (Copenhagen 1890). LETTRES DE CACHET, lét-r-dé-ka-sha, in France, a name given to the warrants of imprisonment issued by the kings before the Revolution. All royal letters (lettres royauxr) were either Jettres patentes or lettres de cachet. The former were open, signed by the king, and countersigned by a minister, and hhad the great seal of state appended. Of this kind were all ordinances, grants of privilege, etc. But these checks on arbitrary power did not exist with regard to lettres de cachet, also called lettres closes, or sealed letters, which were folded up and sealed with the king’s little seal (cachet), and by which the royal pleasure was made known to individuals or to corporations and the administration of justice was often interfered with. It was not always for political reasons that lettres de cachet were obtained; sometimes private persons got troublesome members of their families brought to reason in this way. The lieutenant-general of the police kept forms of lettres de cachet ready, in which it was only necessary to insert the name of the individual to be arrested. LETTS, léts, a Slavonic people’ closely akin to the Lithuanians, inhabiting a portion of Russia. Their language, along with the Lithu- anian and Old Prussian (extinct), forms the Lettic or Lithuanian branch of the Indo- European family of tongues. The Letts num- ber about 1,000,000. ~ LETTSOMITE, or CYANOTRICHITE, a mineral consisting of hydrous copper alu- minum sulphate, 4 CuO. AlLOsSO3. 8 H.0. A einen ore of copper in the Tintic district, Utah. LETTUCE, lét’is, a genus (Lactuca) of hardy annual and perennial herbs of the order Composite. Less than 10 of the 100 recognized species, which are distributed mainly in the northern hemisphere, are in cultivation, and some botanists consider these to -be merely forms of three or perhaps two species. They are characterized by opposite leaves of various forms, and white, yellow or blue flowers in heads which are arranged in small panicles. The only species used in America, the common garden lettuce (L. sativa), is an annual whose 329 natural prototype is unknown, but is supposed to be L. scariola, an Asiatic species. Lettuce is one of the oldest food-plants, having been used, it is said, by Persian royalty more than 2,000 years ago. To-day it is un- questionably the most widely used of all our materials for salads, and has developed an in- numerable host of varieties of great diversity of form. They are somewhat roughly divided into two general groups: heading, in which the leaves. form a cabbage-like head; and cutting, in which the leaves are more loosely arranged... In each of these groups are forcing and out- door varieties. A third group, the cos or romaine varieties, which may be considered a subdivision of the cabbage group, consists of long, narrow-headed kinds, whose outer leaves must be tied above the head to properly blanch the inner ones. They are specially valued as summer lettuces, because of the ability to pro- duce leaves of good flavor in spite of consider- able heat. Lettuce grows best in cool weather. It re- quires a rich open soil and clean cultivation; plenty of sunlight in the cool seasons and par- tial shade in the warm. The seed may be sowed in a hotbed, where the plants may be either allowed to develop, or from which they may be transplanted to the garden, 8 to 12 inches be- ing allowed between them. Immense quantities of lettuce are forced in greenhouses during the winter, and from the trucking regions of the South, where the plants are grown with only sun heat in canvas-covered beds, the markets are supplied during the winter with thousands of carloads. When grown under glass lettuce is some- times attacked by so-called plant diseases — leaf-spot, rust, mildew and drop or rot. These may be very largely if not wholly controlled by good management, especially with respect to ventilation, the temperature being kept lower than that which is favorable to the growth of the fungi. Sterilizing the soil with live steam for an hour or more is practised and believed by many large growers to destroy the spores. The operation is performed a day or so before planting. LEUCADIA, 1éf-ka-dée’a, or LEUKAS. See SANTA MAuvRA and Care DUCATO. LEUCZEMIA, an incurable but rarely oc- curring disease of unknown origin, character- ized by enlargement of the spleen and lym- phatic glands, and the changes in the blood con- sisting in a decrease of the number of the red cells, diminution of the amount of hzma- globin in each cell, and great increase in the number of the leucocytes or lymphocytes’. The disease may come on rapidly, with anemia and loss of flesh and strength; usually the onset is insidious, the deterioration of the general health or the swelling of the spleen or glands being first noticed. The least uncommon form of the disease shows peculiar changes in the bone-marrow; next in frequency is the form in which only the spleen and marrow are changed, and rarest of all is the form in which the glands are changed (the lympatic). Besides the increase in the number of the leucocytes, a form of the cell found only in the bone-marrow appears in the blood. The symptoms, which almost invariably include a fever of about 102°, difficulty in breathing, occasional hemorrhages, 326 etc, are due to the loss of nutrition of the tissues, to the anemia, to the pressure of the. enlarged spleen on the vital structures in the abdomens and to the pressure of the enlarged glands. The glands most commonly enlarged are the chains along the neck, those in the axilla, the abdominal glands, the glands of the groin and those of the thorax. They may be barely large enough to be felt or may form bunches in these parts that are plainly visible. The disease progresses for months or years with intervals of considerable improvement sometimes obtained from arsenic in large doses. LEUCIN (Greek, “white”), a white sub- stance, resembling cholesterin, first discovered by Proust in putrefying cheese and afterward shown by Braconnot to be formed (together with other products) by the action of sulphuric acid upon animal matters. It is best prepared by the prolonged boiling of horn shavings in sulphuric acid, neutralizing with lime, precipi- tating excess of lime with oxalic acid and then evaporating to crystallization. Leucin and ty- rosin are thrown down together, but they may _ be separated by redissolving in water and re- crystallizing, the tyrosin then coming down first. Leucin has the chemical formula CsHi:Oz. NH, and is known to the chemist as “amido- hexoic acid.» (See AmiIpDE and Hexoic Acip). It may be sublimed, but if it be heated to 338° F. it melts, becoming simultaneously converted into amylamine, carbon dioxide and ammonia. It is insoluble in ether, but soluble to some ex- tent both in water and in alcohol. Leucin is said to occur in healthy calf’s liver, and in certain other healthy tissues, such as the brain of the ox. It occurs also in certain of the products eliminated by the human skin, but its presence in the urine or in any of the internal organs of man is regarded as indicative of a serious pathological condition. Thus leucin is found in the liver in phosphorus poisoning and in acute yellow atrophy, and also in typhus fever and smallpox. In the healthy body leucin and tyrosin are probably converted into urea and eliminated as such. LEUCIPPUS, li-sip’ts, Greek philosopher, flourished between the 4th and 5th centuries B.c. To him is attributed the first idea of the atomic system afterward perfected by his dis- ciple Democritus. Kepler and Descartes were much indebted to the doctrines of these mas- ters for the explanation of the planetary vortices. LEUCITE, a native silicate of aluminum and potassium, having the formula KAI(SiOs)2, and crystallizing in forms that are isometric at 900° F., but pseudo-isometric at ordi- nary temperatures. Its anomalous double re- fraction has been the subject of much study and discussion. The mineral is white or gray in color, and has a hardness of from 5.5 to 6, and a specific gravity of 2.50. It occurs more particularly in recent volcanic rocks, and Vesu- vius is the best-known locality for it. It is also found in considerable quantity in the Green River Basin, Wyoming, Leucite may be con- verted into the mineral analcite by the action of a soda solution, and the inverse transformation of analcite into leucite is also possible. LEUCOCYTES. See Btoop. LEUCIN — LEVANT MOROCCO LEUCOMAINES (Gk. Acixopa, white of egg), certain nitrogenous organic basis found as products of metabolism in living organic tis- sues. They may be extracted from fresh beef by warm water and oxalic acid, together with a little oxygen. The solution is boiled, filtered, evaporated and extracted with alcohol several times. The alcoholic solution is precipitated with ether several times, and its several com- ponents are isolated by various means. The bases thus obtained are xanthocreatinine, CsHiN.O; chrusocreatinine, C;sHsN.O; amphi- creatine, CoHieN1Oi: pseudocreatine, C.H;N;O; CuHaNioOs, and Ci2HesNuOs. Some of the leucomaines are toxic. They correspond to the alkaloids (q.v.) in plants, See MeEtanorism. LEUKOPLASTS. See CHROMATOPHORES. LEUTHEN, loi’ten, or LISSA, Poland, a village nine miles west. of Breslau, Lower Silesia, which gives its name to the battle gained here by Frederick the Great, 5 Dec. 1757, over Prince Charles of Lorraine; The Aus- trians numbered about 90,000 and the Prussians 34,000. The Austrians lost 10,000 in killed and wounded, 12,000 were taken prisoners, besides considerable war munitions, and Silesia was re- gained. Pop. 800. See SEVEN YEARS’ WAR. LEUTZE, loit’sé, Emanuel, American ar- tist: b. Gmtind, Wirtemberg, 24 May 1816; d. Washington, D. C., 18 July 1868. He was brought to the United States in infancy and early displayed a talent for portrait painting. He studied at Dusseldorf under Lessing and lived abroad for many years after 1841. Among his works, which are largely historical, are “Columbus before the Council of Salamanca? ; ‘Columbus in Chains’; ‘Columbus before the Queen; ‘Landing of the Norsemen in Amer- ica; ‘Washington Crossing the Delaware,” perhaps his best-known work; ‘Washington at Princeton? ; ‘Lafayette in Prison at Olmiuitz Visited by his Relatives.» In 1860 he was em- ployed by the United States government to make a large mural' painting entitled ‘West- ward the Star of Empire takes its Way” on one of the stairway walls in the national Capitol. His detail has been criticized and some of his work pronounced crude, but it is always strik- ing and effective. His principal figures always suggest power. LEVANT, le-vant’ (“sunrise,” “orient”), in geology, a term applied by Henry Rogers to the fourth series of the Appalachian Paleozoic strata, called in New York the Medina group, and of equivalent age to the May Hill Sand-. stone or Upper Llandovery of England. The name is given to signify metaphorically the sun- rise period of the Palzozoic day. Its maximum thickness is above 2,000 feet, and most moun- tains of the Appalachian series are outcroppings of the Levant. There are few organic remains, chiefly marine shells and fucoids. Geographically the word is a name applied to designate the coast of the Mediterranean immediately east of Italy, including the islands of the AZgean, Egypt, Asia Minor and Syria. LEVANT, The. See Constitution, THE. LEVANT MOROCCO, a superior quality of Morocco leather, originally imported from the Levant, being made from the skin of Angora goats. See LEATHER. LEVASSEUR — LEVER LEVASSEUR, lé-va-sér, Pierre Emile, French political economist and geographer: b. Paris, 8 Dec. 1828; d. July 1911. He was educated at the College Bourbon and the Ecole Normale Supérieure, and after holding several important educational posts became in 1876 professor of geography at the Ecole Libre des Sciences in Paris. He was especially prominent in regard to geographical study in French school and in addition to a series of geogra- phies was author of ‘Public Moneys among the Romans? (1854); ‘The Gold Question? (1858) ; ‘The French Population? (1889-91) ; ‘Agriculture of the United States? (1894) ; ‘The American Workman? (1900); ‘Summary of Political Economy? (1905) ; ‘History of the Commerce of France? (1911- 12). He was a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences and a commander of the Legion of Honor. He visited the United States in 1893 in connection with the Columbian Exposition. LEVEE, lé-vé’ or lév’é (from the French word lever, to rise, and the time of rising). (1) In social usage, levee is a word used in high life or court language for the ceremonial visits which great personages receive in the morning, as it were at their rising. The levee is distinguished from the drawing-room, inasmuch as at the levee of a gentleman, gentlemen only appear, and at the levee of a lady, only ladies, while at the drawing-room, ladies and gentle- men both are admitted. The meaning is now more extended and the term is applied chiefly to the stated occasions on which the king or queen of Great Britain publicly receives those subjects whom their rank entitles to the honor. On the first presentation of daughters of dukes, marquises and earls, it is customary for the queen to kiss them_on the cheek. The term is little used in the United States. (2) In _hy- draulic engineering, an embankment raised on the margin of a river to prevent inundation. That part of Louisiana which lies on the lower Mississippi was formerly subject to the annual overflow of the river, by which immense dam- age was done to the land. To guard against these inundations, levees of earth have been thrown up for more than a thousand miles along the river banks to a height sometimes of 15 feet, with a breadth of 30 feet at the base. This construction began about 1720 in New Orleans and was carried on locally and irregu- larly until 1882, when the Mississippi River Commission began its work under the United States government. In front of New Orleans the levee is very broad and serves as a wharf, steamboats and other vessels being moored to it. Breaches sometimes occur in the levees, when the water rushes through and does great mischief; these breaches are called crevasses. Consult Humphreys, ‘Floods and Levees of the Mississippi River? (1914). See Mississippi LEVEE SYSTEM; NATURAL LEVEE. LEVEL. (1) In mining, a horizontal gal- lery or passage. The workings at different depths are said to be at the different levels — the 50 or 60 fathoms level, and so on. A level which opens to the surface at the side of a valley is called a day level, and being graded affords a means of natural drainage without pumping. A drowned or blind level is.a drain- age gallery which has the form of an inverted siphon. A dip-head level is one which proceeds 327 from the foot of the engine-shaft right and left, and from which the rooms diverge. (2) In surveying and engineering, an instrument for indicating a horizontal line or determining the position as to horizontality of an object or surface to which it is applied, and then de- termining the true level; or the difference of rise or ‘fall between two or more places. There are numerous levels, varying in form, size, arrangement or construction, according to the purpose for which each is intended ; as, for in- stance, the carpenter's, mason’s, gunner’s or . surveyor’s levels, the mercurial, water and spirit levels, etc. All may be divided into three classes: (a) The \simplest, such as the mason’s or carpenter’s level, in which the vertical line is determined by a plumb line and the horizon- tal by a line perpendicular to it. (b) Those in which the horizontal line is determined by the surface of a fluid at rest; as in the water and mercurial levels. (c) Those in which the hori- zontal line is determined by a bubble of air floating in a fluid contained in a glass tube, as a spirit level. LEVELERS, the name of an ultra-reform party in Great Britain, which arose in the army of the Long Parliament about the year 1647 and was put down by Fairfax. The movement was partly political and partly religious; they aimed at the establishment of an equality in titles and estates. throughout the kingdom. While they condemned all religious strife and differences, they mutinied on various occasions and a number were killed before the party was suppressed. LEVELING. Sce Surveyina. LEVEN, Loch, 16h 1é’vn or lév’n, Scot- land, a lake in the county of Kinross, of oval shape, four miles long, two miles broad; great- est depth, 90 feet. It contains several islands, on one of which are the remains of the historic castle of Loch Leven, in which Mary Queen of Scots was confined after her separation from Bothwell and where she escaped shortly before the battle of Langside. The trout fishing of the lake is famous. LEVER, lé’vér, Charles James, Irish nov- elist: b. Dublin, 31 Aug. 1806; d. Trieste, Austria, 1 June 1872. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and after studying medicine, partly at G6ttingen, he obtained the degree of bachelor of medicine from Trinity College in 1831. During the prevalence of cholera in 1832 he gained considerable reputa- tion for his skill and devotion in the treatment . of that disease. In March 1834 he contributed his first paper to the new Dublin University Magazine, of which he was editor 1842-45. The first chapter of ‘Harry Lorrequer, a desig- nation which he afterward made famous as his nom de-plume, appeared in the February number for 1837. He removed to Florence in 1847, where he held a diplomatic position, was English consul at Spezzia in 1858 and at Trieste 1867-72. He published ‘Harry Lorrequer? (1837) ; . “Charles O’Malley> (1840); ‘Tom Burke of Ours? (1844); ‘Jack Hinton’; Arthur O’Leary? (1844); .‘Roland Cashel? (1850); ‘The Bramleights of Bishops Folly? (1868); ‘Lord Kilgobbin® (1872), etc. The rollicking character of the earlier of these was 828 intensely national, but his later novels were more thoughtful and artistic. LEVER, lév’ér or lé’vér, a mechanical de- vice for the transmission and transformation o power. It is essentially a rigid structure, in which case it acts as a straight bar, no matter what its conformation, pivoting upon a fixed point called the “fulcrum.” By means of the lever a great force operating over a short dis- tance is obtained at the expense of a small force operating over a long distance. The crowbar is the commonest simple example in practice. With it a stone weighing 500 pounds may be raised two inches by moving the handle end of the bar downward 20 inches, the ful- crum being so placed that the distance from the hand to the fulcrum is 10 times as long as from the fulcrum to the stone. It will be noted that the fulcrum has to carry the sum of the weights at the two ends of the lever — in the example quoted, 550 pounds. The lever is operated under three different conditions: (1) Where the fulcrum is between the power and the resistance, as in lifting the stone with a crowbar; (2) where the resistance is between the power and the fulcrum, as in a nutcracker; (3) where the power is between the resistance and the fulcrum, as in a sugar-tongs or a sheep-shears. In the last instance the power has to be larger than the resistance, as it oper- ates on the small section of the lever to pro- duce a less power over a longer distance at the resistance end. The equation of the lever is: The power multiplied by its end of the lever equals the resistance multiplied by its end. LEVERETT, lév’ér-ét, Frank, by family tradition descendant of John Leverett, Ameri- can colonial governor (q.v.), American geol- ogist: b. Denmark, Iowa, 10 "March 1859. He was educated at Denmark Academy and the Iowa Agricultural College. In 1886 he entered the United States Geological Survey; was as- sistant geologist 1890-1900, and since 1901 has been geologist; also since 1909 lecturer on geol- ogy, University of Michigan. His special lines of investigation are glacial geology and water resources. He is a member of many scientific societies, both national and international. His publications include ‘Water Resources of Illi- nois? (1896) ; ‘Water Resources of Indiana and Ohio? (1897); ‘The Illinois Glacial Lobe? (1899) ; “Glacial Deposits of the Erie and Ohio Basins? (1901); ‘Flowing Wells and Municipal Water Supplies of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan? (1906); ‘Comparison of North American and European’ Glacial Formations? .(1910); ‘Surface Geology of Michigan? (Northern Peninsula 1911; Southern Peninsula 1912); ‘Surface Geology of Minnesota? (northwest quarter 1915); ‘Pleistocene of Indiana and Michigan and History of the Great Lakes,’ with Frank B. Taylor (1915); and various shorter reports and papers. LEVERETT, Sir John, American colonial governor: b. England, 1616; d. Boston, Mass., 16 March 1679. At 17 he emigrated to America with his father and settled in Boston. He re- turned to England in 1644 to take part in the struggle between the Parliament and the king, and as commander of a company of foot sol- diers gained military distinction and the friend- ship of Cromwell. He subsequently resided some years at the court of the Protector as LEVER— LEVI agent of Massachusetts. On his return to America he held successively some of/the most important civil and military offices in the gift of the colony, and finally in 1673 was elected governor. His administration is important in colonial history as the era of the war with King Philip, which his skill and energy were instru- mental in conducting to a fortunate issue. Two years previous to his death he was knighted by Charles II in acknowledgment of his serv- ices to the New England colonies during this contest. LEVERETT, John, grandson of Sir John Leverett (q.v.): b. Boston, 25 Aug. 1662; d. Cambridge, 3 May 1724. He was an eminent lawyer and judge, speaker of the colonial legis- lature and president of Harvard College from January 1707 until his death. He was a man of unusual attainments and received the honor, then rarely bestowed upon colonial subjects, of membership in the Royal Society. LEVERRIER, lé-va-ré-4, Urbain Jean Joseph, French astronomer: b. Saint-L6, 11 March 1811; d. Paris, 23 Sept. 1877. He was educated at the Collége Louis Le Grand and the Ecole Polytechnique, and devoting himself to astronomy, made observations which pro- cured him admission to the Academy of Sci- ences in 1846. About this time he began inves- ligating the perturbations of Uranus. He made calculations with the view of determining the mass and orbital elements of an unknown planet supposed to cause the disturbances and was able to assign within one degree the re; gion where it might be looked for. John Couch Adams (q.v.), then a student at Cam- bridge, had been making investigations in the same track, and the honor of discovering Nep- tune (q.v.) is regarded as belonging equally to both. He received the grand cross of the Le- gion of Honor and other recognitions of his achievement. In 1854 lLeverrier succeeded Arago as director of the Observatory of Paris, in which post, except an interval from 1870 to 1873, he remained until the end of his life. Here he distinguished himself by his thorough- ness and system, reforming the management, getting rid of political barnacles and making it the equal of any observatory of its time. He was the originator of the planetary and solar tables that became ‘standard in the Nautical Al- manac. He spent many years elaborating La- place’s theories and in his ‘Mechanique Celeste? presented to the astronomical world the best summary then extant on the planetary motions. LEVI, 1é’vi, one of the 12 patriarchs, a son of Jacob and Leah. The prince of the Shechemites having wronged his sister Dinah, he, with his brother Simeon, attacked their city and murdered all the males. Jacob reproaches them on his death-bed for this act of cruelty and foretells the dispersion of their descend- ants: “I will divide them in Jacob, and scatter them in Israel” (Gen. xlix, 7). Three sons went down with Levi to Egypt — Gershon, Ko- hath and Merari .(Gen. xlvi, 2). Moses and Aaron were of this tribe. See LEVITES. LEVI, 14-vé, Sylvain, French Oriental philologist: b. Paris, 28 March 1863. Professor in the College of France, director of the sec- tion of philology, history ‘and religions, viewed from the scientific point of view. He was in LEVIATHAN — LEVIS, LEVIS TOWN charge of the course in Sanskrit in the same in- stitution from 1889 to 1894; and he was sent on a special scientific mission to Indian and Japan (1897-98). He has written extensively for scientific publications and among his published works are ‘Le Téatre Indien» (1890); ‘La Doctrine du_ sacrifice dans les Brahmanas? (1898) ; “Le Népal> (1906-07). LEVIATHAN (Hebrew) is compounded of two words meaning a great fish and fas- tened; hence it probably means a huge fish cov- ered with close scales. The Septuagint renders it drakén (a dragon), and kétos (a whale). From the description of it given in the book of Job (xli) it is usually, and probably correctly, considered to mean the crocodile, though in some places it has been interpreted the whale. See Tristram’s ‘Natural History of the Bible.? LEVIATHAN, The.’ Hobbes’ ‘Levia- than? appeared in 1651 at the end of the civil war which left Cromwell in power. In many ways it was the child of these rebellious times, _ though it was not, as is sometimes charged, a defense of the Stuart monarchy. Far from be- ing a mere political tract the ‘Leviathan? stands as the first original treatise on politics and ethics since Aristotle. Hobbes undertook the task of deducing a -naturalistic theory of the state as an integral part of his naturalistic philosophy, an under- taking which marks him as the only English philosopher, with the exception of Spencer, who produced a system of philosophy. The first part, “On Man,” may be said to lay the foundation of modern psychology. It proceeds from a discussion of elementary sen- sation to an analysis of the “interior beginnings of voluntary motions commonly called the pas- sions,» whereby we may conceive the natural condition of mankind from which the state has been generated through the “laws of nature.” The political doctrine for which Hobbes is best known is briefly that man is by nature in a state of war where there exists no distinction. of right and wrong. Such a state, however, is intolerable and reason directs that man give up his natural liberties for the sake of peace and security. Mankind accordingly transfer their natural rights to an absolute sovereign power whose decrees are the measure of justice and in- justice. The inconvenience of such absolute rule is, for Hobbes, not to be compared with the evils of civil war. Not only civil custom but also divine worship are regulated by the sovereign. though “Hobbes himself laid the foundations of a philosophy of religion. The fourth and last division of the book is a spirited attack on the Roman Catholic Church under the pleasing caption ‘Of the Kingdom of Darkness? and brought the author into disfa- vor with the Royalists. Hobbes considered himself the founder of social science and certainly the “Leviathan” had a most potent influence in stimulating thought for a century and more. It attracted unusual attention during Hobbes’ lifetime, even to the calling down of an investigation by Parliament. There are no special treatises on the ‘Levia- than? of any outstanding merit. The best gen- eral account of his philosophy in English is to be found in Sir Leslie Stephen’s volume on “Hobbes? in the English Men of Letters Series. WaLTER B. VEAZIE. 329 LEVIEN, 1a-vén’, Ilse, German authoress: b. Hamburg, 1852; d. 1908. After studying in her native city, she taught school for a number of years, until 1884. In that year she went to Stuttgart, where she studied esthetics. There she became an intimate of Vischer, and after his death wrote ‘Vischer — Erinnerungen? (1889). From Stuttgart she proceeded to Munich, at- tracted by the literary circle of which Paul Heyse was the leading figure. In her later years she was afflicted by an incurable illness | which so depressed her that she agreed to be shot by her intimate friend, Emma Mandel- baum, who then killed herself. Miss Levien was married to an Armenian named Okunian. Of her novels those deserving mention are ‘Hamburger Novellen? (1886); Zwischen Elbe und Alster? (1890) ; ‘Bitterstiss? (1891) ; ‘Querkdépfe? (1897) ; ‘Erich Hetebrink? (1907). Other works are ‘Gedichte, > a volume of poems (1890) ; ‘Phibje Ohrtens Gliick? (1902), a com- edy; ‘Die Retter der Moral,’ a drama (1905). LEVIN, Lewis Charles, American politi- cian: b. Charleston, S. C., 10 Nov. 1808; d. Phil- adelphia, 14 March 1860. Removing to Wood- ville, Miss., he became a school teacher and subsequently followed the practice of law in various States, settling permanently in Philadel- phia in 1838. The temperance cause attracted him and he edited a temperance organ. Becom- ing known as speaker and writer, he formed the Native-American party in 1843 and pub- lished The Sun, a daily paper, in its interests. As a representative of the party he was sent to Congress and served three terms (1845-51). LEVIRATE MARRIAGE, among the Jews, the custom of a man’s marrying the widow of a brother who died without issue. The same custom or law prevails tn some parts of India. Consult Benziger, ‘Hebraiche Arch- aologie? (1907). LEVIS, Francois Gaston, fran-swa gas- ton la-vé, Duc pe, French soldier in America: b. Chateau d’Anjac, Languedoc, 23 Aug. 1720; d. Languedoc, 1787. He served in the French army in various campaigns and in 1756 was or- dered to Canada, where he became second in command to General Montcalm. For his serv- ices at the defense of Carillon in 1758 he was promoted major-general; and at Montmorenci in 1759 he repulsed the English under Wolfe. After Montcalm’s death on the Plains of Abra- ham, Lévis took command of the French army, and during the winter of 1759-60 he maintained a vigorous struggle against great odds. He was victor at Sainte Foye in 1760 and might have gained Quebec if the French vessels had ar- rived at the opening of navigation in that spring. Lévis. returned to France, where he continued in the service; he was made a mar- shal in 1783 and given a dukedom in 1784. LEVIS, 1a’vé or lév'is, LEVIS TOWN or PORT LEVI, lé’vi, Canada, the capital of Levis County, Quebec, on the Saint Lawrence River, opposite Quebec city, with which it has ferry communication. It is an important port with government docks ; is the landing place for transatlantic travelers; ‘and has a large export trade. Most of the square timber brought down the Saint Lawrence in rafts is here loaded into sailing ships for Europe. It is on the Inter- colonial railway and a terminus. of the Quebec 330 Central and of branches of the Grand -Trunk railways. It is fortified, has a convent, ship- yard, factories, stores and lumber-mills. Pop. (1921) 10,479. LEVITES, lé’vits, those of the tribe of Levi who were not priests. They were the min- isters specially singled out for the service of the sanctuary, and, with the priests, formed the sacerdotal tribe. After the idolatry of the golden calf, the Levites were the first to rally round Moses, and then the idea of a special consecration of “an Israel within an Israel” de- veloped itself and the Levites thenceforth occu- pied a distinct position. They became guardians of the tabernacle and no others approached it under penalty of death. They appear to have been in part only descendants of Levi, others being taken tnto the tribe at convenience. From the first the Kohathites, as nearest of kin to the priests, had the highest offices assigned them. They bore the vessels of the sanctuary and the ark itself. A permanent arrangement was made for their maintenance. They were to receive the tithes of the produce of the land, and in their turn to offer a tithe to the priests. When the tabernacle should have a permanent place, the whole tribe was to be assigned 48 cities, six of which were to be cities of refuge. The Le- vites were moreover to preserve, transcribe and interpret the law and to read it every seventh year at the Feast of Tabernacles. They were not included in the general census of the peo- ple, but in a separate census (1 Chron. xxiii, 3) ; their number is given at 38,000. The vessels of the temple and sanctuaries were placed in their charge and they prepared animals for the sac- rifices. Keeping watch and menial duties of cleaning the places of worship als» fell to their share. They were the assistants and servants of the Aaronite priests, and at some periods seem to have closely approached the priests in dignity and position, and at others to be de- graded and treated as menials. Their position was much changed by the revolt of the 10 tribes, and after the captivity, in the movement under Ezra, not more than 38 could be brought together. The purity of their blood was strin- gently guarded both by Ezra and Nehemiah. After the destruction of the temple in the dis- persion, they disappeared from history, being merged in the crowd of captives scattered over the Roman world. See Leviticus. LEVITICUS, Book of. Leviticus is the third book in the Old Testament. Its Hebrew name is Wayyikra, “And he called,” after the opening word of the book. The designation Leviticus, which means “Levitical,» that is, “the Levitical System? —the Levitical. system is found chiefly in this book — originated with the early Greek translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint and is meant to be de- scriptive of the contents. The Talmud suggests an even more appropriate title, namely, “Law of the Priests.” Contents.-— Leviticus contains few passages cast in narrative form; and in these few cases the narrative is introduced not so much for the purpose of describing the past as for the pur- pose of enforcing some provision for the fu- ture. The book is almost entirely a collection of laws, chiefly priestly or ceremonial in nature, that is, laws dealing with the functions and privileges of the priests and Levites; hence, the LEVITES — LEVITICUS name Leviticus. The first group of laws (i, 1-vii, 38) deals with sacrifices and offerings — burnt offerings, meal offerings, peace offerings, sin of- ferings and guilt offerings—and with the priestly functions in connection with these sac- rifices. These laws are followed by accounts of the consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests and of the sin of Nadab and Abihu, and by further regulations concerning priestly du- ties and. portions (viii, l-x, 20). Five chap- ters (xi-xv) are devoted to laws dealing with matters of cleanness and uncleanness. The day of the atonement is the subject of chapter xvi; chapters xvii-xxvi contain the so-called Law of Holiness (see further, section 4). Chapter XXVii is in the nature of an appendix, contain- ing laws concerning vows, things devoted and tithes. Composition.— Other books of the Penta- teuch contain material taken from at least three originally separate sources, commonly desig- nated by the letters J, E and P; in Deuteronomy appears a fourth source known as D. (For de- tails see article PENTATEUCH). The whole of - Leviticus is derived from P; but chapters xvii- Xxvi, with the exception of some later inter- polations found chiefly in chapters xxiii and xxv, formed originally a separate code of laws, which is designated “Law of Holiness” by mod- ern scholars. (For a characterization of P see article PENTATEUCH, and the relevant sections in Eiselen, F. C., ‘The Books of the Penta- teuch?; a better understanding of the relation of Leviticus to the other P sections in the Pen- tateuch may be secured from a consecutive reading of the whole P document, as reproduced in an English translation in Kent, C. F., ‘The Student’s Old Testament?— for the material embodied in Leviticus consult especially the vol- ume entitled ‘Israel’s Laws-and Legal Preced- ents>— or in Brightman, E. S., ‘The Sources of the Hexateuch?; compare also Carpenter and Battersby, “The Hexateuch, and Addis, W. E., ©The Documents of the Hexateuch?). The Law of Holiness.—Chapters xvii-— XXvVi constitute perhaps the most significant sec- tion of the book of Leviticus. Peculiarities of form, contents and expression have convinced modern scholars that these chapters existed at one time as an independent code. (It is not impossible that originally the code was more extensive than it is now. Some of its laws may have been omitted by the redactor who made it a part of P; others may have been trans- ferred to other parts of the Pentateuch, for example, the food laws in Lev. x1 and the law concerning fringes in Num. xv, 37-41). The designation “Law of Holiness” (H, the first letter of Holiness, as also of the corresponding German word “Heiligkeit,» is used as a con- venient symbol), first suggested by Kloster- mann in 1877, finds justification in the fact that the central theme of the whole code is holiness, both moral and ceremonial. Its motto is, “Be ye holy, for I, Yahweh, am holy” (xix, 2; compare also xxii, 31-33). As in the case of the Book of the Cove- — nant (see article Exopus), attempts have been made to subdivide the Law of Holiness into a series of decalogues (consult L. B. Paton, Journal of Biblical Literature, 1897, pp. 31-37), but such a theory necessitates a more or less radical rearrangement of the contents, which LEVULOSE— LEVY would find its only justification in the demands of the theory. The code deals with a variety of topics; it is worthy of note, however, that it lays much less stress upon civil and criminal than upon moral and ceremonial requirements. The more important subjects covered are the slaughter of animals and sacrifice (17); un- chastity and Moloch worship (18) ; the religious and moral behavior of the Israelites (19); penalties for Moloch worship, unlawful mar- riage and other offenses -(20); regulations touching priests and offerings (21, 22); sacred seasons (23); the lights of the sanctuary, the showbread, the blasphemer and his punishment (24); the Sabbatic year and the year of Jubilee (25). The code closes with a hortatory ad- dress, emphasizing ah fundamental duty of loyalty to Yahweh (26 The individual laws did not originate with the compiler of the code. Internal evidence makes it probable that the author of the code had access to earlier collections, which may have been made at different times and places and in different priestly circles, embodying laws handed down in oral or written form for gen- erations and centuries. No doubt he may have formulated and inserted new laws, but, on the whole, his work was that of adapting older laws to present conditions, of bringing them into: harmony with his own point of view, and of re-enforcing them by supplying suitable motives. Kent is undoubtedly right when, in speaking of these laws, he says, “Their roots are probably to be traced to the Mosaic and nomadic periods of Israelitish history.” In language, thought and general aim the Law of Holiness resembles Ezekiel. For in- stance, the principle underlying the more formal teaching of Ezekiel is the same kind of holiness as is insisted upon in the Law of Holiness. The similarities are, indeed, so striking that some scholars have considered Ezekiel the author, or at least the redactor, of the code. However, there are also such obvious differences that it is practically impossible to believe that they came from one and the same author. Are, then, the resemblances) a matter of coincidence? Or, was Ezekiel. influenced by the Law of Holiness? Or, was the compiler of the code influenced by the thought and language of Ezekiel? The evidence is. so slight that there exists wide difference of opinion on these questions among scholars. On the whole, it seems most satisfactory to ex- plain the resemblances by assuming that the Law of Holiness and the Book of Ezekiel originated in the same priestly circles and under the inspiration of the same religious concep- tions and ideals. In the words of Kent, “It is probable, therefore, that the original draft of this code was made between the first and final captivity (B.c. 597-586), a period in which the more enlightened leaders, like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, saw clearly that the state was doomed and that Israel’s laws and institutions, if they were to be preserved, must be put into written form.” This code served as a nucleus around which a later writer or compiler arranged legal material taken from various sources; the com- pilation which resulted is now known as P, or, the Priestly Code. Bibliography.— In addition to the discus- sions named in the body of the article, atten- tion may be called to the following books in crystallize. 331 English: Chapman, A. T., ‘Introduction to the Pentateuch? (Cambridge 1911); and, in co- operation with A. W. Streane, ‘Leviticus? (‘Cambridge Bible,» Cambridge 1914) ; Cornill, C. H., “Introduction? (London 1907); Creel- man, H., ‘Introduction? (New York 1917); Driver, S. R., ‘Introduction? (1891); new ed., 1910) ; and in co-operation with H. A. White, ‘Leviticus? (‘Sacred Books of the Old Testa- ment,” New York 1898); Gray, G. B., ‘Intro- duction? (New York 1913) ; Harper, WreRs. ‘The Priestly Element in the Old Testament? (Chicago 1902); Kennedy, A. R. S., ‘Leviticus and Numbers? (‘New Century Bible, Edin- burgh 1911); McFadyen, J. E., ‘Introduction? (New York 1905). Also articles on “Leviticus” in Hastings, ‘Dictionary of the Bible,» ‘Ency- clopedia Biblica? and ‘Encyclopedia Britannica? (11th ed.). FREDERICK CARL EISELEN, Professor of Old Testament Interpretation, Garrett Biblical Institute. LEVULOSE, a sugar (CsHi:Os) isomeric with a grade of "glucose, but of left polariza- tion; it always occurs with glucose in honey, in many fruits and in other sacchariferous vegetable tissues. It is popularly known as fruit sugar, is thick, sweet and will not readily See SUGAR. LEVY, Auguste Michel, French mineralo- gist: b. Paris, 1844; d. 1911. He was promi- nently connected with the geographical survey of France in 1876, and he was for many years a very active member of the Academy of Sci- ence. Among his publications which are all of a scientific nature are ‘Structure des roches éruptives etudées au microscope? (1876) ; ‘Syn- thése des minéraux et des roches? (1888) ; ‘Structures et classification des roches érup- tives? (1889); ‘Tableaux des minéraux des roches? (1888), with A. Lacroix as collabo- rator; and ‘L’Explication de la carte géologique de la France, in collaboration with F. Fouqué. LEVY, Emile, 4-mél 14-vé, French painter: b. Paris, 20 Aug. 1826; d. Paris, 4 April 1900. He won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1854. In 1878 he was awarded a first class medal for a picture he exhibited in the Salon. He had re- ceived the cross of the Legion of Honor in 1867. He was much valued as a portrait painter, and also was successful in pastel. Among his works are ‘The Death of Orpheus’ (1866), now in the Luxembourg; ‘Supper of the Martyrs? (1859) ; ‘The Elements? in the Louvre; ‘Presentation of the Virgin? in the church de la Trinité, and ‘The Judgment of Midas. LEVY, le’vee, Louis Edward, American photo-chemist and inventor: b. at Stenowitz, Bohemia, 12 Oct. 1846; d. 17 Feb. 1919. Coming to the United States in childhood he received his education at the Detroit public schools. He gave special attention to mathematics and astronomy at the University of Michigan (1866) and to practical optics in Detroit (1861-70). He was connected with the United States Lake Sur- vey (1866), made researches in microscopic photography (1867-70) and invented a process in photo-chemical engraving (1874) called the “Levytype” He received (1896), with his brother Max, a medal for invention of “Levy line screen» and (1900) a gold medal for Levy “acid blast,» both from Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, and a medal and diploma from the World’s Columbian Exposition (1893) for original discoveries. He published and edited in Philadelphia, The Evening Herald (1887- 90); The Mercury (1887-91); author of ‘The Jewish Year? (1895); ‘The Russian Jewish Refugees in America? (1895); ‘Busi- ness, Money and Credit? (1896), and, with Hugo Bilgram, ‘The Cause of Business De- pressions? (1914). He was elected vice-presi- dent of Inventors’ Association at Paris in Sep- tember 1900, member of Committee on Sci- ence and the Arts, Franklin Institute; elected vice-president of institute, 1916. LEVY, Uriah Phillips, American naval of- ficer: b. Philadelphia, 22 April 1792; d. New York, 22 March 1862. Sailing as a cabin boy before his 11th year, he was apprenticed as a sailor in 1804, and before he was 20-had passed through every grade and became master. On 23 Oct. 1812, he was commissioned sailing- master in the navy, serving until June 1813 on the ship Alert and then on the brig Argus. He was placed in command of one of the prizes which the Argus secured, but it was subse- quently recaptured and he, with his crew, was imprisoned in England for 16 months. In March 1817, he was appointed lieutenant. Per- sonal antagonism, in which religious prejudice played an important part, subjected him to nearly 40 years’ struggle, in the course of which he fought a duel, killed his opponent, was court-martialed six times and finally dropped from the list as captain. He was finally re- stored to that rank in 1855, and later became commodore. ‘LEVY, lev’i, (1) a term used in Europe for the compulsory raising of a body of troops from any specified class in the community for purposes of general defense or offense when the existing military forces are insufficient to meet the necessities of the case. When a coun- try is in danger of instant invasion a levée en masse is sometimes made —that is, every man capable of bearing arms is required to con- tribute in person toward the common defense. On less urgent occasions the levy may be re- stricted to a class, as to men between 18 and 40 years of age. (2) In law, the seizure of prop- erty under a writ or other process; usually the taking by a sheriff or marshal of the property of a judgment debtor under an execution. It is not a valid levy unless the marshal or other official takes actual possession of the property. In the case of real property, he enters and takes charge, as by taking the key, or putting on new locks. In the case of chattels, he may either move them to another place or if they are cumbersome place a deputy to watch them. The judgment debtor is not always ejected from his premises, as they are taken subject to sale for the amount of the judgment, and any excess above judgment and costs belongs to the original owner. See ATTACHMENT; EXECUTION. LEWES, li’és, George Henry, English philosophical writer: b. London, 18 April 1817; d. there, 30 Nov. 1878. He was in turn clerk, medical student and student of philosophy in Germany, whence he returned to England in 1840 to devote himself to general literature. His first important work was his ‘Biograph- ical History of Philosophy? (1846), of which a LEVY — LEWIS second edition appeared, much extended and altered. This work, written largely from a Positivist point of view, sufficiently proved his ability as a thinker and writer. He was literary editor of the Leader (1850-54). He published his ‘Life of Robespierre? (1849) and a compendium of Comte’s ‘Philosophy of the Science? (1853). His ‘Life of Goethe? (1855) won him a European reputation. From 1854 he was largely engaged in physiological in- vestigations with .special reference to philo- sophical problems. To this period belong his “Seaside Studies” (1858) ; ‘Physiology of Com- mon Life? (1859-60), and ‘Studies in Animal Life? (1862); ‘Aristotle, a Chapter from the History of Science? (1864), was his last book before he became first editor of the Fort- nightly Review (1865), from which, a year later, indifferent health compelled him to retire. His. chief work, aiming at the systematic de- velopment of his philosophical views, is ‘Prob- lems of Life and Mind? (1873-79). Besides the works already mentioned he wrote ‘The Span- ish Drama: Lope de Vega and Calderon? (1847) ; two novels, ‘Ranthorpe? (1847) and ‘Rose, Blanche and Violet? (1848); and pre- pared various plays for the stage under the pseudonym of “Slingsby Laurence” Few writers have done as uniformly good work in so many fields and over so wide an area. In 1840 he married Agnes Jarvis, but the marriage was an unhappy one. In 1854 began his asso- ciation with Mary Ann Evans (see ELiort, GeorcE) and from that time they lived to- gether as husband and wife. Whatever may be urged against the union on religious grounds, it cannot be doubted that it had a strong reciprocal influence on their lives and writings. Consult the New Quarterly for October 1879, and Cross’ ‘Life of George Eliot? (3 vols., London 1885). LEWES, liis, Del., town, in Sussex County, on Delaware Bay and on the Asso- woman Canal and the Pennsylvania Railroad, about 40 miles southeast of Dover. The excel- lent harbor has been improved by an artificial breakwater. It is the shipping point for much of the farm and garden products of the southern part of Delaware. Large quantities of fruit, fish oils and vegetables are among the products shipped to Northern markets. Lewes is the headquarters of the Delaware Bay pilots. It contains a shirt factory, tomato canneries and tin-box factories. Cape Henlopen lighthouse, built in 1800, is nearby. The waterworks are municipally owned. Pop. (1920) 2,074. LEWIS, lis, Agnes Smith, English scholar and paleographist. She was educated at the Irvine Academy, Ayrshire, in her child- hood and subsequently became an accomplished linguist, especially in modern Greek, Arabic and Syriac. She was married to Rev. S. S. Lewis (1836-91). Her remarkable services to paleographical science have been recognized by the bestowal upon her of honorary degrees from Halle, Saint Andrews, Heidelberg and Dublin. In company with her sister, Mrs. Margaret Dunlop Gibson (q.v.), she visited Sinai four times, and in 1892 discovered and photographed the Syro-Antiochene, or Sinaitic Palimpsest, the most ancient one of the four Gospels known. In 1896 they brought back the first half of the Hebrew Ecclesiasticus. Both LEWIS sisters were awarded the gold medal of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1915. She has writ- ten also ‘Introduction to the Four Gospels from the Sinaitic Palimpsest? ; ‘Some Pages of the Sinaitic Palimpsest Retranscribed? : fA Translation of the Syriac Gospels? ; ‘The Pal- estinian Syriac Lectionary of the Gospels? ; and other learned works on Scripture antiquities. LEWIS, Alfred Henry, American journal- ist and author: b. Cleveland, 1858; d. 23 Dec. 1914. He was a lawyer by ‘profession and at the age of 21 was elected city attorney of _ Cleveland. Later, he went West and in New Mexico and Arizona procured material for his Wolfville stories. He practised law in Kansas City for six years, entering journalism in 1890, and with William Nelson, editor of the Star, outlined the plans for the boulevard of the park in Kansas City. In 1891, Lewis went to Wash- ington as a staff correspondent of the Kansas City Times, subsequently becoming Washing- ton representative of the Chicago Times and later of the Hearst papers. He first gained prominence through his “Wolfville” tales of Western frontier towns. In 1898 he established in New York The Verdict, a humorous weekly. He has written ‘Wolfville? ; ‘Episodes of Cow- boy Life?; ‘Sandburrs? (1900); ‘Wolfville Days? (1902); ‘Wolfville Nights? (1902); ‘Black Lion Inn? (1903); ‘Peggy O’Neal? (1903); ‘The Sunset Trail» (1905) ;~“Confes- sions of a Detective? (1906); ‘Story of Paul Jones? (1906); ‘The Throwback? (1906) ; When Men Grew Tall? (1907); ‘An Ameri- can Patrician— Aaron Burr? (1908); ‘Wolf- ville Folks» (1908); ‘The Apaches of New York? (1912); ‘Faro Nell and her Friends? (1913); ‘Nation— Famous New York Mur- ders? (1914). LEWIS, Andrew, American soldier: b. Donegal, Ireland, about 1720; d. Bedford County, Va. 26 Sept. 1781. He resided in Augusta County, Va., where he was prom- inent in border conflicts ; and in 1754 entered as a volunteer the expedition for taking possession of the Ohio region. Later he became a major in Washington’s regiment of Virginians, and was at the surrender of Fort Necessity. In 1756 he was in command of the Sandy Hook expedition; in 1758 participated in that of Major Grant to Fort Duquesne, on which oc- casion he was taken prisoner and carried to Montreal. He was a commissioner of Virginia in 1768 to arrange a treaty with the Iroquois, in 1774 was appointed a brigadier-general during hostilities with the Indians on the western Vir- ginia border, and 10 Oct. 1774 gained an im- portant victory over the Shawnee confederacy at the battle of Point Pleasant (at the mouth of the Great Kanawha). He was a brigadier- general in the Continental army from 1 March 1776 to 15 April 1777, and then entered the Virginia civil service. He drove Lord Dun- more from Gwynn’s Island, 9 July 1776. For several years he sat in the Virginia house of burgesses, and in the Virginia conventions of May and June 1775 was a delegate from Bote- tourt. As a soldier he was highly regarded by Washington. See CoLonIAL Wars IN AMERICA. LEWIS, Charles Bertrand (“M. Quan”), American journalist: b. Liverpool, Ohio, 15 Feb. 1842. He was educated at the Michigan Agricultural College, and served in the Union 333 army during the Civil War. His journalistic work began on the staff of the Detroit Free Press, and he soon became known as a descrip- tive and humorous writer under the name of “M. Quad. In addition to his work in_ this field, in connection with various publications, he also wrote ‘Field, Fort and Fleet: A Sketch- Book of the Civil War?; ‘The Lime-Kiln Club?; ‘Sawed-off Sketches?; ‘Mr. and Mrs. Bowser’; ‘Quad’s Odds,’ and several plays. After 1902 Mr. Lewis was connected with a newspaper syndicate, writing humorous sketches. and stories. Many of his syndicate sketches have been translated into other languages and republished in the French, German and Japanese magazines and newspapers. He died at Brook- lyn, N. Y., 21 Aug. 1924; LEWIS, Charlton Thomas, American law- yer and author: b. West Chester, Pa., 25 Feb. 1834; d. Morristown, N. J., 26 May 1904. He was graduated at Yale in 1853, and after study- ing with a view to entering the ministry, served as professor at the State Normal University at Bloomington, IIl., 1856-57, and from 1858 to 1861 was professor in Troy University. In 1863-64 he was a United States deputy com- missioner of internal revenue. He entered upon the practice of law in New York city in 1865; was associated with William Cullen Bryant in editing the Evening Post; and re- turned to law practice in 1871. At Harvard, Columbia and Cornell universities during 1898- 99, he was a lecturer on insurance. He was also president of the Prison Association of New York and of the State Charities Aid As- sociation of New Jersey. Among his published works are ‘Gnomon of the New Testament,’ translated from the German of Bengel (1861); ‘History of Germany? (1870); ‘Harper’s Latin Dictionary,” in collaboration with Charles Short (1879) ; ‘Latin Dictionary for Schools? (1889) ; ‘Elementary Latin Dictionary? (1890), etc. LEWIS, Dio, American physician and au- thor: b. Auburn, N. Y., 3. March 1823; d. Yonkers, N. Y., 21 May 1886. He studied at the Harvard Medical School, and practised for a time at Port Byron and at Buffalo, N. Y., pub- lishing at Buffalo a monthly periodical with hygienic aims. He became widely known _ by his writing in advocacy of a system of higher gymnastics, and finally established a school in Boston in which teachers were trained in his new exercises; and a school for young ladies was also founded at Lexington, Mass., which was destroyed by fire in 1868. About 1883 he removed to New York. He wrote many arti- cles for magazines, and his more -extended works include ‘The New Gymnastics? (1862) ; “Weak Lungs and How to Make them Strong? (1863); ‘Talks About People’s Stomachs? (1870) - “Our Girls>’. (1871); “Chats “with Young Women? (1871); ‘Chastity» (1872) ; “Gypsies”? (1881), and In a Nutshell (1883). LEWIS, Edmonia, American sculptor: b. New York, 4 July 1845. She is of negro and Indian parentage. With slight instruction in sculpture she developed a talent for that art, and came into notice in 1865 through the ex- hibition of her first known work, a bust of Col. Robert Gould Shaw, in Boston. That year she went to Rome to study, and there she soon afterward established permanent residence. Her works include ‘The Freedwoman?; ‘The 334 Death of Cleopatra? (1876), exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition; ‘The Marriage of Hiawatha?; ‘The Old Arrow-Maker and _ his Daughter; ‘Asleep?; ‘Madonna with the In- fant Christ,» and many portrait busts, among them those of Lincoln, Longfellow, Sumner and John Brown. Most of her work is in Europe. LEWIS, Estelle Anna Blanche (Rostn- son), American dramatist: b. near Baltimore, Md., April 1824; d. London, 24 Nov. 1880, While a schoolgirl she made a verse-rendering of the ‘#Xneid? into English; wrote ‘Forsaken? and published ‘Records of the Heart? (1844). Her best dramatic work, ‘Sappho of Lesbos? (1868), a tragedy, ran through seven editions, was translated into modern Greek, and played at Athens. Edgar A. Poe spoke of her as the rival of Sappho; Lamartine called her. the “female Petrarch.” Others of her works are ‘The Child of the Sea, and Other Poems? (1848); ‘The Myths of the Minstrel? (1852); ‘Poems? (1866), and The King’s Stratagem? (1869), a tragedy. LEWIS, Francis, American patriot: b. Llandaff, Wales, March 1713; d. New York, 30 Dec. 1802. He entered commerce in London, but later came to America, and established a mercantile business in New York and Phila- delphia. He made numerous successful busi- ness voyages to Europe, and in 1752 obtained the contract for clothing the British army in America. In “the same year he was aide-de- camp to Gen. Hugh Mercer at Oswego, N. Y., when Montcalm advanced against it. After the capitulation, he was sent to France, and subse- quently exchanged. For his services the gov- ernment presented to him 5,000 acres of land. From 1765 he took part in public affairs. He was one of the New York committee in the First Colonial Congress (1765), in 1775 was elected to the First Continental Congress, in 1776 signed the Declaration of Independence, in 1777 was again elected to Congress and in 1779 became commissioner of the Board of Admiralty. He expended his wealth most freely in the patriot cause, to which his com- mercial knowledge also was very useful. LEWIS, Sir George Henry, English law- yer: b. 1833; d. 7 Dec. 1911. He was educated at University College, London, and was called to the bar in 1856. He laid the foundations of his subsequent great reputation in the prosecu- tion of the directors of Overend and Gurney’s Bank, and from that time he was employed in most of the great sensational trials, including the Colin Campbell divorce suit, the. Tranby Croft baccarat scandal and the Piggott forgeries. So deeply was he cognizant of the unsavory secrets of the “upper ten” that it was said of him that he could have placed. one- half of London society in jail; but in order that there might be no leakage of informa- tion, he kept no diaries in his professional work. He assisted the movement for the founding of the Court of Criminal Appeal, was knighted in 1893 and created a baronet in 1902. LEWIS, Henry Carvill, American geolo- gist: b. Philadelphia, 16 Nov. 1853; d. Man- chester, England, 21 July 1888. He was grad- uated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1873, served as a volunteer in the State Geolog- ical Survey of Pennsylvania in 1879-84, was LEWIS professor of mineralogy in the Academy of Natural Sciences\.of Philadelphia in 1880-88, and of geology at Haverford College in 1883-88. In 1886-87 he studied at Heidelberg, and in 1887-88 made special investigations regarding the origin of the diamond. He prepared a chart of the various ancient ice-sheets and glaciers of England, Ireland and Wales, for some time edited the mineralogical department of the American Naturalist, and wrote ex- tensively. on geological subjects, including ‘The Antiquity of Man in Eastern America, Geolog- ically Considered? (1880); ‘The Geology of Philadelphia» (1883); ‘Comparative Studies upon the Glaciation of North America? (1886), and ‘The Terminal’ Moraines of the Great Glaciers of England» (1887). LEWIS, James, American actor: b. Troy, N. Y., about 1840; d. West Hampton, Long Island, N: Y., 10 Sept. 1896. He first appeared in 1858 at the Troy Museum as Farmer Gam- mon in ‘The Writing on the Wall, played second comedy parts. for a time at the Green Street Theatre of Albany, was later with a traveling-company on the Georgia circuit, and was at Birmingham, Ala., when the Confederacy was proclaimed. Having escaped to the North, he afterward (1866) appeared at the Olympic, New York, as low comedian in ‘Your Life’s in Danger,» presented by Mrs. John Wood’s company. He was afterward successful as Dick Swiveller, and from 1869 until his death he was leading comedian in Augustin Daly’s company. He took numerous parts with ex- cellent versatility. LEWIS, James Hamilton, American legis- lator: b. Danville, Va., 18 May 1866. He re- moved to Augusta, Ga., was educated at Hough- ton College and at the University of Virginia. He studied law at Savannah and was admitted to the bar in 1884. In 1886 he removed to Seattle, Wash., and there established a law practice. He was elected to the Territorial senate and in 1890 declined the nomination for Congress. He was candidate for governor in 1892, but was defeated. He was unsuccessful as candidate for the United States Senate in 1894. At the Democratic National Convention of 1896 he was the Washington State candidate for the vice-presidential nomination. He was elected to the 55th Congress (1897-99) as congressman-at-large. He was the author of a resolution for the recognition by the United States of the independence of Cuba. In 1900 he was again a candidate for the Vice-Presi- dency at the Democratic National Convention at Kansas City, being endorsed by the Pacific Coast States. He served on the staff of Gen. F. D. Grant in the Spanish-American War, in Cuba in 1898. In 1903 he was credited to the Joint High Commission ‘on Canadian and Alaskan Boundaries at London and also served as United States commissioner to regulate the customs laws between the Dominion of Canada and northwestern United States. In 1903 he removed to Chicago and in 1905-07 was cor- poration counsel of that city. In 1908 he was Democratic candidate for governor of Illinois, but was defeated by Dineen. He was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1912 for the term 1913-19. He served as United States commissioner representing the United States Senate at London to execute treaty laws for LEWIS — LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION safety at sea. He was chosen Democratic “whip” of the Senate and as such rendered efficient support to the Wilson administration. He has written ‘Handbook on Election Laws,” with A. H. Putney (1912); ‘Constitutions, Statutes and their Construction; ‘Two Great Republics: Rome and the United States? (1913); ‘History of International Law. - LEWIS, Matthew Gregory, called “Monx” Lewis, English author: b. London, 9 July 1775; d. at sea on the way from Jamaica to England, 14 May 1818. He was educated at Oxford, in 1794 became a member of the British embassy at The Hague, and in 1795 published ‘Am- brosia, or the Monk? (whence his sobriquet), which had a great success at the time. From 1796-1802 he represented Hindon, Wiltshire, in the Commons. Of his various dramatic. works the best known is ‘The Castle Spectre, first presented in 1798, and abounding in ghosts, storms and other melodramatic features. He visited, in 1815-16 and 1817-18, his property in the West Indies, to provide for the suitable treatment of his negro slaves; and published the ‘Journal of a West Indian Proprietor, which is interesting as a description of the con- dition of the negro in Jamaica of that time. His writings had considerable influence on the early poetry of Walter Scott, for whose translation of ‘G6tz von Berlichingen” he ob- tained the publication in 1799. LEWIS, Meriwether, American explorer: b. near Charlottesville, Va., 18 Aug. 1774; d. near Nashville, Tenn., 8 Oct. 1809. He en- listed in the troops called out for suppression of the “Whisky Rebellion” in western Pennsyl- vania in 1794, entered the regular service in 1795 as lieutenant of the line, in 1797 was pro- moted captain, in 1801-03 was private secretary to Jefferson, and in the latter ‘year was ap- pointed commander of an expedition to’ cross the continent, with Capt. William Clark (q.v.) as second in command. On 5 July 1803 he left Washington for Pittsburgh, Pa., whére the ex- pedition was equipped; but he did not begin to ascend the Missouri until the ice had broken in the spring of 1804. Then he proceeded up the river to its sources, crossed to the Rocky Mountains, reached the headwaters of the Columbia River, floated down that river to the Pacific, and explored a large part of the Ore- gon region. He had covered in all more than 4000 miles from the junction of the Missouri with the Mississippi. Having wintered in an entrenched camp on the south bank of the Columbia, he started eastward 23 March 1806, and arrived at Washington 14 Feb. 1807. He received a grant of land and was appointed governor of Louisiana, where he found much confusion, and where he was successful in re- storing order. He was a bold explorer, and familiar with Indian matters. He died by his own hand near Nashville, Tenn. Consult memoir by Biddle and Allen (new ed., 1843), and Lighton, ‘Lewis and Clark? (1901; River- side biography series). See also Lewis AND CLARK EXPEDITION. LEWIS, Morgan, American soldier and statesman: b. New York, 16 Oct. 1754; d. there, 7 April 1844. He was graduated from the Col- lege of New Jersey in 1773, studied law, in 1774 entered the Continental army, was com- missioned major in the 2d New York, later 335 became chief of staff to Gates with colonel’s rank, and quartermaster-general of the north- ern army. He commanded at Crown Point; and after the war entered legal practice in New York. Elected to the assembly, he also became judge of the Court of Common Pleas, attorney- general of New York, succeeding Aaron Burr (1791), judge of the Supreme Court (1792), chief justice of the court (1793) and governor (1804-07). In 1805 and 1806 he was governor of the State of New York, winning from Burr by a large majority. In 1810 he was elected to. the State senate, in 1812, after declining the portfolio of Secretary of War, became quarter- master-general of the armies of the United States, in 1813 was promoted. major-general, and was in command at Sackett’s Harbor and French Creek. He was president of the New York Historical Society, and president-general of the Cincinnati. In 1831 he was Grand Mas- ter of the Freemasons. LEWIS, Tayler, American author and edu- cator: b.. Northumberland, N. Y., 27 March 1802; d. Schenectady, N. Y., 11 May 1877. He was graduated at Union College in 1820; studied law in Albany and practised at Fort Miller, but soon gave nearly all his time to the study of classical literature. In 1838 he was appointed professor of Greek at the University of New York, and in 1849 accepted the same professor- ship: at Union College. He attained distinction as a philologist and in Christian apologetics. Besides contributing largely to periodicals, he published the following works: ‘The Nature and Ground of Punishment? (1844); ‘Plato contra Atheos? (1845); ‘The Six Days of Creation? (1855) ; ‘The Bible and Science? (1856) ; ‘The Divine Human in the Scriptures? (1860); ‘State Rights, a Photograph from the Ruins of Ancient Greece? (1864); and ‘The People of Africa, Their Character, Condition and Future Prospects,» with E. W. Blyden and Timothy Dwight (1871). He was a member of the Bible Revision Committee. LEWIS, or LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS, Scotland, the largest and most northerly of the Outer Hebrides, separated from the mainland by the Minch, a sea 30 to 35 miles wide. The northern larger portion, Lewis, is in Ross-shire, and is separated by a narrow neck from the southern portion, Harris, which belongs to Inverness-shire. The island occupies 770 square miles, is 60 miles long, varies in breadth from 5 to 30 miles and has a diversified surface which attains an elevation of over 2,700 feet. It is almost totally devoid of trees, contains a good deal of peat bog, less than 4 per cent of the soil being under cultivation. There are inter- esting monumental remains, including what is regarded as the finest example of a Druidic stone circle in Scotland. - Capital, Stornoway. Pop. of island about 34,319. ~ LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION, The, in American history, a celebrated expedi- tion to the northwestern part of the United States in 1803, under the command of Capt. Meriwether Lewis of Virginia and Capt. Wil- liam Clark, the results of which gave a more definite idea of our natural resources in this hitherto unexplored region than had ever been known. Recognizing the importance of a thor- ough and accurate knowledge of the vast extent of the country acquired by the United States 336 Thomas Jefferson, suggested to the with their independence, while Minister to France, traveler, America. Nothing came of it, however. In 1792 he made a similar proposition to the Amer- ican Philosophical Society (q.v.), and Michaux, the celebrated traveler and botanist, proceeded as far as Kentucky, when he was recalled by the French Minister. In January 1803, in a con- fidential message to the Congress, President efferson recommended an appropriation for this purpose. It was granted, and he appointed Lewis, who had been his private secretary nearly two years, to the command of the expedition along with Clark. Lewis, while nominally in command of the expedition, always regarded Clark as his official equal, and during the three years of trying experience the two men worked hand in hand toward their great object with increased friendship and respect for each other. Lewis left Washington on 5 July 1803 and was joined by Clark at the Ohio. The expedition was delayed at Pittsburgh till 31 August, then proceeded on its way toward the Mississippi, Lewis choosing volunteers from the military posts along the way. The intention had been to winter at La Charette, a French settlement on the Missouri, but owing to the advanced season the first winter camp was pitched at River Dubois, on the Mississippi, about opposite the mouth of the Missouri. On 9 March 1804 Lewis was one of the witnesses to the transfer of Upper Louisiana at Saint Louis; on 14 May 1804 he set out from River Dubois on the long _ journey up the Missouri. The party comprised in addition to Lewis and Clark three sergeants, twenty-three soldiers, three interpreters and Clark’s negro slave, York. Toward the end of October they reached the Mandan country and put up for winter quarters near the site of the present city of Bismarck, N. D., after a trouble- some journey of 1,600 miles, battling against the swift current, the snags of the river and its falling banks. Much of this distance Lewis traveled on foot, hunting, collecting specimens and making notes upon the country. The jour- ney was resumed 7 April 1805, and on the twenty-sixth the party reached the mouth of the Yellowstone, one or the other of the captains, usually Lewis, pushing ahead with hunters on foot to provide game for the camps and to examine the country. On 3 June they passed and named Maria’s River, and on the thirteenth came to Great Falls. Nearly a month was spent in making the portage, and on 25 July the party came to the triple fork of the Missouri. Nam- ing the three branches Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin, they proceeded up the Jefferson River, and on 12 August reached the head of naviga- tion. . Then marching across the Nez Percé trail, along the Bitter Root Mountains, came to the headwaters of the Clearwater branch of the Columbia. On 7 October they launched their canoes for the descent of this great river to the Pacific, which they reached 15 November. A fortified camp, called by the explorers Fort Clatsop, was pitched on the shore of Young’s Bay, and here with much hardship the winter was spent. The return journey was begun 23 March 1806, and on 8 May the headwaters of the Clearwater were reached. On the return journey the party divided and explored a large part of the present State of Montana, uniting again below the mouth of the Yellowstone, Ledyard, an exploration of western. LEWIS OVERTHRUST — LEWISHAM Rapidly descending the Missouri they arrived at Saint Louis, 23 Sept. 1806. Both Lewis and Clark kept elaborate and valuable journals. Unfortunately they were never to edit them. A paraphrase by Nicholas Biddle, a friend of Jefferson, appeared in 1814 and has run through many editions. Not until 1903 were these price- less papers published in their complete form, presenting the first authentic record of this ex- traordinary expedition. LEWIS OVERTHRUST, a large over- thrust fault (q.v.) in the front ranges of the Rocky Mountains along the Canadian boundary. The break in the rocks is nearly horizontal, and old rocks of pre-Cambrian (q.v.) Age have ‘been thrust horizontally out over younger rocks of Cretaceous Age for a distance of over five miles. The fault is well exposed in Glacier National park and vicinity, particularly on Chief Mountain, from which it is sometimes called the Chief Mountain Overthrust. LEWISBURG, li’is-bérg, Pa., borough, county-seat of Union County, on the Susque- hanna River and on the Philadelphia and Read- ing and the Pennsylvania railroads, about 50 miles north of Harrisburg. It is on the border of the great anthracite coal fields and in a fertile agricultural valley. Its chief manufac- tures are flour, lumber, furniture, shirts, woolen goods, machine- shop products and acetylene gas. Its trade is chiefly in its manufactured products and in grain and vegetables. It is the seat of. Bucknell University, opened in 1846 under the auspi¢es of the Baptists. Pop. (1920) 3,204, LEWISBURG, Battle of. On 21 May 1862 General Heth, with a Confederate force of three regiments of infantry, a battalion of dismounted men, a regiment of cavalry and three batteries, aggregating about 2,200 men, marched from Salt Sulphur Springs, Va., on Lewisburg, 24 miles distant, to surprise Col. George Crook who was encamped at that place with about 1,500 men. Heth marched through Union, crossed Greenbrier River, driving in Crook's pickets, and at 5 a.m. of the 23d formed line on a hill east of the town, Crook’s camp being on the west side. Crook threw out a well-supported skirmish line, which soon en- gaged Heth’s advance; Heth at first had some success, but was gradually forced back; Crook charged his main line; a panic seized Heth’s troops and they fled from the field in disorder, retreating across the Greenbrier and burning the bridge behind them. Heth left on the field 38 dead and 66 wounded, 4 guns and over 200 stand of small arms. Over 100 of his un- wounded men were captured. Crook’s loss was 13 killed, 53 wounded and 7 missing. Consult ‘Official Records? (Vol. XII); The Century Company’s atti and Leaders of the Civil War? (Vol. IT). LEWISHAM, England, a metropolitan and parliamentary borough of London, four miles southeast of Saint Paul’s. Area, 7,014 acres. It is a favorite residential district and contains the great open common of Blackheath, which is | replete with historical intefest. There are large nurseries in the borough. The Horninian Mu- seum is located on Forest Hill, and Morden’s College, a 17th century foundation, on the south of Blackheath. The borough returns one member to Parliament. Pop. 160,834. Consult LEWISOHN — Hasted, ‘History of Kent and the Hundred of Blackheath.” LEWISOHN, Adolph, American philan- thropist: b. Hamburg, Germany, 27 May 1849. Coming to New York in 1865, where his elder brother, Leonard, merchant and philanthropist (b. Hamburg, 10 Oct. 1847; d. London, 5 March 1902), had preceded him a few years, the firm of Lewisohn Brothers was formed in 1866. In 1868 they specialized in metals, particularly copper, in which line they became leaders in the markets of the world. After his brother’s death, Adolph Lewisohn headed prominent organizations in finance and metal industry and rapidly became identified with vital movements in philanthropy and social betterments, his character and services being recognized by his appointment on important national and _ local commissions. He gave $300,000 for the School of Mines building at Columbia University; also a German library and a stadium to the College of the City of New York; as president of the Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society kas been lavish in his gifts, and is a generous donor to all worthy causes. LEWISTON, Me., the second city in size in the State, 35 miles north of Portland, on the east bank of the Androscoggin River, and on the line of the Maine Central and Grand Trunk railways; incorporated a town 18 Feb. 1795, with a population of 600; incorporated as a city 15 March 1861, with a population of 7,500, and organized 16 March 1863. This city is located in the heart of the Androscoggin Val- ley, a fertile and prosperous agricultural dis- trict. The city of Auburn, with a population of about 15,000, is located immediately opposite on the westerly bank of the river and the four cities are connected by four beautiful and com- modious iron bridges, making them practically one community with a combined population of. 41,311. The railroad connections and facilities are of the best. Three great lines of steam railways converge here,—the Maine Central, Grand Trunk and the Portland and Rumford Falls. The Maine Central runs west of. Port- land and the seaboard, there connecting by water routes with Boston, New York and all Southern ports, and by rail over the Boston and Maine with Boston, New York and all points south and west, and running east to Bangor, Saint John and the Maritime Provinces. The same road has local branches extending to Franklin and Somerset counties on the north, Augusta, the capital of the State, and the Ken- nebec Valley on the east, and again connecting with the seaboard on the south at Bath and Rockland. The Grand Trunk also extends from here westerly to Portland and northerly to Montreal, thence to Chicago and the far West. The*Portland and Rumford Falls runs north- erly through the beautiful Oxford region to Rumford Falls, thence into the heart of the celebrated Rangeley Lakes district, one of the finest fishing and game preserves in the coun- try. Lewiston is the electric railroad centre of the State of Maine. The Lewiston, Augusta and Waterville Street Railway, one of the lar- gest electric road systems in the State, radiates from this centre, extending southerly to the seacoast at Bath and easterly to Augusta and Waterville. The Portland-Lewiston Interurban Electric Railway runs from Lewiston to Port- YGL. 17 — 22 LEWISTON 337 land and is generally recognized as one of the best equipped electric railroads in the country. Manufactures.—Although located in a fer- tile agricultural district, Lewiston is distinctly a manufacturing city. The Androscoggin River here has a fall of 50 feet and furnishes one of the most extensive water powers in the coun- try. This power is utilized by means of an immense system of distributing dams and canals. The amount of power at the falls is 13,000 horse power. About two and one-half miles up river an immense dam has been con- structed which adds 10,000 horse power, making in all 23,000 horse power available for use; the latter 10,000 horse power is made available for use by electricity and is so distributed. The city’s largest single industry is the manufacture of cotton cloth. Some of the largest manufactur- ing plants in the country are located here, and their various products are found in nearly all the markets of the world. Among them are the Bates Manufacturing Company, capital $1,200,- 000, operating 2,250 looms and 82,376 spindles; the Hill Manufacturing Company, capital $750,000, operating 1,912 looms and_ 80,016 spindles; the Androscoggin Mills, capital $1,- 000,000, operating 80,000 spindles and 2,206 looms; the Continental Mills, with 2,619 looms and 94,688 spindles; the Avon Mill with 126 looms and 6,160 spindles; the Libby and Ding- ley Company, capital $300,000, with 18,000 spindles. Their products are ginghams, bed spreads, fine dress goods, seersuckers, fancy shirtings and colored cottons, sheetings, twills, jeans, grain bags, drills, momie cloths, fine and coarse yarns, quilts, linen and cotton towelings, scarfs and table covers. There are three woolen mills located here—the Columbia Mills, oper- ating 8 sets of machinery, 94 looms and a dye house; the Cowan Woolen Company, 8 sets of machinery, 46 looms and does it own dyeing; the Cumberland Mill, with 7 sets of machinery and 76 looms. The products of the woolen mills are blanket wrappers, cheviots, cassimeres, repellants and meltonettes. One of the largest and most noted bleacheries and dye works in the United States, the Lewiston Bleachery and Dye Works, is located here. Its capital is $300,000; its business, bleaching and dyeing cotton cloth. In addition to the textile manufacturing in- dustries there are other small industries, the products of which are machinery and mill sup- plies for cotton and woolen mills, engines, boilers, brick, lumber, carriages, clothing, foundry products and agricultural implements. Banks.— There are two national banks, two savings banks and one trust and safe deposit company. The capital stock of the two na- tional banks and the trust company is $675,000, surplus $286,830.46. The deposits in the sav- ings banks and the trust company are $4,805,805. Government and Finances.— The govern- ment is vested by charter in a mayor, board of aldermen and common council. The mayor is elected by the entire vote of the city, while one alderman and three councilmen are elected from each of the seven wards into which the city is divided. All are elected annually on the first Monday of March and hold their offices for the term of one year. The administrative offices are partly appointed by the mayor subject to confirmation by the board of aldermen and partly elected by the city council, the latter body 338 being composed of the board of aldermen and common councilmen. The schools are under the jurisdiction of a superintending school committee of 14 members,— two elected by the voters of each ward and holding their offices for the term of two years. The public water- works are under a board of water commis- sioners consisting of seven members, one elected annually in March by the city council under authority of a State law, and holding office for a term of six years. The mayor is ex officio a member of the board. The fire department is under the control of a board of commissioners consisting of five members, the mayor being a member ex officio. The board is created by a State law and one member is elected annually in March by the city council and holds office for a term of four years. The highways, bridges and sewers are under the control of a board of public works created by State law and consisting of seven members, of which the mayor is a member ex officio. One member is elected by the city council annually in February and the term of office is six years. The city owns its own waterworks. The supply is abundant, unusually pure and healthful and is taken from Lake Auburn, a beautiful and picturesque pond fed by springs: and located in the city of Auburn, about four and one-half miles from Lewiston. This city was the first in the United States to own and operate its own street lighting plant. The undertaking has proved a great success and many other cities in ~ the country have since adopted the plan. The total assessed valuation of real and personal property in 1915 was $18,907,701; rate of taxa- tion $19.20 on each $1,000 of valuation; total municipal bonded debt $990,500; floating debt $221,396. Churches and Charitable Institutions.— There are 12 churches in the city, some of which are imposing edifices. Four are Roman Catholic, one Episcopal, one Baptist, one Friends, one Congregational, two Free Baptist, two Methodist and one Universalist. There is also a Jewish synagogue. Two of the Catho- lic churches, Saint Joseph’s and Saint Patrick’s, are supported principally by Irish-American Catholics, while the third, Saint Peter’s, is com- posed in membership of French-Canadian citi- zens who number about 13,000 people in this city. In connection with the Catholic churches are maintained four large Catholic parochial schools, with a total membership of 2,239 scholars. These schools are under the superin- tendence of the parish priests and are taught by the Sisters of Charity. Of the charitable institutions the more notable are the Sisters’ Orphanage, the Healy Asylum, the Young Women’s Home, the Home for Aged Women. There are two hospitals. in. the city,— the Central Maine General’ Hospital and. the hos- pital of the Sisters of Charity. Both receive substantial aid fromthe State. The Central Maine General Hospital is located in the heart of the city at the corner of Main and Ham- mond. streets. The hospital of the Sisters of Charity is on Sabattus street, just at the edge of the thickly settled part of the city. Both hospitals are in elegant locations, and occupy imposing brick structures, commodious, well lighted and ventilated, with all modern appoint- ments and improvements. and high grade medi- LEWISTON cal staff. The Sisters’ hospital is in charge of the Sisters of Charity, but is absolutely non- _ sectarian, its doors being open to all alike. Education.— The public school system of the city is of the best and a source of pride to its citizens. The city gives an absolutely free education to its pupils from the kindergarten to the completion of the high school course. Its school buildings are numerous, conveniently located, with all the usual modern appoint- ments, some of the more recently constructed being among the best in tlhe State. A new high school building was recently erected at a cost of $75,000. The total value of the school property owned by the city is over $300,000. The corps of teachers is selected with great care and a high standard of efficiency is re- quired by the superintending school board. The results are highly satisfactory. In addi- tion to the public schools are the Catholic parochial schools, where a high standard of thoroughness in instruction is maintained. Bates College is also located here. It is a co- educational institution and was the first col- lege in New England to open its doors to women. The college is in a flourishing condi- tion. It has 15 excellent buildings, a faculty of 19 full professors, one assistant professor, five graduate instructors, two directors of phy- sical training and a dean for the women of the college with the standing of a professor and a student body of 472. Miscellaneous.— The city has five excellent hotels, commodious, comfortable and well ap- pointed: four fine theatres, a splendid public library, a beautiful city hall, a new United States post office building and a handsome pub- lic park, two live and ably conducted. daily newspapers and one weekly, a_ progressive board of. trade, and a population of thrifty, industrious, law-abiding and order-loving peo- ple. Pop. (1920) 31,791. D. J. McGILiicuppy. LEWISTON, N. Y., village, in Niagara County, on the Niagara River, and on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, seven miles north of Niagara Falls, and about 25 miles north of Buffalo. It has communica- tion by steamer with a large number of lake ports, and is the terminus of a line connecting with Toronto. The famous Gorge Route from Niagara Falls, traversed by an electric trolley line, connects at Lewiston by a suspension bridge with Queenstown. Canada, and other points of interest in the vicinity are the Devii’s Hole and Bloody Run, Rumsay park, and the Tuscarora Indian Reservation. The place where Lewiston now stands was the site of an Indian village. In 1720 the French took pos- session of the place, and built a blockhouse, but abandoned it in a few years, when it was again occupied by the Indians. Joseph Brant’s home was in this vicinity. On 14 Sept. 1763 occurred the Indian massacre at Bloody Run, a place near Lewiston. The first white settlement was made about 1800, and in 1818 the town was incorporated, and in 1843 the village. On 19 Dec. 1813, Lewiston was one of the towns burned by the English and Indians, in retalia- tion for the burning of Newark (now Niagara), Canada West, by the Irish-Ameri- can General McClure; numbers of innocent per- sons perished on both sides. The place is now LEWISTOWN a favorite summer resort. There is a public library. Pop. about 713. Consult Pool, ‘Land- marks of Niagara County? (Syracuse 1897). LEWISTOWN, II1., city, county-seat of Ful- ton County, on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the Fulton County Narrow Gauge railroads, about 50 miles southwest of Peoria, and 60 miles north-northwest of Springfield, the State capital. It is situated in an agricultural region and is the trade centre of a large part of the county. Its chief manufactures are car- riages and wagons, flour, lumber, brick, tile, furniture, bee traps, cigars, concrete blocks and dairy products. Livestock and farm products are shipped from Lewistown to the large markets. It contains a Carnegie library and owns the waterworks. Pop. (1920) 2,279. LEWISTOWN, Mont., city and county- seat of Fergus County, 120. miles southeast of Great Falls, on the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul and the Great Northern railroads, and on Spring Creek. It is a manufacturing, mining, farming and stock-raising centre. It has flour mills, brick yards and creameries,’a Carnegie’ library, Catholic hospital, four banks, city hall, courthouse, seven_ schools and a high school. Gold and coal are the prin- cipal objects of the mining interests. The waterworks are owned by the municipality. Because of its central location in the Great Judith Basin it is an important trade centre. The assessed valuation of its property is $3- 283,000, while the estimated real valuation is $15,000,000. Pop. (1920) 9,000. LEWISTOWN, Pa., borough, county-seat of Mifflin County, on the Juniata River, and on the Pennsylvania Railroad and on the Pennsyl- vania Canal, about 60 miles northwest of Har- risburg, the State capital. There is a hos- pital and a public library. It is situated in a fertile agricultural region in which are valu- able mineral deposits, especially of iron and glass sand. Lewiston is a trade centre for an extensive farming section; but it is also a manufacturing borough. The chief manufac- tures are steel, iron, flour, leather, lumber, foundry and machine- shop products, silk, edge- tools, hosiery, hydrants and pumps. Lewis- town and vicinity are now favorite summer resorts. Pop. 9,849. LEXICOGRAPHY. See Dictionary. ' LEXINGTON, Ky., city and county-seat of Fayette County, metropolis of the famous Blue Grass section, is on the Southern, the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Queen and Crescent and the Louisville and Nashville railroads, with 42 passenger trains daily, and is connected with five Blue Grass county seats by interurban railways with hourly service; is located at intersection of four national highways — Dixie, ' Jackson, Boone Way and Midland Trail; about 82 miles south of Cincinnati, Ohio, and about 22 miles southeast of Frankfort, the capital of the State; has a shopping population of 500,000 people within a radius of 50 miles; is the largest wholesale distributing centre in central and eastern Kentucky; is the gateway to the rich mining section of Kentucky. The first settlement was claimed by a party of hunters, who, in 1775, camped at this place and named ‘it Lexington in honor of the battle of Lexing- — LEXINGTON 339 ton. They built a log cabin on the site so as to leave a proof of their ownership. Four years later Robert Patterson, one of the hunt- ing party, made here a permanent settlement. Three years afterward the town was incorpo- rated by the legislature of Virginia, as this section was then a part of Virginia. In 1792, when Kentucky became independent of Vir- ginia, Lexington was made the capital of Ken- tucky, and the first Kentucky legislature met in this city. The city was granted a charter in 1832. / Lexington is located in a fertile agri- cultural section; has the largest loose leaf tobacco market in the world, which is one of its largest assets, the sales amounting to about $5,000,000 annually ; is surrounded by the finest and most celebrated stock farms in the world; has the fastest trotting track in the world: has more than $250,000 annual in- come from the training stables of the trotting and running tracks. Its chief manufactures are bagging, rope, harnesses, saddlery, flour, canned goods, lumber, carriages and wagons. Some of the important institutions are Uni- versity of Kentucky, Sayre College, Hamilton College, Saint Catherine’s Academy, State Agri- cultural and Mechanical College, Kentucky Re- form School, Chandler Normal School (negro) ; 12 public schools. It has the Eastern State Hospital for the Insane, Saint Joseph’s Hos- pital, Good Samaritan Hospital and Colored Industria! Home. It has an excellent public library. Henry Clay made this city his home from 1797 until his death. Pop. 41,500. LEXINGTON, Mass., town, in Middlesex County, on the Boston and Maine Railroad, about 12 miles northwest of Boston. The town contains the villages of Lexington, East Lex- ington and North Lexington. Lexington was settled in 1642, was long known as “Cambridge Farms,” and was incorporated as a town in 1713. It was the scene of the first conflict between the colonists and the British troops in the Revolutionary War, on 19 April 1775. Lex- ington is situated in an agricultural region, and its industries are connected chiefly with the products of the farms and the trade neces- sary for supplying local wants, but is chiefly a residential town. It contains many points of interest, some of which are the first battle- ground of the Revolutionary War; the monu- ment commemorative of this battle; the Mon- roe Tavern, built in 1695, which was Earl Percy’s headquarters ; the old Belfry, here was hung the bell giving ‘the alarm that the British were coming, and the Hancock-Clarke house (1698), where Samuel Adams and Hancock lodged the night before the battle. The last- mentioned building is now used as a museum for Revolutionary and early settlement. relics. The town has recently acquired and added to the battlefield, or “Common,” the Buckman tavern and three acres of land. This tavern was used as the Minutemen’s headquarters 19 April 1775. A number of monuments in honor of the men and events which made Lexington famous adorn the city, also the first normal school built in America. It contains the Cary Library with nearly 25,000 volumes; a fine high school, the Hancock and Adams grammar schools, a town hall and a number of fine churches and elegant residences. The old bury- ing ground, visited annually by hundreds of 340 people, is mute witness of the noble people who have lived in this town. Pop. (1920) 6,340. LEXINGTON, Mo., city, county-seat of Lafayette County, on the Missouri River, and on the Missouri Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé railroads, about 63 miles southeast of Saint Joseph and 39 miles east of Kansas City. The first permanent settlement was in 1825, and it, was incorporated in 1830. Lexington was the scene of a siege in 1861, when a Confederate force of 18,000 under Gen. Sterling Price attacked the city, which was defended by a Federal force of 3,000 men under Col. James Mulligan. The Federals sur- rendered on 20 Sept. 1861, but Price left the place a few days later, and put on guard a small force. On 16 October, a Federal force of 230 men under Maj. J. White entered the city, released the Union prisoners and took the Confederates captive. The city is in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, and is the largest single coal mining point in Mis- souri. Lexington is the seat of the Central College for Women, the Lexington College for Young Women and the Wentworth Military Academy. Pop. (1920) 4,695. LEXINGTON, Va., town, county-seat of Rockbridge County, on the north fork of the James River, and on the Baltimore and Ohio and the Chesapeake and Ohio railroads, about 110 miles west by north from Richmond, and 44 miles northwest of Lynchburg. It is in a _rich farming valley west of the Blue Ridge. Valuable deposits of sulphur ore are in the vicinity. The chief manufactures are dairy products, agricultural implements, flour and lumber. ‘The city owns and operates the water- works. The water is brought some distance from springs in the mountains. Lexington is the seat of the Virginia Military Institute, opened in 1839, and the Washington and Lee University (q.v.). Generals Jackson and Lee are buried here, and statues have been erec- ted in their memory. The Jackson Memo- rial Hospital and Lee Memorial Church are also noteworthy. The mineral springs in the vicinity are becoming popular resorts; the Natural Bridge (q.v.), one of the natural curi- osities of America, is about 15 miles south, separated from Lexington by low mountains or hills. Pop. (1920) 2,870. LEXINGTON, Siege of. After the battle of Wilson’s Creek (q.v.), Mo., 10 Aug. 1861, Gen. Sterling Price, abandoned by McCulloch and his troops, appealed to the secessionists of Missouri to fill his depleted ranks; ard about the middle of August he moved northward toward the Missouri River, skirmished with a force under Gen. J. H. Lane, 7 September, at Dry Wood Creek, drove Lane out of the State, and followed as far as Fort Scott, which had been abandoned. On the 10th he was at Rose Hill, from where he marched for War- rensburg, which was reached on the 11th, Pea- body’s 13th Missouri at that place retreating to Lexington. When Fremont, at Saint Louis, heard of Price’s northward movement, he or- dered to Lexington a force which, when Price arrived at Warrensburg, numbered 2,800 men, with seven 6-pounder guns, under command of Col. James Mulligan, 23d Illinois. Mulligan took position and threw up entrenchments on College Hill, a bluff 200 feet above low-water ‘brick building erected for a college. LEXINGTON — LEXINGTON AND CONCORD ( mark, northeast of the city, overlooking it and the Missouri, and on which was a substantial Imme- diately in front of the college was the first line of works, outside of which was a broad ditch, and beyond were “confusion” pits. On the morning of the 11th Price marched from Warrensburg toward Lexington, and _ that night, after a march of 30 miles, halted three miles fromthe city, where he rested until dawn, when he drove in Mulligan’s pickets, and from four different points opened a can- nonade upon. the hastily constructed works around the college. After several sharp en- counters the Confederates captured some out- works and drove Mulligan’s men behind the main line. At the end of the day Price with- drew to the fair ground, two miles away, to await reinforcements afid ammunition. Mul- ligan, looking for reinforcements, strengthened his position and prepared for a siege. Price was anxious because he knew of the approach of Union troops to relieve Lexington; but being reinforced to 25,000 men, and his ammunition coming up, he again moved on the city on the 18th, took possession, closed in upon Mulligan and began a siege. Rains’ and Parsons’ divi- sions occupied strong positions on the east, northeast and southwest of the works; Rives’ division, supported by McBride’s command and a part of Harris’, moved along the river bank to a point immediately beneath Mulligan’s works; fire was opened upon the Confederates from a dwelling on the bluff, 125 yards from the works; upon which the Confederates charged and took the house, and also the bluff immediately north of it. A gallant counter- charge by Captain Gleason, with 80 men of the 23d Illinois, retook the house, but it was soon regained, and the adjoining heights fortified. Firing continued all day of the 19th; water gave out, but Mulligan encouraged his men to hold on until help arrived. On the morning of the 20th Price caused to be taken to the. river heights a number of hemp-bales, with which movable breastworks were constructed. These were rolled forward; under cover of them the Confederates moved to within 10 rods of the works; and at 2 p.M., after over two days’ continuous fighting, Mulligan’s men being without water or rations and short of ammuni- tion, a white flag was displayed, and Price ordered a cessation of firing. Mulligan had lost 42 killed and 108 wounded, and surren- dered 1,624 men, 7 guns, many horses and a large amount of stores. Price reported a loss of 25 killed and 72 wounded. Price remained at Lexington until 30 September, when, pressed by the Union advance from Jefferson City, he abandoned the place and retreated toward Arkansas, leaving a guard of 500 men with the prisoners taken. On 16 October a squadron of cavalry under Maj. F. J. White surprised the party, captured 70 and released the prison- ers. Consult ‘Official Records? (Vol. III); The Century Company’s ‘Battles and Leaders of the Civil War? (Vol. I). E. A. CARMAN. LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, Battles of, in the American Revolution. Learning that the colonists had collected a quantity of mili- tary stores at Concord, Mass., Gen. Thomas Gage (q.v.), commander of the British troops LEXOW — at Boston, sent 800 troops under Lieut.-Col. Francis Smith and Maj. John Pitcairn (q.v.) to seize these stores. The colonists were warned of the expedition by William Dawes and Paul Revere (q.v.) and on their arrival at Lexington early on the morning of 19 April 1775 the British found about 70 minute-men under Capt. John Parker assembled to dispute their progress. Pitcairn ordered the provin- cials to disperse and, on their refusal, fired into them, then ordering the troops to open fire. The colonists returned the fire and re- treated, leaving eight dead on the field. The British next proceeded to Concord, destroyed several pieces of cannon and some stores and prepared to retire to Boston. A body of col- onists under Maj. John Buttrick offered re- sistance and firing was begun, resulting in a few casualties on both sides. The country having been aroused, armed men rushed to the scene so that the British were assailed from all sides. Meanwhile, having been informed of the skirmish at Lexington and fearing disaster to his troops, Gage rushed 900 infantry under Lord Percy to Smith’s aid. Being reinforced and provided with artillery the British were able to check the colonists, since the latter could not approach close, owing to the can- non fire. Nevertheless they continued to fol- low and harass the British until they had reached a point too close to the city for their own safety and accordingly abandoned the pursuit. _ Shortly after sunset the British reached Bunker Hill in a state of utter ex- haustion. Though estimates of the colonists engaged vary from 250 to 20,000, probably not more than 400 or 500 were actually en- gaged at any one time. The British loss was 73 killed, 174 wounded and 26 prisoners; 49 Americans were killed, 39 were wounded and 5 were reported as missing. On hearing of the battles, thousands of colonists hastened toward Boston and soon that city was alert state of siege, culminating in the battle of Bunker Hill (q.v.), the regular investment of Boston, the occupation of Dorchester Heights (q.v.) and the subsequent evacuation of the city by the British. Consult Frothingham, Richard, ‘The Siege of Boston; Force, Peter, ‘American Archives? (4th series, Vol. Il); Lossing, B. J., ‘Field-Book of the Revolu- tion? (Vol.-I, p. 523 et seq.) ; Heath, William, -“Memoirs?; Thacher, James, ‘Military Jour- nal?; Fisher, Sidney G., ‘Struggle for Amer- ican Independence”? (Vol. I, pp. 300-308) ; Gage’s ‘Circumstantial Account? (in Mass. Hist. Coll., 2d series, Vol. II); accounts of the actions by Isaiah Thomas, Elias Phinney, Ezra Ripley and Lemuel Shattuck; and biog- raphies of those engaged. LEXOW, 1ék’sow, Clarence, American lawyer and politician: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 16 Sept. 1852; d. 1910. He studied abroad and at the Columbia Law School, where he was grad- uated in 1872. He was admitted to the bar and established practice 1n New York city, receiv- ing a large German-American patronage and engaging in many important litigations. In - 1882 he became a resident of Nyack and was active in the Republican party there. In 1890 he was an unsuccessful nominee for Congress, but lowered the usual Democratic majority. In LEYDEN 341 1893 he was elected to the State senate where he served till 1898. Here he at once became a leader, was chairman of the committee on. in- ternal affairs and introduced the bi-partisan po- lice bill calling for an investigation of the New York city police. This led to the appointment of the so-called “Lexow Committee,» of which he was head; the investigations of this commit- tee brought to light the system of protection of vice by the police in New York and were the direct cause of the reform campaign and the election of Mayor Strong. Lexow was also the introducer of the bill creating the city of Greater New York, was chairman of the joint legislative committee for the investigation of trusts and unlawful combinations, of the com- mittee on primary elections reform and of the judiciary committee. In 1896 he was chairman of the committee on resolutions at the Republi- can State convention and introduced the gold standard plank in the platform; in 1900 he was a presidential elector. He is author of reports on ‘Municipal Government? (5 vols., 1895) and on ‘Trusts and Unlawful Combinations? (1895). LEYDEN, li’dén, or LEIDEN, Nether-. lands, an important town in the province of South Holland, 22 miles by rail southwest of Amsterdam, on both sides of the Old Rhine, which flows through the town by several branches. The ‘neighborhood is marked’ by wind-mills, country-seats, pleasure-grounds, gardens and fertile meadows, and street rail- roads connect with the bathing resort of Kat- wyk, five miles to the northwest on the North Sea. The streets are straight, broad and clean; Broad street (Breede-straat) being esteemed one of the finest in Europe. In it is situated the town-hall (Stadhuis), originally founded toward the end of the 16th century, a pictur- esque building, with 30 windows in a line in front, a tall spire and three highly-ornamented projecting gables. In the council-chamber are the painting of the ‘Last Judgment,? by Lucas van Leyden, and several good ‘historical por- traits; in part of the lower floor is situated the meat market. None of the churches are re- markable; the Reformed church of Saint Peter contains monuments to Boerhaave, Span- heim, Scaliger, etc. The most important educa- tional institution is the university founded in 1575, formerly one of the most famed in Eu- rope, especially for law, and still tm excellent repute. It is attended by 1,500 students. Con- nected with the university are a well-laid-out botanic garden, an observatory, a library of 400,000 volumes, with over 3,000 ° maps and nearly 7,000 MSS., many of priceless value, an anatomical theatre and museum of compara- tive anatomy, one of the richest collections of natural history in existence, cabinet of coins, museum of antiquities and a rich Japanese mu- seum. Leyden was noted for its cloth manu- factures, which after 1670 declined, but have revived in recent years. There are also various other branches of manufacture and the former great trade in books, carried on in the latter part of the 17th and during the greater part of the 18th century and rendered world-renowned by the Elzevirs, is represented by several print- ing offices. There is an extensive trade in agri- cultural produce, especially cheese and butter. \Pop. 59,207. The most memorable event in 342 the history of Leyden is the successful siege it maintained against the Spaniards in 1573-74 until relieved by the action of the Prince of Orange in breaking down the dikes. Leyden is the birthplace of John of Leyden, the founder of the Anabaptists; Camper, Muschen- broeck, the brothers Gerard and Isaac Vossius, Gronovius, Rembrandt, Luke of Leyden, the brothers Van der Velde, Gerard Douw, etc. It is of interest to Americans as the asylum from 1609 to 1620 of the persecuted English non- conformists, the Pilgrim Fathers, founders of the New England States. LEYDEN JAR. See ELECTRICITY. LEYS, Henri Jean Auguste, On-ré zhon G-gust lis, or 14, Baron, Belgian painter: b. Antwerp, 18 Feb. 1815; d. there, 25 Aug. 1869. He worked from 1829 to 1832 in the studio of his brother-in-law, Ferdinand de Braekeleer, and in 1833 exhibited in Brussels ‘Fight Be- tween a French Grenadier and a Cossack.» He attracted still further attention by his picture ‘Fight of Burgundian and Flemish Soldiers. His style changed after his visit to Paris (1835) ; during which he confined himself to a study of the French Romantic school. . Yet while the modern manner is discernible in his works, he shows himself also under the influence of Van Dyck and Rembrandt in such pictures as ‘Flemish Wedding? ; ‘A Painter’s Studio? ; ‘A Family Party in Brittany?; ‘Burgomaster Six at Rubens’ House,’ etc. In 1839 he still fur- ther modified his manner after traveling in Holland and familiarizing himself with the Dutch genre painters. It was certainly under their inspiration that he painted such pictures as ‘A Family Party? (1845); ‘Divine Services in Holland? (1850), etc. After completing his travels in Holland he still further changed his style and painted in the bizarre style of Quen- tin Matsys, whose naiveté and uncouthness he also reproduced. In 1863 he received a com- mission to decorate with frescoes the town-hall of Antwerp, and this he fulfilled by producing a fine series of scenes from the history of the city. He was also an etcher, lithographer and wood engraver of acknowledged skill. (7th ed., New York 1904) ; Townshend, ‘Treatise on the Wrongs Called Slander and Libel? (4th ed, New York 1890). LIBERAL PARTY, in politics, the party which claims to be distinctively that of reform and progress with a view to increased political power of the people, and to extending privileges to the masses. Most European countries have ‘a Liberal party, but in several of them, such as Germany, Belgium and France, liberalism has lost heavily owing to the rapid spread of Social- ist doctrines, which involve economic and in- dustrial rather than political reform. In Great Britain, Liberal and Conservative ministries follow each other at irregular intervals, and on the whole the system has worked well. The greatest of modern Liberal leaders was Glad- stone, but his introduction, in 1886, of the Irish Home Rule and Land Purchase bills alienated many of his supporters, and led to the forma- tion of the Liberal Unionist party. On the question of the war policy in South Africa in 1899-1901 the Liberal opposition was split into several groups, such as the Liberal Imperial- ists, who supported the government; the so- called “pro-Boer” Liberals, who opposed the war throughout; and those who tried to com- bine both policies, LIBERAL REPUBLICAN PARTY, in American politics, a party organized in 1872 by Republicans, who were dissatisfied with Gen- eral Grant’s first administration as President. At a convention held by them in Cincinnati, in that year, Carl Schurz was elected its president, and a platform adopted demanding civil service reform, local. self-government. and universal amnesty, recognizing the equality of all men, recommending the resumption of specie pay- ment, etc. Horace Greeley and B. Gratz Brown were named for President and Vice-President. This platform and these nominations were adopted by the regular Democratic convention of that year, but dissensions arose, and other candidates were nominated, the result being that the Republican nominee, General Grant, was elected by an overwhelming majority and the Liberal Republican party was thereafter practically dead. The real strength of the LIBERAL PARTY — LIBERIA party lay in its presidential candidate, Horace Greeley, who had a large following, particularly of the farming element throughout the coun- try, which was secured through the large and widespread circulation of the New York Weekly Tribune, of which Greeley was the editor. Among those connected eat the party were Charles Francis Adams, Lyman Trum- bull, David Davis, Horace White and David A. Wells. Consult Fess,:.9.., \D.94,), PUIStOny OF Political Theory and Party Organization i in the United, States? (Boston, 1910); Hart, A. B., “Cyclopedia of American Government? (New York:, 1914) ;,. Woodburn, _ J. _A., »‘Political Parties in the United States? (ib. 1903) ; Dun- ning, W. A., ‘Reconstruction? (ib. 1907) ; eae 1s F., ‘History of the United States? 1906 LIBERAL UNIONIST PARTY, in Brit- ish politics, a party formed in 1886 by. the Lib- erals under the leadership of the Marquis of Hartington who objected to Gladstone’s Irish Government and Land Purchase bills, as being dangerous to the empire. They gained their immediate object by coalescing with the Con- servatives, and in the election which followed the defeat of the Gladstonian ministry they suc- ceeded in returning some 80 members to Par- liament. They have since acted with the Con- servatives. LIBERATOR, The. LIAM LLoyp. LIBERIA, a republic on the west coast of Africa; the only part of the continent remain- ing in Negro hands and under Negro control. Situated in what was formerly known as Up- per Guinea, it extends for some 350 miles along the coast, from ‘Mano River on the west to the Cavalla River on the east. It is between long. 7° 38, amd 41°- 32. Wand lat, 47 22asani ee N. Its area is approximately 43,000 square miles, a little more than that of the State of Ohio. It is bounded on the west by the Brit- ish colony of Sierra Leone and on the north and east by French possessions. The coast is low, through most of its length a narrow sandy beach, interrupted at only three points by ele- vations. Five-sixths of the area of Liberia is covered with dense tropical forest; there are mountains in the interior of the east half; the Mandingo Plateau.in the northwest is grass- land. There are no good harbors. There are more than 30 rivers, most of which have no navigation value; the Saint Paul with the Me- surado is navigable to White Plains, a distance of 20miles, and the Cavalla is practicable for boats of some size for about 80 miles. The cli- mate of Liberia is tropical with a short dry season from December to February, inclusive, and a cooler wet season; on the Mandingo Plateau the dry season extends from November to May. Liberia was acquired by the American Colonization Society, founded in 1817, for the purpose of colonizing free blacks from the Uni- ted States. The first company of colonists was sent out in February 1820 on the Elizabeth. During the next 25 years 4,500 more colo- nists were sent over by the society and auxili- ary organizations. The government of the Uni- ted States was favorable to the enterprise and at times gave active assistance. While the colo- nists suffered severely from the climate and at times had difficulty with the natives, they made See GARRISON, WIL- LIBERIUS — LIBERTINES a number of settlements on the coast and on the lower reaches of some of the rivers. The name Liberia was officially adopted in 1824 and at the same time the name of the chief, settle- ment was changed to Monrovia. The names were suggested by Colonel Harper of Mary- land who was prominent in the work of the so- ciety. Liberia referred to the free status of the colonists, Monrovia honored the then Presi- dent of the United States, James Monroe. At first under an agent, later under a governor ap- pointed by the society, the settlers developed a practical governmental organization and, in 1838, adopted the official title “Commonwealth of Liberia” To secure the funds for adminis- tration, duties and port-dues were instituted. These led to trouble with the British govern- ment which could not recognize sovereign pow- ers in “a mere commercial experiment of a philanthropic society» Consequently it was de- cided best that the relation between the colony and the society should cease. A declaration of independence and a constitution were adopted on 26 July 1847 and the republic of Liberia came into existence. The first President was Joseph J. Roberts, himself a colonist, who was the last governor under the society. The new nation was promptly recognized by Great Bri- tain (1848) and France (1852); other nations made recognition during the next few years; the United States did so in 1862, Abraham Lin- coln being President. At first the term of Li- beria’s President was two years, but it has been extended to four. President and Vice-President are elected; there are two legislative bodies: House of Representatives and Senate; the Su- preme Court consists of three justices; the Cab- inet includes seven members, heads of depart- ments of State, Treasury, Justice, War and ~ Navy, Interior, Post Office and Public Instruc- tion. The franchise is confined to males, of at least 21 years of age, owners of real property. Only persons of negro blood may be citizens. The population of Liberia is uncertain: it is made up of three quite distinct classes — Amer- ico-Liberians in the settlements, coast natives who come into contact with the Liberian gov- ernment and with traders and other Europeans, and the natives of the interior; there are per- baps 20,000, 60,000 and 1,500,000 respectively. These figures are, however, crude estimates to which little weight can be attached. Up to the present, the Liberian settlements have been al- most exclusively occupied in trade; agriculture has been little developed and there is practi- cally no manufacturing. The country is rich in natural resources. Palm oil, palm nuts, pias- sava fibre and rubber are the leading exports. Liberian coffee once had a good market, but has lost its importance. Fine woods and gums will be in course of time a source of wealth. Plantations of rubber and coffee and mines of gold are under development, chiefly by British and German enterprise. Liberia has had boundary troubles with both of her neighbors and has already lost territory to both Great Britain and France. Difficulties came to a head about 1908, when she sent a commission to the United States appealing for aid. A commission of investigation was appointed by our govern- ment which visited Liberia and made certain specific recommendations. As a result, the United States has aided Liberia in straighten- . title Eleutheria. 347 ing out her financial affairs and in strengthen- ing her internal condition. In connection with these adjustments, the customs service of the - republic is temporarily administered by an in- ternational commission with an American at its head. With firm backing from the United States, Liberia might not only. prosper, she might become the leader of Africa. During the embroglio of the World War (1914-18) Liberia severed diplomatic relations with Germany on 8 May 1917 and formally declared war on 4. August. On 10 April 1918 a German submarine bombarded Monrovia, the capital of Liberia, destroyed the wireless telegraph station and sank the Liberian armed vessel President Grant. Ten persons were killed. The submarine was later sunk by a British cruiser. Liberia’s con- tribution to the war consisted mainly in send- ing some hundreds of laborers to France. In November 1918 it was announced that the ne- gro republic desired a voice in the peace con- ference and that the principle of self-determi- nation should be applied to the natives of Afri- can colonies, not only those taken from Ger- many, but also former parts of Liberia which had been absorbed by France and Great Bri- tain. FREDERICK STARR, Umversity of Chicago. LIBERIUS, Pope: b. Rome; d. there, 24 Sept. 366. He was Pope from 352 to 366; is _ one of the pontiffs that have incurred the ac- cusation of heresy. It is conceded that he suf- fered an exile of two years by order of the Emperor Constantius II] for refusing to sub- scribe to a condemnation, by the Council of Arles (354), of the great champion of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed of the homo- ousian, Saint Athanasius. But it is alleged that he obtained his recall by subscribing to a heret- ical, formally Arian confession of faith drawn up by an assembly of bishops at Sirmium. Con- stantius II died in 361 and Liberius was then more free and annulled the decrees of the Council of Rimini, but was not severe upon the bishops who had signed them. He renewed relations with Athanasius and Hilarius, re- ceived deputies from the Eastern Episcopate and gave the communion to many of the Arians. LIBERTAD, ié-bér-tad’, Peru, a maritime department bordering on the Pacific Ocean, with the departments of Lambayeque, Caja- marca and Amazonas on the north, Loreto on the east and Ancachs on the south. It is moun- tainous, with a narrow strip o@level land along the coast. The Marafion, the head stream of the Amazon, waters its eastern slopes. Many of the eastern valleys are very fertile. Agri- culture and stock-raising are carried on. Min- ing is in a backward state, although consid- erable mineral deposits are said to exist in the mountains. Area, 10,206 square miles; pop. about 250,000. Capital, Trujillo. LIBERTAS, the goddess of freedom. By the Greeks she was invoked by the synonymous At Rome, her most famous temple was situated on the Aventine Mount. She was represented by the figure of a woman holding in one hand a cap, the symbol of lib- erty, and two poniards in the other. LIBERTINES, a name that has been given to various liberal organizations: (1) a sect of 348 fanatics in the 16th century in the Netherlands and Belgium, who maintained that nothing is - sinful but to those who think it sinful and that perfect innocence is ‘to live without- doubt. They advocated community of goods and gave themselves ‘the name of “Spirituals” ; (2) a fac- tion of the Hellenistic Jews who attacked Stephen, as told in Acts vi, 9; (3) the Liberal party in Geneva that opposed Calvin; (4) the early Anabaptists. The use of the term did not often imply loose morals and many think the Libertine Jews of the time of Christ were more properly called Libystines or Libyans, after Libya in Africa. LIBERTY, Mo., city, county-seat of Clay County, on the Chicago, Rock Island and Pa- cific, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and other railroads, about 15 miles, by rail, north- east of Kansas City. It is situated in an agri- cultural region and its chief manufactures are flour, dairy products and vacuum cleaners. Its trade is principally in grain, vegetables, fruit and live-stock. It is the seat of the William Jewell College, opened in 1849 under the aus- pices of the Baptists, and of the Liberty Ladies’ College opened in 1899 and contains a Carnegie library and an Odd Fellows’ Home. The water- works are the property of the municipality. Pop. (1920) 3,097. LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATER- NITY, a well-known motto of the French Re- public, dating from the time of the first revo- lution. Equality, in this connection, means equality before the law and the absence of class privileges. The motto gives title to a work b Sir J. F. Stephens (1873). ; LIBERTY, Religious. Religious liberty is the right or freedom of a person to wor- ship or not to worship according to his own understanding and preferences, and, within the requirements of public order, of teaching his religious beliefs without hindrance or molesta- tion; the complete equality of all religions be- fore the law. The question of religious liberty seems never to have arisen in pre-Christian times. The story of Paul’s visit to Athens and the noted Pantheon at Rome seem to reveal a tolerant attitude of the ancient peoples toward all religions. All persons within the state might, as a matter of political necessity, be re- quired to pay formal homage to the god of the state, but they were also wholly free to wor- ship their own particular gods. This ancient toleration carrie@§ however, the seeds of its own destruction within itself. For while it was allowed to people to worship what gods they pleased, it was rigidly required of them, re- gardless of what their personal faiths might be, to take part in the state religion. Naturally to persons who believed that there was and could be but one God, one religion, one worship, and that to take part tn any other worship was ex- ceedingly sinful, such a demand would become intolerable. While appearing to be tolerant it actually forced a person to go against his own conscience and to do what he believed to be hateful to God. When religion became more a personal than a state affair there grew up a bitter resentment against any sort of power that sought to compel a person to go against his conscience and against his God. The truth- fulness or actual value of a person’s religion LIBERTY is no part of the question. It is enough that there has sprung up from the deepest depths of the human heart and mind an unalterable and unconquerable opposition to any authority that seeks to force a man to worship in a way alien to his faith. The problem is much less simple than this seems to imply. It is hardly more than a century ago that it was finally conceded by the governing power that religion is not a state but a purely personal affair. Even at the present time this is not conceded in all countries. From time immemorial the state has had its religion as by law established, the idea being that the safety and welfare of the state depended upon the proper performance of the state religion. To protest and refuse to perform these re- ligious rites was to become a disorderly and possibly a revolutionary element within the state. Thus the issue was joined, those in control of the government insisting that the public order and safety required all to wor- ship according to the established religion and in no other way and in opposition to these an increasing number demanding as a matter of divine right the freedom to worship according to the dictates of their own conscience. Some- thing more than that is involved—and this is the most serious part of the trouble; the right of a person not only to worship but to teach, propagate the doctrine he believes true, so that others may be led to worship in his “way. This, under the old system of state re- ligion, plainly amounted to nothing less than the. right to form a party within the state at variance with the state religion and the state government. To the political necessity which forced the governing powers to suppress re- ligions other than that by law established, add the intense feeling each person had that his religion was the only true religion and the bitterness of the struggle between those de- manding and those opposed to religious liberty is easily understood. That the political rulers dreaded the revolutionary possibilities of re- ligious dissent; and the ecclesiastical author - ities feared that the freedom to teach heretical doctrines would lead the souls of men to per- dition, and on these grounds honestly sought to prevent such dissent and heresy by measures more or less severe, will not be doubted. But eventually the more clear-visioned statesmen saw that the evils resulting from this policy of religious suppression and oppression were a greater menace to political stability and to religion itself than any which could come from a reasonable religious freedom. The first attempt to grant and try out re- ligious freedom must be credited to Con- stantine in the Edict of Milan, 313 ap. This edict granted “both to the Christians and to all others free power of following whatever religion each may have preferred . The absolute power is to be denied to no one to give himself either to the worship of the Christians, or to that religion which he thinks most suited to himself” This exceedingly ‘liberal decree did not inspire his successors. Not until we come to the American State con- stitutions is so broad a statute met with. Be- tween 313 a.v. and approximately 1775, re- ligious freedom, with but one or two excep- tions, was never conceded. Acts of toleration more or less generous, usually less, were LIBERTY occasionally granted with the hope of effect- ing a compromise. The practice of persecuting persons for dissent and heresy gradually went out of fashion. More and more frequently the courts ruled that it was not the business of . law to prohibit a person from exercising his religious faith so long as it did not, as Black- stone put it, “threaten ruin or disturbance of the state” In the recent (1918) trial of the followers of Pastor Russell the court made it plain that religious freedom never could be stretched‘ to confer the right to commit crime. Toleration was not the end sought. Tolera- tion is simply a favor granted. Toleration kept alive all sorts of political and other dis- abilities. In New England a person could not enjoy the franchise unless he were a member of a particular church in good and regular standing. In Europe similar disabilities were laid upon persons who refused to conform to the state’s religion. Toleration was as odious as oppression. What was all along demanded was the right of absolute equality of all re- ligions before the law. America led the way to this goal. It was the first and for a long time the only country to write the principle not of toleration but of religious freedom into the fundamental laws. What is perhaps the earliest attempt since the Edict of Milan to grant something like reli- gious freedom is found in the Maryland Tolera- tion Act of 1649. It reads “Whereas the en- forcing of the conscience in matters of Re- ligion hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous consequence in those common- wealths where it hath been practiced, and for the more quiet and peaceable government of this Province, and the better to preserve mu- tual Love and amity amongst the Inhabitants thereof; Be it therefore enacted that no person or persons within this Province professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall henceforth be in any ways troubled, molested or discountenanced for, or in respect to, his or her religion, ‘nor in the free exer- cise thereof nor in any way compelled to believe or exercise any other religion against his or her consent, so that they be not un- faithful to the lord proprietary, or molest or conspire against the civil government.” Just how much the liberal spirit toward religious differences which actuated the Plymouth colo- nists contributed to the establishment of reli- gious freedom in America there is no way of telling. The contribution was undoubtedly large. More conspicuous if not more im- portant is the work in this direction of Roger Williams, founder of Rhode Island. To secure real religious liberty was the ambition of his life. His great desire was “to hold forth a lively experiment, that a most flourishing civil state may stand and best be maintained with a full liberty of religious concernments.» The charter issued in 1663 reads “No person within the said colony (Rhode Island), at any time hereafter, shall be in any wise molested, pun- ished, disqualified, or called in question for any difference of opinion in matters of re- ligion: every person may at all times freely and fully enjoy his own judgment and con- science in matters of religious concernments.»” Although religious persecutions and dis- abilities continued far into the 18th century in many parts of America the principles of re- 349 ligious liberty were gradually becoming clearer and more firmly established. When, therefore, during the Revolutionary period and soon there- after the various States made constitutions for themselves, liberty of religion was one of the things most explicitly provided for. The Con- stitutional Convention of Virginia, 1776, led the way in its adoption of the Bill of Rights. The amendment proposed by Madison and adopted puts the point clearly, “No man or class of men, ought on account of religion to be invested with peculiar emoluments or privi- leges, nor subjected to any penalties or dis- abilities, unless under color of religion the preservation of equal liberty and the existence of the state are manifestly endangered.” Jefferson points out that the law of October 1785 entitled, “An Act Establishing Religious Freedom” in Virginia was designed to “com- prehend within the mantle of its protection the Jew and the Gentile, the Christian and Ma- hometan, the Hindu and Infidel of every de- nomination.» \The provisions of the act itself are so broad as to be virtually the last word in the matter. “Be it enacted by the General Assembly, that no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatever; nor shall be en- forced, restrained, molested, burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief; but that all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinion in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities.” Other States were moving in the same direction though not always with the same completeness. Some States hesitated to grant fullest liberty. Thus Pennsylvania, while conceding that “all men have a natural and inalienable right to worship God, according to the dictates of their own conscience,” required office holders (1776) to affirm belief in God, in future rewards and punishment and the divine inspiration of the Old and New Testaments. This test was abolished by the constitution of 1790, but the case of Updegraph v. the Commonwealth in 1824 disclosed the curious fact that it is still unlawful in Pennsylvania “to speak lightly or profanely of Almighty God, Christ Jesus, the Holy Ghost or the Scriptures of Truth” But despite this, and evidencing that full religious liberty no longer even waits on the law, Jews, Unitarians, Ethical Culturists and non-Chris- tians are free to worship as they will and suffer no sort of disability therefrom. It is hardly necessary to state that the United States Constitution most effectively guarantees full liberty of religion. “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” The situation in the United States may be summed up as follows: All the State constitutions pro- vide that no law can be passed establishing a religion, no person can be compelled to attend any form of religious service, or contribute to the support of any religion. No restraint can be put on the free exercise or expression, or promulgation of any religion. But this free- dom must not be “so construed as to excuse acts inconsistent with the peace and safety of the state.” A limitation of religious freedom not con- templated in the statute or in judicial decisions 350 came to light in the Crapsey heresy trial of 1906. Against the defendant’s claim of the right of freedom to teach what he conceived to be the truth in religious doctrine it was argued by the prosecution that as a regularly. ordained priest of the Episcopal Church and by the terms of his ordination he was free only to teach what the Church set forth as true, and this argument was sustained by the ecclesiastical court that tried the case. It is doubtful whether that decision can be con- strued as a contradiction of the principles of religious liberty for which men fought so long. But “gradually,” as Herbert Spencer remarks, “during recent centuries, the right of free speech on religious matters, more and more asserted has been more and more admitted; until now there is no restraint on the public utterance of any religious opinion, unless the utterance is gratuitously insulting in manner or form.” The literature of the subject is widely dis- tributed through various historical writings and the contemporary chronicles of different periods. A very sound and comprehensive survey of the subject will be found in Sanford H. Cobb’s ‘Rise of Religious Liberty in America. CHARLES GRAVES. LIBERTY, Statue of, the name of a co- lossal statue on Bedloe’s Island in New York harbor. On 28 Oct. 1886, after more than 12 years of preparation, this statue, given by the people of France to the United States, was dedicated and unveiled. The statue was the conception of M. Frédéric Bartholdi, who de- signed it for the Franco-American Union in 1874. It was built by popular subscriptions in France to commemorate the hundredth anni- versary of American independence, and re- quired over five years for its completion. It was mounted in Paris in October 1881. The American pedestal for the statute was not commenced till April 1883, and was finally finished in 1886. This was built by popular subscription. The’ statue was erected on an iron framework bolted firmly to the stone ped- estal. It was dedicated 23 Oct. 1886. The statue, which is of copper sheets 2% mm in thickness, is of the following dimensions: Feet Inches Water-level to top of pedestal............... 149° 10 Statue proper to:tdp ofitorch’. -s7. tai . 151 5 Total height from water-level............ 301 3 IGel-LOrcOp: OL, MEAG S hiie Brak ats aecob ones ateactore eis 111 6 herigth offhand saath. Pe iY. ESS eee 16 Le Meee eo Aaabale (sy ge na aS eT Oe Ce a rg en erence pred 0 Circumference at second ane AO a Be Te Om coh 7 6 Size of finger-nail. . nee 13 x 10 in Head:of chin ‘to erahium ts). na AOD. . 17 3 Head-thickness from-ear to ear.............. 10 0 Distance between the eyes. ........+--+-eee- 2 6 Deieth OF NOSEy ee. See ee tates one apace 4 6 Riphtwarm encthik, Ceaeoe, Geek hi sae ictesaeend sae 42 0 Right arm, greatest thickness..............-.- 12 0 Thickness Of waist.) a ake os 35 0 Wadth of oth! 82 ar trkis aeettrete ottrnies oe 3 0 Tablet; lengthy 2 Publicalibparies (43) 4 ey oye ote beaten: Aes University College*htprary re ics on Cs ee eee ae Wniversity “cil London 221. VOSS occ «6 Selle ws Victoria,and Albert | Museum; .s:s6 5. 5 emcee eke ope ery Wonn-Rylands Libraryieesmec s:< ac tee 5 eee 2 Pubitc ‘Pree-Libraries (=p sacs see ee UniversitertssBibliotheles 8 0.5.0 eres Koninklijke Bibliothek........ Pere ia tea or aS Anes Rijks-UniversiteitiBibliothek) ...u::.,.0,-c0ties « ere dete oN Rijks-Universiteit Bibliothek...............--e205- Bibliotecan@onamanale .. sc2.5.i.4)s, 4. 0.4, e00s es 0.0 EO Biblioteca’ Universitaria. ..-.5..,-+.++ sowie re isle Biblioteca Archivo di Stato. sadecildsh.eassiwrayin ll. « BibliotecarMMartéelliana .: .. so. es oe akeihtnsite hn ot Regale Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale... ..0...0....5 Biblioteca:Seieritificd.........,., -warbieoslahie takl estoi's Biblioteca Nazionale (Braidense)..............-..-. BibliotecasAnchive di:Stato:.ci5 sx, » spate coe eee ae re ee eee eee ee Ce 314,000 600 ,000 397,000 313, 133 291,117 507,500 298,663 491,082 495 ,000 400, 000 1,749,837 576,387 650,000 267 ,000 225,000 257,599 LIBRARY DATA Lrprary Data — Continued 391 — Ee UNITED STATES. Albany, N. Y.. Ann Arbor, Mich. . Baltimore, Md...... Berkeley, Cal....... Boston, Mass....... Brooklyn, N. Y..... Buttalo, Na Y. secs. Cambridge, Mass.... Chicago, Ill......... Cincinnati, Ohio... . Cleveland, Ohio..... Columbus, Ohio... .. Detroit, Mich....... Denver, Colo....... Harrisburg, Pa...... Hartford, Conn..... Ithaca, NOW, tit Kansas City, Mo.... Los Angeles, Cal.... Madison, Wis....... Milwaukee, Wis... .. Minneapolis, Minn. . New. Haven, Conn... New York, N. Y.... Newark, N. Lays fe 7 Philadelphia, Pa.. Pittsburgh, Pa.....'. Portland, Ore....... Princeton, N. J..... Providence, R.I.... Sacramento, Cal..... Saint Louis, Mo.. Salem, Ore! j.30... San Francisco, Cal.. Urbanasiile’ 37.50. Washington, D.C... Status New Yark ‘State; baOrary.c <2. shoe ie eee eee Reference...... University of wviichiganwiibrary 2 it, Sone eee University...... Enoch Pratt mice Library” a. tiie bee eee PID ica.) Se any Johns Hopkins University Library... University 4... -r: Peabody Institute Library.... 00.0%... ae EN oa Reference...... University: or Caltionria’ bibrary..4 3. 2 ee ee University...... American Academy of Arts and Science............ Scientific. ... 20.3 Bostern Athenrisnl so. tie. feeble ss Satie od kee ...| Reference...... Boston) Medical Libraryin ./. 0) eg eae he: rite DMICGICAL ZS. & asics t CY TER EADIGO VL os elec ec. ced: spe tit Ne ro PA BUC ee bn ates Congregational dsibtraryon 2228 es Soames _Theological..... Massachusetts Historical Society.............4.-.. HASEOTY aise 52,0050 Massachusetts Institute of Technology............. Technological. . . New England Historical and Genealogical Society. ..| History........ Social Bawa jotatvcnes. qhvee. i RES. hoe cate eet TGA W guess. co ieo I Sta Lek Labracmemeain nine ees covacph ata ek ie cakes Tea Ws te wa Prublregiatiraty ere. tres ale Aorta e beterecotiee open ac wee erates Publicucs. 6s sse3 i Pttalice kt ORaie whee cece ts. 3 eos ee eer ae ee Publicnes.-- oo: .F Harvard University, Andover-Harvard Theological ADEA Pte Nei ipkec a aie. sab eaa, pac pias Theological. .... Harvard University, Arnold Arboretum Library... .. FPOrestryr -n.. 450.43 Harvard Astronomy, Observatory Library.......... Astronomical... . Harvard, Golleverlabrary.o.n sory «ae em ae ae University...... Harvard eran, Penoa reir oc acy), tarcks) 3 crccapanesgaieto Reng ae Botanical. p. s-.0¢ Harvardulawn Sool: otk cvalr wa ubbe vieteier ce oe he, re W@W.a nice F.ccket s Harvard Museum of Comparative ZOOlORM ag or oe Scientific. ...... Harvard peabody Ilusewm 27 ato. oo uses. eaaretsee i=: Ethnological.... Chicazo' Histonicall-Socievy.c.ccmcg cc. soo tba eee ee cs Fistorynm toa icts Jon Crepe rola bia Gace vio.e 5 ere ce hoe eae eerie Scientific. : 10... 7: Municipal Reference Library 0... eo. soya acsy ok oene Economics...... ITC YIBELE V ei IEA VEN =, acinneias chara teen. f acond cauchs abet s: dass Reference...... Bitbhocl tiehataered sta on nsn a nodose Ocik ons tus shepieeete wet PDO. ex. gos Wmiviersit yuo ICAO 4) akin os sis ans Oe lees ot ae University...... Pree TAT ye aisle orci aie cscs gin 3.4 eutteuoe bine ooh eae PUbliG vers te eet LETRI NEY! Join yeseeny eth ed RIS iad as aoe Sale eR a Oe ee Ritbhicn -.- cuato. WEA Lae OREN Ba he via is ee ata laiy lc, neert oe cose Saisuna ‘ate Legislative...... Publie iibratry . SIN ABOLAIOo. Al... SFE Pubhickk. NY 3 Puplie ibrary yet a. by. ERE) spears 6 oy unre ary Publicey see Le PRPC A GAIN hier accent Sb unc pishe 2 om atacd govt sis lesa h SLACCISHATIVG ..c cc) « SHEE OTL IEG cries 6 alec ey SON parte ere ai nab tabe ae tae dea Legislative...... Cornel DUniversity! Library). 26:8... -J3UeAG .2y2. 0. University...... Publiovitorary . ty. nes Gtie iad... wsen oad. be Publicitate ipai: Pe NCePAOGT VN 4.5. fnn $e 8 6 ks Choa + . 4 Yee ati University...... American Geographical Society Library............ Geographical.... Association Of (hetDaren sas rue ih. sé ete a eee ore AW care, AE. Columbia University Law‘Library... 20.0) .20.005.0: TAwgLa vob... be. Columbia University duibranyy, 4340). + awhtaawow the »UnIVEFSIty, css Columbia University Teacher’s College............. Education: ..... Erigineefing-societies +. S44 ben. IA AAI Engineering..... Mercantile tisbrarye tiie sheds. . 2B Publics fairer vc Metrépohtan, Miseun:).ccsncactes. . acd hys opera Barts tobe for ols paces: New York Academy of Medicine.................. Medicine....... New York°Historical Society... SPE PE ee EM History/i? 023). New York (Law<«stithite-babraryy......0205005 0000. DOW TSA... Mink New.Work Societe Library cinco dss - Ron ek eek els Society 4, dootiew. Preegeublicotibtary cot. sean wide ete ois teks cane a raees < SAW olson soph Russell -Sagze Fotindationy ait... 20D. 2 Se Sociological... .. Union? Theological Library:wak Pi... wher er Theological. .... KreaiPublupLibtaryist 2.0 cheats: 6 a ehette Bae et cae Puiliccs tae. ad. Prudential Life Insurance Company............... Trstirance «.. 4°. - Academy of Natural Sciences. .......0......5 20055 Scientific. 6. .2 >. Branklin Institute) ..2n 404 ..$o8... ch BESTE Ek Scientifics... As. Pree LAbranye:.. «pr ecenh s ha ae ees es ee las eee 1o Tbh ol epee Fea Historical Society of Pennsylvania..........i...... TAISCOLY 2 oe a Library Company of Philadelphia... OJ) 4 2B -ST.1 PHbWNER VLA. We Library of the College of Physicians and Surgeons. ..} Medicine....... Philadelphia CommercialsMuseum.. . ..,..0. j2 64s o> Commercial..... University of Pennsylvania Library....:..5..02.00. University...... Carmesgts biorary 21 214. SIG OW. LE Pablic v2 .. 55.0%. Library. ‘Assosiation. 2 = ..v fest Of... hetigd: -Lesigeia ty PAtbhig. icy of? Kissa Princeton University Library.........: Te sae erate University...... BLOWir irevetsit Va LADLAly —. eis nein coins el oe eke University...... Public Library ROM... ATUOGIIM, ... e198. HOME. Public Shee Rhode Usland:State dabraryveeins bo... ace eee we Legislative... .:. California Statetleibparyee. ct os + ance bi cca sa tle Legislative ass +> Christian Brothers College Library PAT: ahs Seno. ee University...... Public Library . tated. .9OOR st... dd GEA i} Public: 62631.5¢ pte OregoniState; Library.jjaeassieact... feaechianle s fier Legislative...... Public Ussbraryi aa eee ee eae Re 0 Rico tine. cco Fines eoes PubUC we, can att Mechanics Mercaritile Bibrary ’o... IME He. 2 iON, Reference...... Leland Stanford University Library. ...........0-. University...... University of Illinois Library....... NERS Tce gar SNE FS University...... Bureau. of Railway Economics. .<....,ccbeccseeres Railways....... District of Columbia Public Library. ...0....000s001 Publies ’. 05 is. Founded 1818 1841 1882 1876 1857 1869 1780 1807 1875 1848 1853 1791 1889 1844 Coc i, a e d ee ee ee ee Number of Volumes 449 ,542 383 ,976 355,817 202 ,247 197 ,634 355,192 34,287 264,531 363 ,546 106,771 392 LIBRARY LAWS AND LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES Lrprary Data — Concluded Qe ee TE UNITED STATES — con. Washington, D.C.. United States Treasury Department United States Weather Bureau...... Volta’ Buredtata fs 7s esis tee nee American Antiquarian Society..::.. Publicvbipratves tai te cay cet aes Worcester, Mass.... Georgetown University Library..... Law Library of Congress........... Tibrary2OL GOneress wc: ciekie cite ete Library of the Surgeon-General’s Office............. Pan-American, Umion..s.45. 7...» «cen oh Public Documents Library.......... Smithsonian tstitution:,... <...+ . ; i 4 ‘ «% : & i C i Se . — - 4 ‘ i ‘ BSN ae eee SAWELIBAARY:. 2: | a ee Meee 8! U5 a * ABIVERSITY. OF ILLINGIS 77 aaie teats LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES Even where the lighthouses are built in the water to mark shoals or dangerous reefs, the steel tubular style of structure is adopted. The foundation work of the structure is built up above the water with stone or concrete, and to this the steel tower is bolted. The latter looks more like a giant smokestack than any- thing else, and it stands as a permanent bea- con of the sea to warn mariners of their danger. Not only is additional strength and security obtained through the adoption of the steel tubular lighthouses, but the cost of con- struction is greatly reduced. Modern _light- houses cost far more than they did in former days, but that is due to the fact that they are built on a larger and more enduring scale, and the lights are of far greater power and inten- sity. A modern American lighthouse frequently costs $125,000, and often one-third of this is spent in the electric light and apparatus alone. In the old system the lights represented a com- paratively small proportion of the expense. Bibliography.— Adams, W. H. D., ‘Light- houses and Lightships» (London 1870); Barn- ard, J. G, ‘Lighthouse Engineering? (New York 1879) ; Heap, D. P., ‘Ancient and Modern Lighthouses’? (Boston 1889); Jenkins, H. D., ‘The Lights, and Tides and Fog-signals of the World? (London 1900); Smiles, S., ‘Harbors, Lighthouses, Bridges» (London 1874); Steven- son, D., ‘Lighthouses? (London 1865) ; Steven- son, T., ‘Lighthouse Construction and Illumi- nation? (London 1881); ‘List of the Lights of the World?; Wryde, J. L., ‘British Light- houses: Their History and Romance.’ LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. Under the act of 17 June 1910 the present general organization of the service is as follows: The commissioner of lighthouses and the deputy commissioner pre- sidé over an office in Washington, D. C., which is the executive centre of the service. In this office are an engineering construction division, under the chief constructing engineer; a naval construction division, under the superintendent of naval construction; a hydrographic division, under an assistant engineer, and the general office force, under the chief clerk. Outside of Washington the service is divided into 19 light- house districts, each under the charge of a lighthouse inspector. In each district there is a central office and one or more lighthouse depots. Each district is provided with light- house tenders for distributing supplies to the various stations and light vessels for transpor- tation of materials for construction or repair and for care of buoys. On Staten Island, New York Harbor, there is also a general lighthouse depot where supplies are purchased in quanti- ties, special apparatus is manufactured or re- paired and various experimental work is con- ducted. The total number of aids to navigation on 30 June 1915 was 14,544 as compared with 11,713 on 30 June 1910, representing a total net in- crease during the five years of 2,831, or 24 per cent, an average of 566 per year. For the pre- ceding five years from 30 June 1905 to 30 June 1910 the total increase was 1,793, or an average of 359 per year. Careful consideration was given, in the in- terests of economy and efficiency, to the dis- continuance of lights and other aids no longer 431 required by navigation, so that the above figures represent a net increase, after allowing for 2,850 aids to navigation which were discon- tinued during the five years. Careful attention was also given to the im- provement of apparatus and equipment, in ac- cordance with the best modern practice of coast lighting. Gas buoys, which are more appreci- ated by mariners than any other recent addition to coast lighting, were increased from 225 in 1910 to 479 in 1915, a total increase of 254, or 113 per cent. The use of oil-vapor lamps increases the illuminating power from a given quantity of kerosene oil by about eight times, and these lights have been greatly appreciated, because of their superior brilliancy. The number of oil- vapor installations at light stations were in- creased from 80 in 1910 to 286 in 1915, a total increase of 206 stations, or 257 per cent. Most of the primary coast lights are now provided with oil-vapor lamps. On the Atlantic coast, of the 70 primary lights 16 used oil-vapor in 1910 and 64 in 1915; on the Pacific coast 2 used oil- vapor in 1910 and 32 out of the 34 primary lights used oil-vapor in 1915. Many of the older lights were fixed and did not have a characteristic which would distin- guish them from other lights. Steady progress was made in changing such lights, where doubt might occur, to flashing or occulting, and 169 lights were so improved in the five-year period mentioned. Especially marked progress in this respect was made on the Pacific coast, where of the primary lights in 1910, 11 were fixed lights, whereas in 1915 only 2 out of 34 are fixed lights; of the total primary lights on the Atlan- tic and Pacific coasts in 1910, 65 were flashing or occulting and 37 fixed, and in 1915, 80 were flashing or occulting and 24 fixed. There was a strong demand for improved lighting of Alaskan waters, and the number of lights on the coast of Alaska were increased from 37 in 1910 to 112 in 1915, an increase of 75, or 203 per cent. ° The total number of fog signals, including sounding ‘buoys, increased from 844 in 1910 to 1,044 in 1915, an increase of 200, or 24 per cent. Classified as to types, the increases were: Fog signals on shore, 498 to 527; whistling buoys, 104 to 149; ‘bell buoys, 200 to 318; sub- marine bells, 42 to 50. Although the number of aids to navigation steadily increased, as shown in the preceding paragraphs, involving an increase in all the operations of the service, it was possible to maintain this increased number of aids with a less number of lighthouse tenders, owing to the simplification of work and concentration of authority under the reorganization. Thus in 1910 there were 51 lighthouse tenders, in 1913 44 tenders and in 1915 47 tenders. With the considerable increase of 24 per cent which was made in the total number of aids to navigation, a gradual increase in tenders became -necessary. Both for this reason and because of the neces- sity of replacing tenders as they are worn out in service, three tenders were being constructed and estimates accepted for others. The number of light vessels and light-vessel stations diminished by a slight amount, two vessels and stations during the five years’ period, the increase which might normally have been. expected having been offset by the large in- 432 LIGHTNING ARRESTER — LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING-RODS crease in gas buoys, many of them equipped with whistles, bells and submarine bells, thus supplying important aids to a much larger num- ber of localities and at much less expense than. | would have been possible with light vessels. There was, however, a steady construction of new light vessels to replace those worn out in service. Typical of the more important, aids which were established or materially improved. dur- ing a recent year are: New light vessels with flashing lights and compressed air fog signals at Poe Reef, Straits of Mackenac, Lake Huron, Mich., and Buffalo Entrance, Lake Erie, N.Y. Both of these were former light-vessel stations which had been temporarily discontinued, one having been discontinued during 1915. New light and fog signal stations were constructed at Brandywine Shoal, Del., and Thimble Shoal, Va., in place of former structures.. A complete new system of lighted aids was established at the approaches to the Cape Cod Canal, Mass.; important coast lights were changed from fixed to flashing or. occulting in Alaska, Washington, Hawaii and Florida, while fog signals, electric bells, electric and automatic sirens, submarine bells, important gas buoys, flashing acetylene gas lights and systems of minor aids and buoy- age were established, extensively rearranged or improved in important localities, all over the States and dependencies. The systematic in- spection and relief of all buoys at least once a year is carried out throughout the service with a greater degree of completeness than in prior -years, particularly in those districts where diffi- culties had been previously. experienced on ac- count of the large number of inaccessible buoys, A. systematic plan was developed of keeping records of extinguishments of various types of automatic gas lights, both on fixed and floating aids, with arrangements for reporting the per- centage of nights extinguished as compared to the entire period under observation. This is be- lieved to be useful in compiling information as to the comparative efficiency of various types in service and the degree of reliance which may be placed on such lights. Further improve- ments in publishing notices to mariners were undertaken during the year, by adopting a more concise form, giving only such facts as are of principal interest to the mariner. The light lists for the Atlantic, Lake and Pacific coasts were each issued in octavo form, which, it was believed, would increase their usefulness to mariners. Special effort was made to publish the seacoast light lists as. soon after the first of the calendar year as possible, and the Lake list was issued immediately prior to the open- ing of the season of navigation. During the five years. from 1910 the organi- zation and business methods of. the lighthouse service were thoroughly examined and, revised wherever it appeared advantageous to. do so; 19 persons were appointed as civilian lighthouse inspectors, all selected solely on their technical qualifications; .15 of these were promoted in the Lighthouse Service, where each had served from 5 to 40 years, and-the other four had had experience of from 8 to 13 years each on other government vessels engaged in related technical work. -The two offices. in each. district. were combined into one, and the office force and the use of the lighthouse tenders rearranged on a business basis. A general inspector and an ex- seaman it oan A aminer were appointed, who make periodic in- spections of the technical and business methods in each district. A cost-keeping system for the whole service was inaugurated. The regulations and instructions, were thoroughly revised. An- nual conferences of lighthouse inspectors are held, and a monthly lighthouse bulletin is issued to the service. Aids and cadets have been ap- pointed for training in lighthouse engineering and nautical.work. The lighthouse publications have been simplified and systematized. Import- ant economies and improvements have been in- troduced in the use and handling of supplies and accounting for property. The form of ap- propriations has been simplified. Full co-opera- tion has been arranged between the Lighthouse Service and other branches of the Department of Commerce, other correlated bureaus of the government and maritime interests. Radio in- stallations have been made on several tenders, and many improvements of apparatus have been perfected or introduced. he In securing increased efficiency and economy the welfare of the staff and assistants has also been constantly considered. Legislation has been secured providing for compensation for injuries received in hazardous work of. the Lighthouse Service, the subsistence arrange- ments on vessels and the accommodations for crews have been improved, leave of absence has been. granted to employees engaged by the day, a medical handbook has been published and the co-operation of the Public Health Service ar- ranged for. A retirement system is also being persistently advocated for deserving employees who have earned this consideration. LIGHTNING ARRESTER, a contrivance for guarding against passage of atmospheric electricity through electrical apparatus... The line wires are attached to a plate of brass, usually serrated on the under side. This plate rests on another plate connected with. the ground, the two being separated by a thin layer of. insulating material. See ELecrricAL TERMS. LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING-RODS. Franklin in 1751 proved that lightning was simply a visible display of electricity—an ex- tended spark; and until a generation ago little was added to his exposition to define the differ- entia of this phenomena. The origin of atmos- pheric electricity is believed to be simple fric- tion. Faraday showed that a powerful current could be excited by steam-driven spray against a water surface, and the friction of wind-driven mist on. the earth’s surface may produce a great difference of potential between the latter and the upper air, possibly though not probably as- sisted by the friction on dust particles in’ the air. In any event, rain conducts a portion of it to earth; so that a period of dry weather causes a great accumulation of electricity, the particles of air distributing their charges through each other. This would make the earth and sky, in Lodge’s comparison, the two coat- ings of a Leyden jar, but ordinarily the dis- tance is too great for a spark to pass.» The effect of electrical discharges on vapor; how- ever, is to condense it into larger globules; this causes it to sink toward the earth as cloud, and the enormous tension relieves itself by passing from one cloud. to another or to the earth or objects upon it, preferably projections of some height. If conduction through the cloud were LIGHTNING AND * instantaneous, it would be drained of its charge in one immense flash; but it being a poor con- ductor, several flashes at different points are common. The discharge is determined by the tension of the air, the maximum of which without rupture is one-half gramme per square centi- meter. If the rupture is local, there is no flash, but only a brush; but it is often the case that when the weakest spot has given way, a gen- eral breach follows for a long distance, some- times miles, creating the flashes which pass either from cloud to earth or from cloud to cloud; and as the discharge of this portion draws the remaining current toward it, a second flash or set of flashes is made probable. But this analysis shows what experiment proves, that this flash is not a single discharge, but the successive discharges of a countless number of vapor particles or raindrops toward the earth or other electrified particles in the air, with such rapidity of progress that they seem simultane- ous; since it is most improbable that if vast numbers of points gave way at once, they should all give way in the same line. It has been further proved by Prof. Ogden N. Rood that the flash is not a single sequence merely too swift for the eye to individualize; but although it lasts only a fraction of a second, it is itself composed of primary flashes in irregular se- quence, each lasting but from a thousandth to a few thousandths of a second. This result was obtained by photography, which has invaluably supplemented laboratory experiment. By the latter, Prof. John Trowbridge has formed arti- ficial flashes of lightning many feet long, made up of a combination of small discharges from a great number of petty cells. It had been long before proved by Joseph Henry that every elec- tric discharge is an alternating or oscillating current, the periods of oscillation being only a few millionths of a second each and diminish- ing very rapidly in intensity; the entire dura- tion depending on the magnitude and distance of the bodies. Hence it has been inferred that the small primary flashes are instances of these alternating discharges. Photography steadily . tends to confirm these views. Lightning according to its manifestations is divided into three classes. The “flash”. or “stroke” lightning is the one had in mind when the name is used without qualification; it ap- pears either as.a sharp zigzag line of extreme brilliancy, or the same forked, but as more clearly revealed by photography shows a wavy line oscillating with enormous. rapidity, or in tree shapes with endless branches, or ribbon shape, or in a mass of strands of close but dis- tinct parallel flashes like unraveled rope, or still other shapes. Dark flashes in photographs are only photo-chemical decompositions on the plate. The second sort is sheet lightning, a sudden glow of a golden or reddish tinge on the horizon, with no definite shape or bounds. It is not usually an actual discharge in that form, the very genesis of lightning making it rare; but is the reflection of lightning flashes out of sight beyond the horizon, cast on the clouds or atmospheric haze, and visible some- times for many scores of miles beyond the place of the actual storm which causes the flashes. A third is ball lightning, which for a long time was not admitted as a genuine form of electric discharge, and is still a very difficult “ VOL. 17—23 LIGHTNING-RODS 433 and in some points unexplainable phenomenon. It has not been photographed, though some- thing like it has been produced on a small scale in the laboratory. It is described as a ball or globe of brilliant light moving slowly a short distance above the surface of the earth, as if rolling on an invisible support a few feet high, and it has been said on occasion to float through an open door or window into a house, as though drawn in by a draft of air; it usually explodes, but without doing much damage. Un- der the head of lightning is sometimes included Saint Elmo’s fire or corposant—jets and brushes. of light seen not only at the tips of masts and yards of a ship in a thunderstorm, but on mountain tops, in hissing tongues of Dre R white and blue light several inches ong. The rope-strand lightning is not wholly ac- counted for; though there is general agreement that the first flash makes a rent or tube-like break in the air, along which succeeding dis-. charges rush back and forth. Of the multiple flash, the explanation most conformable to laboratory experiment — where a spark between electrodes has been made to assume a like shape by blowing across it —is that the tube or open- ing does not close for a fraction of a second, and the wind, always violently present in a thunderstorm, moves the mass of air sidewise simultaneously enough to keep the tube intact for a moment. Another theory holds that the tube or break in the air closes up too quickly for this, but is so large that the alternate flashes appear side by side. The thunder and the large raindrops accom-. panying lightning are well understood. The heat produced by the electric discharge travers- ing the atmosphere causes a sudden expansion of the particles next it, with a sharp compres- sion of those beyond, in a great wave; on its passage the particles contract as suddenly, and the waves roll violently back, producing the noise of thunder. From the relatively slow passage of sound in the air and the increased and uneven refraction due to. differences of temperature and wind movement, the thunder- waves very soon begin to rise and pass inaudi- bly overhead; so that it is rarely heard more than 15 or 20 miles off. The reason why the thunder follows the lightning usually at an ap- preciable interval is due to the fact that light travels so much faster than sound. When a flash occurs at the distance of a mile, the thunder is heard about five seconds later, and by noting the interval an observer can judge with considerable accuracy the distance of the dis- charge. Any flash of lightning within an eighth of a mile seems instantaneous with the thunder because the light persists and is retained in the vision for a short interval. The consolidation of the vapor into drops has been exactly imi- tated in the laboratory by electrifying spray, which causes the mist particles at once to begin aggregating in large globules. It has been shown that the mutual repellence of particles ceases as soon as a difference of potential is es- tablished by electrification, which substitutes a sort of suction around centres of force. Protection from Lightning.— The annual destruction of life and property. by lightning is very considerable; the former cannot be pre- vented to any great extent — though common- sense as to exposure can be instilled,— the latter 434 could in part. In the United States during 1899, 563 persons were killed and 820 injured; parts of the Rockies and the upper Missouri Valley were the most dangerous. This rate, about 5 per 1,000,000, is larger than in other countries, from our great population of outdoor agricul- tural and ranching laborers. Fatalities are everywhere increased by the-tendency to seek shelter from the rain when caught out in a storm, and these isolated shelters, as trees, barns, monument buildings in public parks, etc., are among the most liable to be struck. Statis- tics of buildings struck are in some respect sig- nificant, in others not detailed enough for util- ity. Thus, in Schleswig-Holstein during 1874— 83, the annual average of strokes for wooden and thatched roofs was nearly two and one- half times greater than for slate or metal roofs, that for chimneys over 16 times as many even as the former, and that for windmills over one- third larger still. On the other hand, we learn nothing from the fact that in the United States during 1900, out of 1,847 buildings struck, 40 had lightning-rods, 855 had not and there is no report of 952, because not knowing what pro- portion of all buildings had them — probably a very small one —we have no percentages. On the other hand, it is notable that in nine years ending. 1892, 2,335 barns, 104 churches and 664 dwellings were struck, and the larger fire-in- surance companies have generally ceased insur- ing farm buildings. Isolated buildings in gen- eral were in five times as great danger as those in city blocks, perhaps partly because protected by. metal cornices, etc. The: Chronicle Fire Tables in 1902 recorded 3,012 fires in the United States caused by lightning, with a property loss of $3,397,000. This total is considered so small that since there has been no effort to gather the statistics. : Is it worth while attempting to protect build- ings in general from lightning? Aside from the fact that we are never sure a building struck may not involve a loss of life, the matter re- solves itself into a question of cost, and it is clearly demgnstrated that it is not worth while. The problem was decided by the insurance com- panies some years ago. In the eight years 1885-92, in the United States, there were 3,516 fires from lightning, with a loss of $12,663,835, or a little over $1,500,000 a year The insurable part of this was nearly all insured and the prac- tical question for: property-holders is whether lightning-rods secure lower rates. Notoriously they do not. ‘The companies make not the least difference in rates for “protected” buildings, as to insurability or rates, and the officials rarely put them on their own dwellings; the lightning- rod business is virtually extinct in this country. The public would, therefore, gain nothing by the outlay; except that with uninsurable isolated buildings, it would probably pay to enmesh them with metal points rather than undergo the risk. Of course also there are many cases where even a heavy expense ought to be incurred, as with buildings or their contents not replaceable with money — historic’ or noted architectural structures, museums, etc.. But the fact remains that to reduce this $1,500,000 to. one-third that amount would cost probably 50 times the sav- ing in gross and several times the amount in yearly interest. If protection is desired, however, it is fully LIGHTNING-STROKE en ae ores proved that a great quantity of scattered metal points — whether iron or copper is immaterial, and iron is cheaper —is the most effective; a mesh of barbed-wire fence over the roof and chimneys would be not only the cheapest, but one of the most effective protections. The great steel buildings in New York City have all been struck time and again by lightning with- out damage. The numerous metal points and corners draw the electricity and it is promptly absorbed and distributed through the massive steel framework. Perfect safety is thus ob- tained by enclosing the building in a metal sheath, as no electric discharge can penetrate into an enclosed metal safe. The consensus of expert opinion now is that if a building is to be protected at all, numerous light iron rods are best, supported at a little distance from the structure and with numerous points. The old “conduit” theory of draining off the lightning and having a good conductor to prevent re- sistance and insulators to prevent jumping is now discarded: it is recognized that there is an enormous amount of electric energy to be dis- charged almost instantly, it is almost certain to distribute itself around a considerable area and all that the points can do is to ensure and regu- late that distribution. If lightning-rods are used there should always be a good “ground” or “earth” at the bottom, as a ton of coke or a water ditch. The last statistics on lightning damage gathered and published by the United States Weather Bureau was in 1900, giving fig- ures for the previous year, as nearly as they could be obtained.. A total of 5,527 “strikes” were recorded, injuring 6,256 buildings. The property loss was a little over $3,000,000 and 4,251 head of livestock were killed, of a value of $130,000. Most of this latter was due to cattle contacting barbed wire fences in thunder storms. Consult Lodge’s ‘Lightning Conduc- tors and Lightning Guards (1892); and the report entitled ‘Modern Lightning Conduc- tors, edited by Lodge, of the Lightning Re- search Committee of the Royal Institute of British Architects (1905). LIGHTNING-STROKE. About five or six persons per million die annually from lightning-shocks. The effects of lightning- stroke on the body are similar to those pro- duced by large amounts of electricity at high voltage. Persons subjected to the influence of lightning-stroke may suffer very slightly or may be killed, and between these extremes a vast variety of minor or major injuries may result. The most characteristic form of injury is some sort of burn. This occasionally shows on the skin as an arborescence, which was formerly thought to resemble the tree under which a patient had sought shelter during a storm, but is, of course, solely an effect of the zig-zagging of the electrical discharge. In many persons mental shock and prolonged nervousness are frequent symptoms. Mild stunning, with a sense of suffocation, may be experienced when an electrical bolt strikes near a person, and oc- casionally nervous and hysterical attacks are in- duced. Suppression of menstruation and abortion have been reported. Numbness and prickling of various areas of the body; paraly- sis of the muscles; deafness; loss of smell and taste; and paralysis of the bladder and rectum have all been described. Occasionally insanity, LIGHTON — LILAC has followed lightning-stroke. Other experi- ences of persons who have been exposed ir clude flashing in the eyes, buzzing in the ears, general tremor, which may go on to convulsions, with or without loss of consciousness, and peo- ple who have been seen in this stage have been described as being blue, with muscles tightly contracted, the pupils dilated, the breath deep and snoring and pulse feeble. Since there are more than 30 deaths by suicide to one by light- ning-stroke, it would seem wholly unnecessary for the average individual to worry over the likelihood of his earthly career berng ended by lightning. In death by lightning, changes in the nerv- ous system have been found and it is probable that the cause of death may be either the re- sult of minute hemorrhages, which take place in the important centres of breathing and of the heart-action and in the medulla; or death may be the physiological effect of the electric- ity on the heart, causing a form of heart-tet- anus, with rapid cessation of the movement of this organ. The treatment of lightning-stroke, as well as of other forms of electrical injuries, should be promptly instituted. If commercial currents are the cause they should be removed at once, care being taken to use insulating materials to remove live wires. External heat to the body with hot-water bottle, cardiac stimulation with whisky, ammonia, etc., with artificial respira- tion, should be simultaneously used. No method of artificial respiration or other attempt to produce consciousness should be abandoned under three to six hours, as often no signs of life may be brought out in less than two to three hours. It is seriously advised by some observers that, before giving up all hope, an injection of an alkaline solution into the blood should be used. Hot saline solution may be thrown into the rectum and the treatment should be continued until all possible methods of resuscitation have been employed. Consult Jelliffe, ‘Death by Lightning and Electricity? (in ‘Text-book of Legal Medicine and Toxi- cology,» 1903); ‘Death by Electric Currents and by Lightning? (in British Medical Journal, London 1913). LIGHTON, William Rheem, American prose writer: b. Lycoming County, Pa., 13 July 1866. ._He was admitted to the Kansas and Ne- braska bar in 1891 and has published ‘Sons of Strength: a Romance of the Kansas Border Wars? (1899) ; “Lewis and Clark,? in ‘River- side Biography? Series. LIGNIN, tthe substance of wood-fibre, formed in part at least by conversion from cel- lulose (q.v.), and contained within the cellular tissue, giving hardness and weight to the woody parts of plants. Its chemical composition is not determined, but it is characterized by being sol- uble in weak alkalis and insoluble in water. LIGNITE, a partially carbonized fossil wood, retaining its woody fibre and intermedi- ate in its qualities between peat and coal. It is found in the Mesozoic and Tertiary strata, but chiefly in the latter. Much of the coal of the Gulf States, the Great Plains and Alaska is lig- nite. For description of lignite and especially for composition of American lignites, see CoAL. LIGNUM VITZ&, vi'té. See GuatAcum. of Sant Agata de’ 435 LIGNY, lé’nyé‘, a village in Belgium, prov- ince of Namur, nine miles northeast of Charle- roi and 14 ‘miles northwest of Namur. Here was fought the prelude to the battle of Water- loo on 16 June 1815. The Prussians were sta- tioned at Ligny and the British at Quatre- Bras. Napoleon made a simultaneous attack on the two forces, striking at 84,000 Prussians under Blucher with his own 60,000. After a long and desperate struggle the Prussians were driven from the field with a loss of about 12,000. Napoleon lost 8,000 killed and wounded. Two days later came Waterloo (q.v.). LIGUORI, lé-gw6’ré, Saint Alfonso Maria de, Catholic prelate, founder of the religious order called Redemptorists: b. Naples, 26 Sept. 1696; d. Nocera, Italy, 1 Aug. 1787. He was originally a lawyer, but became a priest in 1722, joined the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, tnstituted in Naples, and occupied himself as a missionary in the instruction of the ignorant peasantry. In 1732 he founded a monastery at Villa Scala, the members of which comprised the Order of the Most Holy Re- deemer as it was called and were to be em- ployed in the instruction of the people. This order, approved by Pope Benedict XIV in 1749, rapidly extended in Italy, Germany, Spain and France. Liguori was in 1762 appointed bishop Gotici by Clement XIII, from which office he resigned in 1775. He was canonized in 1839 and in 1871 was declared a doctor of the Church. His ‘Theologia Mo- ralis> has appeared in several recent editions (Ratisbon 1881; Turin 1892; Genoa 1898) and there is a German edition of his letters ( Ratier bon 1893, et seq.). LIGURIA, li-gi’ri-a, in ancient Greek and Roman geography that portion of northern Italy extending along the Mediterranean from the frontiers of Gallia Cisalpina to those of Etruria, bounded on the north by the Po, east by the Macra and west by the Varus. These were its limits at the time of Augustus, but at an earlier period it extended to the borders of Gaul, or even to the mouths of the Rhone. In 1797 Genoa received from Napoleon I a demo- cratic constitution, under the appellation of the Ligurian Republic. This republic ceased to ex- ist in 1805, when the emperor incorporated it with France. After 1814 it formed part of the kingdom of Sardinia and now of Italy, and comprises the provinces of Genoa and Porto Maurizio. LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. See Licuria. LIJA, a fish. See FILE-FISHES. LILAC, a genus of ornamental, deciduous shrubs and trees (Syringa) of the order Olea- cee. The species are characterized by opposite slender-staiked leaves and purplish or white and usually fragrant flowers in erect panicles. Nearly all the species which have developed many horticultural varieties are valued for park and garden planting, on account of their hardi- ness and free-blooming qualities. The common lilac (S. vulgaris) is a native of southwestern Asia, whence it was taken to Vienna during the closing years of the 16th century. It is probably the most widely planted of all the species. "The wood of its larger specimens, which sometimes attain a height of more than 20 feet, is valued by cabinet-makers, for turn- 436 ing andinlaying. About a dozen species are cul- tivated in America.. They do best in deep, rich soil, but will succeed almost anywhere; indeed, they are likely to become a nuisance from their habit of suckering, a habit taken advantage of for propagating purposes. Cuttings are also used, and some of the newer and choicer varie- ties are grafted upon ordinary lilac or upon privet stocks. During the closing years of the last century the plant came into vogue as a florists’ flower, large quantities being forced for the winter and early spring markets. LILBURNE, lil’bern, John, English sectary and political agitator: b. Thickney Puncharden, County Durham, about 1614; d. Eltham, Kent, 29 Aug. 1657. For putting forth tracts hostile to the Anglican Church he was whipped and imprisoned in 1637, but was released by the Long Parliament in 1640, and his conviction having been declared illegal and tyrannic, he received $15,000 indemnity. He then joined the army and rose‘to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He was one of the party known as the “Level- lers” (q.v.), and for his attacks on Cromwell and others was several times committed to the Tower. Having been exiled and having re- turned without leave, he was put in prison and tried for his life, but was acquitted although not liberated for some time. Subsequently he be- came a member of the Society of Friends. Hume describes him as “the most turbulent, but also the most upright and courageous of men.” LILIACEA, lil-i-a’seé-e, or LILY FAMILY, one of the most important orders of plants because of the uses made by man of many of its species, about 2,500 of which are comprised in nearly 200 genera. The character- istics of the group are . monocotyledonous seeds; usually herbaceous stems which arise from bulbous, tuberous or rarely fibrous roots; generally narrow, simple leaves; and six-parted or toothed flowers, solitary or arranged in vari- ous ways, such as panicles, racemes, etc. In habit, many are adapted to deserts, some to ponds and streams, others are climbers, etc. Among those useful for food may be men- tioned asparagus, onion, garlic, leek, chive, rocambole, shallot, camass and various species of lilies. A very large number of species are used for ornament; for example, lily, hyacinth, tulip, fritillary, lily-of-the-valley, tuberose, al- lium and yucca. Several species of Xanthorea and Dracena yield useful resins; some of. the genus Chloragalum furnish a _ substitute for soap; and certain. species of yucca, sanseveria and of other genera yield valuable fibres. Iso- lated species of various genera have been used in medicine. LILIENTHAL, Max, American rabbi: b. Munich, Bavaria, 15 Nov. 1815; d. Cincinnati, Ohio, 5 April 1882. Graduating from,the uni- versity of his birthplace he was called to the di- rectorship of a Hebrew school tn Riga, Russia, and at government expense traveled through the 17 western provinces of Russia to encour- age the Jews to make educational reforms. In 1842 this mission was ended and until 1845 he remained in Saint Petersburg, perfecting his educational system, when the Tsar Nicholas is- suing orders. which aimed at the conversion of the Jews to the Greek Church, he emigrated to America.. On his arrival in 1844 he was made rabbi of three synagogues, but in 1850 resigned | LILBURNE — LILIUS to establish a school. In 1855 he accepted a call as rabbi of the B’nai Israel Congregation of Cincinnati, a position he held until his death. He was foremost in civic and educational. re- form, an active member of the board of educa- tion and a director of the Cincinnati Univer- sity. He was prominent in the councils of the Free Religion Associations and always cham- pioned the cause of progressive Indians with his voice and pen. He aided largely in the es- tablishing of the Hebrew Union College and as an orator did much in his addresses in churches and on the public platform to promote social and religious reform. LILIENTHAL, 1é’li-én-tal’, Otto, German aeronautical engineer: b. Anklam, Prussia, 23 May 1848; d. Rhinow, Prussia, 9 Aug. 1896. He studied at the Berlin trade school and then worked for Schwartzkopff and Hoppe at Ber- lin. Early in 1880 he founded a factory of his own, at which he made boilers, wrought-iron pulleys and sirens of his own invention. He also devoted himself to aeronautics and tried to solve the problem of flight by heavier-than-air machines. He invented the glider and made several successful glides, but met his death in an accident to one of his machines. He wrote ‘Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst? (Berlin 1889; tr. as ‘Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation, 1911); ‘Die Flugapparate: allge- meine Gesichtspunkte bei deren Herstellung und Anwendung? (ib. 1894). See Arronau- Tics, History OF. LILIS, or LILITH, a character in Jewish mythology. The Talmudists say that Adam had a wife before Eve, whose name was Lilis. Re- fusing to submit to Adam, she left Paradise for _ a region of the air. She still haunts the night as a spectre and is especially hostile to new- born infants. Some superstitious Jews still put in the chamber occupied by their wives four coins with labels on which the names of Adam and Eve are inscribed with the words “Avaunt thee, Lilith!? Our word “lullaby” is said to be a corruption of “Lilla, abi” (Lilith, avaunt). LILIUOKALANT, 1é-lé-w6-ka-la’né, Ly- dia Kamekeha, ka-ma-ka'ha, ex-queen of Ha- wail: b. Honolulu, 2 Sept. 1838; d. 11 Nov. 1917. She was a sister of King Kalakaua and suc- ceeded him in 1891. She was. married to John O. Dominis, a native of Boston (d. 1891) who became governor of Oahu. She attempted to substitute a less liberal constitution for that of 1887, and this course resulted in her being deposed 30 Jan. 1893. The islanders then adopted a provisional government, which soon became a republic. She endeavored to secure assistance from the United States, visiting Washington in 1896 for that purpose, but on the annexation of Hawaii to the United States, in 1898, returned to the island. She revisited the United States in the winter of 1901-02 to press her claims for indemnity on the Crown lands, afterward residing in California and making a visit to Hawaii in 1914. See Hawan. LILIUS, Aloisius, author of the Gregorian calendar, originally called Aloigi Giglio. Noth- ing is known about him outside of his connec- tion with the reform of the calendar and the fact that he was professor of medicine at the University of Perugia in 1552. He is some- times mistakenly known as Luigi Lilio Giraldi. See CALENDAR. | LILIES AND AMARYLLIS 1. Golden Lily (Lilium auratum). la. Blossom, enlarged. 2.Garden Amaryllis. 2a. Blossom, enlarged. 3, Crinum scabrum. 4. Eucharisamazonica. 4a. Root-stock. 5. Jacob’s Lily (Amaryllis formossima). we NS 7 i Po “ we “ ~ j % - = + ' ye | A ful 4 ~ ‘ * ‘hs oe se y 6 i + 2 * “ ‘ rv ase” 4 - % ay ui 2 ! - y 7 t — - - abe y " 3 mS eM ° p 7 v = y =e 4 4 AY te 7 r,. ® mt 7 o mT ar 7 oe a iS LILLE — LILY LILLE, 1él, France, an important town, capital of the department of the Nord and chief fortress of the north, 154 miles north of Paris and seven miles from the frontier of Belgium. It is well built and has spacious, regular streets, lined with large, massive houses. In the north- west of the town stands the citadel, a master- piece of Vauban. New fortifications include a circle of detached forts. Among the churches are Saint Maurice, in the flamboyant style, re- cently restored; Notre Dame de la Treille, in 13th century Gothic; Saint Catherine; the Madelaine; and the Protestant Church. Among secular buildings are the Hotel de Ville, with rich collections of pictures, drawings, etc.; the exchange (1652); the prefecture; the palace of justice; the arsenal; the Paris Gate, a trium- phal arch in honor of Louis XIV; the general hospital; the theatre; and the concert-hall. Lille possesses a state university with four “faculties,” a Roman Catholic university, ly- ceum, communal college, school of art, con- servatory of music, public library of 100,000 volumes, botanic garden, zoological garden, etc. The industries include cotton spinning and weaving, fine linen thread, linen and cotton twist, broadcloth, beet-sugar (raw and refined), soap, oil, ribbons, tulles, tobacco-factories, en- gine-works, foundries, dye-works, bleach-fields, breweries and distilleries. Its situation on the frontier and extensive railway and water com- munication made. Lille a great entrepot of trade. Lille is said to have originated in 1030, when Count Baldwin IV of Flanders fortified the little settlement around the castle of Buc. From this as a nucleus, the town grew rapidly until it gained communal privileges. Its his- tory has been a stormy one. It was destroyed in 1213 by Philip Augustus, rebuilt by Joanna, Countess of Flanders, and was retaken in 1297. It was finally given to the king of France in 1312. It became a Burgundian possession through Margaret, wife of Philip’ the Bold, during which régime it grew in prestige. It fell into Austrian and then into Spanish power and was finally recaptured by Louis XIV of France in 1667. Captured in 1708, it was re- stored to France by the Treaty of Utrecht. The Austrians were unable to conquer it in 1792. In 1914, after a stubborn resistance by the al- lied English, French and Belgian armies, dur- ing which the city changed hands many times, Lille was captured by the Germans and a heavy tribute was exacted. See War, Evuro- PEAN. LILLIBULLERO, lil’’i-bi-lé’rd, a_politi- cal ballad that “sung James II out of three kingdoms.» A scurrilous attack on the Irish re- cruits, it is said to have been written by Lord Wharton in 1686 and the setting is ascribed to Henry Purcell. LILLIPUT, lil’i-puit, the name of a fabu- lous kingdom described by Jonathan Swift. (q.v.) in ‘Gulliver’s Travels,’ of which the in- habitants were not greater in size than a man’s finger. LILLO, lil’6, George, English dramatist: b, London, 4 Feb. 1693; d. there, 3 Sept. 1739. The son of a Dutch jeweler, he was brought up to his father’s trade, and was for several years in partnership with him. ‘Silvia, or the Country Burial» (1730), a ballad opera, was his first piece; and was followed (1731). by the 437 famous ‘London Merchant, or the History of George Barnwell,’ nowadays better known by its subtitle, which made its author famous, and held the stage for nearly a century. It hada marked influence in its day, and may be re- garded as a precursor of the “domestic drama.” His other dramatic productions include ‘Britan- nia, or the Royal Lovers? (1734); ‘Fatal Curi- osity? (1736); ‘Arden of Feversham, an adaptation of an Elizabethan play, revised or completed by John Hoadly after Lillo’s death. LILLY, lili, William, English astrologer: b. Diseworth, Leicestershire, 1 May 1602; d. Horsham, Surrey, 9 June 1681. In 1632 he became interested in astrology, and two years later was associated with others in an unsuc- cessful search for treasure in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. In 1644 he published the first volume of his almanac, ‘Merlinus Angli- cus Junior, the English Merlin Revived, ora Mathematical Prediction upon the Affairs of the English Commonwealth, which appeared annually till his death. The king of Sweden sent him a gold chain and medal in 1659 in recognition of a favorable horoscope cast for him a short time before. He published many works, and was frequently engaged in contro- versy. His chief writings are ‘Christian As- trology, modestly treated in Three Books? (1647), reprinted in 1852 by Zadkiel as ‘An Introduction to Astrology”; ‘An Astrological Prediction of the Occurrences in England for the Years 1648, 1649, 1650? (1648) ; ‘Monarchy and No Monarchy? (1651); ‘True History of King James I and King Charles I? (1651); ‘Annus Tenebrosus? (1652); ‘Anima’ Astrol- ogiz (1676) ; and ‘Catastrophe Mundi? (1683). Butler satirizes Lilly in Hudibras under the name of Sidrophel. His autobiography was published in 1715. LILLY, William Samuel, English contro- versial writer: b. Fifehead, Dorsetshire, 10 July 1840. He was educated at Cambridge and has been secretary to the Catholic Union of Great Britain from 1874. His works include ‘A Cen- tury of Revolution? (1899); ‘First Principles in Politics? (1899); ‘Essays and Speeches? (1897); ‘A Year. of Life? (€1900) ;..SRenais- sance T'ypes? (1901); ‘India and Its Problems’ (1902); ‘Studies in Religion and. Literature? (1904); ‘Many Mansions? (1907); ‘Idola Fori? (1910); ‘The New France? (1913). LILY. The type genus (Lilium) of the family Liliacee (q.v.). The several hundred well-marked species which have been described are succulent herbs with scaly bulbs and usually leafy upright stems terminated by solitary or variously grouped six-segmented flowers of very diverse colors and markings. In general, lilies are among the most popular of garden flowers, having held this position for centuries. But in the United States they have not taken the high rank that they hold in Europe, espe- cially in Great Britain. This is probably due largely to the dryer, hotter climate, and the injudicious planting of the bulbs where they cannot long survive. : a The various species and their varieties are adapted to a wide range of soils, a few, such as L. tigrinum, L. canadense and L. superbum, often succeeding in heavy land if well drained, and some, such as L. washingtonianum, L; phila- delphicum and L. concolor withstanding the 438 peculiar conditions of slaty ridges if deeply planted and well mulched during the growing season. But the greater number thrive best upon fairly rich, well-drained, deep, sandy loam, especially if sheltered from prevailing winds and the hot sun of midsummer. Not that the stems cannot stand sunlight; but the bulbs and roots should be cool and well but not exces- sively supplied with moisture and food. The bulbs should always be planted deeply, six inches or more, and the soil stirred to double the depth of planting. This not only assists in keeping the roots cool but protects the bulbs from excessive freezing, which seems to have, some effect upon the vitality of shallow-planted specimens of even the hardiest species. Since vitality is also impaired by the exposure of the bulbs to the air, great care should be taken in transplanting to place the bulbs back in the soil as soon as possible after their removal. Transplanting is best done in early spring, the clumps being dug up, divided, the large bulbs planted in new, permanent quarters and the small ones and the bulb scales in nursery beds, where they should remain from one to three years, according to size when planted and to the species. One reason why bulbs obtained from seedsmen fail is because of undue drying. Orders for lilies should be given before the seedsmen can obtain the bulbs, and they should be filled by him without delay after the bulbs arrive. Often bulbs become so flabby from loss of moisture that they may fail to grow until the second year. Hence it is advisable to plant all but plump and turgid bulbs in a nurs- ery bed, or where they may remain undisturbed for a year or two before being placed in per- manent quarters. Propagation by means of seeds is slow in most cases; and many species rarely produce seeds in the United States. The Bermuda Easter lily (L. longiflorum, var. eximium) is the only kind that is forced upon a commercial scale in the United States, though several other kinds are to be found in the principal florists’ stores and in private con- servatories. For forcing, the bulbs of this vari- ety are planted as soon after their arrival from Bermuda as possible, generally before the end of September, and are kept in a cool, dark place until roots are well developed and the tops commence to form, when they are brought into the light, and by judicious management of heat are hastened or retarded to ensure their blos- soming at desired seasons, especially Easter Sunday The management of other varieties used in greenhouses is more or less closely similar. In general, lilies are most effective when mixed in small masses among shrubbery and hardy flower borders, the various kinds being sufficiently separated either in distance between the groups, or in season of blossoming, to avoid the clashing of inharmonious colors. Many of them have been used ‘thus for orna- mental planting, but though the great majority are well worth growing, scarcely a dozen have become widely popular in the United States, and of these not one is a native American species. The following are probably the best-known species: Tiger lily (L. tigrinum), a Japanese species, often exceeds three feet in height and bears a loose raceme of sometimes a dozen nod- ding dark-red, purplish-spotted flowers. It is LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY a very hardy, useful species for the border, where it does best in masses. Madonna lily (L. candidum), a native. of southern Europe, often attains three feet, bears from ‘half a dozen to two dozen large, pure white, fragrant flowers in a raceme. It is a highly ornamental species, will do well upon sandy soils and in full sunlight. .The Siberian coral lily» (L: tenutfolium), which seldom exceeds two feet in height, bears from one to a score of scarlet, nodding flowers. Being very easy to prop- agate from seeds and bulb scales and of sim- plest culture, it is especially popular with be- ginners. Gold banded or Japan lily (L. aura- tum), which sometimes attains four feet, bears a few yellow banded, purple-spotted, white flowers in a short raceme. It is less persistent than the-tiger and the showy lily, and’ some- what less easy to cultivate, but is particularly useful for planting among groups of dark- colored shrubbery. Showy lily (L. speciosum), a Japanese species, often exceeds three. feet, bears six or more white or pinkish, red-dotted flowers in a raceme. It is a specially hardy, thrifty and satisfactory species both for out-of- door planting and for greenhouse use. Next to the Bermuda Easter lily and L. longiflorum it is probably more widely grown by florists for cut- ting than any other kind. It has both white and red varieties. L. longiflorum, the original species of the Bermuda Easter lily, is forced in the same way as its variety. It is a native of Japan, from which country most of the bulbs are imported. Besides the species mentioned the following are considered worthy of wide popularity: L. chalcedonicum, elegans, testaceum, maximo- wicsu, martagon, maculatum, henry, monadel- phum and superbum. These do well with little care upon ordinary light loamy soils. L. cana- dense and superbum succeed upon the same soils but require rather shady places. For cold climates even as far north as Ottawa, Canada, the following have proved ‘successful: L. brown, wallacet, citrinum, croceum, melpomene, pardalinum, pomponium, dahuricum and. bate- manne. The odors of L. croceum and pom- ponium are very offensive even in the garden, and. when they are planted they should be at some distance from the house. Among the most fragrant are L. longiflorum, auratum, can- didum and varieties. Consult Bailey, ‘Stand- ard Cyclopedia of Horticulture? (1916); EI- wes, ‘A Monograph of the Genus Lilium? CA Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXVII, p. 235, 1899). LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY, a low-growing perennial herb (Convallaria majalis) of the lily family, with creeping rootstocks from which as- cend radical leaves and little white or pink fragrant flowers arranged in racemes upon scapes. The plant being a native of western .Asia is one of those popularly supposed to be referred to in the Sermon of the Mount, the tulip being another. It is a native also of Europe and of the mountains of the south- | eastern United States. The plants are perfectly hardy. They thrive in partially shaded, fairly rich loam, and may be readily propagated by means of the underground parts. Since beds are apt to run out they should be renewed every few years. The strong terminal buds known as pips are extensively used by florists MOUTH OF THE RIVER LIM t ~ Z TRE UIBRARY ee OE WES oe MANERSITY OF LIMO LILYBAUM —LIMANTOUR for forcing the flowers throughout the year. Several horticultural varieties have been pro- duced, some with variegated or striped foliage, others with pink, variegated, or double flowers. A highly esteemed perfume, eau d’or, is made in France from the flowers; and the rootstocks have been used by druggists, but are less popu- lar than formerly. LILYBEU\M, lil-i-bé’tim, the ancient name of Cape Boeo (q.v.). LIM, a picturesque affluent of the Drina River, which rises on the northern slope of the Albanian Alps in Montenegro, between Beda- vero and Priboy forms the boundary with Ser- bia, and after the first 30’ miles of its entire course of 140 miles, flows beyond the border through Bornia to its junction with the Drina. LIMA, li’ma, Ohio, city, county-seat of Al- len County, on the Ottawa River, and on the Erie, the Pennsylvania, the Cincinnati, Hamil- ton and Dayton, the Detroit Southern and the Lake Erie and Western and other railroads, about 70 miles north of Dayton and 80 miles south of Toledo. It is situated in an agricul- tural region and in the natural gas and petro- leum belt of the State. The oil fields extend into six counties in the northwestern part of the State. The chief industrial establishments are locomotive and car works, machine-shops, petroleum refineries and railroad shops. The shipping trade is chiefly in petroleum, farm and dairy products and railroad car equip- ments. The city is the seat of Lima College, opened in 1893 under the auspices of the Lu- therans. The city owns and operates the water- works. The Ohio State Hospital for the Crim- inal Insane, one of the largest institutions of its kind, is located here. Pop. (1920) 41,306. LIMA, lé’ma, Peru, South America, a de- partment in the western part, on the Pacific Ocean; area, 13,310 square miles. It is moun- tainous in the east, but along the coast the land is low, and in the river valleys productive. A number of villages and towns are in the val- leys. One of the principal agricultural produc- tions is sugar. There are rich mineral deposits, but as yet the mines are undeveloped. Pop. about 300,000. The capital is Lima (q.v.) and the chief port, Callao, is, with a few miles of surrounding territory, now a separate depart- ment. LIMA, Peru, South American city, capital of the department of Lima, on the Rimac River, seven miles from the Pacific. Callao, on the Pacific, at the mouth of the Rimac, is the port of Lima; it is connected with Lima by two railroads, one on each side of the Rimac. Another railroad extends from Lima to Con- cepcién, a town on the eastern slope of the Andes. This railroad is in one place 15,000 feet above the sea. The city was founded by Francisco Pizarro, 1535, and named Ciudad de los Reyes, “City of the Kings,” because the site was chosen on 6 January, the feast of the “Wise Men,” or the “Three Kings.» It is about 500 feet above sea-level. The climate is un- healthful and dense fogs are prevalent. The city is triangular in form, and its streets are straight if narrow. Lima contains several promenades adorned with ornamental plants and statues and several notable plazas. The principal of these are the Plaza de Bolivar, the Plaza Mayo, and the Plaza del Acho with its 439 bull ring.. The exposition grounds form a fine pleasure garden and here are also zoological and ‘botanical gardens. Lima’s houses are in the Spanish style with the central patio and are mostly of- adobe stuccoed with plaster. The cathedral, begun in 1535 and reconstructed. in 1758, is the most notable building. There are about 70 other churches, some of architectural merit and several fine hospitals. Lima has considerable manufacturing industries including furniture, iron and copper articles, dyestuffs, pottery and is developing rapidly. The adobe walls which surrounded the city were destroyed in 1870, and boulevards made in their place. The city has long been famed for its educational institutions; the national university, chartered in 1551, is the oldest university in America. It has courses in theology, law, medicine, applied science, political science, art and music. The National Library, founded in 1822, with some books from older libraries, was destroyed in 1880 by ‘the Chileans. It contained then 60,000 volumes. It now contains about 50,000 volumes. There are several other libraries in the ‘city. There are several technical schools, professional, classical, naval and military, and about 100 ele- mentary schools, besides a number of small pri- vate schools. Several scientific and literary so- cieties provide public lecture courses. The city is noted for being the home of the first Ameri- can canonized by the Roman Catholic Church, Saint Rose of Lima (1586). It has frequently suffered from earthquakes; the most destructive of which any record exists occurred in October 1746. The water supply and sewage system are good and the city is lighted by electricity. In Spanish colonial times Lima was the capital of the vice-royalty of Peru, which then included the greater part of Spanish South America: At the time of the war between Peru and.Chile, Lima capitulated and the Chileans kept posses- sion for two years. Many of its finest treasures and monuments were destroyed at this time. Pop. about 143,000, mostly Indian. or mestizo. Consult Enoch, C. R., ‘Peru? (London 1908) and Pradié-Fordéré, C., ‘Lima ct ses environs? (Paris 1897). LIMA E SILVA, Luiz Alves. de, loo’és al’vés, da lé’ma é sél-va, Duke of Caxias, Bra- zilian. soldier and politician: b. Rio de Janiero, 25 Aug. 1803; d. Santa Monica, province of Rio de Janeiro, 7 May 1880. He became briga- dier in the Brazilian army, was President: of Maranhao, Vice-President and military com- mandant of. Sao Paulo and President of Rio Grande do Sul; and in 1851-52 commanded the Brazilian army. In 1855 he became Minister of War; and from 3 Sept. 1856 to 3 May 1857 and again from 3 March 1861 to 4 May 1862 was Prime Minister. He commanded the army: of Brazil against Paraguay in 1866-69, and from 25 June 1875 to 5 Jan. 1878 was a third time Premier. LIMANTOUR, José Ives, Mexican states- man: b. Mexico City, 26 Dec. 1854. He-was graduated from the National Preparatory School of Mexico City in 1871; and from the National School of Law in 1874, receiving his lawyer’s diploma at the age of 20, after having successfully passed the required examinations, both in that institution and the National School of Jurisprudence. He traveled and_ studied abroad until 1876 and soon after his return to Mexico was appointed assistant professor and 240 subsequently professor of political economy in the National School of Commerce, and still later professor of international law in the National School of Jurisprudence. In 1881 he was elected to the Mexico City council and after- ward served several terms in the lower branch of the national Congress, of which he was sev- eral times presiding officer. During the 10 years prior to 1892 he served in various diplo- matic and financial positions and was con- nected with the Department of Formento much of that time. In 1892 Mr. Limantour was ap- pointed assistant Secretary of the Treasury and Secretary on 9 May 1893. During his admin- istration many important financial reforms were inaugurated. In recognition of his pub- lic services he has been decorated by several foreign governments. He has written much on financial and other subjects. LIME, also known as caustic lime, quick- lime or calcium oxide (CaQ), is snow white in color and strongly alkaline, being one of the strongest bases. In contact. with water, for which it has great affinity, it increases in ‘bulk, evolves much heat and changes to the hydrate (CaH.O:). Unless kept in a dry place it will absorb moisture and carbonic acid gas from the air and change to the carbonate (CaCOs) (see CaLciuM). Lime, except for certain impurities, is entirely soluble in water, the principal insolu- ble impurities being silica, alumina and iron oxide. It is never found native, but limestone may contain a very large percentage. For ordinary commercial uses lime is obtained by heating limestone, shells, or other material com- posed of calcium carbonate, to a temperature high enough to drive off the carbonic acid gas. As the materials used vary in purity, so is there a corresponding difference tn the purity of the lime produced. Owing to its property of hardening, by change to calcium carbonate, and its comparative cheapness, lime is the most important of building materials: For commer- cial purposes the many yarieties of lime are grouped into, (1) common or fat limes con- taining less than 10 per cent of impurities, (2) poor or meagre limes containing 10 to 25 per cent of impurities, taining 15 to 40 per cent of impurities and (4) hydraulic cements which may contain as high as 70 per cent of impurities. Common or fat limes in slaking evolve much heat and increase in bulk from two and a half to three times; they are soluble in water. In hardening they shrink, and hence in making mortar require the addition of a large amount of sand. As fat limes are cheap and abundant and can take a large proportion of sand in making mortar, they are generally used for masonry. The poor or meagre limes are seldom used in this country. The hydraulic limes, so called from their property of hardening under water, though valuable for certain purposes, are also seldom used in the United States for masonry. They slake more slowly than ordi- nary limes with little rise of temperature and little increase in volume. Hydraulic cements (see CEMENT) do not slake and do not require. the addition of sand to form mortar. They also set or harden much more quickly than ordinary limes, as the formation of calcium car- bonate is a slow process that may under certain conditions take years, while in some quick-set- (3) hydraulic limes con-. LIME ting cements the formation of the calcium sili- cates and aluminates to which setting is due may take place in a few hours. Limestone, marble and shells are burnt to lime by exposure to a temperature of 850 to 900° C. in a current’ of air. The harder the limestone the longer the time required for burn- ing, but the better the product. Impurities in the limestone may or may not-be injurious,’ de- pending on the quality of lime desired. Mois- ture in the limestone, or added to: the charge, as by a steam jet, helps carry off. the carbonic acid and hastens burning. Lime burning may be done in heaps or kilns. Heap burning in which pieces of limestone are piled on a grate of wood, then covered with fines or clay and fired, is now little used.. Of kilns there are vari- cus types, intermittent and continuous . firing. Of intermittent kilns the old “dug out” kilns built of ordinary brick on masonry into the side of a hill require about 72 hours for each firing. Heat is supplied bya coal or wood fire at the bottom. For continuous firing vertical kilns 20. to 25 feet high with draw openings, prefer- ably below the fire line, are used, the lime being drawn about every six hours. To sup- ply moisture, water is kept in an iron pan in the ash-pit.. In the kilns most commonly used there is no grate, but the fuel, preferably charcoal or anthracite, is charged with the limestone.:.The lime is not as pure as from furnaces. with a bot- tom grate, but the consumption of fuel per pound of lime made is less. In such kilns burn- ing is started by partly filling the kiln with lime- stone, putting in a thick layer of kindling wood and coal, starting the fire, and then adding alter- nate layers of coal and limestone. The type of continuous kiln in most favor is vertical, about 25 feet high, bottle-shaped and made of boiler iron lined with fire-brick. Such a kiln may use petroleum for. fuel, the oil being iniected through openings in the wall just above the widest part..of the. furnace.. Vertical kilns fired with gas have not proved successful. The type of kiln that requires. the least. fuel for amount of lime produced is the horizontal cir- cular Hofman kiln, also used for, making brick, drain, tile, etc. The fuel is fine coal or even coal dust, and is put in through openings in the top. The lime produced is lighter than that from vertical kilns, slakes more easily and hence cannot be stored as well. Most of the lime made is used fan building purposes, or mixed with clay for cement (q.v.), but lime is also used for making glass and artificial stone, as an agent in many chemical processes, as whitewash, and was formerlv largely used in sugar-making to-separate sugar from molasses... The statistics of the amount of lime annually made in the United States show that the value of the 1909 output was over $13,- 800,000; but at present the largest use of lime is in the Portland cement industry, which mines vast quantities of limestone, this being now the most valuable stone in the United States. See LIMESTONE; PoRTLAND CEMENT. . Lime has some medicinal value, counteracting excessive acid conditions. Various preparations of limewater are recommended for dyspeptics and pregnant’ women. Mixed with milk it often reduces the tendency to vomit. Lime- water with glycerine has been found useful in cases of creeping eczema. As an alkaline, ‘ LIME — LIMESTONE lime has many uses in the arts and in chemical processes. It softens “hard” water; neutral- izes acids, as in soils, and is indispensable in the making of sulphite for paper and gaseous am- monia. Consult ‘The Mineral Industry? (New York 1916). LIME, a shrub or small tree (Citrus au- rantifolia), related to the citron (q.v.), re- sembling the lemon in habit ‘but rather more prickly and spreading; its fruits, also, are more nearly spherical, more acid and rather more bit- ter than commercial varieties of lemon. It is a native of southeastern Asia, whence it has spread to other warm countries where its juice is highly valued for making cooling drinks. In Florida and the West Indies and Mexico, which supply the American market, large thickets of wild limes are to be found and these add to the crops from the cultivated groves, In California the lime is little culti- vated because the cheapness of Mexican fruit prevents the realization of a profit from orchards. The lime is one of the most im- portant sources of citric acid (q.v.). The trees are propagated, cultivated and trained much like. lemon trees, but are planted closer to- gether. They will stand poorer, stonier soil and nearer proximity to the ocean than other citrous fruits. The name is given in the Orient to various sour-fruited trees related to the true lime; in Europe and occasionally in the United States to the lindens (q.v.); and locally in the Southern States to the sour tupelo (q.v.), whose tart fruit is eaten. LIME AS A FERTILIZER. See Ferr- TILIZERS. LIME LIGHT. See Catcitum Licurt. LIMERICK, lim’é-rik, Ireland, a city and civic county, capital of Limerick County, at the interior extremity of the estuary of the Shannon, 120 miles by rail southwest of Dub- lin. It consists of three portions connected by five bridges, English Town on King’s Island, and Irish Town and Newtown Perry or New Town on either side of. the ‘river. Limerick is of very ancient foundation, being mentioned by Ptolemy as Regia. The principal buildings are the Episcopal and Roman Catholic cathedrals, custom-house, chamber of commerce, town-hall, exchange, assembly house and linen- hall. The manufactures include the curing of bacon, the preparation of butterine and the making of army clothing and fish hooks. There are, besides, distilleries; breweries, tanneries, corn mills, a patent slip for vessels of 500 tons, and a large graving dock for vessels up to 2,500 tons and a floating dock for vessels of 3,000 tons. Limerick is the leading port on the west coast for the shipment of raw produce. Bacon, butter, oats, salmon, condensed milk, are the chief articles of export and grain, petroleum and sugar the chief imports. Lime- rick is the seat of a consular agent of the United States. The harbor, naturally a fine one, has been improved at a considerable outlay. The strategic position of Limerick rendered its capture extremely important to the Danes, who arrived in the 9th century and_ practically founded the city and port. They held posses- sion of it until the closing years of the 10th century when Brian Boru weakened them sufficiently to_exact a yearly tribute. It passed definitely to Irish hands after the rout of the 441 Danes at Clontarf in April 1014. The Norman- English occupied the city soon after their ar- rival in 1172 and in 1210 King John visited it and erected fortifications. Edward Bruce led ~ his forces against it in 1314 and while only partially successful burned a great part of the city. The Catholic party supporting Charles I against the Parliamentarians occupied Limerick in 1641 but were obliged to surrender to Ireton in 1651. In the Revolutionary War of 1688-91 Limerick was the scene of the last stand of the Irish forces under Sarsfield who supported the house of Stuart. After the disasters of the Boyne, Athlone and Aughrim, Sarsfield was besieged in Limerick by William’s army under Ginkel. The defense was brilliant and success- ful, and after a train of siege artillery had been intercepted and destroyed by Sarsfield on its way to the city, an armistice was proposed by William, after which a treaty was signed under the terms of which Irish Catholics were to be permitted the free exercise of their religion, and those who’'so desired were permitted to leave the country. The greater part of Sars- field’s force immediately departed for France, where they formed the nucleus of the famous Irish Brigade. William’s adherents soon forced him to violate many provisions of the treaty, particularly that granting to Catholics the free exercise of their faith, and an era of persecu- tion was soon ushered in. In Irish history, Limerick is known as “the City of the Violated Treaty» The “Treaty Stone» marks the spot where the treaty was signed. Pop. 38,518. Consult Begley, J., ‘Diocese of Limerick, An- cient and Medizval? (Dublin 1906) and Leni- han, Maurice, ‘Limerick: Its History and Antiquities» (2d ed., ib. 1884). LIMESTONE, a common and widely dis- tributed rock, consisting essentially of car- bonate of lime and varying greatly in com- position, color and texture. Most limestones are of organic origin and represent the calcare- ous remains of sea animals, such as corals, foraminifera and mollusks. These remains may be reduced to a fine ooze by the action of the waves and in other ways, and the rock resulting from the consolidation of this ooze may show no trace of organic origin. Some limestones have been formed by the precipita- tion of calcium carbonate from sea water through evaporation in confined estuaries. Other limestones (travertine, calcareous tufa) have been formed by the deposition of calcium carbonate from springs, while still others repre- sent calcareous deposits in fresh-water lakes. The varieties of limestone are almost endless, including the crystalline limestones or marbles. Thus starting with nearly pure calcium car- bonate, the calcium may be replaced gradually by magnesium till finally we have dolomite, the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. Magnesian limestone is the proper designation until the ratio of calcium carbonate to mag- nesium carbonate becomes 100 to 84, beyond which it is dolomite. Pure dolomite contains 21.72 per cent of magnesia, but limestones con- taining over 5 percentare said to be dolomitic. Again the lime may be replaced by silica, with a gradual transition from limestone through cherty limestone to pure cherts; or again iron oxide may replace lime with a resulting transi- tion from limestone to merchantable iron ore. Besides these chemical transitions silicious or 442 argillaceous sediments may be laid down with the calcareous material, and in the resulting rocks we may trace gradual changes from limestone through limy sandstones to pure sandstone and from limestone through marls or calcareous shales to ordinary shales. Bitu- minous matter may make limestone black or give rise to asphaltic varieties. | Besides all these varieties of composition, limestones are often classified according to their texture, as earthy limestone, odlithic limestone with a’ con- cretionary texture, like the ‘roe of fish, etc. Under rock stresses, with possible rise in tem- perature, limestone becomes recrystallized and is then known as marble. Chalk is a soft and powdery textured limestone. Limestones are also classified according to the uses to which they are put, and thus we have cement rock or hydraulic limestone used for making cement, lithographic limestone, st-‘uary marble, etc. The various limestones and marbles are widely used for building» purposes, and a great amount of limestone is annually burnt to lime or'to cement, though no statistics of the amount thus used are available (see CEMENT; LIME). Limestone is also used as a flux in smelting iron and other ores, the total amount thus used in the United States in 1902 amounting to fully 9,000,000 tons. Of the limestones used as build- ing stone, particular mention may be made of the buff or dark gray odlitic Bedford limestone of Indiana and of the marbles of Vermont, Georgia and Tennessee. Marble or limestone is also used as a source of carbonic acid gas for ‘aérated waters. The uncertainty of composition of a lime- stone deposit is a constant difficulty in utilizing it for cement and flux. It is a matter of com- mon experience among quarrymen that to obtain uniform stone they must follow the beds of desirable composition, rather than to cut in straight lines. Limestone is found in horizon- tal deposits in successive layers, on what was once a sea bottom, and it varies in composition with depth. That which was laid at one period is most likely to be uniform, and this means quarrying along the strata selected, and also following what was formerly the shore line, if this can be determined. / Limestone is one of the most common rocks, and is found in almost every State and Terri- tory of the United States. Being heavy for its value, it does not pay to freight it. great distances, hence efforts are made to quarry it in. various localities for nearby consumption. About 15 per cent of the area east of the Rockies bears limestone. Most of the New England limestone occurs in the form of mar- ble, but deposits suitable for lime are found in large quantities in Berkshire County, Mass., and Litchfield and Fairfield counties, Conn. New York and Pennsylvania are both rich in limestone beds. There are extensive quarries near Buffalo that supply the blast furnaces. The Lehigh district of Pennsylvania contains immense quantities of cement rock and purer limestone beds. The valley of Virginia. con- tains great deposits suitable for lime-burning, and easily accessible. This limestone belt. ex- tends across the corner of West Virginia, through Maryland into Pennsylvania. Calcare- ous rocks predominate in Tennessee, northern Alabama and northern Georgia. -The greater part of the lime made in Wisconsin is burned LIMICOLZ — LIMINA from Silurian magnesian limestone found in the eastern part of the State. An extension of this belt of rock runs into Michigan. In In- diana’ the Bedford limestone, which is light gray, has attained a reputation as a building stone. Limestone is quarried in the southern part of Mississippi, and at intervals all the length of the Mississippi River. There is also a wide distribution in Missouri and Kansas, as well as. Texas, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, etc. The total value of the limestone produced in the United States in 1909 was fully $32,000,- 000. See Cauc-TuFaA; CALciITE; CHALK; ‘CorAL; DOLOMITE; MARBLE and Mart. LIMICOL/:, li-mik’6-lé, a group of birds, within the order Charadriuformes, containing the plovers, sandpipers, snipes, sheathbills, coursers, seed-snipes, stone-curlews, jacanas (qq.v.) and their immediate allies, most of which are known to gunners as “shore birds” or “beach birds,” because they haunt the shore of the sea or of inland bodies of water. They are mostly small, with slender bills of varying length, grooved for the nostrils, and in some families flexible at the tip, where nerves come close to the surface and enable the bird to feel about in the mud for its food. The legs are rather long, and the toes are ordinarily quite free, as these birds run about, and do not wade or swim as a rule; some, indeed, rarely approach the water, but dwell upon dry plains. The wings are strong and the powers of flight con- siderable; the most extensive migrations known are performed by some of the limicoline birds. All make their nests on the ground, and many breed only in the far north; the young run about as soon as freed from the shell. Light and pleasing, but not conspicuous, colors pre- vail, but some species display great beauty. Nearly all are edible and are the objects of skilful sport by the aid of dogs, decoys and other devices to overcome their wit and wari- ness. Consult Evans, ‘Birds? (Vol. I, ‘Cam- bridge Natural History,’ 1900); Steineger, ‘Birds? (Vol. IV, ‘Standard Natural History,” 1885) ; Elliot, “North American Shore Birds” (1895); Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, ‘North American Water Birds? (1884); Sclater and Hudson, ‘Argentine Ornithology? (1888); and general works on ornithology and shooting. LIMINA. Among the most interesting phenomena of psychology are those that have to do with the relation between the intensity of a sensation and the intensity of the stimulus that excites it. It is found that it requires a certain definite amount of stimulus before any sensation whatever ensues. This is called the sensation-limen or lower threshold of sensation. Furthermore, even in the region within which the stimulus excites a sensation, an increment of the stimulus to produce a noticeable incre- ment in the sensation must exceed a certain amount, known as the difference-limen. After a certain intensity of stimulus is attained no further increase in sensation-intensity can re- sult. This is known as the terminal stimulus. According to Weber’s Law, which is very nearly attained for moderate stimuli, the difference- limen for a given,sense is a definite fraction of the intensity of the stimulus. Limina of, €x- actly the same nature as those for intensity exist for the quality, duration, extension and prob- LIMITATION OF ACTIONS — LIMNANDER DE NIEUWENHOVE ably for clearness (though this case has not been so thoroughly investigated), and have the ‘same properties and obey the same laws as those for intensity; The domain of feeling is like- wise subject to limina. For a discussion of the history of psychology work on limina and of the theories that have been put forward to ex- plain their existence and for a bibliography, see EBER’S Law. LIMITATION OF ACTIONS, a legal limitation to the period within which actions may be brought, varying usually in the United States from 6 years or less to 20 years. The sound policy of placing a reasonable limit to the time within which actions might be brought was early recognized in the law, and among those who enforced this were the Romans, who looked upon it as a proper punishment for the person who failed to assert his rights. They qualified it, however, by exempting lunatics and minors under 14 years of age—an exception that is recognized, with some modifications, in modern codes. The difficulty of preserving evi- dence for a long time, the death of witnesses, the probability that old demands are bad ones, the necessity of obviating uncertainties in titles and claims, and the discouragement of long credits, are also given as grounds for placing limitations on actions. In English law, it was first adopted in the reign of Edward I by stat- ute. Equity likewise recognized at an early period the justice of the principle. By the weight of authority, actions for de- termining a status, and not to adjust clajms against a particular defendant, are not limited. Examples of these are the validity of a mar- riage or other legal relation, the genuineness of a written instrument, or the like. In actions on contracts not under seal, as a general rule, both in England and in the United States, no action can be brought after six years, and the time is computed from the time the plaintiff could legally have brought his action. In the case of a bill of exchange payable at sight, the time is computed from the date of presentment. In actions upon contracts under seal or actions affecting the title to real estate, suit must be brought within 20 years. Any part payment of the debt or interest thereon or a new promise to pay it operates to suspend the statute, but it begins to run again immediately after the part payment or new promise. The promise may be expressed or implied. It has been held that an unqualified acknowledgment ot the debt will be considered in law an implied promise to pay. It is provided generally by statutes in the United States and Great Britain that the limitation will not run if the plaintiff is under disabilities, as coverture, minority, im- prisonment, lunacy or absence from the coun- try. Fraud of the defendant which prevents the plaintiff from asserting his right will also, as a general rule, prevent the statute from run- ning until the plaintiff discovers such fraud. In actions of tort there is less uniformity in the statutes of the United States than in actions of contract as to the time when suit is barred. This varies in the case of torts from two to six years. LIMITED LIABILITY, in modern ‘stat- ute law, a principle whereby the persons liable are bound under certain clearly defined condi- tions. The phrase is chiefly used in connection with stock companies, meaning that the stock- 443 holders. shall not be called upon, under any cir- cumstances, to contribute more than the par value of the shares of stock for which they have subscribed. If the debts of such a com- pany, when wound up, amount to more than the resources of the company can meet, the creditors must bear the loss. In the United States shareholders in national and other banks, insurance companies, etc., are held to a specific and strict liability; in the case of the national banks, it is for twice the amount subscribed. In England the shareholders of a limited com- pany from whose name the word “limited” is omitted must pay its debts in full. The United States Congress has adopted the rule followed by the British Parliament, and prevailing in European countries generally, with respect to the maritime law (q.v.) whereby a ship- owner, by surrender of the ship and the freight, may absolve himself from liability for negli- gence on the part of master or crew. Under the amended United States Revised Statutes the principle of limited liability is clearly main- tained and defined as applicable in this country; wherefrom it appears that “the owner of any vessel, whether steamer or canal-boat, employed whether in seagoing or inland navigation, whether he be an American citizen or a foreigner, may obtain a limitation to the value of his interest in the vessel and her pending freight, of his liability not only for the results of a single disaster, but for the results of a disastrous voyage, including all debts due on account of the vessel save seamen’s wages.” If the ship and freight are lost, the owner must abandon all claims in regard to the vessel and cargo to the injured party. If he collects these he is liable to the injured parties to the extent of the proceeds. This limitation is confined to the owner of a vessel who is not in charge thereof and master and seamen are not exempted from liability if the injury is due to their misconduct. Consult Benedict, E. C., ‘The American Admiralty, its Jurisdiction and Practice? (New York 1898). LIMITED MONARCHY. ARCHY. LIMITS, Theory of. See REAL VARIABLE, THEORY OF FUNCTIONS OF THE; SERIES; CAL- CULUS, THE INFINITESIMAL; ASSEMBLAGES, GENERAL THEORY OF. LIMN/A, the central genus of the pulmo- nate family Limneide, containing the typical fresh-water snails. See PoND-SNAILS. LIMNANDER DE NIEUWENHOVE, lim’nan-dér da né’vén-hd’vé, Baron ‘Armand Marie Guislan, Belgian composer: b. Ghent, 1814; d. Paris, 1892. He studied at the Jesuit College of Saint Acheul, near Amiens, later at Fribourg, and Fétis was his instructor in har- mony and composition. He became conductor of an amateur symphonic society, and founded the “Réunion Lyrique,” a choral society, at Mechlin, where he started his career as a composer after his return from Switzerland. He published a ‘Stabat Mater? with orchestra, a ‘Requiem Mass? with organ. ‘Les Druides? operatic scenes, produced at the Paris Con- servatory in 1845; ‘La fin des moissons,? a sym- phony; a ‘Te Deum,» a sonata for piano and violoncello, choruses for unaccompanied male voices and cantatas. He settled in Paris in 1847, and his opera ‘Les Monténégrins? was See Mon- 444 performed at the Opéra Comique in 1849. This was followed by ‘Le chateau de la barbe bleue? in 1851 and ‘Yvonne? in 1859. His ‘Maitre- chanteur? presented at the Opéra in 1853 was revived as ‘Maximilien? in Brussels in 1870. LIMNO, LIMNOS, a name given to the island of Lemnos and also applied to the town of Kastro or Kastrow (q.v.). LIMOGES, lé-mozh, France, an episcopal city, capital of the department of Haute- Vienne, situated on a hill sloping to the Vienne, here crossed. by three bridges, 88 miles west of Clermont. The streets are narrow and _ tor- tuous; but the fortified walls which sur- rounded the town have been replaced by fine shady boulevards. The principal edifices are the. cathedral, commenced in 1273, presenting both Romanesque. and Gothic features; the Gothic church of Saint Michel des Lions; the church of Saint Pierre du Queyroix; a modern town-hall, palace of justice, bishop’s palace, public library of 90,000 volumes, school of decorative art, and meteorological observatory. It is the headquarters of tiie 12th army corps. The art of enamel is said to have flourished here from the 12th century, and the city is not- able for a series of artists eminent for beautiful paintings in enamel. The principal industry is the manufacture of porcelain, b:gun in 1736, and employing thousands of workpeople; there are also wool and cotton spinning mills, paper mills, and shoe and clog manufactures. Book printing is of importance; a press was set up in 1496. It has a considerable trade in cereals, wine and spirits, wood and cattle. Limoges was originally the capital of the Gallic tribe, the Lemovices, and an important city as the Roman “Augusboritum Lemocicum.” There are some remains of the Roman occupa- tion inscriptions and other fragments. The city has been twice depopulated by pestilence, in the 10th century when 40,000 are reported to have perished, and in 1630-31, when 20,000 were taken. It was taken by assault by Edward. the Black Prince in 1370, when a massacre of 3,000 of the inhabitants ensued. Pop. 92,181. LIMON, 1lé-mén’, or PUERTO LIMON, poo-ar't6 lé-mén, Costa Rica, Central America, a port on the northeast coast, 72 miles (103 by rail) east of San José, the capital at the eastern. terminus of the interoceanic railway. The port has been greatly improved by modern docks and iron piers, and a growing export trade is carried on especially in coffee, also in ‘bananas, rubber, mahogany, dyewood, etc. The town has ice factories, a brewery, a fine water supply and a modern sewerage system. Pop. 7, LIMONITE, an ore of iron (q.v.), varieties of which are bog iron ore and yellow ochre. It is a hydrated oxide of iron (2Fe.03.3H:O), of a brownish color, occurring in mammillated or botryoidal masses, which when broken across show a fibrous radiating structure, and also in compact and earthy masses. It is opaque, rather brittle, moderately hard, and has specific gravity 3.6 to 4. It dissolves in warm aqua regia; when heated it loses water and becomes magnetic. It is an important ore of iron, and is found abundantly in the United States, es- pecially in Virginia and Alabama, and in other parts of America; also on the continent of Europe, and in some parts of Great Britain. In 1914 the United States produced 1,537,750 LIMNO, LIMNOS — LINACRE > long tons of this ore, that is, about 3 per cent a the total iron ore production. See also Iron RES. LIMPET, a gastropod mollusk, with a low, conical, non-spiral shell; properly a representa- tive of the families Patelide and Acmeide. The former has no ctenidia or true gills, ‘but breathe by means of a ring of special branchial filaments between the mantle and the foot; in the latter the left ctenidium functions as a gill and there is no accessory ring. By means of a muscular, sucker-like foot, the limpets adhere so firmly to rocks near: low-water mark that they defy the beating of the heaviest surf and are difficult to detach without injury. At high- tide they move about in search of the alge on which they feed, but are said to return to exactly the same place and position, the muscle in time wearing a smooth spot or “form” on the rock, and the shell becoming adapted to its irregularities. A widely distributed circum- polar species (Acmea testudinalis) is common on the New England coast, and may ‘be recog- nized by its low, conical, smooth shell with the eccentric apex slightly turned forward. In Europe limpets are utilized as food and in this country for bait. The key-hole limpets belong to the family Fissurelide, in which the shell is usually perforated like a key-hole at the apex to permit the protrusion of a process of the mantle. Numerous species occur in the littoral zone of warm seas. The Haliotide, ear-lim- pets or abalones. (q.v.), are closely related. The cup-and-saucer limpets and _ slipper-limpets (Calyptreide) have flat shells usually provided with an internal lip or shelf. Several species of Crepidula, having interesting commensalistic habits, are abundant on our coasts, and are known to fishermen as “half-decks.» Finally the fresh-water limpets (Ancylus and Gund- lachia) belong to the pulmonate family Lim- neide. Numerous species of these true air- breathing limpets are found abundantly on stones and plants in the fresh-water streams and ponds of the United States. "They feed on conferve. Limpets, especially Acm@ea and Patella, are of very ancient race, having existed almost unchanged since the Silurian’ Age. Consult Cooke, “Molluscs” (‘Cambridge Natu- ral History,» Vol. III, London 1895); ‘Stand- ard Natural History? (Vol. I); Arnold, ‘Sea Beach at Ebb-tide? (New York 1901); Mayer, “Sea-shore Life» (New York 1906). LIMPKIN, a crane-like bird of the swamps of tropical America, known and superstitiously feared by the ignorant natives on account of its sombre plumage and wailing cry. Two species exist, Aramus scolopaceus and A. pictus. LIMPOPO, lim-pd’p6, or CROCODILE RIVER, South Africa, a river which rises to the south of Pretoria in the Witwatersrand, flows northwest through the Transvaal, then northeast, forming for a considerable distance the northern boundary of the Transvaal proy- ince, then southeast into the Indian Ocean north of Delagoa Bay; length about 1,100 miles. Its largest tributary is, the Olifants, which flows through the Transvaal and joins it in Portu- | guese territory. La LINACRE, lin’'a-kér, Thomas, noted Eng- lish physician and scholar: b. Canterbury, Eng- land, 1460; d. London, England, 20.Oct. 1524. He was the projector of the College of Physi- LINARES — cians in London and the founder of lectureships in both Oxford and Cambridge. LINARES, José Maria, ho-sa’ ma-ré’a 1é- na’rés, Bolivian statesman: b. Potosi, 10 July 1810; ‘d. Valparaiso, Chile, 1861. He was ad- mitted to the bar, was appointed one of the commissioners to prepare a legal code for Bolivia, in 1839 became Minister of the Interior, later Minister to Spain, and in 1848 president of the Senate. In 1857 he was chosen President, but was deposed by revolutionists in January 1861. LINARES, Chile, (1) a southern province bounded north, south ‘and west ‘by the provinces of Talca, Nubile and Maule, and on the east by the Andes: area, 3,942 square miles; pop. 112,- 966. Its surface is mountainous, but there is a large acreage well adapted to grazing. Stock raising is the chief industry. A railway, one of the main arteries of Chile, traverses the province from north to south. (2) A town, the capital of the above province, 10 miles south- east of Talca, 55 miles from the coast and about 85 miles north ‘by east of Concepcion. It has a large trade and is the distributing centre for the commerce of the province. It is reached by rail from Santiago. Pop. 11,122. LINARITE. A basic hydrous lead-copper sulphate PbO.CuO, SOs. H:O. in Cerro Gordo mine, Inyo County, Cal., and Silver Horn mine, Beaver County, Utah. LINCOLN, Abraham, 16th President of the United States: b. in a rude farm cabin near Hodgensville, Ky., 12 Feb. 1809; d. Washington, D. C., 15 April 1865. The birthplace is marked by a memorial structure dedicated on his hundredth anniversary. He was the first son and second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks, both born in Rockingham County, Va., of parents who were among the earliest emi- grants to the new country beyond the moun- tains. They were married in Washington County, 12 June 1806, at the home of Richard Berry, guardian of the bride and husband of Lucy Shipley, her aunt. Thomas was not yet six. when his father, Abraham, was killed by lurking Indians while he was at work on his farm. .The estate, mostly of wild land, de- scended by the existing law to his eldest. son. No account remains of the widow’s subsequent life. - Probably she did not long survive the tragedy. Thomas grew up utterly without edu- cation and apparently without a definite home. Principally occupied as a farm and forest la- borer he acquired some knowledge of the tools and trade of a carpenter. For reasons not uncommon in the lives of families separated by distant migrations the President had little knowledge of his forbears beyond the paternal grandfather. Long after his death it tran- spired that the first American progenitor was Samuel Lincoln who came from England as a weaver’s apprentice in 1637. Two elder brothers had previously settled at Hingham, Mass.; named after the English shire town of County Norwich, their ancestral home. Samuel joined them there after completing his apprenticeship at Salem. Neither of the brothers left issue, the name being perpetuated through Mordecai, son of the young weaver; Mordecai 2d, his _ grandson; John, a great- -grandson who lived for a time in Berks County, Pa., removing to Virginia; Abraham, the Kentucky pioneer; and LINCOLN 445 Thomas, fifth in the order of American birth. The pedigree has been further traced through four generations in England. In both the old home and the new the main and converging lines of heredity gave promise of family dis- tinction should time and occasion propitiously meet. It was mistakenly believed for a time that Thomas and his wife were first cousins. She was the daughter of Joseph Hanks and Nancy Shipley (“Nanny” as named in the hus- band’s will), who was a sister of Lucy Shipley, wife of Richard Berry before mentioned. Another sister, Mary by name, had married Abraham Lincoln the elder, and it was assumed that she was the mother of all his children. In fact, however, Mary Shipley died prior to the Kentucky migration and was succeeded by Bathsheba Herring, daughter of Leonard Her- ting, a Virginian of English parentage. Thomas was the son and only child of this second marriage and therefore unrelated by blood to Nancy his wife. It is worthy of passing mention that still another of the Ship- ley sisters was married to Thomas Sparrow and went with him to the Kentucky wilderness. Through the marriage of their daughter with one Charles Friend she became the grand- mother of Dennis Friend who somehow came to be known as Dennis “Hanks”; and was no credit to either name. The irresponsible chatter of this waif did much to mislead the biographers both as to the story of Lincoln’s youth and the Hanks genealogy. (Consult Lea and Hutchinson, ‘The Ancestry of Abra- ham. Lincoln,’ Boston 1909). The first home of Thomas and his wife was at Elizabethtown, Ky., where he pursued his trade as carpenter. Two adventures in farming ensued, the first on the Nolin Creek place where their famous son was born. A second son, also born there, lived but a few weeks. Upon neither farm apparently were payments made sufficient to create a salable interest. In 1817, several re- lated families accompanying them, they moved to Indiana, settling on a wooded tract near Gentryville in Spencer County; so named after the keeper ofa cross-roads store. A railroad junction point called Lincoln City: occupies a part of the chosen homestead. In October of the following year a mysterious epidemic swept the district, Mrs. Lincoln being one of many victims. - During the next 14 months, the daughter, but two years older than Abraham, kept house for the sorrowing family. On 2 Dec. 1819, Thomas took another wife from Kentucky, Sarah Johnston (née Bush), a widow with three children residing at Eliza- bethtown. Her advent greatly improved the family circumstances, for besides household conveniences such as the children had never known she brought a kind and cheerful na- ture. Among other benefits conferred she en- couraged the boy in studies, which his father regarded as a form of idleness. Less than a year of school attendance is all that fell to his lot, but with this meagre help he learned to read and write and to “cipher to the rule of three» Luckily there were a few good books within reach, all of which he eagerly read. He remembered. well, thought. much and diligently exercised the knowledge gained. In other re- spects he was a boy among boys, loving fun and not enamored of manual toil. He was made to work at home or on the neighboring farms, 446 clerked at odd times in Gentry’s store and at the age of 19 accompanied the son of that worthy on a flat-boat trip to New Orleans, trading along the way and returning by river packet. On that memorable venture he first came into conscious contact with slavery, wit- nessing, it is said, an auction sale of negroes and vowing that if ever the opportunity came to “hit? that system he would “hit it hard In the spring of 1830 at the beginning of his majority the family moved to Illinois to settle (temporarily as it proved) near Decatur. After helping to fence and break up part of a prairie farm and to erect a cabin thereon for the fam- ily shelter the young man turned to face the world on his own account. Besides the cloth- ing he wore, he had nothing but his well-mus- cled frame of six and one-third feet in height, a mind matching his great stature in native strength and manners, rude and quaint, to be sure, but springing from a brave and generous | soul. After a few weeks of labor with axe and hoe he engaged with John Hanks, one of his mother’s tribe, to conduct another flat-boat down the great river. Their employer, Dennis Offut, had failed to provide the boat as prom- ised whereupon the two men proceeded to build one. The delay caused Hanks to abandon the voyage but Lincoln with other help completed it. Offut, a merchant, loosely planted at New Salem, on the Sangamon, near Springfield, formed a liking for the stalwart youth, with the result that Lincoln became a resident of the mushroom village and a helper in the varied and often disastrous enterprises of his new- made friend. Offut soon drifted away but Lin- coln remained, serving the small community as a mill-hand, clerk in the village stores, post- master, deputy surveyor and the like, rapidly growing in public esteem. Indian disturbances (the Black Hawk War) called for the creation of a military force. Lincoln volunteered as a private and was elected captain. No fighting occurred in his vicinity and the “war” soon ended. Returning to New Salem he became a candidate for the legislature, failing of elec- tion but receiving nearly the entire vote of his precinct. Settled in nothing save the desire for self-improvement, he ventured, with another as poor as himself and wholly on credit, to pur- chase a failing store. It continued to fail till only the debt remained. This burden, which he whimsically called “the national debt,” fell upon himself alone and was not fully discharged until his pay as Congressman at last provided the means. To business disaster was added the discipline of love and a lover’s bereavement. He wooed and won Ann Rutledge, who shortly after the engagement died of a sudden illness. She was one of the Southern family of Rut- ledges, her father having been caught with the rest in the New Salem eddy along the inflow- ing stream of settlers. He was so nearly un- manned by this blow that his friends were alarmed, but it passed. By the election of 1834 he was sent to the legislature and was thrice re-elected. Largely through his efforts the State capital was removed from Vandalia to Springfield in his own county. Measuring him- self against his fellows, many of them lawyers, he dared to enter the bar. With no help: ex- cept from borrowed books, he had so far ad- vanced by the autumn of 1836 as to gain ad- mission. On 15 April of the following year LINCOLN he moved to Springfield ore engaged in the practice. That day 28 years later, at the sum- mit of national power and: fame, an ‘assassin’s - shot was to lay him low. In politics the young statesman was of the minority faction. The Democratic party was dominant in both his State and the nation, such opposition as there was holding loosely to- gether under the nondescript name of Whigs; but it gradually strengthened until in 1840 its presidential candidate (Harrison) was elected. In 1838 and again in 1840 Lincoln received the Whig vote for speaker of the assembly. He was also on the Whig electoral ticket in the campaigns of 1840, 1844 and 1852. His one election to Congress occurred in 1846, the term ending at the inauguration of the second Whig President (Taylor) 4 March 1849. He did not seek re-election, his district being governed by a kind of a “gentleman’s agreement” that the honor should be passed around. Meanwhile (4 Nov. 1842) he was married to Mary Todd, daughter of Robert S. Todd of Louisville, Ky. She with two of their four sons lived to mourn his untimely death. One of the sons died in early infancy, another in the White House at the age of 12. Mrs. Lincoln was of high social rank, brilliant, cultured and ambitious. . She proved a devoted wife and mother, but by rea- son of a cerebral ailment not generally known her married life was not altogether happy. Her last days (1882) were clouded by a mild insan- ity, hastened no doubt by the awful tragedy en- acted in her presence and by the loss of her young son Thomas (“Tad”), who died 15 July 1871. The political activities referred to of course retarded Mr. Lincoln’s progress in the law. Besides the legislative attendances at © home and in Washington, there were repeated canvasses of his district and State to be cared for and no end of letters and conferences. As a “case” lawyer, however, his reputation stead- ily widened. The death of President Harrison almost at the beginning of his term and ‘the early apostacy of Tyler, his successor, left noth- ing of Federal preferment to the Whig poli- ticians. The advent of Taylor opened the door to a hungry crowd. Lincoln had supported him by speeches in Congress and elsewhere and the new Congressman from the Spring- field district was of the opposite party. By current practice, therefore, Lincoln was en- titled to a voice touching Federal appointments. The office of land commissioner was accorded to Illinois. After recommending others with- out success he sought the place for himself. Instead he was offered the governorship of Ore- gon Territory, a post which seemed to prom- ise early promotion to the Senate. His wife rejected it and thus he was saved for greater things. During the next five years he practised law more assiduously than every before, ad- vancing to high rank among the leaders of the Illinois bar. He appreciated the handicap of a defective education and strove mightily to over- come it. As he had studied grammar and sur- veying at New Salem he now grappled geom- etry, in order as. he said to master the art of “demonstration.” But political events were. soon to reclaim his attention. The controversy. over slavery, measurably quieted by the Mis- souri Compromise of 1820, broke out afresh 30 years later and was again partially sup- pressed through a series of Congressional acts ee ABRAHAM LINCOLN Sixteenth President of the United States ee LINCOLN known as the compromise measures of 1850. Within a short four years the slave-holding South demanded and obtained the overthrow of all legislation which tended to confine or dis- credit her favorite institution. Stephen A. Douglas, the leading senator from Illinois, was chairman of the Committee on Territories. He had championed the settlement of 1850, and in doing so had proclaimed undying allegiance to the Missouri Compromise whereby “Mason and Dixon’s Line» was made the northernmost limit of slavery. Now he had fathered the “Kansas-Nebraska bill,» the act which both in terms and by necessary implication rejected the compromises and denied their legality. His agency in the matter made the storm of pro- test especially violent in Illinois and Lincoln was thoroughly aroused. Douglas had great ability and towering ambition. He desired and expected to be President, having already con- tested the nomination of 1852. His advocacy of the repeal was likely, he believed, to ensure undivided support in the South which, with but a fraction of the Northern party strength, would give him the prize. His term in the Senate had yet four years to run but his col- league and friend from Illinois, James Shields, would be re-elected or replaced by the legisla- ture shortly to be chosen. Lincoln entered the contest with vigor, speaking throughout the State and (against his own preference) stand- ing for election to the lower house from San- gamon, his home county. ‘Anti-Nebraska” won by a slender margin and by general ac- claim Lincoln became its candidate. To avoid a legal quibble touching eligibility he resigned his membership, only to see the vacancy filled by a Democrat chosen at a special election. Five of the majority, formerly Democrats, re- fused to support him, preferring Lyman Trum- bull, one of their kind. After many ballots, the choice of a pro-slavery senator being immi- nent, he persuaded his friends to vote with the stubborn few; a fortunate outcome as it proved, though for the moment sorely disap- pointing. The events of 1854-55 thus lightly sketched were accompanied and followed by a bitter struggle for the control of Kansas, first of the new States to seek admittance. Settlers from the North, some of them aided by anti- slavery societies, were met by “border-ruffians” so-called, entering from Missouri. Armed con- flicts ensued and “Bleeding Kansas” became an effective war-cry from the free State hustings. The Democratic National Convention (1856) again rejected Douglas, naming James Buch- anan, a Pennsylvanian, who was less prominent in the slavery party and therefore less ob- noxious to its enemies. The various opposing elements drawing together under the name of Republicans met in mass convention at Phila- delphia and selected John C. Frémont as their standard bearer. Lincoln, though not in at- tendance and not in the least advised of any such purpose, was accorded 110 votes for the Vice-Presidency, making him the second choice in a field of 13. A third ticket, styled “Amer- ican,”. was headed by Millard Fillmore, who had become President upon the death of Taylor (1850), and greatly desired re-election. Buch- anan was elected, carrying every slave State ex- cept Maryland. Pennsylvania supported him by a bare majority of the popular vote, and by the truth as he saw it. ay three other free States, including Illinois, went to him, but only because the majority was divided between Frémont and Fillmore. Slav- ery was continued in official power, but the triumph was big with disaster. The new administration was wholly sub- servient. Unscrupulous efforts to force slavery upon unwilling Kansas were favored and seemed likely to succeed. Douglas, whose senatorial term was drawing to a close, could not lose his hold upon Illinois without aban- doning all hopes of the Presidency. Making a virtue of necessity, therefore, he resisted the Kansas intrigues, and the State came in with a free constitution. This strategy worked marvelous improvement in his prospects at home. In 1854 when he returned red-handed from the slaughter of compromise he had encountered public obloquy and sullen resent- ment, resulting as already noted in the choice of a colleague inimical to his party. Now he came as the hero of a knightly rescue; the savior of free Kansas in some eyes, to others a stern defender of justice unshaken by per- ‘sonal risk. Republicans in and out of the State began to advise that his re-election be not op- posed, deeming it “good politics” thus to pro- mote schism in the enemy’s household. Lincoln moved promptly to steady the Republican phalanx and the danger soon passed. Partly to head off the threatened defection, in part to bind the new legislature by a definite man- date from the people, a convention called for the nomination of State officers named Lincoln for the Senate. He responded (16 June 1858) in a speech which exhibited at their best both his intellectual power and his rare facility of terse and accurate expression. In this, the much-quoted “House-divided” speech, the truth was first made plain that choice must be made, soon or late, between a nation all slave and a nation all free. In declaring his fixed opinion that “either the opponents of slavery will. ar- rest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of. ultimate extinction; or its advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the States,” he was by no means unminded of the personal and party hazards immediately involved; but with habitual thoroughness his mind had gone deep. To his thinking the: rock upon which his party must build was the basic antagonism between freedom and bondage, between liberty and tyranny, between right and wrong. Re- jecting the warnings of timid advisers to whom the address was submitted in advance -he stood The ensuing cam- paign, outwardly ‘but a mere struggle for office, drew the lines and marshaled the forces of the impending Civil War. It took the form indeed of mimic battle. A series of joint debates, one in each of the seven Congressional districts, was arranged at Lincoln’s instance. Vast audi- ences came to hear and the sneeches: steno- graphically reported were carried far on the wings of the press. The two champions were not unequally matched for the contest. Doug- las, of course, had signal advantages in long parliamentary training and national fame. He was fluent, aggressive and courageous even to recklessness, with a quick eye to exposed points of attack, But as compared with Lincoln he was in truth the “little giant,” with emphasis on 448 the first branch of his familiar sobriquet. Lin- coln, the taller by eight inches or more, was of corresponding intellectual reach. Less volu- ble, less gifted in voice and exterior attractive- ness, he was more thoughtful, better tempered, surer in his knowledge of the history involved and far above Douglas in the saving quality of humor. His own estimate of the comparative merits of their speeches was expressed late in the following year when he caused both to be reprinted side by side, for campaign pur- poses, without change and “without any com- ment whatever.” The State was carried on the popular vote, but the existing apportionment gave the advan- tage to Douglas who was. returned to the Senate by a majority of five. Commenting upon the outcome Lincoln wrote 19 November, “Jam glad I made the late race. It gave me a hearing on the great and enduring question of the age, which I could have had in no other way; and though I now sink out of view, and shall be forgotten, I believe I have made some marks which will tell for the cause of liberty long after I am gone.» But he was not to be lost from sight or memory. The great debate continued on a wider field. He was called to speak in other States and finally (27 Feb. 1860) by a masterly address at Cooper Institute, in New York City, the growing impression of his leadership was greatly extended. But there were few to think of him then as a possible chief magistrate. The national convention was to meet within the next 80 days (16 May 1860) and it was the general belief that Senator William H. Seward of New York would be the Republican nominee. Fully two-thirds of the delegates expected to vote for him. There were, however, elements of weakness in his candidacy. He had: echoed the sentiment of Lincoln’s house-divided speech, terming the slavery dispute an “irrepressible conflict. be- tween opposing and enduring forces, one of which must eventually triumph, but he had previously declared in a Senate debate that there is a higher law than the Constitution governing the nation’s stewardship of the pub- lic domain. This had associated him in the public mind with the extreme abolitionists by whom the constitution was openly flouted. Some of the Northern States which Frémont had failed to carry were necessary to Republican success. Three of them, Pennsylvania, Indiana and Illinois, were to elect State officers in October. Republican leaders, in the last two especially, were convinced that Seward’s nomi- nation would alienate many voters otherwise friendly. Their firm opposition coupled with the purely personal hostility of Horace Greeley, whose newspaper, the New York Tribune, was widely read by Republicans, led to caution and delay. There was the usual array of “favorite sons” to receive perfunctory support on the opening ballot, but it was soon apparent that if Seward were set aside Lincoln would be the choice. The nomination was dictated by considerations: of availability, Lincoln could carry Illinois—had done so but two years before. Indiana probably would favor him also. Pennsylvania, pledged to Simon Cameron, was indifferent toward Seward. In the midst of excitement prudence worked powerfully. Seward received but 173% votes at first, 4014 fewer than the required majoritv. Lincoln had LINCOLN 102. The leader gained 11 votes on the second ballot. as against a gain of 79 for his rival. The third, resulted. in a majority for Lincoln, and after a painful delay the nomination on motion of New York was made unanimous. The Democratic. convention had met. at Charleston, S. C., in the preceding month (23 April 1860) hopelessly divided. Douglas held a decided preponderance over all opponents but not a.two-thirds majority as required by the party usage. He had offended the South beyond forgiveness by his course in the debates with Lincoln hardly less than by his contumacy on the Kansas issue. The North refused to yield and the convention split into two angry factions without nomination by either. Eventu- ally two Democratic candidates were presented, Douglas being named by the Northern wing and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky by the Southern minority. A fourth ticket, headed by John Bell of Tennessee, appealed to the neutral element and, proved stronger than was expected; it prevailed in three of the slave- holding States whose electoral yotes aggre- gated 39. While division in the dominant party lent encouragement and vigor to the Republican campaign it can hardly be doubted that the pro-slavery element would have: failed in. any , event... Lincoln received 180 electoral votes, all from the North, and Breckenridge 72, all from the South. Douglas carried Missouri only, but through a fusion agreement obtained three elec- toral yotes from New. Jersey, a total of 15. The popular vote, however, varied remark- ably, that of Breckenridge being but a trifle more than that accorded to Bell. Douglas out- stripped the former by more than half a mil- lion and fell behind Lincoln by a slightly lower number, The combined opposition polled nearly a million more votes than were cast for the candidate whose majority in the electoral col- lege was 57 over all.. Lincoln never forgot that he was a minority President, nor that his nomination had come from a convention “which was two-thirds for the other fellow To his analytical mind these circumstances evinced a confused state of public feeling and opinion calling for caution no less than firmness in the execution of his official trust. The interval between the election and inau- guration day (4 March 1861) was utilized by the southernmost States in perfecting measures of secession. Though it was well known that the incoming administration intended no inter- ference with slavery. where it already existed, its protagonists were stung to the quick by the decision of the country to confine the sys- tem to a limited area, and that upon the avowed ground that it was both politically and morally a wrong. Such a decision they regarded as insulting, but. more than that, they perceived that it placed their cherished institution, as Lincoln had phrased it, “in the course of ulti- mate extinction” Their resentment and their fears led to speedy action. Pretexts for dis- solving the Union were not wanting; the thought was not new. Buchanan, confused and terrified by the situation, interposed no obstac- les. In his message to the new Congress (3 Dec. 1860) he easily demonstrated the utter illegality of all attempts to secede, but with astonishing want of logic maintained that the Federal government possessed no lawful right to resist secession. In a word, that a nation LINCOLN ; ordained to be perpetual could not defend its perpetuity without breaking the law: of its being. The result was that when the President- elect arose to repeat the inaugural oath, with its specific obligations to protect and defend the national Constitution and to take care that the laws be faithfully executed, the forms of secession were already accomplished and a new nation, “all slave,» was asserting its separate existence. The inaugural address, as tactfully as the case would admit, but without the slightest hint of uncertainty, declared that in view of the Constitution and the laws the Union was un- broken; that all resolves and ordinances of attempted secession were legally void; and that so far as the means were provided the Presi- dent would execute the laws in all the States alike. The rest was a calm review of the grounds of dissension and a moving appeal to the minds and hearts of all lovers of the Union for a peaceable settlement and a resumption of healing friendships. The address made no im- pression in the South except as its moderation was construed as a sign of weakness. The North indeed failed to grasp its real signifi- cance. As a declaration of policy it never stood in need of revision or enlargement. Doc- trine, duty, purpose and method are all clearly defined; only the wisdom, perseverance, re- sourcefulness and will of the speaker were as yet unknown. With sagacity which seemed to border on rashness he summoned to his Cabinet the four principal leaders who had contested his nomination, Seward, Chase, Bates and Cameron. At least two of these deemed them- selves vastly superior to their chief in all the qualities of statesmanship. Their great abil- ities served the country well, but the President’s mastery was not long in doubt. Carefully avoiding acts of aggression, and with equal care declining to recognize by word or deed the claims of the so-called Confederate government, he waited for the crystallization of Union senti- ment. It came with the assault upon Fort Sumter and its enforced surrender, 14 April 1861. The following day he proclaimed a state of insurrection, called forth the militia to the number of 75,000 and summoned Congress to assemble on the ensuing 4th of July. Four days later a blockade of some of the Southern ports was announced. Other measures of de- fense were taken, including calls for volunteers to re-enforce the regular army and navy, sus- pension of the writ of habeas corpus in dis- affected quarters, extension of the blockade, and the like, all in harmony with the declared aay ae to protect the Union and execute its aws. Pending the meeting of Congress loyal sentiment gradually strengthened. In a mes- sage of great power the case for the govern- ment was explained and enforced. All sug- gested legislation was promptly enacted. The South, more firmly united and not less deter- mined, plunged into a military struggle and four years of bloody warfare ensued. The story of battles and campaigns must here be omitted; neither can the civil history of that troubled period be narrated except in barest outline. There were many in the loyal States whose resentment of Southern domination led them to favor separation as a fortunate rid- dance. Others accepted the extreme view of VOL, 17 — 29 y 449 State rights, including the right of secession. Many shrank from civil war and would con- sent to disunion rather than fight. The aboli- tionists would make the wat ‘a means of de- stroying slavery forthwith, while the President and a vast majority of his party were com- mitted to the doctrine that abolition could not lawfully be enforced. These must unite, if at all, upon the single purpose of saving the Union. The avowal of any other aim within the first year inevitably would have wrecked the national cause. Lincoln almost alone per- ceived that the one unifying appeal must be kept in the foreground, and with undying patience, disregarding ridicule, distrust and ob- loquy, he restrained rashness, encouraged the timid, reassured the doubtful, persuaded the hostile. At bottom his title to enduring fame rests upon his unerring comprehension of the great task before him and his matchless skill in putting into timely and convincing words the fundamental truths to which the minds of honest men at last must yield. Slavery which had invoked the sword perished by the sword. Emancipation came (1 Jan. 1863) not of set purpose but as a by-product of national self- preservation. Neither side expected-it. “Each,” as stated in the second inaugural, “looked for . . . a result less) fundamental and as- tounding.» But Lincoln’s credit for the event is no less because he waited for an occasion to strike lawfully and with assured effect. It. must have given him intense satisfaction. “I am naturally anti-slavery,» he wrote to A. C. Hodges, 4 April 1864. “If slavery is not wrong nothing is wrong. I cannot remember when I did not so think and feel. Yet I have never understood that the presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling.» Emancipation, when it came, was purely a military expedient, a blow at:'the economic resources of a public enemy. “I felt,» he stated in the same letter, “that measures otherwise unconstitutional might become lawful by becoming indispensable to the preservation of the Constitution through the preservation of the nation. Right or wrong I assumed that: ground and now avow it. I could not feel that, to the best of my ability, I had even tried to preserve the Constitution if, to save slavery or any minor matter, I should permit the wreck of the government, country and Constitution all together». He had. pre- pared well for the finishing stroke by proposing and urging a settlement on the basis of com- pensated emancipation. Logically, enemy prop- erty, especially that which the owner refused to sell, might be seized for military purposes. But only such as could be captured fell within that rule, hence a doubt as to the legal effect of a mere announcement of freedom to slaves not within military reach. This doubt was practically solved by the President’s emphatic declaration that he would never retract: or modify the edict of emancipation nor return to slavery any person freed by its terms. This was repeated in his last annual message (6 Dec. 1864), this final assurance being added: “If the people should, by whatever mode or means, make it an executive duty to re-enslave such persons another and not I must be their instrument to perform it.” Negro regiments helped to extend the military lines which ulti- mately carried the reality no less than the 450 promise of freedom. to every slave. The 13th amendment to the ‘Constitution was but the for- mal recognition of a fact already accomplished. A marked example of both the sagacity and the magnanimity of the President is found in his selection of Edwin M. Stanton as Secretary of War upon the early retirement of Cameron. This imperious but intensely loyal. man. had treated Lincoln with: marked discourtesy both before and after the latter came to the Presi- dency: But Lincoln comprehended both the strength and the weakness. of his waspish critic. ‘Disregarding the personal affronts. he placed Stanton in a position of almost despotic power, and reaped: for himself and the country a harvest of incomparable service. In the same spirit he made Salmon P. Chase chief justice of the United States Supreme Court, after that great minister of finance had retired from his Cabinet a disappointed aspirant for the presi- dential succession. General McClellan, while in command of the Potomac army, displayed toward his great superior a very unfortunate attitude. Remonstrances against submission: to such treatment called forth no response. but this: “I would hold McClellan’s horse if that would bring us. victories.» Chief among his many disappointments was the failure, one after another, of his chief military appointees. The field of choice was limited, of course, to those educated for the army and not openly disloyal. Only experience could determine who of these were fit to command. He would not condemn any in haste. Some were retained perhaps too _ long because better were as yet unknown: Re- peated disasters at last sent incompetents to the rear and. possibilities of victory began to emerge. High hopes inspired by the. fall of Vicksburg (4 July 1863) and the concurrent defeat of Lee at Gettysburg suffered painful relapses. The following spring (9 March 1864) General Grant, whose successful career in the West had won the country’s confidence, was placed in supreme control. Thence onward unity of plan and movement took the place of divided efforts. Meanwhile, very largely under the President’s personal direction, the dangers of foreign intervention were met and averted. But as the season for nominations and elec- tions approached conditions were extremely de- pressing. Immense losses attended the grapple with Lee’s army in the Wilderness of Virginia. In Georgia the forces under Johnston were eluding the efforts of General Sherman to bring them to bay. Financial difficulties accumulated; discontent spread among powerful leaders in Congress and elsewhere. Lincoln naturally. de- sired re-election, both on his own account and for the national cause, but the clamor of the few and the slow progress of events in the field led him at times to forbode. defeat both in convention and at the polls: The convention met at Baltimore, 7 June 1864. His renomina- tion, never in doubt, was made unanimous upon the first ballot. For reasons of expediency, a Vice-President was named from the South, An- drew Johnson of Tennessee succeeding Hanni- bal Hamlin of Maine. Opposition on the part of radicals did not cease immediately. ‘They had previously (31 May 1864) held a mass convention which assumed to name Frémont as a Republican candidate, but no manifestation | ef popular support was evoked and_its ticket was later withdrawn. The Democratic conven- LINCOLN tion (29 Aug. 1864) nominated Gen. George ’ B. McClellan, who despite his repeated failures as a general had retained a singular hold upon popular favor. His failures indeed -had en- hanced his popularity, owing to strenuous claims. that the administration had thwarted his military plans in order to disgrace him. | No more dangerous candidate. could have’ been chosen .as matters then stood, but the conven- tion platform was a marvel of political unwis- dom. It recited as an historical fact that the war so long waged for the Union had been a “failure,” and demanded the immediate. cessa- tion of hostilities that peace’might be obtained through a convention of the States. Opportune victories, however, put an end to the charges of failure. The capture of Atlanta (2 Sept. 1864) and Sheridan’s -whirlwind progress through the Shenandoah Valley were campaign arguments of compelling force. -McClellan car- ried but three States, New. Jersey, Delaware and Kentucky, casting 21-electoral votes. Lin- coln received all the rest, 212 in number, and a popular majority of nearly 500,000. | _ Opposition in the North practically ceased with this overwhelming vote of confidence. There were-murmurs of. discontent’ over. the President’s evident inclination to deal leniently with the misguided South, but these came from would-be leaders rather than the masses, The Confederacy speedily fell apart... By his patience and sagacity, by his steadfast. resolve and his faith in the integrity and capacity of the. people, by his ready sympathy with the common sufferings and his eagerness. to-receive and to grant petitions for help,and for mercy he had acquired and at last enjoyed an influence far greater than the mere authority of his office. Constantly assailed by, ignorance and malice he had so administered his great trust as to make reunion comparatively easy. Hardly a word of denunciation fell from his lips or pen throughout those trying years. “I shall. do nothing in malice,» he'.wrote. “What I deal with is. too vast for malicious dealing” His almost unbounded charity was based upon a profound study of the feelings and motives of men. He ruled by a right more Divine than any right of kings. Tete The principal army of the Confederacy. sur- rendered to General. Grant 9 April 1865. It was confidently expected’ that: further resist- ance would shortly cease; In the ‘elation of. the moment it was resolved to celebrate the fourth anniversary of the fall of Fort. Sumter by a harmless bit of ceremony, signalizing upon, the same spot the restoration of the national au- thority throughout the land. Accordingly. at noon of that day the ‘identical flag which Major Anderson had been forced to haul down as the first definite ‘concession to armed. insurgency was by the same hand again unfurled above the crumbling fortress. That evening, the mission of the great President being in substance per- formed, his martyrdom was also accomplished. He had sought relaxation by witnessing a play at Ford’s Theatre in Washington. There he was shot by a crazed:secession zealot, J. Wilkes Booth by name, stealthily approaching from the rear. He fell unconscious in the’ arms of his wife and died at about seven of the! following morning. The tragedy proved but a part of an infamous plot to slay several leading officials of the government:: Secretary. Seward, \at about LINCOLN the same hour, was dangerously stabbed by one of the conspirators while lying sick. at his home. Other intended victims escaped through miscarriages in the. concerted scheme. Booth, leaping from the President's box to the stage below, sustained a fracture of the leg, but with the aid of ‘confederates escaped across the Potomac. He was soon discovered in hiding and: was fatally shot while resisting arrest. Four of the remaining conspirators, including a widow named Mary Surratt, were convicted by a military court and hanged (7 July 1865). Four others were sentenced to prison. Natu- rally the Confederate government was suspected of direct complicity in the crime. The suspicion was unfounded, but the mingled grief and rage of the people brought upon the South distress- ing consequences. Harsh measures of recon- struction were adopted, such as Lincoln surely would ‘have disapproved and by his great in- fluence might have averted. Friend and foe suffered in a common calamity. Bibliography.— ‘Writings and Speeches; Lincoln’s Complete Works,” edited by his secre- taries, J. G. Nicolay and John Hay (2 vols., New York 1894; same extended to 12 vols. id. 1905); ‘The Writings of Lincoln,» Federal Edition, ed. by A. B. Lapsley (8 vols., New York 1906) : Life and Works,» ed. by M. M. Mills. (8 vols, New York 1907; same in 4 and 6 vols., respectively, ed. by Mills and J. H. Clifford, id. 1907-08) ; ‘Uncollected Letters, ed. by ri Ree Tracy (1 vol., Boston 1917): ‘Political Debates? (Columbus, Ohio, 1860); same, Cleveland 1894; same, ed. by A. T. Jones, Battle Creek, Mich., 1895; reprinted, Chicago 1900; same, ed. by, E.. E. Sparks, Springfield, Iil., 1908 ; same, with introduction by G. H. Putnam (New. York and London 1912). .. Biographies: , Scripps,. J. L. (New York and Chicago 1860; réprinted, Detroit 1900); How- ard, J. K., (Columbus 1860) ; Howells, W. D., (Life and. Speeches? (id. .1860) ; Barrett, |... 4. (Cincinnati 1860; enlarged,fid. 1864 and 1865) ; ‘Lincoln .and. His Presidency. (2 vols., id. 1904); Raymond, H. J., ‘Life’ (New York 1864); ‘History. and Bisa YON (id. 1864) ; oe and Services? (id. 186 Hol- land, J. G., ‘Life? (Springfield, ee! 1867): Lamon, W. H., ‘Life to Inauguration (Boston 1872); Arnold, I. N., ‘Life? (Chicago 1885; Sth ed., 1891); Nicolay’ and Hay, ‘Abraham Lincoln, a History (10 vols., New York 1890) ; Nicolay, et OA Short ‘Life (id. 1902) ; Nicolay, Helen, ‘The Boy’s Life of Lincoln? (New “York 1906); ‘Personal Traits? (id. 1906); Browne, F. F., ‘The Every-day Life? (New York and Saint Louis 1887; curtailed ed. in 2 vols., Chicago 1913); Stoddard, W. O., ‘The True Story of a Great Life’ (New York 1884; revised ed., id. 1896); Herndon, W. H., and Weik, J. W., “Herndon’s Lincoln» (3 vols., Chicago 11890; 2 vols.,, New-York 1892) ; Morse, J. T. (2 vols., Boston. 1893; revised ed., id. 1899 and 1909); Hapgood, Norman, ‘Abraham Lin- coln the Man of the People? (New York 1899) ; Tarbell, Ida M:, ‘Life? . (2 \wols., -1900) + Curtis, W. E., “The Thue Abraham Lin- coln> (Philadelphia 1903); Binns, :H. B. (Lon- don. and New~ York .1907) ;s Morgan; James, ‘The Boy and the Man?” (New York 1908) ; Lord “Charnwood, “Abraham Lincoln (New York 1916): More than 150 extended biogra- New York 451 phies exist, representing nearly every printed language. Personal Reminiscences: Carpenter, F. B., Six Months at the White House with Abraham Lincoln: The Story of a Picture? (Boston 1866 ; republished aS ‘The! Inner, Life, _ etc,,):3 Oldroyd, O. H., ‘The Lincoln Memorial,” etc. (New York 1882) ; Rice) A. Ei, ‘Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time? (New York 1886; rev. ed., id. 1909) ; Ward, W. H., ‘Abraham Lincoln, Tributes from His Associates,? etc. (New York 1895) ; Chittenden, L. E., ‘Recollections of President Lincoln and His Administration? (New York 1891) ; Whitney, H. C., ‘Life on the Circuit with Lincoln? (Boston 1892); Dana, C. A,, ‘Recollections of the Civil War with the Lead- ers at Washington and in the Field in the Six- ties» (New. York 1898); Gilmore, James A,, ‘Personal Recollections: of Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War? (Boston 1898); Schurz, Carl, ‘The Reminiscences of Carl Schurz? (3 vols... New York 1908); Phillips, I. N., ‘Abraham Lincoln. By some Men who Knew Him? (Bloomington, IIl.,; 1910) ; Welles, Gideon, ‘Diary? (3 vols., Boston 1911); Thayer, W. R., ‘The Life and Letters of John Hay? (2 vols., Boston 1911); Chapman, Ervin, ‘Latest Light on Abraham Lincoln and War-time Memories? (New York 1917). Sermons and Eulogies: Simpson, Matthew, “Funeral Address delivered at the Burial of President Lincoln at Springfield, 4 May 1865” (New. York 1865); Beecher, H. W., “Oration on Raising the Old Flag at Sumter and Ser- mon on the Death of Abraham Lincoln” (Man- chester, England, 1865); Brooks, Phillips, “The Life and Death of Abraham Lincoln. A ser- mon preached 26 April 1865» (Philadelphia 1865); Dudley, John L., “Discourse preached 16 April 1865 at Middletown, Conn.” (Middle- town 1865); “Sermons preached in Boston on the Death of Abraham Lincoln. Together with funeral services in the executive mansion at Washington” (Boston 1865); “Our Martyr President. Voices from the Pulpit of New York and Brooklyn” (New York 1865) ; Sum- ner, Charles, “The Promises of the Declaration. Eulogy on Abraham Lincoln delivered before the Municipal Authorities of Boston, 1 June 1865 (Boston 1865) ; Bancroft, George, “Mem- orial Address... . delivered before the Con- gress, 12 Feb. 1866” (Washington 1866); Stod- dard, R. H., “Abraham Lincoln: An Horatian Ode” (New York 1865) ; Douglas, Fred, “Ora- tion on the Unveiling: of the Freedmen’s Monu- ment in’ Memory of Lincoln» (Washington (1876); Arnold, I. N., “Abraham Lincoln: A paper read before the Royal Historical So- ciety, London, 16 June 1881” (Chicago 1883) ; Watterson, Henry, “Abraham Lincoln. An Ora- tion, 12 Feb. 1895» (Chicago 1900); Choate, af H., “Abraham Lincoln. Address delivered before Edinburgh Philosophical Society, 13. Nov. 1900” (London 1900; New York 1901); Inger- soll, Robert, “Abraham Lincoln. A Lecture” (New York 1895; 1907) ; Reid, Whitelaw, “Ad- dress. at University of Birmingham” (London 1910); addresses before Republican Club, city of New York, “Abraham Lincoln, 1887-1909” (New York 1909) : “Abraham Lincoln. The Tribute of a Century; principal Addresses of the Centennial Year, ed. by W. McChesney (Chicago 1910). - 452 Topical Studies: Schurz, Carl, ‘An Essay? (Boston |1891; , republished 1909); Welles, Gideon, ‘Lineoin’ and Seward? (New York 1874) ;, Kelly, W.\D., ‘Lincoln and Stantom (New York 1885) ;°Coggeshall, W. T., ‘The Journeys.of Abraham Lincoln: From Spring- field to Washington . . . and from Washing- ton to Springfield? (Columbus, Ohio, 1865) ; Collis, H. T., and Ingersoll, Robert, ‘The Re- ligion of Abraham Lincoln? (New York 1900) ; Maynard, Mrs. W. C., ‘Was Abraham Lincoln a Spiritualist?? (Philadelphia 1891); Rems- burg, J. E., ‘Abraham Lincoln; Was he a Christian?» (Philadelphia 1893) ; Jackson, S. T., ‘Lincoln’s Use of the Bible? (Philadelphia 1909) ; Johnson, W. J., ‘Abraham Lincoln the Christian? (Philadelphia 1913); Peters, M. C., ‘Abraham’ Lincoln’s Religion» (New York 1909) ; Wettstein, C. T., “Was Abraham Lin- coln an Infidel?? (New York 1910); Lowell, J. R., ‘The President’s Policy? (Boston 1864, 1871° and 1888); Hart, A. B., ‘Slavery and Abolition? (New York 1906) ; Creelman, James, “Why We Love Lincoln» (New York 1903) ; Hill, F. T., ‘Lincoln the Lawyer? (New York 1906); Richards, J. T., ‘Abraham Lincoln the Lawyer-Statesman? (Boston 1916) ; Rothschild, A., ‘Lincoln Master of Men? (Boston 1906) ; “Honest Abe? (id. 1917); Norton, E., ‘Abra- ham Lincoln, a Son of Mankind? (New York 1911); Pillsbury, A. E., ‘Lincoln and Slavery? (Boston 1913); McCarthy, C. H., ‘Lincoln’s Plan of Reconstruction? (New York 1901); Learned, M. D., ‘Abraham Lincoln: an Ameri- can Migration» (Philadelphia 1909); Lincoln, S., “Notes on the Lincoln Families of Massa- chusetts, etc.2>. (Boston 1865); Lea and Hutch- inson, ‘The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln? (Boston 1900); Jenkins, H. M., ‘The Mother of Lincoln? (Philadelphia 1900); Hitchcock, Caroline H., ‘Nancy Hanks»? (New York 1899); De Witt, D. M., ‘The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln and Its Expiation® (New York 1909); Oldroyd, O. H., ‘The Assassina- tion of Abraham Lincoln? (Washington 1906) ; Pitman, Benn, ‘The Assassination of President Lincoln and the Trial of the Conspirators? (Cincinnati 1865); Surratt, John H., ‘Trial of in the Criminal Court of the District of Colum- bia? (Washington 1867) ; Dodge, D. K., “Abra- ham Lincoln, the Evolution of His Literary Style» (Urbana, IIl., 1900) ; Gilder, R. W., ‘Lin- coln the Leader and Lincoln’s Genius for Ex- pression»? (Boston 1909); Garret and Hadley, ‘The Civil War from a Southern Standpoint? (Philadelphia 1905) ; Hosmer, J. K., ‘The Ap- peal to Arms and Outcome of the Civil War? (New York 1907); Rhodes, James F., ‘History of the United States? (7 vols, New York 1912). DANIEL FIsuH, Judge, District Court, Minneapolis; Author. of Lincoln Bibliography, etc. LINCOLN, Benjamin, American general: b. Hingham, Mass., 24 Jan. 1733; d. there, 9 May 1840. Until the age of 40 he followed the calling of a farmer, holding also at different times the offices of magistrate, representative in the provincial legislature and colonel of militia. He was also an active member of the three provincial congresses of Massachusetts, and as militia officer displayed an efficiency which procured his promotion in 1776: to the rank of major-general. In-this capacity he be- LINCOLN came favorably known to Washington during the siege of Boston. In the beginning of 1777 he joined Washington at Morristown with a new levy of militia, and soon after, at the sug- gestion of the commander-in-chief, was trans- ferred to the continental service with the rank of major-general. He was sent to join the forces assembled to oppose the progress of Burgoyne, and during the battle of Bemis’ Heights commanded inside the American works; and was severely wounded in the leg and compelled for nearly a year to retire from service. In September 1778 he was appointed to the command of the southern army, and upon the arrival of Count d’Estaing co-operated with the French troops and fleet in the unsuc- cessful assault on Savannah. From the unwill- ingness of his. allies to continue the siege he was obliged to return to Charleston, where in the spring of 1780 he was besieged by a supe- rior British force ‘under. Sir Henry Clinton. After an obstinate defense he was forced in May to capitulate, and retired to Massachusetts on parole. In the spring of the succeeding year. he was exchanged, and subsequently partici- pated with credit in the siege of Yorktown. In consideration of his merits and misfortunes Washington appointed him to receive the sword of Cornwallis upon the surrender of the British forces. He held the office of Secretary of War 1781-83, and in 1787 commanded the forces which quelled the Shays’ Rebellion in western Massachusetts, and in the same year was elected lieutenant-governor of the State, which office he held one year. He was collector of Boston 1789 till about two years before his death. He was a member of the commission which in 1789 formed a treaty with the Creek Indians, and of that which in 1793 unsuccessfully attempted to enter into negotiations with the Indians north of the Ohio. In his later years he took great interest in science and wrote several papers many of which attracted attention at the time. Lincoln’s earnest character and his unselfish public spirit were greatly admired and he was deservedly popular toward the close of his life, Consult life by Bowen in Jared Sparks’ ‘American Biography? (2d series, Vol. XIII, Boston 1847). (POS! LINCOLN, Charles Perez, American law- yer: b. Quincy, Mich. 7 Oct. 1843, He. was educated at. Hillsdale College; entered the Union army at the beginning of the Civil War and served until mustered out of the service in June 1864. He was admitted to the bar in 1871; was consul at Canton, China, 1875-81, and then began to practise his profession in Wash- ington. He was elected: commander of the De- partment of the Potomac, G. A. R., in 1888, and was 2d deputy commissioner of pensions 1889- 93. LINCOLN, David Francis, American hy- gienist: b. Boston, Mass.,.4 Jan. 1841; d. 15 Oct. 1916. Graduated at Harvard University in 1864 and at its medical school in the same year, and served as acting assistant surgeon in the United States navy during part of the Civil War (1864-65). He practised as specialist in nervous diseases, lectured and did literary work in connection with Hobart. College, Geneva, N Y., for some years, beginning in 1881, having pre- viously relinquished medical practice. He pub- lished ‘Electro-Therapeutics?. (1874).;\ “School LINCOLN 453 and Industrial | Hygiene? (1880): ‘Hygienic and there are important manufactures of ma- Physiology,” a'school textbook (1893); ‘Sanity chinery and agricultural implements. The of Mind? (1900), and a work on the education municipality possesses. valuable estates in of the’ feeble-minded. LINCOLN, Mary Johnson Bailey, Amer- ican household economist: b. South Attleboro, Mass., 8 July 1844. She was educated at Wheaton Seminary, Norton, Mass., in 1864, was married to the late David A. Lincoln in 1865, and after 1879 was prominent as a lecturer and writer on household matters. She was the first principal of the Boston Cooking School, and edited the American Kitchen Magazine from 1893 to 1903. She lectured on cookery in seminaries and in most of the large cities of the country. She published ‘The Boston Cook Book? (1884); ‘Peerless Cook Book? (1886); ‘Carving and Serving?’ (1886): ©The Boston School Kitchen Text Book? (1888): ‘What to Have for Lunch- eon? (1904); ‘School Kitchen Text Book? (1915). She died at Boston, Mass., 2 Dec. 1921. LINCOLN, Robert Todd, American law- yer: b. Springfield, Ill, 1 Aug. 1843. He is the eldest son of Abraham Lincoln, and was graduated at Harvard College in 1864. He en- tered the Harvard Law School, but left it for the army and served on. the staff of General Grant as captain. On the close of the war he resumed his legal studies and was admitted to the Chicago bar in 1867. He was Secretary of War, 1881-85, and although mentioned as a can- didate for the Presidency in the last-named year declined to allow his name to be placed in opposition to that of President Arthur. He was Minister to Great Britain in 1889-93, and became counsel of the Pullman Company in 1893; in 1897 he became president and in 1911 chairman of the board of directors of the Pull- man ‘Company. LINCOLN, England, an episcopal. city, civic. county and parliamentary and municipal borough,. the capital..of Lincolnshire, on the Witham, at the junction of several railroads, 130: miles north of London. It dates from pre- Norman. times,,, was the Roman “Lindum Colona,» and at the time of the Norman Con- quest a fortified town of considerable import- ance. The principal edifice is the cathedral, chiefly. of early English but with interesting transitional phases, crowning a height, on the summit and slope of which the town is built, 210 feet above the river.. Its conspicuous site makes it a familiar landmark for miles around. It is surmounted by three towers, two 180 feet high, and the central tower is 271 feet high. The latter is one of the glories of English ecclesiastical architecture and dates from 1235 to 1317. The celebrated Angel Choir was com- pleted in 1280. The total interior length of the building is 482 feet, the nave is 252 feet long, and width, including the aisles, 82 feet. The bell. (Great Tom -of Lincoln) weighs five tons eight: hundredweight. Other prominent build- ings are the Saint Mary’s Guildhall. (12th cen- tury); the Jews’ House, one of the finest, speci- mens of Norman domestic architecture i in Eng- land; the remains of the castle begun in 1086 by William the Conqueror; the ancient episco- pal palace, and the. fine old: Roman gateway, the. Newport Arch, of. date 104 ap. which spans Hermin. street...,.There is a theological college; and. a_ school, of art. An» extensive’ trade in corn, flour and wool is carried on, Buckinghamshire and Lincolnshire and much valuable property in the city. The-public utili- ties are municipally owned. A new water sup- ply was introduced from Elkesley, Nottingham- shire, in 1911. The city returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. of county borough 57,285. Consult Allen, ‘History of Lincoln? (London 1833), and Kendrick, AQF:, ‘The Cathedral Church of Lincoln (in Bell’s Cathedral Series, London 1898). LINCOLN, IIl., city, county-seat of Logan County, on the Illinois Central and the Chicago and Alton railroads, about 28 miles northeast of Springfield and 135 miles southwest of Chi- cago. The place was settled in 1835 and incor- porated in 1854. It is situated in an agricul- tural region and extensive deposits of coal are in the vicinity. The chief manufactures are cellulose, horse-collars, corn-cutting machinery, signal horns, flour, mattresses, caskets and coffins, excelsior. The farm and dairy products and the coal mines contribute to the wealth of the city. Lincoln is the seat of the State In- stitution for Feeble-Minded Children, and of the Lincoln University, opened in 1865 under the auspices of the Cumberland Presbyterians. It has a free public library, the building a gift from Andrew ‘Carnegie; a Deaconess Home and Hospital, Saint Clara’s Hospital and Odd Fel- lows’ Orphans’ Home. Abraham Lincoln prac- tised as a lawyer in the old courthouse here. The city. was named in his honor and he as- sisted in laying it out. Lincoln adopted the commission form of government in 1915. Pop. (1920) 11,882. LINCOLN, Kan., city and county-seat of Lincoln County, on the Saline River, and on the Union Pacific Railroad, about 155 miles west of Topeka and 105 miles west of Wichita. It is in an agricultural region in which are raised large quantities of wheat and corn and a number of cattle. Limestone quarries in the vicinity contribute to the industrial wealth of the city. The industries and trade are con- nected chiefly with farm and dairy products and with live stock. The waterworks and light- ing plant are municipally owned. Pop. 1,613. LINCOLN, Neb., city, capital of the State and county-seat of Lancaster County, on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, the Union Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago and Northwestern and other railroads, about 55 miles west of the Missouri River, and about the same distance north of the Kansas State line. The city, lo- cated in the midst of a fertile agricultural dis- trict, in the Salt Creek basin, at an elevation of 1,045 feet, rises gradually to the south and east, leaving the creek to the west and north. The location of the capital at this point was due in part to the. numerous radiating branches of Salt. Creek, but more especially to the saline springs which in early days furnished salt to the Indians and the buffalo, and later to the overland emigrants and the early settlers of Nebraska. The site selected by a commission, 14 Aug. 1867, was surveyed the same fall, and from the proceeds of lots sold at auction the first capitol, the insane asylum and the original 454 university building wera erected and completed by 1871. Ny Lincoln hids\ fair to fulfil the prediction of its founders by becoming a great railroad: cen- tre,.as it already has 12 radiating lines, owned by five of the great corporations that now dominate in the West as already mentioned. With: one exception each railroad has its own station and yard. The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy repair and construction shops, employing 500 skilled mechanics, are located at Havelock, a suburb of Lincoln. About 50 passenger trains enter, and the same number leave, Lincoln every 24 hours. Lincoln’s rail- road connections make it the great convention centre’ of the State. ‘The. names of ‘Lincoln and Douglas are strangely associated in Ne- braska history. The site selected for the capi- tal in 1867 and named Lincoln is practically identical with the one proposed 10 years earlier to have been called Douglas. Thus the author of the law organizing the Territory of Nebraska failed to have his name perpetuated in its capital, but yielded that honor to his great rival. Lincoln is-laid out, like most Western cities, on the checker-board plan, with streets 100 or 120 feet in width. These broad streets are in gen- eral lined with trees and flanked with large lawns. The city contains an unusually large number of comfortable homes, excelling in this respect its development in business blocks. Over 20 miles of the streets are paved with brick, asphalt or cedar blocks. The waterworks are owned by the city; 50 miles of mains distribute the water from two deep wells, from which about 1,500,000 gallons of the very purest water are pumped per day. There are over 40 miles of sanitary and 6 miles of storm-water sewers in the city. Manufacturing is of course yet‘in its infancy, but the total output per year approximates $5,000,000. A few industries are, however, well established. The making of leather goods, such as horse-collars, harness, etc., is not equaled west of the Missouri River. The production of oils and paints, mattresses and_ bed-springs, overalls and shirts is large and developing rapidly. A large butter and creamery station is located at Lincoln. It receives cream from some 200 substations. The jobbing and whole- saling industry is well under way, and in a few lines has reached creditable proportions. Lin- coln, with 22 branch houses, is the largest: dis- tributing centre for farm machinery in the West. The jobbers in butter and eggs, fruits and groceries are doing a good business. There is also a fair beginning in hats, hardware, drugs, furniture, coffins, paper, sash and doors, iron for plumbing, jewelry, crockery and queens- ware, lumber and coal. Two fair-sized grain elevators have recently been constructed. Total estimated business of jobbers and wholesalers annually about $18,000,000. Lincoln is also be- coming quite a centre for insurance: business. Two strong life insurance companies, two fire insurance, three fraternal companies, including the Modern Woodmen with headquarters here, and several mutual companies indicate the scope of development. The banking capital is small for a city of its size: five commercial banks, capital $500,000, surplus $180,000, and deposits $5,115,000, and one savings bank, deposits $140,- 000, supply the business community. ‘The State fair grounds, the penitentiary, one of the insane LINCOLN asylums and the Home of the Friendless are 1o- cated in or near the city.. The other public build- ings are the new capitol, costing $5,000,000; the - county courthouse, $200,000; city hall, $150,000; Federal building, $350,000; Carnegie library, $75,000 and the grounds; 19 ‘public school houses that cost from $15,000 to $50,000 each; Saint Elizabeth’s Hospital, $150,000; the Cath- olic Orphans’ Home and the Tabitha Home — private institutions — aid in caring for the sicl and unfortunate. The mineral waters are used in several private sanitariums. For outdoor amusement there are one small] public park; the university athletic field, the Ep- worth Assembly park and the “Country Club» grounds afford meagre facilities. The city sup- ports one theatre and an auditorium. ~~ The commission form of. government. was adopted in 1913, and provides for a mayor and council of five members, elected for 'two)years. Lincoln is at present’ rather an educational than a business centre. Its population is largely American, representative of the North and Mid- dle West. Neither great wealth nor extreme poverty is found. The public schools are effi- cient and enroll 6,210 students. The high school employs 36 teachers and registers 1,090 pupils, a number claimed to be unsurpassed by any city of its size. There are three musical conserva- tories, three universities, three colleges, one preparatory school and two parochial high schools, which tend to give a distinct educa- tional tone to the public as well as private life of the city. The largest and most important educational institution is that of the State Uni- versity and Agricultural. College (q.v.). . The Wesleyan University (q.v.), situated in Univer- sity Place, a suburb of Lincoln, ranks next in importance. Union College (q.v.), a Seventh Day Adventist school, with three buildings and over 400 students, and Cotner University (q.v.), controlled by the Christian’ Church, with one good building and 200 students, are prospering. The conservatories and other schools add sey- eral hundred more students to this list. “The public libraries are the University, 60,000 vol- umes; the State, 40,000; the City, 15,000, and the High School, 2,500. Lincoln’s educational output is indicated in the second-class mail matter sent through its post office. One per cent of all the second-class mail matter of the United \States originates in Lincoln. In all 66 publications are entered, one’ with- 750,000 cir- culation, two others with about 150,000 each, and a fourth with over 100,000. There are 30 church buildings in Lincoln. The following organizations are represented: Methodists, Congregational, Presbyterian, Christian, Bap- tists, Lutheran, Episcopal, Catholic, United Presbyterian, Jews, Christian Science, Uni- tarian, Reformed,’ Swedish, Free-will Baptists and several minor denominations. There are three colored churches. The leading’ denom- inations all have exceptionally fine buildings. Lincoln’s growth has beén somewhat irregular, yet counting decades gradual, Lincoln in 1867 — then called Lancaster —ccontained only one store and some half-dozen dwellings. By 1870 it contained 2,441 people. In 1880, 13,004. The padded census of 1890 gave the city 55,154 population—a number too large by at’ least 20,000. Pop. 54,934. Consult Cox and Hayes, 1) of the City of Lincoln? (Lincoln LINCOLN, NEB. wea Surpting Arerqry AWD Resists LINCOLN, NEB. 1 Main Building, University of Nebraska 2 Library, University of Nebraska | ‘0 ‘d ‘NOLONIHSVM “IVIMOWAW N'IOONTT + 9 ~*~ rt ha , ee ae Plt . + cL “ 3 + aa - - eS ts Free rife, * eh = 7 ag c a # . ry 4 1 2 ’ . a Lay . ' 3 - ™ ~ Tt | 1 i E | ee | UOVERSITY OF ILLINGIS “| ' i? t oy he i 4 2 ae ~ * ¢ i % age. ee, ie , hb < MF % \ Ci d Pega >)" 1 E LIBRARY. OFTHE LINCOLN COLLEGE — LINCOLN MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY LINCOLN COLLEGE, established at Lincoln, Ill., in 1866,'under the auspices of the Cumberland Presbyterians, since 1906 is ‘affili- ated to the Presbyterian Church U. S. A., when the chief section of the Cumberland Presby- terians united with the parent body. It has a preparatory department, and the college courses lead to the degrees of A.B., B.S. and B.L. In 1917 there were connected ‘with the college 20 professors and instructors and. 254 students, The library had about, 7,000 volumes;. the grounds, buildings and apparatus were valued at nearly $80,000; the productive funds were $120,000, and the, income from productive funds, tuition and other fees amounted .to about $20,000 LINCOLN COLLEGE, Oxford, England, a foundation of Oxford University (q.v.) dat- ing from 1427. ‘It consists of a rector, 12 Fel- lows and 14 scholars. The founder was Rich- ard Flemyng, bishop of Lincoln, at first a sup- porter but later a strong opponent of Wyclif’s doctrines. The foundation was strengthened and firmly established in 1478 by Thomas Roth- erham, a subsequent bishop of Lincoln. John Wesley, Fellow from 1726-57, was one of the distinguished associates of this college. A modern. library building of Jacobean architec- ture, opened in 1906, has been added to the buildings, the earliest of which,-the hall, dates from 1436. LINCOLN HIGHWAY, a continuous connecting improved road, the backbone of a national highway system, crossing the conti- nent through the heart of the most: densely populated regions between New York and San Francisco.’ The: highway was laid out by the Lincoln Highway Association, a Michigan cor- poration with headquarters at Detroit, in 1913, as the first inter-State highway connecting the two coasts and as:a memorial to Abraham Lin- coln. The route was determined upon entirely from the national standpoint and with no local interests in view. It'is the shortest and most direct road consistent with the topography of the country between the two coasts; due to the efforts of the Lincoln Highway Association and the co-operation of the various States and coun- ties traversed, the original distance’ of 3,389 miles having been ‘cut to 3,324 miles, by the elimination of unnecessary detours and by nu- merous instances of shortening and straighten- ing. A total of over $15,000,000 was expended upon Lincoln Highway improvement and main- tenance from the laying out and dedication of the road until 1 Jan. 1919. Plans for 1919 con- struction indicated the expenditure of about $10,000,000 on the highway. With the co-opera- tion of the State Highway department of Utah, the Great American Desert between Salt Lake City and Ely; Nev., was bridged and 50 miles cut from the transcontinental route. This im- portant keystone section of the highway was completed in July 1919, The Lincoln Highway starts at Times Square, 42d’ street and Broadway, New. York city and passes through the following principal cities in Il States: Jersey City, Newark. and Trenton, N. J.; Philadelphia, Lancaster, York, Gettysburg, Chambersburg, Bedford, Ligonier, Pittsburgh and Beaver, Pa.: | East Liverpool, Canton, Ashland, Mansfield, Bucyrus and Lima, 455 Ohio; Fort Wayne, Ligonier, Goshen, Elkhart, South Bend and Valparaiso, Ind.; Chicago Heights, Aurora, Geneva, Rochelle, Dixon and Fulton, Ill.; Clinton, Cedar Rapids, Marshall- town, Jefferson and Council Bluffs, Iowa; Omaha, Columbus, Grand Island, .Kearney, North Platte and Big Springs, Neb.; Cheyenne, Laramie, Medicine Bow, Rawlins, Rock Springs and Evanston, Wyo.; Salt Lake City, Garfield, Tooele, Clover and Ibapah, Utah; Ely, Eureka, Austin, Fallon, Reno and Carson City, Nev.; Truckee, Placerville, Sacramento, Stockton, Oakland and’San Francisco, Cal. The terminus is at Lincoln Park overlooking the Golden Gate.’ The Lincoln highway is free to traffic of all descriptions between the two coasts. The route is marked with a distinctive red, white and blue marker, bearing a blue “L” on the central white field. The Lincoln Highway As- sociation has been largely financed through yearly contributions made by “Founders” of the organization, men’and companies interested in highway improvement. For every mile of improvement secured on the Lincoln highway, 10 miles have followed as a direct result upon other routes connecting important centres north and south with the main line. Along its entire length the highest type of highway construc- tion is represented in this modern American Appian Way. LINCOLN, MEMORIAL, Washington, D. C., erected in Potomac Park on the axis of the United States capitol and the Washington monument, was commenced on Lincoln’s. Birth- day 12 Feb. 1914. The foundation was com- pleted and the cornerstone laid 12. Feb. 1915. This beautiful memorial was erected in accord- ance with an act of Congress approved 9 Feb. 1911, a subsequent act of Congress 28 Feb. 1916, limiting the cost to $2,594,000 to include the ap- proaches. The building is constructed of Colo- rado Yule marble, Indiana limestone and Massa- chusetts pink granite, and is. 201 feet 10 inches long by 132 feet wide at the bottom step of the stylobate course, 79 feet 10 inches high from the top of the foundations to the top of the attic. The building is in the general form of the classic Greek temple, consisting of one large enclosed hall, oblong in shape and surrounded by a colonnade of doric columns, representing the States of the American Union. The longer axis of the building extends north and south: The entrance is a wide doorway on the eastern side, facing the Washington monument and) the capitol building, which are in direct line. with this memorial. On the inside of the. building opposite the entrance is a seated statue of Lin- coln, cut in heroic proportions from white Geor- gia marble by Daniel Chester French. To the right and left of the statue are four large col- umns on each side, forming two, rows which partly cut off the ends of. the hall. On the north wall of the interior is a tablet containing Lincoln’s second .inaugural. address, while a similar tablet on.the south walls bears the Get- tysburg.speech. Over each of these memorials is a large allegorical. painting by Jules Guerin, portraying the principles. which it. embodies. The memorial was constructed from plans by Mr. Henry Bacon, architect, under the direction of the Lincoln Memorial Commission, which was created by the act above referred to and under the supervision of the Secretary of War. 456 LINCOLN MEMORIAL UNIVER- SITY, a coeducational institution, at Cumber- land Gap, in Claiborne County, Tenn., char- tered in 1897, largely through the efforts of Gen. O. O. Howard, of ‘Burlington, Vt.,. who desired to see a school established in some place. easy of access for the mountaineers of this locality, because of the great interest which Abraham Lincoln had in the people of this section. The institution comprises: De- partment of. letters, department of science, school of music, school of nursing, school of agriculture, school of industrial arts, school of domestic science, school of business. Much emphasis is laid on agricultural and industrial work. The agricultural department conducts a large .and thoroughly modern creamery which has a capacity of some 400. gallons of milk per day and.can ‘produce 1,200. to 1,400. pounds of butter per week. In» the industrial department, carpentry, typesetting and other trades are taught to the boys and young men and domestic science is taught to the young women. ‘By working for the school in the agricultural and industrial departments the students can earn at least a part of the cost of their education. The university owns 675 acres of land, besides controlling 3,000 acres of forest land. The endowment fund, in addi- tion to the productive property, is a little in excess of $100,000. It has a number of build- ings, including a library building, recitation halls, dormitories, creamery, barns, shop, etc. Exclusive of the summer school, it has an or- - ganization of about 20 teachers and 15 other workers. School is carried on for 48 weeks per year. About 700 students in the year enter the various departments of the institution. LINCRUSTA-WALTON. See LinoLeum. LIND, Jenny (MApAME. GOLDSCHMIDT), Swedish singer: b. Stockholm, 6 Oct. 1820; d. Malvern, England, 2 Nov. 1887. In very early childhood she displayed the faculty for tune and of musical memory in such degree as to attract observation and at nine her voice was considered so remarkable that she was admitted to the Stockholm Conservatory of Music.as a pupil of Crceelius and Berg. After years of thorough study and voice-building, in 1838 she made her début, with great success, as Agathe in ‘Der Freischtitz.? As operatic star in Stockholm and other cities in Sweden and Norway, she extended her fame, and in 1841 studied for the greater part of the year in Paris under Manual Garcia. She went to Berlin in 1844, studied German, and in Meyerbeer’s ‘Feldlager in Schlesien? appeared as _ Vielka. During the next year she made a Continental tour which established her in a position of su- premacy, her great successes being won in Dresden, Leipzig, etc., and finally in Vienna. In 1847 she made her first appearance in Eng- land, which was followed by a succession of unprecedented triumphs. Her tour of the Uni- ted States (1850-52) brought her not only fresh honors, but also large financial returns, and was long remembered by many who shared in the material and spiritual benefits which her noble womanhood and artistic genius conferred. In 1852 she was married in Boston to Otto Goldschmidt (q.v.), then conducting the Bach choir, and virtually retired from her profession, though subsequently reappearing on special oc- LINCRUSTA-WALTON — LINDEN casions: She returned to Europe; at’ length settled in London; and made her last. public appearance at Dusseldorf in 1870. In 1894.a bust of her was unveiled in Westminster Ab- bey. . Consult. Rockstro and Holland, ‘Jenny Lind the Artist? (1891); Rockstro and Gold- schmidt,, ‘Jenny Lind, Her Vocal Art and Culture? (1894). LINDEN, or BASSWOOD, a genus of trees (Tilia) of the family Tiliacee, ordinarily known as basswoods in the United States. The species, of which there are about a dozen, are natives of the northern temperate zone and more or less resemble each other in general appearance. They are characterized by alter- nate, usually heart-shaped, leaves with toothed edges; small yellowish, often fragrant, flowers in cymes, the peduncles of which are attached to membranous bracts; and globular nut-like fruits about the size of peas.. The trees, in marly horticultural varieties, are widely planted in Europe, where they are known to the, Eng- lish as limes, and in America, for their pleas- ing form and dense shade, and to some extent also because of their abundant yield of nectar, from which bees make one of the finest quali- ties of honey. They are also planted for their timber, usually called “whitewood,” which is highly valued on account of its whiteness, lightness, toughness and durability, and is used for turned and carved ornaments and for mak- ing honey-boxes and other light articles, the whiteness of which is desired to enhance the appearance of the goods they contain; also extensively used for. carriage bodies, cabinet- work and interior parts of furniture. The wood»makes a high grade of charcoal; used by druggists, gunpowder-makers and artists. The fibrous inner bark is made into mats and cord- age and strips of it are widely used for tying plants, etc. When stock-food 1s scarce in early. spring the twigs and budding shoots are often fed to farm animals, being very mucilaginous and) nutritive, though liable, it is said, to in- jure the quality of butter made from the milk of cows fed upon them. . The best-known spe- cies are the American basswood (T. ameri- cana), a stately tree often exceeding 75. feet in height and 10 feet ‘in girth. Its range extends from New Brunswick to. Minnesota and south- ward to the elevated lands of Georgia and Texas. In the more thickly settled parts of this region it is becoming scarce as a timber tree because of the great demand for its wood. In America it is the most frequently planted species. Owing to confusion in nomenclature, the name “European linden” is applied to at least three species, T. platyphylla, T. vulgaris and 7. ulmifoha. The first. is most: widely planted in America. The last is very late in blossoming and should be more extensively cul- tivated in order to extend the season of. honey production. _Lindens all thrive best upon good land. They are easily propagated from seeds, layers and grafts and by “stooling,»» the small trees being cut down close to the ground, the sprouts covered with soil and when rooted re- moved to nursery rows. ; In some countries the fibrous inner bark, of the linden is separated by soaking in water and manufactured into fishing-nets, mats, shoes and clothing; and the cordage made from it is said to be remarkably strong and elastic. (See Bast). The wood is sometimes cut into thin LINDLEY — LINDSBORG strips and used in the manufacture of chip hats, which resemble those made of straw. LINDLEY, lind’li, John, English botan- ist and horticulturist: b. Catton, near Norwich (Norfolk), 5 Feb. 1799; d. Acton, 1 Nov. 1865. He became Belgian agent for a London seed merchant in 1815, later took up botanical stud- ies, published in 1819 a translation of Richard’s ‘Analyse du Fruit? and was appointed assist- ant librarian to Sir Joseph Banks at London. Later, he was successively made assistant sec- retary to the Horticultural Society (1822-41), professor of botany in the University of Lon- don (1829-60) and lecturer in botany to the Apothecaries’ Company (1836-53). . In 1828 he was elected to the Royal Society, whose royal medal he received in 1857, and in 1853 became a corresponding member of the Institut de France. He was appointed editor of the Bo- tanical Register in 1826, of the Journal of the Horticultural Society in 1846; and in 1841 was a founder of the Gardeners’ Chronicle, whose chief editor he was until his death. He was an able lecturer, a constant opponent of the Lin- nzan as contrasted with the natural system of classification and the author of several valuable works such as ‘The Theory and Practice of Horticulture? (1842) and ‘The. Vegetable Kingdom? (1846). He also wrote almost the entire descriptive portion of London’s ‘Ency- clopedia of Plants? (1822-29). His lectures attracted large audiences and excited great popular interest in England in the cultivation of plants. He encouraged public’ exhibitions of fruits and flowers. His influence as an edi- tor was also very great and his textbooks were long standard in his native country. LINDSAY, or LYNDSAY, lind’za, Sir David, Scottish poet, usually described as “of the Mount” (an estate near Cupar in Fife): b. about 1490; d. 1555. He studied in the Univer- sity of Saint Andrews and in 1509 became page of honor to James V, then an infant. In 1528 he produced his ‘Dreme? and in the fol- lowing year presented his ‘Complaynt? to the king. In 1530 he was inaugurated Lyon king- at-arms and knighted, and in 1531 sent on a mission to Charles V. He published a drama entitled ‘A Satyre of the Three Estaitis, played at court in 1539. In. 1536 appeared. his ‘Answer. to the King’s. Flyting?; and the ‘History and Testament of Squire Meldrum’ (1538). His last work, ‘The Monarchie,’ was finished in 1553. For more than two centuries Lindsay was the most popular poet in Scotland. His satirical attacks on the clergy in some de- gree paved the way for the Reformation. LINDSAY, Harry. See Hupson, H. L. LINDSAY, Samuel McCune, American political economist and educator: b. Pittsburgh, Pa., 10 May 1869. He was graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1889 and took post-graduate courses there and in Berlin, Vi- enna, Paris and Rome. After his return to the United States he was appointed assistant pro- fessor of sociology at the University of Penn- sylvania and was professor from 1904 to 1907, when he was appointed professor of social leg- islation at Columbia University; he has also been editor of the department of sociological notes in the ‘Annals of the American Acad- emy of Political and Social Science? (1895- 1901) and associate editor of the ‘Annals and v 457 was president of the academy in 1901. In 1892 he was special agent of the United States Sen- ate Finance Committee to report on wholesale prices in- Europe; in 1899-1900 was expert of the Industrial Commission to report on rail- road labor; and from 1902 to 1904 was commis- sioner of education to Porto Rico, being granted leave of absence from the University of Pennsylvania. He has written ‘Railway Labor in the United States? (1902); ‘Social Work at the Krupp Foundries?; ‘The Study and Teaching of Sociology”; ‘The Unit of In- vestigation in Sociology? ; and other articles in the ‘Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science?; Report on Education in Porto. Rico»; ‘History of Establishment of Public School System in Porto Rico? (1905) and edited three annual reports on Child Labor, National Child Labor Committee,, New York (1904-07) : edited the ‘American Social Prog- ress Series? and contributed to various re- views. and magazines. LINDSAY, William, American lawyer: b. Rockbridge County, Va., 4 Sept. 1835; d. 15 Oct. 1909. He-was educated in his native State; removed in 1854 to Clinton, Ky., where after teaching school and studying law, he was ad- mitted to the bar in 1858. Throughout the Civil War he served in: the Confederate army, ‘rising to the rank of captain and acting as a staff officer and after the war returned to Clinton and resumed the practice of law. In 1867 he was. elected State senator as a Democrat; in 1870 took his seat on the bench of the Supreme Court of Kentucky; and was chief justice of the State, 1876-78, declining a renomination and re- turning to the practice of law at Frankfort. In 1889 he again entered the State senate; in 1893 served as commissioner of the World’s Colum- bian Exposition; in the same year was elected to the United States Senate for the unexpired term of John G. Carlisle, who had resigned toa become Secretary of the Treasury; and in 1894 he was re-elected, but differed from his party on the money question, and toward the end of his term usually voted with the Republicans. After leaving the Senate he went to New York City and once more resumed the practice of law. In 1901 he was appointed by President McKin- ley a. commissioner for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at Saint Louis in 1904. LINDSAY, Canada, the capital of Vic- . toria County, Ontario, a town and port of en- try on the navigable Scugog River, and on the Grand Trunk and Canadian. Pacific railways, 69 miles northeast of Toronto. The town is well built, chiefly of. brick, has a large trade in lumber and grain and is the seat of a-United States consular agent. It has lumber and flour mills, foundries, tanneries, breweries and manu- factories of carriages, agricultural implements, sash, doors and. blinds, woolens, boots and shoes, woodenware, etc. Pop, (1921) 7,542. LINDSBORG, linz’borg, Kan., city in Mc- Pherson County, on the Smoky Hill River and on the Missouri Pacific and the Union Pacific railroads, about 115 miles southwest of To- peka and 64 miles north by west of Wichita. It is in’ an agricultural region’ and its trade is chiefly in livestock, grain, broom-corn, flour and dairy products and manufactures brooms, brick, flour and spark plugs. It has large brick and lumber yards and grain elevators. An import- 458 ant industrial. establishment is the Bethany Book. Concern, the Western Publishing insti- tution. for. Lutheran literature. There are a number. of Swedish Lutherans in Lindsborg. It is the seat. of Bethany College, opened in 1881..under. the auspices. of ‘the Lutherans. Among its departments, that of music-is. well known for its annual concerts, when the. stu- dents, ender the jMlessinh. abe water he electric plants are the property of the cit fe) (1920) i807. a ease if 7 LINDSLEY, linz’li, John Berrien, Amer- ican educator: b. Princeton’ N. J., 24 Oct: 1822; d. 7° Dec. 1897; He was graduated from the University of Nashville in 1839 and received his degree in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1843. Studying theology, he was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1846 and preached for several years. He be- came professor of chemistry in the University of Nashville in 1850 and was chancellor of the institution 1853-73. He was likewise professor of chemistry in the University of Tennessee, 1880-97, and of materia medica in the Tennes- see College of Pharmacy, 1876-97. He pub- lished ‘Our Ruin: its Causes and Cure? (1868) ; ‘The Military Annals of Tennessee? (1886). He also edited for many years the Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery and-was a frequent contributor to. periodicals. LINE, Mathematical. Jn geometry, a line may be defined (1) as the locus, described by a moving point; (2) as a magnitude which, at - each of its points, has extension in one direction only; (3) as the boundary which separates two contiguous parts of a surface; or (4) as the intersection of two surfaces, or of a surface with itself, Each of these definitions has its own merits, and geometers use one or another of them, according to convenience. In physics, “lines” of various kinds are con- stantly referred to, the context usually indicat- ing the sense in which the word is used. A “line of force,” in a field of electric or magnetic force, for example, is a line whose direction, at every point, coincides with the direction of the force at that point. In the mechanical theory of heat (see THERMODYNAMICS) the state of a homogeneous body, with respect to.its tem- perature, to the pressure exerted upon it and to the volume occupied by a unit of its mass, is often represented by means of a diagram in which two of these qualities are taken as abscissa and ordinate, respectively. In such a diagram an “isothermal” line is a line along which the temperature of the body remains 'con- stant; an “adiabatic? (or “isentropic”) line is one which is so drawn that if the body should pass through the succession of states that the line represents it ‘would not at any moment either absorb or emit heat. An “isopiestic” (or “isobaric”) line is a line along which the pressure to which the body is exposed remains constant. An “isometric” line: is’ one ‘along which the volume of.the body remains constant. In steam engineering the various parts of the diagram that is drawn by an indicator are designated as “lines,” although they are but the several parts of a single line. Thus the “admission line” is that part of the. diagram which the indicator draws while steam is being admitted to the cylinder; the “expansion line” is that part drawn while the steam in the cylin- LINDSLEY — LINEN der is expanding; the “exhaust line” is that part drawn while the cylinder is in free com- munication with the, atmosphere. (or ,with the condenser) ; and the “compression line” is that part which, the indicator draws after the ex- haust valve has closed, and before the admis- sion valve from the boiler opens again. The “atmospheric line” upon such a diagram is the line that the indicator draws when disconnected from the engine, and in free communication with the atmosphere., See also Cotor;. Draw- ING; PERSPECTIVE. LINE ENGRAVING. See ENGRAVING and PHOTO-ENGRAVING. ) . LINEN, a cloth of very extensive use, made of flax, and differing from cloths. made of hemp only in fineness. Hemp is in part now used in manufacturing cloths which are called linen. The flax from which linen is.made is put through a number of processes previous to manufacture; rippling, the separation of the seed from the plant by. means. of beaters ; retting, the elimination of resinous matter in the plant by steeping the stems in water and allowing fermentation to take place; grassing, in order to dry the flax stems; scutching, the removal of the woody portions of the stem from the fibrous; and heckling, the separation of the best of the flax. In common linen the warp and woof cross each other at right angles ; if figures are woven in it is called damask (q.v.). The species of goods which come under. the. denomination of linen are table- cloths, plain and damasked, cambric, lawn, shirting, sheeting, towels, etc. Linen cloth, or cloth woven of combinations of cotton or other textile fabrics. with linen, is printed in the same manner as calico: ‘Fancy cloths are also made by weaving with yarns dyed of various colors, and sometimes with printed yarns. Linen is extensively manufactured in England, Scotland and Ireland. It is also a staple in various parts of Europe. The beauty of linen consists in the evenness of the thread, its fineness and density. ‘The last of- these qualities i is sometimes produced by subjecting it to rolling; hence linen with a'‘round thread is preferred to that with a flat thread. The warp or woof: is not unfrequently made of cotton yarn, which renders such stuff, called union cloth, less durable; and this is sold in many shops as linen, Cotton is the chief adulterant, and it is somewhat difficult to distinguish. Wetting with the finger and moistening the material is a popular method tried to detect adulteration : if the moisture absorbs quickly it is linen; but owing to the various weights of linen, it is not an infallible, test., An infallible way is ;to; boil a sample to wash out all the dressing and then put it.in a 50 per cent solution of caustic soda.’ The cotton will take on a light yellow color and the linen becomes,.almost . brown. Irish linen is whiter and generally wears best; but the Scottish product for a_medium- priced article is greatly in demand. The fragility of French linen confines this beautiful fabric to the wealthier classes. The best Irish and Scottish are sun- and_ grass-bleached. Sun-bleached) linens are, the best; artificial bleaching oxidizes and destroys the natural gum which binds the fibres together. The moist and mild climate of, Ireland is admirably e LINES — LINGARD adapted’ for eevdrewing of flax and for its manufacture up to bleaching. With .a view to protecting the handloom weaver, the British Parliament. passed in 1910 the Handloom Weavers Protection Act, under which the words “hand woven” are worked into the selvage of the hand product., From a historical view linen is interesting from its use by several nations in their religious ceremonies. Linen is mentioned in Genesis as in use for robing the royal princes of Egypt; and throughout the Bible it is a symbol of purity and excellence. Linen of 5,000 years ago has been found in Egyptian tombs. The Egyptian’ and Jewish priests wore it at all their religious ceremonies, hence the former are styled ‘by Ovid and Juvenal, “inen- wearing.” Linen was an article of export from Egypt in the time of Herodotus. From Egypt the use and manufacture of linen. probably passed to the Greeks and Romans, but the use of linen did not become common at Rome till late in the history of the republic. ‘The Roman priests wore linen garments at that time. Among the Greeks a linen tunic was a regular part of the male costume as early as the Homer period. Linen was also used as a material for writing, as shown by the Roman Iiibri lintet, “inen books.». The mummy bandages, covered with hieroglyphics, are also proofs of this use of linen. ‘In the Middle Ages linen and woolen cloth formed the chief materials for dress, and fine linen was held in ‘very high estimation. Germany and Brabant then carried linen manu- factures to the greatest perfection. The weaving ‘of linen has ‘been practised in Great Britain for a very long period, beginning with the Anglo-Saxon times, but though’ the manufacture has been much extended since the introduction of machinery, its expansion is lim- ited’ by the greater cheapness and convenience in’ many respects of cotton. The English linen industry owed much to Flemish weavers, who settled in England at various times from the dith, or 12th century onward, Flax-spinning machinery was introduced by John Kendrew and Thomas Porthouse, at Darlington, in 1787, anda mill was opened at Glamis in Forfarshire in 1790. The chief seat of the English linen manufacture is, Leeds and. its neighborhood, where spinning is done on avery exten- sive,scale.. A single room*in one of the facto- ries at Leeds is said tocover twoacres., Ireland and Scotland, however, are much larger manu- facturers of linen than England. Of the $40,- 000,000. worth of. linens exported from the United Kingdom. in Aas four-fifths were from Ireland. Linen. was woven in Ireland as early as the llth century. The manufacture was improved by the refugees who left France on the revoca- tion of the Edict of Nantes and settled at Lis- burn and Lurgan on the invitation of William iI. The manufacture neyer really flourished till it was carried on in mills, and by the aid of machinery. ‘The value of linen goods now ex- ported from Ireland to Great Britain is esti- mated ‘at $40,000,000. Dundee, Dunfermline and Perth are the seats of the Scotch linen manufacture. The introduction of machinery in the linen manufacture is’ of recent origin. It followed the adaptation of machinery to the manufacture of cotton, but as there were some special diffi- culties to be overcome — such as the want of 6 459 elasticity on flax yarn— an interval took place between the invention of the various cotton machines and their adaptation to the linen manufacture. The machinery used both in spinning and weaving linen is in general, how- ever, the same as that used for cotton. See TEXTILE INDUSTRY, AMERICAN; TEXTILES or TEXTILE FABRICS. Bibliography.— Consult asitley ‘Flax and its Products? (Belfast 1862); Gibbs, G. M., ‘Household Textiles» (Boston 1912); Leggatt, ‘The Origin and Practice of the Art of Weav- ing? (London 1893); Moore, A. S., ‘Linen? (ib. 1914) ; Warden, ‘The Linen Trade, Ancient and Modern? (ib. 1867); Woodhouse. and Milne, ‘Jute and Linen. Weaving? (2d ed. London 1914). LINES, Edwin Stevens, American Epis- copal Church bishop: b. Naugatuck, Conn., 23 Nov. 1845. He was graduated from Yale in 1872 and two years later at the Berkeley Di- vinity School, at. Middletown, Conn. He was ordained in 1874. He was rector of Christ Church, West. Haven, Conn., 1874-79 and of Saint Paul’s Church, New Haven, 1879-1903. In November 1903. he was consecrated bishop of the diocese of Newark, which comprises the northern third of New Jersey. LINES OF FORCE. See Force. LING, a sea-fish (Lota molva), resembling a pike in shape and three to four feet long, but a member of the cod family (Gadide). It abounds around the British coasts; its fishery approaches in importance and resembles in methods that for cod. Great quantities are preserved by drying, salting, etc.; and an ex- cellent oil is extracted from the liver. The name is also given to the eel-pout or burbot, another species (L. vulgaris) so-called not only i in Europe but in northern New York, the Great Lakes and Canada. See Bursor. LINGA, ling’ga, an emblem commonly used in the sectarian worship of the Hindus. It represents the male or generative power of nature. Originally of an ideal and mythical nature, it has degenerated into practices of the grossest description; thus taking the same course as the similar worship of the Chaldzans, Greeks. and other nations. The manner. in which the linga is represented is generally in- offensive —a pillar of stone or other cylindrical objects being held as appropriate symbols of the generative power of Siva, the third of the Hindu triad of deities. Its counterpart is “Yoni,” or the symbol of prpductive female nature. See also SIVA. LINGARD, ling’gard, John, English his- torian: b. Winchester, 5 Feb. 1771; d. Hornby, Lancashire, 17 July 1851. Born of poor parents, he was educated for the Roman Catholic priest- hood at Douay. On the passing of the Catholic Relief Act the English Catholic students re- moved to Crook Hall, where a theological col- lege was erected. Lingard was ordained to the priesthood in 1795, and was vice-president of the Crook Hall seminary near Dur- ham, removing. with it to the new college of Saint Cuthbert, Ushaw. In 1811 he declined a professorship at Maynooth, and accepted the charge of the rural mission at Hornby. He published in 1805 ‘Catholic Loyalty Vindicated.? His next work of importance was ‘Antiquities 460 of the Anglo-Saxon -Church® (1806). His greatest work, the ‘History of: England from the Invasion of the Romans to the Year’ 1688,’ printed in eight volumes (1819-30), reached a fifth edition in 1850, when it appeared in 10 volumes. It has. since been regarded as a valuable work of reference by historians of all parties. It possesses for~ Protestant his- torians the valuable quality of giving the views on controverted points of an able, well-in- formed and judicially-minded Catholic writer. The 1850 edition of the history was elaborately revised by the author. Apart from _ the sympathies of the writer, the work is uni- versally regarded as one of high authority. He refused a cardinal’s hat offered him by the Pope, but accepted a pension of £300 a year from the queen. Consult Haile and Bonney, ‘Life and Letters of John Lingard? (London 1911). LINGAYEN, lin-ga-yan’, Philippines, a pueblo and the capital of the province of Pan- gasinan, Luzon, situated on a low and fertile island of the delta of the Agno River, formed by one of the outlets of the river and the Gulf of Lingayén. The climate is cool and healthy. It has a fine parish church and the buildings generally are well constructed, many being of stone. The Manila and Dagupan Railroad has a station within eight miles at Dagupan, and Lingayén is the converging point of several im- portant highways and has frequent communica- tion by water with Manila. It has, therefore, an important trade. Pop. 21,529. The city was _ founded in the 16th century by the Augustine fathers, who handed over the work to. the Dominicans in 1611. LINGAYEN, Gulf of, an arm of the China Sea indenting the western coast of the island of Luzon, Philippines, north of Manila: Bay. The width of the entrance from San Fernando Point to Santiago Island is 20 miles. The east shore is mountainous; the west shore is generally level and less elevated and is fringed by low wooded islands, the channels between which are navigable for native coasters. Typhoons are prevalent in September and October. LINGG, Hermann von, German epic and lyric poet: b. Lindau, Bavaria, 22 Jan. 1820; d. Munich, 18 June 1905. He attended the gym- nasium at Kempten, Bavaria, and (1837-43) the universities of Munich, Berlin; Prague and Freiburg, where he pursued the study of medi- cine. After obtaining his degree he became a physician in the Bavarian army and served at Augsburg, Straubing and Passau, but fell sick in 1851 and was granted a pension. He retired to Munich, where Geibel introduced him to the poets of the so-called Munich Circle, and ob- tained an annual stipend from King Maximilian II. Of all the lyric poets of the Munich School, he is one of the most gifted and tal- ented as shown by such poems as ‘Immer leiser wird mein Schlummer.? As an epic poet, he is unquestionably their leader, as is shown by his long historical epic, ‘Die Volkerwanderung? (‘The Migration of Nations,? 1866-68), in stanzas, divided into 25 cantos. Particularly famous is his ballad, ‘Der schwarze Tod. His few attempts as a short-story writer produced perfect results, particularly his ‘Byzantinische Novellen? (1881), while his dramatic works (collected edition, Stuttgart 1897) are poor. LINGAYEN — LINLITHGOW LINGUATULA, or TONGUE-WORMS, a highly aberrant parasitic form often classed as an Arachnid. The external appearance of a linguatulid simulates that of a tapeworm, but the structure approximates that of the mites. The adult parasite is found in the nasal cavities or respiratory organs of air breathing verte- brates, chiefly reptiles and mammals; the larva in its first stage a four-legged form of simple structure looking like some mites (Demodex) encysts in the connective tissue of various ver- tebrates and reaches a condition ready for transfer by a period of growth involving sev- eral stages. The final: host°is\ reached when He encysted larva is eaten with the flesh of its ost. ss uy LINGUISTICS. See Laneuace, ScIENCE Cree x LINGULA. See Bracuiopons. LINIERS Y BREMONT, Santiago An- tonio Maria de, san-té-a’g6 an-t6-né-6 ma-ré’a da’lén-é-ars’ € bra-mont, Spanish naval officer: b. Niort (Deux-Sévres), France, 6 Feb.. 1756; d. near Buenos Aires, Argentine Republic, 26 Aug. 1810.. After the. French Revolution he entered the Spanish naval service, in which he attained captain’s rank. He defended Monte- . video against the: British in 1806, and. in 1807 ~ forced them to relinquish Buenos Aires, which they had occupied. The ruling viceroy was then deposed by popular demand, and, Liniers selected for the post (16 May 1808). .The British soon attacked Buenos: Aires, and 1 July gained a battle under its: defenses; but Liniers successfully managed the resistance and. the enemy, after rétreating with large losses, with- drew from the country. ‘He was succeeded in 1809 by Cisneros, whose rule was followed by the revolution of 10 May 1810. Liniers there- upon marched from Cordoba to Buenos Aires for the purpose of quelling the revolt; but was captured and shot. Bo] LINLEY, lin’'li, Thomas, English com- poser: b. Wells, 1732; d. London, 19 Nov. 1795. He was a pupil of, Chilcot at Bath and of Para- dies at Naples, became one of the best English vocal instructors, and for several years directed the concerts at the Bath assembly-rooms. ‘In 1774 he became joint,director of the Drury Lane oratorios, in 1776 purchased Garrick’s share in Drury Lane and in 1776-91 directed the music there. His music contributed greatly to the success of Sheridan’s “Duenna,” which was performed 75 times during the season. He also composed the much admired accompani- ments to the “Beggar’s Opera,” various’ other music for dramatic works, and glees, canzonets and songs. He obtained high place’ among English composers through his simplicity and excellent. taste. . . LINLITHGOW, lin-lith’g6, Scotland, the county town of, Linlithgowshire,' 16 miles. west of Edinburgh. It is an ancient royal burgh, dating from the reign of David I, with a, fine 12th century Gothic church, now restored, and | other historical edifices, chief of which is Lin- lithgow Palace (mostly. rebuilt between 1425 and 1628), the birthplace of James V and Mary Stuart, burnt down by the carelessness of the Duke of Cumberland’s soldiers in 1746, and now an interesting ruin. In 1570 the Regent Moray was assassinated by Hamilton of: Bothwell- - LINN — LINNET haugh. Tanning, shoemaking and distilling are among its industries. Pop. 4,002. Consult Waldie, ‘History of Linlithgow? (1879). LINN, William Alexander, American jour- nalist: ‘b. Sussex, N. J., 4 Sept. 1843. He was graduated at Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in 1864, at Yale in 1868, and in 1883 was admitted to the New York bar. From 1868 to 1891 he was engaged in newspaper work, dur- ing part of that time being on the staff of the ‘New York Tribune, and was managing editor of the Evening Post, 1891-1900, resigning to devote himself ‘to literary work. He has been president of the Hackensack Mutual Building and Loan Association from its organization in 1887 and was president of the People’s National Bank of Hackensack, N. J., from its organiza- tion in 1903 to 1916; was president of the First National Bank of Ridgefield Park, N. J., from its organization in 1910 to 1913; elected county collector of Bergen County, N. J., 3 Jan. 1916. Was a member of the New Jersey Commission of 1899 which secured the legislation under which the Palisades Interstate Park Commis- sion, which has saved the Palisades front from destruction, was appointed, and was a member of the latter commission from its organization to 1913. He has published ‘The Story of the Mormons? (1902); ‘Horace Greeley? (1903); and ‘Rob and His Gun? (1902). He is a mem- ber of the National Geographic Society, the New Jersey Historical Society, Bergen County Historical Society, and trustee of the Johnson Public Library of Hackensack. LINNZLUS, li-né’tis, Carolus, the Latinized form of the name of Carl von Linne, Swedish botanist: b. Rashult, Smaland, 23 May 1707; d. Upsala, 10 Jan. 1778. He showed afi early in- terest in botany; entered the University of Lund, where his botanical tastes were encour- aged by Kilian Stobzeus, physician to the king, from whose library he was supplied with neces- sary books. In 1728 he went to-Upsala, where he undertook the supervision of the botanic gar- den. Here he made the acquaintance of the botanist, Rudbeck, whose assistant he became, and assisted Olof Celsius in the preparation of the latter’s. “Hierobotanicon.» Aided by the Academy of Sciences at Upsala, Linne made a ‘journey about 4,600 miles through Lapland, the result of. which was shown in his ‘Flora Lap- ponica,? published 1737. In this year he went to the University of Harderwyk in Holland and took an M.D. degree, and later visited Leyden, where he published his first sketch of his ‘Sys- tema Nature? and “Fundamenta Botanica. . In 1736 he visited England, and in September 1738 settled in Stockholm as a physician. He slowly acquired a practice, was made naval physician of Stockholm and obtained some minor ap- pointments. He became professor of medicine at Upsala in 1741, exchanging for that of botany in 1742. He was ennobled in 1761... During his professorship of botany he drew students from all over the civilized world, increasing the num- ber attendant on the university from 500 to 1,500. The importance of Linnzus’ work can scarcely be overrated. It has been said that “he found biology a chaos; he left ita cosmos.» He it was who established the systematic botany and zoology of modern times. He first an- nounced the principles for the definition of genera and species, and established the binomi- 4.2 461 nal nomenclature of both. He was a careful observer, a methodical worker and a clear and succinct writer. As a teacher he was of great influence in revolutionizing the methods of botanical study. He published more than 180 works, among which the most important are ‘Systema Nature? (1735); ‘Fundamenta Bo- tanica? (1736); ‘Genera Plantarum? (1737); ‘Flora Lapponica? (1737) ; “Classes Plantarum” (1738) ; ‘Fauna Suecica? (1745); ‘Flora Sue- cica? (1746); ‘Hortus Upsaliensis’ (1748) ; ‘Philosophia Botanica? (1751); and, chief of all, “Species Plantarum? (1753). The Linnzan Society of London was founded in his honor in 1788. Consult ‘Life’ by Stoever (Eng. trans, 1794) ; Caddy, ‘Through the Fields with Linneus? (1877); Fries, “Linné, Lefnadsteek- ning? (2 vols., Stockholm 1903); Levertin, Carl von Linne? (ib. 1906). _LINNALITE, a cobalt mineral, CosS. con- taining some nickel and copper. Mined for- merly in Maryland and Missouri. LINNELL, lin’él, John, English painter: b. London, 16 June 1792; d. Redhill, Surrey, 20 Jan. 1882. He began his artistic career as a pupil of West and Varley and was for some time a successful teacher of drawing, number- ing among his pupils Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. He had painted from his 15th year, confining himself exclusively to landscape. Be- tween 1824 and 1838 he produced a number of excellent pictures of this class. Originally an imitator of Gainsborough, he soon developed a brilliant and original style. He was particularly successful in portraying the insular sky scenery of England with its varied cloud forms, and play of sunlight, and his works combine de- lightful freshness with supreme skill in hand- ling. In the South Kensington Museum is one of his pictures “Girls Gathering Flowers,” and in the National Gallery are his “Wood Cutter,” and “Windmill” Consult Story, ‘Life of John Linnell? (1892). LINNET, a very common and attractive song-bird, one of the smaller migratory finches, of southern Europe and adjacent countries of Africa and Asia. In autumn and winter the plumage is brown-streaked and dull, but in the spring molt; on the approach of the breed- ing season, the breast and head of the mature male become’bright crimson. This gay dress is assumed and put off gradually, and bird-catch- ers speak of brown, gray, red or rose linnets as if they: were separate species, but there is only one— Linota cannabina. The name refers to the fondness of the bird for hemp, :flax-seed and the like, formerly called the “lint” crops, whence come the Scotch names “lintie,» “lint- white,” etc., and the English “linnet.»”. The hab- its of these birds in the fields are much the same as those of their relatives the American goldfinches, or of the redpolls, called “innets” in Canada. These are among the most prized of cage-birds for the sake of their song, and are taken in great numbers in traps as well as extensively bred. They will interbreed with the canary and an interesting and valuable hybrid has thus been produced. The song is -loud, flute-like and exceedingly agreeable; it consists of several connected strains, and is esteemed by connoisseurs in proportion to the frequency with which certain clear sonorous notes, or “crows,” recur. It sings throughout the year, except when molting, and may be taught various 462 airs and melodies not its own -— even to imitate well the complicated song of the nightingale. Such education is rarely given it, however, ex- cept in Germany. The care and feeding of a linnet should be the same as those given a canary. See CANARY; CAGE-Birps. LINNET-HOLE, in glass-making, a table ess the glass-melting furnace with the arch. LINOLEIC ACID, one of the constituents of linseed oil, obtained by saponifying the oil with soda, separating the soap, and decompos- ing it with chloride of calcium. After washing, the soap is treated with ether, which dissolves the linoleate of calcium. This salt is next de- composed with hydrochloric acid, linoleic acid taken up by ether. After distilling off the ether the oily acid remains, which is converted into a barium compound which is purified ‘by crystallization, and from this the acid is finally obtained by addition of sulphuric acid. It is a pale-yellow oil, insoluble in water, but readily soluble in ether. It is lighter than water, has a slight acid reaction and harsh taste. LINOLEUM, a kind of floor-cloth, intro- duced in England in 1860. It consists of a mixture of oxidized linseed oil and ground cork spread in a uniform layer upon canvas, the sur- face of which may be printed in patterns of dif- ferent colors as in ordinary floor-cloth. The oxidizing of the linseed oil, by which process - it becomes a caoutchouc-like substance possess- ing a certain amount of elasticity, is effected by exposing it in thin films to the influence of air. Certain proportions of kaurigum, resin and pig- ments, according to the ground color desired, are added to the oxidized oil, which is then inti- mately mixed with the ground cork, and firmly squeezed on and rendered adherent to the sur- face of a rough canvas backing, which is after- ward coated or waterproofed with oil: paint. In inlaid linoleum the pattern goes right through the fabric, the different patterns being pieced together and then rolled over with heated rolls. An embossed linoleum, washable, waterproof and warm, invented by Frederick Walton as a substitute for wall paper, is named after him “Lincrusta Walton.” LINOTYPE, The. CHINES. LINSANG, one of the beautiful spotted civets of the Oriental genus Prionodon, of which various species are to be found from northern India to Borneo. The West African linsang (Potana poénsis) is a rare species from the Fernando Po district, closely allied to the Malayan ones. They have the general char- acteristics and habits of the civets (q.v.) but are especially expert in tree-climbing and feed mainly upon birds. LINSEED, or LINSEED MEAL. See FLAXSEED. LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY, The. In the commercial world there are known at the present time a number of vegetable oils, which in the raw state and without the aid of chemi- cals are capable of absorbing the oxygen of the air to a greater or less degree and becom- me solid. These are commonly called “drying oils” By far the most valuable to commerce, both as to usage and results obtained, is linseed See Composinc Ma- and the LINNET-HOLE— LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY oil, expressed from the seed of the plant Linum usitatissimum, the common flax. In early times the object of its cultivation was principally for the flax, fibre... Although, the great economic importance of linseed oil, due to the large increase of manufactured products in which it is used, has been of but compara- tively recent years in this country, the seed or plant bears the hall mark of great antiquity. It is positively known that drying oils had been discovered prior to the Christian era, and, though uncertain, it would seem reasonable to assume that linseed oil was among them. For centuries it appears that. the oil’s greatest characteristic, its wonderful drying properties, was given little attention. It was not until the 12th century, when oil painting was discoy- ered, that we may say a true appreciation of the essentially exclusive properties of linseed: was felt, and from that day to this it is the only oil that has successfully satisfied all the require- ments of oil painting. Manufacturing.— In earlier years the small amount required, principally by the artists, was produced by little, if any, apparatus, and often in the studio. Later, the oil began to find en- larged fields of usefulness, and the crudest of mechanical apparatus was devised for its manu- facture. With such appliances, however, oil could be produced only at an excessive. cost, and its use on a broad commercial basis was not feasible. Indeed, up to within comparatively recent years the invention and improvement of linseed oil machinery has been slow, and in fact to the United States may be attributed the greater part of the advance made in this’ indus- try in the past 100 years. The earliest method recorded for the production of linseed oil is a receipt by Theophilus, a monk writing in the 12th century, and which becomes particularly interesting when we find that the treatment of the seed or method was almost identically the same as it is to-day. “Take linseed and dry it in a pan without water, on the fire; put it ina mortar and pound to a fine powder; then re- place it in the pan, and pouring a little water on it, make it quite hot. Afterward, wrap it in a piece of new linen, place it in a press used for extracting the oil ‘of olives, of walnuts, or of the poppy, and express it in the same manner.” It will be seen from the above that the seed was treated separately four times, as. follows: Dried, crushed, cooked and pressed. With the exception of the drying, which is not necessary, the plan of procedure to-day is the same. © Dur- ing the intervening years, however, many dif- ferent methods have been used as well as. dif- ferent kinds of machinery. In the making of linseed oil there are two very essential steps which must be carefully watched; the first is the crushing or grinding of the seed; the second is the cooking or “temper- ing” of the ground seed. Inthe proper manipu- lation of these two processes rests a crusher’s ability to make a good yield of oil. Heat and moisture are of the greatest importance in pro- ducing the best yields; we find, in- fact, that many times the ground seed: or meal was pressed entirely without cooking. Oil made in this manner was called “cold pressed” oil. In the cold process the oil expressed is beautifully light in color and heavy in body; furthermore, upon boiling to a high temperature the oil does not darken but becomes lighter, and after mix-. LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY ing with the varnishes is perfectly clear and without sediment. On the contrary, oil made from the tempered meal is thinner and darker in color; on boiling at high temperatures it darkens still more, and throws down a quantity of white and greasy precipitate. Owing to the light yield’ of oil in the cold process, however, the cost’ is excessive and little is now made. The first attempt to manufacture linseed oil in quantities was by the ancient screw’ and lever press, a modification of the old cider press. It consisted of a barrel, sometimes of cast iron, perforated to give a free outlet to the oil, and fitted with a plunger which; when actuated by the serew, descended into the open barrel upon the mass of meal contained therein, and by means of slow pressure expressed: a reasonable amount of oil. This press was worked by a hand lever placed through an eye at the head of the screw, like a bar in a capstan. Little oil was secured, however, in comparison with presses actuated by machinery. On this account considerable oil remained in the dry residue known as. oil «cake; these “cakes” weighed about 25 pounds each and were about 18 inches in diameter by 8 inches thick, resem- bling a cheese in shape and thus giving to it the name of “Cheese, Box” press. The capacity of this press was less than one barrel of oil a day. The screw and lever préss was retained in use as late as 1848. Some years prior to that date, however, the improved Dutch mill or wedge press had come into vogue. These mills were imported from Holland, and were con- sidered a great improvement over the old screw and lever presses. The wedge press consisted of a very heavy rectangular frame work of oak. or iron, placed horizontally on its base. The ground seed was shoveled by hand into woolen bags and these were hung. vertically between hinged partitions, consisting of wooden plates. The capacity of the press was about 9 or 10 of these bags, giving a daily pressing of not over 15 to 20 bushels. The cakes left in this press weighed from 8 to 10 pounds each, after the raw edges had been trimmed. The pressure requisite for the ex- pression of the oil was obtained by driving wooden. wedges between the plates by means of sledges driven by wind or water power. This press was still in use in 1853. The wedge press was discarded for the horizontal hydraulic press, the next step in the advancement of the industry and undoubtedly the most important. Probablv the first hydrau- lic presses used in the United States: for linseed:, oil were those installed in a New York mill shortly after the War of 1812. In these the plates were of iron instead of wood, and movy- able; the ground seed. was shoveled into the woolen bags-as before, flattened by the hand of the workman, and placed in mats of horsehair, which, were folded in book form. After plac- ing in. the press vertically, one at a time, the iron plates were moved up against each bag, when the ram of the hydraulic cylinder moving horizontally compressed the eight or nine cakes contained in the press, the oil running into a trough or pan beneath. The yield of oil was very much increased by this method. The horizontal press; however, had its disadvan- tages, and'in 1851 the first patents for vertical hydraulic: presses for linseed oil were granted. The capacity was not increased over the hori- 463 zontal type at first, the press holding only 6 to 10 cakes. The clumsy’ and unwieldy manner of packing the meal in the bags and filling the presses, however, was done away with. What is known as “boxes” were used, the ground seed being molded into soft cakes, packed in wrap- pers and placed in the press, one ‘above the other, the boxes acting as shelves. A large saving was made here in labor and time, neces- sarily resulting in considerable increase of daily capacity and consequent reduction in the cost. With the improvements in the manner of pressing the seed came improvements in grind- ing or crushing. Linseed was crushed first in this country by rolling through a mill worked by hand; the rollers in this mill consisted of one large and one small, the seed being passed through once or twice, according to the views of the crusher. The earliest method for reduc- ing the linseed to meal by machinery was that used in connection with the Dutch mill or wedge press, and was called the “Tamper” mill. This was a mortar and pestle on a large scale. The mortars were of heavy cast ‘iron; the bottom flat on the inside and holding’ a small amount of flax seed; the pestle was an iron-shod log, standing vertically in a frame, the foot resting on the bottom of the mortar; these logs, weigh- ing from 150 to 200 pounds each, were raised, by means of cams on a horizontal shaft, by water or wind power, and falling of their own weight exerted a crushing or grinding force upon the seed. The tampers, as they were called, numbered one or more in the set. The capacity of a mill was necessarily cut down very’ much by such a slow process, and rolls run by machinery were resorted to; these were of different design from the:old hand rolls, and were designated in the.trade-as “cracker” rolls, for the reason that they cracked or opened the seeds. These: rolls were arranged in pairs only and varied in size from 12 to 18 inches in diameter and 7 to 18 long, according to the views of the manufacturer. After being bruised in these rolls,;the seed was placed in an edge-runner or.:chaser, also known as a muller. This consisted of a-circular trench of iron, several feet. in- diameter, placed horizon- tally on a firm foundation. Running around this, like. wagon wheels in a rut, were two ponderous iron-shod wheels, 5 to 6 feet in diameter with steel tires 10 to 16 inches wide. These were sometimes’ made of Stone and: set opposite one another on a shaft and weighed about 7,000 pounds each. Around and around these wheels revolved, chasing one another until the meal was finely crushed and rolled, when water was added until the meal acquired the consistency of putty, or what was termed “dobby.” It was then mixed or “mulled” for some 10 or 15 minutes and then tempered with heat. These muller stones proved very satisfactory as to results, but were clumsy and took a great deal of power; furthermore, the expense of two grindings was unnecessary. Nevertheless, no change was made for many years. The tempering or cooking of the crushed seed having such an important bearing on the vield of oil has also’ suffered many changes. There: was considerable variation in the tem- perature used, from cold to hot, according to the manufacturer. Often the spontaneous heat of the crushing was considered sufficient. In the tamper of the Dutch mill. water was: played: 164 on the meal in the mortar, when vapors began to arise, in order to keep it from getting too hot and thus spoiling the oil. No further tem- pering was considered necessary. Later, how- ever, and notably in connection with the muller stones regular cookers began to be used; these were heavy sheet iron drums or tanks, slowly revolving over a charcoal fire until the proper temperature was attained. With the advent of the hydraulic press, improvements were made in cooking devices and stationary heaters be- gan to be used in which the meal was cooked by steam. Up to the year 1856, and as related, the cooked meal was placed in the bags by hand; at this date, however, a device was patented to form the cooked meal into’ soft cakes or molds preparatory to placing them into the cloth or wrapper which was to take the place of the bags originally used. This was considered a great boon, saving as it did the laborious process of handling and molding the meal by hand to fit the press; though some- what clumsy at that-time, the “molder” or “former” has been much improved. Where in former years the molder was run by power from the shaft, now hydraulic pressure is utilized, and the “former” is in reality a minia- ture press, consisting of a square mold or box into which a plunger presses the required amount of meal. Very light pressure is suffh- cient, and it is so arranged that the cooked meal will not be compressed to the point where the oil is separated. The tempering, crushing and pressing of linseed was carried on, with a few exceptions, substantially as related up to the year 1878, when the most lasting improvement to oil machinery was made, and which introduced practically the system in use at the present time; namely, the automatic “Lawther” process. Greater economy was immediately secured and larger yields of oil. The old muller stones and cracker rolls gave way to the stack of “four or five high” chilled iron rolls, by means of which the seed was bruised three or four times in passing through. Apparatus for controlling and regulating the high pressure was intro- duced; kettles or cookers were steam jacketed and had larger heating area, and steam was fed into the meal to moisten as well as heat it. The plate press had also been given the pref- erence over the box press, which was clumsy. Although the very best mills to-day have some improvements over the original Lawther process, they make rather toward greater economy than increase of yield. The modus operandi in the largest and most complete mill to-day is as follows: The flax seed is first thor- oughly cleaned by separators and dust collectors until the original dirt, amounting to 10 or 20 per cent, has been reduced to less than 1 per cent. This seed is now passed through the rolls, there being about one set of five rolls high to every three presses. The crushed seed falling from these rolls is led by screw con- veyors into the steam jacketed cookers of large capacity and holding a considerable quantity, where it is tempered. This consists of heating the ground seed to a temperature of from 120° to 180° F., according to the quality of the seed used, and moistened with live steam, all the time being kept in constant motion to prevent burning. When the temper is considered per- fect a batch is made. This consists of draw- —e LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY Me, = ing off the cooked meal on to the formers and molding the cake. A piece of cloth somewhat wider than the molded cake is placed so that the tempered meal may be drawn out onto it. This cloth or wrapper, as it is called, is a sub- stitute, for the horse hair cloth and woolen bags of.former days, but now made of pure camel’s hair to stand the high heat and enormous pres- sure. By a single motion the former is now closed and immediately reopened, when the ends of the cloth protruding are automatically wrapped around the soft cake and it is placed in the press (by automatic nippers, in the Lawther press). The batch makes 20 of these cakes, which fills one press.: The pressure is now turned on by an automatic valve or change cock which slowly increases the pressure up to about 4,000 pounds to the square inch. This enormous pressure is generated by very power- ful hydraulic pumps, connected to what is known as the accumulator system, the first pres- sure being up to 800 pounds per square inch and the second from 2,600 to 4,000 pounds. The accumulators are for two purposes; first, to act similar to a safety valve on a boiler, preventing the pressure from exceeding the limit; secondly, keeping the pressure at a steady level through- out the time the seed is in the press. Before the adaptation of the accumulator and change cock, the oil was pumped directly into the press, causing an unequal flow and consequent re- duction in the yield of oil. Six presses are generally grouped, one being emptied and re- filled every 10 minutes, the six thus completing one hour in time and allowing each press in the group to drain every 50 minutes. In some mills seven batches are made instead of six, and the weight of the cake is also increased from 11 and 12 to 14 pounds. This is done in order to increase the capacity of the mill, but generally at a sacrifice in the percentage of oil. As each batch is removed from the press, the camel’s hair cloth wrapper is stripped off, the rough edges of the cake trimmed automatically, and the cake piled up in the cake house, where it is allowed to dry for at least 48 hours. The raw oil, after having been run from the settling troughs at the back of the presses, is carefully filtered and placed in tanks ready for barreling. An improvement over the intermittent action of the simple hydraulic press was the Anderson continuous action press, appearing in 1905. In this machine the seed, ground or unground, is pressed in a perforated cylinder of hardened steel by a series of revolving screws, the oil dripping from the perforations, and the residue being expelled as dry meal at the farther end of the machine. The seed may be heated to not more than 140°, or pressed cold. The product is of the finest quality, suitable for the best varnishes. The Anderson mach‘ne has a capacity of about eight bushels per hour. While probably four-fifths of the total lin- seed oil output of the United States is manu- factured in some kind of a press, by what is termed the “old process» (as above described), the remaining fifth is made by the “new proc- ess,» in which naphtha is used as a solvent of the oil. The seed is first thoroughly crushed as in the old process and is heated, but without any added moisture. In fact the heater is so arranged as to drive off the natural moisture of the seed: The crushed seed is placed in a jacketed cylinder called a percolator, 1,000 LINSEED OIL INDUSTRY bushels at a time. Naphtha, heated by passing through a coil feed water heater, is run in on top of the linseed, and steam is let into the percolator jacket to keep up the heat. The naphtha with its content of dissolved oil is drained off from time to time into a con- densing tank, where the naphtha is boiled off, the vapor passing. to a cold condenser, and thence back to the naphtha» reservoir. The separated oil is carried to an open tank where it is heated and subjected to a vigorous air blast. to remove any lingering odor of the naphtha. The operation is continued with each charge of seed for three days. The residue in the percolator is then treated with live steam, and again leached with hot naphtha. This treatment reduces the oil left in the meal to about 1% per cent. The product ranks with the best on the market.. The plant for this process costs about 25 per cent less than for the old process, and the profits are more than 60 per cent greater, The Oil and Its Uses.— Linseed oil as manufactured may be classified under three headings: raw, boiled and refined. Raw linseed oil is the term applied to oil as it comes from the press in its original state. The principal consumer of raw linseed oil is the paint grinder; as it was used as a vehicle for paint hundreds of years ago, so it is used now. Every year millions of gallons are spread on buildings in the form of mixed paints, one concern alone using over 1,500,000 gallons yearly. Every 100 pounds of white lead requires at least 7% gallons. Boiled linseed oil is, as the name denotes, raw oil boiled over a fire, chemicals being added, the object being to increase its drying properties. Many formulas are used by the different crushers for making boiled oil, the oldest and most reliable, however, containing principally red lead and black oxide of man- ganese, the addition of these substances to the heated oil stimulating the linolein and increasing its affinity for oxygen. The uses for boiled oil are many and varied, but it is principally used as the quick drying oil in paints. The refined or varnish oils are many, and there is the great- est rivalry to-day among oil manufacturers as to the qualities of their respective varnish oils. Hundreds. of thousands of gallons of these oils are used every year. While the different gums used in the manufacture of varnishes are ti-e basis or foundation, some variety of refined oil is the most important component of the varnish. As stated before, raw linseed oil has certain component parts. which must be removed and all tendency to “break” must be eliminated. Descriptions, however, of these methods will not be attempted, as they pertain more partic- ularly to the chemistry of linseed oil and not to its manufacture. The reliable varnish oils are few and are furnished only by the largest manufacturers, Linseed oil in some form plays a very prominent part in the manufacture of linoleum and oil cloths also. Varnish oils are used in the manufacture of patent leather, for shoes and other purposes, carriage tops, and all kinds of dressed leathers are finished with lin- seed oil. The oil clothing worn by sailors and fishermen is soaked with it. It appears by the thousands of gallons before our eyes in the printers’ ink on newspapers, and smaller quan- tities are used in the manufacture of. oil silks. _ Linseed oil has no value as an edible oil, or as VOL. 17 — 30 _ during the year. _Although used extensively abroad, it 465 an illuminant or lubricant. While not very large in comparison with other industries, the consumption of linseed oil in the last few years as compared to former years has increased very rapidly, and at the present time the above in- dustries consume annually an amount computed at nearly 62,000,000 gallons. The price of lin- seed oil is of course governed by the cost of manufacture and principally by the price of seed and, cake. The greatest fluctuation experienced in earlier years was in 1867, when oil went from $1 per gallon to $2.03, and in later years, in 1901, when it went from 50 to 82 cents per gal- lon. Linseed: oil has always been subject to great fluctuations, and it will be seen by aver- - aging that from: 1876 the annual fluctuation has been about 14% cents per gallon, the smallest fluctuation known being in 1883, when there was only three cents difference in price at any time On 15 June 1917 the prices in the New York market for five-barrel lots were raw oil, $1.21 per gallon; boiled oil, $1.22 per ir ‘refined oil, $1.23 per gallon. he Cake and Its Uses.— While really a teetiebdd oth the manufacture and sale of the cake is equal in importance to the sale of the oil, and although netting a smaller price per pound, the value has a very great influence on the course of oil prices and the policy of the business as a unit. Practically the only use for cake is as a food for livestock, principally cattle, for fattening and for results in the dairy. The actual protein in cake is about 36 per cent, of which about 85 per cent is digestible, and the nutritive value is consequently about four times that of hay, while the fat varies from 4 per cent to 8 per cent, according to the crusher. 1S singular fact that our farmers in the United States have little, if any, appreciation of its value. Our own country should be the largest consumer of this most valuable by-product; actual figures; however, show that only about 20 per cent is retained for home consuniption. The first cost is somewhat greater than for other food stuffs, and our farmers as a general rule lack the knowledge of its value, which comes only by experiment and valuable experi- ence. The manurial value alone of linseed oil cake has been estimated at over $16 per ton, whereas the first cost is only from $18 to $25 per ton. Our farmers, it is true, are waking up to its value and more is being used in this country every year, but the bulk of our output is taken by Holland and Belgium with France third. The exportation of. cake has grown with the industry and the proportion of export remains practically the same, with the exception that each year a little larger part is retained for home consumption. The total exports in 1895 were about 120,000 tons, and in 1913 about 290,000 tons. A glance at the figures will show that of the total 290,000 tons the three countries above mentioned consumed 242,000 tons, the balance being divided largely between France and Germany with 18,000 tons each, Canada and West Indies 5,000 each, and Nor- way, Sweden and Denmark insignificant amounts. Growth of the Industry.— To the early settlers the flax plant was of value for the flax and not for the seed and oil. In 1719 the spin-- ning wheel was first introduced in New Hamp- shire by the Protestant Irish who settled there, 466 and flax was grown more abundantly. The seed was for the most part exported, a few thousand bushels being’ sufficient to supply the domestic demand. The first impetus ‘to the growth of flax for linen fabrics and consequent increase in seed and oil was given in 1722, when bounties for its growth were granted. The in- crease was immediate, and the plan worked so well that the bounties were continued, and in fact increased, until in 1751 we find it reported that 60 wagon loads of seed were exported at Baltimore. In 1752 a further increase’ was noted, 10,000 hogsheads or 70,000 bushels of seed being exported from Philadelphia. Twenty ‘years later, 110,000. bushels were sold abroad, and in 1791 292,000 bushels, or upwards of one- half of the total crop of the United States in 1860, which was 567,000 bushels. Some idea of the rapid growth of the oil industry after the Revolution will’ be gained from the fact that in | 1791 only 450 gallons were exported, while in 1795 nearly 50,000 gallons were sent abroad, an amount which was not again equaled until 60 years later. In 1792 the invention of the cotton gin placed a severe check on the growth of flax for the fibre, cheapening as it did cotton and cotton fabric. Undoubtedly at this time closer attention was paid to the flax seed for its oil- bearing seed; the business was a profitable one, as had been shown by the small export business done. -From 1795 the export steadily decreased, showing. ever-increasing home consumption, and in fact considerable quantities were now being imported. From about 80,000 gallons in 1825, the imports increased to. 3,200,000 gallons in 1867. Immediately after this, however, the im- ports dropped to an insignificant quantity, and have continued so to this day, a certain quantity of Calcutta oil only being imported each year at high prices, for special uses, it being a well- known fact that the finest oil in the world is made from East Indian seed. In 1839 the first cargo of flax seed was imported,-and importa- tions have increased to the figure of 25,005,936 bushels for 1922-23— most of which came from Argentina. From 1880, when the crop grown in this country aggregated some 7,000,000 bushels, the crop increased to at least 30,000,000 bushels in 1903... The average for recent years has re~ ceded greatly from the 19,512,765 bushels of 1909. The production of flax seed in the United States in 1919 amounted to 6,653,200 bushels. Of this total North Dakota produced 2,972,082 bushels; Minnesota, 2,019,464 bushels, and South Dakota, 1,109,303. bushels. Montana produced 325,838 bushels. and Wisconsin 62;579 bushels. The total value of the crop, as estimated at the price ruling on 1 Dec. 1919, was $29,360,998; The average consumption amounted to 8,000,000 to 10,000,000. bushels of seed up to about year 1892. From that time the statistics show a steady in- crease in the consumption. The 1922 crop of flaxseed aggregated 12,238,000 bushels from 1,308,000 acres and’ having a total value of $25,869,000. _ Price of Seed.— While at times the fluctua- tion of seed prices has been caused by specula- tion and manipulation, the law of supply and demand has generally fixed the value. In 1885 Cincinnati was the principal centre for the sale of the seed. From about 1870 Chicago became the great market, its location being more cen- tral. Ten years later, however, Chicago lost its prestige, and Duluth became practically the only LINSEY — LINSLEY market. Since then Minneapolis has divided the honor with Duluth, The highest price ob- tained for flaxseed in modern times was in 1862, when sales were made on a basis of $3.25 per bushel. From 1862 to 1874 seed never sold under $2 per bushel but averaged about $2.50; after 1874, however, prices steadily declined until. 1886, when $1.03 ‘was reached. The low- est price ever obtained was in 1897, when seed went to about 63 cents. The greatest fluctu- ation was in 1862, seed going from $1.25 to $3.25. The avernge farm value of flaxseed for 1916 was $1.99 er bushel, and on 1 Dec. 1922 the price reached $2.11 per bushel. In earlier times, almost all the seed was grown iff the Eastern States: large amounts were grown in New York, whereas now scarcely any is grown there. Ohio long held a good share of the crop; from Ohio it traveled to Indiana and IIli- nois: then to Kansas and Iowa: and from there to’ Minnesota and Dakota, and finally, in the last few years, almost the entire crop has been grown in North Dakota, South Dakota, Minne- sota and Montana. The historical records fur- nish us with very meagre data as regards the number of mills in operation at different periods. In 1810, the census tells us there were 383 mills in 14 States, 171 in Pennsylvania alone. ‘These mills were small affairs, but the number is con- clusive of the large interest taken in this indus- try. These mills made 770,000 gallons of oil, valued at about $900,000. In 1860 there were 94 mills, turning out nearly $6,000,000 worth of oil and cake: in 1870 the number of mills was reduced to 85, but the value of the products had increased to $9,000,000 worth of oil and cake, and in 1880, 81 mills produced $15,400,000 worth of products. The number of mills was still further reduced in 1890 to 62, making $23,500,000 worth of oil and cake, and in 1900 mills were producing a value of nearly $30,000,000. The steady decrease in the number of plants in operation is due to the inability of plants with old-fashioned machinery to work on the lowest basis of cost manufacture. According to the 1919 census of manufac- tures there were in that year in the United States 26 linseed oil mills of factory grade, em- ploying 2,173 wage earners receiving annually a total of $3,052,269 in wages. ‘The capital in- vested amounted to $73,956,065, and the value of the year’s output was $120,638,100: of this, $20,060,562 was the value added by manufacture. The yield of linseed oil was 55,121,234 gallons. More of the crushing is done at Minneapolis: and Saint Paul than at any other locality in the United States, though there are important mills also at Chicago, Cleveland, Toledo, Buf- falo, New York and Philadelphia. In 1921, 28 establishments reported a production of linseed oil valued at $71,032,000. Exports for the cal- endar year 1923 amounted to 3,105,089 pounds of oil and 536,555,238 pounds of oi! cake. Consult Ennis, W. D., ‘Linseed Oil and Other Oils? (New York 1909), LINSEY, the name of an English country- made fabric of linen warp and worsted filling. LINSEY-WOOLSEY, made of linen and wool. LINSLEY, James Harvey, American naturalist: b. Northford, Conn., 5 May 1787; d. Stratford, Conn., 26 Dec. 1843. He was gradu | a mixed fabric LINSLEY — LION ated from Yale College in 1817, and became a Baptist clergyman, but on account of ill-health resigned from the pulpit and devoted himself to the study of natural history. Many cata- logues ‘of mammalia and birds from his pen may be found in the American Journal of Sctence. LINSLEY, Joel Harvey, American clergy- man: b. Cornwall, Vt., 15 July 1790; d. Green- wich, Conn., 22 March 1868. He was graduated from Middlebury College in 1811, and was tutor there for three years; afterward studied law, but in 1822 was licensed as a Congregational clergyman and went to South Carolina as a missionary. During the years 1824-32 he was pastor of a church in Hartford, Conn., and was at Park Street Church, Boston, 1832-35. In the latter year he was elected president of Marietta College, Ohio, which post he held 10 years, raising a considerable fund for the in- stitution. LINSTOCK, a gunner’s forked staff. to hold a match of lint dipped in saltpeter. LINT, in surgery, the scrapings or ravel- ings of: fine linen, made into a sort of cloth and used by surgeons in dressing wounds. It is prepared in various forms, which have dif- ferent names, according to the difference of the figures. Lint made up in an oval or obicular form is called a pledget; if in a cylindrical form or in- shape of a date or olive-stone, a dossil. The advantages of this material for the purposes for which it is used are very great owing to its softness of texture, the ease with which it may be-folded or rolled into any shape required, its capacity to absorb discharges, and its cheapness, on account of which it may be thrown away when once used. For modern surgery it is rendered antiseptic by steeping in carbolic acid, perchloride of mercury solution, etc., and subsequent drying. LINT-DOCTOR, a sharp-edged ruler on the delivery side of the calico-printing cylinder, to detain any lint or fibres which may come off the cotton cloth. LINTEL, in architecture, a horizontal tim- ber or stone over a door, window or other opening, to support the superincumbent weight. LINTON, Eliza Lynn, English novelist: b. Keswick, Cumberland, 10 Feb. 1822; d. Lon- don, 14 July 1898. In 1858 she married William James Linton (q.v.), but they separated in 1867, though continuing to maintain friendly re- lations until his death. She was connected with the press for nearly all her literary career, writing for the Saturday Review, the cele- brated ‘Girl of the Period? papers. She some- times dipped her pen in acid, but in private she was warm-hearted and self-sacrificing. Among her numerous works are “The World Well Lost®; “The One Too’ Many’; ‘In Haste and at. Leisure’; ‘The Girl of the Period, etc. Her best novels are ‘The True History of Joshua Davidson: Christian and Communist» (1872), and ‘Autobiography of Sab gest Kirkland. « ‘LINTON; ‘Sir James Dromgole, English painter: b. Wondon; -26 Dec. 1840. He was edu- cated at Cleveland House, Barnes. He after- ward studied art and has done much to pro- mote ‘the interests of the English school of water-color painting. - He was elected a member 467 of Institute of Water-Color Painters (1867). When it was reorganized its title being hence- forth the Royal Institute of Painters in Water- Colors, he was chosen president (1884). In the following year he was knighted: His pictures in oil include the ‘Marriage of the Duke of Albany, painted in 1885, and aseries of panels illustrating 16th century history for a private mansion at Nottingham. LINTON, William James, Anglo-Amer- ican wood engraver and author: b. London, 1812; d. near New Haven, Conn., 29 Dec. 1897. As a wood engraver he took very high rank, and some of his finest work may be found in the pages of the Illustrated London News, to which he frequently contributed from its com- mencement till he came to the United States in 1867. As an author, in which capacity he was more widely known than as an engraver, the zealous Chartism of his youth tinged much of his earlier production. Among his works may be mentioned ‘The Plain of Freedom?’ (1852) ; ‘Claribel and other Poems? (1865); ‘The Eng- lish Republic? ; ‘Some Practical Hints on Wood Engraving? (1879) : ‘Life of Thomas Paine? (1879); ‘A Manual of Wood Engraving? (1884) ; “Poems and Translations»? (1889), and “The Masters of Wood Engraving? (1890). LINZ, lints, Austria, the capital of the Crownland of Upper Austria, on the Danube, 98 miles west of Vienna (117 by rail). It is de- fended by detached forts extending-over a cir- cuit of nine miles, and has an old cathedral, a new cathedral, provincial parliamentary house, castle, town-house, bishop’s palace, etc. ' The manufactures include woolen, linen, silk and cotton goods, locomotive machinery, lamps and hardware, tobacco factory and shipbuilding, and there is an extensive trade on the Danube, on which steamers ply upstream to Ratisbon and down to Vienna. Pop. 67,817, the majority German Catholics. LION, the largest and most celebrated of the cat tribe, forming the widespread species Felis leo. The outward form and appearance of the lion are familiar. The apparently ex- cessive size of the head, due chiefly to the great mane which covers the head, neck and shoulders of the males; the uniform, unmarked, tawny color of the skin; the great development of horny papillze upon the rasp-like tongue; the growth of long hair on the elbows and along the middle line of the bélly, and the tuft at the extremity of the tail (hiding a horny spine) are distinctive external characters: The length of the lion from nose to tip of tail, rarely, if ever, exceeds 10 feet, and that of the lioness nine feet, of which the tail forms a third. The older books separated a supposed species of maneless lion, especially one in India desig- nated the maneless lion of Gujerat; but the development of the mane varies greatly, some lions in all regions ‘having this feature much more abundant than others, and in all cases it is a product of age, appearing fully only when the animal has reached full mattirity at the age of five to seven years, so that no“dis- tinction of this kind is valid; nor can’ any be made upon color, the mane in certain specimens being very much darker than in others without regard to locality, dark and amply maned and scantily +maned individuals’ belonging some- times to the same litter. The period of gesta- 468 tion in the lions is five months. Only one brood is produced annually, and from two to four young are produced at a birth. They re- main where born for a few weeks; the mother may leave them for 48 hours to go hunting: The mother nourishes the whelps for about a year; their size at birth being about that of a pug- dog. In their young state the whelps may be marked with various markings; brown bands upon a tawny body color and a stripe along the spine being most frequently observed. As they grow older, however, the markings disappear, and the uniform tawny hue of the adult is reached. The probable limit of age of the lion has been differently stated by different writers. Buffon fixed it at 22 years... But a lion which died in the Tower of London in 1760 had lived in: captivity above 70 years. The habits of lions have been observed and described by more writers than in the case, perhaps, of any other animal, and they are known to vary constantly with circumstances, locality and the kind of prey available. In general this heavy animal, which is entirely un- able to climb into trees, and frequents open rather than forested regions, gains its food by stealth and power rather than by agility and speed, and kills his quarry most frequently by stalking rather than by waiting at watering places. Lions often go abroad by day, wander- ing and hunting widely, but are chiefly active at night. Then this great cat goes to some accustomed lurking place near a spring or by the side of a river, where, concealed among the brushwood, he lies in wait for the animals coming to drink. A single powerful leap gen- erally lands him upon his prey which is crushed down by the weight of the attack and mauled and bitten about the head until the neck is broken by a wrench or the veins and arteries are torn open. If no rivals are near and the animal is very hungry, the prey may be de- voured on the spot to the extent required to satisfy appetite; and then, after drinking copiously, the beast will usually go away to his lair, leaving the remains for his family, if they have come near (as often happens), or to hyenas and jackals. In most cases, however, the lion, like other great cats, chooses. to take his quarry to some retired spot where he may feed upon it unobserved; and amazing stories are told, with apparent truth, of the strength displayed in carrying or dragging the carcasses of large antelopes, cattle and horses; it is not to be believed, however, as sometimes has been asserted, that a lion is able to “fling a bullock over its shoulder” and run away with it. Such a feat is limited to goats and small animals, if, indeed, it ever occurs. Lions sometimes hunt together for mutual support. The lioness hunts by. herself, especially when her kittens are young, at which time the father of the family is wandering alone, or with other males, and would be resisted if he attempted to join his spouse. The young remain with the mother until they are full-grown. The lion alone among cats is regularly polygamous, each male having three or four lionesses whose allegiance he gains by prowess in battle over rivals, and keeps by killing or driving off all newcomers. The result of these constant encounters in the arena of the desert is not only a scarcity of males but the continuous selection of the best LION to become progenitors of the race. One pecu- liarity of the lion developed by this incessant warfare among the males is the development of the defiant and terrifying voice -which elevates the growl, and enlarges the scream, of other cats, into a tremendous roar—a volume of noise beyond that made by any other animal. The statement that,.the lion» roars -at. stated periods appears to be almost wholly without foundation; in summer alone, and especially be- fore storms, the lion roars before dawn. In rage the lion beats his sides with his tail, agi- tates his mane and facial. muscles, protrudes the tongue and claws, utters the peculiar sharp, frequent growl and altogether presents. a very terrific appearance, all of which, primarily, has reference to the savage rivalry of males above described. . . The natural disposition of all animals to get their food as easily as possible has led lions everywhere to prey upon domestic cattle which, in a region where they are numerous, . suffer nightly despoliation. Lions that have discov- ered this comparatively easy method of supply- ing their wants soon learn that mankind is equally, or even more, readily obtainable, and become “man-eaters.» Beasts so sophisticated must be put out of the way; and barbarians organize great bands of men who learn the lair of the animal, surround it and effect the ani- mal’s death by any rude means possible. “Man- eaters” are generally old, but occasionally they are in the prime of life and vigor. During the building of the Uganda Railway two lions thus attained celebrity through their depredations among the construction gangs, until shot by the engineer in charge, and were known as the “man-eaters” of Tsavo. Some savage hunters boldly and skilfully overcome the lion almost in single combat, with rude weapons; but, with perhaps the exception of the tiger, he is the most dangerous of quarries. A charging lion will take half a dozen shots froma heavy gun, each of which ultimately prove fatal, and yet have strength left to maul an assailant. There are four methods of stalking: tracking on foot; hunting on horseback and dismounting to shoot; hunting with dogs, and shooting from shelters by water holes or over hills. The incessant persecution to which the lion is subjected when- ever a region begins to become civilized has exterminated it over a large part of the former domain of the species. When men began to hunt in Europe in the Stone Age they found there lions whose remains, entombed in the floors of caves, are called those of “cave lions” (F. speleus), but which present no important differences from the modern species, Within the time of written history lions dwelt in the mountains of southwestern Europe; and many of those seen in Rome in the time of the earlier Cezsars were obtained from the Danube Valley and Asia Minor. The supply was soon ex- hausted, however, and the later demand was met by importations from the Caucasus and southward, but mainly from northern Africa. In the arenas of ancient Rome large numbers of lions were. frequently exhibited.. Sulla, the dictator, once exhibited 100 of these animals, and Pompey presented 600 in the circus; Ha- drian caused 100 to be destroyed at one exhibi- tion, and others of the emperors and consuls were equally prodigal. In order to provide LION IN ART—LION OF FLANDERS these great quantities laws were promulgated protecting the beasts in the Carthaginian prov- inces, to the great detriment of agriculture there and risk of the peasantry, and breeding establishments were created to produce enough lions to meet the imperial demand. The taming and training of lions have continued ever since, and to-day this great shaggy cat is the most impressive, if not the most intelligent, of the troupe which the menagerie showman gathers about him. For a long period almost all the lions exhibited in zoological gardens and shows have been those born in captivity, where the species breeds freely. At the present day few lions exist north of the Soudan and Abyssinia; a few are left in the recesses of the Atlas Mountains; British and Portuguese East Africa and Rhodesia are the chief: hunting grounds left; and they have become extinct or scarce in the civilized regions of South Africa. In 1850 the last lion in the vicinity of Cape Town was shot. They no longer exist in Asia Minor, but are numerous in | the extensive marshes: along the lower Euphrates and Tigris, and thence occur at in- tervals to the valleys of the Indus, where a few still remain in the wilder deserts of Cutch and Gujerat. Formerly they were known, over all-northern and western India. Books of special value relating to lions and lion hunting are Flower and Lydekker’s ‘Mam- mals, Living and Extinct? ; Blanford’s ‘Zoolo- gies? (of India, Persia and Abyssinia) ; Ander- son’s ‘The Lion and the Elephant’; Porter’s (Wild Beasts? ; the hunting narratives of Gor- don Cumming, Gerard, Harris, Holub, Baker and Selous; Lyddeker, “Game. Animals. of Africa? (London 1908); Patterson, ‘The Man- Eaters of Tsavo? (ib. 1908); Pease, Sir A., “Book of the Lion? (ib. 1914) ; Roosevelt. and Heller, ‘Life History of African Game Ani- mals? (New York 1914). LION IN ART. With the ancient Egyp- tians the lion was dedicated to the god Shu and the goddess Sechmet, both of which were, therefore, represented with the heads of lions. Again, the kingly dignity was represented by a lion’s body, its head being. given .the features of the ruler. As the Nile inundations occurred when the sun was in the zodiacal constellation Leo, the lion was symbol of water; hence that animal is found in the decorations of pitchers, pails and other. water. containers. Cybele (Rhea) with the Assyrians and Greeks was depicted riding on or standing by a lion because that animal was dedicated to her. The lion was also symbol. of the all-penetrating, vitalizing and. mastering power of fire. .The Assyrians and Greeks, in their architecture, made the lion guardian over the palace. To the Greeks and Romans this animal became guardian over springs, doorways, stairways, etc. Dedicated to springs (as Krenophylaxr) the flowing’ water gushed out of a lion’s mouth; again, in Doric architecture we find an open-mouthed lion’s head decorating the outlets that released the rainwater’ from the roof. The lion was the Mithraic symbol of the sun. In Christian art the lion is symbol of ‘Christ as the “Lion of Judah,» and’ sometimes bears the cruciform nimbus. This animal is the attribute of Saint Jerome and of Saint Mark the Evangelist as well as of the Prophet Daniel. The lion’ and 469 serpents are ecclesiastical. symbols of “the World and the Devil” (seeking whom he may devour). In the decorative arts the lion, typical of strength, was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans as a form for supports (legs, etc.), for chairs, benches and tables. The lion’s head, with a ring in its mouth, was a favored motif of the Middle Ages and Rénaissance as a hitching grip and as doorknocker, and the head alone was used as a knob or rosette decoration. The lion’s claw as a motif for the feet of fur- niture also comes down to us from ancient times. The lion, being considered as the “king of beasts,” has been made symbol of heroism, hence the title of England’s King Richard I as Ceur de Lion (“lion hearted), etc. In. this human significance the artist gives the lion an oval eye instead of the naturalistic round cat’s eye. The heraldic lion couchant represents sov- ereignty; rampant, magnanimity; passant, reso- lution; guardant, prudence; salient, counsel, and reguardant, circumspection. The sleeping lion has long been the artist’s symbol of the fallen hero. The lion statue of Venice, world: re- nowned, in the Piazza San Marco, refers, of course, to that saint. Florence has its heraldic representation in a lion, generally called Mar- ZOCCO, CLEMENT W. CouMBE. LION OF FLANDERS, The. ‘The Lion of Flanders» by Henri Conscience (1812-83), written in the early years of his career (1838), represents on the artistic side the maximum of his achievement. His father was one of that amazing train of French adventurers who seem to have been called forth to follow the fortunes of Napoleon. The sympathy between the dis- appointed and erratic father, a foiled, soured and misanthropical man of action, and the patient, earnest and artistically endowed son could never have been close. The future author had been born at Antwerp in the years that marked the decline of Napoleon’s power, and his mother was Flemish. His: temperament bound him much more to her and to his native land of Flanders which in spite of a glorious past had no status as a nation. The speech of the Flemings was looked upon, even by the Flemings themselves, not as a language, but as a dialect, unsuited to any serious literary effort. With this’ estimate, Conscience, fond of his mother tongue, could not agree, and he de- cided to work toward the recognition of Flem- ish as a language and toward the creation of a Flemish literature. In a long life of patient, conscientious effort, he fully achieved his pur- pose and is properly regarded as the founder of the Flemish literary movement. ~ It was natural that with this aim he should have turned for some of ‘his material to the earlier history of his country, the days of the glory of Bruges and Ghent, of the struggles of the guilds and of the old Flemish knights. This provides the background for the moving story of the Lion of Flanders (Robert of Bethune), who made common cause with the Flemish burghers against the French tyranny of Phillip the Fair. It is full of the pageantry of a rich epoch, and moves. rapidly with a large, full sweep and swing. The more important male characters are powerfully drawn, though the heroine is weak and uncon- vincing. ‘Though the ‘Lion of Flanders? is substantially accurate, as a picture of the time, 470 it should nevertheless be remembered that the events’ are marshaled and colored by the au- thor’s patriotic fervor and not drawn with the dispassionate analysis of the modern historian. .As an historical novel, however, it stands with “the best of its class and deserves the celebrity which has brought about its translation. into nearly all. European languages. CHRISTIAN GAUSS. LIPARI, 1é’pa-ré, or ZOLIAN IS- LANDS, a group of volcanic islands in the Mediterranean, about 24 miles from the north coast of Sicily, situated between lat. 38° ms and 38° 55’ N.; long. 14° 15’ and 152415" EB and cortnticed| in the province of Messina. Total area, about 45 square miles. Pop. about 20,000. These islands called by the ancients FEoliz, Vulcaniz and Insule Lipareorum, were supposed to be the residence of olus and Vulcan. Lipari, the largest, is populous and well cultivated, producing great quantities of corn and fruit, especially figs, grapes and raisins; it likewise produces alum, sulphur, nitre and cinnabar. It is about 15 miles in circumference; the air is healthful, the inhabit- ants industrious and the males good sailors. On the eastern coast is situated a town of the same name (pop. of commune 15,616), con- taining a castle built by Charles V,.a cathedral, a college, several convents and a hospital. A considerable trade is carried on in the. prin- cipal produce of the island. The other islands are Stromboli, the scene of volcanic eruptions in 1902 and 1907: Panaria, Vulcano, Salina, Alicuri and Filicuri, with a number of smaller ones. The peaks in ‘the islands range from 1,000 to 3,140 feet, the highest, in Salina. Lipari is composed of pumice-stone, lava, volcanic glass and black sand; and the warm ‘baths and heated vapors of. the ‘stoves (excavations which emit hot sulphurous exhalations) prove the activity of the subterranean fires. LIPPI, Filippino, f£é-lé-pé’n6, Italian painter, son. of the preceding by. Lucrezia Buti: b. Prato, 1459; d. Florence, 5 April 1504. He was a pupil of. Fra Diamante, but seems to have closely followed. the artistic example of his father and Sandro Botticelli... He gained con- siderable reputation before he was out of his teens. Among his wall paintings, which show a wonderful advance beyond his predecessors, are those in the chapel of the Brancacci family at Florence, in which is portrayed the. history of Saints Peter and Paul, and the decoration of the walls of the church of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva, at Rome (1488-93) illustrating the life of Saint Thomas Aquinas.. His mas- terpieces, however, are to be found at Florence — in the Strozzi chapel of Santa Maria Novella, where his frescoes. portray the legendary life of the Apostles Philip and John (1502); and in the Badia, which has his ‘Vision of Saint Bernard,” regarded as the most perfect ex- pression of his genius. Some of his canvases are in the galleries of Florence, Bologna, Ber- lin, Munich, Copenhagen; and the National Gallery, London, which has. the “Virgin and Child, with Saint Jerome and Saint Dominic. Mrs. P. Warren, Boston, Mass., has a repre- sentation of the ‘Holy Family with Saint Mar- garet.> LIPPI, Fra. Filippo del Carmine, fra fé-lép’p6 dél kar-mé'na lép’pé, Italian painter: LIPARI — LIPPINCOTT b. Florence, 1406; d. Spoleto, 9 Oct... 1469... In his 15th year he entered the Carmelite monas- tery at Florence and became a professed monk in 1421, to which calling he had. no. vocation. Early formed his style on the example. of Masaccio, but was later influenced ‘by ieregste os and Angelico of Fiesole (Fra Giovanni). 1431 he left his convent, but without Dae from his vows. In 1434 he was commissioned to paint the ‘Coronation of Out Lady? for the high altar of Saint Ambrogio. In 1442 he was Spence by the Pope, rector of the parish of San Quirico, at Legnaia, near Florence, In 1452 he began his work at Prato, and three years after, being convicted of fraud, was de- prived of his benefice. He was appointed in 1456 chaplain to the nuns of Santa Margherita at Prato; was commissioned by them to paint a panel for the high altar of their: church, and falling in love with Lucrezia Buti, who served as model for his Madonna, he abdticted her (1 May) and carried her off to his: house. She bore him two children, Filippino» Lippi (q.v.) and a daughter, Alessandro. In 1461 he was released from:his yows. and granted a dispensation to marry her, but the marriage did not take place. In his best work he united with the: spiritaal feeling of Fra Angelico of Fiesole the strong. historic imagination, energetic modeling and ~ unconventional loveliness of form and face, characteristic of Masaccio. His greatest. mas- terpiece is in the parish church at Prato, and consists of a series of frescoes illustrating ‘the life of Saint Stephen, John the Baptist, etc. Many of his altar-pieces are now in the Floren- tine Academy. His last frescoes in the cathe- dral at Spoleto were executed with the collab- oration of Fra Diamante. Examples of’ this painter are also to be found in ‘the galleries of Berlin, Munich, Rome and the National Gallery, London. His ‘Saint Lawrence, with Saint Cosmas and Damian and: Two Donors? are in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. Consult Strutt, Edward C., ‘Fra Filippo Lippi? (London 1901) ; and Vasari’s ‘Lives. of the Painters. LIPPI, Lorenzo, toch dite ZO, ‘Tedffeln pout and painter : b. Florence, 1606; d. there, 1664. He wrote a comic epic poem in 12 cantos, “Tl Mal- mantile vacquisdato? under the anagrammatic pseudonym, “Perloni Zipol (publ. 1676). The poem abounds in rare humor and is writ- ten in light, swift verse. The language, how- ever, abounds in Florentine provincialities, and is unintelligible without such a commentary as is furnished to the edition of 1688 by P. Mu- nucci. As a painter he was an imitator’ of Santi di Tito’s manner and was reputed | the best draftsman of his time. There is a ‘Cruci- fixion? of his in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence; and ‘The Triumph of David®; and ‘Christ and the Woman of Samaria? are in the _Imperial Gallerv at Vienna. LIPPINCOTT, Havin! Horace Mather, American. author on. historical subjects: | Philadelphia, 20 April 1877. He was educated at. Germantown Academy and, the University of Pennsylvania. He is;a member of the. So- ciety of Friends, a Quaker organization, and is the author of) ‘The’ Mather Family- of,.Chel- tenham, Pennsylvania? (1910); ‘The, Colonial LIPPINCOTT, — LIQUEFIED AND GOMPRESSED GASES Homes of Philadelphia and Its Neighborhood? (1912); ‘A Portraiture of the People called Quakers? (1915); ‘Early Philadelphia? , (1917). He is also editor of The Alumm Register, the graduate monthly magazine of the University of Pennsylvania. LIPPINCOTT, Joshua Ballinger, Amer- ican publisher: b. Juliustown, N. J., 1816; d. Philadelphia, 5 Jan. 1886. He was a_ book- seller in Philadelphia 1831-36 and in the last named year founded the house of J. B. Lippin- cott: and Company. In 1850 he bought the business of Grigg and Elliott, and his firm then assumed the leading position*in the publishing business in Philadelphia. After) his death, in 1886, the firm was converted into the J. B. Lippincott’ Company... Lippincott’s:: Magazine was established in 1868. Upon the death of J. B. Lippincott, his son CrarcE (1846-1911) became head of the firm, The latter was born in Philadelphia, educated at) the University of Pennsylvania and in Europe, and entered the publishing business in 1866. On his death in 1911 he was succeeded by his brother, JosHua BERTRAM, b. Huntington Valley, Pa., 1857. LIPPINCOTT, William Henry, Amer- ican artist: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 6 Dec. 1849. He began his art studies in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and ‘his first profes- sional appearance was as a book illustrator and later as a scene painter: In 1874 he became the pupil of Bonnat and for the eight years he remained at Paris exhibited annually in the Salon. The wide range of the work which he has done since he took up his residence in New York includes portrait, genre, landscape and scene painting, and he appears regularly as an exhibitor in the annual American art exhibitions. His most important pictures in- clude ‘The Duck’s Breakfast?; ‘Un Jour de Congé?; ‘Pink of Old Fashion; ‘Helena? ; “Infantry in Arms?; ‘Love’s Ambush’; and ‘Pleasant Reflections? ; “The Crucial Moment? ; ‘Dail UHH SS “Shore Duty); ‘Love Finds the Noe ‘Rock Bound Maine Coast, etc. LIPTON, Sir. Thomas Johnstone, Irish merchant. and yachtsman: b. Glasgow, Scotland, 1850. He came, to America as a, steerage pas- senger in 1865, for two years worked inthe South Carolina rice fields, later, in various Northern towns, opened.a provision shop in Glasgow, attained great. business. success and finally organized. “Lipton, Limited,” the largest commercial establishment in the United. King- dom, where it controls 420 shops. ', This busi- ness is capitalized. at $200,000,000, with. tea, coffee and cocoa estates in India and Ceylon, fruit-orchards. in Kent and. elsewhere, and-a packing-house and refrigerator-car line, in. Chi- cago. Lipton has given largely for charitable purposes. He is. best known, however, for. his attempts as a representative of the Royal. UI- ster Yacht Club to’ win the America Cup-in the international yacht-races. of 1899, 1901, 1903 and 1920. His British-built’: yachts were de- feated in three straight races. In the fourth his yacht won two out of five races. He .,was knighted in 1898 and made a baronet in 1902. During the European War he used his steam yacht to carry relief to the stricken inhabitants of Serbia. LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES. See lighting purposes. _gas which. was known to exist in the sun. but 471 LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES. Introductory Statement.— Matter, that,is.all physical substance, commonly, jis understood to exist in three forms, solid, liquid and gaseous. Under ordinary conditions this is a true concept but it is not generally appreciated _that in reality: matter may be changed from one form to another, that a solid under one, con- dition of temperature and pressure. becomes a liquid at another, and a gas at a third: _Con- versely a gas by similar changes in temperature and pressure may be converted into. a liquid or.a solid. .The earth typifies all matter, its crust being, composed of solids, its, oceans, lakes, rivers and, in part its. molten interior liquids, and its atmosphere and the vapors pent up within its interior, gases. _The genius. of mankind. in the Past has been, directed to utilizing for man’s, comfort and convenience mainly solids and. liquids: Only in compara- tively recent times, however, has attention, been seriously directed to the utilization of. gases and to applying commercially, the principle that solids. and liquids may be reduced,.to gaseous forms, and so reduced find many fields of .em- ployment in the. arts and sciences.,, It was.as late as 1827 that the. first commercial employ- ment of gas was made in this country. in which year illuminating gas was introduced in New York City... The next commercial: use ~was..in 1870 when carbonic acid gas was developed: i in- dustrially... It is employed largely in carbonated beverages, fire extinguishers. insecticides .and many other products. In 1863 nitrous oxide was applied in dental operations for the. purpose of permitting work without pain. In 1875 oxygen was developed for. medical purposes in diseases of the lungs. About; the same time oxygen was employed in connection with calcium light for spotlights and .scenic effects. In 1895 acetylene was introduced commer- cially to illuminate country homes and in: bicycle headlights.. About..the same time, anhydrous ammonia began. to be, used. for. refrigerating purposes. In 1907, the manuracture of: oxygen on a commercial, scale for industrial purposes was commenced in this country. by the liquid air process; and.in connection with the industrial application. of this gas, acetylene ‘was used in welding and cutting steel with the exynacetylene blowpipe or torch. Since 1907 many new gases, the existence of which in quantities. in the’ earth or in sub- stances. known on the earth was. unsuspected, have been discovered and put to. commercial use. For 'example, it was supposed until recent years, that the air which, we breath was com- posed of four parts of nitrogen and one part of oxygen. .It is now known that in addition to. these. two’ gases which make. up the major portion of our atmosphere, there are eight other gases contained in minute quantities.in it, among them, argon,,neon and. krypton. Of. these gases, argon and neon have been, found to have a commercial value, the former in the manu- facture of incandescent lamps and the latter ‘for In. like ‘manner, helium, .a which was supposed to be a rare element on the earth, is now known to exist in. many sub- stances and since the declaration by the United 472 . States of a state of war with Germany, methods have been found for extracting this gas in large quantities from various substances at com- paratively small cost. This gas is now being employed ‘extensively for military ballooning, because it is not inflammable. Within the last decade the discovery of new gases and the development of new uses for the known gases has brought into being a new industry which in the same period has grown with rapid strides until it has become an in- dustry vital to the commercial life of the coun- try and one which played an important part in the World War. As an example of this un- precedented development, a single branch of that industry, namely, the oxygen business, may be taken. In 1907 there existed in this country a single plant which had been built in that year and which produced annually 24,000,000 cubic feet of oxygen. At the date of this article, some 12 years later, the yearly production of oxygen is estimated at over a billion cubic feet and the oxygen plants scattered throughout the entire expanse of the United States number over 200. The commercial utilization of the other liquefied or compressed gases has’ par- alleled that of oxygen and to-day the United States is dotted with plants manufacturing com- mercial gases representing an investment of well over $100,000,000 and an annual production of billions of cubic feet of gas. Despite all this the present stage of development represents the merest scratch of the surface of an immense field yet untouched which lies beneath for exploitation. As the industry has grown and the use of various gases has developed, the transportation of these gases has become an important factor. When gases first were employed commercially they were transported in large metal containers under relatively small pressure. As the demand for gas increased, however, it was found that the old type of container did not permit of transportation tn sufficient quantities because of the limitations placed upon the size of con- tainers by the necessity of convenient handling. To overcome these difficulties the containers were made stronger and smaller and the quan- tity of gas in an individual container, or cylinder as it is termed in trade circles, was increased by subjecting the gas to a great increase of pressure. In this connection one must under- stand that as the pressure on the gas increases its volume decreases in certain proportions which vary with different gases. By increasing the pressure on the gas to.a certain point and at the same time reducing the temperature the gas may be changed to liquid form and many gases are shipped in the form of liquids but on being released from the presure in the con- tainer they again assume the gaseous form desirable for utilization. It is because of this fact that these gases are termed commercially liquefied or compressed gases as distinguished from other gases like illuminating gas which are employed generally at approximately at- mospheric pressure. With the change in the character of con- tainers there grew up the hazard from breakage ‘ofa container and the sudden expansion of the compressed gas by its release from pressure. In consequence the Federal and State authori- ties found it necessary for the safety of the public to devise rules and regulations governing LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES the character of containers which would be permitted for certain gases and rules for their handling while in transit. This necessity has resulted in legislation governing the transporta- tion, storage and employment of gases under pressure. The chief agency having charge of these matters and the one which has shaped in large measure the legislation in this field is the Bureau of Explosives. With the development of the industry there came also the need for co-ordination between manufacturers of compressed and liquefied gases and of equipment used in connection there- with. In consequence there have been organized several trade organizations having for their object the promotion of uniform and proper legislation governing compressed and liquefied gases, as well-as the commercial application of the gases generally. In most: works of reference the treatises on gases have «been separate, arranged alphabetically in differ- ent parts of the work. However, it has been deemed advisable in this article to deal under one title with all gases which in a compressed or liquefied state have a commercial use ‘be- cause this industry represents to-day a: separate and distinct field, and because there is much about the employment, transportation and use of every compressed gas which is common to all. The foregoing short history of the commercial use of gases is followed immediately by separate treatises, alphabetically arranged, which deal at length with all the more important liquefied or compressed gases. ACETYLENE.* Chemical Properties. C:H.— carbon 92.25 per cent, hydrogen 7.75 by weight. At atmospheric pressure and 60° F., the volume of one pound of acetylene is 14. 53 cubic feet. Acetylene requires 11.92 volumes of air or 2.5 volumes of oxygen for its com- plete combustion. Acetylene is a_ colorless, tasteless gas; when chemically pure it has a sweet ethereal odor; when in commercial form traces of impurities impart to it a pungent odor suggesting garlic. Acetylene is an unsaturated hydro-carbon. It exists in a state of unstable chemical equilibrium and owing to this fact it combines very energetically, having low igni- tion temperatures, namely, 804° F. in air and 782° F. in oxygen, compared: with about 1200° for other gases under similar conditions. When mixed with the proper proportions of air and ignited, acetylene will give rise to a so-called. gas explosion, as will any other combustible gas or combustible solid if in a state of sufficiently minute subdivision. The explosive range for acetylene under ordinary conditions is from 3 per cent of acetylene and 97 per cent of air to 24 per cent of acetylene and 76 per cent of air, the point of maximum explosibility being 12 per cent of acetylene and 88 per cent of air. Unlike other gases, how- ever, acetylene possesses high endothermic energy, greater than that of any other ordinary substance. By this it is meant that the ele- ments forming actylene may be considered as being 1 in a state of chemical stress and capable of giving rise to a very considerable amount of heat by the mere act of their separation. In other words, an endothermic substance will give * All temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit; all pressures in pounds avoirdupois. LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES more heat when burned as a compound than can be obtained from burning its separate ele- ments in the uncombined state. The carbon and hydrogen forming one cubic foot of acety- lene would produce 1,248 heat units if they were burned separately. One cubic foot of acetylene, however, formed from the same car- bon and hydrogen. will produce 227 heat units more than this amount, making a total of 1,475 per cubic foot. The 227 heat. units represent endothermic energy. Owing to this endother- mic energy, acetylene acquires true explosible properties and will dissociate with explosive violence without admixture of air or oxygen if it is compressed slightly in excess of 20 pounds per square inch and ignited. Owing to this property, insurance, police, transportation and fire authorities prohibit the manufacture, stor- age and transportation of acetylene at a pres- sure exceeding 15 pounds per square inch, ex- cept when the acetylene is compressed into cylinders containing a porous substance having a degree of porosity which will prevent the propagation of an explosion, Acetylene, at atmospheric pressure, is solu- ble to the extent of about volume for vol- ume in water. It is also soluble in vary- ing proportions in alcohol, chloroform, benzene, paraffin, olive oil, ether, carbon- bisulphide, etc. It is soluble to a remarkable extent in acetone, which liquid will dissolve 25 times its own volume of acetylene at atmos- pheric pressure and an additional 25 volumes for each atmosphere of pressure to which the acetylene may be subjected. Commercial ad- vantage is taken of this property and acetylene under pressure is now stored and transported in cylinders which are packed with a porous substance. soaked with acetone. The porous mass employed in such cylinders generally con- sists of asbestos in the form of blocks built up and reinforced with silicate of soda, or of a mixture of, charcoal, kieselguhr and cement, molded into the cylinders. Cylinders contain- ing acetylene compressed into a porous sub- stance: of a proper degree of porosity, or com- pressed into a porous substance soaked with acetone, or other suitable solvent, are safe and their use is permitted. Acetylene stored in this way is commonly known as. dissolved acety- lene. The use of acetylene dissolved in ace- tone. gives to this gas a portability and a uni- versality not: possessed by any other lighting or heating. agent. Cylinders of acetylene are now carried on motor cycles, trucks and small boats, and they are obtainable at country stores as well as in the cities. This has resulted in the education of thousands of people in the use of gas who used to depend upon the liquid fuels for their light and heat. Acetylene has no toxic properties and may be taken into either the lungs or stomach with impunity, even when mixed in air in consider- able proportions. Acetylene is a true gas, that iS, it consists of only one chemical compound and is not a mixture of a-number of gases each with. its own peculiar characteristics, as is the case with most other illuminating and _ fuel gases. Under pressure, acetylene obeys Boyle’s Law for the compression of gases and its Pres- sure-Volume Curve. is practically straight up to the liquefaction point, which at ordinary temperatures is 700 pounds per square inch. Owing, however, to the dangers in unabsorbed 473 compressed acetylene this gas is never sub- jected to pressures anywhere approaching. its liquefaction point. Acetylene may be mixed with most ordinary gases with impunity, but if mixed with chlorine and subjected to sunlight, it will combine with considerable violence. Acetylene may be used as an enricher of other gases to increase their candle powers and calo- rific values. It is employed for this purpose in European countries in the Pintsch gas used for train lighting. When added to an illuminat- ing gas, acetylene will tmcrease the heating value in direct proportion to its presence in the mixture and the illuminating value by about two candle power for each per cent of acetylene added. It cannot compete however in point of price with oil and other enrichers and for this reason is not ordinarily used for this purpose. As stated above, acetylene obeys Boyle’s Law for the behavior of true gases under vari- ations of volume and pressure. It also obeys Charles’ Law, governing the relation of tem- perature to velume. However, if acetylene is subjected to a temperature in excess of 538° F., changes of great chemical complexity take place in its structure. For this reason, care must be taken not to overheat this gas in its generation or in the appliances in which it is used. Under the influence of heat acetylene will break up or rather double up — polymerize — into a vast number of hydro-carbons, rang- ing from benzene (CcHe) to heavy black tars according to the degree of temperature. If once heated to the point where polymerization occurs, no amount of subsequent cooling or purification will restore the acetylene. Acetylene has a density of 0.92, air being 1. Its atomic weight is 26. Its critical tem- perature is 99° F., which means that the curve of power for compression reaches a straight line at this temperature and hence no amount of pressure will serve to liquefy, if in excess of this temperature. The critical pressure of acet- ylene is 995 pounds per square inch. Domestic and Commercial Uses.— Acety- lene is used for isolated lighting plants throughout the country; homesteads, farms, churches, lodges and similar. institutions are illuminated with acetylene from generators de- vised for the purpose. Owing to its relatively higher cost, acetylene does not compete in its present stage of development with electric or illuminating gas for city lighting. It 1s used quite extensively for cooking: purposes in con- nection with isolated lighting plants. Dissolved acetylene is used for buoy lighting and for other aids to navigation. Buoys carrying suf- ficient. gas to supply their lights continuously for 15 months are in use practically all over the world. These are veritable self-attending light ships. .A large number of them are pro- vided with “sun valves” which are actuated by the direct heat of sunlight, turning off the acetylene when the sun shines and turning it on again when darkness, fog or clouds intervene. There are some 360 acetylene buoys marking the channel of the Panama Canal. Owing to its low ignition temperature, acetylene cannot be compressed in an engine cylinder to a suffi- ciently high point to render the engine. effi- cient; hence acetylene has never developed. into a power proposition. Acetylene is used in small portable lamps for mining purposes, the present acetylene min- 474 er’s lamp being practically the first improve- ment in mine illumination for 200 years. Prac- tically all the metal mines in the United States and its dependencies, as well as the coal mines which are not gaseous, are now lighted with acetylene. The acetylene cap lamp has about 18 candle power, head on, as compared with three-fourths candle power given by the old form of oil lamp, and its light can be’ directed to any spot desired by means of the ‘reflector which is an integral part of the lamp. Acety- lene is used to a very large and increasing ex+ tent for welding and cutting purposes, because of certain physical peculiarities now to be dis- cussed. The ‘theoretical temperature of» any flame may be ‘calculated from the amount of heat generated by the combustion of the fuel and the’ amount of heat’ absorbed by the prod- ucts of the combination. Water vapor ‘will absorb four times more heat for a given in- crease in temperature than carbon dioxide and those fuels which burn to carbon. dioxide have a higher flame temperature than those which burn to water vapor. The flame temperature of any hydro-carbon varies in proportion to the relative amounts of carbon and hydrogen. of which it is composed. Acetylene has:more car- tbon‘and less hydrogen than any other known substance, with the exception of the solid naph- thalene’ which is devoid of the endothermic energy. mentioned. This being the case, its products of combustion have a maximum of carbon dioxide and a minimum of water vapor. Added to this is the fact that acetylene pos- sesses a very high endothermic heat content which gives off heat without producing any additional products of combustion. \ When the volume of the combustion products is: reduced by the removal of the nitrogen from the air and when pure oxygen is used, the combustion of: acetylene results in a higher flame temperature than that of any other substance known or rec- ognized as possible in chemistry. ‘The combus- tion of acetylene with oxygen produces the acme of. flame ‘temperature —7878° F. being the theoretical maximum. Owing to radiation and convection losses, the actual available Ao temperature is in the neighborhood of 6300° F This gives to a blow pipe consuming acetylene and ‘oxygen the power to produce, in portable form and small compass, a temperature ap- proaching nearly that of the electric arc. This has resulted in the wide employment of acety- lene’ in conjunction with oxygen for the weld- ing and cutting of metals. The oxygen cutting blow ‘pipe, in which acetylene is commonly em- ployed as the fuel gas, is used extensively for cutting steel bars, plates and ingots to shapes and lengths, and in wrecking work. The oxy- acetylene cutting torch was employed in cutting up the Maine in Havana’ Harbor, and for cut- ting out the Quebec Bridge. The cutting process has proven invaluable in fire fighting and in marine, mine and railroad rescue work, notable examples being the Equitable Building fire’ in’ New York and the Eastland disaster in Chicago. The process is’ used extensively in scrap yards and for all classes of demolition work. «= It! is successfully employed for cutting steamships into sections wheré nécessarfy, ‘as’ in the case where a ship has to be transported through a lock which is too small to handle it. The oxygen-acetylene cutter has revolutionized wrecking and’ scrap yard practicé’ in’ the past LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES few years and the acetylene welding torch has produced great changes in the methods of metal construction during the same time. If a cut- ting blow pipe is provided with a sheath of compressed air to force water away from its nozzle, cutting can'be performed under water. It is said that the Germans used the process of cutting under water for freeing their subma- rines from submarine nets. The under-water cutting blow pipe’ is commonly employed for cutting metal sheet piling under water. Acet- ylene is used to a limited extent as a basis in the formation of chemical substances. This use, although it possesses considerable promise, is in the laboratory rather than in the commer- cial stage at this writing. History.—As a theoretical possibility and laboratory curiosity acetylene has been known for many years. It exists’in illuminating gas in fractional percentage and was produced as eatly as 1876 by scrubbing coal gas with a copper solution. It was prepared on a labora- tory scale by Berthelot and Wohler many years ago. Its birth, however, as a commercial pos- sibilty occurred 4 May 1802, when calcium car- bide was produced in an electric furnace located at Spray, N.C, by the Willson Alum- inum Company. This company’ was experi- menting with a view to improving its process for the production of aluminum and was en- deavoring to produce metallic calcium to be used as a reducing agent for aluminum oxide. To this end a mixture of calcium oxide (quick lime) and coal tar ‘was fused in an electric furnace in ‘the hope that the carbon: would act as a reducting agent, removing the oxygen from the lime, and leaving the calcium free, the metallic calcium to be used in a subsequent step in the process of producing metallic aluminum. The reaction removed the oxygen, from the lime, as was expected, but left the calcium in combination with a portion of the carbon in- stead of in a free state, and this combination was found to be calcium carbide. The devel- opment of the production of calcium carbide has progressed steadily from that date until the present time, most of the development being under the supervision of two of the men who were operating the original furnace and who are still prominently identified with the indus- try. There have been revolutionary changes in the process of manufacturing carbide, espe- cially in the size and extent of the operation. The main underlying process, however, of sub- jecting lime and carbon to the intense heat, ob- tainable only in the crater ofan electric arc, has not changed from 1892 to date. Carbide was introduced into Europe shortly after its discovery. European production has developed to a very large extent. The present advance- ment in the process is, however, practically all due to American efforts; the foreign manufac- turers have followed American practice with- out substantial contribution to its progress. The. temperature necessary to form calcium carbide is so intense that the process does not lend itself to laboratory methods’ and as far as is known it has never been produced ' on a small scale. Bibliography.— Bowles, Fie, for Lighting Country Homes,’ University of Missouri, 1910); Claude, G., ‘Liquid Air, Oxygen; Nitrogen? (trans. by Cottrell, H. 'E, P., Philadelphia 1913); Leeds, ‘Acetylene (Bul. of the LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES F.'H. and Butterfield, W. A., “Acetylene, Its Generation and Use (Philadelphia 1915) ; Lewes, V. B., ‘Acetylene, a Handbook for the Student and Manufacturer? (London 1900) ; Pond, G. G., ‘Calcium Carbide and Acetylene (Bul. of the Pennsylvania State College, 1917). AMMONIA, Anhydrous (NH:).— Priest- ley, in 1774, was. the first to isolate ammonia, having collected it over mercury. Scheele, in the same year, discovered that it contained ni- trogen. Its,true composition was determined by Berthollet in 1785. Liquid ammonia, however, was first. obtained by Faraday, in 1823, by wane the compound 2AgC13N Ha in a sealed tube Physical Properties.— Colorless, . with . pungent. .odor, alkaline taste, and has. alkali reactions. Molecular weight, 17.03. Specific, gravity, calculated, 0.5883; spe- cific gravity, observed, 0.5962; ‘specific gravity of liquid, 0.6234. elting point, —77.34° C. Boiling point, —38,5°. C. _» Critical..temperature, —130° C.. (Dewar) ; critical pressure, 115 atmospheres (Dewar). . Coefficient of expansion at constant pres- sure, 0—100° C.; 760 mm., .003800; at 0° C.,,760 mm., .003860; coefficient of pressure at constant volume, 0° G, 760 mm., .003800; at 0—100° C., 760 mm., 003770. Specific heat, 0.5009 at O° C.; 0.5317 at 100° C.; 0.5629 at 200° C.; 0.5202 between 23- ] °o Hest of formation of gas, 11,887 calories; in solution, 20,322 calories. Heat of formation of gas, at 15° C., 12,200, and of liquid 16,600 (Chem. Kalendar). Heat of absorption in water, 8,435 calories. Weight of ‘one liter, balenlated, 0.7606 grams; observed, 0.7708 grams; weight of one cubic foot at 32°"F., 29. 92” pressure, .04812 Ibs. Solubility in water (Roscoe and Ditt- mar). Grams of ammonia in one gram of Waera ALD 45, 08/5 106 .G,. 0.0/9; 20", C., 0.526; 30° C., 0.403 ; 40° Cy 0,307 ; 50° Cy 0.229. Latent. heat of evaporation, being ‘higher than. that of any other known liquid except water, is 5,000 cal. at 15° C. and 5,600 cal. at boiling point. Hence the use of ammonia for refrigeration. Chemical Properties.— Ammonia is poison- ous and attacks the mucous membrane. Seri- ous effects on human beings are experienced when the atmosphere in which they are has a greater ay of ammonia than five one- hundredths of 1 per cent. Ammonia will not burn in air. at. ordinary temperature, but will do so when heated, and burns still more readily when ‘mixed with oxygen. With the aid of catalysts. (copper, iron, nickel,’ and especially platinum), ammonia is oxidized by oxygen or air at low temperatures. At atmospheric pres- sure ammonia begins to decompose below 500° C., the rapidity of decomposition varying with the nature of the surfaces with which it is in contact, glass being inactive but porcelain and many metals and oxides accelerating, decompo- sition being nearly complete when the latter are present. Ammonia is very soluble in water, strongly 475 alcohol, ether and many saline solutions. The aqueous solution of ammonia is strongly alka- line and unites with acids to form salts. How Obtained. Ammonia occurs mostly in combination with acids, but is found in a free state in fumaroles of Monti Carboli in Tuscany, which also contain ammonium. sul- phate and borate. It is present in the air to the extent of one hundred parts of ammonia to one million parts of air. For laboratory pur- poses it can be obtained by the action of cal- cium oxide on ammonium chloride. A mixture of hydrogen and any oxide of nitrogen, passed over a heated porous body, such as spongy platinum, pumice, or ferric, oxide, produces ammonia. It may also be produced by passing moist nitric oxide over hot iron. filings; and also by heating. solutions of. nitrates or, ni- trites with caustic alkali and zinc. Laboratory Methods of Preparation.—(1) By gently warming the aqueous. solution of ammonia and passing the gas over quicklime. (2) From lime and an ammonia, salt (eg., chloride or sulphate) by heating together in a retort. Ammonia is a decomposition product of the decay or destructive distillation of nitrogenous organic matter. Commercial Methods of Preparation.— I. Destructive, DISTILLATION, Processes... 1. By-product. in Manufacture. of Illuminating Gas.— When coal is destructively distilled as in the production of coal gas for illuminating pur- poses, a number of extremely valuable by-prod- ucts are obtained such as benzol, toluol, am- monia, phenol, tar, coke, etc. Until some years ago the greatest part of the ammonia produ tion ot the world was obtained from the ammo- niacal liquors of. gas works. These liquors are distilled with excess of slaked lime with the aid of steam (in. coils) in stills provided with rectifying columns for concentrating the am- monia gas. The latter is scrubbed by passing successively through towers containing caustic scda solution and paraffin oil, and is thus freed from impurities, such as HS, CO:z and pyri- dine basis. The purified ammonia gas is then converted to ammonium sulphate, or to aqua ammonia by absorption in distilled water. A small amount of ammonia is made from the materials used in purifying illuminating gas (freeing the latter from H:2S and cyanogen compounds). The purifying material, “spent oxide” or “sludge” (Bueb or Feldmann process) contains rh large percentage of combined am- monia which is recovered by gas works or manufacturers who purchase this material from gas plants. 2. By-product in Manufacture of Coke for Metallurgical Use.— Until recently, most of the coke required for metallurgical purposes (espe- cially in the manufacture of iron and steel) was made by the distillation of coal in bee-hive ovens in which all’ the valuable volatile in- gredients of the coal were lost. Now, how- ever, particularly since the great demand for coal tar products of all kinds‘ ‘caused by the World War, an increasingly large percentage of coke is being made in by-product coke ovens in which the gaseous and liquid distillates from the coal are recovered and used or sold. Similarly in some countries (e.g., Scotland) in which blast furnaces have been operated 478 with coal instead of coke the recovery of the volatile ingredients of the coal has met with commercial success. 3. By-product in. the Distillation: of the’ Bi- tuminous Shale-—In Scotland where this. in- dustry has had a large development, and to some extent in this country, the recovery of ammonia has been successfully carried out. About 42 pounds of ammonium sulphate. are recovered from one ton of Scotch shale. 4. By-product in the Manufacture of Glue. — After glue has been’ extracted from animal substances, like bones, cartilages, hoofs and horns the residue is destructivcly distilled, yielding among other products ammonia as a valuable by-product. IJ. SyNTHETIC PRocEsses.— The world’s re- quirements for nitrogen compounds in the last few years, 1914 to 1918, were so great that the destructive distillation processes were insuff- cient to meet the demand. As a result, several processes for the fixation of atmospheric nitro- gen developed in the last two decades have been successfully applied’ on a commercial scale. This has been particularly the case in Germany which could not have lasted for more than a year at war without the cyanamid and Haber processes. 1. The Haber Process—tIn this process, nitrogen and hydrogen are directly combined to form ammonia. The mixed gases are passed at high pressures, 200 atmospheres or more, and at temperatures of 500 to 700 degrees C over a ‘catalyst, such as osmium, uranium or palladium, when combination occurs resulting in the forma- tion of ammonia to the extent of 3 to 12 per cent of the mixed gases. The ammonia formed is then separated by cooling and the remaining gases, together with fresh nitrogen and hydro- gen, pumped over the catalizer again. Heating of the gases is effected electrically, the power consumption for the whole process being one- fourth to one-sixth of that required by the cyanamid process. Since the power consump- tion is so low the production of synthetic am- monia by the Haber process need not be con- fined to districts having large amounts of cheap power. It is particularly important in a process depending upon the action of catalysts (which are very sensitive to impurities), that gases of the highest degree of purity be used. Nitrogen of satisfactory quality is obtained by the frac- tional distillation of liquid air. For the manufac- ture of hydrogen the electrolytic process pro- duces a gas of higher purity than that obtained by any other commercial process, and is there- fore, of great value in this connection (see sec- tion on hydrogen. and oxygen). In the United States the Haber process has not been a com- mercial success owing to failure to overcome the engineering difficulties of working with gases of high pressures. In Germany the Haber process, as already mentioned, has been de- veloped much further than in the United States. Consult Haber and Le Rossignol, ‘Zeitschrift fiir Elektrochemie? (1913, 19, 53, 72, abstracted in Journal, Society of Chemical Industry, 1913); “Bericht? (1907, 40; 2144) ; ‘Zeitschrift fiir Elek- trochemie? (1908, 14, 181, 513); Bernthsen, Fighth International Congress Applied Chemis- try 1912 (abstract Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 1912, 31, 982). LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES 2. Cyanamid Process —Ammonia -pro- duced indirectly in this process by the following reactions : (a) CaO + 3C=CaC. + CO. (b) CaCa-+ N2='CaCN.+ C. (c) CaCN: + 3H20 = CaCO; + 2NHs. (a) Quicklime is mixed with coke and allowed to react at the highest temperature of the electric furnace. The molten calcium car- bide thus formed is run off, cooled and ground in ball mills filled with nitrogen gas. ‘(b) The powdered calcium carbide is next charged into small electric resistance furnaces and a current of pure nitrogen’ gas passed through. The start of the reaction requires some electrical energy, after which the tempera- ture is maintained by the heat of reaction. Cal- cium cyanamid is formed. (c) The calcium cyanamid or “ime nitro- gen” is finely powdered and treated in stirred autoclaves with high pressure steam and a dilute solution of caustic soda. The ammonia begins to evolve in large quantities at four to five atmospheres. This process requires a large amount of cheap electrical energy and high initial outlay of capital for equipment. 3. Serpek Process— When bauxite (the mineral hydrated alumina) is heated with coal in an atmosphere of nitrogen at 1,700° to 1,800° C. in an electric furnace, the following reaction takes place: A.20, + 3C + Na=2A.N +3CO.. Absorption of nitrogen begins at 1,100° C,, is rapid at 1,500° C. and extremely rapid at 1,800° C. The reaction is endothermic (213,220 calories being absorbed, according to Richards). The aluminum nitride. formed is treated with caustic soda, forming ammonia and_ sodium aluminate: AN + 3NaOH = NH: + NasA:Os: According to German Patent 243,839 (Badische Company), the formation of nitride from alumina and coal is facilitated by the addition of certain, catalysts, 5 to 10 per cent of the oxides of Si, Ti, Zr, V, Be, Mo, Ur, Ce, Cr, which are capable of forming stable nitrides. Consult Serpek, British Patent 13,086 (1910) ; Richards, J. W., Transactions American Elec- tro Chemical Society (1913, 23, 35); Tucker, S. A., Journal Society Chemical Industry (1913, Sie 1143): Fraenkel, ‘Zeitschrift, fir Elektro- chemie? (1913, 19, 362). Preparation of Anhydrous Ammonia.— Aqua ammonia obained by either a destructive distillation or synthetic process is distilled and the ammonia vapors dried by passing over quicklime. The dry gas is then generally com- pressed and liquefied in steel cylinders, a pres- sure of 6.5 atmospheres being required at plus 10° C.. The purified ammonia formed in the process may also be dried and liquefied directly. Uses.— The. principal. use of anhydrous ammonia is for, refrigeration, as in the manu- facture of artificial ice... When liquefied: am- monia is allowed to expand in a_ suitable machine the fall in temperature is sufficient to freeze water. Consult Lunge, ‘Coal Tar and Ammonia’; Vincent, C.,..‘Ammonia,.:and Its Compounds; Marten, G. and Barbour, William, LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES “Industrial Nitrogen Compounds’; ‘Synthesis of Ammonia and Oxidation to Nitric Acid? (in Metallurgy and Chemistry, 17, 345); Boyce, J. C., ‘Bibliography of Production of Synthetic Nitric Acid and Synthetic Ammonia? (in Metal- lurgy and Chemistry, 17, 328); “Nitrogen Fixa- tion Patents? (in Metallurgy and Chemistry, 17 606) ; Hosmer, ‘Literature of the Nitrogén In- dustry, 1912-1916? (in Journal Industrial Engi- neering and Chemistry, 9, 424). ARGON, symbol A (or Ar), a gaseous element, was first actually obtained in 1785 by Cavendish who observed that “not more than 1/120th part” of the atmosphere remains after treating the air for removal of oxygen and nitrogen. Attention was not called’ to this statement by Cavendish until 1894 when Lord Rayleigh found “atmospheric nitrogen” to be 1% per cent heavier than “chemical nitrogen.” For some years previous to this discovery Lord Rayleigh had been engaged in a careful determination of the densities of certain gases and consistent results had been obtained for all of them save nitrogen, which, when prepared from air by the abstraction of all other known components, was found to be heavier by about one part in 200 than the nitrogen prepared from nitrogen compounds such as ammonia, ammo- nium nitrite, urea, nitric or nitrous oxides. There could. be no doubt about the reality of the difference, because the same experimental methods, when applied to other gases, gave re- sults that were consistent with one another to about one part in 10,000... Lord Rayleigh pub- lished a letter in Nature narrating these facts and calling for suggestions’ from chemists as to the cause of the consistent difference in den- sity. No ideas of value were elicited. The possibility that the “chemical nitrogen» was contaminated with hydrogen or that the “at- mospheric nitrogen” had polymerized into a state analogous to “ozone” was then disproved - by the most careful experiments. At this stage in the investigation Professor Ramsay asked permission to co-operate in the work and his services were gladly accepted. The hypothesis was. made that “chemical nitrogen” contains an unknown gas, lighter than true nitrogen; or, that “atmospheric. ni- trogen” contains some similar gas that is heavier than true nitrogen. In spite of the many anal- yses that had been made of the air, it. was thought more probable that the unknown gas would be found in “atmospheric” rather than in “chemical”. nitrogen. It was. known that at.a red. heat. nitrogen will combine with metallic magnesium, with the formation of magnesium nitride. “Atmos- pheric” nitrogen, carefully. freed from all known impurities, was therefore passed through a long tube of hard glass filled with magnesium shavings and heated in a furnace. The first experiment of this sort was made in May 1894, and gave encouraging results, the “atmos- -pheric” nitrogen showing a slight but unmis- takable increase in density. A more elaborate experiment of the same sort followed in which “atmospheric” nitrogen was caused to pass over hot magnesium for more than two weeks. By this means, its density, originally about 14 (that of hydrogen being 1), was increased to 19.09, and the bulk of the gas under examina- 477 tion was diminished until not much more than 1 per cent of it remained. Plainly a great concen- tration of the unknown gas had been effected. To remove the last traces ‘of true nitrogen) pure oxygen was next added, and the’ mixture exposed to a rain of electric sparks in the pres- ence of caustic soda. When so treated, the ex- perimental gas contracted, indicating that the nitrogen was being withdrawn in the form of nitrate of sodium. When contraction was no longer noted, the nitrate of sodium and the excess of oxygen were removed and it was found that the remaining gas was about 20 times as heavy as hydrogen. When subjected to the electric spark and examined ‘by the spectroscope, this residual gas was found to. exhibit certain characteristic groups of red and green lines that did not cor- respond to any element previously known: The experimenters therefore felt reasonably sure that a new element had been discovered’ and this conclusion has. been borne out by all sub- sequent investigations. The discovery of this element (to which the name “argon,” meaning “inactive,” was given) was formally announced to the public in August 1895, and for it Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay were awarded the Hodgkins prize and also the grand prize of the Smithsonian Institution. Occurrence.— Argon makes up 1.3 per cent by weight of the atmosphere or 0.933 per cent by volume. It has been found in mineral waters, in the volcanic gases of Mount Pelée and also in fire damp and in coal as well as in gases given out on heating numerous minerals. Preparation.— The various methods for the preparation of argon use air.as the raw ma- terial: (1) Sparking air with oxygen, the method originally used by Cavendish in 1785. Know- ing that air contained a considerable quantity of nitrogen, Cavendish raised the question whether all of the apparently nitrogenous part of the air “could be reduced to nitrous acid, or whether there was not a part of a different nature from the rest which would refuse to undergo that change» To decide this point he added an excess of oxygen to air and passed electric sparks through the mixture (precisely as Rayleigh and Ramsay did) until no further diminution of volume occurred. He then re- moved the excess of oxygen, together with the oxide of nitrogen that had been formed, and found that only a small bubble remained un- absorbed, which, he says, was not more than one-120th part of the bulk of the original nitro- gen. The bubble that he thus obtained and the nature of which he did not further question must have been nearly pure argon. (2) Separation from “atmospheric nitro- gen, the nitrogen being absorbed ‘by a metal. Red-hot magnesium shavings were used by Rayleigh and Ramsay, but this material is no longer used, as a mixture of five parts pure lime and three parts of magnesium dust has been found preferable... By passine “atmos- pheric” nitrogen over this red-hot mixture and the residual gas over metallic calcium at a dull red heat, Maquenne readily effected complete absorption of the nitrogen; metallic lithium has also been utilized for this secondary absorption. (3) The most convenient laboratory method for preparing argon is to absorb oxygen and 478 nitrogen from the air by passing it slowly over a mixture of nine parts.calcium carbide and one part calcium chloride, heated to 800° C.,. the .remaining gases being led over hot copper.oxide to remove the hydrogen, hydro- carbons and carbon monoxide. present and finally removing the water vapor and carbon dioxide. It is stated that by using seven kilo- grams of carbide, 11 litres of argon may be ob- tained from air in two days. (4) Argon is more soluble in water than nitrogen; this property is the basis of some re- cent patents for the separation o: argon and nitrogen, but there has been no production. by this method to date. As. obtained from the atmosphere argon always contains traces of neon, krypton, xenon and helium. The total quantity of these gases present amounts to only about 0.25 per cent of the argon, 85 per cent of this impurity being neon. Properties.— Argon is 1,379 times as heavy as air. The critical temperature of argon is —117.4° C. and the critical pressure 52.9 at- mospheres. At atmospheric pressure the boil- ing point of liquid argon. is —186.1° C., the freezing point —187.9° C. and the melting point of solid argon —188° C.. The density of liquid argon at —186.1° C. is 1.4046 Since its discovery argon has been treated with the most violent reagents known,to chem- ists, but it refuses to react with any of them. Rayleigh and Ramsay stated that “argon does not combine with oxygen in the presence of alkali under the influence of the electric dis- charge, nor with hydrogen in the presence of acid. or alkali, nor. when» sparked,. nor..-with phosphorus at a bright red heat. nor with sulphur. Tellurium may tbe distilled in it and also sodium and potassium. Red-hot sodium peroxide has no effect. Persulphides of sodium and. calcium have no effect at a red_ heat. Platinum sponge does not. absorb it. Aqua regia, bromine water, bromine and alkali and potassium permanganate are all without. in- fluence. Mixtures. of metallic sodium, and silica or of sodium and boric acid are likewise without influence and hence also nascent silicon and boron.» Moissan found that even fluorine does. not. act upon argon at. any ;temperature. Villard claims to have formed. a crystalline hydrate with water, but this result requires confirmation. The chemical inertness: of argon has made it. impossible to study its atomic, weight and molecular. weight by methods other than the determination of its density. which. is 19.14 + (OF 16). On this basis the molecular weight. is. 39.88, .The atomic weight is. the same, as has been deduced from a comparison of. the specific heats»of the gas under constant pressure. and ‘at constant. volume. The spectrum of argon .is very characteris- tic. _The-most permanent, lines. are two in the red,.a yellow line, two green lines and a violet line. It varies slightly depending on the method of preparation, but.this is: doubtless due to the presence of traces of impurities introduced by. the reagents used in removing the large quan- tities of. nitrogen, etc., from the argon. Manufacture and. Uses.— Commercial pro- duction of argon in the United States began in the latter.part of the year 1914, when it was being manufactured for use as an inert gas in LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES incandescent electric light bulbs. The fact was soon developed that it possessed. distinct .advan- tages in connection with. incandescent electric lighting, and the demand for this purpose grew rapidly. At the present time commercial: pro- duction in the United States amounts to thou- sands of cubic feet of pure argon per month, The commercial product sold as argon. con- tains 25 to 30 per cent pure argon. This is purified by the consumers to.a product contain- ing approximately 80 per cent argon and 20 per cent nitrogen, in which form it is intro- duced into lamps. All of the argon used en ocean at. the present time is made by air liquefaction proc- esses. Both of the commercial air liquefaction processes in -use to-day, the .Linde and the Claude, are readily adaptable, to the pradustian of argon on a commercial scale. ; CARBON DIOXIDE. The pe belief that poisoning from carbon dioxide occurs in unventilated and overcrowded rooms is a mis- taken one. Results observed on such occasions are due in large part to the reduction in the amount of oxygen present and not to the in- crease of carbon dioxide, which in. no sense -is a poison, but which is frequently confounded with carbon monoxide, one of the deadliest ‘of poisons. Commercial Methods of Manufacture— Carbon: dioxide’ is’ extracted from'® natural sources at many places in Europe and at Sara- toga Springs, N. Y.' Its origin is debatable’ but is generally considered to be volcanic and it is obtained by sinking wells from*:which® the gas issues as such, or combined with: saline water. A purity of less than 98 per cent is not commercially satisfactory and if a “dry gas” well does not come up to this the desired ‘purity is generally obtained by sinking 1o greater depths. Failing this the impure gas must be treated by absorption as described under” the coke process. Where the ‘gas occurs, as at’ Satdtogd Springs, saturating the escaping spring water in proportions as high as five volumes: of gas to one of water, iis recovery is a ‘simple matter. The pipe carrying the saturated spring water delivers its burden to a separator whose trapped water outlet offers greater resistance than the water seal of the storage gasometer, with the result that the water flows away, holding only that amount of gas due to atmospheric pressure and temperature of emergence — about equal volumes of gas and water —and the ‘surplus gas is piped from the top of the separator to the gasometer. If, as sometimes occurs, hydrogen sulphide is present, its remoyal is effected before storage of the gas by passing it through trays filled with iron oxide mixed with wood shavings. After saturation the oxide is revivified by exposure to air. The natural carbon dioxide at Saratoga Springs has a purity of about 98.5 per cent and in common with gas of like origin from several other sources has been found to be radio-active. A process for manufacture of carbon dioxide which has. been largely displaced depends .upon the calcination. of, magnesite (carbonate of magnesia)... The rock, crushed. to suitable fine~ e from the engine and compressor, case the coke is burned under the steam boiler. LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES ness, is fed to oil-fired retorts, and carefully held at the proper temperature. The escaping gas, passed if necessary through purifiers for removal of traces of sulphur compounds, and then through coolers, is conveyed to the gas- ometer while the calcined magnesia, containing always more or less unburnt: magnesite, is. al- lowed to cool, ground and sold as a by-product. Its value is largely affected by the care with which the calcination is conducted and by the presence of calcium salts which are highly de- leterious for certain uses. Until the develop- ment of the California deposits, the chief source of supply was Grecian. Importations from that source were suspended early in the war. A small amount of carbon dioxide is pro- duced by plants engaged in the manufacture of epsom salts. The process is purely the labora- tory one ona large scale, of adding an acid, sulphuric, to a carbonate, magnesite. There is, however, a variation, wherein dolomite, a mixed carbonate of magnesia and lime, is treated with sulphuric acid and the resulting mixed sulphates separated. In both cases the carbon dioxide obtained is of high purity and passes to the. gasometer without further. treat- ment. The normal demand for epsom salts is not such as to stimulate production along these lines. A small amount of carbon dioxide has been produced in the manufacture of beer, but. the advent of prohibition has closed this avenue. Such great difficulties were found in remoyal of odorous products of fermentation that gas from this source never became a product of import- ance. The coke process is the one most generally used in the commercial production of carbon dioxide. Substantially it involves the. com- bustion of coke with effort to secure as high a percentage of carbon dioxide as possible in the resulting gaseous products. These are passed through scrubbers and thoroughly washed: to _ensure removal of any sulphur compounds, and then enter the absorbing towers. These are generally of steel, about eight feet in diameter and 50. feet high and .of any desired number, depending on the capacity of the plant. In general about 10 cubic feet tower capacity per pound earbon dioxide per hour is accepted as a suitable distributing proportion. The gases are there brought in contact; with a solution of car- bonate of soda or potash which is pumped to the top and flows counter-current against the gases. The carbon dioxide of the mixed. gases of combustion unites with the carbonate and forms bicarbonate, though the interchange is far from complete. Some of the carbon dioxide escapes unabsorbed and some of the carbonate is un- converted to bicarbonate. The solution issuing from the towers, con- taining bicarbonate, is now. pumped t hrough suitable heat exchangers to the lye boiler. This may either be heated by the coke fire which served to produce the gases or by exhaust steam In the latter By boiling. the bicarbonate. solution, it. is reconverted to carbonate and the released car- bon dioxide is piped through heat. exchangers and coolers to the gasometer. Final preparation for the market consists in liquefying the gas in compressors operating in ‘ -sure.on an.overloaded. heart. tion of, oxygen. probably an element. ‘by, Davy, who confirmed Gay-Lussac’s opinion 470 either three or four stages at about 900. pounds per square inch and storing it in steel cylinders holding either 20 or 50 pounds. of! the gas. Commercial. Uses of. Carbon Dioxide.— The.larger, portion of commercial ; carbon dioxide is. used in: the manufacture of. car- bonated beverages. It is also_used in refriger- ating machines, especially in connection with marine work. It 1s used for spraying paint and insecticides. and is the active reagent in many fire extinguishers. Medicinal Uses.— When liquefied carbon dioxide is allowed to expand rapidly a very low temperature is produced with. the resultant formation of solid carbon. dioxide,, This may be collected in snow-like form and has been found efficacious as, a local: application where the removal of warts or wens is desired. The gas as such or dissolved in saline.water has marked therapeutic effects. The carbonated baths of Bad-Nauheim have a world-wide reputation and numerous other resorts are now equipped to give the Nauheim bath treatment. | ~The effect of immersion in such baths is to stimulate the circulation and to reduce the pres- The action of the gas is undoubtedly reflex. Remarkable re- sults are obtained as well with rheumatic and neurasthenic cases as with cardiac ones: CHLORINE. Chlorine, Cl, atomic: weight 35.4, at ordinary temperature and pressure is ‘a gas of greenish yellow color and has an jirritat- ing and pungent odor. >The specific gravity of the gas issabout 2:48. Under pressure chlorine is easily liquefied. The specific gravity of. the liquid at 15°C. is 1425 (Lange), and. the vapor tension at this. temperature is 5.75 atmospheres. The boiling point of the liquid is — 33.6° C. (Regnault), and its freezing point is—102° C. The critical temperature of chlorine is 146° C. and. the «critical: pressure is 93.5 atmospheres. The coefficient of expansion of liquid chlorine grows with increasing tempera- ture and at.90°.-C, is. about equal.to. that of gases. | Chlorine is. easily. soluble in water. The solution, especially under.the influence of, sun- light, will form: hydrochloric, acid under. libera- Chlorine |forms ..compounds with practically. all elements’; in many. respects its resembles oxygen. ' It shows great affinity for hydrogen; equal. volumes of chlorine and hydrogen mixed and. exposed to the direct sun- light will, combine under explosion, , producing hydrochloric acid. . If. hydrocarbons are mixed with chlorine, and. aflame is applied, .to, the mixture, it will catch, fire and the chlorine will ‘combine with the hydrogen whereas the carbon will, be. deposited on the walls of. the vessel. Chlorine attacks, organic matters and. destroys the lower animal and vegetable, life, .., For human. beings it is. not poisonous but. very obnoxious as,it.attacks the mucous, membranes. istory.— Chlorine was discovered.in 1774 by Scheele. while he was. treating. manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid, ; but upto 1809 it was considered a compound substance, .., At that time Gay-Lussac pointed, out that it was Investigations were made and gave the gas its present name. As-early as 480 1805 chlorine was liquefied by Northmore and later on in 1823 by Faraday. Faraday heated chlorine hydrate crystals (Cle + 10H2O) in one | branch of a sealed and bent glass tube, while the other branch was exposed to a freezing mixture. The chlorine hydrate was decom- posed and liquid chlorine was obtained at the other end of the glass tube. In the laboratory chlorine is generally made by treatment of hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide. Sometimes it is made by decomposition of hydrochloric acid by nitric acid. Commercially the “Weldon” process was formerly used to a very large-extent. Weldon decomposed hydro- chloric acid with manganese dioxide but added lime to the waste liquor and blew air through the mixture which enabled him to recover the manganese dioxide and use it over and over again. Later on, the “Deacon” process was largely used in which process the hydrochloric acid is decomposed by air in the presence of catalysers at a temperature of about 450° C. The disadvantage of this process is the great dilution of the produced gas so that it cannot be used when the chlorine is to be liquefied. Commercial Method of Manufacture.— To-day by far the largest quantity of chlorine is produced electrolytically. This process fre- quently is called “Chlorine Alkali Process” in order to indicate the simultaneous production of chlorine and alkali. It consists of decompos- ing a solution of sodium chloride or potassium chloride by passing an electric current of high amperage through the electrolytic cell. The anode is generally of carbon or iron oxide and the cathode of iron. Sometimes mercury is used for the cathode. Chlorine forms at the anode and caustic soda or caustic potash at the cathode. The products of the electrolysis caustic soda and chlorine or caustic potash and chlorine must be kept strictly apart in order not to combine again. The chlorine produced by the electrolytic method has generally over 96 per cent purity, the balance being mainly car- bon dioxide and air. Commercial Uses of Gases.— By far the largest quantity of chlorine is used in the manufacture of chloride of lime or bleaching powder, which is: formed when slacked lime is exposed to the action of chlorine gas. Up to the time that liquid chlorine was produced com- mercially nearly all shipments of chlorine were made in the form of chloride of lime and even to-day the bulk of the chlorine which is used for bleaching of textiles, etc., is shipped in this form. Prior to the commercial production of liquid chlorine most chemical works, etc., using chlorine in the manufacture of their products produced it on their premises, but since that time many users of the gas purchase the liquid which is easily transported. The first com- mercial plant to liquify chlorine was built in Germany in 1888 by Knietsch of the Badische Company. Knietsch used a compressor in which a body of sulphuric acid was placed between the piston and the chlorine so that the chlorine was compressed without getting in touch with the piston or the stuffing box. The compressed gas coming from the compressor entered the condenser where it was cooled and thus liquefied. In order tobe suitable for ship- ment in steel containers the liquid chlorine had to be absolutely free from water so that it LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES would not attack the steel. The liquid is filled into steel cylinders or tank cars. Knietsch heated the sulphuric acid in order to reduce the absorption of chlorine by the acid. This system is still used by most manufacturers, al- though sometimes it is used in modified form. The Linde Ice Machine Company, Germany, did not use any compressor to liquify the chlorine, but simply exposed the gas to a temperature of —45° to —50° C. at atmospheric pressure. This system is also in use commercially but not to a large extent. A third system was de- veloped in the United States of America. In this system sulphuric acid is pumped to a high tower from where it is allowed to drop down in vertical tubes entraining the chlorine ac- cording to the injector principle. The chlorine is then again carried into a condenser where it is cooled and liquefied. This system was in- stalled at the large government plant at Edge- water Arsenal, during the World War of 1914--18. Not until about 1909 was any liquid chlorine made commercially in the United States, but since that time the production of liquid chlorine has grown very rapidly. It is estimated that during the year 1918, over 15,000 tons of liquid chlorine were manufactured in the United States. Medicinal Uses. During the war the manufacture of chlorine and of liquid chlorine grew rapidly because chlorine was used to’ make picric acid and very large quantities of the various poison-gases, most of’ which were chlorine compounds. However, chlorine during the war was not only used to destroy human beings but also to protect them from typhoid fever and other diseases. The drinking water in the various war zones was sterilized nearly always by the use of liquid chlorine which no doubt has helped to reduce mortality from epidemics far below the figures prevailing in former wars. Nearly all large cities in the United States to- day are sterilizing their drinking water by use of liquid chlorine, which is introduced into the water main either directly as a gas or mixed with water and then introduced into the main. This application of liquid chlorine is constantly growing and a number of cities have already started to use liquid chlorine for sterilization of sewage. During the last few years liquid chlorine has started to replace chlorine of ‘ime for bleaching purposes to a considerable ex- tent. The detinning industry uses large quan- tities of chlorine to recover the tin and the steel of tin scrap according to the Goldschmidt patents. The product, tetrachloride of tin, is used in the silk industry. Zinc chloride is used to impregnate telegraph poles, railroad ties, etc., and is also used for vulcanizing fibres. Cuban tetrachloride is used to a large ex- tent for the extraction of fats and in the rubber industry. It is also used in dry cleaning estab- lishments and in fire extinguishers. In the medical field chlorine is used to make chloro- form, aspirin and a great many other pharma- ceutical products. In the organic chemistry chlorine is used in the manufacture of synthetic indigo, sulphur colors, benzoic. acids, ete. The chlorination of ores in future will probablv -con- sume very large quantities of chlorine. Consult Lunge, Dr. G.,'“Hand-Buch der Soda Industrie? LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES (Eng. trans. as ‘Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali?), and Geoffrey-Martin, ‘Chlorine and Chlorine Products. HELIUM, the lightest of the group of so- called “inert gases” discovered in the air by Rayleigh and Ramsay, was first observed by Janssen in 1868, when, in studying the spectrum of the solar chromosphere, he found a line in the yellow (i.e. coincident with two of the sodium lines) which was not attributable to any terrestrial substance then known. Lockyer and Frankland decided it was due to the presence in the sun of a new element which they named “helium” (Greek, helios, “the sun”). The first terrestrial discovery of helium was made by Hillebrand (1889, United States Geo- logical Survey Bulletin), who, when working with the mineral uraninite, observed the evolu- tion of a gas which gave a fluted spectrum and was attributed by him to nitrogen. When searching for argon Ramsay found helium in the gases evolved from cleveive. Its presence in the atmosphere was first observed by Kayser (1895), who detected the helium line in the air- spectrum. _ It has since been shown that helium occurs in the air in the proportion of 0.000056 per cent by weight, or about one volume of helium in 250,000 volumes of air. It also occurs in many minerals, including monazite sands, in the gases of many mineral springs and is present in com- paratively large amounts in several of the nat- ural gases of Canada and the United States, particularly those of Kansas and Texas. In 1907 Cady reported 1.84 per cent of helium in the natural gas at Dexter, Kan. Helium has also been found occluded in meteoric iron. Helium is one of the products of the dis- integration of radium. The rate of produc- tion of helium is 0.37 cubic millimeter per day from 70 milligrams of radium chloride. Helium is also a product of the disintegration of actinium and of thorium radioactivity, which accounts for its presence in the gases given off by monazite sands. Preparation.— Helium is prepared by isola- tion from a mixture of other gases: (1) Nitro- gen, argon, krypton, neon, xenon and helium, as obtained by removal of the oxygen from air (see ARGON in this section) or as separated by fractional distillation of liquid air; (2) oxygen, nitrogen and helium as obtained from certain mineral springs. The gases from King’s Well at Bath, England, contain 0.12 per cent of helium by volume and were used as a source of the gas by Rayleigh. This well is said to produce 1,000 litres (about 36 cubic feet) of helium per year. Helium may be obtained in small quantities by heating certain minerals (such as cleveite, uraninite or monazite sand) either alone or with dilute sulphuric acid or an acid sulphate. One gram of cleveite is said to yield 3.2 cubic feet of helium, and 1,000 grams of the mineral costs about $5. Isolation.— The French workers Jacquerod and Perrot found that quartz is permeable to helium at 1,000° to 1,200° C. so that by sur- rounding a quartz tube with impure helium at that temperature and pumping away the gas from the interior helium could be obtained free from nitrogen and other inert gases, but VOL. 17 — 31 pany, Inc., 481 it has been shown that this process is not prac- ticable with some kinds of quartz, Ramsay found that at the temperature of liquid air cer- tain kinds of charcoal would absorb all gases except helium and neon. The vapor pressure of neon is so different from that of helium that a systematic repetition of the process yields a pure product. Properties.—The density of helium has been determined as from 1.98 to 2.02. Its atomic weight is taken as 3.99. It is 0.1368 times as heavy as air. When working with the rare gases, Olszew- ski obtained a sample of about 140 cubic centi- meters from Lord Ramsay and tried to deter- mine its critical constants, but found it im- possible with the refrigeration means then at hand to reach the liquefaction point. ° Dewar, in 1898, after obtaining liquid hydro- gen, placed a sealed glass tube containing helium in the liquid hydrogen. A colorless liquid imme- diately condensed on the sides of the tube, but _ the same tube in liquid air boiling under re- duced pressure gave no condensation; thus the conclusion was drawn that the boiling point of helium is very close to that of hydrogen. In 1909 Onnes first liquefied helium by cooling it in solid hydrogen and then allowing it to ex- pand; thus showing that the ordinary lique- faction process can be applied to helium as well as to the other so-called inert gases. From 200 litres of helium gas Onnes obtained over 60 cubic centimeters of liquid helium in three hours. This liquid is colorless and its density is 0.122, which means it is the lightest liquid known. Its critical temperature is about — 268° C. (5° above absolute zero). It boils at 4.5° above ab- solute zero and has a critical pressure of 2.26 atmospheres. Rapid evaporation of the liquid causes a temperature below 2.5° absolute or — 270° C. but there is no indication of the formation of a solid. Up to the present time helium has resisted all efforts to combine it with other elements. The spectrum of helium is characterized by a strong line in the yellow (which has been shown to be double) and a dark green line. Manufacture and Uses.— Helium is next to hydrogen in lightness among the elements, and this fact, together with its chemical inactivity and the fact that it is non-combustible, was the reason for its recent and much discussed ap- plication for use in balloons. Helium has about 92 per cent of the lifting power of hydrogen. It was Sir William Ram- say who first suggested, in 1915, to Dr. Moore of the United States Bureau of Mines, .the use of helium for balloons. Its buoyancy, the fact that its rate of diffusion and consequent wast- age through the balloon fabric is only about one-half that of hydrogen and the freedom from fire hazard attained by its use make it an ideal balloon gas. Certain Canadian gas wells carry approxi- mately 0.3 per cent helium. Attempts to obtain helium commercially from this source were not successful, as the amount of helium present was comparatively small. In 1917 interest in the use of helium for balloons was revived by Dr. Moore, on learning of its presence in the natural gases of Kansas. Late in the same year the Air Reduction Com- and the Linde Air Products Com- pany each erected, for the United States gov- 482 ernment, a plant for the production of helium from the natural gas wells of Texas. These plants started operations early in 1918 and after some experimental work produced helium.on a commercial scale. Up to the time of the sign- ing of the armistice, November 1918, 147,000 cubic feet of 93 per cent helium had been pre- pared and was on the dock about to be loaded aboard ship for Europe. It was stated that at pre-war prices this quantity would represent a value of about $250,000,000. Needless to say such quantities could never have been obtained by the laboratory methods used in working with the small quantities of helium obtainable from various sources by the early methods de- scribed in the literature. The two above-mentioned plants in Texas are now temporarily closed, but owing to the great possibilities of the use of helium in bal- loons, both for war and peace purposes, the United States government is planning to con- tinue the production of helium. In addition to the two plants already built the United States government is erecting an experimental plant at... Petrolia, il ex.,:. but. at..this ) writing, this installation has not produced any helium. The three plants referred to above are all making use of gas liquefaction processes based on the removal by liquefaction of all the gases occurring in the natural product except the helium, which passes out of the-system in the gaseous State. HYDROGEN (Gr.,. “producing water,” in reference to’ the fact that in burning in air or oxygen hydrogen forms water-vapor ), a gaseous element, discovered by Paracelsus in the 16th century. In the year 1766, Cavendish, an Eng- lish chemist, investigated this gas more thor- oughly, and gave it the name of inflammable air, and, by continued investigations, in 1781 proved its elementary character. Lavoisier, finally, gave it the name of hydrogen. Hydro- gen is the lightest known substance, and it also has the smallest known atomic weight. Its chemical symbol is H, its molecular formula Ha, and its atomic weight 1.008. Physical Properties.— Colorless, tasteless, odorless. Specific gravity, 0.06949 (air=1). 1 liter at 0° C., 760 mm., 0.089873 g. 1 cubic foot at 32° F., 29.92-inch pres- sure, .00561 pounds. Atomic volume of liquid, 1.4. Specific heat at 0° C. (gas), 3.410. Specific heat of liquid, 6.00. Atomic heat, 3.44 (gas); 6.05 (liquid). Valence, I. Thermal conductivity at 0° C. (Ag=1), 000327. , Freezing (and melting) point, — 259° C. Boiling point, — 252.5° C. Density of liquid hydrogen, 0.070 (lightest liquid known). Solubility in water, 2.1 volumes of hydro- gen to 100 volumes of water. Obeys. Boyle’s Law under pressure, with variations according to Van der Wall’s equation. (a = 0.00042) (b= 0.00088). Coefficient of expansion at constant pres- sure (760 mm., 0— 100° C.), 0.003661. Coefficient of pressure, at constant volume (520-694 mm., 0—100° C.), 0.0036626. LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES Chemical Properties.— _l. Hydrogen is inflammable. In admixture with oxygen in the presence of moisture and dust and under the influence of sunlight com- bustion takes place slowly. With the aid of catalysts, however, e.g., finely divided Pt, Pd, Ir, Os or Au, the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen is rapid. The ignition tempera- tures of mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen vary between 507° and 540° C. (electrolytic hydrogen 536° C.) Hydrogen is not poisonous nor toxic. _ 2. Hydrogen combines directly with fluor- ine, even in the dark at room temperature, with explosive violence. With chlorine, it does not combine in dark at room temperature, but does when heated above 400°C. In diffused light combination is slow at room temperature. Under influence of direct sunlight (or other active rays) combination is violent. Combines directly with bromine in dark at temperatures above 400° C. and slowly even at 100° in the presence of light. 3. Hydrogen is very active chemically when occluded in certain finely divided metals, such as Pd or Pt or Os; and also when in contact with finely divided Ni, Co, Fe and Cu. In the presence of nickel many organic compounds can be reduced or saturated by hydrogen (hydro- genation of oils. . How Obtained.— Hydrogen may be ob- tained by: (1) Decomposition of Water by Metals.— The alkali and alkaline earth metals react with water and liberate hydtogen; e.g., sodium, potassium or calcium. Naz plus 2H:zO—2NaOH plus Haz. Fine aluminum turnings (containing 1—2 per cent bichloride of mercury and 0.5 per cent potassium cyanide) will decompose water at 70°; 1 kg. yielding 1,300 liters of hydrogen. ins P. 392,725, 1908. Compt. rend. 1908, 147,-. By Metallic Hydrides—“Hydrolith» is calcium hydride. This reacts very rapidly with water, evolving hydrogen. CaHz plus 2HzO=Ca(OH)a, plus 2H». Consult French patent 327,878, 1902. 1 kg. yields over 1 cu. m. of hydrogen.- (2) Decomposition of Acids by Metals.— When dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid is treated with an acid-soluble metal like Zn or Fe, hydrogen is formed, H2SO, plus Fe = FeSO; plus Hz. This is the usual laboratory method for gen- erating hydrogen gas. (3) Decomposition of Alkali Solutions by Metals —Aluminum and zinc react with aqueous solutions of the alkalis, liberating hydrogen. Zn plus 2NaOH = Na2ZnO: plus Ho. Very pure hydrogen is obtained in this way. Consult British patent 11,838, 1912. (4) Electrolysis .of Water— This method which is of great commercial importance will be dealt with later. Commercial Methods of Manufacture.— (1) Electrolysis -of Aqueous.. Solution.— When an electric current is passed through water containing an acid or alkali in solution, the water is decomposed, hydrogen gas being liberated at the cathode and oxygen at the anode, LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES Full description of methods, apparatus and production is given under the heading of OxycEN. By this method hydrogen is obtained in the largest volume, purest state and at the lowest cost. This method was originally in- troduced into this country by a firm of French jewelers, and the manufacture of apparatus for this purpose was initiated and perfected by the International Oxygen Company. The industry has, however, grown so rapidly that there are at the present time several firms manufacturing apparatus of this kind. Consult ‘Oxygen — By Electrolysis of Water. (2) Decomposition of Water by Means of Iron.— When steam is passed over iron heated to redness, the steam is decomposed, 3Fe plus 4H20 = Fe,O.: plus 4H2. The iron oxide can be reduced by means of water gas, yielding metallic iron and more hydrogen. The production of hydrogen may be made continuous by alternately passing steam and water gas through the furnaces containing the iron. Consult British patents 10,356, 1903; 17,591, 1909; 11,878, 1910. For data regarding the physical condition of iron most desirable for this process, consult British patent, 27,735, 1912 | Badische Co. French “ ~~ 453,077, 1913 j =S) “ 971,206, 1908, A. Messerschmidt. German “ 280,964, 1913. H. Dicka. French ia 461,480, 1913 British s 18,028, 1913 +} A. Messerschmidt. WS! “ 1,109,448, 1914 German “ 279,726, 1913, Naher and Noding. For further data on this method of produc- ing hydrogen, consult: German patent, 263,391, 1912, Messerschmidt. 268,062, “ “ 268,339, “ French ¥ 444,105, 1912, “ “ 444,106, “ r : 461,623, 1913. 7 . 461,624, “ “ “ 461,625, “ “ “ 462,379, “ British ‘. 12,117, 1912. == 1274788 “ “ 12,243, 6 ‘ ‘ 17,690, 1913.’ “ “ 17,691, “ “ “ 17,692, “ “ “ 18, 942, “ U.eS. “1,109,447, 1914. British ‘ 2,096, 1913, Badische Co. 4 = 28,390, z e' 6,155, 1914. French 2 465,474, 1913. | Berlin Anhaltische UES: “ 1,118,595, 1914. Machinenbau A. G. “ “ 1,129,559, 1915. | _ Regarding the reaction of steam on iron at high pressures, consult: Journal Soc. Chem. Ind. 32 (1913), p. 462, Bergius. German patent, 254,593, 1911. French y 447,080, 1912. British 19,002, 1912. e ii 19,003, 1912. U.S. “1,059,817, 1913. “ “ 1,059,818, 1913. Steam acts upon heated coke in the following way: C plus Hz1O=CO plus H2. The gas produced according to this reaction is called water gas. Owing to the great difference between the boiling points of hydrogen (—252.5° C.) and carbon monoxide (—190° C.) and _ nitrogen (— 195.5° C.) the hydrogen is best separated by liquefaction. In the Linde-Frank-Caro proc- ess water gas having the approximate compo- 483 sition H2—48 per cent, CO—42 per cent, CO.—2.5 per cent, N—3.5 per cent (with other impurities) is freed from CO, by water under pressure followed by scrubbing in alka- lis. It is then dried and cooled. The carbon monoxide and nitrogen are liquefied, the hydro- gen passing on in gaseous state. Consult ‘In- dustrial Gases? by Martin and others, p. 21 and p. 39. Consult also French patents 329, 839, 1903 ; 469, 854, 1913; and British patent 13, 160, 1914. ‘According to several methods, the carbon monoxide is taken up by suitable absorbents. For example, water gas and steam are passed over lime heated to about 500° C. (and mixed with about 5 per cent of powdered iron as catalyst). The following reaction takes place: Ca( HO): plus COCaCOs plus Hz. For further details, consult: British patent, 2,523, 1909. : f 13,049, 1912. French 453,187, 1912. British iy 7,147, 1913. ers: Cie Se RSGe Sen IY. German “ 253,705, 1910. Hydrogenite contains 5 parts ferrosilicon (containing 90-95 per cent silicon), 12 parts caustic soda and 4 parts slaked lime. When Genited» by a hot iron ball in a suitable ap- paratus hydrogen is evolved (1 kg. yielding 320 infers of hydrogen). Consult British natent 153, 1911. Hydrogen by Decomposition of Hydrocar- bons.— Hydrocarbons, such as petroleum, ben- zine, etc., can be decomposed by the action of steam at high temperature, yielding hydrogen and carbon monoxide. (British patent 14,703, 1911; Pictet. U. S. patent 1,134,416, 1913.) Hydrogen is also produced by passing a mixture of hydrocarbons and steam over an inactive refractory oxide such as magnesia covered with nickel oxide (as catalyst) at a temperature of 800-1000° C. Consult 463,114, 1913 Badische Co. 12,978,1913 “f 1 128, 804, 1915 e French patent, British US: Natural gas, vaporized oil or casing-head gasoline, when passed through red-hot pipes, are decomposed and deposit lampblack and form an impure hydrogen (impurities are methane, carbon monoxide and traces of oil vapor). Very pure hydrogen, according to Bergius, may be produced by the reaction between water _and iron at sufficiently high pressure to prevent vaporization of the water. The following table gives the experimental data on the liberation of hydrogen by this method: Charge Volume ——___ -—-——-—-——-——. of gas Volume Fe Cu H2O FeCls Temp. Time gener- of gas g g g g °C: Hrs. ated per hr. Cc G.¢ 50 se 4.100 ey 300 3:30 800 230 50 eee LOO 3 300 3:30 4,650 1,330 50 25 100 3 300 3:00 5,800 1,930 The electrolyte, ferric chloride and the copper (electropositive to iron) increase the reaction velocities enormously. For fuller details consult Journal Soc. Chem. Ind. 32 (1913), p. 462. German patent, 254,593, 1911. French 447,080, 1912. British y! 19/002, 1912. § & 19,003, 1912. OS. “ 1,059,817, 1913. “ “ 1,059,818, 1913, 484 Commercial Uses.—When hydrogen is burnt in oxygen temperatures up to 2,800° C. may be obtained.. This property renders hydro- gen invaluable for fusing and welding platinum, iron, lead, copper, etc.. Hydrogen and oxygen obtained from cylinders of the compressed gases are brought together in a suitable burner and ignited. It is well known that rapid cooling of hot metals hardens them. That the opposite is true has recently been demonstrated in striking fashion by the General Electric Company. One of its scientists annealed American ingot iron surrounded by hydrogen gas for. three hours at a temperature above 1,600° F: The product was very little harder than the softest copper, and could be whittled with a knife. (Taken from American Machinist.) Below are given some of the present prin- cipal commercial uses of hydrogen: 1. Hydrogenation of Ouls.— Solidifying liquid oils for edible products; preparing fats for manufacture of soap; renovating and de- odorizing certain oils. 2. Metallurgical— Reduction of copper oxide; reduction of tungsten; reduction of molybdenum; lamp work; jewelry work. 3. Aeronautical— Balloons, dirigibles; por- table wireless stations. 4. Cutting — Oxy-hydrogen cutting. (The oxy-hydrogen flame is far superior to any other method for cutting metals and will cut metals of such thicknesses as to be beyond the penetration of the oxy-acetylene flame). 5. Platinum and Lead Melting— Lead cham- bers for sulphuric acid. 6. Chemical.— Reducing agent; agent. 7. Fuel.— Heating. 8. Annealing. Hydrogen has been used with some degree of success in the manufacture of ammonia synthetically by the Haber process. .Hyd.ogen and nitrogen are combined at high pressures, and temperatures around 500—600° C., with the aid of catalysts. The process has been de- veloped to a much greater extent in Germany than in the United States. During the recent World War a plant was erected by the United States government at Sheffield, Ala., for the manufacture of ammonia and thence ammonium nitrate by a modified Haber process. Although combining some ammonia was produced, continuous pro- - duction was not achieved owing to the mechan- ical difficulties involved in working with gases at high pressures. Hydrogen is used in steel works for autoge- nous welding and for filling up the blow-holes frequently found in steel -castings. Limelight is produced by impinging an oxy- hydrogen flame on a block of quicklime, yield- ing a very brilliant light (Drummond light). In glass works, the heating of furnaccs and crucibles is greatly accelerated by the oxy- hydrogen flame. In the preparation of fused silica ware the oxy-hydrogen flame is extremely valuable. Hydrogen finds extensive use for filling bal- loons. Theoretically, the ascensional force of hydrogen is the difference in weight of a cubic metre of air and a cubic metre of hydrogen (1.293—0.090 kg.) and is thus 1.203 kg., except LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES at higher altitudes, Practically 1 kg. is taken as the lifting force of 1 cubic metre of hydro- gen. Synthetic sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, rubies, etc., are made by the deposition of alumina and fusion in the oxy-hydrogen flame. Recently hydrogen has found a very valuable application in the hydrogenation of oils. he saturated glycerides and fatty acids have higher melting points than the unsaturated compounds: Cis Has O: plus H2=—Cis Has Ox. (Oleic Acid) _ (Stearic Acid) In this way various soft oils and fats, such as fish oil, linseed oil and cottonseed oil, are hardened and their commercial value increased. The higher melting point fats are advan- tageously used in soap making, candle making and edible fats (such as butter and lard sub- stitutes). Consult Martin’s ‘Industrial Chemis- ry’; Ellis, C., ‘Hydrogenation of Oils — Cata- lysis — Generation of Hydrogen and Oxygen ; Thorpe, ‘Dictionary of Applied Chemistry? ; Martin, G. F., ‘Industrial Gases.? LIQUID AIR. Liquid air varies in compo- sition. It boils at about —190° C. and con- tains by weight 54 per cent of oxygen (air, 23.2 per cent oxygen). Many interesting ex- periments can be performed with liquid air aside from its use by scientific investigators. The properties of familiar substances are greatly changed by the low temperatures attain- able by its use: eg., rubber becomes brittle, milk becomes highly phosphorescent, an egg is a shining blue globe, photographic films lose most of their sensitiveness; sodium, potassium and even phosphorus are unaffected by liquid air; metals lose their electric resistance to a remarkable degree; the magnetic moment of magnets is greatly increased; curiously, the various bacteria and low forms of life, while rendered inactive by the intense cold, recover their activity on being brought back to normal temperatures and the germinating power of seeds is unimpaired. Experimental work with liquid air or gases naturally calls for a container. Liquid air is preserved in an open container of a design called a “Dewar bulb»—a double-walled glass bulb, the space between the walls being com- pletely exhausted of air and the glass being silvered like a mirror to reflect radiation. This is, of course, the principle of the ordinary thermos bottle. NEON. In 1898, Sir William Ramsey dis- covered this gas in the atmosphere. He secured it by means of the distillation of liquefied air. Claude has since developed the process of sep- aration of the elements of the air by liquefac- tion to a point which allows the production of Neon as an industrial product suitable for use for commercial purposes. Neon is found in the atmosphere in the very small proportion of one part of Neon to 66,000 parts of air. It belongs to the group of inert gases, i.e., those which do not combine chemically with ’ other elements, and, like the other inert gases, is monatomic. Its valence is 0. LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES Physical Properties.— Chemical symbol, Ne. Colorless, odorless, tasteless. Atomic weight, 20.2. Specific gravity, 0.695 (Air=1). Boiling point, —243° C. Melting point, —253° C. Critical temperature, <——205° C. Critical pressure, 29 atmospheres. Spectrum consists of green lines and several orange lines. Neon has been proved to be monatomic by determining the ratio of its specific heat at con- stant pressure to its specific heat at constant volume. Commercial Uses.— When a tube contain- ing Neon is rarefied it is readily permeated by an electric discharge. Neon has found a limited use commercially as a gas for filling tubes for the production of light by the passage of an electric current through the tube. Difficulties have been met in employing it in this way be- cause it is sensitive to the presence of the smallest quantities of other gases, and its lumin- ous properties are entirely overcome by them. Claude has devised a process of removing this difficulty by utilizing the absorbent properties of charcoal when cooled, which were discovered by Dewar. This is done by purifying the Neon in the tube during the passage of the electric current, by means of charcoal, the temperature of which has been lowered by liquid air. When the impurities have been removed in this man- ner and the Neon left, the tube is separated from the charcoal receptacle. ; Neon tubes used in lighting have an advan- tage over nitrogen tubes in that the candle- power is much greater and the efficiency better. A disadvantage is that the light produced is too red. because there is an absence of blue rays. This quality is desirable, however, in display illumination where the dazzling light produces a beautiful effect. Neon tubes were used in 1910 in Paris for lighting the Grand Palace on the Champs Elysées. Their use, however, has not been developed commercially to any extent. NITROGEN, a colorless, odorless gas, non- inflammable “under ordinary conditions and non-explosive. The density of pure nitrogen under normal temperature and pressure condi- tions is 0.96737. The density of atmospheric nitrogen (containing the inert gases) is 0.97209. The atomic weight of nitrogen is 14.01. The critical pressure is 35 atmospheres, and the critical temperature —146.25° C. The melting point of solid nitrogen is —210.5° C., and the boiling point of liquid nitrogen —195.5° C. The nitrogen thermometer is used in modern precise thermometry, and the following constant was determined with the greatest possible care: -If a given mass of nitrogen at initial temperature of 0° C. and pressure of one meter of mercury be heated at constant volume to 100° C., its pressure becomes equal to that due to 1.36745 meters of mercury. Historical.— Nitrogen was first recognized as a distinct substance by Rutherford of the University of Edinburgh in 1772. His demon- stration consisted in showing that when a small animal breathes the air in an enclosed space for 485 a while, and the carbon dioxide produced: is removed by absorption, there still remains a _ gas that is incapable of supporting respiration. The individuality of nitrogen and its existence in the atmosphere was first demonstrated by Lavoisier, who named it “azote,” signifying “without life.” The French: still call nitrogen by this name, the English name being derived from the Latin “nitrum,» meaning saltpetre. Occurrence.— Nitrogen is one of the most widely distributed elements. In the free form it makes up 79 per cent by volume of the atmos-7 phere, or 77 per cent by weight. It also occurs in the air in chemical combination as nitric and nitrous acids as well as ammonia, but in only small quantities, it being estimated that the nitrous gases are present to the extent of about one part in 3,000,000. Nitrogen is found in volcanic gases, in the air-bladders of certain fish, the bone cavities of birds, the cavities of plants, in meteorites, in the nebule and in the atmosphere of the sun. Nitrogen is found in many forms in combination with other elements. It occurs as an essential constituent in vegetable and animal matter in the form of proteins which average about 16 per cent nitrogen. It is found in Bengal in the form of potassium nitrate (saltpetre) and in Chile and Peru in the form of sodium nitrate (Chile saltpetre). Quantities of combined nitrogen are obtained in the form of ammonia by destructive distilla- tion of coal. The natural manures, such as the guanos, also contain considerable combined nitrogen. Preparation.— There are various ways of obtaining nitrogen from the air by use of chemicals to absorb the accompanying oxygen. Such nitrogen is never more than 99 per cent pure, as the inert gases (see ARGON) are still present. Nitrogen is also obtained from com- bustion gases, for example, from gas producers, and it can, of course, be obtained by factional distillation of liquid air, the average purity by this method being about 99.9 per cent nitrogen. In order to obtain pure nitrogen the earliest experimentalists resorted to chemicals. The simplest method is to heat ammonium nitrite, but as this compound is somewhat unstable and inclined to decompose, the same result is ob- tained by using the more stable form — sodium nitrite; this is mixed with ammonium chloride, and when heat is applied to the mixture, ammonium nitrite is formed and immediately decomposes into water and pure nitrogen. It is also epossible to obtain pure nitrogen from air by means of metallic nitrides. ,Nitrogen combines directly with lithium, calcium and magnesium when heated. These nitrides, on further heating, again give up their nitrogen. Comparatively pure nitrogen is obtained in large quantities as a residue from.the carbonat- ing towers in the Solvay plants for making soda by the “ammonia-soda” process. Compounds of Nitrogen.— Although there are so many chemical compounds of nitrogen, it is a very indifferent or inert element as com- pared with the activity of oxygen. One of the great problems of science has been the so-called “fixation” of nitrogen and it cannot be said: that the problem is at the present time by any means satisfactorily solved. Granting, however, that the nitrogen has been fixed, whether naturally or synthetically, in the form of nitric acid or 486 ammonia or their salts, the compounds are many of them intensely active; e.g., nitric acid, and the well-known explosive, nitroglycerine, T.N.T. and picric acid. The literature of the nitro- gen compounds is very extensive and new work is constantly being reported on the thousands of derivatives of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not combine with oxygen under ordinary conditions. The combination takes place under the in- fluence of an electric spark, and such a combina- tion always accompanies lightning. For this rea- son, some oxides of nitrogen are always present in rain water but the small amounts thus formed could scarcely have supplied vegetation through- out the ages. Certain classes of plants, notably legumes (alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans, etc.), are provided with means of taking up the free nitrogen from the atmosphere by the assistance of bacteria which flourish on the nodules of the roots of the plants. These bacteria have the power of converting the free nitrogen of the air into compounds which in turn are taken up by the nodules and assimilated by the plants, sometimes to the extent of over 5 per cent of combined nitrogen, in the form of proteins. A great deal of work has been done on design- ing suitable apparatus for the combination of nitrogen and oxygen by electric means, but the process is still only commercially possible where water power is very cheap, as in the plants in Norway. The combination of nitrogen with oxygen was first brought about by Cavendish in 1785. The use of the electric arc was introduced by Sir William Crookes in 1892. The commerical manufacture of nitric acid was at empted at Niagara Falls in 1902 by Bradley and Lovejoy, who subjected a mixture of oxygen and nitro- gen or air enriched with oxygen to a high ten- sion arc drawn out as long as_ possible. Mechanically and. chemically the operation was a success, as the efficiency of the process was greater than that obtained by Birkeland and Eyde in Norway in 1903. Nevertheless, the cost of power is high at Niagara Falls, and financial backing for the development was lack- ing, so that the work was discontinued. In Norway, where power is much cheaper, arc processes are now being operated on a large scale. With oxygen, nitrogen forms five oxides as follows: (1) Nitrous oxide (N.O) is prepared by cautiously heating ammonium nitrate. Some of its properties are similar to those of oxygen, in that it supports the combus- tion of certain materials, such as phosphorus, which also burn easily in oxygen. ©On the other hand, metals do not rust in it, and the hemoglobin of the blood cannot use it as a source of oxygen. Davy noticed that when taken into the lungs, it produced a mild form of intoxication or hysterical condition, which gave rise to the name of “laughing gas” by which it is commonly known. Prolonged use of the gas produced insensibility. Asa result of these ob- servations, a method of using it as an anes- thetic has been worked out, the method consist- ing of the admixture of a sufficient amount of oxygen or air to sustain life. It is thus employed for minor operations, such as dental work, or preceding the use of ether, and when properly used has practically no after effects; (2) Nitrogen dioxide (N.O:) or nitric oxide (NO) was discovered by Priestley, who called it “saltpetre-gas.» This is a colorless gas com- LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES monly prepared by acting upon metallic copper with cold dilute nitric acid. Nitric oxide com- bines directly and readily with oxygen, the combination taking place promptly upon con- tact with air, the brown colored higher oxides of nitrogen being formed. The dioxide may be liquefied ‘by the application of cold and pres- sure; the critical temperature is 93.5°C. and the critical pressure 71.2 atmospheres. The solidified gas melts as abotit 167° C.; (3) Nitro- gen trioxide or nitrogen sesquioxide, N2Os, may be prepared (though in rather an impure state) by the action of nitric acid upon starch, or upon arsenic trioxide. It is a reddish gas, which condenses to a volatile blue liquid upon being cooled by a freezing mixture. Nitro- gen trioxide also dissolves in ice-cold water with the formation of a blue liquid containing nitrous acid, HNO: (See Nurrous Acip). On account of the difficulty of preparing this gas in even a moderate degree of purity, its chemical and physical properties have not been determined with any degree of exactness; (4) Nitrogen peroxide, N2O., formerly known as the “dioxide” (NO:) may be prepared by heating dry nitrate of lead, which breaks up into lead oxide, oxygen and nitrogen peroxide. It is a dark orange-colored gas, which has the molec- ular formula N.O.: at low temperatures, for which reason it is also called the “tetroxide” At 150° C. the gas has the molecular formula NO,, as is proved by its density; and at ordinary temperatures it consists of a mixture of NO. and NO. At about 188° C. a further dissociation into nitric oxide and oxygen be- gins, this increasing as the temperature rises, until, at about 565° C., the dissociation into nitric oxide and oxygen is complete. Nitrogen peroxide is easily liquefied and solidified. At temperatures lower than —8° C., it is a white, deliquescent, crystalline solid, which on heat- ing slowly melts to a colorless liquid, becomes yellow when warmed to 0° C., and orange at 20° C. Under ordinary atmospheric pressure it boils at about 22° C., with the evolution of the gaseous peroxide; (5) Nitrogen pentoxide or nitric anhydride, N2Os, may be prepared by dehydrating concentrated nitric acid by the cautious addition of phosphorous pentoxide, or by passing chlorine gas over dry silver nitrate. The pentoxide is solid at ordinary temperatures, and: may be obtained in the form of white, lustrous, translucent prisms, which have a specific gravity of about 1.64, and melt at 3° C. with partial decomposition into the peroxide and free oxygen. At about 46°C. the liquid boils. The pentoxide combines with water to form nitric acid (q.v.). Ammonia.— Under very high pressures (175 to 200 atmospheres) and at high temperatures, (approx. 600°C.) with the assistance of a catalyst, nitrogen and hydrogen can be com- bined directly, forming ammonia (NHs). The first commercial development of this process was accomplished by Haber and his associates in Germany in 1910. The apparatus used is difficult to construct, and the catalyst is easily rendered inactive, yet Germany made consider- able quantities of ammonia by this method dur- ing the war; the costs of production by this process, however, have not been disclosed. Large quantities of ammonia have been manufactured during the last few years by the so-called Cyanamid process, in which calcium LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES Single Unit Generator Sectional View Generator SECTIONAL VIEW GENERATOR Oxygen offtake Hydrogen offtake Indicator and Pressure Equalizer Positive electrode Terminals Negative “ % Filling cup Hydraulic Jornt Diaphragm Insulating supports A—OUTER ELECTRODE B—COVER cOe> C—HYDRAULIC JOINT sy D—INNER ELECTRODE mo E—ASBESTOS SACK _ F—FILLING HOLE IN COVER G—LANTERN DIMENSION OF GENERATORS Height of cell 2’ 10” _ ‘over all 5’ 6” Length over all 3’ 9” Width “ “ 19” Weight empty 1000 Ibs, 3 full 1500 Ibs, H—PORCELAIN SUPPORTS Fig. 1.— First electrolytic oxygen and hydrogen generator Fig. 2.— First development of Fig. 1 with a view toward manufactured in United States (French Patents) economy of floor space LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES View from the rear of a 15-cell battery of generators, with a rated capacity at normal current of 600 amperes of 1728 Fig. 4.— The third stage of development, representing higher efficiency, compactness, and durability. cubic feet of oxygen and 3456 cubic feet of hydrogen per 24 hours Aueduo0) voljonpsy ny fq “ery ‘sfeoys eposny je poyorqy “Avp sod uasomM oInd 4003 91GN 000‘000'ST JO UO ONpoId 9Y} JO} SouIyOeL Wy pmMbi]T wo3shS opne[g AjTY} Jo Uorjel]e}SU] > al es; + Je ares : oe | A « 7? » * i. * Nn nt A - Tax) & b A - Pia . 4 ry earl od be . ~ 6 " ‘ i ; * 7 ‘ i i ees o § nL ae A. < 4 + 4 “ a 4 a 20 a " % Ss 4 oe Mls , Z ‘ ~ tel a? S e x ves Mu txt ve 1 ~ ' x a i ‘ ‘ a ao c , t aa ; 4 ‘ f Fi ’ } — oad | A t r 4 % <> THE UBRARY | Eade OF THE | eae uavERsiTy GF (LUINGIS: A 1 -4 4 Fo | i ; of F : . H - od . ” ; 4 :4 > ‘ ' / 4 ; : Ls et - 3 tore 4 . ? ; ; i a ant 7 ray " 8 ° LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES carbide is first manufactured in an electric fur- nace; this carbide is ground fine and subjected to the action of nitrogen in suitable ovens. The resulting product is called Cyanamid and contains 20 to 23 per cent nitrogen. By sub- jecting this Cyanamid to steam, under pressure, almost the theoretical yield of ammonia is ob- tained. The method has been in operation in Europe for some time as well as at Niagara Falls, Ontario. (See CyANamip). Several processes for the production of NHs through the intermediate formation of cyanides are in process of development and show promise of successful operation. In these processes a mix- ture of alkali metal compound and carbon, with or without a catalyst, is subjected to the action of nitrogen at a temperature of approximately 1000° ‘C. Cyanides are produced which, by the action of steam, are converted into ammonia and a residue which can be returned to the cycle of operations. (See CyANIDES). Am- monia can also be obtained by the hydrolysis of suitable nitrides. This process was first in- troduced by Serpek in Italy. Interest in this process has recently been revived and one or more plants are in prospect. The process de- pends upon the reduction of alumina in one form or another by means of carbon at a very high temperature in the presence of nitrogen, The aluminum nitride thus formed is after- ward subjected to the action of steam, pro- ducing ammonia and alumina. Notwithstand- ing the methods described above, the fact re- mains that the world still depends upon nature to supply the bulk of the ammonia required and until comparatively recently nearly all of our ammonia came from the destructive distillation of coal. An oily liquid known as chloride of nitrogen (NCl;) is formed by passing chlorine through a solution of ammonium chloride or, more conveniently, electrolyzing a solution of ammonium chloride. This compound is one of the most dangerous explosives known. A num- ber of synthetic nitrogen compounds, not found in nature but now widely used, are of great im- portance, In addition to the oxides and ammo- nia mentioned above, there are such derivatives of nitric acid as nitroglycerine, gun cotton and a series of so-called “azo-compounds,” which are either dyes or intermediates in the manu- facture of dyes. A number of alkaloids that contain nitrogen show considerable physiolog- ical activity and are of importance as medi- cines. Uses.— Free nitrogen gas is used in very large quantities in the manufacture of cyana- mide, cyanides and synthetic ammonia. Itis also used in the incandescent lamp industry as the filaments last much longer and give greater efficiency 1 in an atmosphere of nitrogen than in one of air. Nitrogen is likewise finding an in- creasing number of applications as an inert gas in various manufacturing operations, for in- stance where oxidation is to be avoided. Cer- tain compounds of nitrogen, e.g., nitrates, am- monium salts and cyanamid (nitrolim), are used in enormous quantities as fertilizers. Nitric acid and an almost endless list of nitro com- pounds obtained by treatment of various or- ganic materials with nitric acid are used in very large quantities in the manufacture of dyes and explosives, drugs, celluloid and simi- lar products. Ammonia is used in large quan- 487 tities in ice machines and in the manufacture of soda by the Solvay process. Cyanides are used for the extraction of the precious metals from their ores and also in considerable quantities in the electroplating industries, as well as in the manufacture of numerous small amounts of chemicals useful in the practical arts. Bibliography.— Boyce, John C., ‘Bibliog- raphy of the Production of Synthetic Nitric Acid and Synthetic Ammonia? (in Metallurgi- cal and Chemical Engineering, Vol. XVII, p. 328, 1917) ; ‘Reference List Electrical Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen, etc.,> Bulletin No. 63, United States Bureau of Soils; Literature of the Nitrogen Industries, 1912-16, originally published serially in the General Electric Re- view and later assembled in the Journal of In- dustrial and Engineering Chemistry, pp. 424- 438 (1917); Thorpe, ‘Dictionary of Applied Chemistry? (Vol. Ill, pp. 676-712, 1916). NITROUS OXIDE. Nitrogen monoxide— nitrous oxide —laughing gas — N2O — specific gravity 1.52— atomic weight 43.76, A colorous gas possessing a pleasant, slightly sweet smell and taste. Used largely by surgeons and den- tists — preferably with a small admixture of oxygen as a general anesthetic. Itt is not in- flammable and not explosive except in the pres- | ence of some easily oxidizable material when it acts in manner similar to oxygen under same conditions. Soluble in water to the extent of approximately one volume at ordinary temper- atures and atmospheric pressure. Much more soluble in alcohol and many of the volatile oils. At temperatures below its critical point (30° C. — 86° F.) it is readily liquefied by pressure. Its critical pressure (tension of the gas at its criti- cal temperature) is 75 atmospheres. At tem- peratures below the critical the tension of the saturated vapor is approximately as below: —100° C.— Freezes. — 88° C—15 Ibs. (Atmospheric pressure). 0° C— 30 Atmospheres. + 7° C—50 Atmospheres. + 20 —60 Atmospheres. + 55 —116 Atmospheres. The liquefied gas is a colorless and very mobile liquid having a specific gravity of 0.9369, freezes at — 100° C. and expands rapidly when heated — ‘is not miscible with water but dis- solves or mixes readily with alcohol — chloro- form — ether and the volatile oils generally. It is also a ready solvent of many gums and hy- drocarbons, If a cylinder containing the liquefied gas be immersed, valve up, in a freezing mixture of ice and salt, in order to condense and freeze any moisture present, and then after attaching a short bent delivery tube to the valve, be in- verted with the tube extending into a glass flask and the valve cautiously opened, the first liquid flowing will evaporate with great rapidity and some spluttering until the temperature of the tube and flask are sufficiently reduced, when the liquid will collect in the flask and may be re- tained for a considerable period. If the liquid be agitated or the gaseous atmosphere over the liquid be removed by blowing with the mouth or otherwise, the surface will be immediately covered by a thin film of the frozen gas. In 458 this or similar experiments great care is neces- sary to prevent the liquid or frozen gas from striking the unprotected skin, as it will quickly freeze the surface and produce an ugly sore similar to that produced by contact with molten lead or other metal. History.— Nitrous oxide was first prepared by Priestley in 1772 by deoxidizing nitric oxide —NO. In 1823 the gas was liquefied by Far- aday by heating anhydrous nitrate of ammonia contained in one limb of a_ hermetically sealed glass tube bent in the middle at an obtuse angle. The gas together with the water vapor formed by the decomposition of the salt distilled over into the cooled end of the tube and both being condensed by the pressure and cold to liquids — the gas collected on top of the water. Through the experiments of Natterer of Vienna and Bianchi of Paris (1845) carbonic acid — nitrous oxide and some other gases were liquefied on a semi-commercial scale by the use of a small but powerful pump specially con- structed for the purpose. The pump cylinder of small diameter and long (not unlike a gun barrel) was cooled by a water jacket and deliv- ered the gas in successive charges through an automatically operated valve into a strong iron reservoir which was surrounded by ice or a freezing mixture. Many early observers called attention to the peculiar physiological effects of the gas when breathed: in some instances it would seem prob- able that they must have made use of an impure gas in their experiments. In 1809 Sir Hum- phrey Davy mentions among these effects in- toxication and ultimate loss of consciousness and even suggests its use as an anesthetic. This suggestion bore no fruit until 1844 when Mr. G. O. Colton in the course of a lecture or entertainment given at Hartford, Conn. ad- ministered the gas to a number of individuals from his audience and among others to. Mr. Samuel A. Cooley, who in the course of the antics induced by breathing the gas injured his leg quite severely. Upon coming out from un- der the influence of the gas Mr. C. stated that he had no recollection of the injury nor did it give him any pain. Dr. Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford who was present, imme- diately suggested the use of the gas as an anesthetic an the extraction of teeth. Within a few days Dr. Wells arranged to put his idea to a test. Mr. Colton adminis- tered the gas to Dr. Wells, and Dr. J. M. Riggs, also a Hartford dentist, extracted a tooth from Dr. Wells’ mouth. This experiment was a complete success, and monumental, be- ing the first recorded instance of a painless surgical operation under the influence of a gen- eral anesthetic. Dr. Wells made use of. the gas in a number of minor surgical operations, but, owing to crude methods and imperfect ap- paratus, with varying success. Dr. Wells died a little later, and the anesthetic properties of sul- phuric either and chloroform being discovered, the anesthetic properties of nitrous oxide were apparently forgotten until the year 1862, when its use was revived, this time in New Haven, Conn. In July 1863 Mr. Colton, in conjunction with a number of influential dentists, organized the Colton Dental Association and opened an office in New York City for the painless extraction LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES of teeth, nitrous oxide being the anesthetic em- ployed. This’ venture proved a great success, and in 1881 Dr. Colton reported 121,709 admin- istrations of the gas at the office of his asso- ciation and with no accidents. In a catalogue of. surgical instruments and apparatus issued by James Coxeter & Son of London, England, in 1870 we find cuts and price lists of iron cylinders containing the liquefied gas together with inhalers and other apparatus. This is without doubt the first instance of the com- meroial development of the liquefied gas in- dustry. Coxeter apparatus was brought to American immediately upon its introduction to the den- tal profession in England, and various sizes of iron cylinders, containing from 100 to 1,000 gallons of the gas, soon became common in the American dental trade. The liquefied gas was first produced commercially in this coun- try by Johnston Brothers of New York City, who developed and patented improved com- pressing methods and machinery, and who later united with S. S. White of Philadelphia, con- tinuing the manufacture under the name of The S. S. White Dental Manufacturing Com- pany. Commercial Method of Manufacture, Etc. — Nitrous oxide may be made by a number of methods depending upon the deoxidation of the higher oxides of nitrogen, as, for instance, by the action of dilute nitric acid upon zinc or iron. An impure gas may be made also by heating a mixture of ammonium sulphate and nitrate of soda or potash in a closed retort. The general commercial method for its manu- facture, however, is by heating in a closed glass or. metal retort having a proper protective lining a pure fused nitrate of ammonia. Ata temperature of about 170° C. the salt fuses completely and at temperatures between 240° and 260° C. gives off gas freely—the latter temperature should not be exceeded, The formula of the reaction is: NH.N O;+H eat=N20 +2H.0. It thus appears that the nitrate of ammonia is completely decomposed, each molecule break- ing up and forming one molecule of nitrous oxide gas and two molecules of the vapor of water or steam. The products of the distilla- tion are cooled, the steam being of course con- densed to water, and then having passed through proper washing apparatus the gas is collected in a holder from which it is taken by pumps and compressed into steel cylinders. Among the concerns now engaged in the manufacture of nitrous oxide are the Lennox Chemical Com- pany and the Ohio Chemical. Company, both of Cleveland, Ohio, The S. S. White Dental Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia, Pa., and the Standard Oxygen Company of New York. City. The American Red Cross has, it is. said, constructed in France at Montreux a large plant capable of producing and liquefying 100,- 000 gallons of N:O_ per. day, and for a, few months previous to the signing of the armistice N:O was very largely used in the army and navy hospitals with great success. The annual pro- duction of N.2O in America is variously esti- mated at from 10,000,000 gallons (133,333 cubic feet) to three times this figure. LIQUEFIED AND COMPRESSED GASES OXYGEN. Historical.— Oxygen was rec- ognized by its properties as far back as the 8th century among the Chinese who knew that the “active” component of the air combines with some metals, with sulphur and with char- coal and that this active component could be obtained pure from saltpetre and certain other minerals. Leonardo da Vinci (1451-1519) was the first European to state that the air contains two gases, but it was not until 1774 that Joseph Priestley made the first pure sample of oxygen. It is true that Scheele, a Swedish apothecary, had made oxygen in 1771-72 from at least seven different substances, and that he had made quite an extensive study of its combination with various materials, but as his results were not printed until 1777, Priestley is generally con- sidered the discoverer of oxygen. Many other chemists worked on air and the commonly known gases at that time, and these studies furnished the material on which Lavoisier, the great French philosopher and scientist, based his conclusions which may be said to form the foundation of modern chemistry. The name oxygen (meaning acid-torming) was given to the gas by Lavoisier who at that time thought it was an essential constituent of all acids. Occurrence.— Oxygen is the most widely distributed element in nature and it has been estimated that it makes up nearly half of ter- restrial matter. It forms approximately 21 per cent by volume of the atmosphere; it makes up eight-ninths: by weight of all the water on the globe; more than three-fifths of the human body; nearly half of three of the chief con- stituents of the earth’s crust, namely, silicious rock, chalk and alumina. Many other minerals contain oxygen in considerable proportions. It is an essential constituent of all living organ- isms, aside from its existence in the water of the tissues. It is absorbed by all animals dur- ing respiration and is given off in the free state by growing vegetable organisms when exposed to sunlight. Preparation.— Pure oxygen is best pre- pared in small quantities from one of the many substances in which it occurs in chemical com- bination. I. Heat applied under the proper conditions causes oxygen to be liberated from the follow- ing compounds: oxides of mercury, silver, gold and platinum; peroxides of hydrogen, barium, lead and manganese; chlorates, nitrates, bi- chromates, etc.. of potassium and other metals. Of chief interest are the following: 1. Ignition of nitre, which gives up only one-third of its oxygen. Priestley first ob- tained impure oxygen in this manner in 1771. 2. Ignition of mercuric oxide, the method used by Priestley on 1 Aug. 1774, when he made the first pure oxygen. 3. Heating manganese dioxide, formerly one of the cheapest methods. of commercial prep- aration of oxygen, and the one used by Scheele. 4. Heating potassium chlorate alone or preferably with about one-eighth of its weight of manganese dioxide, or a little spongy plati- num. Oxygen prepared in this way usually con- tains chlorine which can be removed by caus- tic soda solution. The manganese dioxide (pyrolusite) should be tested as the occasional adulteration of it with coal dust has been the cause of fatal accidents. 489 II. A convenient laboratory method for the preparation of pure oxygen is to treat “oxone” (a convenient form of sodium peroxide) with water. This material is prepared in a handy form ‘especially for this purpose. III. The electrolysis of water made slightly acid with sulphuric acid furnishes pure oxygen, which is liberated at the positive pole, and at the same time twice the volume of hydrogen i is liberated at the negative pole. Properties.— Oxygen is a colorless, taste- less and odorless gas. It is 1.1056 times as heavy as air. Owing to the large number of elements that combine with oxygen, it has been selected by the International Committee on Atomic Weights as the standard of comparison for all atomic weights, that of oxygen being 16 (according to this scale the atomic weight of hydrogen is 1.008). Oxygen was first liquefied in 1877 but was not obtained in the liquid form in considerable quantities until 1883. (See Liquefaction of Gases, p. 495).. Liquid oxygen is a pale, steel blue, transparent liquid when in considerable masses. The density of liquid oxygen at —182.5° C. is 1.1181; the density of solid oxygen is 1.4256 at —252.5° C. The critical temperature of oxygen is — 118° C., and the critical pressure 50 atmospheres. At atmospheric pressure, the Doce set is —182.5° C.; the melting point is —218° C. One volume of liquid oxygen at —182.5° C., if allowed to evaporate, furnishes an amount of gas which, at 0° C. and atmospheric pres- sure, occupies a volume 782 times that of the original liquid taken. In a Geissler tube, oxygen shows a luminous spectrum containing a bright band in the red, two in the green and one in the blue, but the spectrum is said to vary under varying condi- tions. Oxygen is slightly soluble in water. Its introduction into all animal life is by this means. Fish get the oxygen for their blood directly from the water in which it is dissolved. Among the air-breathing animals, including mankind, the process is not so obvious; the air is breathed into the lungs, oxygen is ab- sorbed by the moisture in the walls of the air sacs of the lungs and thus passes into the blood in the dissolved state. While the oxygen of the air supports respira- tion, and oxygen is the only gas suitable for this need of animal life, the proportion found in air is the one to which all life has become adjusted. Pure oxygen can be inhaled for a while with safety, but only relatively small amounts are required to produce a sense of narcotism in a normal, healthy person. and Owen Meredith’s (Lord Lyt- ton’s) ‘Lucille? (q.v.). Lyrical Poetry is characterized on the one hand by its association with music, and on the other by the personal or subjective feeling which it normally expresses. Its simplest and 507 most typical form is the Song. As the type develops, with the natural course of civilization, a larger and larger element of reflection, or intellectual expressiveriess, is added to the Originally simple and ‘song-like utterance of feeling, resulting im what may be called the Reflective Lyric. Of the song-lyric the poems of Burns are the most important examples in modern English literature; of the reflective lyric the chief masters are Wordsworth, Shel- ley and Tennyson (e.g., ‘Tintern Abbey,? ‘To a Skylark,» ‘Tears, Idle Tears’). Special- forms of-the reflective lyric are the Ode, the Elegy, and the Sonnet. The term Ode is loosely applied to a lyric of a highly dignified or impassioned character, elaborated at some length, especially when addressed to some per- sonified idea (as Coleridge’s ‘Ode to France? and Wordsworth’s ‘Ode to Duty) or expres- sive of public feeling on some important occa- sion (as Tennyson’s ‘Ode on the Death of Wellington» and Lowell’s ‘Commemoration Ode’). The Elegy is (for English usage, hav- ing a much more general significance in class- ical poetry) a lyric expressive of melancholy or grief, in particular when commemorative of a dead friend. The most representative ex- amples are Milton’s ‘Lycidas? and Shelley’s “Adonais?; of a somewhat different character is Gray’s ‘Elegy in a Country Churchyard? (q.v.), where the unknown dead of an entire village are celebrated. The Sonnet is a con- densed reflective lyric, devoted to the expression of a single idea or moment of feeling, and is always 14 lines in length. Two forms are distinguished: the Italian, in which the poem divides itself into two parts, octave and sestet, usually with some corresponding division of the thought; and the English, in which the natural divisions are three quatrains and a concluding couplet, with a correspondingly more progressive development of the thought. The chief English sonneteers in the Italian form are Sidney, Milton, Wordsworth, and Ros- setti; in the English form, Shakespeare and Drayton. We may also note under the head of ly- rical poetry certain forms which in a sense combine the method of lyric with that of nar- rative. Thus a poem may be at once song and story, or be intended equally to express feeling and narrate action; for this the term Lyrical Ballad has been used, notably by Wordsworth, who said that in his narrative poems called by this name the reader was to understand that the. feeling awakened “gives importance to the action and situation, not the action and situation to the feeling” Or, a poem may represent a song expressive of the feeling of a particular imagined person in a_ particular situation; for this the term Dramatic Lyric is used, notably by Browning (e.g., his ‘Cavalier Tunes”). If it is the speech, rather than the song, of an imagined character, reflectively developed, the poem is called a Dramatic Mono- logue; this is one of the most characteristic of modern types, being represented especially in the work of Tennyson and Browning (e.¢., the former’s ‘Ulysses,” the latter’s “My Last Duchess?). In the poem ‘Maud? Tennyson told the story through a series of dramatic lyrics and monologues, and called the whole a Monodrama. Dramatic Poetry is not, in general, distin- 508 guished in its kinds from those of prose drama; see, therefore, the account given above under prose forms. For the most part, the use of poetry in drama is confined to tragedy and romantic comedy, and even there, in modern English drama, it has been largely displaced by prose. . A separate class is sometimes made for Descriptive Poetry, as represented by examples like Thomson’s ‘Seasons’; but description in poetry, as in prose literature, is usually sub- ordinated to some more characteristic end. Still another class is made up of Didactic or Expository Poetry, in which the functions of prose are most closely approximated, for the exposition of ethical or social theory; import- ant examples in English literature are Dry- den’s ‘Religio Laici? and Pope’s ‘Essay on Man.? Wordsworth’s ‘Excursion? combines the methods of narrative and didactic poetry. Finally, we may note a type sometimes called Familiar Verse, more frequently Vers de Société, which may be either narrative or lyri- cal in form, but is distinguished by its own mood and style; it is witty or humorous in tone, in style suggestive of polite conversation, and deals generally with the manners of artifi- cial society rather than with those fundamental themes (like nature, love, and death), which form the chief subject matter of serious poetry. Important examples, for English literature, are Pope’s ‘Rape of the Lock»? (in form a mock- epic), and various short poems by W. M. Praed, C. S. Calverley and Austin Dobson... For vers de société modern writers often employ certain fixed forms of verse derived from medizval French usage, such as the Ballade, the Rondeau or Rondel, and the Triolet; these follow exact and difficult arrangements of rime, and are marked by the repetition of a pointed refrain. In Latin literature, and in English literature of the Renaissance and the 18th century, Satire is a distinct form of poetry,— the imaginative indictment of contemporary follies and vices. In modern literature no such distinct type is commonly recognized, but the mood and pur- pose of satire may be discovered in prose or verse, and in narrative, lyrical or dramatic form. Somewhat similarly, the Pastoral or Eclogue was a recognized form of poetry, under classical influence, in the Renaissance and later; Spenser’s ‘Shepherd’s Calendar? forms an important collection. But the term Pastoral was loosely used, and is now applied as an ad- jective in connection with romance, drama or lyric, when the theme concerns the traditional beauty. and happiness. of rural — particularly shepherd — life. . Bibliography.— For works dealing with the separate. literary forms, see under Essay, DrAMA, Novel, and Poetry. For the types in general, consult Gayley and Scott, ‘Introduc- tion to the Methods and Materials of Literary . Criticism? (Boston 1899); Painter, F. V. N., ‘Elementary Guide to Literary Criticism? (Boston 1903); Hunt, T. W., ‘Literature, its Principles and Problems» (New York 1906) ; Hudson, W. H., ‘Introduction to the Study of Literature” (Boston 1910); Moulton, R. G, ‘The Modern Study of Literature? (Chicago 1915). RaymMonp M. ALDEN, Professor of English, Leland Stanford Junior University, LITERARY LABOR SAVERS — LITERATURE LITERARY LABOR SAVERS. See OFFICE LABOR-SAVERS. LITERARY PROPERTY. See Copy- RIGHT. LITERATURE (in Latin, Jlitteratura, literatura, writing, from littera, letter); in the widest sense is the expression, representation or manifestation of thought by means of alphabetic symbols called letters — the products being considered as a collective body, without special regard to the excellence and beauty of the form of expression. But in a restricted and usually preferred sense only the more polished or artistic class of such products, to- gether with the critical knowledge and apprecia- tion of them, may be called literature; for the term is, according to this latter usage, applied exclusively to writing which has claim to con- sideration on the ground of beauty of form or emotional effect. Thus, a declaration conform- ing to the latter usage is John Morley’s often cited sentence: “Literature consists of all the books where moral truth and human passion are touched with a certain largeness, Sanity, and attractive form”; and the best recent expression of the same high view is to be credited to Lieut. Coningsby Dawson, who writes in October 1917: “In the light of my experience at the front, the petty personal problems which we cloak in words and call literature seem so ignoble a presentation of men and women who are planned for im- mortality and live in an infinite world» The passport to this higher class (literature in the usually preferred sense and belles-lettres) is the possession of what is known as literary quality; and the foregoing statements enable us to conclude that any work in this field should, if its possession of this passport quality is to be fully conceded, rise above pettiness or triviality of thought and expression, and should attain or approximate not only attractiveness of form but also soundness and adequacy of treatment. There is certainly room for doubt as to the correct classification of the main divisions of this subject, especially in regard to the admis- sion or exclusion of distinctive groups. For instance, the literary quality of a work in the field of science or in the field of oratory (after the oration has been printed) may be so marked and striking that we easily think of the former. as literature in the restricted, and not merely in the widest, sense; and we may also, and almost as easily, overlook the fact that oratory must be held to be expression by vocal sounds and not primarily representation by alphabetic symbols. On the other hand, some of the dramatic works that are now by common con- sent classed as secular literature’s best offering were originally designed simply to be acted, to be played, and without one thought of the effect they would produce when printed and read. In general usage, however, six or seven main groups are recognized, and all of these, except the first and the last, were developed in Greece or Greek colonies before (some of them long before) the middle of the 4th century B.c. We have thus the literature of religion, of philosophy, of poetry (epic, dramatic and LITERATURE, ART AND MUSIC literature of the several peoples of the world, both ancient and modern, are treated fully under their special or national titles, as Ameri- can Literature, Celtic Literature, English Liter- ature, Greek Literature, Latin Literature, Latin-American Literature, Jewish Literature, Lithuanian Literature, Persian Literature, Polish Literature, Russian Literature, etc., etc. Reference to the Classified Index will give a complete list of articles ‘dealing with special periods or phases of literature and literary his- tory, as’ Comparative Literature, Classical Literature, Literature of the Middle Ages, Elizabethan and Victorian literatures, etc. In addition, the great masterpieces of world liter- ature have received special treatment under their own titles, giving an outline of the plot, characters, literary excellence and literary his- tory of the work in question, e.g. Hedda Gabler, Autobiography of Franklin, Man without a Country, Jane Eyre, Peter Ibbotson, Hernani, Gil Blas, La Vita Nuova, Amiel’s Journal, Anna Karenina, Kalevala, Madame Bovary, etc. LITERATURE, ART AND MUSIC, Influence of the World War On. All wars have a profound influence on the life and thought of the nations — they either sterilize when disasters are overwhelming or awaken to new energy when conditions are more favorable. The inspiration of any momentous and long- continued struggle is contagious—it spreads from camp to city and enters every sphere of activity, molding a nation’s literature, art and music, spheres that are so readily affected. Naturally the full force of that influence may not be felt immediately, but it cannot long be deferred nor its importance underestimated. For war in intensifying the sense of national- ity arouses attention to those lines of activity in which nations take special pride —arts and letters. The war of 1914 had at first an unfavorable effect on literature, with the whole bent of the nations turning in other directions. The old Latin proverb that amid arms the laws are silent has a much wider application. A shrink- age followed in the output of books; and literary plans, including notable translations, had to be changed or deferred in the severance of relations with the Central Powers and the added difficulty of research work in certain lines. It did not take long, however, before compensation followed in the rapid output of war literature. It was found necessary after October 1918, owing to the shortage of paper,. for American publishers in the interest. of economy to cut down the number and titles of books for general readers as well as in some lines of textbooks, The total number of books. inclusive of pamphlets, issued in the United States in 1914 was 8,563; in 1915, 6,932; in 1916, 8,430; in 1917, 8,107; in 1918, 7,686. The de- crease in fiction and in general literature for 1918 was more than counterbalanced by war books in different lines. The various departments of war literature included diplomacy of war, diaries of diploma- tists, international relations between United States and Germany, documentary histories of diplomatists. Then. comes. newspaper. corre- spondence, usually reprinted in book form, the causes. of war, military history, war poetry, soldiers’ letters,-fiction in the style of Wells, 509 Sinclair and Barbusse, personal sketches, novels, camp journalism,— wide in range and variety of subject. Happily the tension of war has not been allowed to interfere with the average reader’s enjoyment of books. The work of the American Library Association in providing a million and more books for various camps, the result of a public appeal, was of marked value. It is difficult to be specific in examples of war literature that have merit enough to be given mention here. Many books of the day are written only for the day, and quickly pass- into forgetfulness.. In the haste of composi- tion and lack of literary qualities, the majority of war books belong to that category. Some will be treasured as keepsakes or considered as curiosities of a notable epoch, and be con- signed to the vault with curios, antiques, etc. A few works, however, have done their share in forming public opinion. Schreiner’s ‘From Berlin to Bagdad?; Wood’s ‘The Cradle of the War?; Jastrow’s ‘The War and the Bag- dad Railway,> have undoubted excellence and historic value. Dr. Mithler’s ‘The Vandal of Europe,? his diary in the early days of the war, has its place next to Prince Lichnowsky’s famous ‘Memorandum,’ as the most-talked-of books of the era. In fiction ‘The Four Horse- men of the Apocalypse? by the Spanish novel- ist Ibanez is a war story vibrant with Spanish feeling, while Malherbe’s ‘The Flame that Won? gives the emotional French point of view. In poetry, which is never ceasing, as Leigh Hunt puts it in an oft-quoted sonnet, Frank Fox- croft’s ‘War Verse? will be found fairly repre- sentative. Those who like to read. soldiers’ letters, many of which are written with much simplicity of diction and beauty of thought, may turn to the ‘The Good Soldier, by N. P. Dawson. Villiers’ ‘Britain after the Peace? opens up the question of revolution or recon- struction for Great Britain after the war. It will take some years before the authorita- tive history of the war, with broad vision and free from prejudice, will be written. Diploma- tists’ diaries, written originally for the maga- zines and utilized by the movies, while vivid and suggestive, lack the even poise and dignity of histories. The far-sighted, well-balanced historian demands a few years of preparation and another perspective than that of the jour- nalist or the occasional letter-writer. A prac- tical help for the future historian has been be- gun in the Universal Library of Bologna, Italy, with its collection of books, pamphlets, publica- tions, photographs, documents, etc., pertaining to the war of 1914-18. .The works are cata- logued under 800 different classifications and numbered at the close of 1918 nearly 10,000 volumes and pamphlets, exclusive of rare docu- ments and special reviews. The collection is not restricted to Italy but includes every coun- try and phase of the war. It is generally admitted that the war inter- rupted a general renaissance of industrial art in Europe. In England, it is true, thanks to William Morris and his immediate predecessors, the awakening had already come. In fact in the summer of 1914 an exhibition of the decorative arts of Great Britain was held to show the French people how far England had advaneed in the task of making artisans of her artists and artists of her artisans. In the same year in the report to the London county coun- 510 cil of the Central School of Arts and Crafts, it was stated that “workmen, employers, and educationists are awaking to the need of an organized scheme of education in art which shall be both ideal and practical.” Further and more detailed testimony to the progress of art education in England are furnished by the special autumn number of 1916 of the Jnter- national Studio, which gave a careful review of the work done by students in .a limited num- ber of the leading art schools of Great Britain and Ireland. The problem of meeting foreign competition is being resolutely met. In the United States the war has not been allowed to check efforts in industrial art, but the modest beginning made will be developed in due course when suitable methods adapted to our people will be acquired. France has shown its vigilance by organizing in war time its art teaching and establishing committees to ascertain conditions and requirements in its various manufacturing centres. Paris had an exquisite display in the exhibition of Pagnot typography in 1918. The four brothers of that name, who were leaders in the book art, had fallen in. battle. In other lines the master craftsmen have had their gatherings and demonstrations — the metal workers’ craft showing a particularly remarkable develop- ment. As the direct outcome of the world con- flict has sprung into prominence what might be termed the technique of war, in which the in- fluence of impressionists and cubists might be traced as well as that of legitimate art, under the popular name of camouflage. Among English painters C. R. W. Nevinson with his ‘Searchlight? merits the highest praise for the genius displayed; among the French, Faivre and Farré may be mentioned. The en- trance of artists and craftsmen in this field of art was everywhere successful and their work in the military and naval service was very help- ful. If America owes the initiative to the camouflage corps of the French army, it*has shown an ability and a versatility of its own, especially in the problem of marine camouflage. Patrol boats and merchantmen have been painted so as to create low visibility at sea. In New York the work has been chiefly concerned in designing and carrying out street decora- tions for the many receptions given to com- missions from the Allies, which culminated in the Avenue of the Allies for the Fourth Liberty Loan drive, of whose fine features perhaps the most remarkable was the series of paintings done by American artists, one each day, to commemorate the spirit of the 22 pepsin engaged on our side of the world strug- gle. Further work of the artists was to make signs and posters for the army and navy to encourage enlistment— which were scattered all over the country. As a consequence, a camouflage corps was formed for service in France, and it included painters, sculptors, architects, craftsmen such as scene painters, stage carpenters, plaster cast molders and masons. Thus France received a little repay- ment for her copyright in-camouflage. Some further commendable work in this direction was done by artists beyond the draft age in sending original paintings and decorative pieces to the various rest homes and Y. M. C. A. huts. LITERATURE, ART AND MUSIC Thus art was brought into the lives of our soldiers in the many centres of army life in America and France, to wield a more than transient influence on character and efficiency both during war time and the peace that was to follow: As to the effect of the war on art prices, any inquiry is legitimate. We shall probably wit- ness a change in the class of art purchasers and the appearance of a new coterie of wealthy buyers, with whom an intelligent appreciation of the best work is only a matter of time, and who at first will pay higher prices. American music has to be grateful to the war for a larger share of attention and appre- ciation. The tendency to lay emphasis on the foreign element both in programs as well as in education has been followed by a proportionate higher regard for the American teacher and methods as well as for the typical American features in.composition. If Wagner went to medizval Teutonic legends for his themes, why cannot the American utilize the Indian chant and folklore with as superb results? It all de- pends upon the genius and equipment of the composer. There is possibly a larger field for the American music-drama in the very com- plexity of the American nation and the role it has assumed in diffusing democracy in all lands—a field which offers a richer oppor- tunity both for theme and elaboration. The first effect of the war was hardly in- spiring in the flood of patriotic and war songs, only a few of which possessed fair merit. Next followed a change in the concert program, with the Teutonic music less and less represented, and greater prominence given to French, Eng- lish, Italian, Russian and even Japanese com- posers. Bands of music and special artists from the Allied nations toured the country and did much to increase popular knowledge and appreciation. A number of prominent. symphony societies in our large cities were obliged to dispense with their German con- ductors. It was a timely protest against tendencies that seemed likely to injure American stand- ards of music when the Musical Alliance of the United States was founded by John C. Freund, whose aim was to add a Secretary of Fine Arts to the Cabinet. A further step was the effort to organize a National Conservatory of Music and Art, which was introduced in the House of Representatives on 17 June 1918. Its purpose was the national control of music and revised standards of music. It was shown that there was no need to pay many millions yearly and educate in music boys and girls abroad, when our own country afforded opportunity for good training, if it could only encourage its students as a number of European nations do. It was pointed out forcefully that music was more than an accomplishment and a luxury for the rich-——it was a great ethical force and “a factor in refining and elevating character.” In marked contrast to the attitude of Ger- many and England where the music of enemy countries was played and sung, the United States witnessed a boycotting of German music at recitals and concerts—a war measure that had both its critics and supporters. Mr. H. T. Finck mentioned the case of the French govern- ment which arranged concerts for the wounded, and allowed the preference for Bach, LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE Beethoven, Mozart and Schumann to be granted. ’ The war stimulated recitals and musical entertainments for war charities, giving a more cosmopolitan character to programs. It had its effect, also, on community and pageant music in our larger and smaller cities and the development of mass singing in the army camps. Abroad the war possibly encouraged the man- agers to produce many novelties at the various capitals — London, Paris, Rome, Berlin, Vienna. At least it had no adverse influence. One in- teresting fact might be mentioned—a Welsh composer of much power gave to the public a number of excellent songs, some of which were written in the» German prison camp at Ruhleben. If a Bunyan could write in prison, why cannot a singer compose in captivity? One may confidently anticipate a marked revival in popular interest in music after the war-—the efforts made at camp and canton- ment, abroad and at home, to reach the soldiers cannot fail to have more than a transient in- fluence. The public school is likely to de- velop as a music centre and music will prove more and more a factor in public enlighten- ment. ABRAM S&S. Isaacs. LITERATURE, Comparative. 1. History and Development of Study.— Comparative literature is a term that only within the last 30 years has come into prominence, but is applied to so many different fields and lines of research that it would be difficult to find two scholars who would agree absolutely on the particular scope and purpose of this discipline. The English term,— obviously a misnomer,— seems of quite recent coinage, whereas the cor- responding French, German and Italian terms have been in use for nearly a century (Littéra- ture comparée; Vergleichende Literaturge- schichte). The first scholar who pro- jected a study of human civilization on a philosophical and comparative basis was Francis Bacon: some _ remarkable. adum- brations of modern theories of evolution may be found scattered through his ‘In- stauratio magna. -Other pathfinders in this field are the Italian Giovanni Vico, ‘Sci- enza nuova? (1725); Dryden, John Dennis, Thomas Warton in England; Perrault, Saint Evremond, Montesquieu, Batteux in France; Baumgarten and Winckelmann in Germany. The greatest synthetic mind of his age was Her- der whose ambition it was to understand all literary phenomena as manifestations of deeper cultural impulses and who first insisted upon a relative valuation of literary productions ac- cording to the specific character and genius of each individual nation. Goethe’s broad humani- tarian views and genuinely cosmopolitan tastes remain an inspiring example for all times. It is one of history’s little ironies that many of these critics, like Perrault, the Warton brothers and Herder, were primarily moved by the de- sire to defend their aspirations toward a na- tional literature against the tyranny of absolute standards or traditions and that, in speaking pro domo, they were indirectly obliged to speak pro unwverso. The Romantic movement gave a new impetus to the expansion of literary interests all over Europe. The rediscovery of the for- gotten treasures of medizval poetry, or older . €Paris S11 ballad and saga literature, the opening up of the Oriental world and the study of Southern liter- atures,—all these activities tended to enlarge the horizon, although they contributed very little to comparative analysis. It is sufficient to mention the names of Coleridge and Scott, of the Schlegel and Grimm brothers, of Mme. de Staél and Ampére, and to remind of the fact that three leading French periodicals: Le Globe, la Revue des deux Mondes, and especially la Revue Européenne, were international in char- acter and had correspondents in all European: countries. From 1850 on, with the strengthen- ing of the philological disciplines on one side and the rapid growth of biology and sociology on the other, new tendencies and methods were introduced in the treatment of literary prob- lems. Philological analysis resulted in a large number of investigations in which literary cur- rents, themes and forms were traced through different literatures or periods and studied in their reaction upon each other. Benfey’s ‘Pantschatantra? (1859), in which literary rela- tions between Orient and Occident are investi- gated, was one of the first attempts in compar- ative criticism, although Dunlap’s ‘History of Prose Fiction» and Graesse’s ‘Sagenkreise des Mittelalters? (1837) should not be omitted as earlier forerunners. The philosophical and synthetic tendency, on the other hand, drew inspiration from biology, ethnography and soci- ology, in particular from the new gospel of evo- lution and its prophets from Darwin to Weis- mann and De Vries. The influence of environ- ment, climate, race, social institutions upon lit- erary life was studied and laws were formulated to explain the growth and decline of literary types and forms. The theories of Taine, Le- tourneau, Posnett, Brunetiére, Manly and others are the result of these investigations. At the present time literary research shows rather a preponderance of technical and analytic studies, but a certain speculative element is noticeable in many of them and some biological analogies seem to have become established. 2. Field of Study and Topics for Inves- tigation.— There is no reason why any literary ‘problem within any field should not be treated in a comparative spirit, but it seems reasonable to limit the term “Comparative Literature” to investigations which do not merely introduce parallels and analogies occasionally, but make them their chief end and object. It will not be difficult, within these boundaries, to set aside certain topics and problems as. belonging pri- marily to the domain of Comparative Literature. The following list may serve this purpose. From the inexhaustible supply of books and articles only a few are quoted in each case to furnish illustrations. (a) Authors (compari- sons for the purpose of analogy or contrast; for studies in literary influence see under d): Stendhal, ‘Racine et Shakespeare? (Paris 1823); Stapfer, P., ‘Moliére et Shakespeare? 1890); Bekk, A., ‘Shakespeare und Homer? (Leipzig 1885); Wiehr, J., ‘Hebbel und Ibsen) (Stuttgart 1908); Raveggi, P., ‘I poeti della visione celeste: Dante, Milton, Klop- stock? (Firenze 1903); Betz, L., ‘Heine und Musset? (Ziirich 1897). (b) Literary Produc- tions (comparisons, ‘not including studies of in- fluence): Bauer, “Das Buch Hiob und Dante’s Gottliche Komédie? (Gotha 1904); Meinck, ‘Hebbels und Wagner’s Nibelungen Trilogie? 512 (Leipzig 1905); Moguel, A., ‘Calderon’s Magi- cien prodigieux et Goethe's Faust? (Paris 1883). (c) Literary Themes, Legends, Types, Motifs: Paris, G., ‘Histoire poétique de Charlemagne? (Paris 1865) ; Castle, E., ‘Die Isolierten Varie- taten eines literarischen Typus” (Berlin 1899) ; Mallinger, L., ‘Médée. Etude de littérature comparée’? (Paris 1897); Simone-Brouwer, ‘Don Giovanni nella poesia e nell’ arte musi- cale? (Napoli 1894); Berg, L., ‘Der Ueber- mensch in der neueren Literatur? (Leipzig 1897). (d) International Relations, Imitations, Sources and Influences: Comparetti, D., ©Vir- gilio nel Medio Evo? (1896) ; Reinhardstottner, C. von, ‘Plautus in der Weltliteratur’? (Leipzig 1896) ; Rossel, V., ‘Histoire des relations lit- téraires entre la France et l’Allemagne? (Paris 1897) ; Schmidt, E., “Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe? (Jena 1875); Oelsner, H., ‘Influence of Dante on modern thought? (London 1895) ; Baldensperger, ‘Goethe en France? (Paris 1904). (e) Literary Currents and Tendencies: Egger, E., ‘L’Hellénisme en France? (Paris 1869) ; Texte, J., “Rousseau et les origines du cosmopolitisme littéraire? (Paris 1895); Brandes, G., ‘Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature’ (New York 1905); Hamann, R., ‘Impressionismus in Leben und Kunst? (Cologne 1907). (f) Literary Forms, History of Genre: Bédier, ‘Les Fabliaux? (Paris 1893); Rajna, ‘Le origini dell’epopea francese? (Firenze 1884); Greg, W., ‘Pastoral Poetry and Pastoral Drama? (London 1906) ; First, R., “Vorlaufer der modernen Novelle? -(Halle 1897); Bovet, E., ‘“Lyrisme, épopée, drame? (Paris 1911). (g) 4sthetic Emotions: De Laprade, ‘Histoire du Sentiment de la Nature? (Paris 1883); Biese, ‘Entwicklung des Naturgeftthls? (Leipzig 1888) ; Kawczynski, M., ‘Essai comparatif sur l’origine et Vhistoire des Rythmes? (Paris 1889); Volkelt, ‘A®sthe tik des Tragischen? (Miinchen 1897). (h) Liter- ature as Determined by Intellectual or Emo- tional Currents, Social or Political Institutions, Physiographic Conditions, Racial Factors; Cor- relation of Literature and Art, etc.: Posnett, .- M., ‘Comparative Literature? (London 1886) ; ihre Formen? (Leipzig 1884); Letourneau, C., ‘L/évolution littéraire dans les diverses races humaines? (Paris 1894); Mackenzie, A. S., ‘The Evolution of Literature’ (New York 1911) ; Maigron, ‘Le Romantisme et les Moeurs? (Paris 1910); Stephens, ‘English “Literature and Society? (London 1903); Grosse, E., ‘The Beginnings of Art? (New York 1897); Hos- kins, F. P., ‘Biological Analogy in Literary Criticism,» Modern Philology (April 1909). “There is no reason why the comparative and international point of view should not be ap- plied to narrower fields within national or even provincial boundaries. Scherer for instance in his ‘History of German Literature? is very fond of comparing or contrasting writers for pur- poses of “reciprocal illumination,» to use his favorite term. Schiller’s famous essay on “Naive and Sentimental Poetry” may be cited as one of the few cases in which two widely re- mote epochs of human thought are con- trasted. 3. Principles of Comparative Criticism.— These may be reduced to three: evolution, val- uation and causation. The principle of evolu- tion covers problems stated under (h), (f) and Carriére, ‘Die Poesie, ihr Wesen und ~ LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE (c): literary history, forms and themes. In how far biological laws may be safely applied to literary problems is a question that might arouse scepticism. Works of art, the organiza- tion of the human mind and the whole process of intellectual transmission are such complex phenomena that biological facts or theories could furnish only very crude analogies. Soci- ological theories have been applied by Posnett in his book on ‘Comparative Literature? in which literary evolution is traced through the four stages of clan life, city, commonwealth, national life and cosmopolitan humanity. The ethnographical point of view dominates in Grosse’s ‘Anfange der Kunst? and Mackenzie’s ‘Evolution of Literature. Very illuminating are books in which certain phases and “currents of literature are correlated with a particular social milieu or with corresponding movements in Art and Culture, as in Stephen’s ‘English Literature and Society,’ or in Taine’s ‘Philoso- phie de l’Art.? The principle of literary valua- tion involves questions as to the absolute or relative validity of esthetic standards and offers splendid opportunities for the student of com- parative literature. The natural reaction in zsthetic questions is the naive expression of likes and dislikes or the judicial attitude, wheréas continued training and reading in a comparative spirit is bound to develop a sense of relativity of literary and esthetic values and thus to save us from ithe tyranny of one-sided, absolute norms of taste. The literary move- ments of the last four centuries from the mani- festo of the French Pléiade down to the claims of the Naturalistic school, took in most cases the form of revolts against esthetic or intellec- tual absolutism of some description, and while they often ended by enthroning a new dogma in place of the discarded one, yet they helped im- mensely to widen the horizon and to foster the spirit of tolerance. Among modern critics the Dane, Georg Brandes, leads by far with regard to breadth of taste and fairness of judgment. He has a marvelous ability to project himself into literary characters and productions of all kinds, countries and ages, and yet to establish a definite centre of interest and an illuminating — principle of interpretation. A third group of problems fall under the head of the law of causation, such as literary sources, borrowings, influences, adaptations, etc. If carried to an extreme this method develops the type of the philological antiquarian or fanatic source- hunter who is not happy until he has traced every effect back to an external cause. The mistake made in so many cases is to assume influences or definite relations, where it would be safer to speak of parallels or analogies, in other words to work with the principle of cau- sation instead of correlation. The comparative study of literature ought to encourage critics and scholars to have more faith in the sponta- neity of literary growth and originality of the human mind, instead of looking always for de- rived inspiration. The Marivaux-Richardson controversy illustrates the various possibilities of interpreting a literary parallel as conscious imitation, as a play of chance or as an analogy due to similar literary impulses in England and France. A collection of literary analogies which could definitely be proved to fall outside of the principle of causation would be one of © the most grateful tasks for comparative analy- LITHIA — LITHIUM sis and might for a while dampen the enthu- siasm of our source-hunters, . 4. Definition. A brief survey of the sub- jects and principles of a comparative study of literature will be quite sufficient to demonstrate the difficulty, if not impossibility, of giving a brief satisfactory definition. There will always be wide differences of opinion among scholars with regard to the real nature, province and purpose of Comparative Literature, while in the popular mind the term will probably continue to call up a more or less vague conception of a philosophical, speculative or at any rate broader treatment of literary problems. Strictly speak- ing, the comparative method is not at all on a level with other methods, but has to be regarded as one of the fundamental principles or instincts of. scientific investigation. in all forms and fields. It-has as its natural opposite the isolat- ing method, Specialization, concentration and isolation would be found on one side, generali- zation, expansion and correlation on the other. Any subject in any field. of research may be treated either by isolating the problem or by introducing analogies and collateral material. {t is self-evident, however, that, in the first place, scholars will differ widely in. the choice of their methods and that, secondly, different subjects require different treatment in order to yield the best possible results. Biographies like Brandes’ ‘Shakespeare,’ ‘Woerner’s. ‘Ibsen, Campbell’s ‘Holberg,’? Lafoscade’s _‘Musset? are written in a comparative spirit, without be- longing to the field. of Comparative Literature proper. Perhaps the comparative treatment of the lives of great men will become gradually recognized as a special type of biography. The phrase “Comparative: Literature” ought to be reserved for research or criticism which is con- ducted on the basis of comparisons, influences and analogies for the purpose of interpreting international or interindividual relations in terms of literary evolution, valuation or catsa- tion: : 5. Comparative Literature as Related to Universal and World Literature.—These three terms are often. used interchangeably whereas they represent three different aspects of literary study. Universal or general literature refers to the sum total of all literatures and, as.a literary study, expresses rather a broad, catholic attitude of the reader or scholar toward his. subject than any particular purpose or method of,research. Among the publications,in this field may be mentioned Loliée’s ‘Short History of Compar- ative Literature,» because the title is altogether misleading; the book is merely an aggregate of national literatures’ with occasional cross-refer- ences. The term. “World Literature”. may be employed either to include recognized represen- tative writers of all countries and..ages, or a selected list of writers from all literatures vary- ing according to the subjective taste, of nations and individuals. Moulton’s: “World Literature? and R. M. Meyer’s ‘Weltliteratur im zwanzig- sten Jahrhundert?. are books. of this kind in which selected writers or writings are focussed to, the eyes of. English or German readers. Several. German. publications, like Baumgart- ner’s and Busse’s histories of ‘Weltliteratur’ are in reality handbooks of universal literature. The well-known series ‘Periods of European Literature,’ ed. by Saintsbury, gives cross-sec- tions of the leading movements, arranged geo- VOL. 1/7 —33 > 513 graphically, but treated in a somewhat compar- ative spirit. Bibliography. The most indispensable book is the bibliography by Betz, P., ‘La Littér- ature comparée? (2d ed. by Baldensperger, F., Strassburg 1904). Many valuable references and critical remarks are found in Gayley- Scott’s “Introduction to the Methods and Mate- rials of Literary Criticism? (Boston 1899), More recent articles on definition and theory: Gayley, Ch. M., “What is Comparative Litera- ture” (Atlantic Monthly, Vol. XCII, July 1903) ; Routh, H. V., ‘The Future of Comparative Literature? (Modern Language Review, Vol. VIII, January 1913). Courses in Comparative Literature are offered at the larger American universities, though many of them would come rather under the head of General Literature. The most valuable contributions will be found in the publications of the Modern Language Association of America, in Modern Philology and in the Modern Language Review. if Ewa.p A. BouckgE, Professor of German and Scandinavian, Uni- versity of Michigan. oe in chemistry, oxide of lithium q.v.). LITHIA MICA. See LeEpIDorite. LITHIC ACID. See Uric Acip. LITHIOPHILITE or TRIPHYLITE.: A mineral consisting of phosphate of lithium, manganese and iron, Li (Fe Mn) POs,, of sal- mon to honey yellow color. Occurs in southern California and Black Hills of South Dakota. A possible source of lithia salts. _ LITHIUM, a name applied to an alkali discovered in the year 1817. Lithia has since been detected in spodumene, lepidolite, triphy- lite, amblygonite, tourmaline, meteoric stones, mineral waters, coffee, tea, blood, milk, etc. A process for procuring it is the following: One part of petalite or spodumene in fine powder is mixed intimately with two parts of fluor-spar, and the mixture is heated with three or four times its weight of sulphuric acid, as long as any acid vapors.are disengaged. The silica of the mineral is attacked by hydrofluoric acid, and dissipated in the form of fluosilicic acid gas, while the alumina and lithia unite with sulphuric acid. After dissolving these salts in water, the solution is boiled with pure ammonia to precipi- tate the alumnia; is filtered, evaporated to dry- ness and then heated to redness to expel the sulphate of ammonium. The residue is pure sulphate of lithium. Its color is white; it is not deliquescent, but absorbs carbonic acid from the air; it is soluble in water; it is acrid and caus- tic, and acts on colors like the other alkalis; heated with platinum it corrodes it rapidly. It combines with the different acids, and forms erystallizable salts with them. The phosphate and carbonate are sparingly soluble; ° the chloride is deliquescent and soluble in alcohol, and this solution burns with a red flame. Un- like the other alkalis it cannot be reduced from its carbonate by carbon, but it requires the ac- tion of ‘a galvanic battery. The compound em- ployed is the chloride, which, while in a state of fusion, is acted on by the battery. Small globules collect. round the negative pole, and these are removed and cooled under petroleum. It.is the lightest of metals. It has a bright 7 514 silver-white metallic lustre, melts at 356° F., and can be welded at ordinary temperatures. It is rather harder than potassium, can be drawn into a wire, but has a low degree of tenacity. Exposed to the air it tarnishes, but it combines with oxygen less rapidly than either sodium or potassium. It decomposes water, and when heated in oxygen, chloride and other gases burns with a brilliant light. Compounds of lithium are used in pyro- techny on account of the splendid red color they impart to flame. In medicine the car- bonate is employed especially as a solvent for uric acid, to prevent the formation of calculi and to remove it from the system in gout. Effervescing lithia water is sometimes used in place of soda or potash water. Citrate of lithia is also employed. It is a white, soluble, crystalline salt, prepared by dissolving the car- bonate of lithium in citric acid. Its thera- peutic properties are similar to those of the carbonate. See MINERAL PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES. LITHOGRAPHIC CRAYON. See LrI- THOGRAPHY. LITHOGRAPHIC STONE. See _ Lr- THOGRAPHY. LITHOGRAPHY. (Greek lithos, “stone,” and graphein, “to write”), may be divided into two distinct branches—the art of writing, drawing or engraving on stone, and the process of chemical or surface printing from stone or metal, by means of which such writings, drawings or engravings are multiplied, in a manner differing essentially from letter- press or relief printing and from steel and copper plate or intaglio printing. Lithographic printing is based upon the physical principle of the antagonism of grease to water and upon the porous nature of the printing surface. By virtue of this property, a drawing made upon such surface with unctuous ink or crayon will adhere to it so that. the parts of the surface containing the drawing or design will accept and hold grease or ink, and those parts of the surface free from design will receive and retain water to the evaporating point. Thus if a roller covered with fatty printing ink is passed over the printing surface previously moistened, the ink will adhere only to the parts constituting the design and will be repelled by the moisture covering the remaining part of the surface, in consequence of which the design only will appear in the impression. History.— Aloys Senefelder is generally conceded to be the inventor of lithography. He was born at Prague in 1771, the son of an actor, and at an early age removed to Munich. Al- though disposed to follow his father’s calling he entered the university at Ingolstadt, which later, through the death of his father he was compelled to leave and. was thrown on his own resources for a livelihood. He met with in- different success as an actor, and later, as a playwright, his inability to pay for the publica- tion of his work bestirred him to devise some means of doing it himself, and he set about to become familiar with the printing art. He pur- chased a small press and being unable to pay for the engraving of his compositions, he turned his attention to etching on copper. Frequent errors through his inexperience in forming the reversed characters on the plate, and being LITHOGRAPHIC CRAYON — LITHOGRAPHY unfamiliar with the “stopping out” so-called solution used by etchers in rectifying mistakes, he succeeded in devising one of his own. The ingredients he used were those nearest at hand — the wax with which he coated the plates pre- vious to etching, the soap with which he washed the ink from the plates, and the lamp-black which he used in preparing his ink for printing. Thus accidentally he discovered the compo- sition which forms the basis of all crayons and lithographic drawing inks. The labor of grind- ing and repolishing the copper plates led him to experiment with a piece of Kellheim stone and by treating this in the same way as the copper plates he succeeded in getting fair im- pressions. He later reversed the etching proc- ess by writing on the stone with the “stopping out” composition and bitrng down the surface with aqua fortis, bringing out the characters in relief, which he inked in and printed in the manner of type. He further discovered that relieving ‘the characters was unnecessary and that by simply writing on the stone with his composition he produced the same results. This was in the year 1798; eight years later, after many disappointing and discouraging experi- ences, the inventor succeeded with the assistance of the Bavarian government in establishing himself as a lithographic printer in Munich. This city became the centre of the art, and three years thereafter no fewer than seven separate concerns were established as well as a number of private presses. Senefelder died in 1834, and with the possible exception of the introduction of photography the general meth- ods and underlying principles he laid down are those in use to-day. Of the early lithographers many others are entitled to credit, they having done much to develop and foster the craft. Ferdinand Pilotti in 1808 published 432 copies of the old masters, and in 1815 reproductions from the Munich gallery. His partner, Lochle, was also con- spicuous in the early development of lithog- raphy, as well as Count Lasterie, who intro- duced the art in Paris. It fell to Gottfred Engelmann to found the first permanent estab- lishment in Paris in 1816. In 1837 he was granted letters patent on the invention of chromo-lithography. The first house in Berlin was established in 1834 by Franz Hanfstangel, and in London in 1822, by Hullmandel, a pupil of Engelmann. Senefelder also attempted to establish himself in London but failed owing to difficulties with his partner, Andre of Offenbach. Lithography as an art reached its climax in Paris during the reign of Louis Philippe. Among the masters who distinguished them- selves were the satirists Daumier, Grandville, Travies and Gavarni, Deveria, Delacroix, Johannot and Gigoux, the delineators of ro- mantic literature; Charlet, and Raffet, who found material in the glorification of Na- poleon’s career. Other painter-lithographers of the day were Géricault, Richard Park Boning- ton, James Duffield Harding, Eugene Isabey, Alexandre Calame and Julien, whose “Etudes en Deux Crayons” made him famous. Since the introduction of the power-press and the consequent development of the lithographic in- dustry as a commercial factor, the medium of lithography has found less favor as a mode of individual artistic expression. Commercially it has grown to be one of the most important LTH OGRAPHY Plates and Printing required for Design of Six Colors | \ i Aj yO SAPS \ LO \ ihe ALAA TEA 1. Outline of Design 4, First and Second Color 5. Third Color Plate 6. Combination of Three Plates Combined Color Plates t 10. Five Color Plates 11. Sixth Color Plate 12. Printing Complete in Combined Six Colors eee ee = a - ; ¢ Y sy ¢ ’ - ' P ' °F i . Fé usivERs aT aE LINGIS. +. oF THE LIBRARY. OF THE oe x * } é We ‘4 . ’ - 1 t ‘ ra ? “¢ m4 ' X x . | ‘ = Pid ft “= : of - , s waret 4 2 f 7 ’ J x e ' ~ t ’ *% . ¥ " ge : iy } ; Oh iy i wy { << i ee 5 . i i? ; s i i a, s i a) . we? > a es LITHOGRAPHY branches of the printer’s craft. The Depart- ment of Commerce, census of manufactures for 1919, published in 1923, gives the number of establishments 831, employees 15,618, invested capital $60,817,330, and value of annual product $45,432,898. Materials. The stone used, known as “ithographic stone,” is a compact, ‘homogeneous limestone of porous texture and varies in color from light cream, dull yellow, drab or gray to darker shades of the same colors, the best being found among the light gray varieties. The darker the color the harder the stone. Litho- graphic stone is quarried chiefly at Solenhofen, Germany, from beds of Jurassic Age, and while similar stone has been found in England, France and America, none possess the quality of the Solenhofen product. The most satisfactory American product is said to come from Bran- denburg, Ky. It is sawn at the quarries into slabs of from three to five inches in thick- ness, varying in size from 6 X 8 inches to 44 X 64 inches, and is sold by weight. The price per pound being based on quality and size, the very large stones when free from blemishes such as veins and chalk spots are the most expensive and very scarce. Owing to the expense in- curred in handling and storing the cumbersome stone, a substitute embodying the same prop- erties has been the desideratum of lithographers almost since the invention of surface printing. Zinc has been in use for 50 years or more, but up to 10 years ago was used only for very ordinary work. Since that time it has come into considerabe use for offset lithography (de- scribed later). Aluminum has been. satisfac- torily used as a substitute for stone for about 20 years and for some purposes is preferable to zinc as a substitute. Lithographic crayon is composed of bees- wax, shellac, tallow, mastic turpentine, soap and lampblack in several degrees of hardness. Lithographic ink adapted for pen work on stone contains the same ingredients as the crayon, with a larger quantity of the soap, in order to make it soluble in water. The ink is furnished in sticks and rubbed over a plate or saucer and then gradually dissolved with water or turpentine until it becomes fluid. Gum arabic and acids are important factors in li- thography; in fact, Senefelder’s original inven- tion would have proven of little practical value had he not also discovered the use of these in reinforcing the qualities of the stone. Process.— The stone is first leveled and if desired for crayon work the surface is grarned by grinding with fine sand and water between two slabs of stone until its surface has a grain similar to the grain on fine drawing paper. For pen or stipple work the stone is polished with pumice or scotch stone. The drawing is made on the stone in the same manner as if it were drawn on paper, except that the design is reversed. Considérable experience is required by the artist to obtain proficiency in rendering a reverse facsimile of the original. In the hands of a capable artist no reproductive art can offer greater possibility than that of crayon on a grained stone. It permits greater freedom as compared with steel, copper plate or wood engraving, inasmuch as technique is less im- portant than true artisticability, while an infinite variety of tones, from the most delicate shade to rich, deep black, lies within its possibilities. 615 Somewhat more mechanical is the pen stipple manner, and which as its name implies consists of drawing with small dots, the relative values of shading being determined by the varying density of the dots. This manner is employed mainly in chromo-lithography, its chief recom- mendation being the clean, sharp, solid nature of the work. When the drawing is completed: its sur- face is treated with a solution of gum arabic and nitric acid, effecting a chemical change in its nature where it is not protected by the grease or ink of the drawing. The carbon is freed and a nitrate deposited in the form of a full-grained pellicle, the pores of which re- tain the gummed water, thus creating a sur- face impermeable to grease. Furthermore the drawn parts are rendered insoluble in water by decomposing the alkali contained in the crayon or ink. The object of this etching is not to elevate the drawing so much as to make the impression cleaner and sharper. After the stone is etched, it is washed stc- cessively with water and turpentine; the de- sign is scarcely perceptible, but after repeated moistening and rolling in with ink it reappears and accepts the ink. It is then covered with a weak solution of gum arabic and is ready for printing. The stone-engraving manner — used exten- sively for bank notes and stationery —is based | on the same principle, although the mode of procedure differs in every respect. A polished stone is used and its face is prepared or etched with gum-water acid and covered with a dark ground consisting of lampblack in solution with gum-water or albumen. Into this ground the design is engraved or scratched with an en- graving needle or a diamond. Linseed oil is then poured over the whole and is absorbed by the stone where the needle has laid it bare. The ground is washed off, the surface moistened and printing ink rubbed in with a tampon or dauber, the ink adhering only to the lines of the design, by reason of the oil which they have absorbed. The greatest achievement of lithography undoubtedly centres in reproduction of oil paintings and aquarelles, commonly known as chromo-lithography. Either the crayon or pen stipple manner alone, or both together, in con- nection’ with other manners, such as “rub- tints,” “asphalt tints, etc., are brought into the work. Its most simple form is the tint used for crayon drawings,.its highest, the reproduction in colors of an oil or water color painting, re- quiring a series of drawings on separate stones, one for each of the colors necessary to pro- duce the facsimile. To obtain perfect. register of the various printings, a key plate is neces- sary. A detailed tracing is made of the original by means of an engraving needle, scratching the surface of a sheet of transparent gelatine or celluloid, indicating the boundaries of even the most minute patches of color. These engraved lines are charged with litho- graphic ink and then transmitted to stone by pressure. Register. marks (usually crossed lines) are then put in the margins. The stone is etched, rolled up with printing ink, and im- pressions corresponding to the number of colors or printings required, are pulled. These impressions ‘are then powdered with finely ground powder (usually Venetian red) and are 516 called “offsets,» which are then transmitted to the surface of the stones to be drawn on and furnish a guide for the artist in drawing his color plates. In cases where no key of the original is made, offsets from the drawing of the black supplied with the necessary register marks answer the same purpose. The number of colors necessary to produce a given result varies largely according to the nature of the original to be reproduced, ranging for com- mercial purposes from 3 to 15, although es- pecially fine results may require 20 or more. Photography.— Since its invention pho- tography has been more or less allied with the lithographic art. Its early application was. the process called photo-lithography, by means of which pen or line work or reprints from type could be inexpensively transferred to stone or plate. The half tone or Meisenbach process was also used to*advantage in furnishing key plates for chromo-lithography, but the introduction and development-of the offset press, which was made possible through development of rotary printing from plates instead of stone, has greatly enlarged the use of photography, opened entirely new fields and possibilities in the art of color reproduction, and has caused an immense expansion of the lithographic in- dustry. One of the earliest photo-lithographic processes is that of Lemercier, patented in 1852, which is based on the sensitive property of asphaltum, discovered by Niepce in 1833. A lithographic stone is coated with a solution of asphaltum in oil of lavender and exposed to ‘light under a half-tone screen negative, the film of which has been turned on the glass to secure the necessary reversed position, effect- ing a slow change in the asphaltum. The parts thus affected by the light become insoluble in turpentine, leaving the other parts soluble. Thus a (reversed) positive is rendered on stone, which, owing to the unctuous nature of its composition, can be prepared for printing purposes in the usual manner. The method most commonly used is the albumen process, invented by Poitevin in 1855. In this case the stone is coated with albumen in solution with bichromate of potassium which is much more sensitive to light action than asphaltum; after exposure the stone is immediately covered with printing ink to prevent further action, and washed with water which removes the parts that remain soluble, while the ink adheres only to the parts that have become insoluble. The same general principles apply where plate instead of stone ig used, with variations of solutions and methods for the preparation of the plate, the developing and reversing of the design. The perfection reached in printing half-tone work on the offset press has made possible the faithful reproduction of almost any color sub- ject, through the use of color sensitive or col- lodion emulsion photographic plates, usually three plates, one for each of the primary colors, yellow, red and blue, which when prop- erly developed give color-separated negatives which are then printed on the plate in the usual manner. For variations of the primary colors the plates are either over or under printed and after development are carefully worked over by the artist adding to or taking from the work as desired. Transferring.— Unless limited editions are LITHOGRAPHY required, designs that have been drawn or en- graved on stone are very rarely printed from directly. By the process of transferring, one design may be reproduced as many times as the relative size of the work and sheet to be printed will allow — ensuring greater economy in print- ing and keeping intact the original drawing stone. Transfer impressions are taken -on a paper, coated with a sizing of starch and gly- cerine with a specially prepared ink. These impressions are laid in their proper positions on a sheet of paper of the required size and fastened to it by means of pricking with the dull point of an engraving needle. The sheet to which the transfers adhere is laid face down on a polished stone or plate and pulled through a hand press until the transfers adhere firmly to the stone, the paper being frequently dam- pened during this process. This done, the sheet is carefully raised from the stone, leaving the thin paper transfers still adhering to its surface and these in turn are dampened and - removed. A weak solution of gum and water is applied and the stone rolled up with printing ink. It is then etched in the same manner as an original drawing and is ready for the press. In chromo-lithography the first transfer made is that of the key plate, supplied with register marks. An impression from this transfer is mounted on a sheet of aluminum or zinc and coated with shellac to prevent shrinking or stretching. All succeeding transfers are “stuck up” or fixed on this key sheet, which ensures accurate register of the colors. Lithographic Printing.— The lithographic hand-press consists of a frame provided with rollers on which the bed runs to and fro, the scraper or impression-bar and a tympan of leather, fitted to an iron frame ‘hinged to that end of the bed nearest the scraper. The scraper consists of a flat piece of box wood beveled on both sides and covered with leather. The manner of printing is as follows: The stone with the design upon it is placed face up upon the movable bed, then moistened with a sponge, rolled up with ink and the sheet which is to take the impression laid thereon. Several sheets of paper are placed over it to secure the necessary backing, the tympan lowered upon it to cover the entire bed and stone, and the carriage brought forward under the scraper. Pressure is applied by means of a hand-lever at the side of the press, and the entire length of the bed passed under the im- pression bar. The pressure is then released, the bed brought back to its original position, the tympan raised and the printed sheet taken off. Until the introduction of the power-press in 1867 this method of printing was exclusively used for lithographic printing. At the present time its only utility is for the purpose of mak- ing artist-proofs and transfers for- printing on power-presses. The lithographic flat bed power-press differs but slightly from that of the typographic power-press. The principle of operation remains the same, taking in place of the letter-press form a lithographic stone in its bed and being supplied with a contrivance for distributing the moisture with which the stone must be covered before the ink is ap- plied. The use of rotary printing presses, with an increased speed of 50 per cent over the flat-bed presses, has been made possible by the substitution of the flexible aluminum plate for LITHOLOGY — LITHUANIA lithographic stone, and has enlarged the field | of multi-color printing by the lithographic process, whereby two or more colors are printed in rapid succession before the sheet is delivered. The rotary press consists prin- cipally of two cylinders—one to hold the plate and the other to furnish the pressure — and is supplied with a mechanism similar to that of the flat-bed press for distribution of moisture and ink. Rotary presses having two, three and four plate cylinders and printing re- spectively two, three and four colors each time a sheet is fed are in general use. The presses described above all print by direct con- tact from the stone or plate to the paper, whereas the offset press, a very important de- velopment in modern lithography, prints from the plate to a rubber blanketed cylinder, which in turn prints on the sheet. These presses are built on the same general principle as the rotary press but having three cylinders, one to carry the printing plate, another to carry the rubber blanket and a third to carry the sheet which takes its impression from the rubber blanket. Provided with automatic feeding ap- paratus, a production double the rotary presses is possible. They produce wonderfully soft effects on rough or uncoated papers being in fact the only method whereby half-tone color subjects can be printed on other than the highly glazed or coated papers. Bibliography.— Bergman, ‘Das Ganze des Steindrucks, nebst Angang von der Zinkog- raphie’ (1843); Bregeant, ‘Nouveau Manuel complet de l’Imprimeur Lithographe? (1850) ; Engelmann, ‘Traite theorique et pratique de Lithographie? (1849) ; Richmond, ‘Grammar of Lithography? (1879, 1880, 1881, 1883, 1885); Weishaupt, ‘Das Gesammt Gebiet des Stein- drucks, nebst Anhang von der Zinkographie? (1865); Weishaupt, ‘Theoretisch-praktische Anleitung zur Chromolithographie? (1847) ; Aluminum Press and Plate Company, CAlum- ography»? (New York 1899); Audsley, ‘Art of Chromo Lithography? (London 1883); Curtis, ‘Lithography? (New York 1897); Bro- quelet, ‘Manuel Complet de L’imprimeur lithog- raphie? (Paris 1908); Fleck, ‘Die Photolithog- raphie Handbuch» (Vienna 1912); Goodman, “Practical Method of Modern Metalithography? (London 1914); Rhodes, ‘The Art of Lithog- raphy? (London 1914); Fuchs and Lang Com- pany, ‘Invention of Lithography,’ Senefelder, translated by J. W. Muller (New York 1911); Browne, ‘Textbook of Practical Lithography? and ‘Offset Lithography? (New York 1917). Revised by FREDERICK RAUSCH, OL ee and Wilhelms Corporation, New or LITHOLOGY. See PErtrRo.oevy. : LITHOSPHERE, the solid rock crust of the earth as contrasted with the waters, hydro- sphere, and the air, atmosphere. See Rocks and also section on Geognosy in the article on GEOLOGY. LITHOTOMY, in surgery, the operation of cutting for stone. (See’ Catcutus). As usually performed it consists in cutting by the side of the anus in the perineum, so as to reach and divide the urethra and neck of the bladder, where it is surrounded by the prostate gland. A grooved and curved staff is introduced into 517 the bladder first, and then the incision is made in the perineum to reach the bladder, the groove in the staff serving asa guide to the knife. When the calculus or stone is felt with the finger the staff is withdrawn and the stone extracted by means of forceps, proper treat- ment to ward off inflammation and other acci- dents being then adopted. When thus per- formed, unless there be unusual difficulties, the length of time required to extract the stone is seldom more than three minutes, often one or one and a half. At first the urine escapes through the wound, but in favorable cases it issues by the natural passage within a week, and the wound heals in the course of a month. LITHOTRITY, in surgery, the operation of crushing a stone in the bladder into frag- ments of such a size that they may be expelled by the urethra. ‘The instrument is called a lithotrite, by which the stone is broken up. Itis introduced in the same manner as a catheter or sound into the bladder, and after catching the stone crushes it to pieces. The instrument has two movable blades at the extremity introduced ‘into the bladder, and these are brought together to crush the stone by means of a powerful screw. This operation is only applicable where the bladder is not irritable, where the canal of the urethra is of good.size ‘and the stone small. It is inapplicable to children, but this is the less to be regretted, because there’ is perhaps no surgical operation more generally successful than that of lithotomy in children. In lithotrity care must be taken that no portions of the stone are left in the bladder, as such fragments are almost certain to form the nuclei of fresh con- cretions. LITHUANIA (Lietuva), a republic of northeastern Europe, bounded north by Latvia, east by Russia, south by Poland, southwest by East Prussia, west by East Prussia, Memel and the Baltic, It occupies the former Russian province of Kovno, most of the province of Vilna, part of that of Grodno, most of the prov- ince of Suvalki, part of Courland and part of the district of Illuksta. The eastern frontier is de- fined in the treaty with Russia, signed at Mos- cow 12 July 1920. The northern frontier with Latvia has been settled under a special arbitra- tion conyention. The frontier with Poland has not yet been conclusively decided on. The area of. the present territory is 59,633 square miles with a population of 4,800,000. The Lithuanians also claim Memel, with an area of 1,080 square miles and a population of 145,000, but so far this region is administered by the Allied Powers. The total purely Lithuanian popu- lation is estimated at about 3,350,000. Thus, while Lithuania proper is generally regarded as the region between the Lower Dvina and the Niemen, the historical-geographical name is applied to a far larger area. The Lithuanians were tributary to Russia in the 11th century, but gained their independence when Russia was distracted, by the troubles under the successors of Vladimir. Ringold, in 1235, bore the title of grand-duke, and under his successors. the whole of Russian Lithuania became independ- ent. At that time (during the 13th century) the Lithuanians, hemmed in between the Slavs and the Germans, were also confined between two civilizations — Oriental and Occidental — Greek Christianity on the one side and the 518 Roman Church on the other. Though lacking natural frontiers, they not only maintained their national existence and customs, but even ex- tended their dominions to the Black Sea. Ringold (or Ryngald) gained several victories over the Mongols and stopped their advance into western Europe. His successor, Mindaugis, fought against the Russians, the Poles, the Sword-Bearers and the Teutonic Knights. He appealed to the Pope for aid -against the Knights, was baptized in 1252 and defeated his enemies in 1261. Two years later he was mur- dered. His sons drenched the soil with blood in revenge upon the murderers, and the country fell into a 20 years’ anarchy. The real founder of Lithuanian power was Gediminas (1315- 40), head of the Jagellans dynasty. He ruled the country wisely and formed alliances with western Europe. He arranged with the Pope to establish Christianity in Lithuania, but Ger- man intrigues prevented the plan. One of his sons, Algirdas (1345-77), defeated Teutonic Knights, Poles, Tartars and Muscovites, marched three times to Moscow and even in- vaded the Crimea. Jagello, son of Algirdas, by. his marriage with Hedwige, united Lithuania with Poland and succeeded in establishing Christianity. At the time of the union with Poland (1386), Lithuania included the basin of the Niemen and of its tributary, the Neris, with Vilna as the metropolis; Samogitia (Zemai- tiga); White Russia: the ancient principalities of Polotsk and Vitebsk; Black Russia, with Kiev, Chernigov and Perejaslav: and ‘Volynia ~and Podolia, with Brest-Litovsk, Lutsk and Cherson. Though forming the largest Euro- pean state at the time, the Lithuanians lacked unity; the country was split between the Greek and Roman Catholic creeds. By the “Political Union” at Lublin in 1569 Lithuania and Poland became more closely united under one head, with the proviso, however, that each country should retain its own laws, army, chancellor and other dignitaries. The “Polonization” of the country was inevitable, the Lithuanians be- ing in a minority. But the “union” produced only disunion, internecine, strife and anarchy. Instead of having two armies, they had none, and in consequence the three partitions of Poland-Lithuania by Russia, Prussia and Aus- tria were easily accomplished in 1772, 1775 and 1779. Poland was cut up between Russia, Prus- sia and Austria, and the two former shared Lithuania between them. In 1840 an imperial ukase abolished the name of Lithuania; the process of “Russification” was carried through with bloody repression. The Latin alphabet was prohibited and many thousands of Lithu- anian books were burnt by government orders. It was not till 1904 that the dees persecu- tion regulations were repealed by Russia. That part of Lithuania under Prussian dominion enjoyed better treatment at first. The kings of Prussia favored and protected the people. literature was established at K6nigsberg Uni- versity. From the days of Bismarck to 1918, however, things changed; the Lithuanian lan- guage was suppressed and the people were “Prussianized” with but little effect. In the early stages of the European War the Russians overran the Lithuanian part of East Prussia, but the victory of Hindenburg in the Mazurian Lakes region led to the German invasion of the Baltic provinces, while the whole of the A chair of Lithuanian language and - LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE great Polish salient also fell to the Germans. Russia having alienated Lithuanian sympathies, the people welcomed the German invaders in 1915. While recognizing Lithuanian sovereignty in 1916, the German government would not acknowledge the independence of the country. During the war the general movement for liberation among the subject races of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary revived the smoldering. national sentiment of the Lithu- anians. They formed a State Council and pressed their claims for independence and for political union with their half-brothers, the Letts. In 1916 they appealed to President Wilson for recognition of sovereignty, though the country was in German possession at the time. A con- vention of Lithuanian delegates assembled in Vilna in October 1917 and adopted a resolution demanding independence. At a similar gather- ing in the same place that independence was proclaimed by the delegates in January 1918. On 23 March the council announced that it advocated a permanent relation of alliance with Germany. Four months later (July 1918) the Lithuanian bureau of information in Switzer- land revealed that the council proposed to offer the crown of Lithuania to the Duke of Urach, a lineal descendant of the ancient Lithuanian dynasty and an officer in the German army. But already in March a convention of American Lithuanians held in New York had declared for a republic and advanced the _ territorial claims referred to above. The inspired Ger- man press denied that the council had power to form a state without conforming to German interests. Early in May 1918 it was announced in the American press that a Lithuanian deputa- tion had been received by President Wilson. The end of the war on 11 Nov. 1918 and the ensuing Peace Conference at Paris in 1919 marked the beginning of a new era for Lithu- ania. There are said to be over 700,000 Lithu- anians in the United States. See War, Euro- PEAN. LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND LIT- ERATURE. The Lithuanian language is more ancient than Greek, Latin, German, Celtic and the Slav. tongues. It belongs to the Indo- European group and is the nearest idiom to Sanskrit. The resemblance, indeed, is so close that Lithuanian peasants can i understand Sans- krit sentences pronounced by learned scholars. Hence philologists are generally agreed that Lithuanian is the most ancient of all the living languages. It is not easily possible to compare it with Arabic, the antiquity of which has not been fathomed. A remarkable feature of Lithuanian is also the fact that it has as much likeness to Greek and Latin as to Sanskrit: Lithuanian — Virai traukite jungan; Latin — Viri trahite jugum (“Men drag the yoke”). Lithuanian — Dzievs (Dievs) davé dantis, duos duonos; Greek — Zeus dedoke odontas dosei siton. (“God has given teeth, he will give bread”). The invaluable service of the language to philologists was recognized by Kant (1724- 1804), who was born in Prussian Lithuania and acquired a knowledge of it. In his preface to a Lithuanian grammar he wrote: “Lithuania having a royal character, deserves the protec- tion of the state. She must be preserved, for her tongue possesses the key which opens all LITITZ — LITOLFF the enigmas not only of philology but also of history.» This statement was scientifically sup- ported and confirmed by the great philologist Schleicher in his work on that language, while Reclus, in his monumental ‘Géographie Univer- selle, says: “If the value of a nation in the whole of humanity were to be measured by the beauty of its language, the Lithuanians should rank first among the inhabitants of Europe.” Lithuania had no writers at the time of her existence as a great state. Traditional songs, poems and legends were chanted by itinerant burtininkas or national bards. About the 16th century they ceased to exist owing to clerical persecution, and their songs died with them — they are lost. The bards differed from the minstrels of other countries and races in that they glorified no heroes real or legendary: they sang only dirges for the dead, the so-called raudas. A popular style of lyric singing with musical accompaniment is the “daina,» mild and tender in spirit, simple and resigned, breathing resignation in grief and devotion to patriarchal customs. There is in them nothing of the slashing, fire-eating bravado that distinguishes most of the ancient ballads of love and war. If the soul of a nation is revealed in its songs, then the Lithuanians deserve to be classified as the most harmless, peaceful race in the world. Even the German poets Goethe and Herder are said to have borrowed inspiration from the Lithuanian “dainos,” of which many thousands exist, adapted to all phases of life excepting war. During the Reformation religious literature, written by Jesuits, made its appearance in Prussian Lithuania. »The oldest book in the language was a catechism translated from the German and dated 1547. Until the 18th cen- tury only translations of the Bible and other devotional works existed in Lithuanian, when the fine national epic poem, ‘Metas? (The Four Seasons), by Duonelaitis (1714-80) was published. The three leadérs in the national revival were Daukantas, Poszka and Bishop Valanczevskis. The first wrote a number of literary and historical works, among which the most important are ‘Lietuvos Istorija? (His- tory of Lithuania) and ‘Budas Lietuviu Kal- nenu ir Zemaitiu? (Character of the Lithuanian Highlanders); the second produced many poems and translations; and the bishop wrote a history of the introduction of Christianity into Samogitia. During the first half of the 19th century the national literature progressed favorably if slowly when the Russian govern- ment intervened in 1864 and ordered the Latin type hitherto used to be replaced by Russian characters. Proscribed in Russian territory, the printing presses were removed to Prussian Lithuania, where books and papers were printed (mainly at Tilsit) and smuggled across the borders to the Lithuanians under the Tsar’s rule. Since that time some notable additions have been made to the literature, though it can hardly claim a prominent position as yet. The majority of later writers devoted themselves to poetry —-the national favorite. Kudirka wrote ‘The Bells of the Fatherland? and the hymn ‘Lithuania our Country”? (Lietuva tevyne musu). The highest rank in the modern school was reached by the dramatic poet, Vidunas, who wrote a trilogy, ‘The Shadows of An- cestors,? the force and beauty of which has “yate~ 519 been favorably compared with Shakespeare’s work. The poet and publicist, Jaksztas, con- ducts his own review, Draugija, in the columns of which his original works make their first appearance. Quite a number of women writers have added to the modest total of the budding Lithuanian literature: Rogana, Peleda, Bite- Petkevicz, Lazdynu, Zemaite and Szatrijos. The famous Polish novelist, Henryk Sienkie- wiecz (d. 1916) was of Lithuanian origin, as also was the patriot Kosciuszko. Political re- pression and lack of educational opportunities have hitherto hampered the development of both language and literature in the past. The law of 1905 permitted the introduction, during the first two years, of the Lithuanian language in schools where the teaching was exclusively Russian. All the higher schools have been abolished and elementary education is not com- pulsory. Beyond a few native societies which promote popular lectures, there is no facility whatever for adult education. Two such so- cieties were broken up by Russia as recently as 1908. Consult Gabrys’, Jerzy, ‘Sketch of the Lithuanian Nation» (Paris 1911). LITITZ, lit’its, Pa., borough, in Lancaster County, on the Philadelphia and Reading Rail- road, about 28 miles southeast of Harrisburg, and eight miles north of Lancaster. The first permanent settlement was made in 1757. by Moravians. Some of the United Brethren had formerly lived in Bohemia and they named the place after their old home. They showed their loyalty to their new country by providing shel- ter, food and care for wounded soldiers of the Revolutionary War. The graves of some of the early patriots are still pointed out. Lititz is situated in a region where there are many good farms, but its chief industries are in manufacturing. The principal manufactures are corn-starch, knit-goods, planing mills, ani- mal traps, shoes, box board, paper, pretzels, cocoa, chocolate, cigars and some dairy products. The mineral springs are noted and much fre- quented. The borough is the seat of Linden Hall Seminary, established in 1794. Pop. 3,680. Consult Mombert, ‘History of Lancaster County, Pa.? (Lancaster 1868); ‘Moravian Historical Society Records? (Vol. II, Bethle- hem, F'a.). LITMUS, or LACMUS, is a blue pigment obtained from’any lichen which yields archil. (See LicHENs, Fungi). The plant, bruised be- tween stones, is exposed to the air for several weeks, and moistened with some liquid contain- ing ammonia, lime and potashes being also added. Fermentation sets in, the lichens be- comes red and finally blue, and when it has acquired the proper tint, chalk or sulphate of lime is added, and the soft paste is made into square cakes by pressure in molds, and the cakes are then dried. Litmus is complex in nature; it contains several coloring matters of definite composition, which can be separated by the use of glacial acetic acid and absolute alcohol. LITOLFF, lit’dlf, Henry Charles, Euro- pean composer and pianist: b. London, 6 Feb. 1818; d. Paris, 6 Aug. 1891. He studied piano- forte playing under Moscheles, and made his first public appearance as a pianist at the Co- vent Garden Theatre, London, in 1832. At 17 he went to France and for some time lived 520 a wandering life, traveling in France, Holland and Germany, giving concerts. In 1851 he settled in Brunswick, married the widow of the music-publisher Meyer, and took control of the business. Later he transferred the management of affairs to his adopted son, who began the publishing of cheap editions of classical music. In 1860, after the death of his wife, he moved to Paris, and married the daughter of the Count de la Rochefoucauld. His compositions include piano pieces (including the ‘Spinn- lied?) ; symphony concertos; and the operas “Heloise et Abelard? ; ‘Die Braut von Kynast? ; ‘Les Templiers,? and ‘King Lear.» As a pian- ist he showed feeling and was brilliant of ex- ecution, but uneven, and sometimes inaccurate. LITOPTERNA, a group of extinct South American hoofed animals of the order Toxo- dontia, herds of which pastured on the Argen- tine pampas during the whole Tertiary Period. It has been thought that these animals should be merged with the Perrisodactyla, but the later view is that they present a case of conver- gence, fulfilling on the plains of South America the role of the horses in North America; yet not all of the Litopterna were horselike. In the Miocene and Pliocene two very dis- | tinct’ families existed within this order — the Macrauchenide and the Proterotheriide. The former were grotesquely camel-like, the early forms (as Thesodon) having much the size and shape of a llama, with a remarkably long snout, while their later descendants (Macrauchenia) ._ resemble long-necked, heavily-built camels whose nose had developed into a real trunk nearly as long as the skull. The legs were long and stout and the feet had three toes, but in structure the foot was not like either the camel’s nor the horse’s. This queer, composite creature is believed to have obtained its living by browsing on trees. LITORINA. See PERIWINKLE. LITRE, le’tér, or LITER, the French standard measure “of capacity in the decimal system. It is a cube, each side of which meas- ures 3.937 inches, and it contains 61.02 cubic inches, or 1.056 quarts. See also Metric SYSTEM. LITTELL, li-tél’, Eliakim, American. pub- lisher: b. Burlington, N.J.,.2 Jan°1797; d. Brookline, Mass., 17 May 1870. He learned the printer’s trade, and in .1819 established at Philadelphia a literary periodical, the National Recorder, the name of which was changed in 1821 to the Saturday Magazine. In 1822 he began to publish a monthly, the Museum of Foreign Literature and Science, giving selec- tions from the best periodical literature of Europe. In 1844 he started in Boston Littell’s Living ‘Age, a weekly literary eclectic periodical which is still continued. LITTLE BELT, The. AND LittLe BELT. LITTLE BLUE CREEK, a small stream in Jackson County in the western part of Mis- souri. A contest occurred, in 1864, on the banks of this stream, between Federal troops under General Curtis and Confederate troops under Gen. Sterling Price. The contest lasted several hours, when the Confederates fell back on Big Blue Creek, in the same county, and made a strong resistance, The Union cavalry, See PRESIDENT LITOPTERNA — LITTLE FALLS under General Pleasanton, finally routed the Confederates, who retreated into Arkansas. LITTLE COLORADO, a river which has its rise in Apache County, Ariz. running northwest to its junction with the Colorado River. The amount of water is sometimes large, but again the river resembles a chain of small lakes or ponds, with dry or nearly dry river bed in many places. The river is about 230 miles long. It flows a little south of the southern boundary of the Navajo Indian Reser- vation, around the region where many “Cliff Dwellers” once lived in Arizona, and on through arid wastes and among low mountains to near the Colorado, where it enters a deep cafon, through which it passes into the Colo- tado just at Marble Cafion. LITTLE CORPORAL, The, a name be- stowed upon Napoleon by his admiring soldiery after the battle of Lodi, in affectionate allusion to his small stature. LITTLE CROW, the family name of a ruling dynasty of the Medaywakanton Sioux Indians prominent in the history of the North- west. Leaders among them were: Chatan Wakoo wa mani (“He who walks pursuing a hawk”), b. 1769; d. 1827; Wamde Tanka (“Big Eagle”), b. 1800; d.. 1845; Ta Oyati Duta (“His Red People”), b. 1820; d. 3 July 1863. By the Treaty of Mendota, Minn., 5 Aug. 1851, the Dakota ceded nearly all their lands in Minnesota to the United States. Although he was a signer of the treaty, Ta Oyati Duta chafed under its terms, and was the leader of the uprising which culminated in 1862. when ever 1,000 settlers were killed. He was. unsuc- cessful in an attack on Fort Ridgley, Minn., and after a disastrous defeat at Woods Lake, fled with about 300 followers to his western kinsmen. He was killed by a settler named Lampson in McLeod County, Minn. Consult Bryant and Murch, ‘History of the Great Massacre by the Sioux Indians in 1862,? LITTLE DORRIT, a novel by Charles Dickens (q.v.) published in 1856. There is but slight plot to the story, which contains more than 50. characters. LITTLE EGRET, any of several small, white herons. See EGRET: HERON, © LITTLE FALLS, Minn., city and county- seat of Morrison County, on the Mississippi River and on the Northern Pacific Railroad, about 100 miles northwest of Saint Paul. The place was settled in 1856, and in 1889 was incorporated. A dam ‘across the river aids in furnishing extensive water power. It is situ- ated in an agricultural and lumbering region. Its. chief manufactures° are flour, lumber, machine-shop products, paper, bricks and dairy products. It is the commercial centre for a large part of Morrison and adjoining counties. It has.a fine courthouse, Saint Gabriel’s Hos- pital, Saint Otto’s Orphan Asylum, a city library and several good school buildings. Pop. (1920) LITTLE FALLS, N. Y., city, in Herki- mer County, on the Mohawk River, the New York State Barge Canal and on the West Shore and the New York Central and Hudson River railroads, midway between Albany and Syracuse. The country around is rolling and diversified by many low hills, but Little Falls LITTLE GIANT —LITTLE OLD WORLD occupies that spot in the Mohawk Valley where in ages past the foothills of the Adirondack Mountains, the “Alps of America,” were joined to the headlands of the Catskill range by a barrier that set the waters back over a con- siderable portion of the fertile lands now under cultivation. When the barrier broke away by the action of the waters, the western gatewav of New York State was opened,with its pecul- iar rock formations. Through that narrow gateway occupied by Little Falls runs the Mo- hawk River, the new barge canal, the tracks of west- and east-bound steam and electric rail- roads and the main highway for automobile and carriage travel. So narrow is the gateway that in early colonial days the Indian warriors sped their messages on arrows from one hilltop to the other. The city occupies the site of an Indian village, visited in the 17th century by Jesuit missionaries. A white settlement was made here about 1770 or a few years later. In 1782 this setthement was destroyed by In- dians and Tories. General Herkimer, a Rev- olutionary officer after whom the county is named, is buried in a cemetery near the city. No successful efforts were made to rebuild until 1790, when a colony of Germans took possession. The place was incorporated ASpat village in 1811; as a town in 1827; as a city in 1895. The "city gets its name from the falls, or a series of cascades in the river, which descends 45 feet in less than a mile. “Pic- turesque and productive,” the grazing region around famous for its dairy and market prod- ucts, Little Falls is especially noted for its diversified and prosperous manufacturing indus- tries. These include knit-goods, hammers, felt shoes, knitting machines, paper, bicycles, in- cubators, cow-milking machines, sectional book- cases, leather, chemical laboratories, cream, butter, cheese and junket products, etc. Well- established banks, a prosperous. building, sav- ings and loan company and a _ progressive merchants’ and manufacturers’ association look after its commercial and financial interests. The city’s assessed valuation is $6,963,870. The city has fine school and church buildings, Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C.. A. buildings and pub- lic library, new city hall, handsome government building, nurses’ training school, city hospital, new Masonic Temple, Odd Fellows’ Hall, thea- tres, good hotels and a well-equipped country club. Eleven public parks and squares, covering 44 acres, include Moreland park, one of the most picturesque hillside parks in central New York. A gravity system of waterworks furnishes in abundance pure mountain spring water; there are 20 miles of water mains; a modern salaried fire department; a modern electric light and power station; 25 miles of streets; and 8 miles of pavement. Pop. 13,100 LITTLE GIANT, The, a familiar name applied to Stephen A. Douglas (q.v.) by his political admirers in allusion to his small stat- ure and great intellectual capacity. LITTLE JOHN, one of the outlaw com- - rades of Robin Hood. He was famed for his strength and was the only’one of the company who could approach Robin Hood in skilful han- dling of the bow. By some authorities his name is supposed to have been John Nailor. LITTLE KANAWHA, ka-na’wa, a river which rises in the central part of West Virginia, 521 flows west and northwest and enters the Ohio River at Parkersburg. It is about 100 miles long, has considerable rapidity in the mountain section and is of benefit as a route for the transportation of the oil and lumber of that portion of the States through which it flows. It has been made navigable as far as Burning Springs, about 40 miles from Parkersburg. LITTLE KEI, one of the important mem- bers of the group of East Indian islands known as the Kei Islands (q.v.). LITTLE LORD FAUNTLEROY, a pop- ular story for children by Mrs. Frances Hodg- son Burnett, originally published in 1885 as a serial in the magazine Saint Nicholas. LITTLE MAC, a nickname applied by the soldiers of the Union army during the Civil War to Gen. George B. McClellan (q.v.). LITTLE MINISTER, The, by Sir James Matthew Barrie, “a love story, thrown into relief by a backing of Scotch puritanism,” as it was epitomized by an English reviewer, has for its scene of action the same as that of so many of Barrie’s other tales and sketches, the Scotch village of “Thrums,” under which alias the author presents his own birthplace, Kirriemuir, a town largely populated by linen- weavers, about 62 miles north of Edinburgh. The novel was first published in 1891. The hero, Gavin Dishart, the young minister of that rock of rigidly orthodox Presbyterianism, the “Auld Licht Kirk,» serious, conscientious and indomitably brave, falls deeply in love with the fascinating and mysterious gypsy, Babbie; who, we are told by a Scottish critic, is de- lightful, yet “belongs not to Scotland, but to the realm of Oberon and Titania.” The young minister has no doubt that his first duty is toward the woman he loves, though a tempest of wrath is brewing in his devoted, but fiercely bigoted congregation; and in bringing the ro- mance of his antithetical pair of lovers to a happy yet plausible ending through the heroism of the Little Minister, the author exhibits not only his ingenuity as a disentangler of plots but also, incidentally, his acknowledged mastery in depicting the pathos and humor of Scotch village life. Barrie’s own dramatic version of the story has been repeatedly produced in both the United States and Great Britain with a success rivaling even the exceptional success of the book. - ARTHUR GUITERMAN. LITTLE NELL, a child character in the novel ‘Old Curiosity Shop, » by Charles Dickens. She was reared amid vice and crime, yet pre- served a beautiful purity of character. LITTLE OLD WORLD, The (‘Piccolo mondo antico,’? 1896), the undoubted master- piece of the Italian writer, Antonio Fogazzaro, and one of the greatest novels of modern Italy, is the first of a trilogy, the other two volumes of which are ‘Piccolo mondo moderno? (1901) and ‘Il Santo? (1905). Known in English as ‘The Patriot? (‘Little Old World), ‘The Sin- ner) and ‘The Saint, these novels project against the background of Italian life in the sec- ond ‘half of the 19th century the spiritual prob- lems of the protagonists and their offspring. In the entrancing setting of Lake Lugano amidst whose beautiful hills Fogazzaro spent the im- 522 pressionable years of his youth, ‘Piccolo mondo antico? is a study of somnolent Valsolda during the eight years that preceded the expulsion of the Austrians in 1859. With a fidelity born only of accurate observation, Lombards and Venetians of every type appear in this magnifi- cent evocation of those years of silent prepara- tion. They speak their various northern dia- lects and are set off by that rich humor so typ- ical of Fogazzaro’s minor characters. The stony-hearted marchesa and her train of satel- lites, the lovable uncle Piero, the provincial gen- try, the minions of Austrian despotism, patriots and spies, all stand forth with individual dis- tinction. It is in this milieu that the main theme develops out of the conflicting ideals of husband and wife. Essentially a love match which has resulted in the young man’s disin- heritance, this union, through the inactivity and lack of energy of the dilettantic Franco Mai- roni, a devout religious idealist and a dreamer, is fast approaching disaster. The wife, Luisa, is a woman of strong will and moral force, filled with a sense of rectitude and justice, but lacking in religious faith. In the crisis brought about by the accidental drowning of their child, it is the husband who proves the stronger of the two. Taking consolation in his religion, he arouses himself, leaves for Piedmont to join his regiment and die for his country. The clash between the divergent ideals of Franco and Luisa, the separation and final reconciliation are worked out with characteristic poignancy. The novel typifies the intellectual and emotional - conflict so favored by Fogazzaro. As is usual with him, it is the man whose spiritual nature is the higher, and in the triumph of Franco’s in- tensely emotional and fervent Catholicism over Luisa’s colder rationalism, we see exemplified the author’s fundamental aspiration: “To live, love, labor, suffer and ascend.” Consult Lapham, L. E., ‘Fogazzaro and his triology? (in The Catholic World, Nov. 1906- Jan. 1907); Faguet, Emile, ‘Fogazzaro? (in Revue des ‘Deux Mondes, 15 May 1911); Al- bertazzi, Adolfo, ‘Il Romanzo? (Milan 1902) ; Croce, Benedetto, ‘La letteratura della nuova Italia? (Bari 1914-15). The English transla- tion, ‘The Patriot, is by M. Pritchard-Agnetti (New York 1906). ALFRED G. PANARONI. LITTLE ROCK, Ark., capital of the State, the seat of Pulaski County and the largest city in the State, on the Missouri Pacific, the Rock Island and the Saint Louis Southwestern rail- way systems, 133 miles west of Memphis, 346 miles southwest of Saint Louis, 165 miles east of Fort Smith and 145 miles northeast of Texarkana. Little Rock and North Little Rock is situated on both banks of the Arkansas River and takes its name from the rocky promontory which rises on the south bank some 50 feet above the river, now used as one of the abut- ments of one of the four bridges which span the river. This rock is the first seen ascending the river and was_.called Little Rock in con- tradistinction to the bold precipice, about 10 times higher, which rises some three miles above upon the opposite bank and called the Big Rock. This commanding eminence is now the site of an army post. The eastern border of the city touches rich alluvial cotton lands, without rocks and subject to a high state of _ center of the State. LITTLE ROCK cultivation; its western border reaches to the foothills of the Ozark Mountains. It is situ- ated near lat. 35° and long. 92°, almost at the The Arkansas River is navigable up to this point during the major portion of the year for the large steamboats, while smaller vessels ply as far up as Fort Smith. Pop. (est. 1919) about 90,000. Trade and Commerce.— The growth of the commerce of Little Rock has been gradual but steady. The total annual- business is estimated at $300,000,000, of which the retail business exceeds $100,000,000 : a large portion of the other consists of cotton and its by-products. For example, in an average year Little Rock handles approximately 250,000 bales of cotton, representing financial transactions of over $35,- 000,000. The total freight traffic for the year 1918 employed 105,332 cars. The real estate transactions during the same year aggregated 3,555 sales, amounting to $5,237,194. The pos- tal receipts for the fiscal year total about $890,763. The local Board of Commerce, a consolidation of all commercial organizations, is the organ for concert of action among busi- ness men, Little Rock is also the supply head- quarters of the United States Bureau of Mili- tary Aeronautics for Arkansas, Oklahoma and northern Texas, and a million dollar warehouse plant is located at this point. During the late war the government constructed a munition plant at a cost of $7,000,000, which it is pro- posed to convert into a chemical or fertilizer plant, while Eberts Field, located 20 miles east, is a flying field, costing nearly $2,000,000. Camp Pike, an army cantonment built during the war, through which between 200,000 and 300,000 men passed, located eight miles north of Little Rock, has been designated by the government as a permanent army division post and has a capacity for 70,000 soldiers. This camp was named in honor of Gen. Zebulin Montgomery Pike, the explorer of the great West and South- west, who discovered Pikes Peak. The citizens of Little Rock, through its Board of Commerce, donated in fee simple for $1 to the govern- ment the site for Camp Pike, 3,000 acres, and the munition plant, 400 acres, at a total cost of over $400,000. Manufactures.— The largest single industry is the manufacture of cottonseed oil. There are six mills which have shipped, during a single season, 877 cars, or about 4,000,000 gal- lons of oil, 2,200 cars of meal and 584 cars of hulls. The latest available figures show 273 factories, employing about 15,000 persons, with an approximate annual pay-roll of $20,000,000. The manufacture of lumber and lumber prod- ucts, such as staves, sash and doors, etc., prin~ cipally hard woods, takes prominence, followed by furniture, tractors, automobiles, fertilizers ; the largest brick factory and stone quarries and crushers in the State are located here; 80 per cent of the Bauxite ore of the United States from which aluminum is made is mined within a radius of 20 miles. Ice factories, print- ing and lithographing, overalls and garments, tents and awnings, harness, candies, packing- house products, foundries and railroad shops and four cotton compresses operate here. Banks.— There are two national banks with a capital stock of $500,000 and surplus of $325,- 694.73, and annual deposits amounting to LITTLE ROCK $4,727,159.93; also 12 trust companies with a capital stock of $2,983,000, surplus. and profits $1,201,315.89, with deposits of $25,780,355.39 and loans of $23,300,000. The local bank clearings for 1918 aggregated $272,875,892. Besides these, there are building and loan associations with ag- gregate stock of about $10,000,000. Government and Finances.— All municipal corporations in Arkansas are governed by gen- eral laws and not by special charter. The mayor, treasurer, police judge, city clerk and city attorney as well as the aldermen are elected biennially. The city council is composed of the mayor and 18 aldermen, two of whom are elected from each of the nine wards by the voters of the entire city and are required to reside in their several wards. The adminis- trative officers are partly appointed by the mayor and partly elected by the council. Churches and Charitable Institutions.— Little Rock is a city of numerous churches and chapels. It is the seat of Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal cathedrals, Saint An- drew’s and Trinity. The former, at the corner of Seventh and Louisiana streets, is a noble edifice, built of native granite, the most striking piece of architecture in the city. Other notable buildings are Christ Church (Protestant Epis- copal), the Eighth Street Methodist, the Ger- man Evangelical Lutheran, the First Presby- teral Church and the Jewish Temple. There are 7 Baptist churches, 4 Catholic churches, 3 Christian churches, 1 Congregational, 1 Chris- tian Science, 6 Episcopal, 2 Hebrew, 3 Holiness, 2 Lutheran, 12 Methodist, 6 Presbyterian-and 4 miscellaneous. Of the charitable institutions the more notable are the county and city hos- pitals, Saint Vincent’s Infirmary, conducted by the Sisters of Mercy, the Children’s Home, the Methodist Orphanage, the Jane Kellogg Home for Aged Women, the Home for Aged Colored Women, and the Boys’ Club; the | Y. M. C. A. and’Y. W. C. A. both operate well- equipped and commodious homes. Buildings, Parks and Suburbs.—Little Rock is noted for the beauty of its homes. The profusion of its flowers have won for the city the name of “the City of Roses.» All of the State’s public institutions, except the Univer- sity of Arkansas at Fayetteville and the Branch Normal Institute for colored youths at Pine Bluff, are located here. These include the State House, the School for the Blind, Deaf-Mute Institute, State Hospital and the State Peni- tentiary. The State has erected a new capitol, built of Arkansas marble. Other public build- ings of note are the Pulaski County Court- house, constructed of granite quarried in the vicinity, the customhouse and post office, and the Board of Trade building. Of club houses are the Country Club, the Athletic Association, Quapaw, and the Elk’s Lodge; social organiza- tions, Concordia Association, a Jewish Club, Jewish Country Club, the Masonic Temple, the Albert Pike Consistory, and the new Shriner’s Temple. The City park, consisting of 35 acres of ground, is situated in the heart of the resi- dence portion of the city and is tastefully laid out in walks and drives and well kept up: The Arkansas River is crossed by three railroad bridges and a free bridge erected by Pulaski County at an expense of nearly $400,000, unit- ing the northern and southern portions of the 523 city. A new concrete free bridge costing over $1,000,000 is contemplated. There are two in- corporated suburbs of the city, Baring Cross, a thriving town of 800 inhabitants lying north of the Arkansas River and west of the city limits, and North Little Rock, a small town lying north of the river and of the city; Pu- laski Heights, a picturesque hill overlooking the city and river, has become fashionable for residences. Mount Holly, the oldest cemetery in the city, is beautifully adorned with shrubs and flowers, and has many fine monuments. Other cemeteries are Oakland, the Jewish, the Catholic, the National, the Confederate and the Colored. The city is aboundantly supplied with pure water obtained from the Arkansas River and deep wells. There are two reservoirs with a storage capacity of 17,000,000 gallons, with an average daily consumption of 6,000,000 gal- lons. There are 65 miles of water mains. The streets are laid out with regularity. The principal retail thoroughfare is Main street, the jobbing street is Markham, the former running north and south and at right angles to the lat- ter. There are within the city 249.02 miles of opened streets, 78.49 paved with brick, granite, asphalt, Telford or macadam pavement, 190 miles of sewers and 180 miles of sidewalks. The street railway lines cover 29 miles. Education.— The single school district of Little Rock is a corporation distinct from the city, its territory including only that portion of the city which is south of the river. Here there are 20 schools, with 24 buildings, of which five schools with five buildings are for the colored children, 325 teachers and an en- rollment of 11,425, of whom 1,607 are colored. The school census shows a total of 15,000, of which about. 3,500 are colored. The North Little Rock school district, including so much of the city as lies north of the river, has in all six school buildings, two of which are for col- ored children, 15 teachers and an attendance of 885. The school census shows that 2,600 are entitled to attend the public school in that district. Besides the public schools there are private and parochial schools. For higher edu- cation the Little Rock College for boys and Saint Mary’s Academy for girls, both Catholic institutions, are the largest; the University of Arkansas, the main departments of building of which are located at Fayetteville, has branch schools of law.and medicine located here. Be- sides these are the Arkansas Military Academy, a military training school, and the Philander Smith College for colored youths. History.— When the territory now known as Arkansas passed to the United States in 1803, the site of the future capital was an un- broken wilderness. By the act of Congress of 2 March 1819, the seat of government of the newly created territory was fixed at the Post of Arkansas on the Arkansas River some 30 miles above its confluence with the Missis- sippi. On 24 Oct. 1820, an act was passed re- moving the capital to Little Rock. It has been aptly said that so manifest was the destiny of the future city that it was made the seat of government before it had become a town. A post office was established on 10 April 1820. It was incorporated as a town 27 Oct. 1825. It is said that the inhabitants numbered only 450 in 1830. On 2 Nov. 1835 it was, by special 524 act, incorporated as a city. When the momen- tous question of secession arose in 1861, a con- vention was called by the legislature to meet at Little Rock, which adopted an ordinance dis- solving the union existing between the State of Arkansas and those united with her under the compact entitled, “The Constitution of the United States of America” On 10 Sept. 1863, Little Rock was captured by the Northern army under General Steele and remained in posses- sion of the Federal forces during the remain- der of the war. The unexpected increase in the population between the years 1860 and 1870, covering the period of the Civil War, may perhaps ibe attributed to the fact that during that period of disintegration society was form- ing new associations. The growth of the city since 1880 has been constant and rapid. Pop. (1850) 2,167; (1870) 12,380; (1890) 25,874; (1900) 38,307; (1910) 45,941; (1920) 64,997. GEORGE FIRMIN, General Manager, Little Rock Board of Com- merce. LITTLE ROCK, Capture of. The State authorities of Arkansas seized the United States arsenal at Little Rock 8 Feb. 1861, and until 10 Sept. 1863 the city remained in Confederate occupation. After the fall of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, 4 and 8 July 1863, Gen. F. Steele was ordered from Vicksburg to Helena and directed to form a junction with General David- son, who was moving south from Pilot Knob, Mo., to break’ up’. Sterling’ Price’s “army, -and occupy Little Rock. Steele arrived at Hel- ena 31 July and organized his expedition, find- ing at that place two divisions of infantry, a brigade of cavalry and 39 guns; in all, about 7,000 men. On 5 August he marched for De- vall’s Bluff on White River, reached it without incident and there was joined by Davidson with 6,000 cavalry and three batteries, making his force about 13,000 men and 57 guns. A few days later he was joined by a brigade which raised his aggregate to over 14,000, of whom 10,500 were effective, many being sick. August 24 Davidson’s cavalry advance skir- mished with Marmaduke’s cavalry up to and through Brownsville and up to his entrench- ments at Bayou Meto. Davidson fell back to Brownsville, where, 2 September, Steele joined him, and concentrated all his available force. The position on the Bayou Meto, 12 miles from Little Rock, was flanked, and on the 7th Steele reached the Arkansas River near Ashley’s Mills, where Davidson’s cavalry had a sharp skirmish and drove the Confederates across the river. Steele repaired the main road back to’ Bayou Meto, and on the 10th Davidson crossed to the south side of the river by a pontoon bridge and marched on Little Rock, but 10 miles distant, Steele marching. along the north bank. The city was defended by Sterling Price with about 7,700 men, of whom 6,500 were en- trenched on the north side of the Arkansas, and about 1,200 on the south side, on ‘the line of the Bayou Fourche, about five miles from the: city. Davidson moved directly on the city, without much opposition until he reached Bayou Fourche, where he found Marmaduke’s cavalry, dismounted, a brigade of infantry and two batteries, all drawn up to oppose him. Davidson attacked on two roads, driving the Confederates back; Steele, who had marched LITTLE ROCK — LITTLETON © abreast of him on the opposite side of the river. opened an enfilading artillery fire; and Marma- duke fell back through the city, closely fol- lowed by Davidson’s cavalry. Price had with- drawn from the north bank of the river when he learned that Davidson had turned the posi- tion, and evacuated the city at 5 p.m., retreating to Arkadelphia. Steele’s cavalry followed Mar- maduke’s cavalry for a day, and returned to Little Rock on the 12th, At 7 p.m. the city was formally surrendered to Davidson by the civil authorities. Price burned eight steamers, one of them a powerful gunboat, but the arsenal was saved. Steele reported a loss of 137 killed, wounded and missing; Price reported a total loss of 64. Consult ‘Official Records» (Vol. XXII); Lossing, ‘History of the Civil War? (Vol. Il); The Century Company’s ‘Battles and Leaders of the Civil War? (Vol. IIT). E. A. CARMAN. LITTLE RUSSIANS. See RuTHENES. LITTLE TURTLE, Miami chief: one of those who signed the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. He defeated Harmar on the Miami in 1790 and St. Clair at Saint Mary’s in 1791. LITTLE WOMEN, a popular story for ee by Louisa M. Alcott (q.v.), published in L LITTLEHALES, George Washington, American hydrographic engineer: b. Schuylkill County, Pa., 14 Oct. 1860. He was graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1883. He is an associate editor of the Jnter- national Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism, and has published “The Development of Great Circle Sailing? ; ‘The Methods and Results of the Survey of Lower California? ; ‘The Mag- netic Dip or Inclination»; ‘The Azimuths of Celestial Bodies,» and other works, all issued by the United States Navy Department. He — has made many important researches in hy- drography, oceanography and terrestrial mag- netism and has published about 3,000 charts. _ LITTLEJOHN, Abram Newkirk, Amer- ican Protestant Episcopal bishop: b. Florida, Montgomery County, N. Y., 13 Dec. 1824; d. Williamstown, Mass., 3 Aug. 1901. He was graduated at Union College in 1845 and took orders in the Episcopal Church in 1850. He was rector of Saint Paul’s, New Haven, Conn., 1851-60, and of Holy Trinity Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1860-69. He was made bishop of Long Island in 1869, and from 1874 was in charge of American Episcopal churches on the continent of Europe. He wrote ‘Philosophy of Re- ligion? ; ‘The Christian Ministry, etc. LITTLETON, or LYTTLETON, Sir Thomas, English jurist: b. Frankley, Wor- cestershire, 1422; d. there, 23 Aug. 1481. He was a member of the Inner Temple, sheriff of Worcestershire in 1447, recorder of Coventry in 1450, and in 1453 was made sergeant-at-law and justice of assize in 1455. After holding several legal appointments he became justice of the common pleas in 1466. His treatise on Tenures, with the well-known commentary by Sir Edward Coke, ‘Coke upon Littleton,» was long the standard authority on the English law of real property. It was written in legal French, and first published in London about 1481. ‘Coke upon Littleton? was first published LITTLETON — LITURGY in English in 1628, and there are many sub- sequent editions. LITTLETON, N. H., town, in Grafton County, on the Ammonoosuc River, and on the Boston and Maine Railroad. When it was first settled in 1770 it was called Apthorp. When it was incorporated, in 1784, the name was changed to Littleton. It is in a section of the State noted for its beautiful scenery and cool summer climate. The river furnishes consider- able water power; the chief manufactures are shoes, gloves, wagons and carriages, whetstones, bobbins, stereoscopic views, woodenware and furniture. Electric lighting is municipally owned, and the town has a Carnegie library and a hospital. The government of the town is administered by means of the annual town meeting. Pop. (1920) 2,308. ‘Consult ‘History of Littleton? (3 vols., Cambridge, Mass., 1905). LITTMANN, lit’man, Enno, German Ori- ental scholar: b. Oldenburgh, 1875. He traveled extensively in the near East, including Abys- sinia, Palestine and Syria; came to America where he spent several years as lecturer on Semitic philology at Princeton University. He was appointed to the chair of Semitic languages at the University of Strassburg in 1906. In 1910-12 he was professor at the University of Egypt, after which he returned to his old chair at Strassburg. He visited Abyssinia and Syria with the Princeton archeological expedition and accompanied the Axum expedition of 1906. He has published ‘Arabische Schattenspiele? (1901); ‘Zur Entzifferung der Safa-Inschrif- ten? (1901); ‘Chronicle of King Theodore of Abyssinia? (1902); ‘List of Arabic Manu- scripts? (1904); ‘Zur Entzifferung der thamu- denischen Inschriften®? (1904); ‘Philosophi Abessini? (1904); ‘Geschichte der athiopischen Literatur? (1907); ‘Arabische Beduinenerzah- ‘lungen? (1908); ‘Nabatean Inscriptions? (1913). LITTORAL, that belt along a coast, be- tween low and high tide limits. The term is sometimes extended to include the very shallow water just beyond low tide limit. Currents parallel to the shore are known as littoral cur- rents, and the deposits of the littoral belt are called littoral deposits. See SANDSTONE. LITTRE, Maximilien Paul Emile, mak- si-mil-i-6n pol a-mel lé-tra, French lexicogra- pher and philosopher: b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801; d. there, 2 June 1881. After completing his course at school he studied deeply in English and Ger- man and in classical and Sanskrit literature. He intended to follow the medical profession; his study of medicine was interrupted by the — death of his father. He then engaged in teach- ing for a livelihood, took an active part in the Revolution of 1830, ‘and soon after was invited by Armand Carrel, editor of the National, to write for that paper. In 1839 he published the first volume of an edition of Hippocrates in the original, with a French translation and copious notes. This work, in 10 volumes, se- cured his admission to the Académie des In- scriptions et Belles-Lettres. He translated Strauss’ ‘Leben Jesu,» and having adopted Comtist principles, wrote an able and lucid synopsis of them in his ‘De la Philosophie Positive? (1845). In 1854 he was appointed editor of the Journal des Savants. In 1863 he commenced the publication of his great work, 525 begun nearly 20 years earlier, the ‘Dictionnaire de la Langue frangaise,’ which has been called the best dictionary of any living language yet published, and is a monument of its author’s patience and lucidity no less than of his erudi- tion. This was finished in 1873, two years previous to which Littré had been admitted into the Académie Francaise. Another important work of his was an edition of Pliny’s ‘Natural History? with a translation and notes. During the siege of Paris he was forced to retire with his famly to Bordeaux, and was appointed professor of history and geography in the poly- technic school there. He was afterward sum- moned to Versailles to take his seat in the Senate, having been chosen by the department of the Seine. He became a life senator in 1875. Among Littré’s other works are ‘Application de la Philosophie Positive au Gouvernement des Sociétés? (1849) ; “Conservation, Révolution et Positivisme? (1852) ; ‘Paroles de la Philosophie Positive? (1859); ‘Histoire de la Langue francaise? -(1862); ‘Auguste Comte et la Philosophie Positive? (1863); ‘Etudes sur les Barbares et le Moyen Age? (1867) ; “Médecine et Médecins»? (1871); ‘Literature et Histoire? (1875), and ‘Etudes et Glanures? (1880). LITTROW, lit’rd, Joseph Johann von, Austrian astronomer: Bischofteinitz, Bo- hemia, 13 March 1781; d. Vienna, 30 Nov. 1840. In 1807 he obtained the chair of astronomy in the University of Cracow, and in 1810 accepted a similar chair in Kasan, where he founded the observatory. He became in 1816 joint director of the observatory of Buda, and from this he removed in 1819 to become director of the ob- servatory of Vienna. He completely reorgan- ized this establishment, and in his lectures yearly attracted great audiences, many of them strangers from abroad. By far the most popu- lar of all numerous astronomical works is his “Die Wunder des Himmels,? of which the 8th edition was published (1895-97). It ranks as one of the best works of astronomy for the use of general readers. LITTROW, Karl von, Austrian astrono- mer: b. Kasan, Russia,. 18 July 1811; d. Venice, 16 Nov. 1877. He was a son of Johann Littrow (q.v.), whom he assisted in the Vienna Observa- tory from 1831 and succeeding him as director in 1842. He edited the works of his father, adding considerably to ‘Die Wunder des Him- mels,? developed a new method of reckoning longitude at sea, and was the author of ‘Popu- lare Geometrie? (1839); ‘Verzeichniss der geographischen Ortsbestimmungen? (1844-46). LITURGY (Greek Aecrovpyia means a pub- lic service; used at Athens to mean a public service which the richer citizens discharged at their own expense). The Septuagint translators used the Greek word leitourgos for that serv- ice of God in the sanctuary. In the Hebrew it had various kindred meanings; in the Old Tes- tament is usually denotes the service of a Jew- ish priest, but in the New Testament it is used of any service rendered to God. In the 4th century, the word as applied to priestly ministrations was generally recog- nized; and while it continued in use as meaning any solemn service, it was applied especially to the Eucharistic service. It is in this sense that the word is used by the Greek Church when they say “Divine liturgy.” 526 The records extant which show the exact liturgy of the Christian Church in the lst cen- tury are mainly allusions found in documents of the 2d century. From the year 150 there are numerous proofs to show the existence of a fixed order and fixed words for the service of the mass or for the Eucharistic service. This service or liturgy was not made just when men- tioned by Cyprian, and in 138 by Justin, and many others who committed to writing the or- der of the services or the liturgy. But there is not sufficient proof to warrant the assertion that there was any entire written liturgy before the second half of the 4th century. As the liturgies exist to-day they may be divide into five groups or families of liturgies, distinguished from each other chiefly, though not entirely, by the different arrangement of their parts. Three of the groups are Oriental and two are West- ern. ‘They are: (1) The West Syrian Group, which includes the liturgies of Saint James, Saint Basil, Saint Chrysostom and that of Armenia. In this group the intercession for the living and the dead is placed after the invocation of the Holy Spirit, which in the Oriental liturgies follows the con- secration. (2) The Alexandrian Group, which includes three Greek liturgies: Saint Mark, Saint Basil, and Saint Gregory; also the Coptic liturgies. This group is characterized by the “Great In- tercession” for the living and the dead being placed in the midst of the Preface. (3) The East Syrian Group includes the liturgies in the Syriac language as used by those who belong to the Roman Catholic Church. In this group the “general intercession” is placed between the words of institution and the invo- cation of the Holy Spirit. (4) The Liturgies of Gaul and Spain. In this group the “@reat Intercession” comes just after the offertory, though the Mozarabic liturgy has a memento of the living before the Pater Noster. (5) Gallican Liturgy. In this the interces- sion is divided, that of the living is before con- secration, and that of the dead after consecra- tion. That part of the “Liturgy of the Mass” called the “canon” is very ancient, and existed almost as at present since the time of the Apos- tles (see Mass; MissAL). The liturgy of the Church of England is derived from the Ephe- sine original through the ancient Gallican liturgy which was brought to France by Greek missionaries, who were accustomed to use the form known as the liturgy of Saint John. There is no invocation of the Holy Spirit in’ the present English form, although the Prot- estant Episcopal Church has restored the invo- cation, like the Scottish Episcopal Church. There is, however, no ritual element wanting in these two English forms. whether they be com- pared with the Greek or Latin liturgies. The liturgy in use in the Protestant Episcopal Church more nearly resembles the Gallican liturgy than any other group, but in some re- spects there is a difference in arrangement, and also in meaning. There is no intercession for the dead, and the intercession for the living comes before the Communion. Bibliography.— An exhaustive bibliography appears in the catalogue of the British Museum. Consult also Tertullian, ‘De Corona? ; Cyprian, LITUUS — “LIU-KIU ‘Epistle> ; Report of Council in Trullo? Probst, ‘Liturgie der drei ersten Jahrhunderte, who claims that there was a written liturgy before 150; Hammond, ‘Ancient Liturgies’ ; Smith and Cheetum, ‘Liturgies?; Rock, ‘The Church of Our Fathers, as Seen in Saint Osmond’s Rite for the Cathedral of Salisbury? (1904); De Herdt, ‘Sacra Liturgie? (3 vols.) ; Fortescue, ‘The Mass: A Study? (1912); Staley, ‘Litur- gical Studies? (1907); York, ‘The Roman Liturgy? (1908), and ‘The Prayer Book Dic- tionary,’ edited by Hartford and Stevenson 11912), LITUUS, lit’ii-iis, (1) a crooked staff, rep- resented in works of art as borne by the ancient Roman augurs in their divinations. It was like a crozier in shape. (2) A trumpet, having a mouth which curved upward, and which was used by the Roman cavalry. (3) In geometry, a spiral, of which the characteristic property is that the square of any two radii vectores are reciprocally proportional to the angles which they respectively make with a certain line given in position and which is an asymptote of the spiral. LIUDGER, li-ood’ger, Saint, the first bishop of Muinster, Germany: b. Friesland, about 744; d. Billerbeck, 26 March 809. He studied. in England under Alcuin and returned to preach Christianity to his countrymen. When — Wittekind was sent to Friesland in 784 Liudger abandoned his mission and went to Rome. Sub- sequently he returned to become the first bishop of Mitmster. The various Vite S. Liudigeri are collected in the ‘Geschichtsquellen des Bistums Minster? (Diekamp 1881). Consult also the Lives by Htising (1878); Pingsmann (1879), and Krimphove (1886). LIUDPRAND, li-ood’prand, LI U T- PRAND, or LIUZO, Italian historian: b. about 922; d. 972. He was of a noble Lom- bard lineage. His father, who was King Hugo’s Ambassador to Constantinople, dying when the son was not more than five years old, young Liudprand was educated as a page in King Hugo’s court in Pavia, and later entered the Church. Hugo’s successor, Berengar, made him chancellor, and in 949 sent him on an import- ant diplomatic mission to Constantinople. Soon afterward he fell into disgrace with Berengar, joined himself to the Emperor Otho I, who, in 962, made him bishop of Cremona, and in 968 sent him on an important but unsuccessful mis- sion to the court of the Eastern Church, which called forth his bitter but interesting and lively ‘De Legatione Constantinopolitana.? His ‘Antapodosis? covering the period from 886- 950, and ‘De Rebus Gestis Ottonis Magni im- peratoris,’ from 960 to 964, are important sources of 10th century history. They are all found in the Pertz’ ‘Monumenta Germanie Historia.” LIU-KIU (lé-00’ké-00’) or LOO-CHOO ISLANDS, Japan, a chain of 55 islands, three large and 52 small, with a total area of 808 square miles. They form a integral part of the empire, and, extending in a southwesterly direction from a series of stepping stones be- tween Kiu-shu and Formosa. Oshima in the northwest, 30 miles long, contains a mountain peak 2,300 feet high, and has a mean annual temperature of 70°. .Tokuno-shima is in the centre of the group. Okinawa or Greater Loo- LIU-KUN-YI— LIVE STOCK choo in the southwest is 60 miles long by two to 14 broad. Naha, the capital of the group (pop. 48,000), is a modern Japanese town. The islands constitute the Japanese prefecture of Okniawa and have a population of 502,000. Sugar, wheat, potatoes, bananas and sago are the principal crops. An active trade is main- tained with Japan by means of a steamship service. The inhabitants are honest, courteous, industrious and peaceable. Their language differs from the Japanese in being more archaic. Liu-Kiu Islands were originally part of the kingdom of Liu-Kiu, and were conquered for Japan by the Prince of Satsuma in 1609. See JAPAN, LIU-KUN-YI, __1é-00-koon’yi, = Chinese statesman: b. Hunan, about 1820; d. Nanking, 6 Oct. 1902. He received a military education, and though not a scholar held high official posi- tions. In 1860 he commanded one of the armies raised to oppose the Taiping rebels, and de- feated them by a series of successful manceuvers. At the time of the Boxer outbreak in 1900 he was viceroy of Nanking, the so-called “southern capital” of China, and in spite of the vigorous anti-foreign agitation in his own province and the hostile attitude of the imperial government at Peking, he refused to join the anti-foreign movement, and used his foreign-drilled troops to suppress all Boxer demonstrations. In this he was supported by the viceroy of Wuchang, and these two viceroys prevented the spread of the Boxer movement to the valley of the Yang-tse-Kiang, and were consequently in- fluential in safeguarding Chinese interests in the subsequent peace negotiations. He took a leading part in negotiating with Sir James Mackay the commercial treaty of 1902. LIUTPRAND, lé-oot’prant, Italian his- torian. See LIUDPRAND. LIUTPRANT, or LIUTPRAND, king of the Lombards (q.v.) from 712 to 744, the period of their greatest power: b. about 688; d.744. He was an.active and popular prince. He captured Ravenna in 728, defeated the dukes of Spoleto and Beneventum in 741, joined with Charles Martel against the Arabs and extended the Lombard sway over practically the whole of Italy. His death marked the beginning of the downfall of the kingdom. His laws are codi- fied in the ‘Edicta Liutprandi.’ LIVADIA, liv-a-dé’a, or LEBADEA, Greece, a town on the Hercyna, 52 miles north- west of the capital of the monarchy of Beeotia. Under Turkish rule it was the most import- ant town in Greece. It is defended by a castle, and has manufactures of cotton goods and a trade in small articles or raw produce. Pop. 6,500. Higher up the river, in a narrow gorge, is the site of the ancient Hieron or cave of Trophonius and the fountains of Lethe and Mnemosyne. LIVADIA, a Russian imperial residence near Yalta, on the southern coast of the Crimea, Russia. It is an extensive and beautiful estate, with two fine palaces, the new or large palace completed in-1911, and many less important villas and lodges. It was the favorite residence of Alexander III, who died there 1 Nov. 1894. When the Emperor Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne, 15 March 1917, he ex- pressed the desire to go to Livadia, to his gardens. 527 LIVE-FOR-EVER, or GARDEN OR- PINE, a small cultivated stonecrop, Sedum tlephium. See STONECROP. LIVE OAK, species of evergreen oaks found growing in various parts of the United States, Central America and Cuba. See Oak. LIVE STOCK. See Cart te. LIVE STOCK, The Feeding of. Bal- anced Ration.—A ration is the amount of food fed to an animal in one day of 24 hours. As with humans this ration is usually fed in three meals. A balanced ration is a ration which will fully meet all the physiological needs of the particular animal to which it is to be fed. Very briefly a properly balanced ration must meet the following principal needs: 1. There must be sufficient food to furnish the energy to enable the given animal to do its work, 2. The ration must have the proper amount of protein and the right kind of protein to meet the body needs’ for this important constituent. 3. The ration must supply the proper mineral elements, 4. The ration must supply the proper amounts of those not very well understood sub- stances which are called growth accessories or vitamines. Only those rations eehach meet these four primary needs can be said to be properly bal- anced. Therefore it is necessary to know some- thing of the composition of the animal body and of feeds in order to understand why feeds should be grouped in certain proportions to constitute what is called a ration. The body of any animal is made up of water and dry matter which must all come from the food. The Water in the animal body serves four purposes: first, it is a part of all bone and flesh; second, it serves as a carrier of food from the digestive tract, or from those parts of the body where the food is put into suitable shape to be used by the body cells, to those cells wherever they may be located; third, water serves to carry away the wastes of the body through the perspiration and the urine; fourth, it serves to equalize the temperature. This water in the body comes from the water that the animal drinks and from the water in the succulent parts of the food. The water in the auimal body constitutes on an average about 50 per cent of the live weight. The Dry Matter of the Body is made up of many chemical elements — for example, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and perhaps half a dozen others. These ele- ments are arranged in all sorts of combinations, to form bones, flesh, hide, hair, hoofs and other parts of the body. For the purpose of this dis- cussion, in order to get a clear understanding of the relation of the food to the body the dry matter may be divided into four groups of sub- stances, namely, ash, nitrogenous substances or protein, carbohydrates and fast. The dry mat- ter of the body is so grouped because this is the usual grouping of the chemical compounds that make up plants, and it is desired to study the relation of the groups in plants with the same groups in the body. Demands of the Animal from Its Food.— Animals need food to maintain their existence, which is dependent on matter and energy. The 528 part of the body that is more or‘less permanent is that made up of ash and protein, while the carbohydrates and fats are more changeable and have to do more with the energy of the body. ing worn out, and must be replaced, and this requires a new supply of ash and protein from the food. Besides the ash and the protein constantly being replaced in the mature animal, the grow- ing animal must have matter to form new tis- sue, and the productive animal must have matter for products such as milk, eggs, wool and the like, all of which contain ash, fat, protein and carbohydrates. Then, in the preg- nant female, ash, fat, protein and carbohydrates are needed for the growth of the young. . After this matter has been supplied from the food for the maintenance of the dry matter of the body, there is a still further demand on the food to furnish.energy to the animal for vari- ous uses. First, the temperature of the animal body must be about 100° F., and, while the tem- perature of the surrounding air may vary all the way from —20° to + 90° F., this body temperature must be kept practically constant, requiring considerable energy in the form of heat; second, energy is required to keep up all the changes in the body in preparing food for use by the body, to kee that food where it is needed, and to carry out waste matter from the body; ‘third, energy is needed to manufacture products such as milk, wool, eggs and the like; ' fourth, energy is needed to enable the animal to do work, as in the case of the horse. In addition to the requirements for mainte- nance of tissues and for energy the body re- quires a supply of water daily, in order to keep up the water content of the body and to provide a medium for the transfer of the food material from different parts of the body to other parts and. for the elimination of waste matter. How the Food Fulfills These Require- ments.— Like the body, the common coarse feeds, grains, meals and feedstuffs in general used for animals are made up of the following groups of constituents: Water Ash Dry matter | Carbohydrates (fiber, nitrogen-free extract) Fats The use of the water in the food has already been indicated. The Ash required by the animal does not need to be computed carefully because all the ordinary feeds furnish it in sufficient amount, provided a good variety is given and plenty of salt is supplied. Corn is slightly deficient in ash, but in the ordinary ration the feeds fed with corn make up for this deficiency. Protein, carbohydrates and fats in food are commonly spoken of as the nutrients of the dry matter, since it is from those groups of con- stituents that animals derive the matter and energy necessary for the uses already enumer- ated. The protein is used to keep up the pro- tein of the body — that is, to replace worn-out tissues, to build up new tissues, for growth of hair, hoofs, horns and the like. A very import- ant fact in this connection is that any protein in the ration in excess of that required for keeping up the nitrogenous tissues of the body Nutrients However the tissues are constantly be-- Protein (nitrogenous) LIVE STOCK can be used by any animal for the production of heat and energy. On the other hand, while ' protein can be used thus for the production of heat and energy, thus serving the purpose of carbohydrates and fat, protein cannot be pro- duced from the carbohydrates or the fats of feeds. Therefore it is always necessary to have a sufficient amount of protein in the ra- tion. The discussion of the necessary amount of protein for different uses will be taken up later under various rations given. The amount of digestible protein in feeds varies within somewhat wide limits. The per- centage varies from 0.8 of 1 per cent in succu- lent feeds, such as mangels, through 7.6 per cent for red clover hay and 8.5 per cent among the cereals, to as high as 37 per cent for cotton- seed meal. Thus it is seen that there is a large list from which to choose in regulating the amount of protein in a ration. The Carbohydrates are divided by. the chemists into what are called “crude fibre” and “nitrogen-free extract,” because the crude fibre is less digestible than the other carbohydrate material. In a feed analysis, ash, protein, fat and fibre are first determined. Their sum is then subtracted from. the total dry matter, and the result is called “nitrogen-free extract.” This term includes all the carbohydrates except the fibre. The digestible nitrogen-free extract and the digestible fibre have the same food value for all practical purposes and perform the same work in the nutrition of the animal. This work consists mainly in furnishing energy for whatever need the animal may have. If there is more energy provided in the ration than is needed at that particular time, the excess energy may be stored in the body as fat. The amount of fibre and nitrogen-free ex- tract in feeds, taken together, varies as much as does the protein, but there is.always.a rela- tively larger amount of carbohydrates than of protein. In every case, when there is a low percentage of protein there is a high percentage of carbohydrates. The Food Fats are.used by the animal in about the same way as are the carbohydrates. They provide energy to be used in any way that the animal needs, and if the animal has more energy than is needed, it may be stored in the form of fat. The fat, however, has an energy value equal to about two and one-fourth times the energy value of the same weight of carbohydrates. The amount of digestible fat in the different feeds varies without respect to the other con- stituents. It is low in the coarse fodders, run- ning up to 11.6 per cent in distillers’ dried grains. Factors in an Ideal Ration.—In actually computing a ration for a given purpose there are Six factors that should be considered: 1. Amount of food. 2. Digestibility of the ration. 3. Variety in the ration. 4. Suitability of the feeds to the animal. 5. Palatability of the ration. 6. Cost of the ration. The Amount of Food in a ration has refer- ence to the relative amounts of roughage and concentrates. By roughage is meant the coarser feeds, such as hay, corn fodder, silage ; by concentrates are meant the grains and the LIVE STOCK other feeds in the ration that are low in their percentage of fibre and water and high in their percentage of total digestible nutrients. Horses at work should be given two to three pounds of feed (roughages and concen- trates combined) daily per 100 pounds live weight, the allowance of concentrates ranging from 10 to 18 pounds, depending on the severity of the work. Dairy cows in milk should be fed about two pounds of dry roughage or one pound of dry roughage and three pounds of silage daily per 100 pounds live weight, with one pound con- centrates to three or three and one-half pounds of milk yielded. Fattening steers need two and one-tenth pounds or more of concentrates and dry roughage (or the equivalent in silage) daily per 100 pounds live weight, the allowance of concentrates ranging from less than one pound to one and seven-tenths pounds, or more, per 100 pounds live weight, depending on the rate of gain desired and the kind of roughage. Fattening lambs will consume about one and one-fourth pounds of dry roughage daily when fed all the grain they will eat, and up to two and three-tenths pounds or over when the grain allowance is restricted. ‘Silage may replace a corresponding amount of dry matter in dry roughage. Pigs’ can make but limited use of dry roughage, except in the case of brood sows not suckling young. The Digestibility of the ration also depends a great deal on the relative amounts of roughage and concentrates, and on the character ‘of the concentrates. As a general rule the more in- tense the feeding the more concentrated the ration will be and consequently the more highly digestible it will be. Care must always be taken that the ration is not too concentrated. Variety in the Ration.—All feeders of ani- mals should provide variety in the ration. Vari- ety stimulates the animal’s appetite. Best re- sults are obtained from rations for dairy cows that have two different feeds in the roughage and three feeds in the concentrated part of the ration. These feeds should come from not less than three different plants. Other classes of animals do not seem to need so much variety, although it is wise to supply it with all classes. Sutability of Feeds to the Animal.— The feeds in the ration should be suited to the ant- mal and to the purpose for which the animal is fed. For example, wheat bran is not suitable for feeding hogs because of its bulk; wheat middlings are much to be preferred. Palatability of Feeds to the Animal.— The ration should be palatable if the best results in production are to be obtained. With dairy cows palatability is easily obtained by providing succulent feed in the ration... The condition of the feed has much to do with its palatability. No musty nor damaged feed should be given. Cost of the Ration— Without doubt, the cost of the ration is the most important factor to be considered by the farmer. However, the other factors must not be sacrificed for cost in every case. There is no general rule to be given in regard to cost. If one has access to a set of tables which give the pounds of total digest- ible nutrients, a rough way, efficient in most ‘cases, to choose feeds for the greatest economy in the ration is to calculate the cost of 100 pounds of total digestible nutrients in the VOL, 17 — 34 529 \ different feeds available, then to choose those that will yield total digestible nutrients the cheapest — always taking into consideration the five other factors that have just been explained. Too little attention has been paid to the proper compounding of rations to get the best returns in product from the money paid out for feed, whether that feed has been actually bought in the market or produced on the farm. The pos- sible usefulness of many home-grown crops is not known to many farmers. If clover hay, alfalfa hay, roots and silage are raised, the bills for grain may be reduced very much. These crops can all be raised and fed at a profit, since at their usual market price they will yield digestible material cheaper than will any of the commercial feeds. A knowledge of the composition of these home-grown crops is necessary, in order to fit them into the ration intelligently. A farmer should study from all sides the possibilities of his farm, and produce all the feed for his stock that he can. Thea he should buy those commercial feeds that will round out his rations properly. Many farmers never set any price on the feeds produced on the farm, considering them merely as feeds pro- cured at no money cost and therefore to be fed without regard to quantity or composition. Instead of feeding in a haphazard manner, a farmer should know, at least approximately, the cost of producing his homegrown feeds, how to plan his rations in order to use these feeds to the best advantage and how to buy intelligently the feeds on the market. This knowledge will enable him to calculate the most economical ration for the animal that he wishes to feed, whether dairy cow, sheep, horse or beef animal. A Ration for a Dairy Cow Illustrating the Factors Given.—A ration is desired for a cow weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding daily 30 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent butterfat. The following feeds are commonly used for cows except the skimmilk, tankage and dried blood. They are divided into three groups for convenience in the discussion of rations which follow. | CONCENTRATES. Medium protein. Red dog flour. ~ Low protein. High protein. | Corn meal or Gluten feed, high hop Flour wheat middlings. _ grade. chop. Corn and cob Standard wheat mid- Malt sprouts. meal. dlings. Brewers’ grains, dried. Hominy feed. Wheat bran. Buckwheat middlings. Wheat. Wheat feed (shorts Cottonseed meal,good. Rye. and bran). Linseed meal, old Oats. process. Barley Pea, field. Kafir. Skim milk, centrifu- Beet pulp, dried. gal. Molasses, cane. Tankage, over 55 per cent protein. Dried blood. Distillers’ grains, - dried, from corn. ROUGHAGE. Succulent roughage. Corn fodder. Sweet sorghum fodder. Green millet, common or Dry roughage. Corn fodder. Corn stover. Sorghum fodder, dry. Millet hay, common or Hun- Hungarian. garian. Mangels. Timothy hay. Rutabagas. Corn silage. Clover and wild grass hay. Oat straw. Alfalfa hay. Red clover hay. Soybean hay. Peas and oats hay. Cowpea, hay. Alfalfa, green. Red clover, green. Cowpeas, green. Soybeans, green. Peas and oats, green. Rape, green. Field pea silage. 530 - In feeding cows the usual rule is to feed the roughage that is available and to use what concentrates may be available on the farm, buy- ing enough others to complete a suitable ration. It will be assumed in this case that there are available clover hay, corn silage and corn-and- cob meal. Therefore it will be necessary to select two other concentrates. A good rule is to select for a dairy cow equal parts by weight of high, low and medium protein concentrates in order to provide concentrates that will pro- vide sufficient protein. By following this rule the rations could be made up as follows: 10 pounds red clover hay; 80 pounds corn silage; 3 pounds corn-and-cob meal; 2 pounds wheat mixed feed; 3 pounds gluten feed; 1 pound oil meal. By following these rules in general innumerable combinations may be made under different con- ditions of home supply. A Ration for a Horse Weighing 1,000 Pounds Doing Medium Work.— Observing the general rule given above as to the amount of feed necessary for horses at work the fol- lowing is given as a typical ration: 12 pounds timothy hay; 8 pounds oats; 4 pounds corn. Rations for horses do not require as much pro- tein as rations for cows. The feeds used are generally limited to timothy, clover, alfalfa and mixed hays and to barley, corn, oats and hominy for concentrates with molasses sometimes added when cheap enough. The only high protein food used in any quantity for horses is linseed oil meal. Beef Cattle Ration—A ration is desired for a 1,000-pound steer. The following is sug- gested: 10 pounds red clover hay; 40 pounds corn silage; 4 pounds corn-and-cob meal; 2 pounds oats (ground); 3 pounds gluten feed. As the steer became fatter and nearer the time for selling the silage should be cut down and the amount of corn increased. Practically all of the feeds listed under the ration for a cow can be used for steers. Less of the high pro- tein feeds are needed because the gain of pro- tein in the body is less than the protein put into the milk. A Ration for Breeding Ewes with Lambs. —A ewe of the large breeds will weigh about 125 pounds. A pen of eight would make 1,000 pounds. The following ration is suggested for each group of eight to be fed: 12 pounds red clover hay; 25 pounds turnips; 5 pounds ground oats; 5 pounds cornmeal; 3 pounds wheat bran; 1 pound oilmeal. The feeding of milking ewes is practically the same as feeding small dairy cows. Sheep are particularly fond of turnips. If turnips are not available 16 to 20 pounds of corn silage or pea vine silage could be substi- tuted. Also it will be noted that less high pro- tein feeds are necessary. In feeding lambs for market it is a general practice to limit the amount of succulent feed a little more than in feeding ewes for milk pro- duction. The basis of fattening rations is prac- tically always a large percentage of corn grain, which must be supplemented with good rough- age and one high protein feed. Legume hays and roots for the roughage and linseed oil meal for the high protein concentrate make an ideal combination with corn in all fattening and growing rations. A Ration for Fattening Pigs.— It will be assumed that pigs weigh 125 pounds each when they are about half fattened for market. It LIVEING — LIVER would then take eight of them to weigh 1,000 pounds live weight. The following is suggested as a good ration at this point: 20 pounds corn- meal; 16 pounds flour wheat middlings; 2 pounds tankage. It is intended, in a ration such as the one just given, that the grain shall be fed as a slop mixed with water. The corn might be fed whole. If skimmed milk or buttermilk were available, of course less middlings and no tank- age would be necessary. The feeds used for pigs are not so numerous as those used for dairy cattle. The one thing to avoid i in rations for pigs is a feed that is too high in fibre. Brood sows like some succulent feed and will consume rather large quantities of alfalfa or clover hay if it is kept before them in a rack. Through the feeding of hay money may be saved in the purchase of concentrates. In the feeding of pigs and sows in the summer time much larger gains can be made and feed saved if the pigs and sows are kept on good pasture. Bibliography.—Armsby, H. P., ‘The Nu- trition of Farm Animals» (New York 1917) ; Henry and Morrison, ‘Feeds and Feeding (Madison, Wis., 1915) ; ‘The Computation of Rations? (Bul. 321, Cornell University Experi- ment Station, Ithaca, N. Y., 1916); ‘The Use of Energy Values in the Computation of Rations for Farm Animals? (Bul. 459, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1916). ELMER S. SAVAGE, Professor of Animal Husbandry, Cornel Uni- versity. LIVEING, George Downing, English chemist and surgeon: b. Nayland, Suffolk, 21 Dec. 1827. He was graduated at Saint John’s College, Cambridge, in 1850, and in 1853 he be- came a Fellow and lecturer in natural science in that college. He was appointed professor of chemistry at the Royal Military College, Sand- hurst, in 1860; and from 1861-1908 professor of chemistry in the University of Cambridge. In 1911 he was appointed president of Saint John’s College, Cambridge. In 1852 he estab- lished at his own expense the first chemical laboratory for undergraduates in Cambridge and may be said to be the founder of the sys- tem of experimental teaching that is now such a prominent feature of that university. He was instrumental in securing the examination and inspection by the university of secondary schools and the admission of girls’ schools to the examinations. He has published ‘On the Transmutation of Matter? (Cambridge Essays, Ist series, 1855); ‘Chemical Equilibrium the Result of the Dissipation of Energy? (1885) ; “Report on the University Colleges? (with Mr. Warren, 1897); and many papers on spectro- scopy, crystallization, etc., in the scientific pro- ceedings of various scientific societies. LIVER. The liver is the largest glandular organ of the body. In man it is situated on the right side of the abdominal cavity immediately beneath the diaphragm. Its weight in the adult is approximately from three to four pounds, and its size is roughly indicated by the follow- ing measurements: Greatest diameter about 12 inches, anteroposterior diameter about seven inches, thickness at different parts from one to three inches. The organ is divided into five lobes, of which the right and left are the prin- cipal ones; the former comprising the greatest LIVER part of the bulk of the entire organ. On the under surface may be seen a square lobe lying anteriorly between the right and left lobes and known a8 the quadrate lobe. In a similar po- sition between the right and left lobes at the posterior part of the organ is the Spigelian lobe, while a bridge-like lobe extending from the latter to the right lobe is known as the cau- date lobe. The upper surface of the right and left lobes is convex and fits into the arch of the diaphragm. The lower surface of the or- gan is more or less concave and is divided by five fissures. Of these a longitudinal furrow extends from the anterior to the posterior bor- der of the organ separating the right from the left lobe; a transverse fissure extends at right angles from this at a point somewhat nearer the posterior than the anterior surface; it di- vides the longitudinal fissure into an umbilical fissure in front (so called on account of its - lodging the umbilical vein in the fetus) and the fissure of the ductus venosus behind (on account of its lodging the ductus venosus in the foetus). Between the lobus Spigelii and the right lobe of the liver is the fissure of the inferior vena cava, lodging that vein, while at the anterior edge of the organ at the side of the quadrate lobe is a fissure which accommo- dates the gall-bladder. The transverse fissure is the most important, as it serves for the en- trance into and emergence from the organ of the blood vessels, nerves and hepatic ducts. The liver is held in place by five ligaments, four of which are simple folds of peritoneum, while the fifth, or ligamentum teres, is a round cord formed by the obliteration of the umbilical vein and extending from the anterior edge of the liver at the notch between the left and right lobes to the umbilicus and along the under sur- face of the liver to its posterior border. The peritoneal folds which serve the purpose of lig- aments are a longitudinal one extending on the upper surface of the organ from the notch in. front to the posterior border, a coronary liga- ment which is found along the posterior bor- der, and a right and a left lateral ligament. These peritoneal reflexions serve to hold the organ in place, keeping it more or less firmly in apposition with the diaphragm. The blood vessels entering the liver are the hepatic artery and the portal vein; the former being a branch of the cceliac axis, the. latter being the large venous trunk which is formed by the union of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins. Both the hepatic artery and por- tal vein divide in the transverse fissure into two parts, a right and a left, which enter the substance of the right and left lobes, respec- tively. The hepatic veins are the efficient veins of the liver conveying the blood from this organ into the inferior vena cava. In addition to these vessels, the liver, like other organs, is supplied with large and numerous lymphatics. The nervous supply of the organ is derived from the left pneumogastric, the hepatic plexus of the sympathetics and from the right phrenic nerve. The bile ducts and hepatic ducts will be described below. The gall-bladder is a small pear-shaped sac lying on the under surface of the liver. At its narrow end it opens into a small duct. (cystic duct) which passes back and down to join the hepatic duct forming the common bile duct, 531 which terminates in the duodenum. The gall- bladder is the reserve sac in which bile is stored and by the contracting of which a uniform flow of this liquid is maintained. Structure of the Hepatic Substance.— The substance of the liver is made up of lob- ules of more or less equal size, separated by areolar connective tissue, which is a continua- tion of the fibrous covering of the organ or capsule of Glisson. In these fibrous septa be- tween the lobules are found the larger blood vessels, biliary ducts, lymphatics and nerves. The lobule under a low power of the micro- scope is seen to be composed of radiating col- umns of liver cells converging to a central point in which is situated a large vein (intra- lobular vein) belonging to the system of the inferior vena cava. The columns of liver cells branch and anastomose with each other, and be- tween them are spaces occupied by blood capil- laries and the primary biliary passages. The liver cells themselves are polyhedral in shape and are so arranged that a capillary space, known as the biliary capillary, is left between them. The capillary blood vessels are simi- larly formed by the peculiar juxtaposition of the liver cells, leaving spaces in which the ca- pillary blood vessels extend from the terminal branches of the portal vein in the septa at the periphery of the lobules to the central vein al- ready mentioned. The latter, collecting the blood from the capillary system, transports it to larger vessels known as sublobular veins, which finally unite and form the hepatic veins and discharge the blood into the inferior vena cava. The hepatic arteries and their terminal branches occupy the septa and supply blood to the connective tissue constituting the septa and to the walls of the portal veins and biliary ducts. The venous blood of this distribution is dis- charged into the terminals of the portal vein within the septa. At the periphery of the hepatic lobules, the epithelial cells of the hepatic columns continue directly into the smaller bile ducts which are situated in the interlobular septa. These pri- mary bile ducts unite to form larger ducts and finally a right and left hepatic duct emerging from the transverse fissure unite to form a common bile duct. This is further joined by the cystic duct or duct of the gall-bladder and it terminates in the duodenum in a common ori- fice with the pancreatic duct. The structure of the liver is such that the blood entering through the portal circulation comes in contact with the liver cells on one side while the capillary biliary passages are on the other side of the hepatic cell. The lymphatic vessels accompany the portal vein and hepatic artery and another system ac- companies the branches of the hepatic vein. The capillaries penetrate into the lobules, pass- ing between the hepatic cells. Functions of the Liver.— The physiologi- cal functions of the liver are probably very nu- merous and are but imperfectly understood. In the foetus the liver is an important source of the red blood cells, reversing the process of adult life in which they are destroyed by the formation of bile. The position of the organ indicates that one of its important functions is the elaboration of materials presented by the blood coming from the gastro-intestinal tract, and probably also the purification of this blood. 532 As far as they are known, the functions of the organ may be divided into the metabolic and biliary. Metabolic Functions—It is known that the liver acts upon sugars and other carbohydrate materials to convert them into glycogen which is stored up by the hepatic cells. This accumu- lates during digestion and is utilized itn the in- tervals, so that the percentage of sugar in the blood is kept at an approximately uniform stand- ard. It is known that in certain diseases (for example, diabetes), the function is greatly dis- turbed with resulting consequences that affect the general health. The liver shares with the muscles of the body this glycogenic function. It also has the function of removing or neu- tralizing certain toxins and of removing cer- tain metallic salts. Another important metabolic function is that of forming urea, the final stage in the meta- bolism of albuminous food. Uric acid also is to some extent formed in.the liver but is more particularly the product of the lymphatic or- gans and tissues. Biliary Function.— The formation of bile is one of the important attributes of the liver, though possibly this function is less predomi- nating than has hitherto been believed. The bile is an albuminous liquid containing bile pig- ments (bilirubin, biliverdin), bile salts (glyco- cholate and taurocholate of soda), nucleo-albu- min, cholesterin, fat and other less important substances including various salts. The bile is ‘secreted more or less intermittently, the amount being greatest about the middle part of the day and increasing after meals. The daily output is from one to two pints. Its functions are nu- merous. Among other properties it aids in the absorption of fatty foods, stimulates intestinal peristalsis and prevents intestinal fermentation, and is the vehicle of excretion from the body of certain waste products, notably hemoglobin. It is known that bacteria and other minute for- eign bodies are discharged from the system through this medium. Authorities are divided as to the amount of the work which the liver performs in the production of sugar. Bernard believes that the glycogen is a reserve of carbohydrates, making the deduction from the fact that the liver is found to contain more glycogen than any other organ and that after death the glycogen is re- placed by sugar. Another authority, Pavy, is of the optnion that the liver forms no sugar, but uses it in the form of glycogen. Still another, Seegen, declares that sugar is formed:-in the liver and not from glycogen but from protein and fat. As the blood normally has about 0.15 per cent of sugar, an amount which is cut in half, if the action of the liver is removed from the.circulation, it is considered reasonably good evidence that the sugar’ in the blood comes either from the liver or from some other prod- uct formed in the liver. Also the amount of sugar in the blood does not normally rise above 0.3 per cent without overflowing through the kidneys into the urine, which shows that the amount of sugar that can be destroyed by the liver is limited. The liver thus permits the accumulation and storing of this valuable ma- terial which would otherwise be lost. If sugar in the form of a glucose solution is introduced into the blood in such a way as not to pass LIVER through the liver, it is immediately discharged via the urine, while if it is so injected as to pass into the liver first, a comparatively large quantity remains there. Diseases of the Liver.— The diseases of the liver may be classified under the following heads: Derangements of the Circulation; Nu- tritional and Inflammatory Disease of the Sub- stance of the Liver; Tumors; Parasitic Dis- eases; Functional Disturbance. Circulatory Disturbances.— Congestion of the Liver is an increase in the volume of blood in the organ. This may be transient or more or less permanent. (a) Transient congestion follows the inges- tion of food and drink, especially when these are of stimulating quality such as alcoholic beverages, spiced and rich foods. It is also occasioned by circulatory activity, such as ac- companies malarial and other fevers and other conditions of. systemic excitement. In these cases the increase of blood in the liver is the result of an excessive supply of blood to the organ. An excess of blood in the liver frequently occurs after a flow of blood, such as that of menstruation, has been stopped, or when, through catching cold or even because of some nervous condition, such flow of blood, or a blood flow that has been caused by hemor- rhoids, has been stopped. (b) Passive congestion is the form in which the outflow of blood from the liver is interfered with. This form is likely to be more or less durable or permanent. Among the causes, most important are diseases of the heart and the lungs, or any other cause of obstruction to the circulation in the thorax. It is said that malaria is the most frequent occasion of an attack of congestion of the liver and that it occurs most frequently in autumn and in persons of middle age. Pathological Anatomy.—In active or acute congestion no marked alteration is observed on examination of the organ. In passive conges- tion the liver becomes enlarged, and the cen- tral verns within the lobules are seen to be in- creased in size, while the peripheral parts of the lobule often become light-colored from degen- eration of the liver cells. This gives the sur- face of section of the organ a peculiar appear- ance that this has been well designated “nutmeg liver». When passive congestion is long con- tinued, the hepatic cells, compressed by the di- lated. blood-vessels and otherwise disturbed in their nutrition, undergo atrophy, while at the same time some fibrous tissue growth replaces the degenerated hepatic cells, and the whole organ becomes darker in color from deposit of pigment from the stagnated blood. The result is that the organ decreases in size, hecomes harder and of a darker color than normal. The term cyanotic or red atrophy is given to this condition. . The symptoms of congestion of the liver vary with the kind, the degree and stage of the disease. In acute congestion, such as follows over-indulgence in stimulating food and drink, a sense of heaviness in the region of the liver, and perhaps slight disturbances of digestion with general malaise constitute the symptoma- tology. In chronic or passive congestion, such as accompanies heart disease, the symptoms are LIVER quite distinctive. The organ increases in size so much that it is easily felt in the upper part of the abdominal cavity and it becomes tender or even acutely painful. Digestive disturbances are very common, partly as the result of the condition of the liver itself and partly as the result of the underlying condition which occa- sioned the congestion of the liver. Among these digestive symptoms, loss of appetite, diffi- cult and painful digestion, nausea and vomiting are the most conspicuous. tion of the liver is pronounced, more or less jaundice occurs. This results from the thicken- ing of the walls of the biliary ducts and the compression of the finer biliary channels by the swollen state of the organ. In marked cases, the jaundice may be _intense; usually it is slight. In the last stages of congestion of the liver when the organ has undergone cyanotic indura- tion, the symptoms may be similar to those of cirrhosis (q.v.). Treatment.— The treatment of congestion of the liver is directed primarily toward the relief of- the condition which causes the congestion. In heart diseases, cardiac tonics are important. Sometimes a prompt relief is obtained by vene- section. Depletion from the portal circulation by brisk purgation may also be efficacious, and regulation of diet is important as the congested organ is less able to withstand injurious effects of stimulating foods or drink than the healthy liver. Diseases of the Substance of the Liver.— Among these may be considered: (1) Simple atrophy; (2) acute yellow atrophy; (3) fatty liver: (4) cirrhosis, amd (5) abscess. Simple Atrophy of the Liver occurs in cases of starvation or inanition from long-continued disease. Pressure atrophy is found in cases of deformities of the chest, in which the ribs are pressed inward against the liver, as a result of tight lacing and the substance of the organ does not change very greatly in atrophy, though the individual liver cells are smaller than nor- mal and usually somewhat pigmented. The shape of the liver is often peculiar. In the case of deformities of the chest, the pressure exerted by the ribs may cause deep grooves in the surface of the liver, or there may be a single transverse furrow at the lower margin of the ribs where this is pressed against the organ. The function of the liver is probably not seriously impaired in any of these cases, though some disturbance undoubtedly occurs. Acute Yellow Atrophy is a disease in which the liver is decreased in size, often to a re- markable degree. It is soft and on transverse section the substance is of a light yellow color with mottled areas of reddish or purplish hue, the latter being portions in which the substance is congested or in which hemorrhages have taken place. : Changes are found also in various other tis- sues of the body, showing that acute yellow atrophy is not wholly a disease of the liver but a general infection or intoxication, having its most marked manifestations in the liver. Symptoms.—After a period of indefinite di- gestive disturbances, acute jaundice and marked nervous symptoms set in. The patient also be- comes delirious, and sometimes comatose. In the course of 10 days or two weeks the disease When the conges-, 533 in a large percentage of cases tetminates fatally. The treatment consists in stimulation or other measures called for by the general condition. Fatty. Liver— There are two varieties of fatty disease of the liver, that known as infil- tration and that termed fatty degeneration. In the former there is a deposition.of fat in the liver cells, similar to that which is found in the subcutaneous tissues in ordinary obesity. In the latter the liver cells undergo destruction with formation of fat. Fatty infiltration may. be the result of excessive supply of nutriment as in ordinary obesity, and is also found in certain states of general weakness and wasting, particularly in association with diseases of the lungs. In the latter cases, the cause is to be found in the deficient consumption of fat, owing to diminished oxygenation. Fatty de- generation may be caused by various infectious diseases, but is more particularly the result of poisoning with phosphorus, arsenic, mercury and other poisons. In fatty infiltration, the liver is enlarged, lighter than the normal organ in specific gravity and in color, and on section with a knife the increased fat is indicated by an oily character of the cut surface. In fatty degeneration the liver is usually diminished in size and the sub- stance is of a friable softened character. Cirrhosis of the Liver is the most frequent and important of the diseases of this organ. It is essentially a replacement of normal liver tissue by connective tissue, causing more or less hardening. The causes of cirrhosis of the liver are numerous, though one in particular occupies a very prominent position on account of its fre- quency. The cause referred to is over-indul- gence in alcohol, especially raw spirits, whence the terms alcoholic liver, gin drinker’s liver, etc. It must not be supposed, however, that alcohol is the invariable cause. Over-eating, gouty con- ditions, syphilis and various other infectious diseases may ‘be followed by cirrhosis entirely like that caused by alcohol. It has been noted in the description of congestion of the liver that a form of cirrhosis (cyanotic induration) results from long-standing congestion. Some- times cirrhosis of a peculiar type is caused by obstruction of the biliary ducts. This produces a stagnation of the bile and an irritation of the substance of the liver that terminates in the formation of connective tissue. Pathological Anatomy.— Two forms of cir- rhosis of the liver are recognized. One known as the atrophic, in which the liver is decreased in size; the other, hypertrophic, in which the organ is increased in size. In atrophic cirrhosis (hob-nail liver, granular liver), the organ has an irregular nodulated or granulated surface, the irregularities being caused by the contrac- tions of the connective tissue which forms the basis of this pathological state of the organ. It is very firm, and on section the increased connective tissue can be recognized in the form of more or less distinct septa interlacing the lobules or groups of lobules of the liver sub- stance. The lobules and groups of lobules are compressed by the contracting connective tis- sue, and as a result undergo atrophy and de- generative change. The connective tissue formation which is characteristic of this form of cirrhosis is found in the interlobular tissues 534 surrounding the terminal branches of the portal vein. Consequently the portal circulation is ob- structed, and congestion of the various abdom- inal organs whose blood is discharged through this circulation results. When cirrhosis has proceeded for some time, new channels of cir- culation may be established, by which the con- gestion of the abdominal organs is relieved. There results from this visible enlargement of the veins of the abdominal walls an increased size of the veins in the lower end of the cesophagus and in the rectum. Hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver is a form in which the liver is increased in size. The surface is usually smooth and the substance of a uniform character. This is due to the fact that the new connective tissue is uniformly dis- tributed within as well as between the liver lobules. This form of disease may be the result of the same causes as the atrophic variety, but is more commonly due to obstructions of the flow of bile. Very commonly interference with the discharge of bile is found in this form, as. interference with the circulation of blood is characteristic of the other variety. Symptoms.— The symptoms of cirrhosis of the liver in earlier stages are very obscure and uncertain, but frequently include a pallor and sallowness with peculiarly muddy complexion. Later interference with the portal circulation causes congestion of the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines, with resulting dis- turbances of digestion, such as dyspepsia, vomiting, constipation and even hemorrhages from the stomach or bowel. There is also a thinness and emaciation with drawn and oc- casionally bloated face, sunken eyes with dis- colored whites. The spleen is enlarged from congestion’ of its substance, the abdomen is distended forming a marked contrast to the fleshless face and limbs, and the last phase of the disease is marked by dropsical effusion in the abdominal cavity (ascites). Cirrhosis of the liver is a chronic disorder which may ex- tend over a period of many years and which may be arrested even after it has reached an advanced stage. Among the symptoms of hy- pertrophic cirrhosis are tenderness and increase in the size of the liver, the development of jaundice, and sometimes the occurrence of fever. The disease is more rapid in its course than the atrophic variety. Treatment.—The treatment of this condition is preventative rather than curative. When due to alcohol it may be arrested if not too well advanced, by a control of the habit of drink- ing; and a restitution of normal conditions may be favored by careful diet, including mainly the avoidance of stimulating or irritating food, and of general excesses of diet. The use of saline waters may be beneficial. When advanced to the stage of dropsy of the abdominal cavity, depletive measures, such as are used for the relief of dropsies in general, may be useful; or it may be necessary to remove the liquid ‘by tapping. Abscess of the Liver may result from dysen- tery and other ulcerative conditions of the in- testines, in which cases the abscess is likely to be solitary ; or it may accompany a septicaemia originating in the abdominal cavity from some local disease like appendicitis or puerperal in- fection, in which case multiple small abscesses LIVER are found throughout the substance of the liver. Another variety of multiple abscess is that in which obstructions of the biliary ducts by gall- stones occasion retentions of bile and the for- mation of local foci of suppuration. Abscess is more common in tropical countries, probably on account of the greater frequency of dysen- tery in such localities. Pathological Anatomy and Symptoms.— The liver is enlarged, and sometimes a project- ing mass can be seen in the upper right portion of the abdomen. The abscess may be of small size, but frequently reaches very considerable proportions, containing perhaps a pint or more of thick pus. It may discharge externally through the skin, into the abdominal cavity or some of the abdominal organs, and even through the -diaphragm, into the lung and bronchi. Occasionally a spontaneous cure re- sults in this way. More commonly the patient perishes before the abscess ruptures, from gen- eral infection or from prostration. The disease ‘is frequently attended with great pain, with jaundice and with irregular fever. Treatment.— The only effective treatment of abscess is surgical operation. Tumors.—Among the tumors of the liver, the most important is cancer. This is usually secondary to cancer of the stomach or intes- tines. It may, however, be primary in the liver. The liver is found enlarged and its surface irregularly studded with nodules vary- ing in size from that of a pea to that of an apple, or even larger masses. Symptoms.— The important symptoms are profound disturbance general health with emaciation, such as characterize cancer in any part of the body; pain in the region of the liver, and increase in the size of the organ; jaundice of intense and‘ lasting character; and occasionally dropsy of the abdominal cavity. Parasitic Diseases — The most important of these is the hydatid cyst, which results from the lodgment of the embryo of the Tenia echi- nococcus, a tapeworm occurring in the adult state in the intestines of dogs and some others animals. The eggs of this tapeworm are com- municated by the dog to the human through drinking water or fresh vegetables. As all of the blood from the enteric canal passes through the liver the parasite embryo is generally lodged there. Fortunately this disease is rare in North America. In man the larval condi- tion alone is met with. The embryo in the liver becomes surrounded by a capsule in which a light liquid collects and thus a cyst is formed. Secondary cysts (daughter-cysts) may -develop within the original one and thus a large cavity filled with smaller spherical cysts may result. The liver increases in size and the cyst may be visible, or it may be felt through the abdominal walls as a resilient projecting mass. The hy- datid cyst may subsequently contract by absorp- tion of its liquid contents or it may rupture in the same manner as an abscess. The symptoms of this disease are frequently obscure, but jaundice (from pressure on the bile ducts), dropsy of the abdominal cavity from pressure on the portal vein and other “mechanical” symptoms may occur. Jaundice is a functional disturbance of the liver in which the biliary coloring matter is ab- sorbed by the blood and deposited in the tissues LIVER-LEAF — of the body. Jaundice may result from any cause of obstruction of the outflow of the ‘bile through the biliary ducts or from any serious disease of the liver substance, such as abscess, cancer, acute yellow atrophy, etc. Various poi- sons and infectious diseases cause jaundice by their destructive action on: the liver. The most frequent form of jaundice is that known as simple catarrhal jaundice, which re- sults from digestive disturbances, especially such as follow great excess in eating or drink- ing and exposure to cold. In this variety, the outflow of the bile is impeded by swelling of the mucous membrane of the duodenum where the common bile duct discharges, and also by swelling of the lining membrane of the larger bile ducts themselves. When the bile formed within the liver cannot find normal discharge, it is absorbed into the blood, and finding its way to various parts of the body discolors these, causing the yellow appearance of the skin and mucous membranes which characterizes the disease. Symptoms.— The symptoms of catarrhal jaundice are, in the first place, those of intense disturbances of digestion, such as great pain in the region of the stomach, nausea and vomit- ing; later, the appearance of a yellowish dis- coloration of the skin and mucous membranes. The feces become light-colored from the ab- sence of biliary coloring matter, and in ad- vanced cases they are actually a light clay color or even white. The urine becomes dark brown or greenish in color. The patient is depressed, often even melancholy. The pulse is slow; the temperature as a rule is depressed, though there may be a moderate degree of fever. Treatment.— Careful dieting is an essential in the treatment. The patient must abstain from food entirely at first, and later take the less irritating of-foods, such as milk, broths and the like. Bismuth, pepsin, small doses of calomel and salines are administered to im- prove the state of digestion and lessen the con- gested condition of the stomach and duodenum. Drastic purgatives are harmful. Warm appli- cations over the region of the liver are effica- cious. The disease usually subsides in a few days or in a week or two. Gall-stones— Gall-stones are usually formed within the gall-bladder; very rarely in the biliary ducts within the liver. The gall-stone consists of biliary pigment matters, but in some cases almost wholly of one of the constituents of bile, cholesterin. On section through a gall- stone, a central nucleus may be seen which is composed of epithelial detritus and inspissated mucus, together with bacteria in many cases. Around this is deposited cholesterin or biliary pigment. The gall-bladder may contain a sin- gle stone or, more commonly, a number, and sometimes even hundreds are found. Gall-stones are more common in women past middle life than in younger persons or in the male sex. ; Symptoms may be wanting until a stone en- ters the cystic duct and becomes lodged in the latter, or passing through this, becomes ob- structed in the common bile duct, and causing what is known as biliary colic. The patient is seized with intense pain, radiating to the right and to the back, sometimes as high as the right shoulder. Vomiting and other reflex disturb- LIVERPOOL 535 ances and even collapse may occur. When the stone lodges, jaundice is the most pronounced symptom. Frequently the gall-stone passes with some effort and the paroxysm is relieved. Sometimes this relief is brought about by a recession of the stone into the gall-bladder. Treatment.— The treatment of gall-stone consists of careful diet and the use of saline waters to improve the digestive conditions and render the bile as liquid as: possible. Gall- stones may thus be diminished in size and enabled to pass through the ducts. During the paroxysm of biliary colic, remedies to relieve pain are imperatively necessary. Hypodermic injections of morphine and even narcosis with ether or chloroform may be required. Surgical operation for removal of the stone is often de- sirable. LIVER-LEAF, or WORT. See Hepatica. LIVER OILS. See On. LIVERMORE, Mary Ashton Rice, American reformer and lecturer: b. Boston, Mass., 19 Dec. 1821; d. Melrose, Mass., 23 May 1905. She was married in 1845 to Rey. D. P. Livermore, a Universalist minister (d. 1899), and was early in life active in the anti-slavery and temperance movements. In 1862 she was appointed agent of the Northwestern branch of the United States Sanitary Commission at Chicago, and after the Civil War period was conspicuous in her efforts to promote the woman suffrage and témperance movements. With Frances E. Willard she edited American Women. Among her popular lectures are “What Shall We Do with Our Daughters??; “Women of the War?; ‘The Moral Heroism of the Temperance Reform. She is the author of ‘Pen Pictures? (1865); ‘Thirty Years Too Late? (1878); ‘My Story of the War? (1888); ‘The Story of My Life? (1897), etc. LIVERPOOL, Charles Jenkinson, Ist Earl of, English statesman: b. Winchester, 26 April 1727; d. London, 17 Dec. 1808. He was educated at Charterhouse School, and later en- tered University College, Oxford, whence he was graduated M.A. in 1752. In 1760 he be- came private secretary to Lord Bute; in 1761 he was elected to Parliament and during the same year was appointed to the post of Under Secretary of State; in 1763 became joint Secre- tary of the Treasury; was made Lord of the Admiralty by the Grafton administration in 1766; became one of the vice-treasurers of Ireland in 1772; Master of the Mint 1775, and Secretary of War under Lord North 1778-82. He was appointed by Pitt in 1783 a member of the Board of Trade and continued to serve in that body till 1801, from 1786 serving as its president, but he did not enter public life from the time of his retirement from the Board till his death. In 1786 he became president of the council for trade and the plantations, and the same year Chancellor of the duchy of Lancas- ter, and was created Baron Hawkesbury, and Earl of Liverpool 1796. His association with Lord North in the closing yeafs of the Ameri- can War made him for a time very unpopular; but this he outlived, and he took a prominent part in arranging the first commercial treaty with the United States. He published, among other works, ‘Discourse on the Conduct of “~~ NOBLE LIVER- 536 Government Respecting Neutral Nosionea (1758); ‘Collection of All the Treaties of Peace between Great Britain and Other Powers from 1648 to 1783? (3 vols., 1785) ;. ‘A Treatise on the Coins of the Realm? (1805), etc. LIVERPOOL, Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2d. Earl of, English statesman: b. - London, 7 June 1770; d. there, 4 Dec. 1828. He was the eldest son of Charles Jenkinson, lst Earl of Liverpool (q.v.). He was educated at Charter- house School and Christ Church College, Ox- ford, 1786-89; Europe, reaching Paris during the French Revolution and witnessing the fall’of the Bas- tile. He was elected to Parliament in 1790; in 1803 was created Baron Hawkesbury; and in 1808 upon the death of his father succeeded to the title of Earl of Liverpool. In Parliament he was prominently identified with the Tories; for seven years was a member of the India Board; in 1799 became Master. of the Mint; and in 1801 became Foreign Minister in the Addington Cabinet, and while in that office negotiated the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleon. On 12 May 1804, when Pitt was returned to power, he accepted the office of Home Secre- tary and became leader of the House of Lords and held that post until Pitt’s death. During the Whig ministry of 1806-07 he led the op- position, but on 25 March 1807 was again ap- pointed Home Secretary in the Portland ad- ministration; and Secretary of War and the Colonies, 1809-12, He held various portfolios during Perceval’s administration and when the ‘latter was assassinated in 1812 became Premier and continued to direct English affairs until April 1827, when a stroke of paralysis forced him to resign office. He opposed the Roman Catholic emancipation movement. and the re-' form of Parliament and his term of office was marked for a time by a somewhat retrograde policy on the part of the ministry and wide- spread discontent among the people. Public finances were Criticized as being poorly admin- istered; the duty on imported grain was in- creased: and the policy of forcible repression was followed by him till 1826, but from that time he sought to modify and reform the bur- densome Corn Laws. He was instrumental in sending Napoleon to Saint Helena and in read- justing French affairs in 1815 and 1818. With- out being a man of eminent talents, he was pos- sessed otf unfailing tact, good temper and-an instinct for practical solutions. LIVERPOOL, England, a city, municipal, county, and parliamentary borough, and seaport, on the right bank of the Mersey, three miles from the sea, and extending about eight and a half miles along the east side of the river. It is the second seaport of the British Empire, and is fourth in population among the cities of the United Kingdom. The port of Liverpool ex- tends from Hoylake, at the mouth of the river Dee, along the Cheshire coast of the river Mer- sey to Ince Ferry, and from Dungeon Point on the Lancashire coast. of the river to Formby Point at its mouth. Liverpool is. (by rail) 201 miles northwest* of London, 251 miles from Harwich (northwest), 92 miles from Birming- ham (northwest), 34 miles from Manchester (west), 96 miles from York (southwest), 124 miles from Hull (southwest), and 227 miles southwest of Edinburgh. in the latter year traveled in: LIVERPOOL Area.— The area of the city is 16,642 acres (23 square miles); the ratable value £4, 470,837. The population in 1905 (officially estimated) was 730,143. The following statistics of population will show the comparatively rapid growth of the city: 11,833 (1720); 35,600 (1770); 77,708 (1801) ; 376,065 (1851); 517,980 (1891); 684,- 958 (1901); 746,421 (1911). The great. ad- vance in the population in later years indicated by these figures is partly explained by the extension of the city boundaries so as to take in several adjoining townships. Divisions.— The city is divided into nine parliamentary divisions returning nine members to Parliament; and into 35 wards, returning 137 members to the city council. Public Buildings.— Down to the middle of the 19th century Liverpool contained very few public buildings; the streets were narrow and architecturally unattractive. During the last 60 years a complete change has taken place; and within a radius of half a mile from the town-hall the city has been rebuilt; new streets have been made, and old ones widened. The following are amongst the most important of the public buildings: Saint George’s Hall, opened 1854, cost ESAs town-hall, 1795, cost £170,490; munici- pal offices, 1867, cost £141,170; post office, 1899, cost £400, 000 (including site) : Picton Reading- Room, 1878, cost £20,000; Central Technical Schools, 1901, cost £110, 000; University build- ings, cost £220,000 (including sites). The Wil- liam Brown Library and Museum (1860) and the Walker Art Gallery (1877) were the gifts of the generous citizens whose names they bear. The Anglican Cathedral, begun in 1904, will, when completed, be one of the most im- posing ecclesiastical buildings in the British Empire. The Royal Infirmary, the Blue Coast Hospital and the Seamen’s Orphanage are hand- some buildings devoted to the cause of charity.. Many of the buildings associated with com- merce have been designed by some of the fore- most architects of the day and must be ranked amongst the finest in the city. With the completion of the three great buildings now in progress, viz.: the cathedral, the dock offices and the cotton exchange, Liverpool, from an architectural point of view, will be unsurpassed by any provincial city or town in the United Kingdom. Libraries.— The free public libraries of the city consist of one large central reference library (already referred to) and 11 lending libraries and reading-rooms. An extension of the reference library has been made to receive the Hornby collection of art books, prints and autographs. Other important libraries in the city are the Atheneum (founded 1798), The Liverpool, Library (founded 1758), and The . University (founded 1881). There are also special theological, legal and medical libraries. Art Gallery and Museums.— The famous collection of pictures in the Walker Art Gallery is extremely valuable, and contains works by Burne-Jones, Herkomer, Holman Hunt, Leigh- ton, Millais, Albert Moore, Poynter, Briton Riviere, D. G. Rossetti and others. sculpture is also well represented. An autumn exhibition is held annually when the most im- portant pictures of the year are placed on view. The public museums containing archeological, Modern . LIVERPOOL ceramic and natural history collections (the latter including an aquarium) are amongst the most popular institutions in the city. Places of Worship.— The bishopric of Liverpool was founded in 1880, when an endow- ment of £100,000 was raised by public subscrip- tion. There are over 100 churches in the city (which does not comprise the whole of the dio- cese). The various Non-Conformist denomina- ‘tions have amongst them about 190 places of worship. Education.— The city possesses an efficient system of education. The elementary, second- ary and technical schools are under the control of the city council. There are a considerable number of scholarships to enable students to pass from the elementary to the secondary schools and on to both the Liverpool Univer- sity and the universities of Oxford and Cam- bridge. The Liverpool University was first estab- lished as a college in 1881, and obtained its charter as a university with power to confer degrees in 1903. The teaching staff numbered in 1914 138 members, with 700 students. The university is endowed both for teaching and research and connected with it is the famous School of Tropical Medicine. Water, Electricity and Tramways.— The city and district are supplied with fresh water from Rivington in Lancashire, and. Lake Vyrnwy, Montgomeryshire (Wales). The engi- neering difficulties connected with the supply of water from such distances have been very great and the cost proportionately heavy. The total cost of the water undertaking has been £6,586,793. There is a total capacity of 70,000,- 000 gallons per day, and the daily consumption in the city is about 40,000,000 gallons. In 1896 the corporation purchased the works and rights of the Liverpool Electric Supply Company at a cost of £400,000. Since that date the demand for electricity for light and power has rapidly developed and the undertaking has proved finan- cially successful. The total capital expenditure was, on 31 Dec. 1904, £1,719,000. For many years a portion of the profits has been contrib- uted to the rates of the city. In 1904 the amount so contributed, after paying all working expenses, charges for interest ont sinking fund, was nearly £17,000. In 1897 the corporation decided to ninchato the tramways, which down to that date had belonged to a limited company. The amount paid was £567,375. The overhead trolley sys- tem of electric traction was quickly substituted for the horse system hitherto in use. New routes were opened up, streets widened, the length of track nearly doubled and fares re- duced. The length of track is now over 116 miles and the average length of the penny stage two and one-half miles. The introduction of “first-class” cars at enhanced fares has been attended with success. Insanitary Houses.— During the past 40 years the corporation has spent large sums of money in the demolition of insanitary cottage property, and in the reconstruction of artisans’ dwellings. The city is also well provided with public baths, the oldest in the kingdom, being established in 1794, including open air baths (free), and in the poor quarters of the town there are corporation buildings efficiently equipped for public laundry work, 537 Parks, Etc.— The city possesses a number. of fine parks, gardens and recreation grounds, The total number of acres thus allotted to pub- lic use is about 1,200 —including Sefton park with 269 acres, the cost of which, including the laying out, was £410,269. About 100 acres of the above represent churchyards, and plots of land varying’in size from one-fourth of an acre to three acres, which have been turned into gardens and recreation grounds, thus greatly improving the appearance of many lo- calities and adding to the pleasure of the inhab- itants. All the land here referred to has not been purchased by the corporation. The Wavertree playground, 108 acres, was the gift of a gener- ous citizen, and cost about £100,000; while the Roby estate (100 acres), situated on the eastern boundary of the city, was donated by Alderman Bowring ‘and dedicated to the use of the citi- zens. The estate of Calderstones, south of the city, is the most recent purchase. Hospitals.— The medical charities are on a very extensive scale. Some of the charities are old, but all are now housed in modern buildings possessing all the latest scientific re- quirements. Most of the charities are main- tained by endowments and public subscriptions, but seven of the largest hospitals in the city have been built and are maintained by the cor- poration, and in 1904 the sum of £46,000 was . expended: in their administration. In ‘addition to the hospitals in the city there are sanatoria for consumptive patients at Delamere Forest and Heswall Hills. The Royal Southern Hos- pital has special arrangements for patients suf- fering from tropical diseases. Railways.— Nearly all the English railway companies are connected with Liverpool. The London and North Western, the Lancashire and Yorkshire and the Midland Railway companies have large and commodious passenger stations. In 1895 a new riverside railway station was opened for the convenience of ocean travelers, There are 100 stations in the Liverpool area. The city.is also connected by canals with the manufacturing towns of.-Lancashire, Yorkshire and the. Midlands. Within recent years the Mersey Railway, which connects Liverpool with Birkenhead by a tunnel under the river, and the Lancashire and Yorkshire line to Southport were electrified, and the latter was connected at Seaforth with the Overhead Electric Railway which runs along the line of docks from The Dingle. f Trade and Shipping.— Liverpool-has a few manufactures, but it is essentially a port. So far as the export. trade is concerned statistics prove that it is the leading port in the United Kingdom, while for imports it 1s second only to London. It is the natural outlet for the great manufacturing industries of Lancashire, and most of the raw cotton is imported here. The total value of exports to the United States in 1917 was $24,065,832 compared with $30,144,189 in 1916, a decrease due to the war of. over '$6- 000,000 chiefly in Egyptian cotton. Shipments of ‘manufactured goods, however, increased from $8,200,834 in 1916 to $10,444, 820 in 1917, a gain of $2,243,986. Not the least important part of the shipping industry is the ocean pas- senger traffic. Connected with the port of - Liverpool are fleets of the largest ships afloat, and the daily sailings and arrivals of these 538 steamers to and from all the great ports in the world draw to the city large numbers of emi- grants and other passengers. The tonnage of arrivals and departures, including Birkenhead, But excluding coastwise shipping, was in 1914 22,771,000 tons. Docks.— The first wet dock dates from 1715, when an area of four acres was enclosed, The Mersey Docks and Harbor Board, which was constituted by act of Parliament in 1858, has control of the systems of Liverpool, Birken- head and Bootle. There are 65 wet docks, which, from Gladstone Dock at the north end to the Herculaneum Dock at the south end, occupy a river frontage of over seven miles, with a water area of 450 acres, and quayage ex- tending for 27 miles. Herculaneum Dock has a fine petroleum reservoir cut out in. solid rock, with a holding capacity of 60,000 gallons. The Birkenhead Docks on the south side of the river have a water area of 172 acres and a quay length of 10 miles. The warehouses of the port, particularly those devoted to the stor- age of grain and tobacco, are of gigantic dimen- sions, and fitted with every modern appliance. The great passenger steamers nearly all embark and discharge their passengers at the landing stage, which is one of the attractions of the city. Landing Stage.—It is a floating structure . 2,478 feet in length with a general width of about 80 feet. The northern portion of this stage is allotted to the use of the ocean going - and coasting steamers, while the southern por- tion is reserved for the busy ferry traffic across the river to the Cheshire coast.. River Dredging.— One of the most import- ant duties of the Mersey Dock Board is the dredging of the river and increasing the depth of water at the bar which is I'l miles from the landing stage. By the end of the year 1909 nearly 42,000,000 tons of sand had been removed from the bar. The revetment of certain sand- banks has also been undertaken, with 100,000 tons of stone to protect the under stone from erosion. Before dredging was commenced the depth of water at low water of spring tides was 11 feet, whilst now under the same conditions there is a depth of 30 feet. Such are the efforts necessary to maintain the city in that position so eloquently described by James R. Lowell in the words which appro- priately close this notice: “Liverpool is one end of the three thousand mile loom on which the, shuttles which are binding us all in visible ties more and more together are continually shoot- ing to and fro.” History.— The history of Liverpool practi- . cally dates from the issue of the letter patent, or charter, by King John in 1207, and the erec- tion of a castle. This latter structure has long since disappeared, part of its site being now occupied by a statue of Queen Victoria. In 1709 a wet dock was constructed, the first in the kingdom. From this event dated the rapid ex- tension of its commerce and population, In 1880 Liverpool was made the see of a bishop, and‘in that year a charter was granted consti- tuting it a city. The town developed very slowly until after the civil wars, in which it _ played a prominent part, being besieged three times. The facts stated in this article will prove that Liverpool is in every sense of the word a LIVERPOOL — LIVERWORTS > modern city, its development during the 19th century being almost unparalleled. Liverpool is justly proud of the distinguished men and women who have been either born within its boundaries or associated with it. There are statues of William Roscoe, William Ewart Gladstone, William Rathbone and others, while the birthplaces of Mrs. Hemans, Arthur Hugh Clough and W. E. Gladstone have had memorial tablets placed on them. The: house at Rock Ferry, wherein Nathaniel Haw- thorne resided, is well known. Bibliography.— Baines, ‘History of the Commerce and Town of Liverpool? (1852); Ellison, ‘The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, with a History of the Liverpool Cotton Mar- ket? (1886); Morton, ‘The Geology of the Country Around Liverpool? (1891); Picton, “Memorials of Liverpool, Including a History of the Dock Estate? (2 vols., revised ed., 1903) ; Muir and Platt, ‘History of Municipal Govern- ment in Liverpool to 1835> (1906); Muir, “Municipal History of Liverpool? (1907) ; ‘Vic- toria History of Lancashire? (Vols. II and IV, 1908) ; Young, H. S. and H. E., ‘Bygone Liver- pool? (1918); ‘Handbook for the City of Liverpool. GrorcE T. SHAW, evediay and Librarian, The Atheneum, Liver- pool. LIVERPOOL, Nova Scotia, Canada, the capital of Queen’s County, a town and port of entry on the south bank of the Mersey estuary at its entrance into Liverpool Harbor, 80 miles southwest of Halifax. Founded by settlers from Connecticut in 1760, and at one time a centre for privateers, and possessing later an important shipping trade, it has large fisheries and some manufactures of lumber and machin- ery, grist, pulp, paper and saw mills. Pop. 2,109. LIYERSIDGE, liv’ér-sidj’, Archibald, Aus- tralian chemist and mineralogist: b. Turnham Green, England, 17 Nov. 1847. He was edu- cated at the Royal School of Mines and the Royal College of Chemistry and at Christ’s Col- lege, Cambridge. In 1867 he was appointed acting instructor of chemistry in the Royal School of Naval Architecture; in 1870 became university demonstrator in chemistry at Cam- bridge; and since 1874 has been professor of chemistry, from 1883-1904 dean of the faculty of science, and from 1870-1904 Fellow of the senate in the University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. He retired in 1909. He also founded the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. He has written ‘The Minerals of New South Wales? ; ‘Reports upon Technical Education and Museums, etc. For many years he edited the Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales. LIVERWORTS, or HEPATICZE, a group of cryptogamous plants, forming one of the two divisions of the class Bryophyta or Muscinee (moss-worts), and closely related to the true mosses (Musci), with which some of the species are apt to be confounded. They are either spread out in the form of a simple lobed thallus, showing differentiation into a dorsal (upper) and a ventral (lower) surface, or they are com- posed of a small ramified stem bearing sessile leaves in two or three ranks. Root-like bodies (rhizoids) attach the plant to its substratum. LIVES, PARALLEL — LIVES OF THE POETS Many liverworts reproduce themselves by means of brood-cells (thallidia or gemme), formed asexually in cups on the surface, in leaf-margins, etc. They are also reproduced sexually by means of club-shaped antheridia, containing the male elements (antherozoids), and flask-shaped archegonia, containing each an egg-cell or odsphere. These sexual organs occur in groups either in small depressions or special outgrowths of the thallus, or as so-called flowers at the tips of the leafy ‘shoots, or in the axils of their leaves. The spore-capsule is. formed after fertilization within the archegonium, and the spores are often provided with hygroscopic elaters which assist in their dispersal. On ger- mination a spore produces, not the common liverwort plant, but a very small filamentous protonema. There are four families of liver- worts, namely, Ricciacee, Marchantiacee, An- thocerotacee and Jungermanniacee. The first includes the duck-weed-like crystalwort (Riccia natans); the second the exceedingly common Marchantia polymorphia, formerly used as a basis for medicine for ailments of the liver (whence the name “liverwort”) ; and the last, which is much the largest family, comprises all the leafy, as well as some thalloid forms. The Hepatice are generally distributed over the world, and prefer situations similar to those occupied by the mosses. There are about 4,060 species, of which about 3,500 belong to the Jungermanniacee. See authorities on crypto- gamic botany, especially Cooke’s ‘British He- patice? (1893); and Strasburger, ‘Text-book of Botany? (1903). LIVES, Parallel (ior rapdAdnior), the work upon which Plutarch’s fame chiefly rests, were published by him late in life after his re- turn to Cheronea, and, if one may judge from the long lists of authorities given, must have taken many years in the compilation. The bi- ographies appear in pairs, each of which places a Greek and Roman in juxtaposition. For ex- ample, Theseus and Romulus are compared as the legendary founders of states. Twenty-two pairs are extant: Theseus and Romulus, Ly- curgus and Numa, Solon and Valerius Publi- cola, Themistocles and Camillus, Pericles and Fabius Maximus, Alcibiades and Coriolanus, ’ Timoleon and A‘milius Paulus, Pelopidas and Marcellus, Aristides and Cato the Elder, Philo- poemen and Flaminius, Pyrrhus and Caius Ma- rius, Lysander and Sulla, Cimon and Lucullus, Nicias and Crassus, Sertorius and Eumenes, Agesilaus and Pompey, Alexander and Julius Cesar, Phocion and Cato the Younger, Agis and Cleomenes and Tiberius and Caius Grac- chus (a double comparison), Demosthenes and Cicero, Demetrius Poliorcetes and Antony, Dion and Brutus. To these are added the four single lives of Aratus, Artaxerxes Memnon, Galba and Otho, making a total of 50 lives. There are traces of perhaps 12 more biogra- phies that are now lost. Eighteen of the 22 pairs close with a sort of balanced judgment (obyKptotc) of the two careers and characters. These formal comparisons abound in con- trasts rather than in resemblances, the latter in- deed being sometimes a trifle forced. This need not be wondered at, inasmuch as Plu- tarch’s object was not to write history, but to prove that the more remote past of Greece could show its men of action and achievement 539 as well as the nearer and, therefore, more im- pressive past of Rome. In these biographies, therefore, the interest is primarily ethical, al- though they have no mean historical value. In spite of his lack of judicious discrimination in the use of authorities and the consequent er- rors and inaccuracies, Plutarch gives an abun- dance of citations and incidentally a large num- ber of valuable bits of information which fill up numerous gaps in the historical knowledge obtainable elsewhere. Owing to the liveliness and warmth of portrayal and the moral earnest- ness and enthusiasm displayed by their author, the ‘Lives? have not failed.to attract a large circle of readers throughout the ages, in spite of a certain degree of uniformity inherent in the very plan of the series. Their wide appeal is instanced by the fact that ‘Julius Cesar, the first of Shakespeare’s Roman plays, like those that followed, namely, ‘Coriolanus? and ‘An- tony and Cleopatra,» was based. on Plutarch’s ‘Lives? as translated from the French trans- lation of Jacques Amyot (1559) and published by Sir Thomas North in 1579, ‘Timon of Athens? likewise is based, at least in part, upon Plutarch’s life of Mark Antony. The chief manuscripts of the ‘Lives? date from the 10th and 11th centuries; the first edition appeared at Florence in 1517. The most generally ac- cepted text is that of the minor edition of Carl Sintenis in the ‘Bibliotheca Teubneriana? (5 vols., Leipzig 1852-55; reissued without much change in 1873-75). There are annotated edi- tions by I. C. Held, E. H. G. Leopold, Otto Siefert and Friedrich Blass and Carl Sintenis, all in German; and by Holden, in English. Be- sides North’s translation (mentioned above), there are English translations by John and William Langhorne (1770), by Dryden and others (1683), and, of the Roman lives, by George Long. A. H. Clough’s revision of the so-called Dryden edition was published in five volumes in 1859 and reprinted in one large oc- tavo volume in 1876 and 1880. Finally, mention must be made of Bernadotte Perrin’s transla- tion, with the Greek and English texts en re- gard, in the ‘Loeb Classical Library,? in 10 volumes, five of which have already appeared. HERBERT F. WRIGHT, Sometime of the Department of Latin, The Catholic University of America. LIVES OF THE POETS. The ‘Lives of the Poets,’ the “most memorable of Johnson’s literary works,” is an established English clas- sic. It is so ranked in spite of inequalities and numerous defects resulting from: -Johnson’s predilections and methods of work. Early in 1777, to meet the competition of the Martins, Edinburgh publishers, the leading booksellers of London were under the necessity of bringing out an edition of the English poets. Johnson was selected to write what he himself called {ittle lives and little prefaces” to such “a lit- tle edition.” It was at first the intention to be- gin with Chaucer. That the collection did not begin with Chaucer, that it included such in- ferior poets as Broome, Duke, Granville, Hughes, Sheffield, Edmund Smith and Stepney, while Carew, Crashaw, Herbert, Herrick, Love- lace, Marvell and Vaughan were omitted, is doubtless due to the fact that Johnson did not care to undertake the task of treating periods for which he had no particular liking and with 540 which he was not thoroughly familiar. So far as possible he confined himself to the poets of the classical school. poets were named by the booksellers; Black- more, Watts, Pomfret and Yalden were added upon the request of Johnson. There is little doubt that the booksellers would have been glad to follow any suggestions that Johnson cared to make. The “little? work originally contemplated steadily grew. “My _ purpose,” he wrote, “was only to have allotted to every poet an advertisement containing a few dates, and a general character; but I have been led beyond my intention, I hope by the honest desire of giving useful pleasure.” The ‘Lives? were written at intervals between July 1777 and March 1781. Johnson did not follow modern methods of research; he wrote from a full mind, took what easily came to hand and gave little thought to what he could not find. Of mere details, he was impatient: “To adjust the minute events of literary history,” he asserted in the’life of Dryden, “is tedious and troublesome: it re- quires indeed no great force of understanding, but often depends upon inquiries which there is ‘no opportunity of making, or is to be fetched from books and pamphlets not always at hand.” Not all of the narratives were writ- ten for the purpose in hand, nor were all, the result of Johnson’s own labors. The ‘Life of Savage? had been published in 1744. The ‘Life of Edward Young? was written at Johnson’s request by Herbert Croft. The ‘Life of But- ler? was derived from a comparison of ac- counts given by an unknown writer of doubt- ful authority, and by Anthony Wood. The ‘Life of Parnell? is an abstract from the nar- rative by Goldsmith. Of Edmund Smith, John- son says: “I shall subjoin such little memorials as accident has enabled me to collect.” He confessed at the close that he had written “dila- torily and hastily, unwilling to work, and work- ing with vigor and haste.» His standards of criticism, those of the classical school, pre- vented him from doing full justice to such poets as Milton, Collins and Gray. Against the defects of work so produced, the general reader should be warned. “With its slips and errors uncorrected,” says J. Churton Collins, “and read without guidance, no unfitter book could be placed in any reader’s hands; properly edited, and with a proper commentary, no book more serviceable.” What, then, is the value of such a work? It is manifold. For one thing, Johnson killed forever the merely panegyric type of biography. “We have had enough honeysuckle lives of Milton,” he said; “mine shall be in a different strain.” In none of the narratives is he merely a praiser or a fault-finder; he strikes a sane balance. The greatest value of the whole lies not alone in the facts, although students must always reckon with Johnson for certain facts, many of which, but for him, might have been lost. It does not depend upon the mere meth- ods of biography, which in many respects might have been improved. Its greatest value arises from the fact that we are therein given the last judgments of a great literary dictator. The ‘Lives of the Poets? is the product of Johnson’s privileged old age. He had read much, experienced much, thought much. We Forty-eight of the 52, LIVIA DRUSILLA — LIVINGSTON are enabled to listen to the mature mind of one great literary man delivering itself in regard to other literary men, small as well as great. The ‘Lives? are thus invaluable as documents of that school of classical criticism so well rep- resented by Johnson. They are equally invalu- able for the element of philosophical comment which runs throughout. “His work closes an age; it is the Temple of Immortality of the great Augustans, and, when it was published, already Burns and Blake, Crabbe and Cowper, were beginning to write.” Two of the best critical articles are J. Chur- ton Collins’ “Dr. Johnson’s ‘Lives of the Poets? » (in Quarterly Review, Vol. CCVILII, pp. 72-97); and Chapter 6 of Prof, Walter Ra- leigh’s ‘Six Essays on Johnson.’ Watpo H. DuNN. LIVIA DRUSILLA, li’vi-a dro-sil’la, wife of the Roman Emperor Augustus: b. about 55 B.c.;_d. 29. A.D... She was- the dapehteroen lL. Livius Drusus Claudianus, who committed suicide after the battle of Philippi. Livia be- .came the wife of Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom she had two sons, Tiberius the future emperor, and Drusus. While still pregnant with the latter she was married to Octavianus (Augustus), who had been captivated by her beauty and her talent, and who to bring about this union had divorced Scribonia, and forced Tiberius Nero to divorce Livia. The union with Augustus seems to have been a happy one, but there is a suspicion that Livia’s ambition to secure the succession for her own sons caused her to commit many crimes in order to remove the members of the family of Augustus, to whom the succession would naturally have fallen. Thus the death of Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, and of Lucius and Gaius Cesar, sons of Agrippa, was charged to her machina- tions, nor was she free from the suspicion of having hastened the end of Augustus himself. Meantime her surviving son, Tiberius, had been adopted by Augustus, who designated Livia and Tiberius as his principal heirs. On her son’s succession to the imperial dignity Livia con- tinued for a long time to exercise great in- fluence, so much so that at first it seems to have been felt that Tiberius was subservient to her will; but in fact Tiberius, while con- siderate of his mother, always maintained an attitude of independence toward her in all affairs of state, and thus by degrees a spirit of alienation grew up between them which in- creased so much with years that Tiberius re- fused to visit her on her death-bed, or even to execute the directions of her will. She died at an advanced age. Consult Tiibker, Frederich, ‘Reallexikon des klassischen Altertums? (Vol. I], 8th ed., Leipzig 1914). LIVING MAMMALS, Distribution of. See DistriBuTION oF Livinc MAMMALS. LIVINGSTON, Burton Edward, American plant physiologist: b. Grand Rapids, Mich., 9 Feb. 1875. In 1898 he was graduated at the University of Michigan and in 1902 obtained the degree of Ph.D. at the University of Chicago. In 1895-98 he was assistant in plant physiology at the University of Michigan and from 1899 to 1905 was Fellow and assistant in plant physiol- ogy at the University of Chicago. He served as soil expert of the United States Bureau of . LIVINGSTON Soils and had charge of fertility investigations in 1905-06. From 1906 to 1909 Mr. Livingston was staff member of the department of botan- ical research of the Carnegie Institution, Wash- ington, D. C. In the latter year he was ap- pointed professor of plant physiology at Johns Hopkins, where since 1913 he has also served as director of the laboratory of plant physiol- ogy. He has published ‘Role of Diffusion and Osmotic Pressure in Plants? (1903) and numerous scientific papers. He translated and edited Palladin’s ‘Plant Physiology? (1918). Professor Livingston has invented a porous cup atmometer for measuring evaporation asta climatic factor and of an auto-irrigator for automatic control of soil moisture in potted plants. LIVINGSTON, Edward, American states- Mag amine clermout, cv. Y.,. 20 ,May,.1/64; -d, Rhinebeck, N. Y., 23 May 1836. He was grad- uated from the College of New Jersey in 1781, was admitted to the bar in 1785, was a New York representative in Congress (1795-1801) and was a leader of the opposition. In 1801 he was appointed by President Jefferson United States attorney for the New York district, and in that year became also mayor of New York. During the yellow fever epidemic in 1803 he was stricken with the disease, and during his illness $43,666, for which he was responsible to the United States government, were misap- propriated by his fiscal agent. He confessed judgment in favor of the United States for $100,000, and resigned both his offices. Every dollar of this amount was subsequently repaid. In 1804 he began the practice of law at New Orleans and, accepting land in lieu of fees, acquired a lucrative practice, and drew up a code of legal procedure. At the time of the preparation for the battle of New Orleans, he was president of the committee of public de- fense, and Jackson’s chief assistant. During the battle he served on Jackson’s staff. In 1820 he was elected a representative to the State legislature of Louisiana, in 1822-29 represented the New Orleans district in Congress, and from 7 Dec. 1829 to 3 March 1831 was United States senator from Louisiana. In 1831 he be- came Secretary of State in Jackson’s Cabinet. This post he resigned to become Minister to France in 1833; and in 1835 he returned to the United States. He was a distinguished lawyer; and as Secretary of State exercised strong in- fluence on the administration of Jackson, whose state papers, including the Nullification proclamation of 10 Dec. 1832, are generally be- lieved to have been written by him. The most remarkable of his legal works is his ‘System of Penal Law for the State of Louisiana,” which, written between 1821 and 1824, was accidentally destroyed by fire, was rewritten and published in 1826, and earned for its author from Sir Henry Maine the description of “the first legal genius of modern times.” He also wrote ‘System of Penal Law for the United States? (1828). His ‘Complete Works on Criminal Jurisprudence? append in 1873. Con- sult the biographies by C. H. Hunt (New York 1864) ; and Carleton Hunt (New Orleans 1903). LIVINGSTON, Henry Brockholst, Amer- ican jurist: b. New York, 26 Nov. 1757: d. Washington, D. C., 19 March 1823. He was a son of William Livingston (q.v.), and grad- 541 uated from the College of New Jersey in 1774, was commissioned a captain in the Continental army and later became aide to Gen. Philip Schuyler in the northern department with rank of major. He was also aide to Gen. Arthur St. Clair, took part in the siege of Ticonderoga and was present at Saratoga. Subsequently he was again with Schuyler and ‘was promoted lieutenant-colonel. In 1779 he went to Spain as private secretary to John Jay, in 1782 on the return voyage was captured by the British, and was for a time imprisoned at New York. In 1783 he was admitted to the bar and entered practice in New York. He was judge of the New York Supreme Court in 1802-07, and from 1807 was associate justice of the United States Supreme Court until his death. On the organization of the New York Historical So- ciety in 1805 he became its second vice-presi- dent. He was popularly known as Brockholst Livingston. LIVINGSTON, John H., American divine and virtual founder of two institutions of learning, Rutgers College and the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church in America, at New Brunswick, N. J.: b. Poughkeepsie, N. Y.,; 30 May 1746; d. 20 Jan. 1825. He was graduated from Yale College and studied law two years, but in New York came under the influence of Archibald Laidlie (Flushing) and chose the ministry. He sailed. for Europe, 12 May 1766, being the last of American youth in the then Dutch Reformed Church to study theology in Holland. At Utrecht University, he sought and won, by discussion in the Latin language, the degree of doctor of divinity and wrote a Latin thesis. Called to the Collegiate Reformed Church in New York City, he acted as a peacemaker between the parties in the denomination formed chiefly on the idea of speedy, or of slow Americanization and use of the English language. .Largely under his personal influence, Rutgers College (chartered in 1766) and the Theological Seminary, the second oldest in America, were begun. In the Revolution, his Americanism was so ar- dent during the British occupation that he had to leave the city. To the Utrecht Uni- versity motto, of 1648, after the end of the Netherlands ’80 years’ war for freedom, “Sol- justitiz illustra,» Livingston added for Rut- gers College “et occidentem”— “[Divine] Sun of righteousness illuminate also the West.» Probably no institution of learning, with the Atlantic between, has a closer historical con- nection with Europe than Rutgers College with Utrecht University. On 9 July -1909, the friends of Rutgers College unveiled in the aula of the University of Utrecht a bronze tablet to the memory of Livingston with the inscription in Latin, meaning “We salute Utrecht University as the dear “mother of our dear mother.” Livingston’s voluminous writ- ings include the first hymnbook (in English) and the constitution of the Reformed Church in America. Consult Gunn, ‘Memoirs of Dr. Livingston? (1836). LIVINGSTON, Peter van Brugh, Amer- ican merchant: b. Albany, N. Y., October 1710; d. Elizabethtown, N. J., 28 Dec. 1792. He was graduated from Yale in 1731, at New York was active in the shipping business with William Alexander, Lord Stirling, and in 1755 provided 542 the supplies for Governor Shirley’s expedition to Acadia. He was long a member of the provincial council, and in 1775-76 was a dele- gate to the Ist and 2d provincial congresses of New York, of the former of which he was president. In 1776-78 he was treasurer of the congress. He was prominent in most of the measures that led up to the Revolu- tionary War, notably as a Mohawk of the “Nancy Tea Party» in New York City in 1774, and was referred to by John Adams as “staunch in the cause.” As a Presbyterian he was also one of the founders of the College of New Jersey, which later became Princeton College. LIVINGSTON, Philip, American patriot: bs'Albany, Ne MiSs fanold/16;:d/ York,cPas 12 June 1778. He was graduated from Yale in 1737, became a prosperous merchant in New York, in 1758-69 was a member of the Colonial assembly, of which he was speaker in 1768, but was unseated by the Tory majority because of his strong Whig views. In 1774-78 he repre- sented New York in the Continental Congress, and in 1776 signed the Declaration of Inde- pendence. Subsequently he sat in the New York provincial congress, in the State assem- bly and in the senate. His legislative services were many. He was also a benefactor of King’s (later Columbia) College, of Yale Col- lege, and was one of the founders of the New York Chamber of Commerce. LIVINGSTON, Robert, American colonial- proprietor: b. Ancrum, Scotland, 13 Dec. 1654; d. Albany, N. Y., 20 April 1725. He emigrated to America in 1673, spent a part of a year at Charlestown, Massachusetts Bay, removed to Albany, N. Y., and was there in 1675-86 sec- retary of the commission who directed the affairs of Albany, Schenectady and the region adjacent. In 1686-1721 he held the corre- sponding office of town clerk. In 1686 he re- ceived from Gov. Thomas Dongan the grant of a large tract, which comprised extensive portions of the present counties of Dutchess and Columbia, and which was confirmed by royal charter of George I in 1715. This tract was erected into the lordship and manor of Livingston, and as Livingston Manor has since been known. Livingston was the first to ob- tain the means for the equipment of the ex- pedition of Capt. William Kidd (q.v.) against the pirates. He was elected member of the assembly for Albany in 1711, and sat for his manor in 1716-25. From 1718 he was speaker. Consult ‘The Livingstons of Livingston Manor? (New York 1910). LIVINGSTON, Robert R. (the initial R. having been assumed for purposes of distinc- tion), American statesman, commonly known as “Chancellor Livingston” : b. New York, 27 Nov. 1746; d. Clermont, N. Y., 26 Feb. 1813. He was ‘graduated from Columbia (then King’s College) in 1765, was admitted to the bar in 1773, was for a brief period partner in legal practice with John Jay, in 1773-75 was recorder of New York city, lost this post through His revolutionary spirit, and in April 1775 was elected from Dutchess county to the New York State assembly. In 1776 he was sent by the assembly to the Continental Congress, where he was one of the committee of five appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence, which, however, he did not sign owing to his return LIVINGSTON to enter the provincial convention. He took his seat on 8 July 1776, and was of the com- mittee to draw up a State constitution. Under this instrument he became the first chancellor of New York (1777-1801). He resigned from the Continental Congress in 1777, but was again one of its members in 1779-81. He was secre- tary for foreign affairs of the United States Confederation in 1781-83, in which post he con- ducted with much success the business previ- ously entrusted to the committee of secret cor- respondence. As chancellor he administered the oath of office to George Washington on the latter’s inauguration as first President of the United States (30 April 1789). In 1801-05 he was Minister to France, in which capacity he, with James Monroe as additional plenipoten- tiary, concluded the treaty by which Louisiana was ceded to the United States for the sum of $15,000,000. He became the partner of Robert Fulton (q.v.) in experiments toward the em- ployment of steam-power in navigation; launched a boat on the Seine, but was not fully successful; and later continued the work with Fulton in the United States, where in September 1807 the Clermont made the trial trip from New York to Albany in 22 hours, the average rate of speed thus being five miles per hour. Liy- ingston also introduced merino sheep into New York, made general the use of gypsum for fer- tilizing purposes, was the principal founder (1801) of the New York Academy of Fine Arts and its first president, and was also for a time president of the New York Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts. He was styled by Franklin the “Cicero of America.» By act of Congress his statue was placed in the Capitol at Washington, as one of the two representa- tive citizens of New York State, George Clinton being the other. He published ‘Essays on Agriculture, an ‘Essay on Sheep? (1809), and some addresses. Consult the biographical sketch by De Peyster (New York 1876) ; Dela- field, ‘Robert R. Livingston of New York and his Family? (Albany 1911); and E. B. Living- ston, ‘The Livingstons of Livingston Manor? (New York 1910). LIVINGSTON, William, American states- man: b. Albany, N. Y., 30 Nov. 1723; d. Eliza- bethtown, N. J., 25 July 1790. He was gradu- ated from Yale in 1741, was admitted to the bar in 1748, attained distinction in practice, was elected to the provincial legislature from Liv- ingston manor, and in 1760 established himself at the well-known country-seat of “Liberty Hall” at Elizabethtown, N. J. In 1774 he became a - delegate for New Jersey province to the First Continental Congress, and later served in the second and third congresses. He was a member of the committee of the first congress that pre- pared the address to the people of Great Britain. It was with great reluctance that he set himself in opposition to the mother country; but the step having been taken, he supported the Revo- lution with all his powers. In June 1776 he took command of the militia of New Jersey, with rank of brigadier-general, and was thereby prevented from signing the Declaration of Inde-_ pendence. On 28 Aug. 1776 he was elected first governor of New Jersey, and this post, having resigned his military command, he held until his death. During the first two years of his administration the State of New Jersey was LIVINGSTON — perhaps more than any other exposed to the operations of the British forces, and this was the cause of many difficulties and dangers. The legislature was compelled to meet at various dif- ferent places, and Tory hostility was strong against the governor, whose capture was several times attempted. In his message of 1777 to the assembly, Livingston recommended the abolition of slavery, and in 1786 caused the passage of an act forbidding the importation of slaves into New Jersey and himself liberated his two slaves. In 1787 he was appointed a delegate to the convention that framed the Constitution of the United States. He was at one time presi- dent of the “Moot,” the well-known lawyers’ club founded at New York in 1770. He pub- lished in 1752 52 numbers of The Independent Reflector, a weekly periodical, in which he opposed the Episcopal Church. His writings include ‘Philosophic Solitude? (1747); ‘A Fu- neral Eulogium on the Rev. Aaron Burr? (1757) ; and ‘A Digest of the Laws of New York, 1691-1762? (with W. Smith, Jr., 1752- 62). Consult Sedgwick, ‘Life and Letters of William Livingston? (1833). LIVINGSTON, Guatemala, seaport situ- ated on the Gulf of Amatique, at the embou-. chure of the Dolce. It is an important trade mart as the port of Izabal, with which it has boat connections on the Dolce. Cabinet woods, coffee and bananas are the chief, items of its export trade, which is mostly with the United States. A consulat agent of the United States maintains an office here. Pop. 2,000. LIVINGSTON, Mont., city, county-seat of Park County, on the Yellowstone River, and on the Northern Pacific Railroad, about 45 miles north of the Yellowstone National Park, and 100 miles southeast of Butte. It is situ- ated in a mining and lumbering section of the State. A branch of the Northern Pacific Rail- road extends from Livingston to the Yellow- stone park. It is the division headquarters for the Northern Pacific. Its chief manufacturing establishments are machine shops, lime works, railroad shops and lumber mills. Its trade is mainly in mining tools, wool, coke, coal and gold, and it is a distributing centre for gro- ceries, dry goods and clothing for an extensive region. Livingston is a favorite resort for sportsmen, as game and fish abound. Pop. (1920) 6,326. LIVINGSTON MANOR, at one time a large tract of land in New York State, on the east side of the Hudson River, and the north- ern part of what is now Dutchess County. This land was obtained by Robert Livingston, in 1674, and comprised about 160,240 acres. The title was confirmed in 1715, and the patent ob- tained gave the land to the heirs forever. In 1752-54 Governor Clinton of New York had to settle a dispute as to the eastern boundary; Massachusetts and the Livingstons both claim- ing the same land. The manor was divided and subdivided into holdings which were let to ten- ants. In 1795 the tenants made an effort to have the title pronounced invalid, but it was decreed that the land was Livingston property. In 1844 the tenants again sought to get posses- sion, and they petitioned the legislature to set aside the grant, but the petition was not granted. Since that time the owners have sold to indi- viduals the larger part of the old Livingston LIVINGSTONE 543 Manor. Consult Vol. III of ‘Documentary His- tory of New York State? (Albany 1850). LIVINGSTONE, _liv’ing-ston, David, Scottish missionary and African traveler: b. Blantyre, Lanarkshire, 19 March 1813; d. near Lake Bangweolo, Africa, 1 May 1873. His parents had settled in the neighborhood of the cotton mills near Blantyre, where David be- came a “piecer” at the age of 10. While at work in the mill he learned Latin and read extensively, and having attended the medical and Greek classes at Glasgow University dur- - ing the winter months finally became a licentiate of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow. Under the direction of the London Missionary Society he proceeded in 1840 to South Africa, where he joined Robert Moffat in the missionary field. His first sta- tion was in the Bechuana territory, and here his labors for nine years were associated with Mr. Moffat, whose daughter he married. Hear- ing from the natives that there was a large lake north of the Kalahari Desert, he proceeded to explore that region, and discovered the valley of the Zouga and Lake Ngami. Subsequently he penetrated farther northwest until he reached Linyanti, the capital of the Makololo territory, situated on the Chobe, a tributary of the Zam- besi, which river he also visited. In 1853-56 he made a great exploratory journey, or series of journeys. Starting from Linyanti he ascended the Leeambye (Upper Zambesi), journeyed overland to Lake Dilolo, and thence to Saint Paul de Loanda on the west coast. Returning to Linyanti, he went eastward from there in 1855, tracing the Zambesi to the Indian Ocean, and reaching Quilimane on the east coast in 1856, having thus crossed the entire continent. The record of this journey is found in his Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa? (1857). He severed his connection with the London Missionary Society in 1858 and was appointed British consul at Quilimane. From that year until 1864 he with Sir John Kirk ex- plored the Zambesi, Shire and Roouwa rivers and discovered Lake Nyasa, the literary result of which was ‘The Zambesi and its Tributaries? (1885). Livingstone set forth in 1865 to set at rest the question of the sources of the Nile. From this time till his death he was engaged in laborious explorations in the lake region of South Africa, especially to the westward of Nyassa and Tanganyika, where he discovered Lakes Bangweolo and Moero, the Upper Kongo, etc. For about three years no communication had come from him, and the doubts regarding the traveler’s safety were only set at rest when it was known that H. M. Stanley, the special correspondent of the New York Herald, had seen and assisted Livingstone at Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika. They parted in March 1872, Liv- ingstone going to explore the southern end of Tanganyika and Stanley proceeding to Zanzi- bar. After another year’s wanderings he was attacked with dysentery near Lake Bangweolo, and there he died. His body was buried in Westminster Abbey, having been conveyed to the coast, rudely preserved in salt, by his faith- ful followers. Consult ‘Livingstone’ s Last Journals? (1874) ; Stanley, “How I Found Liv- ingstone? (1873); Blaikie, ‘Livingstone’s Per- sonal Life? (1880) ; Hughes, ‘David Living- stone? (1891) ; Johnston, ‘Livingstone and the 544 Exploration of Central Africa» (1897) ; Mac- lachlan, ‘David Livingstone? (1900) ; Stanley’s ‘Autobiography? (1911) and ‘How I. Found Livingstone? (1913), and Horne, ingstone? (1913). LIVINGSTONIA MISSION, British Ny- assaland Protectorate, central Africa, founded in 1875 by Stewart. of Lovedale for the Free Church of Scotland (now the United Free Church). The first settlement was made at Cape Maclear at the southern end of Lake Nyassa, but the chief settlement is at Bandawé, on the west shore of the lake. The establishment of the mission was the result of a suggestion made by Livingstone (q.v.) that the shore of this lake was a good position. for a mission that might counteract the slave trade which was carried on by the Arabs and Portuguese. The Church of Scotland established a mission at Blantyre, in the Shiré Highlands, near the lake—a mission which it is anticipated may soon be united with the Livingstonia Mission. At Blantyre some manufacturing establishments have been established, a foundry, basket fac- tory, cloth mill (the ‘cloth is made from the bark...of.. trees), and.ja.catton, .factory..,..,1 he Portuguese, in 1889, tried to get possession, but since 1890 the British have had control. . LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, the founder of Roman epic poetry and drama, by birth a Greek of Tarentum. He first went to Rome at the commencement of the 3d century B.c. as in- structor to the children of Livius: Salinator. He introduced upon the Roman stage dramas after the Grecian model and wrote a transla- tion of the ‘Odyssey? in the old Saturnine verse. His fame, however, rests chiefly upon his hymn written in celebration of the battle of the Metaurus River. Consult Duff, J. W., ‘A Literary History of Rome? (New York 1909). LIVNY, lyév’ni, Russia, capital of the dis- trict of the same name, Situated in the govern- ment of Orel, on the Sosna River, 95 miles southeast of the city of Orel, It. contains a bank, a gymnasium or high school and two li- braries. Its industries include manufactures of flour, leather, soap, tallow and tobacco. There is also a large trade in grain. The city dates from 1586. Pop. 23,700. LIVONIA, li-vd’ni-a (Ger. Livland; Russ. Livlandya), a former government of Russia and one of the three Baltic provinces, bounded on the north by Esthonia, south by Courland, on the west by the Gulf of Riga and east by Lake Peipus and the governments of Petrograd, Pskov and Vitebsk. ‘Together with Oesel, Mohn, Paternoster and some smaller, islands in the Gulf of Riga the total area is about 17,500 square miles, with a population | of 1,740,000 in 1914. Riga, the capital, is the most German town outside Germany and has a popu- lation. of 560,000, . Consisting mainly of marsh and low sand, the territory has little fertility and few forests. Over 18 per cent of the area is meadow land, over which great herds of cattle are spread, particularly horses. There is an abundance of inland waterways, though only the Dvina, the Pernau and the Aa near the Embach are of any importance for communica- tion. The Salis and the Pernau are only. par- tially navigable, owing to rapids, narrowness and shallow bottom. The one trunk line of “David Liv- | LIVINGSTONIA MISSION — LIVONIA railway runs from Riga through Dorpat and Taps to Petrograd. Little wheat is grown in Livonia; rye, potatoes and oats are standard crops; dairy farming, though extensively car- ried on, yields but little profit. Altogether the country is in a backward and neglected con- dition. Some 400 factories were in operation before the war; Riga was the centre of the Russian flax and timber trade, also of rubber and textiles, foundries, pulp-mills and china manufacture. In 1915 the Russians started scrapping and dismantling all the machinery to prevent it from falling into German hands, leaving Riga little more than an empty shell. The population of Livonia is predominantly Russian; about 8 or 10 per cent is German; the aborigines are of Finnish origin and are more closely allied to the Slavs than the Germans. Letts, Esthonians, Swedes, Poles and Jews make up the remainder of the inhabitants. The Esthonians occupy the north and east portion of Livonia; the Letts the south and west. Most of the people are Protestants of the Augs- burg Confession. During the 12th and 13th centuries the Lett tribes of the Baltic were considered by the Russian princes and republics of the north- west as their subjects or tributaries. Danes conquered Esthonia, and Yaroslav the Great founded Yuriev (Dorpat). With the German ~ Hanseatic merchants Latin missionaries ap- peared on the Baltic. The archbishop of Bremen sent the monk Meinhard to convert the Livonians. In 1187 the latter built a church at Uexkull and a fortress round the church. From this day the tribes lost their lands and their liberty. The Livonians rose in revolt in 1198 and Meinhard’s successor, the second bishop of Livonia, was killed in battle. The natives re- turned to their heathen gods and plunged into the Dvina “to wash off the baptism they had received, and to send it back to Germany” (Rambaud). Pope Innocent III (reigned 1198- 1216) preached a crusade against the Livonians and another bishop was appointed over the natives. He arrived with a fleet of 23 ships, built-the town of Riga and made it his capital in 1200. -This ecclesiastic, Albert of Bux- heevden, founded the German rule in Livonia. The natives implored the help of the princes of Polotsk and marched on Riga, where they were defeated in 1206. The Prince of Polotsk besieged the town during the bishop’s absence, but it was saved by the arrival of a German flotilla. In 1410 the power of the Teutonic Knights was broken by the Poles under the Lithuanian kings. The expansion of Muscovy (Russia). turned the Tsar’s desires toward the Baltic; between them and the goal, however, lay Sweden, the Livonian Knights, Lithuania and Poland. War broke out in 1554 under Ivan the Terrible and Gustav Vasa of Sweden. Four years later the Russians conquered a con- siderable part of Livonia. The Poles come to the rescue, and by 1562 they had gained con- trol over the Baltic provinces. Gustav Adolph of Sweden captured Riga in 1621, and Sweden enjoyed the supremacy of the Baltic for nearly - a century. The war between Peter the Great assisted by Prussia and Charles XII resulted in the defeat. of Sweden in 1709, and in 1721 Russia finally received Livonia, Esthonia, In- gria, Carelia and part of Finland. For 196 LIVRE — LIZA years Livonia remained part of the Russian Empire, until it was overrun by the Germans in 1917, and Riga fell on 3 September. That event led the Kaiser to declare that the Ger- manization of the Baltic lands was “now made secure for all time.” Under the terms of the Brest-Litovsk peace treaty, signed by the Bol- shevist leaders on 3 March 1918, Russia agreed to abandon territories amounting to nearly a quarter of the total area of European Russia, in which Livonia, Esthonia and Courland were included. Under the terms of the armistice, dictated by the Allies to Germany on 11 Nov. 1918, all German troops were to be withdrawn from territories which had before the war be- longed to Russia, as soon as the Allies should decide. On 15 Nov. 1918 it was announced that Livonia, Esthonia and Courland had decided to form a joint Baltic state. LIVRE, 1é-vr’, an ancient French coin, now superseded by the franc as the unit of value. The livre was equal to about 20 francs ($4). The livre was also the unit of weight until superseded by the kilogram — the equivalent of two livres —in the metric system. LIVY (Titus Livius), Roman historian: b. Patavium (Padua), 59 B.c.; d. there, 17 B.c. He spent most of his time at Rome, but kept aloof from active political life, although among his friends were numbered the most eminent men of his day. In spite of his republican leanings he was befriended by Augustus, who counted him, with Virgil and Horace, as one of the literary ornaments of his court. His principal work is the ‘History of Rome? in 142 books (Titi Livi ab Urbe Condita Libri), which comprehends a period extending from the build- ing of the city to the year 9 Bc. Only 35 of these books are extant, namely, the first 10, which cover the period ending 293 B.c., and the 25 from the 2lst to the 45th books, which com- prehend the years between 218 and 167 B.c., as well as a number of fragments and short ab- stracts, or tables of contents of all the books excepting the 136th and the 137th. Livy under- took this work, as he states in his preface, partly that he might plunge his mind into things of the past, and so forget the grievances of the present, and partly that he might spread out before his contemporaries a picture of the nation’s ancestral glories. He has indeed pro- duced a work which is truly national, which has always received the admiration and esteem of antiquity and is in modern times regarded as one of the most precious relics of Latin litera- ture. Since his time it has been the source of all knowledge of the period it deals with. He - began its composition between the years 27 B.c. and 25 z.c., and published it from time to time in a series of detached parts; the present di- vision into decades is of later origin. It ap- pears that he was engaged upon his history up to the time of his death, but failed to carry it on to the end he had meditated, which would have included the death of Augustus. He had a practical object in view in the accomplishment of this task, but this was less to achieve a critical and scientific exploration of the past than to produce a moving, lifelike and readable representation of the time and country in which he lived. With this end in view he has chosen a style of his own; not the transparent splendor of Cicero, nor the condensed and epigrammatic VOL. 17— 35 - an insoluble substance. 545 pungency of Tacitus, nor the dilettante, though sometimes effective, archaism of Sallust. His narrative moves along with stately dignity; it teems with anecdote and glows with patriotic emotion. He employs a phraseology remark- able for copiousness, for picturesqueness, for ‘ vivid description and occasionally for an elo- quence that.1s burnished into poetic lustre. His materials must mainly have been derived from preceding annalists, but he weaves into his work the local traditions of a mythic age and rivals Virgil in his love for the fables of Tus-- cany and Latium. His account of the Punic wars he draws from Polybius. We must not, however, expect to find in his writings a clear account of the origin and development of the Roman constitution. He seems to have cared little for the study of constitutional law, and even less for that of military art. Yet his political views were very decided, and in his account of the civil war, which resulted in the downiall of the republic, he shows himself a strong partisan of the aristocratic party, so that Augustus did not hesitate to style him a Pom- peian. The historic basis for the Roman his- tory of Livy cannot be fully understood with- out reading the works of Niebuhr. Livy’s com- plete works have been published by Gronov (1679) ; Drakenborch (1828); Zingerle (1883) ; an English translation appears in the Bohn Li- brary, and a complete German translation by Klaiber and Teuffel appeared (Stuttgart 1854— 56). Fugner’s ‘Lexicon Livianum? (1889), al- though incomplete, is important in Livian litera- ture. Consult Niemann, ‘Etudes sur la Langue et Littérature de Live? (1884); Taine, ‘Essai sur Tite Live? (1888); Madvig, ‘Emenda- tiones Livianz? (1877). LIXIVIATION, lik-siv’i-a’shtin, the proc- ess of separating by percolation a soluble from “Leaching” is the com- mon English term for this process. Advantage is taken of the different degrees of solubility of the components of the chosen solvent. In metallurgy the process has been used from the earliest times in the extraction of copper and silver ores. Solvents are employed to dissolve the silver, after which the silver is precipitated from the solution. Usually sodium hyposulphite is used as solvent and sodium sulphide as the precipitant. In recent years investigations have resulted in discovering lixiviation. processes which may be employed on a commercial scale for ore extraction. See CopPER; SILVER. LIZA. By Ivan Sergéyevitch Turgénief. There are several translations for the original title of this novel, ‘Dvoryanskoye Gnyezd0” —‘A Nest of Nobles,’ ‘A Nobleman’s Nest, ‘A House of Gentlefolk.» The title is evi- dently more or less symbolical, ‘The Nest? not referring to the residence of any particular gentleman or nobleman. The action passes mainly in the city home where Liza lives with her worldly-minded mother and her shrewish- tempered great-aunt. The principal character, Lavretsky, occupies only for a brief time a small country-house which had belonged to his father’s sister. The preliminary chapters are largely devoted to tracing the heredity of the various actors in the drama and portray selfish men and women of an earlier genera- tion and their environment. When these ex- planations have been cleared away and one 546 understands the hidden forces of relentless cir- cumstances, the development of the simple yet unexpected complication of the plot is con- ducted with a masterly knowledge of human nature. The solution of the tragedy of dis- appointed love is seen to be in exact accord- ance with the psychology of the persons in- volved. Lizavieta Mikhailovna Kalétina, known as Liza, is the daughter of a government official, stubborn and harsh, who died when she was 10 years of age, leaving a large property in the hands of his widow, Marya Dmitrievna, a woman fairly well educated, sentimental and amiable when her will was not crossed. Dur- ing her impressionable childhood Liza. was. given over to the care of the old nurse, Agafya Vlasievna, who had occupied an equiv- ocal position in her grandfather’s household but on the old man’s death had become fanat- ically devout. Liza’s mother made no attempt to offset the influence of those early religious practices. At the beginning of the story Liza is. about 20, very pretty, graceful, winning, unselfish. and affectionate, “loving everyone in general but no one in. particular.». When a distant kinsman of the family, Feodor Ivano- vitch Lavrétsky, returns to Russia after a long residence abroad, she considers it her duty to try to reconcile him with his wife, whom he had repudiated on account of her immoral relations with a Frenchman. Lavrétsky is no longer young; but he is still attractive and Turgénief evidently did his best to depict him as a sympathetic type of the Russian gentle- man, in spite of his birth (his mother had been a servant maid, first seduced and then hastily married against his: tyrannical grand- father’s wishes). Notwithstanding a one-sided and distorted education, Lavrétsky has done his best to remedy the defects in his training and is now ready to take up his duties as benefactor to his serfs and.as manager of his large estates. While studying at the univer- sity he had married Varvara Pavlovna Koro- buina, the beautiful daughter of a general who had been disgraced by reason of certain dis- honest practices. She was unworthy of him and when he found proofs of her unfaith- fulness, he settled a pension on her and left her. He is immediately attracted by Liza, whom her mother wishes to marry to Vladimir Nikolayevitch Panshin, a good-looking young official who had been sent to the provincial town of O (evidently intended to mean Orel where Turgénief..was born). Panshin is the type of the brilliant and superficial Russian, half-educated after the Western mode, speaks several languages, plays the piano, composes sentimental songs, sketches with a clever hand, acts well in private ‘theatricals and considers any woman as legitimate game. He and. La- vretsky are admirably contrasted. .When Liza, at the fateful moment before she has made up her mind to accept Panshin’s. offer, reads the newspaper report .of Varvara. Pavylovna’s death, she confesses her love for Lavrétsky. They have one hour of happiness; then Fate interposes. Lavrétsky’s wife is not dead: she arrives at Lavrétsky’s house with her little daughter. Liza begs Lavrétsky to forgive Var- vara Pavlovna and she herself follows the ex- ample of her old nurse and takes refuge in a nunnery in a distant part of Russia: Varvara LIZARD FISH —LIZARD - Pavlovna is the exact antithesis of Liza: she is beautiful but false. She immediately be- gins a new intrigue with Panshin, and again Lavrétsky finds himself alone. Eight years later he revisits the house where Liza had lived. “The Nest” still belongs to the family though ‘ all the old people are dead; a new generation is living there. He catches a glimpse of their gaieties; he sees the bench on which he and Liza had sat in the bliss of their love con- fessed; he touches the piano: “a faint pure tone rings out and trembles in his. heart.” He realizes that he had ceased to think of his own happiness; his mind is calm but he is old, old in body and in soul; but he is not unhappy; breathing a silent blessing on youth, he turns away “with sadmess yet without envy” and drives slowly to his deserted, home. ‘Liza? belongs to a Russia vastly different from that of our day. The. age in which it was written has passed, but the pictures which it gives of the period will always be treasured by mankind. It was first published in 1858, just before the Crimean War and the libera- tion of the serfs, and reflects the ideas that were beginning to ferment in Russia toward the end of the reign of Nicholas I.- It was translated into English by W. R. S. Ralston and published in 1869 (new ed., 1884). It was included in a five-volume translation of Tur- génief’s masterpieces in 1889. It is included in the complete edition of Turgénief translated by Mrs. Constance Garnett and it makes the ‘fourth volume of the complete works of Tur- génief’s novels translated by Miss Isabel F. Hapgood, published in 1903. he NATHAN HASKELL DOLE. LIZARD FISH, a fish of the family Syno- dontide of the order Iniomi, remarkable for its wide mouth and very long body. It abounds _inshore in tropical seas but is sometimes found in deep water. A well-known Antillean species is the Synodus fetens, variously known as galliwasp, soap-fish and, in lLatin-America, lagarta. It is olive above and yellow beneath, attains a length of 12 inches and is very vora- cious. LIZARD POINT, or THE LIZARD, England, a headland in Cornwall, 181 feet high, forming the southernmost point of Great Brit- ain, 24 miles southeast of Land’s End, and having two lighthouses with, flashes seen 21 miles, 230 feet above sea-level. The Lward was the Promontorium Damnonium of Ptol- emy. The name is also applied to the penin- sula, with its broken and charming coastline, off which are the Manacle Rocks, a dangerous reef which has been the scene of many ship- wrecks. LIZARD, a subclass of reptiles, whose anatomical features and classification have been described under LacertTitia. A general account: of their habits and ecology has been reserved for the present article. Lizards as a group are of comparatively recent origin, most of the fossils known not being older than the middle of the Tertiary, when representatives of many of the modern genera were in exist- ence. The Pleistocene rocks of Queensland have furnished skeletons of several gigantic extinct representatives of the monitor family, one of which (Megalonia) was about 30 feet. long.. The lizards, as a group, are remarkable AMERICAN LIZARDS Heloderma Tupinambis eju or Gila Monster or 7A AY 4 Inam ameiva 1 Uraniscodon umbra 3 Sur OLD WORLD LIZARDS 1 Skink 4 2 Lacerta agilis 5 Agama colonorum 3 Nile Monitor or Varanus ; 6 Wall geckos Zonurus cordylus LLAMA for the great variety in size and shape, and in the character of the skin-armature and the dentition. These variations are usually mani- festly adaptations to the local environment. Lizards abound in all the warmer parts of the world, most numerously in the tropics. In North America only three or four species pass the northern boundary of the United States, penetrating southern Ontario in the east and British Columbia on the Pacific side of the continent, where, in the arid Southwest, most of the species known in this country are to be seen. Most kinds of lizards are re- stricted in range, being adapted to a definite sort of environment, yet the families may have a very wide distribution. Thus that of the geckos (q.v.) is spread all over the tropical and subtropical zone of the Old World, and also in South America; and it includes both arboreal and terrestrial forms, diversified by modifications of the type. to meet conditions as_ different as are. the steaming jungles of Malaya from the sandy deserts of Persia and Africa. On the other hand the big monitors (Varanid@e), scattered from the Nile to the Philippines and Australia, are able to seek their prey on burning desert- ground, in and under water, and among the branches of forest-trees. This is a case of remarkable versatility, for there is little adap- tive alteration of structure in the family. Again, similarity of habitat and local influ- ence sometimes produce striking likeness in appearance in totally disconnected species, as, for example, our spiny-coated horned toads and the Australian molochs (q.v.), which are not at all related structurally. A large number of lizards belonging to widely different families have taken to a more or less complete under- ground life; and in these the limbs show reduction from a slight degree in some to en- tire absence in others, for instance the boa-like glass-snake (q.v.). Many species are good swimmers, and are of aquatic habit to a large extent, but only one truly marine species is known — the large, gregarious sea-lizard (Am- blyrhynchus) of the Galapagos Islands, which feeds on seaweed, gathered at a considerable depth; yet it is reluctant to take to the water except for food. The American iguanas, how- ever, although habitually residents of tree-tops, stay as near to rivers as they can, and plunge into them for safety whenever frightened. Lizards are primarily terrestrial animals, and most sorts run with amazing swiftness, usually on all four feet, but the curious frilled lizard (q.v.) of Australia holds up its fore parts and runs on its hind legs when in haste. Except a few heavy forms, and those that dwell in burrows, lizards are extremely agile, climb- ing walls and tree-trunks, and running and leaping about their branches, with speed and precision; and some Oriental species, as the flying dragon (q.v.), have expansions of. the skin about the forearms enabling them to make long, sailing leaps through the air. The senses of sight and hearing are highly developed, as is requisite for their livelihood. Most species are carnivorous, the larger kinds feeding on small mammals, birds and_ their eggs, and the lesser reptiles, including other lizards. These are seized by a rush and leap, and are passed down the throat whole. Many of the smaller kinds live altogether on worms 547 and insects, the latter caught in most cases by. a swift dart and recovery of the sticky tongue, a method peculiarly characteristic of the chameleons (q.v.). The tongue in this group assumes a wide variety of shapes, in some families having a slender, forked form like that in snakes, and acting only as a feeler. One lizard only, the Gila monster (q.v.), is aided by the injection of poison into its victim when he bites it, and this is the most sluggish of all its race. The iguana family and certain other species eat vegetable food. Lizards themselves are sought as prey by all sort of carnivorous beasts, birds and reptiles, in avoiding which they must rely mainly on their alertness and agility in dodging or out- running the foe. Most of them are conspicu- ously colored, and many exhibit as great gaudi- ness as do tropical birds, so that this class of animals would seem to have been denied any benefit that might accrue from “concealing coloration” as ordinarily understood. One re- markable peculiarity of lacertilian structure, however, is perhaps protective, although the expedient is: rather a costly one, namely, the ability of most lizards to part easily with the tail. -This is the part of the lizard most likely to be snapped at by a captor, the more so as it is commonly held aloft when its owner runs, and breaking off easily enables the remainder of the lizard to go on running, while the baf-. fled foe contemplates his useless booty. A new tail speedily replaces the lost member, but it is never quite as good as the original one. Some small lizards, when startled, cast off their tails with a jerk before they are touched; on the other hand, the big monitors indulge in no such sacrifice, but utilize their long and strong tails as powerful whip-like weapons of defense. Reproduction in lizards as a rule is by a small number of eggs laid in damp earth, but a few, as the skinks, bring forth young alive. Lizards are of service to mankind in de- stroying insects and other vermin, and in the tropics are welcomed in native houses for that reason. The water monitor is a valuable curb on crocodiles, by devouring their eggs and young. Many lizards furnish good human food, especially the larger iguanas, that are a regular part of the aboriginal diet in South America, as are other lizards among the Blackfellows of Australia. Certain species also make amus- ing pets. Consult, besides general works, Ga- dow, ‘Amphibia and Reptiles’ (New York 1901); Pycraft, ‘Story of Reptile Life? (Lon- don 1905) ; Ditmars, ‘The Reptile Book”? (New York 1907); Boulenger, ‘Reptiles and Batra- chians? (London 1914). ERNEST INGERSOLL. LLAMA, 1a’ma, one domesticated form (often specifically distinguished as Lama glama) of the huanaco (q.v.), the other being the wool- bearing alpaca (q.v.). It is larger than the wild huanaco (about three feet at the shoulder), and may be white, brown, black or variegated with patches of all three colors. This animal was domesticated long before the era of the Incas. When the Spaniards conquered Peru they found hundreds of thousands in use as riding animals and beasts of burden in the southern part of the country; and as they were the only domestic ungulate of the kind in South America their importance was very great. The 548 LLANDUDNO — LLORENTE Spanish conquerors adopted llamas as burden- beasts, and soon long strings, in charge of.a few native drivers, were passing back and forth between the mountain mines and the coast, laden with ore or bullion or with sup- plies, a proper burden not exceeding 120 pounds, which may be carried about 12 miles a day. Until toward the middle of the 19th century this remained almost the only means of car- riage in the Cordilleras, where the endurance of cold, ability to live on the mountain herbage and sure-footedness peculiarly fitted them for this service. Only the mature males were used as burden-beasts, the smaller females being reserved for their milk and flesh, which re- sembles mutton, and is extensively eaten. Llamas produce only one offspring annually, so that care is needed to sustain the herds which are still numerous and valuable. Various breeds are known, but the differences are not very great. The wool, which is inferior to alpaca, is used among the native Indians for the manufacture of textile fabrics. The skin is made into leather. The dried dung is used for fuel, and the milk is also employed as an article of native diet. When overloaded these animals lie down and refuse to budge; when irritated they have the habit of kicking at their adversaries, supplemented by the ejection of food when undergoing remastication in the . mouth, along with quantities of evil-smelling saliva. An unsuccessful attempt has been made to acclimatize them in Australia. LLANDUDNO, lan-dtid’ns6, Wales, a sea- side resort of Caernarvonshire, 40 miles south- west of Liverpool, on the London and North- western Railway, 227 miles northwest of Lon- don. It has a magnificent marine drive around Great Omre Head, on which is the ancient oratory of Saint Tudno. Druidical remains abound in the neighborhood. Up to 1850 Llan- dudno was a poor fishing village but it has since become a fashionable resort with golf links, palatial hotels and all the appanages of such places. The water-supply, gas, power and electric-light plants and refuse incinerator are municipally owned. There are also mu- mich slaughter-houses. and markets. Pop. 10, : LLANELLY, 18-néth’li, Wales, a seaport town of Carmarthenshire, on the Burry Inlet, 14 miles southeast of Carmarthen. It is: the outlet for the products of a great mining dis- trict, with extensive collieries, iron-foundries, copper works, tin-plate works, potteries, chem- ical works and lead and silver works. The trade is facilitated by commodious docks and ample harbor accommodation. It is the seat a a United States consular agent. Pop. 32,- he LLANES, lya’nas, Spain, seaport on the north coast, in the province of Oviedo, on the Bay of Biscay at the embouchure of the Car- rocedo, 45 miles west of Santander. It. has narrow, irregular streets lined with many an- cient dwellings, an old monastery: and a 14th century Gothic church. .A meteorological sta- tion is now housed in the monastery and part of the buildings are used for school purposes. It has a large coasting trade carried on in light-draught vessels. This trade is concerned mainly with agricultural products, timber, but- ter, fish, etc. Pop. 21,700 LLANGOLLEN, | 1an-goth’lén, Wales, town and summer-resort of Denbighshire,’ on the Dee, 10 miles southwest of Wrexham and 202 miles from London, on the Great Western Railway. There are many interesting ruins in the town and in its vicinity, including a famous 14th century bridge, two monasteries and an abbey church of the 13th century. There are linen and woolen mills, collieries and iron works, breweries and quarries. Pop. 3,240. Consult Simpson, Robert, ‘History of Llan- gollen”? (3d ed., Llangollen 1852). LLANO ESTACADO, 1a’no 4s-ta-ka'dé, or STAKED PLAIN, Tex., an extensive plateau forming part of the Great Plains of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, east of the Pecos River, in northwestern Texas and eastern New Mexico and the source of many rivers flowing to the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. It has an area exceeding 40,000 square miles, and is dry and almost woodless; grass is produced for cattle in the rainy season; water is obtained by boring, and irrigation necessary for the growing of crops. In the north the plateau has a general elevation of about 5,000 feet, but it slopes to the south where it is not over 3,000 feet high. The name is Spanish and means a plain’ with stakes, referring to the many stalks of the Yucca or Spanish bayonet which abound in the region. . LLANOS, 1a’nds or lya’nds, the name given in the northern part of South America, particularly in Colombia and Venezuela, to vast plains, almost entirely level, and inter- rupted only at intervals by detached elevations, called in Spanish mesas. The superficial.area of the llanos is estimated. at 300,000 square miles; they extend from the delta of. the Orinoco .inland to the Yapura, a tributary of the Amazon. sandy and without much vegetation, except on the banks of the rivers and during the wet season. At this period great stretches are in- undated to the depth of 12 to 15 feet, owing to the rivers overflowing their banks. The villages must, therefore, ‘be built on the ele- vated ground. Considerable portions are cov- ered with forest; in the grassy regions great herds of cattle pasture; the climate is warm and moist. Not including the forest section, nor any of the foot-hills of the Andean Cor- dillera, the llanos of the northern part of South America would cover only about 150,000 square miles. The inhabitants of these plains are called Llaneros. They are a hardy, vigorous race, and although mainly of Indian extraction | are proud of their descent from the first Span- ish colonists; but their mode of life resembles more that of the Indians than that of their boasted ancestors. Farther to the south: such plains are called pampas. LLANQUIHUE, lyan-ké’wa, a lake in the province of the same name, in Chile, South America. Largest lake in Chile; nearly. cir- cular in form, about 30 miles in length and the same in width. very small inlets, being mainly fed’ through the porous granite rocks of the region, and having its outlet in the Maullen River. LLORENTE, Juan Antonio Don, hoo-in’ an-t6’né-6 d6n lyd-ran’ta, Spanish historian: b. A large portion of them is It is a deep lake, with only > LLOYD Rincon de Soto, near Calahorra, Aragon, 30 March 1756; d. Madrid, 5 Feb. 1823. He studied theology at Tarragona and Madrid; was ordained priest in 1770; was doctor in canon law, chancellor of the University of Toledo; was commissary of the Inquisition at Logrono in 1785, and general secretary of the Inquisition at Madrid in 1789. He was com- missioned in 1793 to draw up plans for a general reform of the procedure of the court. During the crisis of 1808 he sided with the Bonapartists, superintended the measures for the abolition of monastic orders and made a close examination of the archives of the In- quisition. His greatest work is the ‘Critical History of the Spanish Inquisition? (1815-17), which, however, has no authoritative standing among scholars. He wrote also ‘Memoirs Re- lating to the History of the Spanish Revolution? (1815-19). His autobiography was published in 1818. LLOYD, loid, Arthur, Anglican clergyman and missionary to Japan, who, engaging in the study of Buddhism, early Christianity and patristic literature, opened new lines of inves- tigation and made important discoveries con- cerning the early contact of the two religious systems, revealing the great borrowings of the one from the other, especially of the Bud- dhists from the Gnostics (q.v.). ‘Consult his “Wheat among the Tares? (1908); ‘Shinran? (1910); ‘Every Day Japan? (1909), and his contributions to the Transactions of the Asi- atic Society of Japan. LLOYD, Charles Hartford, English mu- sician: b. Thornbury, Gloucestershire, 1849; d. 16 Oct. 1919. He displayed musical talent early, and at 10 was organist of Rangeworthy Church, and after 1862 studied music with Barrett of Bristol, confining his attention almost entirely to Bach and Beethoven. He graduated from Oxford, where he came under the influence of Stanier and definitely determined to make music his calling. He conducted the Gloucester mu- sical festivals of 1877 and 1880, became or- ganist of Gloucester Cathedral in 1876 and of Oxford Cathedral in 1882. In 1892 he was precentor and musical instructor at Eton. Among important compositions of his are the cantatas of ‘Hero and Leander? ; ‘The Song of Balder? ; “Andromeda? ; ‘Alcestis? ; ‘Song of Judgment? ; “Longbeard’s Saga.’ He also wrote many can- ticles and anthems for the church, glees, madri- ‘gals and part songs, choruses, etc., and several instrumental pieces. LLOYD, Francis Ernest, American botan- ist: b. Manchester, England, 4 Oct. 1868. In 1891 he was graduated at Princeton University and studied also at the universities of Munich and Bonn. In 1891-92 he was instructor in Williams College; in 1892-95 professor of biology and geology; in 1895-97 of biology at Pacific University. From 1897 to 1906 he was adjunct professor of biology at Teachers’ Col- lege, Columbia University. In 1906 Professor Lloyd was investigator of the Desert Botanical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution, Washington; in 1907 instructor at the Harvard Summer School and cytologist of the Arizona Experiment Sta- tion. From 1908 to 1912 he was professor of botany at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute and in the latter year was appointed MacDonald professor of botany at McGill University, Mont- 549 real. In 1905-08 he edited The Plant World, and has published ‘The Teaching of Biology in the Secondary School? (1904); ‘The Com- parative Embryology of the Rubiacez? (1902) ; ‘The Physiology of Stomata? (1908) ; ‘Guayule, a Rubber Plant of the Chihuahuan Desert? (1911), also various other botanical papers, in- cluding studies on transpiration, stomata, tan- nin, rubber, cotton, etc. LLOYD-GEORGE. Lioyp. LLOYD, Henry Demarest, American writer on economics: b. New York, 1 May 1847; d. 28 Sept. 1903. He was graduated from Columbia University; lectured. on_ political economy in New York schools; studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1869: In 1872 he went to Chicago where he was employed on the Chicago Tribune till 1885, the latter part of the time as a member of the editorial staff. His later life was devoted to writing. His publica- tions include “A Strike of Millionaires against Miners, the Story of Spring Valley? (1890) ; “Wealth against Commonwealth? (1894), a his- tory of the growth and methods of the Stand- ard Oil Company; ‘Labor Copartnership? (1899), notes of visits to various co-operative shops and farms in Great Britain; “A Country without Strikes? (1900), an account of the history and workings of compulsory arbitration in New Zealand; and ‘Newest England? (1900); ‘A Sovereign People: A Study of Swiss Democracy? (1907) ; ‘Men, the Workers? (1909) ; ‘Lords of Industry? (1910); ‘Mazzini and Other Essays? (1910). He made the labor question his special field of research, and was an advocate of co-operation and a believer in socialistic —or, as he called it, democratic — control of industry, to which he maintained that social evolution was leading. He possessed the power of presenting economic facts in an unusually interesting manner, especially his ‘Wealth against Commonwealth,’ though com- piled from court records and other official docu- ments, is written with a force and vividness which give it real literary quality. LLOYD, John Uri, American chemist and author: b. West Bloomfield, N. Y., 19 April 1849. He was educated in private schools; was professor of pharmacy at the Cincinnati Col- lege of Pharmacy, 1883-87; professor of chem- istry at the Eclectic Medical Institute, 1878- 1900, and president of the Eclectic Medical In- stitute, 1896-1904. He has been president of the Lloyd Library since its inception, and is senior member of the firm of Lloyd Brothers, See Gerorcr, Davip manufacturing pharmacists and chemists of Cincinnati, Ohio; and in the laboratory has devoted his life work to plant pharmacy, in- cluding investigations of plant alkaloids and proximate principles. He has contributed very largely to current chemical and pharmaceutical literature, and outside his professional writings has made special studies in the dialect, super- stitions and folklore of northern Kentucky. His best-known publications are ‘The Chemistry of Medicines? (1881); ‘Supplement to King’s American Dispensatory> (1885); ‘King’s American Dispensatory,» revised and rewrit- ten with H. W. Felter, M.D. (1898-1900) ; ‘Elixirs, their History and Preparation? (1892); SA Study in Pharmacy? (1894); ‘Etidorpha, the End of Earth? (1895); ‘The 550 Right Side of the Car? (1897); ‘Stringtown on the Pike? (1900) ; “Warwick of the Knobs? (1901); ‘Red Head? (1903); ‘Scroggins? (1904) ; ‘The Eclectic Alkaloids, Resinoids and Concentrations? (1910); ‘History of the Vege- table Drugs of the Pharmacopeia of the United States? (1911); ‘A Study of Digitalis? (1912), and ‘A Study of Coca? (1913). He is the author of the article on “Pharmacy” in the ‘Encyclopedia Americana.? He is a mem- ber of the Society of Colonial Wars, Sons of the Revolution, Sons of the American Revolu- tion, Authors’ Club of New York, New York Deutscher Apotheker Verein © (honorary), Franklin Inn Club and Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, the Literary Club of Cincinnati, and is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, England. LLOYD, Nelson McAllister, American journalist and author: b. Philadelphia, 18 Dec. 1872. He was educated at the Germantown Academy, aud was graduated in electrical engi- neering at the Pennsylvania State College, in 1892. He engaged in newspaper work on the New York Evening Sun, of which he was city editor from 1897 to 1905. He retired in 1908 from newspaper work. He has contributed many historical sketches and short stories to magazines and has also published ‘The Chronic Loafer? (1900); ‘A Drone and a Dreamer? (1901); ‘The Soldier of the Valley? (1905) ; ‘Mrs. Radigan? (1906); ‘Six Stars? (1907) ; ‘The Robberies Company? (1908); ‘David Malcolm? (1913). He is a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. LLOYD’S, an incorporated firm engaged in marine insurance in London, its other activ- ities being in the line of collecting and pub- lishing news of shipping. The corporation has rooms in the London Royal Exchange. Mem- bers are admitted by subscription and the affairs of the institution are conducted by a committee. Reports are received daily from all foreign ports, and this information is posted in the common or merchants’ room. ‘This service requires an enormous staff of corre- spondents and the conducting of a chain of special signal stations to which ship captains are required by law to report certain maritime news when passing. Besides this there are other rooms for the use of the underwriters and for ship-auctions, a library, restaurant, -etc. Lloyd’s list, containing shipping reports, is pub- lished daily, and various other publications re- lating to shipping are also issued. (See also Lioyp’s REGISTER). Originally the London underwriters met at Edward Lloyd’s Coffee- house, that institution dating as far back at least as 1688; hence the name. Consult Martin, F., ‘History of Lloyd’s? (London 1876). LLOYD’S BONDS, in England, from 1850 to 1870 a well-known commercial security; mostly instruments under the seal of a rail- way or other such company admitting the in- debtedness of the company to a_ specified amount, with a covenant to pay such amount with interest within a stated time. These companies had generally statutory authority to borrow only when a certain amount (usually the whole) of their capital had been sub- scribed and a specified portion paid up; their power of borrowing must also be exercised with the sanction of a general meeting. Such LLOYD — LOAD LINE restrictions were severely felt by companies whose works were being constructed. A bar- rister, John Horatio Lloyd, relieved the com- panies from this embarrassment by taking ad- vantage of the fact that companies, though prevented in such cases from borrowing, could contract debts in any other way and acknowl- edge their obligations in various forms. He introduced a form in which such acknowl- edgments would become almost as binding on the grantors as a statutory debenture, and so become sufficiently marketable. Railway com- panies now having ample borrowing powers, the necessity for these instruments no longer exists. LLOYD’S REGISTER, a shipping record of vessels in commission and their ratings ac- cording to construction, physical condition and equipment. Lloyd’s Register had its beginning in 1799, when the Underwriters’ Registry, or Green Book, published by a committee of Lloyd’s (q.v.) was denounced as unfair by the British ship owners whose vessels were therein given arbitrary ratings. The ship owners formed an association of their own and began publishing the Red Book, with ratings accord- ing to their own judgment. The rivalry con- tinued until 1833, when Lloyd’s engineered a combination of the two publications under the control of the ship owners, and they accepted the name “Lloyd’s Registry of Shipping” as the title. The society has a staff of skilled surveyors who examine vessels periodically, changing their rating as occasion demands. They are also detailed to watch the construc- tion of vessels in the yards, make inspections and tests of steel used, strength of cables and chains and examinations of equipment. The rating 100 Al is the type of wholly approved ship; 90 Al for a. ship not wholly approved in build; 100A — for a ship approved as to build, | but lacking as to equipment.. The general committee of the society is located at London; there are subcommittees at Liverpool, Glasgow and in the United States. Besides the Register the society publishes a separate register of American yachts and motor-boats, and rules and regulations for the building of steel vessels and yachts. LOA, the African eyeworm of man. One of the Filariide among the Nematoda (q.v.), conspicuous because of its migrations through the subcutaneous connective tissue of the human body, a habit which brings it at times in front of the eyeball. It has often been re- moved from this place and said to occur in each eye. Cases in North America are all im- ported from the west coast region of Africa, which is its proper home. It is transmitted to man by the bite of the mangrove fly. LOAD. See ELeEctrIcAL TERMS. LOAD LINE, a mark placed by recognized authority on the side of a vessel to indicate the maximum depth to which she may be legally loaded under the British law. It is required to be 12 inches in length and one inch in width, and is accompanied or enclosed by a © circle struck from the centre of the upper edge of the line. Generally the line is made longer than the required 12 inches, and extends be- yond the circle in both directions. On wooden ships the line and the circle are to be cut into LOADSTAR — LOBACHEVSKY the wood at least one-fourth of an inch deep. On steel vessels the line and circle are to be painted on—in white or yellow, if the hull is dark; in black if the hull is light in color. In the case of the steel ship it is required that the centre of the circle shall be indented with a punch, so that if painted over for any reason the point may be identified beyond any ques- tion. The load line as indicated is for the summer loading of ships traversing salt water. Several modifications have been allowed by law: a slightly deeper loading for the Indian Ocean in summer, and a still deeper loading if the vessel is to navigate only in fresh water. In the other direction a lighter loading is re- quired for winter, and a still lighter loading if the winter voyage is to be made in the stormy north Atlantic Ocean. These modifi- cations of the load-line are painted alongside of the line and circle somewhat in the form of a gridiron—as shown in the diagram. Loap LINE. FW iS he R Ss Ww WNA The signification of the letters is as fol- lows: FW, fresh water load-line (steamer). IS, summer load-line, Indian Ocean. S, summer. W, winter. WNA, winter, north Atlantic. F, fresh water sailing ships. There are three executive bodies authorized by the British law to affix or to approve these marks: Lloyd’s Register, the Bureau Veritas and the British Corporation. Initial letters (LR, BV or BC) are usually placed at the ends of the line which project beyond the cir- cle, showing which of these bodies has verified the correct placing of the line. The load line is a development of the for- mer “Plimsoll mark” established by Samuel Plimsoll (q.v.) in the effort to prevent the hazard to the lives of seamen in the overload- ing of vessels. Consult Lloyd’s Register, ‘Rules and Regulations for Steel Vessels? (or “for sailing vessels,» as the case may be) pub- lished annually in London. LOADSTAR. Sce LopgEsTar. LOAM, soil consisting of a mixture of clay, sand and lime, with animal and vegetable matters in intimate mixture. The clay varies from 20 to 50 per cent; the proportion of lime is usually not more than 5 per cent. Loamy soils are among the best and most fertile; they are not stiff and tenacious like clay soils, and they are much more fertile than sandy soils. .Even in mere mechanical properties, they are superior to both. The “clay” used for bricks is often really a loam in which the proportion of true clay is large. In Italy, France and some other countries, walls are made of loam beaten down between planks placed at the requisite width. These walls become very solid and last for centuries. The loam used 551 in foundries consists of a mixture of clay, sand and horsedung, ground up with water in a sort of mortar called a loam-mill. When cold, the loam has sufficient consistency to be struck up to any desired outline by means of a “loam-board” (See Cray; Sanp; Sort). Consult Van Slyke, ‘Fertilizers and Crops? ee York 1912) and Hilgard, ‘Soils? (ib. 1904). LOAN, anything lent or given to another on condition of return or payment. In civil law loans are considered to be of two kinds — mutuum and commodatum; the former term being applied to the loan of such articles as are consumed in the use, aS provisions or money; the latter to the loan of such articles as must be individually returned to the lender. The acknowledgment of a loan of money may be made by giving a bond, a promissory note or an I. O. U. LOANGO, French West Africa, the chief port of the French colony, 100 miles north of the Kongo River. Under native rule it was a flourishing city of 15,000 souls, but is now re- duced to a few wharves and warehouses. Steamers are unloaded by means of lighters. There is a submarine telegraph connecting it with Europe. LOANGO, West Africa, a district on the Atlantic Coast, extending 200 miles to the north from the mouth of the Kongo. The coast is thinly wooded; inland the surface rises, but the interior is a succession of pla- teaus. Palm-oil, gum, wax, copper, rubber, orchil and ivory are exported. Cotton, coffee and bananas are the chief crops. Loango was formerly a part of the native kingdom of Kongo and is now divided between French Kongo, the Portuguese Kabinda and the Belgian Kongo. The native population are of small size but are skilled in many industries, espe- cially as weavers of bast and straw. Loango is the principal city. LOBACHEVSKY, or LOBATCHEW- SKY, Nicholas Ivanovitch, Russian mathema- tician: b. Makareif, Nigni-Novgorod, 1793; d. 24 Feb. 1856. He entered the University of Kazan in 1807, became assistant professor of mathematics in 1814 and extraordinary pro- fessor in 1816. In 1823 he became ordinary professor retaining his chair (in addition being for 19 years rector) until 1846, when he fell into disfavor. Unlike many professional men, he was a good business man and his adminis- tration of the affairs of the university was marked by many beneficial changes. He or- ganized the force of teachers, and even studied architecture, so that when the new buildings were erected he supervised their erection, econ- omized space and saved thousands of dollars. He wrote his ‘Pangéometrie? in 1855, giving the result of his long years of geometrical studies, and presented it to the university. He was one of the first thinkers to apply a critical treatment to the Euclidean principles of geom- etry. He gave his first contribution to the theory of hyper-geometry in a lecture at Kazan in 1826,-but later wrote several treatises on the subject. He also wrote a treatise on algebra (Kazan 1834) and contributed many other arti- cles on mathematics. His complete works were edited by Janischevsky (1870) and have 552 been translated by several writers. His collec- tion of geometrical writings was published in Kazan in 1883, the first volume containing Rus- sian articles only, and the second and last vol- ume containing the French and German arti- cles. For his geometry consult ‘New Princi- ples of Geometry with Complete Theory of Parallels, translated by Halsted (Austin, Tex. 1897). Consult also Engel, F., ‘N. I. Lobatchewsky? (Leipzig 1899). LOBBY, The, a class of persons who seek to influence legislation outside of the regular legislature which has come in the United States to be known derisively as the “third chamber.” The term was originally applied to the waiting- rooms of legislative halls, and then to those persons who frequented these rooms for the purpose of interviewing legislators with a view to influencing their votes. The lobby includes both those who are regularly employed in the work, and those who on particular occasions wish to promote or oppose some specific legis- lation. All large corporations and firms have regular paid lobbyists at Washington and at State capitals where legislation is likely to affect their interests. Women as well as men are employed as lobbyists, and are said to be very successful. The lobby is not in theory, nor necessarily in practice, a corrupting agency. It may furnish an entirely legitimate and de- sirable method of giving legislators necessary information in regard to certain laws; but it may also be, and often is, the means of obtain- ing legislation in the interests of a few with- out regard to the public good. The methods of the lobby differ with the character of the lobby- ist and of the legislator approached. They vary from the legitimate presentation of facts and argument in regard to a law to the use of bribery, threats of preventing re-election, etc.; and include the obtaining of letters and peti- tions from constituents, the employment of press articles and social attentions. The suc- cessful lobbyist must thoroughly understand the men with whom he_has to deal and the methods of legislation; it has been found, therefore, that former members of the legis- lature make the most successful and sometimes the most dangerous lobbyists. The dangers of the lobby are due to three chief causes: (1) the large number of special and private bills, all of which cannot be fully considered at the reg- ular sessions; (2) the system of referring all bills to committees, and accepting, as a rule, the report of the committee, so that the lobby- ist has practically but fews men to deal with; (3) the secrecy which attends the work of the lobby, giving the public no effective means of knowing or dealing with its evils. To oppose the grosser evils of the lobby both Federal and State laws attach heavy penalties to giving or taking a bribe for legislation. Many of the States also have lessened the number of bills to be presented by forbidding in their constitu- tions the passing of special acts in certain cases. Among States that have passed enact- ments to lessen the lobbying evil are — Cali- fornia, Georgia, Utah, Tennessee, Oregon, New York, Montana, Arizona and South Dakota. Ma sachusetts has sought to lessen the secrecy by requiring every promoter of a law in the interest of others to be registered, with the name and address of his employer and a state- ment of the matter on which he is employed. LOBBY —LOBITO BAY This law has had the effect of giving legal ' sanction to the lobbyist’s work, improving the character of the lobbyists, and of lessening, though not entirely preventing, the evils attend- ing secrecy. The lobby sent to Washington to oppose the Underwood Tariff Bill of 1913 drew forth strong criticism and warning from Presi- dent Wilson, and the operations of the Na- tional Association of Manufacturers were in this connection severely animadverted on by the Investigation Committee in 1914, Consult. Bryce, ‘American Commonwealth; Bridgman, “The Lobby? (in New England Magaz sine, n. S. Vol} XVI, p.. 131) ;*Tanner;4d. -G,2f ime Lobby and Public Men? (Albany 1888); Reinsch, R. S., ‘American Legislatures and Legislative Methods? (New York 1907); ‘First Report of the Interstate Commerce Commission? (Wash-. ington 1887); and the ‘Cyclopedia of American Government. LOBELIA, a genus of annual and peren- nial herbs and a few undershrubs of the family Lobeltacee, closely allied to the harebells. More than 200 species are distributed through- out the temperate and tropical zones, especially in damp soils. They are characterized by al- ternate, usually narrow leaves and two-lipped tubular flowers (three petals forming one lip and two the other), arranged in terminal racemes. Several of the species are highly prized as garden plants, the best known being the cardinal-flower (q.v.), the great lobelia (L. syphilitica), both common natives in marshy grounds and along streams; L. Erinus, a favo- rite African plant for edging flower beds; and L. fulgens, a Mexican species, which like the first named has brilliant red flowers. The other two have blue blossoms. They are all of simplest culture. Some species have been used in medicine, and one common species, L. inflata, is ealled Indian tobacco because its dried leaves were extensively smoked by the southern Indians, who enjoyed the narcotic effect in spite of the bitter flavor. _Lobelin, lobelacrin, and lobelic acid are organic deriv- atives. LOBENGULA, 16-béng-goo'la, king of the Matabeles (see MATABEL. ELAND): b. about 1833; d. 1894. He was a son of Mosilikatse, whom he succeeded in 1870. Fixing his capital at Bulawayo (q.v.), he made himself a powerful opponent of Western civilization, and pro- hibited his people, on pain of death, from accepting Christianity. After years of diplo- matic effort, following the discovery of gold in his domain, Great Britain, by treaty in 1888, acquired suzerainty over his kingdom, and in 1890 the British South Africa Company _ob- tained from him permission to settle’in Mash- onaland (q.v.), paying him a stipulated rent. After preparing to hold the country and work the gold mines, the company provoked the en- mity of Lobengula, who began against the English a war which resulted in his disastrous defeat, after shocking slaughter of his men by Maxim guns. Bulawayo was taken, and Lobengula fled. During his flight he ambus-— caded and killed Major Wilson and a British. detachment, but the contest ended with his own death. Consult Wills and Collingridge, ‘The Downfall of Lobengula? (London 1894). LOBITO BAY, Portuguese West Africa, seaport and railway terminus of Angola. It is LOBLOLLY BAY — LOBSTER the terminus of the railroad to Katanga. There 2 a good harbor permitting ocean-going vessels o dock. LOBLOLLY BAY, or TAN BAY, an elegant pyramidal shrub or , {ree (Gordonia lasianthus) of the tea family, which covers considerable tracts of swampy coast along the Gulf of Mexico. It is a handsome tree, some- times 50 or 60 feet tall, with evergreen leaves and large white fragrant flowers. Its bark is used in tanning. LOBNOR, Lake, a lake of central Asia situated on the border of the desert of cen- tral Asia and near the base of the Altyn-Tagh Mountains in East Turkestan. It is fed by the Tarim, of which the lake is merely the sink. According to the Chinese the lake was for- merly of much greater area than at present- but modern explorers do not support this view. The lake’s borders are reed-covered marshes. The portions of the lake distant from the mouth of the Tarim are salt. Consult Hedin, Sven, “Trans-Himalaya? (New York 1912). LOBO, Francisco Rodrigues, Portuguese author: b. Leiria, about 1575; d. about 1627. Nothing is known of his life beyond the fact that he came of a wealthy family; that he studied at the University of Coimbra where he took the degree of licentiate about 1600; and that he lived at ease near his birthplace, writing pastoral and! other verse. His first volume of verse, ‘Romances? (1596), was writ- ten in Spanish, but thereafter he wrote in his native Portuguese, with the exception of his last work, a rhymed welcome to Philip III in 1623. In his day Spanish was the language of Portuguese high society and Lobo rendered an important service to his native land by writing in Portuguese at the critical period in the his- tory of that. language during the Spanish domi- nation of Portugal. ‘Primavera,’ a novel, ap- peared in 1601, and was continued in ‘O Pas- tor Peregrino, in 1608, and ‘O Desenganado,? in 1614. Although considered his best prose they are dull for the modern reader, for whom their only relieving features are the pastoral songs or serranilhas. In his eclogues he fol- lowed Camoens closely and they are poor imitations at best. His redondilhas are infi- nitely superior, due perhaps to his reliance upon true national inspiration. His ‘Corte na Al- deia> contains an interesting series of philo- sophic and literary discussions in the form of dialogues. Lobo also wrote an epic in 20 can- tos, ‘El Condestable de Portugal? (1610), but it falls far below the level of his other works. Lobo ranks as one of the leading authors of Portugal because of the purity and elegance of his style. His works went through several editions in the 17th and 18th centuries—a remarkable feat for Portugal. An edition of his works appeared at Lisbon in one volume in 1723, and a less complete edition there in four volumes (1774). Consult Bouterwek, F., “History of Portuguese Literature? (London 1823) and la Silva, I. F., ‘Diccionario biblio- graphico portuguez? (Vols. III, IX, Lisbon 1859; 1870). LOBOC, 16-bék’,; Philippines, a pueblo of the province of Bohol, situated in the southern part of the province on the Socar-Vilar-Loay River, three miles from its outlet, and 12 miles east ef Taghbilaran, the provincial capital. It is 553 on the road leading from the coast. Pop. 10,756. LOBOS, 10’bos, or SEAL ISLANDS, Peru, two groups of small islands in the Pacific, 12 miles from the mainland, so named from the Spanish lobo, “seal,” large numbers frequenting the islands. The ‘largest and: most northerly is Lobos de Tierra, five miles long and two broad.. They were famous for their extensive deposits of guano, which have been depleted. LOBSTER, the name of certain large crustaceans of the crab group, and especially of the genera Homarus, Nephrops and Pal- nurus. To the first belong the common Euro- pean and American lobsters (Homarus gum- marus and americanus). Nephrops differ chiefly in possessing 19, instead of 20, pairs of gills, and its most important species is the Nor- wegian lobster (N. norvegicus). To Palinurus belongs the rock-lobster or marine crayfish (P. vulgaris) of Europe, as well as some trop- ical species, all of which differ from the com- mon lobster in the absence of the large claws, while they possess long rigid antenne and spiny shells. A large and handsome species of this group is abundant in West Indian waters. THe American lobster is found along the western Atlantic Coast from Delaware to Lab- rador; from the shore to a depth of 100 fath- oms. It is most abundant on the shores of Maine and Nova Scotia and less common on the New Jersey coast. Though living amid a variety of surroundings, the lobster prefers rocky bottoms, on which it reaches the greatest size and abundance, probably a direct result of a more plentiful food supply. Like many fishes, but to a much less degree, the lobster is migratory, moving into shallow water in the spring and returning to greater depths as the water grows colder in the fall. This habit, however, is very far from being universal, and many lobsters remain in shallow waters throughout the year. The food of the lobster consists of all kinds of animals, both living and dead, and to a less extent of vegetable matter, the indigestible parts of which are regurgitated. At times they are cannibalistic. Although so well protected by their hard shells, powerful claws and burrowing habits, lobsters have many enemies besides man. The most important of these are bottom-feeding fishes, such as the cod, tautog, skate and dogfish, which destroy great numbers of young lob- sters when two to six inches long, as well as the egg-bearing females and moulting adults. ‘During the free-swimming larval stages great numbers probably fall a prey to surface-feeding fishes like the menhaden and herring, though little direct proof of this exists. The num- ber of eggs produced by a female lobster varies from 3,000 to nearly 100,000, according to the size and age of the animal, maturity being attained at an age of three or four years and a length of about 8 to 12 inches. The great majority (about four-fifths) lay their eggs during the summer, the remainder during the fall and winter, and it is probable that each female lays once in two years. After extru- sion the eggs are borne on the appendages attached to the lower side of the abdomen or tail of the female, where they remain under- going a slow development for 10 to 11 months, 554 most of those laid during the summer hatch- ing in June of the following year. After hatching, the young passes a_ period of six to eight weeks as a_ free-swimming pelagic larva, which moults five or six times, with corresponding changes in form and color. By this time it has assumed the form of the adult and is about three-fourths of an inch long. It now sinks to the bottom and burrows into the gravel or hides in rock crevices near shore. At the end of the first year it is about four or five inches long and has moulted from 14 to 17 times, after which growth is much less rapid and moulting less frequent. The rate of growth varies greatly according to the food supply and other conditions, but a lobster of 10 or 12 inches is about five years old. A great age and size are sometimes attained, individuals weighing upward of 40 pounds be- ing recorded, though even 25 pounds is very rarely reached. The toothsomeness of the American lobster was early recognized and a regular fishery has existed on the Massachusetts coast for nearly a century. Owing to a rapidly extending de- pletion of the fishing grounds and a consequent diminution in the size and number of lobsters, the centre of the fishery has shifted northward, first to Maine and then to the British provinces. The lobster fisheries of the United States in 1913 employed 4,508 persons with a capital in- vestment of $2,460,898. The catch numbered 8,832,017 lobsters, weighing 12,067,017 pounds, of a value of $2,394,822. Between the years 1889 and 1913 there was a decrease of 18,- 504,556 pounds, or 60 per cent, while the re- ceipts of 1913, compared with those of 1889, increased 178 per cent. The price of fish in Maine rose from 1.8 cents per pound in 1880 to 19.8 cents in 1913, or 11 times greater. There are no better oyster grounds in the world than the eastern provinces of Canada, from Grand Manan to the Labrador boundary. Not so many years ago the finest lobsters could be bought and sold for 50 cents per 100. In Chaleur Bay they occurred in such numbers that farmers used them by thousands to manure the land. Canneries began to be established about 1870, and in 1910 there were 677 canneries in the eastern provinces. The catch in 1890 amounted to 11,559,984. pound cans, while the quantity shipped to market in shell amounted to 104,940 hundredweight; the whole of a value of $1,648,344. During the next 20 years the quantity taken remained al- most stationary, but the value greatly increased. In 1910 the total was 9,071,600 pound cans, with shipment in shells of 103,907 hundred- weight, with aggregate value of $3,657,146; in 1915-16 the catch was 445,277 hundredweight, and value $4,506,155. As measures toward maintaining the lobster supply, laws have been enacted fixing fines for. the possession of egg- bearing lobsters or those below a specified minimum size, and recourse has been had to artificial propagation. In the latter. practice many millions of eggs are annually taken from the bearing lobsters, artificially hatched, and the larve distributed by the fish commissions of the United States and the British provinces. In 1914 our bureau planted upward of 194,670,- 000 of fry, and the Canadian government operates on an even more extensive scale. The beneficial results have been scarcely apparent, LOBWORM --LOCAL GOVERNMENT but the recent successful rearing of lobsters be- yond the larval stages has introduced a more hopeful outlook. The methods of the lobster fishery are very simple and uniform: Use is made of a trap or pot, a box-like affair gener- ally made of laths placed about one inch apart, and with a funnel-shaped opening of coarse net- ting placed in one end. The pot is baited with otherwise useless fish, weighted with stones, and lowered to the bottom by means of a rope to the upper end of which a buoy, with the owner’s private mark affixed, is attached. The pots are visited daily, and the lobsters, which after en- tering are unable to find their way out, re- moved. They are kept alive in floats until a sufficient number for shipment ‘has been gathered. Besides those sold in the shells, large quantities of the meat are canned, partic- ‘ularly at Portland. Consult especially the elaborate account of the American lobster by Herrick in ‘Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission? for 1895, in which full bibliographical references will be found; also Barnes, E. W., ‘Methods of Oyster Protection and Propagation (Proyi- dence 1911); Herrick, H. F., ‘Natural History of the American Lobster? (Washington 1911) ; and the evidence laid before the Canadian Fisheries’ Commission on ‘Lobster Fishery in Quebec and the Maritime Provinces? (Ottawa 1909-10). LOBWORM. See Lucworm. LOCAL GOVERNMENT, Principles of. ° In all countries of any size the work of govern- ment is divided between the central authorities and officials in local districts; and the general character of the government as a whole is affected largely by the system of local govern- ment and the relations between the central and local authorities. The principles involved in local government systems are more complicated than are often realized; and governments which resemble each other in the main features of the central government may differ radically in their machinery of local governmert. This article calls attention to some of the leading factors to be considered in the study of local government, with illustrations from some of the more important countries. Local Government Areas.— One import- ant consideration is the nature of the local government areas. In some countries, there are comparatively large districts, often called provinces, which in modern times are historical divisions, in some cases representing formerly independent states. Such are the provinces of Prussia and Italy. In other countries, the older provinces have disappeared, and more recently established districts, generally smaller than the provinces, have been created, as the “depart- ments” of France. With these may be com- pared the counties of England. Both of these classes of districts include both urban and rural territory. In addition to such districts, in most coun- tries there are now somewhat smaller local government areas,—such as the “circles” in Germany, the “arrondisements” in France and the “rural districts”? of England; and in most of the American States, counties are compar- able in size and importance with such districts of the second order in European countries. Most of the districts of this class include both LOCAL GOVERNMENT urban and rural territory; but with the develop- ment of urban population during the last cen- tury, there are now distinctively urban dis- tricts of this type, and the district government is often combined with that of the city. Still further, there are in all countries local communities of smaller area, ranging from rural villages, parishes or towns, to large metropolitan cities. In some countries, as in Germany and England, there is an important legal distinction between rural towns or parishes and urban municipalities, such as cities and boroughs. In France both rural and urban communities are organized as communes. In the United States there are wide variations be- tween the different States. In the north Atlan- tic States, the term city is limited to places of over 10,000 or 12,000; in the Southern and Western States the minimum population for cities is lower,— from 5,000 in Ohio to 300 in Kansas. Smaller semi-urban districts are classed as villages or boroughs; while in New England the town government usually includes that of the villages. In addition there is a great variety of special districts for particular purposes, overlapping the other areas. These are frequently organ- ized as administrative subdivisions central government; but in England and the United States many such districts have also been established with locally elected authori- ties— such as poor law, port and burial. dis- tricts in England; and school, drainage, sani- tary and many other districts in the American States. The recent tendency in England is to eliminate such special districts; and to carry on public functions, as on the continent of Europe, by the more general local authorities, sometimes uniting several such districts for particular pur- oses. i Centralization and Decentralization.— In the organization of government one of the most important factors is the relative degree of central control and local autonomy as to the work done by local officials. In this respect both history and present systems show a wide range of variation from extreme centralization to an extensive field of local home rule. As Rome extended its dominion, the former city-states which it conquered were allowed to retain a large measure of self-government. But beginning with a centralized system of military and tax administration, the sphere of central control was gradually enlarged; and as ‘ultimately organized in the time of Diocletian the whole system of government became thoroughly centralized, with the officials of the prztorian prefectures, the provinces and the municipalities appointed by and subject to the control of the higher authorities. With the decline and breakup of the Roman Empire, the highly centralized system disap- peared; and the feudal system which prevailed through western Europe during the Middle Ages was largely one of decentralized local government, where power was largely in the hands of the feudal lords. This system was modified by the development of cities, which also gained a large measure of local autonomy, exercised mainly by the merchant classes, and leading to another form of local oligarchy. Beginning in the latter part of the medieval period, principalities and kingdoms arose, the rulers of which steadily gained power, reducing for the - 555 the autonomy of the local communities and minor nobles on the one hand, and at the same time weakening the central authority of the medizval empire and the Roman Church. Local institutions in Anglo-Saxon England were highly decentralized, in the hands of shire or county courts, composed of representatives of the hundreds and presided over by the sheriffs, appointed by the Crown. After the Norman Conquest the power of: the sheriffs in- creased; and the central control of the Crown was still more strengthened by the develop- ment of law courts held by judges appointed by the Crown. But the movement toward complete centralization was affected by the de- velopment of justices of the peace and Parlia- ment. The unsalaried justices were appointed from property-owners and were thus more in- dependent and were also not subject to active central control. In Parliament, the more im- portant local districts — counties and boroughs —as well as the local nobility, were represented. The result was a system of legislative rather than executive centralization, with the control over both central and local government in the hands of the well-to-do classes. During the 19th century, the English system of local government was extensively altered. It has been made much more democratic by the establishment of popularly elected local coun- cils. The scope of local functions has been radically enlarged. At the same time, the local authorities have been made subject to a large degree of central administrative control, exer- cised by the Local Government Board. and other departments of the central government. The fundamental legal basis of ultimate legis- lative centralization in the hands of Parlia- ment remains; but Parliament has been reor- ganized on a more democratic basis, and with a more equitable representation of the local districts. On the continent of Europe the tendencies toward centralization in each country continued to the end of the 18th century. These were most marked in France, where, after a brief in- terruption in the early years of the Revolution, a new and completely centralized system was established under Napoleon I, with prefects, sub-prefects, mayors and local councils, all ap- pointed by and subject to the control of the central government. Since 1830, however, there has been some relaxation. Locally elected councils have been established; and the munic- ipal councils elect the mayors of the communes, except in Paris. But the system of local gov- ernment remains more highly centralized in form than in any other important country. In Italy, Spain, Holland and Belgium the local government systems have been largely in- fluenced by the French system; but with some- what more local autonomy. German local institutions have also been re- organized during the 19th century; and the recent system showed the influence of both French and English factors, as well as distinctly German elements. The general tendency has been toward an increase of local autonomy; and the expansion of local functions has been much more marked than in France and in some respects more than in England. Administra- tive control by the central governments of the several states over the local authorities has been less intensively organized than in France, 556 but more highly developed than in England. On the other hand, with the comparative weak- ness of popular control and the importance of professional officials, the local government has operated much asa highly centralized sys- tem. What will be the permanent result of the changes following the great war cannot be definitely predicted. Local government as developed in the Ameri- can colonies followed the main lines of the English system of the 17th century; and until the middle of the 19th century the tendencies toward legislative centralization and adminis- trative decentralization continued to develop. Since about 1850 there has been some move- ment in the opposite direction. The power of the State legislatures has been limited to some extent; and State officials have been established with supervision over local authorities and in some fields with powers of direct administra- tion. Each State has control over its own system of local government, which is determined in part by the State constitution and more largely by detailed statutory legislation, with no clear distinction between State laws of general in- terest and those dealing with local affairs. At the same time these laws are largely adminis- tered by locally elected officials; and many State constitutions provide for the local elec- tion of county officers. Legislative control is also limited in many States by constitutional provisions prohibiting and restricting special legislation; and in some of the Central and Western States cities have authority to adopt their own charters of local government. On the other hand, there are now State officials with powers of administrative supervision over local officers in the fields of education, chari- ties, public health, public utilities and finances; and in these and other lines there has developed a considerable amount of direct State adminis- tration. These tendencies toward a more cen- tralized administration are, however, still far behind the conditions in continental Europe, or even in England. There is need for further changes so as to develop a more coherent policy of local government. Local Organization.—In the organization of local institutions it is important to note: (1) The degree of concentration or division of authority tn the several local districts; and (2) the professional or non-professional character of local officials. Local powers in England are almost. uni- formly vested in elected councils of unpaid members, such as the county council, the bor- ough council and the urban or rural district council. These councils act largely by means of committees of their own members; and the chairman or mayor is merely the presiding of- ficer. Subordinate to the council are perma- nent expert officials. In France there is also a series of popu- larly elected councils in each local district, with financial and local legislative powers. But the executive authority of each district is vested in a single official—as the appointed prefects of the departments, and the mayors of com- munes elected by the communal councils. The prefects are a class of professional officials; but the mayors are not usually trained. Under ‘professional officers. LOCAL GOVERNMENT these are subordinate experts for the various branches of administration. German local organization is more compli- cated; it includes elected local councils and trained professional experts; but the latter have more independent authority and larger in- fluence than in France or England. The may- ors of cities, as well as the chief executive of- ficers in the provinces, districts and circles, are Much use is made of ad- ministrative boards, composed of professional : and non-professional members, in contrast with the single-headed executive authority in France. In the United States there is a wide variety in the forms of. local organization. County government is divided between a series of elected officials, with no common superior, and an elected board of commissioners or super- visors — the latter in most States a small body elected at large, but in some States a larger body elected by towns or districts.- New Eng- land town government has a similar unconcen- trated organization; but in some of the Central States the town supervisor or trustee is the head officer. Cities formerly had a similarly loosely organized government; but in recent years there have been marked tendencies to- ward a more concentrated organization. In many places this has been brought about by 1n- creasing the power of the elected mayor; in many others by placing the city government in charge of a small commission of three or five elected members; while the latest plan provides for the election of a small council, which chooses a city manager as the chief executive officer. Civil service laws have also secured a better trained and more permanent subordinate service. The method of electing a large Humber of officials by popular vote for short terms has hindered the development of a professional ex- pert service; and as a result local administra- — tion has been extremely inefficient. ‘The more recent tendencies in city government toward a more concentrated organization have been accompanied by an increase in the class of trained officials. But local government in the United States remains more loosely organized and with a larger proportion of untrained of- ficials than in any other of the countries here noted. Popular Control.— The general tendency in all governments since the end of the 18th century has been toward an increase of popular control by the extension of the elective fran- chise. This has reached its maximum in the United States, where the prevailing system is one of the general adult suffrage, with short residence qualifications. In a consider- able number of States women also have the right to vote—and in some States where women do not vote in all elections, they may do so in some local elections. In the Southern States, however, the negro vote has been prac- tically eliminated. But the numerous elections and long lists of elective officials have hindered the effective exercise of popular control, and the real power is often in the hands of party and other political organizations. France also has manhood suffrage in local elections. In England local councils are elected under a widely extended suffrage, including women but excluding the floating population. In Germany the suffrage for local elections LOCAL OPTION has been more restricted: in Prussia all tax- payers could vote; but the voters were grouped in classes based on the amount of taxes paid, and this placed the effective control in the hands of the well-to-do classes. Summary.— To sum up, local government in the United States is the most democratic in form, and the most loosely organized, makes the least use of trained officials and has the maximum of administrative decentralization; but is subject to a large degree of State legisla- tive control. English government is demo- cratic and has a more concentrated organization, more trained officials and a considerable de- gree of central administrative supervision. In France, local government is democratic, but has a highly concentrated executive organiza- tion, expert officials and the highest degree of administrative centralization. The Prussian system has had the least popular control of any important country, a complicated organiza- tion, a large degree of central administrative control and the most highly trained, expert pro- fessional officials. Bibliography.—Ashley, P., ‘Local and Cen- tral Government?; Fairlie, J. A., ‘Local Gov- ernment in Counties, Towns and Villages? ; Goodnow, F. J., ‘Principles of Constitutional Government? (chs. 23, 24, 25). JoHN A. FAIRLIE, Professor of Political Science, University of Illinots. LOCAL OPTION. The phrase local op- tion may be applied to a great variety of mat- ters which may be determined by the action of. local communities. In the broadest sense, it includes all powers of local government, as dis- tinguished from mandatory duties. More com- monly the term is used with reference to per- missive or adoptive laws dealing with specific subjects —such as the choice between the -county and township forms of local govern- ment, the alteration of boundaries and the con- duct of elections. Before January 1920 when national prohibition was to take effect, the term was commonly used with reference to the local prohibition or license of the sale of intoxicat- ing liquors, usually by popular vote. In 1829 the selectmen of each town in Maine were authorized to decide whether or not to permit the sale of liquor; but this method soon ceased to have statutory warrant. In 1868 Massachusetts recognized the local op- -tion principle in its liquor laws; and in 1881 definitely established the local option system. Other States gradually provided for some method of local prohibition of liquor selling; and by 1900 laws for this purpose had been passed by 37 States. Later a number of local option States adopted State prohibition, while other States provided for some form of local option. In 1916 there were 19 States where the sale of liquor was prohibited; 26 others had lo- cal option laws, applying to a variety of dis- tricts; while in the three remaining States (Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Nevada) methods had been found to exclude the sale of liquor from certain limited areas. In three States— Maryland, Michigan and Montana — the local option laws on the sale of liquor’ applied to counties. In eight other States, the vote could be taken by coun- ties or by smaller districts; and in such cases 557 smaller districts might usually be voted “dry” although the county as a whole was “wet.” This group of States included Florida, Ken- tucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, Missouri, New Mexico, Texas and. Utah. In 15 other States the vote was taken by cities, villages, towns or county districts. This group included the New England States (except prohibition Maine), New York, Delaware, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Nebraska, South Dakota, Wyoming and California. In New York the option of prohibiting the-sale of liquors was given only to towns and not to cities. In Illinois a town- ship which included a city might exclude sa- loons from the whole area, although the city gave a “wet” majority. In a few States, as Ohio and Minnesota, districts within a city might exclude saloons. Local option elections on the sale of liquors in most of the States were held on petition of the electors—-the percentage required ranging from 10 per cent in Connecticut to 40 per cent in Ohio, with 25 per cent as the prevailing ratio. The question might be resubmitted at inter- vals, varying from one to four years in the different States, two years being the most com- mon period. In Massachusetts, New Hamp- shire and Vermont the question of license or no license was voted on without petition at each town election. South Dakota was all considered “dry” until a local district voted “wet”; and a new election had to be held each year to continue saloons. In Wyoming, the municipal councils might refuse to license saloons. Under local option laws and State prohibition 80 per cent of the land area of the United States with 54 per cent of the population had no licensed saloons. Of the local option States, 12 had more than half the population in “dry” territory; and 14 had less than half. The dry regions were mainly in States with a large rural population and also the States where the proportion of native population was largest; while the States with a large urban and foreign population were predominantly “wet.¥ The most important instances where urban districts excluded saloons under local option laws were Cambridge and other suburban cities near Boston; while a similar situation existed in the no license districts within the city of Chicago. Notwithstanding the large increase of no- license territory, there was a steady increase in the per capita consumption of intoxicating liquors in the United States. From 1840, the per capita consumption had multiplied five-fold; but the greater part of this had been in the milder fermented liquors; and the rate of in- crease had been less during the last 25 years. In the 10 years from 1903 to 1913, while popu- lation increased about 20 per cent, the con- sumption of distilled spirits increased about 25 per cent and of malt liquors about 40 per cent. During the same period, the production of distilled spirits increased about 70 per cent. Part of the increase in distilled spirits was probably due to the larger use of alcohol in the arts. See ScIENCE; Liquor TRAFFIC. Bibliography.— ‘Local Option in the United States” in the National Municipal Review, Oc- tober 1916; Anti-Saloon League Year Book; U. S. Brewers’ Association Year Book; Rown- 558 tree and Sherwell ‘Public Control of the Liquor Traffic? (1903). JoHN A. FAIRLIE, Professor of Political Science, University of Illinots. LOCALITY, Perception of. Our sensa- tions are associated with positions in space. That this is the case with vision and joint sensations is obvious, while in all the other senses a stimulus is referred to the approxi- mate spatial position of the organ that perceives it, and is possibly further referred to some place in space from which it is believed to arise. ‘The senses with the most direct spatial reference appear to be vision, the sensations of the skin, and those of the joints. The spatial relations of two objects presented to the eye are as immediately given as their. relations of color-intensity or color-quality. In the same way, the location of an object on the skin or the position of a joint are primitive attributes of the experience of the object. However, the visual, tactile and articular spatial worlds are per se of a bi-dimensional character. The relations of space in the third dimension are not directly given in experience, but are the result of the synthesis of a large number of different factors. In the case of vision, these factors are the parallax of the visual objects with reference to the interocular distance, the experiences of the muscles of the eyeballs as they focus the eyes and regulate their degree of convergence and such phenomena of geo- metrical and atmospheric perspective as have “been given by habit a three-dimensional inter- pretation. The cutaneous senses acquire their three-dimensional interpretation through asso- ciation with visual experiences and experiences of joints, and through the complex of cutaneous sensations resulting when two parts of the in- tegument are brought into contact with one another. The sensations of a single joint are necessarily uni-dimensional or bi-dimensional, as the joint cannot have more than two degrees of freedom, but the combined sensations of two adjacent joints furnish a _ three-dimensional manifold, corresponding to the three degrees of freedom of a point at the end of a doubly jointed rod. The three-dimensional worlds of sight, touch and joint-position formed in the manner thus indicated are amalgamated into a single space by that intimate association of their phenomena which is impressed on us from the very start of our experience, and which is possibly even prior to our consciousness of this association. An important theory in this con- nection is that due to Lotze, and known as the theory of local signs. According to this view, each cutaneous sensation carries with it a peculiar qualitative distinction that is always associated with the point of its origin. As it appears impossible, however, to discover any qualitative characteristic peculiar to each place on the skin, the local sign of a cutaneous sensa- tion is probably just that visual localization that accompanies. it. It is altogether probable that hearing and smell, at any rate, have no distinctly spatial attribute, and that the localization of sounds and scents is due to the association of certain non-spatial characters on their part with the sight-touch spatial system. In the case of sound the chief factor is the relative intensity of the LOCALITY — LOCH sensations in the two ears, as is shown by the poorness of localization in cases where hearing of one ear is lost, and by the practical impos- sibility of determining the source of a sound in the median plane. The quality and absolute intensity of the sound are also indices of its source. The quality is somewhat dependent on the direction from which the sound reaches the pinna, and so enables a certain degree of local- ization in hearing with a single ear. In the-case of smell, localization depends on the relation between the position of the head and the in- tensity of the sensation. The accuracy of localization can be measured in two ways. The first is to determine the lower limen (see Limina) of the interval be- tween two stimuli; the second is to indicate the absolute position of a stimuli, and measure the average error of the localization. While the former method often indicates a greater sen- sitivity than the latter, the relation between the acuity of absolute and relative discrimination of locality varies in the different senses. In sight relative discrimination preponderates, and two points subtending an angle of one minute or a retinal distance of .004 millimetre can be dis- tinguished. A. binocular parallax of five seconds suffices to give an impression of depth. In the case of the pressure sense, the average absolute error of localization is 5 to 10 milli- metres on the wrist. The discrimination limen for the tactile senses is not clearly defined, and the sensation from pressure at two points goes through several stages of elongation before it is distinctly double. If the pressure is applied at pressure spots, the two point limen assumes a much smaller value than otherwise, and is about 0.3 millimetre on the back of the hand, 0.5 millimetre on the forehead, .08 millimetre on the chest, and 4 millimetres on the back. The corresponding values for the cold sense are 2, 0.8, 2, and 1.5 millimetres; for the sense of warmth, 3, 4, 4, and 4 millimetres respectively. The least noticeable movement of the hip- joint is 0.5 degree; for the ankle, 1 degree. The localization of organic sensations is highly irregular, and exhibits many anomalies. (See LimINA; SPACE; Vision). Consult Kulpe, O., ‘Outlines of Psychology? (tr. New York 1909) ; Ladd, G. T., and Woodworth, R. S., ‘Elements of Physiological Psychology? (New York 1911); Lotze, R. H., ‘Medizinische Psychol- ogie? (Leipzig 1852); Titchener, E. B., ‘Text- Book of Psychology? (New ~ York 1910); Wundt, W., ‘Grundziige der physiologischen Psyychologie? (6th ed., Leipzig 1908-11). LOCARNO, 16-kar’nd, Switzerland, town in the canton of Ticino, on Lake Maggiore at the embouchure of the Maggia, 14 miles south- west of Bellinzona. It is only 680 feet above sea-level and is said to be the: lowest part of Switzerland. Nearby is the sanctuary of the Madonna del Sasso, frequented annually by great numbers of pilgrims. Brushes and can- dles are the only industries of importance. The Milanese lost Locarno to the Swiss in 1512; in 1798 it was included in the canton of Lugano in the Helvetic republic. In 1555 its Protestant inhabitants were driven out and, | going to Zurich, founded the silk industry there. Pop. 5,630, mostly Italians. LOCH, 16k, Henry Brougham Loch, First Baron. British colonial administrator: b. 23 LOCH LOMOND — LOCK May 1827; d. London, 20 June 1900. He joined the navy in 1840, but in 1842 entered the service of the East India Company, being commis- sioned in the Bengal Light Cavalry. He served in the Sutlej campaign. In the Crimean War he commanded a brigade of irregular Bulgarian cavalry and in 1857 was made attaché to Lord Elgin on a mission to China. In 1858 he brought home the treaty of Yedo. In 1860-he went to China a second time as secretary of embassy. During the negotiations for peace at Tungchow he was made prisoner, taken to Pekin, where he and Parker endured all the horrors of a Chinese prison. He was released within a short time but his health was greatly impaired. Loch was knighted on his return to England and in 1863 was made lieutenant-gov- ernor of the Isle of Man. From 1884 to 1889 he was governor of Victoria and in the latter year became governor of Cape Colony and high commissioner of South Africa. In South Africa Loch supported the policy of Cecil Rhodes and several times opposed Presi- dent Kruger in the latter’s attempts to prevent British expansion to the north. In 1895 Loch returned to England and was raised to the peerage. At the outbreak of the Boer War he raised and equipped the body of men known as “Loch’s Horse.” LOCH LOMOND. Sce Lomonp, Loc#. LOCHES, lésh, France, town and capital of an arrondissement in the department of Indre-et-Loire, situated on the Indre, 30 miles southeast of Tours. It contains an ancient castle of the Anjou family with many inter- esting medieval remains. Here, also, are the oratory of Anne de Bretagne and the tomb of Agnes Sorel. It has also a fine town hall, the church of Saint Ours, a communal and train- ing college. Leather, liqueurs and textiles are manufactured. The town grew up about the monastery founded here in 500 by Saint Ours. For a long time after 1250 the castle was a residence of the kings of France. Pop. 3,940. LOCHINVAR, 16k’in-var’, the hero of a famous ballad in Sir Walter Scott’s ‘Mar- mion.? LOCHLEVEN. See Leven, Locu. LOCHNER, loch’nér, Stephen, German painter: b. Meersburg, on Lake Constance, date unknown; d. 1451. Very little is known of his life or of his artistic education. About 1426 he removed to Cologne where he soon be- came prominent. In -1447 and in 1450 he was councilor to the Painters’ Guild of that city. Lochner’s greatest work is the triptych called the Kolner Dombild (lit. Cologne Cathedral Painting). The centre panel is devoted to ‘The Adoration of the Magi, the right con- tains, ‘Saint Ursula and her Handmaids,? and the left “Saint Gereon and the Theban Legion.? It is the greatest work of the Cologne school and one of the finest in Germany, Other works of Lochner are ‘The Madonna with Violets,» in the Archepiscopal Museum, Co- logne, ‘Christ and Saints,? in the Nuremberg Museum; ‘Madonna in the Rose Arbor, in the Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne, and ‘The Presentation in the Temple,? at Darmstadt: Lochner was an excellent colorist but a medi- ocre draftsman. Consult Aldenhoven, Carl, “Geschichte der kd6lner Malerschule? (Litibeck 559 1902) and Escherich, Mela, ‘Die Schule von Koln? (Strassburg 1907). LOCK, a mechanical appliance used for fastening doors, chests, etc., generally opened by a key; or more broadly speaking, a lock is a bolt guarded by an obstacle, and controlled by a key. The bolt may be pivoted or rotary, but usually slides; the key generally rotates, but may act by sliding or pushing; the obsta- cle, which in order to operate the bolt must be overcome by the key, may be of the warded (fixed) or of the tumbler (movable) types. History.— The history of the art of the locksmith is probably as old as the history of civilization, and references to it are found in the early literature of every nation. Wood was undoubtedly: the first material used in construction, but the Egyptians appear to have, at an early date, employed brass and iron also. The Hebrews and Greeks used crooked keys, with ivory or wooden handles, for the purpose of bolting or wunbolting doors. Some of the modern Greeks still em- ploy the primitive method of closing doors from the inside by a wooden or metallic bar, attached to the door by means of leather strings or small iron chains; wood or iron keys, made in the shape of hooks, were in- serted through a hole in the door and by turning lifted up the bar on the inside. The similarity of these primitive locks rendered access to the house easy and soon led to an improvement upon the method, resulting in the so-called Lacedemonian lock. This too was improved, but of the workings of this lock no description has come down to us. Among the nations of antiquity lock-mak- ing made little progress in advance of what had been done by the Egyptians. Even the Romans, who excelled the other nations of the world in iron-work, used very simple locks, resembling those of the modern Greek. The tumbler lock was next in suc- cession, and was probably first invented and used by the Chinese. In this lock a lever or slide entered .a notch in the bolt, which could not be moved till the tumbler was lifted by the key. The warded lock, used by the Etrus- cans, was the next form of lock which came into general use. While the Roman _ locks belong to the same description, they were dis- tinctly different. In locking and unlocking the keys did not make a complete revolution and consequently were identical with the spring locks of modern days. After the downfall of the Roman Empire, lock-making took on an unprecedented impulse, owing to the increased danger of robbery, and human in- genuity was: taxed to the limit to provide means for the safe-keeping of valuables. About 1650 a fourth type of lock, the /etter or dial lock, was invented by M. Regnier, director of the Musée d’Artillerie at Paris, and these four types form the basis for the majority of our modern locks. Locks were first manufactured in England during the reign of Alfred (a.p. 871-901), but no substantial improvement in their con- struction was made till the latter part of the 18th century. These improved locks were the Barron, first patented in 1778, the Bramah lock, patented in 1784; these were followed in 1818 by the Chubb, and later by the American 560 Parautopic lock of Day and Newell. Of those then manufactured, this latter lock beeame the most generally used for safes because it presented the least possibility of being picked, but this lock finally. succumbed to the skill of Linus Yale, Jr., an American inventor (b. 1821; d. 1868). Yale had for a number of years been interested in and had patented locks of diverse types and ingenious construction. The modern combination lock was then un- known, and Yale’s earlier inventions related to locks operated by keys, but great security was obtained by making the “bit” of the key changeable at will and also detachable from the handle, so that, as the latter was rotated in the lock, the former was detached and carried away from the key-hole to a remote part of the lock, and there brought into contact with the tumblers to set them ‘in position to permit the bolt to move, the continued rota- tion of the key handle then operating the bolt and returning the “bit” to the key-hole for re- moval. improved form of which is now in universal use in America for safes and vaults, and which, as now made, is proof against picking by any methods thus far discovered. Mr. Yale’s most important invention, brought out in 1860 to 1864, was the key lock univer- sally known as the Yale lock, the United States patents for which were issued on 29 Jan. 1861 and 27 June 18605. This combination of a flat key and revolving “plug” has almost entirely superseded the crude and bulky lock, of indiffer- - ent security and inferior. workmanship, which was opened by a round key, and the intro- duction of the Yale or cylinder type. com- pletely revolutionized the art of lock-making in America. Yale’s inventions led to the dial lock of James Sargent, but as the user of both of these, the Yale and the Sargent, could be coerced to open them, and were indeed picked by ex- perts, the inventors turned their attention to making the only lock which is absolutely unas- sailable——the time-lock. This was first sug- gested in 1831 by an Englishman, William Rutherford; in 1857 Holbrook and Fish of the United States devised another, but the first successful time-locks put on the market were the Sargent and Yale time-locks, brought out in 1875, and followed later by the Pillard, the Homes, the Hall and others. Warded Locks.—In the majority of this class there is a “back spring” or dog, the feel- ing of which, when using the key, resembles that of a tumbler, but which adds nothing to the security. Lever Tumbler Locks.— These locks may contain several tumblers, the number of key changes usually being limited to from 12 to 24 and possibly 72, while in a good three-tumbler lock of this style as many as from 200 to 500 key-changes are possible. Round, barrel and flat keys are used. Cylinder and “Pin-Tumbler” Locks.— The former term applies to locks in which the pin tumbler is contained in a cylinder separate from the lock case; the latter is applied to those wherein the pin tumblers are contained in the lock itself. Master-Keyed Locks.— A series of locks is said to be “master-keyed” when so constructed that each lock can be operated by its own key, Yale then perfected the dial lock, the LOCK HAVEN which fits no other lock of the series, and also by another key which will operate every lock in the entire series. Warded locks are master- ' keyed by means of a “skeleton” key, with the bit cut away sufficiently to ayoid all the wards in all of the locks of the series. Lever-tumbler locks are master-keyed in three ways, either by providing two “gatings” on each tumbler, one of which is brought in line with the corre- sponding “fence” or post on the bolt by the change-key and the other by the master-key: by providing a “lifter,» which, when actuate by the master-key, moves the tumblers in the same manner as does the change-key when the latter acts directly on the tumblers; or by pro- viding a set of secondary levers, which, when operated by the mastc:-key, move the primary tumblers in the same thannef as the change-key which acts on them directly. Pin-tumbler locks are master-keyed by cutting each pin in two places, or by encircling the plug (which con- tains the key-way) with a larger annular plug, thus providing two points at which each tum- bler may be set to permit the plug to rotate, and utilizing one set of these points for the change- key and the other set for the master-key. Time of Chronometer Locks.—In these the mechanism is actuated by clock-work, and is used, in connection with the heavy bolt work of a safe door, to prevent the unlocking of the latter except upon the hour at which the clock is set. There “are generally three chronometer movements, each of which will of itself actuate the lock, so that shonld one or two be disabled or inoperative, the other will open the door at the time indicated. In connection with the time lock an automatic bolt operating device is often used. Dial or Combination Locks.— These con- sist esseritially of a bolting mechanism guarded by a set of changeable tumblers or wheels, and actuated by a spindle passing through the door, © provided on the outer end with a graduated dial, by rotating which in a certain manner the tumblers can be set and the lock be operated. Lock-Making.— The first locks made in this country naturally were patterned after those made in Europe, but whereas the Euro- pean artisan used wrought metal in con- struction, the American manufacturers soon turned: from this and employed cast metal. This change, together with the introduction of vastly improved machinery, soon reduced the cost of production, so that now locks of the best type can be purchased at a merely nominal cost, and while, for a few years after 1870, the sharp competition among manufac- turers tended to reduce the quality of the production, the mechanical advancement since that time has been marked and at the present time the highest grade of workman- ship and mechanical skill is manifest in the articles on the American market. The chief centres of lock-making are in Eastern Pennsyl- vania and Connecticut. Consult Fox-Pitt- Rivers, ‘On the Development and Distribution of Primitive Locks and Keys» (London 1883) ; F. E. Kidder, section on Locks in ‘Building Construction» (part 2, pp. 580-603, New York © 1913); and H. R. Towne, ‘Locks and Hard- ware) (ib. 1904), LOCK HAVEN, Pa., city, county-seat of Clinton County; on the Susquehanna River and on the New York Central and the Pennsylvania LOCKE railroads; about 68 miles northwest of Harris- burg. The first settlement was made in 1769 and, in 1833, it was incorporated as a town. In 1844 it was made a borough, and in 1870 re- ceived its city charter. It is situated in an agri- cultural, manufacturing and lumbering region. Its chief industrial establishments are lumber and planing mills, tanneries, cigar factory, foundries, fire-brick works, silk mills, breweries, paper mill, woven wire. works, steam laundries, dye atid chemical works and furniture factory. The State Central Normal School is situated here and there is a new high school. Some of the prominent buildings are the courthouse, a hospital and several fine churches. The citv has a circulating library containing about 6,000 volumes. The waterworks are the property o the municipality. Lock Haven has adopted the commission form of government. Pop. 8,557. LOCKE, lok, David Ross (“PrErroLeuM V. Nassy”), American humorist and satirist: b. Vestal, Broome County, N. Y., 20 Sept. 1833; d. Toledo, Ohio, 15 Feb. 1888. He learned the trade of printer and after being connected with several newspapers was editor and owner of the Toledo Blade in 1865, and very soon became popular as a humorous writer and later as a lecturer. He began his “Nasby” letters in-the Findlay Jeffersonion in 1860 and _ continued them throughout the Civil War. They exer- cised much influence in molding popular opin- ion, upholding as they did the policy of the Lin- coln administration. In later years the satire of the letters, which still continued to appear, was aimed at President Johnson and his pecu- liar methods. They were collected and pub- lished in book form under the titles ‘Divers Views, Opinions and Prophecies of Yours Truly? (1865); ‘Swingin’ Round the Cirkle? (1866) ; ‘Ekkoes from Kentucky? (1867) ; ‘The Struggles — Social, Financial and Political — of P. V. Nasby? (1872). He also published “Hannah Jane”; ‘The Moral History of Amer- ica’s Life Struggle?; ‘The Morals of Abou Ben Adhem?; ‘A Paper City? (1878), and “Nasby in Exile? (1882). LOCKE, John, English philosopher: b. Wrington, Somerset, 29 Aug. 1632; d. Oates, Essex, 28 Oct. 1704. He was the son of an at- torney who became a captain in the Parlia- mentary army. Locke was educated at West- minster School and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he was graduated and took his bachelor’s degree in 1656; two years later took the degree of M.A. and entered upon the study of medi- cine. He lectured at Oxford (1660-64) on Greek, rhetoric and philosophy, and during this period became interested in experimental phys- ics, especially chemistry and meteorology, and in metaphysics showed a preference for study- ing Descartes, although his own philosophy powerfully antagonizes that of the French master. “Theology and _ politics, including diplomacy, also engaged his attention. At Ox- ford before 1666 he is said to have practised medicine, in which, however, he was never graduated. As secretary to Sir Walter Vane, British envoy, he went in 1665 to Cleves, Prus- sia, returning to Oxford in the following year, during which time he made the acquaintance of Lord Ashley, afterward Ist earl of Shaftes- bury, became his family physician and secre- tary, under his patronage held various offices, VOL. 17 — 36 561 and in 1682 accompanied him into exile to Hol- land. Locke continued to reside abroad until 1689, when, after Revolution had been accom- plished, he returned to England to become com- missioner of appeals. His association with Lord Ashley, between whom and himself there was close intellectual sympathy, was stimttlating to his genius, and it was in Ashley’s house that Locke first planned the ‘Essay on the Humar Understanding.» Fully elaborating this work during his voluntary exile, he published it. in complete form in 1690, with a dedication to the earl of Pembroke, whose acquaintance he had made at Montpellier many years before. The ‘Essay,’ which had largely occupied him for almost 20 years, met with much criticism in England, being particularly opposed at Ox- ford: but on the Continent it brought him great celebrity, and was translated into French and Latin and later into other languages. For the copyright of the first edition he received but £30, and although he had previously published two works this was the first to bear the author’s name. In 1696 Locke was made a commissioner of trade and plantations, but in a few years be- came iticapacitated and retired, and from 1700 until his death lived with his friend, Sir F. Masham, at Oates. Meanwh_le being drawn into the violent controversies over the essay which arose among different sects and schools, he had sturdily maintained his ground in a style of epistolary polemics which still possesses an academic interest. As a philosopher Locke’s place is usually fixed at the head of the English Sensational School, although this classification by no means does justice to his many-sidedness as a thinker, and the term “sensationalism,” with its ordi- nary connotations, is wholly inadequate for a correct representation either of his speculative inquiries or of those still less definable medita- tions which led him profoundly to search the realms of ethics and of spiritual laws, in an en- deavor to assign the relations and functions of these in the world of practical politics and that of instituted religion. Of that sensationalist school of which he is reputed to have been founder, it has been said with much pertinence that its ultimate conclusions are such as “his calm and pious mind would have indignantly repudiated.» The ‘Essay on the Human Under- standing? holds a permanent place among the greater works of philosophy, in the history of which, however, Locke’s method may be super- seded, and although his main doctrine be ex- ploded, the book retains its importance as an epoch-marking achievement. It .seeks the primal sources and the scope of human knowl- edge, denying the existence of innate ideas, presenting the mind as a sheet of white paper prepared to be written upon by experience, which alone supplies the knowledge there im- pressed, and tracing the sources of all ideas to what he calls sensation and reflection. This doctrine of the tabula rasa or white paper found a vigorous controverter in Leibnitz (q.v.). The opposition which Locke thus repre- sented between all intuitional and experiential philosophies still -remains a central point of dispute among thinkers of various schools, but he was a forerunner in psychology, as he was also in the advocacy of civil and religious liberty, for which he suffered persecution and betook himself to exile. 562 Upon questions of government Locke was in the main a follower of Hobbes (q.v.) in so far as the latter regarded governmental author- ity as something delegated by the subjects for the creation of the state, through a compact which carried in itself the principle of obliga- tion.. But he went far beyond Hobbes in the application of his views to the concrete affairs of politics. In 1689 a constitution for the Caro- lina colonists was drafted by him, and was an evidence of his concern to put political philos- ophy to practical service. (See Essay CONCERN- ING THE HUMAN UNDERSTANDING). Besides the ‘Essay,? his works include letters ‘Concerning Toleration? (1689); ‘Two Treatises on Govern- ment? (1690); ‘Some Thoughts Concerning Education»? (1693); ‘The Reasonableness of Christianity? ; and a little, book ‘On the Con- duct of the Understanding,» posthumously pub- lished. Frazer’s edition of the ‘Essay’ (1894) is the most desirable. His philosophical writ- ings have been published in various editions, Saint John’s (1854 et seq.) being one of the most useful. Consult King, ‘The Life of John Locke?.. (1829) ; .Fox; Bourne,,.‘The. Life . of John Locke? (1876); Fowler, ‘John Locke? (1880) ; Frazer, ‘Locke? (1890); Russell, ‘The Philosophy of Locke? (1891); and Ueberweg- Heinze, ‘Grundriss der Geschichte der Philos- ophie? (8th ed., 1896), where a more extended bibliography is to be found. LOCKE, William John, English novelist: b. 20 March 1863. He was educated at Queen’s Royal College, Trinidad, and Cambridge Uni- versity, and was secretary of the Royal Insti- tute of British Architects, 1897-1907. His fic- tions include ‘At the Gate of Samaria? (1895); ‘The Demagogue and Lady Phayre? (1896) ; ‘A Study in Shadows? (1896); ‘Derelicts? (1897); ‘Idols? (1898); ‘The White Dove? (1900); ‘The Glory of Clementina? (1911); ‘The Joyless Adventures of Aristide Pujol? (1912) ; ‘Stella Maris? (1913) ; ‘The Fortunate Youth? (1914); ‘Jaffery? (1915); ‘The Red Planet? (1917); ‘Drowned Gold? (1919). He has also written several plays. LOCKER-LAMPSON, Frederick, English lyric poet: b. Greenwich, 29 May 1821; d. Row- faul, England, 30 May 1895. He wrote a vol- ume of “society verses,» ‘London Lyrics? (1857), greatly admired for their grace and finish; edited an anthology, “Lyra Elegantia- rum? (1867); and arranged a collection of mis- cellanies entitled ‘Patchwork? (1879). In 1874 he married for his second wife the daugh- ter of Sir Curtis Lampson and took her name in addition to his own. Consult “My Confi- dences,? his autobiography (1896). _ LOCKHART, 16k’art, John Gibson, Scot- tish editor and biographer: b. Cambtsnethan, Lanarkshire, 14 July 1794; d. Abbotsford, 25 Nov. 1854. He was graduated at Glasgow and Balliol College, Oxford, and became a member of the Scottish bar in 1817. He never practised as an advocate, but devoted his time to literary pursuits. In 1817, with Professor Wilson, he established Blackwood’s Magazine, a Tory organ, which at the outset created an immense sensation by the ability and keen satire dis- played in many of its articles. In 1819 he pub- lished ‘Peter’s Letters to his Kinsfolk,> in which Edinburgh society was keenly satirized. In 1820 Lockhart, who had previously become LOCKE — LOCKPORT - a favorite with Sir Walter Scott, married his eldest daughter, and much of his future life took its color from this connection. In 1825 he became editor of the Quarterly Review, which he conducted with marked ability, and continued in the position till 1853. His translations of ‘Spanish Ballads,’ originally contributed to Blackwood, were collected in 1823. He also published the novel ‘Valerius? (1821); ‘Regi- nald Dalton? (1823); ‘Adam Blair? (1822) ; and ‘Matthew Wald (1824); ‘Life of Robert Burns? (1828); ‘Life of Sir Walter Scott? 1836-38. This last is the most celebrated of his works, and takes its place as perhaps, after Boswell’s ‘Life of Johnson,’ the most perfect of English biographies. His earnings from this work he surrendered to Scott’s creditors. Lockhart, for his steady attachment and im- poriant services to the Conservative party, was rewarded in 1843, with the appointment of auditor of the duchy of Lancaster: His. later life was clouded by domestic bereavement. His little invalid son was the. Hugh Little John of Scott’s ‘Tales of a Grandfather.» He was buried in Dryburgh Abbey, close by Sir Walter Scott. (See Lire or Str WALTER Scotr). Con- — sult Lang, ‘Life of John Gibson Lockhart? (2 vols., New York 1897). LOCKHART, lok’hart, Texas, town, county-seat of Caldwell County; on the Mis- souri, Kansas and Texas, and the San Antonio and Arkansas Pass railroads, about 28 miles south of Austin and 140 miles west of Houston. It is situated in a fertile agricultural. section in which cotton and live-stock are raised ex- tensively. Some of its industrial establishments are a soap-factory, cotton-gins, cottonseed-oil mill, wagon and carriage factory, cotton-com- press, stock-yards, grain-elevators, and lumber- yard. Pop. (1920) 3,731. LOCKJAW. See TETANUS.: . LOCKLAND, Ohio, village of Hamilton County, on the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Day- ton, the Cincinnati Northern and the Cleve- land, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis rail- roads, 11 miles north of Cincinnati. Its indus- trial establishments include cotton factories, paper mills and a roofing establishment Pop. (1920) 4,007. . LOCKOUT, the discharge and keeping out of employment of artisans and laborers by their employers. It is a retaliatory measure adopted by capitalists to resist the demands for shorter hours, more pay, etc., made by their workmen. The workmen may themselves be responsible for a lockout, just as an employer may be responsible for a strike upon the part of his workmen. (See also STRIKES AND LOCK- outs), with authorities quoted thereunder. LOCKPORT, IIl., city in Will County, on the Des Plaines River, the Illinois-and Michi- gan Canal, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé and the Chicago and Alton railroads; 30 miles southwest of Chicago. The city contains Dell- wood Park, one of the finest in the State, also oil mills, breakfast food works, a lock factory and great quarries. The water-supply system is | municipally owned. Pop. 2,550. LOCKPORT, N. Y., city, county-seat of Niagara County; on the New York Barge Canal, and on the Erie, the International and the New York Central railroads, 12 miles from ESS pa i oo tae i JOHN LOCKE i Pr ye ‘ e ‘coe 2 ‘ on F Kane 4 im } 7 } ; un dete A : | . / : i swe ? ¥ Le 7 4 7 ~ 4 sg . % ts 5 pi vs i - ) ‘ ‘ ‘ n ~ + s . " , - » ’ ¢ ie | : x9 | x . ' iy - é ‘ . : + oie ‘ { 5 ¢ : a ot 4 Pas . 1 . 4 THE LIBRARY TE ah tis a doe RE HE URIVERSITY OF IELINGIS. tae . x ‘4 i : f : * $ S L b ‘ k a 7 } bw i Hr. t i ~— 4 ; by , \ j " : : 5 : $ ’ a) ‘ » H ; , ‘ 2 * p : 1 “3 4 q ! f A > | bee ‘ LOCKROY — LOCKWOOD Lake Ontario, 20 miles east of Niagara Falls, and about 25 miles north by east of Buffalo. It. was settled in 1823 by workmen who were em- ployed on the Erie Canal. On 26 March 1829 it was incorporated as a village and became a city 11 April 1865. It is situated in a fertile agricultural region, one of the richest fruit producing sections of the United States; but the extensive water power obtained from the canal has made it an important manufacturing city. The 10 large locks of the canal (now re- placed by a tier of two locks operated by elec- tricity), gave its name to the city. The canal passes through a deep cut, an excavation in the solid rock, several miles in length. The New York Central Railroad bridge, 500 feet long, crosses the canal here, at a height of 60 feet above water. There are large sandstone and limestone quarries in the vicinity. The chief manufactures are pulp and paper, Holly waterworks machinery, wood-work ma- chinery, machinery for flour mills, glass,. roll- ing-mill products, cotton-batting, wagons and carriages, brooms, flour, indurated fibre, crucible steel, aluminum, cotton and woolen goods and creamery products. The products of the manu- facturing plants amount annually to over $11,- 000,000. In addition to the trade in manufac- tured articles, the city has an extensive trade in the quarry products, and in grain and fruits. Some of the prominent buildings are the Odd Fellows Home, the high school, the new govern- ment building and the courthouse. It has several churches and good public and parish schools and two business colleges. It is the seat of Saint Joseph’s Academy. There are about 18 miles of paved streets and the total assessed valuation is nearly $14,000,000. The city owns and operates the waterworks. The government is vested in a mayor, elected for two years, and a council of 10 members. Pop. 21,308. Con- sult Pool, ‘Landmarks of Niagara County? (Syracuse 1897). LOCKROY, lo’krwa’, Etienne Auguste Edouard, French statesman: b. 1838; d. 22 Nov. 1913. He was a Republican journalist under the Second Empire, he fought with Garibaldi in 18600 and acted as secretary to Ernest Renan in Syria. During the siege of Paris he commanded a battalion and was later one of the signatories to the proclamation for the election of the Commune. He sat in the French Chamber from 1872 to 1906, was minister of commerce and industry 1886-87, of education 1888 and minister of marine 1895-99. LOCKS, Canal. See CANALS. LOCKSLEY HALL. Tennyson’s ‘Locks- ley Hall? is perhaps not only the best known among his shorter poems but is also one of the most widely read poems in the language. It is a lyrical monologue, 194 lines in length, in eight-stress trochaic couplets. Published in 1842, when the poet himself was only 33 years of age, it is pre-eminently the poem of youth with both its weakness and its strength. Its boy hero is passionate, both in his love and his disappointment; fretful, moody and _ unsure, unreasonable in his general attitude toward life, yet aglow with humanitarian enthusiasm, on fire with his own splendid vision of the future of the race. He is not an altogether likable and wholesome person, and rather un- pleasantly suggests the hectic hero of “Maud,” 563 but he has in him so much of essential and universal youth as to engage the unseen lis- tener of his tale of disappointed love, of pas- sionate upbraiding, of altruistic hopes and dreams. Though the coast setting is that of Lincolnshire, both hero and hall are entirely imaginary. The idea of the setting Tennyson gained from an Arabic poem of the 7th cen- tury, which shows a lover, traveling with com- panions, asking that he be left alone for a time as he stands before the tent of his be- loved; the Arabic poem even ends with the coming of a storm, as does ‘Locksley Hall But Tennyson’s. subject-matter, replete with allusions to the latest discoveries in electricity, astronomy and engineering, and the latest social movements, is “aggressively modern.” His hero, even in the midst of his complaint, is very much taken up with the events of his time. Yet with all this the poem is highly per- sonal and romantic. The structure is plain, when one notes that the monologue presents the thoughts that pass naturally, and discon- nectedly, through the hero’s mind as he recalls the past and newly resolves for the future. Remarkable in the light of later events are the famous couplets foretelling aerial commerce and warfare, and those prophesying universal peace by means of a league of nations. The poem is striking even among Tennyson’s in the beauty of its figures of speech. One. of these, “Love took up the harp of life,» the poet considered his best. Owing to its tropical quality, to the youth that beats through it, and to its spirited verse, “Locksley is one of the most quoted of English poems,» and some of its lines and phrases, such as “In the spring a young man’s fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love,» have passed into the common speech. Marion TUCKER. LOCKWOOD, bBelva Ann _ Bennett, American lawyer and reformer: b. Royalton, N. Y., 24 Oct. 1830; d. Washington, 19 May 1917. She was graduated from Genesee Col- lege, Lima, N. Y., in. 1857, and taught school 1857-68. She was married in 1848 to Uriah Hee MeNall Cd. "US53)" and’ in? 1868240. Dr. Ezekiel Lockwood. She studied law at Wash- ington, and was admitted to the bar in the Dis- trict of Columbia after a hard struggle in 1873. Before that time she had secured the passage of a bill giving women employees of the gov- ernment equal pay for equal work; in 1879 she obtained the passage of a bill permitting women to practise before the United States Supreme Court, and was admitted under this Jaw in the same year. She was engaged in many impor- tant law cases, some before the Supreme Court, and was one of the attorneys in the probate of the will of Myra Clarke Gaines. She was active in temperance, peace and women suffrage movements; was secretary of the American. branch of the International Peace Bureau; and in 1884 and 1888 was the nominee of the Equal Rights Party for President of the United States. In 1896 she was commissioned by the Secretary of State to represent the United States at the Congress of Charities and Corrections in Geneva, Switzerland; in 1901 she was elected president of the Women’s National Press Association. She was for sev- eral years interested in the claims of the North Carolina Cherokee Indians, and in 1900 had a 564 « bill before Congress to prevent encroachment upon their territory. She was an attorney of record in their case against the government, ~ when they obtained a $5,000,000 judgment. She also prepared an amendment to the Statehood Bill before Congress in 1903, granting suffrage to women in Oklahoma, Arizona and New Mexico. LOCKWOOD, Henry Hayes, American military officer: b. Kent County, Del., 17 Aug. 1814; d. Washington, D; C., 7 Dec. 1899. In 1836 he was graduated at the United States Military Academy; served with the 2d cavalry in the Seminole War and in 1838 resigned from the army and undertook agriculture in Dela- ware. We became professor of mathematics in the United States navy in 1841; in 1845 pro- fessor of natural philosophy at the Naval Academy, where he was professor of artillery and infantry tactics in 1845-61, and of astron- omy and gunnery in 1851-61. He entered the Civil War as colonel of the lst Delaware in- fantry, became brigadier-general of volunteers in August 1861. At Gettysburg he commanded a brigade of the 12th corps and in 1863-64 was commander of the middle department. Sub- sequent to the war he was professor of natural . philosophy at the Naval Academy, and in 1871- 76 was connected with the Naval Observatory. He published ‘A Manual for Naval Batteries? (1852) and ‘Exercises in Small Arms and Field Artillery, arranged for naval service (1852). : LOCKWOOD, James Booth, American soldier and Arctic explorer: b. Annapolis, Md., 9 Oct. 1852; d. Cape Sabine, 9 April 1884. He entered the army as 2d lieutenant in 1873, and served till 1880 in the West. He volunteered to accompany the Lady Franklin Bay expedi- tion to the Arctic regions in 1881 and was made second in command to Gen. A. W. Greely (q.v.). His fame rests on the discovery of Lockwood Island, in 1882, in lat. 83° 24’ N., the farthest northern point of land or sea up to that time. He was one of the victims in the Cape Sabine tragedy in the winter of 1883- 84. His body was brought to the United States and interred in the grounds of the Naval Academy. Consult Lanman, ‘Farthest North? (1885). LOCKWOOD, Wilton, American painter: b. Wilton, Conn., 12 Sept. 1861; d. 21 March 1914. In New York he studied under La Farge and subsequently spent 10 years in Paris. In 1904 his works attracted general attention in Europe and the following year an exhibition of his work in Boston was a great success. His best known works are his portrait of La Farge, in the Boston Art Museum; ‘The Vio- linist? in Mr. Carnegie’s residence at Skibo; ‘Frank Seabury’; ‘A. J. Cassatt?; ‘Grover Cleveland? ; ‘Jerome Wheelock in the Worces- ter Museum?; ‘Justice Holmes.? Outside the field of portraiture Mr. Lockwood was con- spicuously successful as a flower painter. Nu- merous samples of his work in the latter field are preserved in the Art Museum, Boston, the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. In 1912 he was elected to the National Academy. LOCKYER, 16k’yér, Str Joseph Norman, English astronomer: b. Rugby, 17 May 1836; d. 16 Aug. 1920, He entered the War LOCKWOOD — LOCOFOCO Office in 1857, and in 1870 was appointed ‘secretary of the royal commission on the ad- vancement of science. Five years later he be- ‘came astronomical lecturer at South Kensing- ton; was director of the Solar Physics Observ- atory, South Kensington, 1885-1913, and- in 1913 director of the Hill Observatory, Sal- combe Regis, Sidmouth.: He directed. eight eclipse expeditions on behalf of the British government. He was created K.C.B. in 1897. He initiated in 1866 the spectroscopic observa- tion of sunspots; invented in 1868 a spectro- scopic method of observing the solar promi- nences in daylight; and from 1872 successfully engaged in investigations of the chemistry of the sun. He published ‘Elementary Les- sons in Astronomy? (1870); ©Contributions to Solar Physics? (1873); ‘The Spectroscope (1873); ‘Primer of Astrofiomy>? § (1874); ‘Studies in Spectrum Analysis? (1878) ; “Star- Gazing? (1878); ‘Chemistry of the Sum (1887); ‘The Movements of the Earth? (1887); ‘The Meteoritic Hypothesis? (1890) ; “The Dawn of Astronomy? (1894) ; “The Sun’s Place in Nature? (1897); ‘Recent and Com- ing Eclipses» (1897); ‘Inorganic Evolution? (1900) ; ‘Surveying for Archzologists? (1909). LOCLE, 16’kl’, Le, Switzerland, town of the Canton of Neuchatel, on the French fron- tier. The chief industry is watch-making, for which the place is famed. A fire destroyed the greater part of the town in 1833, since when it has been substantially rebuilt. It has a watch-making institute, mechanic school, col- lege, several museums, and a public library. It has an electric-lighting plant. Pop. 12,750. LOCO DISEASE, a disease found in sheep and horses and occasionally in cattle. It is caused by eating certain species of Astralagus, a genus of the natural order Leguminose, com- monly known in the Rocky Mountain region as. loco or crazy weeds. The first effects of the weed are stimulating, but continued eating pro- duces vertigo, champing of the jaws, partial or perhaps total deafness or blindness, and if the disease be acute, death may occur within three days. In the chronic form death may be averted for months and sometimes’ years, but the animal develops nervous symptoms and muscular incodrdination, and becomes unable to walk, finally dying of exhaustion or starva- tion, or both. The disease is a habit acquired usually by healthy animals through association with infected animals that search for and feed almost exclusively on loco weeds. As no medic- inal treatment is effective, locoed animals should be separated from a healthy herd. Seg- regation of infected animals is absolutely nec- essary to prevent the spread of the disease. Consult Marsh, C. D., ‘The Loco-Weed_ Dis- ease? (in ‘Farmers’ Bulletin No. 380,> Départ- ment of Agriculture, Washington 1909). LOCOFOCO, formerly a familiar name for a member of the Democratic party; applied especially to the radical or equal rights section of that party, because at a meeting in Tam- many Hall, New York, on 29 Oct. 1835, in which there was great diversity of sentiment, | the chairman left his seat, and the lights were extinguished, with a view to. dissolving the meeting; when those in favor of extreme measures produced Joco-foco matches — then a comparatively recent invention, rekindled the . LOCO-WEED — lights, continued the meeting, and accomplished their object. (See Democratic Party). Con- sult Byrdsall, F., ‘History of the Loco-Foco Party? (New York: 1842); Alexander, De A. S., ‘Political History of the State of New York? (Vol. II, New York 1906) ; Woodburn, J. A., ‘Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States? (2d ed., ib., 1914). LOCO-WEED, or LOCO-VETCH. See Crazy WEED. LOCOMOTION, in plants falls naturally into the following divisions: independent loco- motion, or free spontaneous movement, occur- ring in lower forms; extension through growth; projection by elastic machinery, waf- tage by winds, flotage by water, and carriage by animals. With all of these modes, except the first, this article does not deal. These modes are dealt with under PLANts, DistRIBU- TION OF; POLLINATION, etc. In regard to inde- pendent motion, however, it must be stated that none of the higher plants possess this power, although it is well developed in the lower ———— st LOCOMOTIVE 565 flagella depend on the power of contractility in protoplasm. Vibration is used by the blue- green algz to secure motion. The diatoms and others push out protoplasmic threads which work against the bottom. It would appear that the resemblance to animals in all these modes of locomotion is not accidental, but a persist- ence from an ancient condition in which the two kingdoms were one. LOCOMOTIVE, a self-propelling vehicle, usually a vehicle consisting of a steam engine and boiler, mounted on wheels and so con- nected as to be capable of self-propulsion along a,track. Historical. The steam locomotive has been in commercial use since the early part of the 19th century. It was about the year 1825 that manufacturers in Europe and in America began earnestly the construction of locomotives. Prior to this time what locomotives had been built were the results of individual inventors. A Frenchman, Mr. Nicholas Cagnot, exhibited the first mode! of a steam locomotive, or steam | Hh i It} | hee Ni) 4 ya Bial = forms which lack the firm cellulose skeleton. The method of locomotion: is similar to that of the simpler animals. Thus some. kinds creep; for example, the slime-molds (myxomy- cetes) get about by directing their protoplasmic streaming in one constant direction, as do some of the Amoeba among animals. Other plants, or their reproductive spores, swim freely in water in a manner so similar to that of animals that they are called zodspores, and these are very characteristic in the Alge or Seaweeds. The motion is effected either by the action of innumerable cilia, tiny hairs which all in- unison beat the water more strongly in one direction than another, or else by flagella, resembling tails, except that instead of pushing the spore, they pull it behind them by an action the reverse of that of the tail of a fish. The. movements of both cilia. and V eg Raiiwa, § Locomotive Engineering Fia. 1. William Hedley’s ‘** Puffing Billy” (1813), now in South Kensington Museum. carriage as it is more often described. The exhibition took place in 1763 and is the first of which we have any record. In 1769.Mr. Cag- not built a locomotive, that might be better described as a self-moving steam engine, which was to run on common roads. It had a speed of less than four miles per hour with stops every 15 minutes to build up the steam pressure. Cagnot’s second engine was more successful and created considerable attention. While run- ning the engine at a speed of three miles per hour it overturned. The public authorities, who considered it dangerous and a menace to public safety, ordered it locked up. William Murdock of England built a steam carriage in 1784. It had a copper boiler, ran on three wheels and used high pressure steam. Among the earliest and probably the first engine built to run on the public highway in the United 566 States was that designed and built by Salem Reed of Salem, Mass., in 1790. We of to-day are inclined to think of these inventions as the forerunners of our steam automobiles and think of the locomotive as operating on rails. In 1802 Richard Trevethick patented the application of the non-condensing engine to the propulsion of carriages on rail- roads. On 1 Feb. 1804 his engine bearing his name was run on the Merthyr Tydvil Railway in South Wales. The boiler of this locomo- tive was of the cylindrical type with internal furnace and flue. The steam cylinder which was eight inches in diameter had the relatively long stroke of four feet and six inches. The driving wheels were plain and were driven by means of a connecting rod and crank through a train of gears. The locomotive drew its load of 10 tons, besides the wagons at the rate of 5 miles per hour. It is interesting to note that Trevethick’s locomotive was the first to be used for drawing wagons and the Merthyr Tydvil Railway can justly claim the honor of being the first railway company in the world. An act of Parliament established it in 1803. The Tom Thumb built in 1829 by Peter Cooper was the first locomotive used on rails in America. During the same year an English locomotive, The Stourbridge Lion, was im- ported. Many types of locomotives combining ingenious ideas besides those referred to were built and experimented with in these early years. The names of Stephenson, Baldwin and Brooks appear in the following list of early locomotives. Their work is known to all in- terested in locomotive equipment and their work is largely responsible for the magnificent locomotives we see running to-day. Blenkinsop’s rack locomotive............-. England, 1811 Chapman’s chain locomotion.............. England, 1812 Brumton:s, locomotive, | ait. a eee eee England, 1813 Hedley’s “ Puffing Billy "= 2 Sl ee England, 1813 Stephenson’s locomotive..........0..0...+ England, 1815 Stephenson’s ‘‘ The Locomotion”........... England, 1825 Hackworth’s ‘“*The Royal Gorge”’.......... England, 1826 Stephenson’s ‘* The Rocket”....... Aen, Wee England, 1829 Miller's! The Friend? cion ee ee America, 1830 Stephenson’s ‘* Robert Fulton”: . i 0... of... America, 1831 Baldwan's “Old Tronsides™). 22. aan ee America, 1832 Brook's: locomotive: 27-23. 22) ee ae merica, 1837 LOCOMOTIVE The first successful locomotive was built up of a strong rectangular frame upon which the boiler and engine were supported. Axles were fastened to the frame and the two pairs of wheels kept in parallel motion. The first radical change was to extend the base by sup- porting the front end on a four-wheeled truck, or “bogie” and the back end upon a pair of drivers. Later two pairs of drivers were coupled up and considerable improvement re- sulted. Subsequently more drivers were added and in some cases a small pair of wheels were placed under the rear end of the boiler. After the locomotive had been in active service about 20 years there was a demand for Railway § Locomotive Engineering Fic. 2. Stephenson’s ‘‘ Rocket’’ (1829), higher speed. Heretofore the speed was very moderate. To secure the higher speed the drivers were increased to seven feet in diameter, but they were soon discarded as the locomotive was slow in getting up speed. The time had not arrived, however, for high speed in railroad travel. As yet there were no fixed signals, no air brakes nor reliable systems for regulating single track operation. The appli- cation of the air brake in 1873 paved the way for our modern freight and passenger service. For a time the early builders of locomotives believed that there was not sufficient adhesion between the wheels and the track to climb an incline or draw loads. The tractive effort of any locomotive is reached when the driving wheels begin to slip. To increase this limit a definite part of the total weight was carried on LOCOMOTIVE the desired adhesion. Another method was to drive separately the individual pairs of drivers. The load on one pair of drivers was limited, however, to the load the right of way would bear with safety. This fact brought into use leading trucks or “bogies” and trailing trucks which received a the drivers to give pall 567 Since 1904 the Walschaert valve gear in- vented in 1844 by a: Swiss named Egide Wal- schaert and used quite extensively in’ con- tinental Europe has increased in favor among locomotive builders and is now used to a greater extent in this country. In modern loco- motives the use of an outside valve gear such Railway § Locomative Lugineering Fic. 3. Early Type English Locomotive. portion of the weight of the locomotive. An arrangement of this kind increased the wheel base considerable and additional provisions had to be made to enable the locomotive to run around curves. Lateral play was allowed the axles, radial axles were used, axle trucks turn- ing about a pivot which receives a portion of the weight were also used. Many forms of valve gears were applied to the earlier locomotives. “Old Ironsides” is equipped with what is known as “the Hook Motion” This gear was the standard form used in this country for some time even after the invention of the shifting link. “The Hook Motion” was replaced by the Stephenson link mechanism invented in 1843 by William Howe, an employee of the Robert Stephenson & Company of New Castle, Eng- land. Up to 1904 practically all the locomotives as the Walschaert is practically necessary, be- cause of the increase in size of our locomotives. In the large locomotive the parts of the Stephenson mechanism are very large, thus per- mitting rapid wear and the accumulation of a great amount of lost motion. The Wal- schaert valve gear has no eccentrics, only pins, links and bushings. It is easily accessible and maintained. Using a valve gear outside of the frame also permitted better frame bracing and thus reduced the chance of frame failure. During the last 25 years many improve- ments have been made. These have led to the superb locomotives now running in Europe and America. Many investigations have been made relative to increased boiler pressures, com- pounding, use of superheated steam and pre- vention of smoke, all of which have been of inestimable value. Railway § Locomotive Engineering Fig. 4. Early American Locomotive. in the United States were equipped with this gear. The gear is located between the drivers and provides a means of reversing the engine at will and also permits the volume of steam admitted to the cylinders to be varied by the © cperator while the engine is running. The Locomotive of To-day.— The loco- motive might be dealt with as a power plant complete in itself, consisting of boiler, fur- nace, stack, engine and auxiliaries. It will de- velop the same amount of power as a station- ary power plant occupying several times the 568 amount of space. Modern locomotives are built as high as 3,000 horse power, with a_ tractive effort of 105,000 pounds. Comparing the econ- omy of the modern locomotive with the loco- motive of 20 years ago it will be found that in many cases 50 per cent more work is obtained per pound of coal burned. 23 The ever-increasing demands and distribu- tion factors presenting themselves have resulted _ along with other things in increased train loads and as a result greater capacity in tractive effort. This increase has been met by con- structing larger locomotives with greater steam- ing capacity. The average locomotive 1s in service something less than 20 per cent of the time with an average daily mileage of about 80 miles. Considerable attention is being paid to the possibility of increasing the amount of time the locomotive is in active service. This LOCOMOTIVE of course means the changing of crews while the engine is doing useful work. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1914, 64,760 locomotives of all classes were in use in the United States as reported by the Inter- state Commerce Commission. The total mile- age was 1,755,972,325 miles, an average of 27,- 115 miles per annum per locomotive. . Types.— There are between 30 and 40 types of locomotives in use in the United States, divided between passenger, freight and switch- ing. They are as a rule known and designated according to the number of wheels and drivers. The first figure denotes the number of lead- ing wheels in the front truck or under the front; the second gives the number of drivers and the last the number of trailing wheels under the rear end. The following are some of the types now in use: WHEEL ARRANGEMENT SYMBOL TYPE SERVICE 0-4-0 | 4-wheel switcher..... hm iS Sista industriel Se 0-6-0 | 6-wheel switcher..... AZOO © Switching. 0-6-6—-0 | Mallet articulated.... LAPOOO*OOOL Heavy freight. 0-8-0 Switching. 0-8-8-0 Heavy freight. 2-4-9 Suitable for short runs, light service and moderate speed. 2-6-0 Freight. 2-8-0 | Consolidated......... General freight. I1O—-@ | Vecanod oi. 4... aoa Heavy freight. 4-4-9 | American (8 wheeler). Passenger, freight and mixed service. 4-6-0 | 10 wheeler........... Passenger and fast freight. ; 0-4-2 | 4 coupled and trating, ethos gig = limited eadaty of 0-6-2 | 6 coupled and trailing. Short runs. 0—4—4 | Fordney, 4 coupled... Used as double enders. 2A) Hao bias chee ae Light road service. 2-6 2 RI caltie eee we Heavy passenger and fast freight. DO ONETANS So See Spode: freight service on sharp 2-10-2 | Santa Fé.........0.. Heavy freight service on sharp curves. 2-44 | 4 coupled, double For logging, industrial or light road CHaGI Si oe elie ee service. 2-6-6-2 | Mallet articulated... Heavy freight. 2-8-8-2 - - id i 2-8-8-0 = y s ‘ 2-10-10—2 % r a - 2-8--8-8-2 | Mallet artic triplex... Heavy freight. 4-4-2 | Atlantic............. High speed passenger service. BAGH E PACH . sa nen a cater Heavy fast passenger and fast freight. 4-8-2'|\ Mountain. .....054'.. Heavy passenger. 1 American Locomotive ESR o ieee SSoss of 1830 | 2 American Locomotive of 1840 3 American Locomotive of 1900 LOCOMOTIVES 1 Pacific type for heavy passenger service 3 Heavy freight service type - 2 Mountain type for passenger service 4 Freight type with three groups of driving wheels, one of the largest engines in the world LOCOMOTIVE The most common types in railroad service are the 44-0 (American); 442 (Atlantic) ; 2-6-0 (Mogul); 46-0 (10 wheeler); 2-6-2 (Prairie); 4-6-2 (Pacific); 2-8-0 (Consoli- dated) ; 2-8-2 (Mikado) ; and 0-6-0 (6 coupled switching). Each type is manufactured in different weights with various tractive efforts dependent to a certain extent upon the weight. The fol- lowing table indicates the average range in weight : TYPE Weight in pounds 4-42-07 American .,0 SRL... Seo 30,000 to 136,000 AeA TATE. ia ty ee oes 126,000 to 215,000 Aaa NLOGAI «ive... eget atau checcushede «Mgrs 30,000 to 164,000 4-6-0 Ten-wheeler..../.....00.5..%.. 51,000 to 205 ,000 2-6-2 airiess ei 208 7 SSO. Oe 28,000 to 134,000 Aas PRCIR CY ot N Gita etponioeh. eta 90,000 to 282,000 2-8-0 Consolidated............. >... 42,000 to 234,000 TS 2Mikadortst aia Poe Fee 86,000 to 320,000 0-6-0 Six-coupled, switching......... 18,000 to 155,000 Pree PES IANO Ec tai Poo atuke im Spake 204,000 to 520,000 Types for Passenger Service— The 46-2, or Pacific type locomotive, is best suited for the present-day demands in fast passenger service. It is used to a considerable extent where a tractive effort of 40,000 to 45,000 pounds is required. Where long heavy trains are operated or where extra heavy grades are prevalent, the Mountain type of locomotive, or 482 is growing in favor. The Atlantic, 4-4-2 and the Prairie, 2-6-2, are used exten- sively on the shorter runs or where local opera- tion prevails. Types for Freight Service—It was but a few years ago that the Consolidation, 2-8-0, locomotives comprised about 30 per cent of the locomotives in use. For heavy freight service and for fast trains it is being replaced by the heavier type of Mikado or 2-82. The Mikado is used mainly where the tractive ef- fort required is about 55,000 pounds. For heavier service and up to 83,000 pounds trac- tive effort, the Santa Fé, 2-10-2, is becoming popular. The Santa Fé appears to give better results for heavy slow service than either the Consolidated or Mikado. Where the service is exceptionally heavy the Mallet articulated types of locomotives are growing in favor. These engines are built with tractive efforts ex- ceeding 100,000 pounds. The Mallet articu- lated compound locomotive was used in some of the mountainous districts of Europe prior to such modifications as were necessary to adapt it to requirements set by the railroads of this country. Practically two locomotives, considering the drivers and cylinders, are com- bined. It has one boiler and one furnace an lends itself to a more advantageous application of the compounding principle. Types for Switching Service— The 0-6-0 type is the most common type of switch engine. Occasionally the Mallet 0-8-8-0 is used with a tractive effort of 100,000 pounds. A type more commonly found, however, than the 0-8-8-0 for heavy switching is the 0-8-0, espe- cially where the tractive effort required is about 70,000 pounds. FUELS. As a general rule the major operating cost in the operation of steam locomotives is for fuel which to a considerable extent comprises different kinds of many grades. The kind of fuel used plays an important part in the pro- portioning of the boiler and furnace and should 569 always be given careful consideration. A thor- ough knowledge should be had relative to the various fuels, their composition, condition of operation when using same, quantities required, cost, availability and education of crews oper- ating the locomotive. Wood.— On logging railroads wood is al- most universally used as a fuel for locomo- tives. Approximately two and one-fourth pounds of dry wood are equivalent in heating value to one pound of soft or bituminous coal. The average composition of several kinds of dry wood by weight is as follows: Carbone: : daa ees. [hit 22 ie orroie Ss 49.75 per cent Hydrogernsc 2. qe eee PD Eo ete ee 6.05 per cent AV SEW oo ce eteme Nope ee eb sene ena te 5 iain vst ae! sy is 41.35 per cent Nitrogen’. ARO, See ene, Ue BI 1.05 per cent SH, : Sth. SAREE UII BERL LE” 1.80 per cent 100.00 Wood which has not been specially dried contains considerable moisture, generally be- tween 20 and 40 per cent. It is advisable, therefore, to dry the wood and keep the same protected as it will absorb about 15 per cent of water when exposed to the atmosphere. Comparative value of different kinds of wood for fuel are given in the following table: Relative Weight of value as one cord in KINDS OF WOOD a fuel pounds ReeMoale ra iinet rie Skee eo ds win rai een 1.00 3,254 Shelf bark hickory3. . SRS ik Sa 1.45 4,469 Chestnut white oaliies s..tset. oeienurl 1.25 3,955 WihiteOak. po eat serio mark be oe tee 1347 3,821 MWiinte: ashe manus Rew Ase) cS crkaaneet | k 1.12 3,480 White béechei tere . Jee. dass .94 3,236 Black wealth tien | precpigs, gn o eee ess 94 3,044 Black Dineh! atccaece hacia clatter 6. ace 91 3,115 Wellowioak: veeovery pea tte Swear) nee 87 2,919 Hardtanap lex yeahs a ANB Bebe? Se .87 2,878 WihttetelmbaisAenecs2.. ..a.adandaiue & . 84 2,592 Vargennagnolia it shee >. aera. .81 2,704 Softonapletaiw i. co Mages pic Ny os Ps. a .78 2,668 DOLL GVELOMe DINE Beare. Foe sen Leon .78 2,463 DYCAMOREAE clots bg Mais ose ccs Ree « ahs) 2,391 Ghestnutea se aratioe cette Uae sie 275 2,333 Waite birehs sia sah 2 ONS eas .70 2,369 RO LSE VW: MITIG Math. fee te a egreen eON _70 oF tz (Prtehs pire speed ees es eee ee yen OD 1,904 1,868 White! pme tia Sarit, cin A es .61 Fuel Oil— Fuel oil has been used to a limited extent and more especially in the ter- ritory adjacent to oil wells. Where economic and commercial conditions permit it is the most desirable fuel. The absence of smoke and ashes, prompt kindling and extinguishing of fires, extreme rate of combustion and ease with which it can be handled and controlled are marked advantages in favor of fuel oil. The reduction in volume and weight over an equiva- lent quantity of coal for heating value and the increase in boiler efficiency are factors of no mean importance. Crude oil consists mainly of hydrocarbons together with small quantities of nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and water. The average com- position by weight of typical American fuel oils is as follows: PICHON. PeT.CEHE. 4s nei oa ot eke ch ae ee a eee 82.0 to 86.0 Tidrorent Per CONb na. «2-0 ca eae ee ok ee Ole 14.0 to 11.0 OXveen: Per CONLS ys sina Fell oes eae gee ah 3.8 to 6 Siilphius, per.cens apilnn fi oo) hag eden meas aden Oto 1.6 One barrel of crude oil contains 42 gallons and weighs from 310 to 350 pounds. Com- pared with coal, oil occupies 50 per cent less 570 space and is 35 per cent less in weight for equal heat values. COMPARATIVE HEAT VALUES OF COAL AND OIL. Barrels of Pounds of ~ oil equal to coal equal to 2,000 lbs. of B. T. U. PER POUND OF COAL 1 barrel of oil coal 10,000 sey) .,Bieiisys BES Ds oie ebean ob 620 3.2 COU es ho dnonn nde cate hs 560 3.6 WAR 0 Cena Ot 6 Sa Sool ou 520 3.9 TSjOOO RSS SEL cea aieraha’s ees serene eee 480 4.2 14; 000 siracirelpins pick « Ctae gears e 440 a 15, O0Q ss, 2 ste oife yoo tev eameaye oa eto ae 410 Coal.— The principal fuel used for loco- motives in America is coal. Coal may be divided into three principal kinds, anthracite, semi-bituminous and bituminous coal. Anthracite— Anthracite coal used in this country comes mostly from Pennsylvania and its use for locomotives is confined almost ex- clusively to a few railroads operating in the eastern part of the United States. This coal ignites very slowly and burns at a high tem- perture. It gives off almost no smoke and the flame is very short. HEATING VALUE OF ANTHRACITE COAL. Fixed Volatile - Heating value per LOCATION carbon matter Ash _ 1b. of combustible Lackawanna... 84.0% 5.0% 11.0% 13,900 B. T. U. Lykens Valley.. 81.0% 5.0% 14.0% 13,650B. T. U. Scranton..... 6.5% 9.0% . 84.4% Semi-Bituminous.— This is a softer coal than anthracite though in appearance it re- ~sembles the hard coal. It is lighter than anthracite and burns more rapidly and is capable of maintaining a very intense heat. HEATING VALUE OF SEMI-BITUMINOUS COAL. Fixed Volatile Heating value per LOCATION carbon matter Ash _ 1b. of combustible Blassburg, Pa.. 73.0% 15.0% 11.0% 13,500 B. T. U. Cumberland, Md: 3 =e 80.8% 13.0% 5.0% 16,320 B. 2. U: Pocahontas, W. AA), eee 74.5% 18.1% 6.6% 15,740 B. T. U. Bituminous Coal.— Coals that contain over 20 per cent volatile matter are usually classed as bituminous coals, and are divided into three HEATING VALUE OF TYPICAL BITUMINOUS COALS. Hoping Fixed Volatile ae LOCATION Ash | Water | per lb. carbon | matter of cans bustible Per et. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| B. T. U Freeport, W. Va.} 61.55 | 28.58 8.39 1.48 14,069 Hocking Valley, Ohio.. 49.54 | 34.14 9.67 6.65 13,053 dive Marquette, eee ne 53.95 | 31.14 2e6On 12.15 14,160 Brazil, Ind. se 50.30 | 34.49 6.33 8.98 12,417 Eastern Field, : Kin 8G Sous 56.39 | 36.12 4,39 3.10 14,148 Mana Creek, Alaan ..| 53,28 | 31.84 | 12.54 2.34 12,850 Fleming, ‘Kan... .| 49.36 32 168 ic 12207 4.99 12,242 Laddadale, Ia...} 45.02 | 30.74 | 16.00 8.24 11,027 Rich Hill, Mo. .| 28.73 | 33.58 | 19.36 8.33 10,586 Coffeen, Ill..... 42.81 | 29.48 | 13.28 | 14.43 10,064 Cambria, Wyo..} 34.82 | 35.02 | 20.72 9.44 9,650 Chariton, Ia....| 41.49 | 30.49 | 12.63 | 15.34 10,242 classes: coking, non-coking and cannel coals. “Coking Coals” is a term applied to coals 13,800 B. T. U. LOCOMOTIVE that fuse together and become pasty on being heated. They are rich in hydrocarbons and are used in gas manufacture. “Non-Coking Coals» do not fuse together during combus- tion and are free burning. “Cannel Coals” are rich in carbon, burn readily and with a bright flame. It is very homogeneous, breaks without any definite line of fracture and has a dull, resinous lustre. It is a valuable gas coal and is used but to a small extent for steaming purposes. The principle bituminous coals used are mined in Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsylvania and Illinois. Powdered or Pulverized Coal— The value of powdered coal as a fuel for steaming pur- poses has long been known. Despite the many advantages of powdered fuel, little progress has been made toward its general adoption. Among the advantages obtained in burning powdered coal are: Complete combustion and total absence of smoke. A cheaper grade of bituminous coal can be burned, The locomotive boiler may be rapidly forced above its rated capacity. The labor of firing is reduced to a minimum. The constantly in- creasing demand for the better grades of coal and oil throughout the country has brought about a condition where it is difficult to obtain such fuel at reasonable prices. The yearly expenditure for fuel used in locomotives of the United States exceeds $300,000,000. The limited supply of oil should of necessity be con- served for other purposes. Investigations show that any fuel in a dry- powdered state 6624 per cent combustible is Suitable for generating steam. Anthracite, bituminous and semi-bituminous coals, lignite, peat, anthracite ,culm, dust and slush slack, screenings and dust may all be burned i ina pul- verized state. They should all be in about the same condition as dry Portland cement. The raw fuel is dried, pulverized and stored in fireproof containers. It is handled with the same care as fuel oil. For firing up a lo- comotive the usual steam-blower is turned on in the stack, a piece of lighted waste is put through the firebox door opening and placed on the furnace floor, just ahead of the pri- mary arch, after which the pressure blower and one of the feeders is started. Less than an hour is generally sufficient for getting a full head of steam. The powdered fuel, hav- ing been supplied to the enclosed tank on the tender, gravitates to a _ helicoidal conveyor which conveys it to the feeders where it is commingled with air under pressure which forces the mixture through the connecting hose to the nozzles leading into the fuel and air mixers. Additional air is supplied in the mixers and the mixture is then drawn into the furnace by the flue draft and combustion takes place. The maximum temperature is from 2500° to 2900° F. under the main arch. Liquid ash runs down the front and sides of the combus- tion zone and is precipitated into self-cleaning slag pans where it is cooled and solidifies. Many experiments are being conducted and various applications for burning powdered fuel are being tried out. Extensive developments LOCOMOTIVE may be expected within the next few years and the locomotive equipped for burning pul- verized fuel will not be uncommon. Coke.— Coke is used to a limited extent in certain portions of roads where smoke is ob- jectionable, such as in tunnels, cities, etc. It is not as a general rule desirable on account of its slow ignition and great bulk for a given weight. The best cokes are those from Penn- sylvania and Virginia. COMPOSITION OF COKE. Carbon LOCATION carbon Ash Sulphur Connellsville) Pasi yt ee: 89% 10% 1% PRoeahontash Vai assis eke. eet 93% 6% 1% Combustion.— Combustion takes place when the elements or the constituents of a fuel, which are mainly carbon and hydrogen, form a chemical combination with oxygen and produce oxides. Heat accompanies this chemi- cal action and it is this heat which is partially utilized in generating steam. Aw Required for Combustion.—Air is used to supply the necessary oxygen for maintaining and supporting the combustion. The composi- tion of air is approximately 23 per cent oxygen (O.) and 77 per cent nitrogen (N2) by weight, or 21 per cent O2 and 79 per cent N2 by vol- ume. To secure one pound of oxygen in the furnace it will therefore be necessary to sup- ply x or 4.35 pounds of air. Ordinarily in practice from 25 to 100 per cent more air is provided than is required for complete combus- tion. Naturally the less this excess, still main- taining complete combustion, the better the efficiency as this excess air leaves the boiler at a much higher temperature than when intro- ees into the furnace, thus carrying away eat. Let C, H and O denote respectively the parts by weight of carbon, hydrogen and oxy- gen in one pound of fuel. Carbon dioxide (CO:) is formed by the complete combustion of carbon and by the proportion of molecular weights 12 pounds of C combine with 32 pounds of oxygen to form 44 pounds of COs. In other words one pound of carbon requires 2.67 pounds of O2 or 11.6 pounds of air. By a similar method one pound of H: requires 8 pounds of O2 or 34.8 pounds of air. There is often a small quantity of oxygen in the fuel itself and we consider that this will be united with the hydrogen as far as it is pos- sible. Then the minimum weight of air re- quired for complete combustion may be ob- tained by the following equation. 11.6C+34.8(H— =) Pounds of air. The volume of air at 62° F. and atmospheric pressure theoretically required for complete combustion is arrived at by multiplying by the corresponding volume per pound of air which gives 147C-+441 (HZ )=Cu. rplatnt pe Pes Example: Determine the pounds of air and cubic feet of air theoretically required for the 571 complete combustion of the wood with the composition as given above. 11,6X 4975+34.8 (.0605— ==? )=05.077 Ibeyc of air. 41352 ° 147.4975+441 (.0605— ==°?)=77.0 cu. ft. of air. | One pound of fuel oil requires considerably more air than wood and more than any of the fuels mentioned heretofore. 11.6X.824+34.8(.14— Oy =14.22 hee cess 147. 82-441 (.14— 3) =178.19 bub festlof tain) The above figures indicate the importance of giving due consideration to the fuel used as space must be provided for admitting the proper quantity of air. At the same time the resistance offered to the passage of air through the fuel bed should be considered. Heating Value.—As mentioned before a chemical action is accompanied by the gener- ation of heat. The heat generated when one pound of combustible is completely burned is called the heating value. Heating values are determined as a rule by various calorimeters. The heating value of a fuel depends upon the quantities of carbon and hydrogen which it contains. Some fuels contain sulphur which generates some heat and requires a definite amount of oxygen for combustion. It is gen- erally disregarded however in making computa- tions. The heating value of a fuel may be approxi- mated by computing the quantities of heat which the combustible constituents contained in the fuel would produce if burned separately and taking the sum. The heat liberated in burning one pound of carbon completely is 14,650 B. T. U. One pound of hydrogen completely burned liberates OZ, TOO How Lasts Using the same symbols for the constituents as were used in arriving at the theoretical quantity of air necessary for combustion we can write. British thermal units (B. T. U.)=14,650 C+62,100 (H— >): The above formula is known as Dulong’s equation and is used extensively in estimating the heating value of fuels when the ultimate analysis is known. To determine the heating value-of wood from the composition hereto- fore given, we write 4135 14,650 .4975-+62,100 (.0605— —-~)=8,835 B. T. U. per Ib. Fuel oil according to the analysis given under fuel has the heating value of 14,650 X 82+62,100 (.14— “ )=20,412 Be, L.. Useper Ih. If it is desired to consider the heating value of the sulphur content, one pound of sulphur when completely burned will liberate 4,050 B. T. U. The weight of sulphur in one pound of the fuel is therefore multiplied by~ 4,050 572 and added to the sum of the heat liberated by the other constituents in determining the heat- ing value of the fuel. Water.— For many years, the water sup- ply was considered. one of quantity only, re- gardless of the kind. Quantity of course is of prime importance, but considerable expense in maintenance and operation can be saved by scientific handling and treatment of the water used, In certain localities the waters, though unfit for drinking purposes, may not contain substances which make them undesirable for boiler use. Some waters though very good for drinking purposes contain material which either cause the formation of soft scale, hard scale, corroding or foaming. Soft and hard scale are poor conductors of heat, and upon collecting in the tubes and on the heating surfaces sur- rounding the firebox reduce the heat trans- mission besides clogging up the passages. As the heat transmission is retarded the boiler plates next to the hot gases and the tubes be- come overheated which causes leaks and trouble with the engine’s cylinder parts and steam passages. Relief is found by constant washouts, but this is an expensive method to pursue. It causes delays, layovers of consid- erable time and is hard on the life of the boiler in that cooling and heating up cause unequal expansion in the various parts which results in a loosening at the connections. Foaming is the most troublesome and most difficult to remedy. Broken cylinder parts, blowing out of packings, cutting of reciprocat- ing parts are quite frequently the result of foaming. Quite often foaming causes trouble with the fire-box sheets and tube sheets. Con- siderable waste of water and heat occurs in that water is carried along with the steam to the cylinders, especially when the boiler is be- ing forced as in climbing grades. Treatment of Water—In the case of soft scale due to the presence of lime carbonate and magnesia carbonate it is advisable to neu- tralize with slaked lime and give the boiler washouts frequently. Hard scale is due to the presence of lime and magnesia sulphates. Foaming is possible as an after trouble. Soda ash with slaked lime acts as a remedy and the boilers should be washed out frequently. Changing of the water and blowing out is also advisable whenever possible. _ Acids and chlorides in the water cause cor- rosion and foaming. The boiler should be closely inspected frequently, blown out and the water changed. Slaked lime or soda ash are helpful in relieving this trouble. . Foaming is frequently caused by the pres- ence of alkali and mud in the water fed to the boiler. Diluting the water with other waters quite often gives relief. Distillation alum acts as a neutralizer. The boiler should be blown out often and the water changed frequently. Where water of sufficient purity is not avail- able for the boilers many of the railroad com- panies are finding it necessary to render the available supply suitable by treatment and water-softening plants are being installed at the watering stations and terminals. Most of the companies employ chemical engineers to make a study of different waters used along the right of way and treat the waters, figuring the cost as against the interest and depreciation on the additional locomotives required for their LOCOMOTIVE service. Cost of cleaning the boilers, decrease in efficiency and capacity are also balanced up. The Locomotive Firebox and Combus- tion Chamber.— The locomotive boiler consists essentially of a rectangular firebox and a cylindrical shell through which numerous tubes pass from firebox to the smoke box, terminating in tube sheets. The products of combustion after passing the length of the tubes enter the smokebox and pass up the smoke stack with the exhaust steam from the steam cylinders. A forged steel ring joins the fire- box with the outer shell. Near this ring are several hand holes for cleaning out the space between the shell and the firebox. This space is commonly called the water leg: All plates of the boiler and firebox that are not of cylindrical shape require staying to keep them in place. For example, the cylindrical shell of a tubular boiler does not require staying or bracing as the internal pressure tends to keep it cylindrical. Flat surfaces tend to bulge and must be held in place. The placing of stays and the arrangement plays an important part in the design of a boiler and must be worked out for each special type. Many dif- ferent methods of staying will be found, and there are quite often several ways of staying the same kind of surface. The firebox and flat ends of the boiler require staying. How- ever, a portion of the tube sheets are suffi- ciently held in place by the tubes. The water leg is stayed by screwed stay bolts riveted at the ends. These stay bolts are likely to crack or break off on account of the expansion of- the firebox. In order to detect such a failure the stay bolts are often drilled from the outer end nearly through to the inner end. In case of failure steam will blow out the defective stay and thus give warning. The crown sheet of the firebox is exposed to intense heat while covered with but a few inches of water. The staying of the crown sheet is one of the most difficult problems met in locomotive boiler con- struction. To avoid the difficulties of staying the crown sheet, the firebox end of the boiler shell is sometimes made flat on top. Tubes for a locomotive boiler are as a rule made smaller than for stationary boilers and are spaced much more closely. Two-inch tubes are used generally, although in some cases smaller tubes have been used. The boiler is fastened rigidly to the frame of the locomotive at the smoke- box end. A small longitudinal motion on the frame at the firebox end is provided for by expansion pads. Firebox.— Two functions are performed by the firebox. Burning of the fuel and liberation of the heat contained is first and most import- ant. The second function is to permit the transmission of the heat through the firebox heating surfaces to the water. Under normal conditions only a part of the fuel burns on the grates. A considerable portion, approxi- mately one-half, of the heat is liberated by the burning of the gases above the fuel bed and in the tubes. Sufficient air supply, com- plete mixing of the gases and ample combus- tion space are necessary to prevent a large amount of combustible gases from passing out the smoke stack. Combustion Chamber The firebox fur- nishes seldom more than 10 per cent of the total heating surface, but is responsible for LOCOMOTIVE more than 25 per cent, and sometimes as high as 50 per cent of the total evaporation. It is very essential that sufficient combustion space be. provided in which the combustible gases given off by the fuel bed can burn and give off their heat. The carbon in the fuel next to the grates may be completely burned to. carbon dioxide, but in passing up through the fuel bed freshly placed will leave largely as carbon monoxide. If no place is provided for this gas to burn it will pass up the stack and lower efficiency will result. Mechanical Stokers— Mechanical _ stokers have been applied to a limited extent within recent years. On account of the increased size of the locomotive the ultimate capacity of the heating surface cannot be realized by hand firing and relief is sought in the application of mechanical firing. Many experiments are being conducted and the use of stokers is be- coming more general. Steam Action.— To understand the action of the steam in a modern locomotive let us take for example a locomotive about to start on its trip.; A good fire is burning on the grates, the steam pressure is up to maximum and a suffi- cient coal and water supply is on the tender. On opening the throttle, after setting the shift- ing lever, the steam enters the steam chest above» the engine cylinders, having passed through the superheater, if the locomotive is so equipped, and through the steam pipes con- necting the superheater or boiler with the steam chest. The steam then enters whichever end of cylinder is opened through the steam chest or valve chamber and due to its pressure causes the. piston to move. The piston being con- nected to the piston rod forces the crosshead and connecting rod and crank to perform their function of turning the axles upon which are mounted the driving wheels and valve mechan- ism. A movement of the valve mechanism causes a movement of the valve in the valve chest which admits the steam alternately to opposite ends of the cylinder and at the proper time permits the steam in the cylinder that has done its work to escape through the exhaust pipe and pass up the stack, thus producing a suction and creating a draft in the firebox. The valve and its movement are so designed that four events take place in each end of the cylinder as the. piston moves from one end to the other and back again, which requires one revolution of the drivers. One revolution of the drivers causes the valve to move from one end of its travel to the other and back again. When the valve is at one end of its stroke steam can enter the cylinder and when it is at the other end the steam can leave the cylinder. The opening and closing by the valve is a proc- ess continually. kept up and the opening varies from zero to its maximum. The valve starts to uncover the steam port slightly before the piston reaches the end of its stroke and we say admission takes place. Steam continues its flow into the cylinder and the piston starts on its working stroke. Before the stroke is com- plete the valve shuts off the steam and we have the cut off. The steam in the cylinder then ex- pands, doing work until the valve moving in the opposite direction opens the exhaust port and allows the steam to escape. This- last - has 573 event is called release, which as a rule occurs slightly before the piston reaches the end of its working stroke. The piston completes its working stroke and starts its return stroke, forcing the steam out of the cylinder. Before the piston completes its return stroke the valve started to close the exhaust port and upon closing we ‘have the fourth: event or com- pression. Some steam is caught in the cylin- der and compressed until admission occurs and a new cycle begins. A similar cycle is performed in the other end of the cylinder and so timed that when ex- haust and compression are taking place in one end admission and expansion are taking place in the other. The above-described events are changed at the will of the engineer by setting the shifting link for different cut-offs. When the shifting link is moved forward from mid- position the cut-off is increased and the loco- motive will run ahead. If he pulls the lever back of mid-position the locomotive will be re- versed. The nearer mid-position, the earlier the cut-off occurs and the less steam is ad- mitted. The events of the stroke are ex- pressed in per cent of the stroke completed in which they occur. For instance 25 per cent cut-off means the steam is cut off when the piston completes 25 per cent of its working stroke. Valve Gears.— The Stephenson link mo- tion and the Walschaert radial valve gear are the most common valve gears used in this country and have been briefly described under the caption Historical. More detailed descrip- tion will be found in texts on Valve Gears. Superheaters.— Few locomotives are now built without superheaters. The Schmidt fire- tube superheater was applied successfully as early as 1906, and the resulting economy in fuel and water together with its suitability to the requirements of American railroads has placed the superheater among the important elements of the modern locomotive. ‘To-day there are over 21,000 locomotives equipped with superheaters in the United States and Canada. Superheaters are applied to between 90 and 95 per cent of all the standard gauge steam loco- motives built in the United States. The appli- cation of superheaters results in an increased boiler. capacity of about one-third, and a sav- ing in fuel of between 20 and 25 per cent. This increase in economy has made it possible for the average fireman to fire heavier locomotives. Superheated steam effects an economy by rea- son of its temperature being above the satura- tion temperature of steam at the same _ pres- sure and also by reason of its increased vol- ume. At high temperatures superheated steam behaves like a gas. Considerable heat may be abstracted without producing liquefaction, whereas the slightest absorption of heat from saturated steam results in condensation. If superheat is high enough to supply not only the heat absorbed by the cylinder walls but also the heat equivalent of the work done during ex- pansion, then the steam will be dry and satu- rated at release. Greater superheat than this will result in a loss of energy unless the steam is exhausted into another cylinder. In most cases superheat is only carried so far as to reduce initial condensation. To obtain dry steam at release the steam at cut off must be 574 superheated 100° to 300° F. above satura- tion temperature, depending upon the initial condition of the steam and the.number of ex- pansions. It is evident that the increased ef- ficiency obtained by any superheat in excess of that needed to prevent condensation must be due to increased volume of the steam per- unit weight. A moderate amount of superheat produces a considerable increase in volume, the pres- sure remaining constant, and reduces the weight of steam per stroke for a definite amount of work. The general trend of engineers is toward the use of higher superheats and steam tem- perature of 600° are not uncommon. There is no doubt that the limit of. su- perheat is reached when the exposed machine parts are unable to withstand the higher tem- peratures. Several types of superheaters have been ap- plied to locomotives but the design of the fire tube superheater fits so well the requirements of American railroads that it is the universal favorite. Feed-Water Heaters— The function of the feed-water heater as applied to the locomo- tive is that of heating the feed water, while that of the feed-water heater installed in a power plant is often to assist in purification of the feed water. Generally speaking there is a gain of 1 per cent in heat for every 10 de- grees that the feed water is heated when the heat which increases the feed water tempera- - ture would otherwise be wasted. Again, the smaller the difference in temperature between the feed water and the steam, the less would be the strain on the various parts subjected to changes of temperature. In European coun- tries the application of feed-water heaters is rapidly becoming general. Not a great amount of attention however has been given to the methods of heating feed water for locomotive boilers in this country, though many American railways are alive to the possibilities and the increased economy resulting therefrom. Waste heat from two different sources is available, namely, exhaust steam and gases from the combustion chamber. The thermal efficiency of the average locomotive operating under good condition is about 7 per cent. In other words, 7 per cent of the total heat in the coal fired represents useful work at- the draw bar. Losses in the gases from the com- bustion chamber total nearly 18 per cent and that lost in the discharged exhaust steam about 65 per cent. Proportional and maintenance difficulties are greater in heaters designed to absorb heat from the furnace gases though the gases are at a higher temperature and greater transmission per unit of area might be ex- pected if sufficient quantities of the gases could be brought in contact with the heating surfaces. Attention should be first given to perfecting a feed-water heater to absorb all the heat possible from the exhaust steam and later attempt to use the heat in the hot gases as is done by the economizer in steam-power plants. The exhaust steam does some work in producing draft, and of course cannot be con- sidered as a dead loss. However, a small pro- portion of this heat could perform the work in producing a satisfactory draft. A feed-water heater based on the principle LOCOMOTIVE of the Lovekin film heater applied in marine practice has been designed and used on high- speed passenger locomotives capable of heating feed water from 45° to 225° F. A back pres- sure of 10 pounds existed in the cylinder. Two hundred and twenty-five degrees feed water is still about 160° below steam tempera- ture and any additional heating could be done by the exhaust gases which frequently have a temperature of 700° F. or more. From what work has been done it appears that a 10 per cent economy can be expected under reasonable conditions of operation. The logical location of a feed-water heater is on the front deck, close to the cylinders, and un- der the extension at the front. It is advisable in order to secure higher temperatures in the feed water to. use the closed type of heater with a pump to deliver the water to the boiler through the heater against the boiler pressure. The exhaust steam from the pump should be discharged into the heater. Locomotive Performance.— The indicated horse power, or horse power developed in the cylinders, of any locomotive may be computed as for any steam engine. The work done in the cylinder equals the product of the average force acting on the piston and the space traversed. Using the units in pounds and feet gives a result in foot pounds which if divided by 33,000 foot pounds considering one minute in time gives horse power. . Let A= Area of piston in square inches. d= diameter of cylinder in inches. L' length of stroke of piston in feet. N}§ revolutions: per minute. P=mean effective pressure on piston in pounds per square inch during one revolution. Then the horse power developed in one end of the cylinder will equal ry p— PLAN _ PXL'xnx@XN Te S¥TE33 M00 15 4X 33,000 As work is done in each end of the cylinder and there are ordinarily two cylinders on each locomotive the total horse power of the loco- motive equals. 4 PL'AN 4XPL’XtX@XN_ PL'@N 4H P< 33,000 an v4 38,000 <0 aaMeSOe If L is expressed in inches PLa2N Pe Pi 726,050 Let V = speed in miles per hour D+ diameter of drivers in inches. PLEV |) “RLY. Then DoH APS 31.25D = 375D : The maximum horse power is usually at- tained at speeds of from 25 to 35 miles per hour in freight locomotives, and at speeds of 50 to 60 miles per hour in passenger locomo- tives. Efficiency (Mechanical).— Mechanical effi- ciency represents the ratio of the horse power at the tender drawbar to the indicated horse . power (I. H.P.) developed in the cylinder. The losses include (a) friction in all the mechanisms; (b) air resistance; (c) grade re- sistance, and (d) acceleration resistance. These losses vary from 10 to 30 per cent of the I. H. P. LOCOMOTIVE Tractive Force The. tractive force in pounds for simple locomotives considering drop in pressure due to expansion, friction and wire drawing is expressed by the formula 8 Pa. P= ——_., D Some authorities use .85 instead of .8. The following formule for different types _ of locomotives are used by certain locomotive builders : Simple 2-cylinder locomotives working simple fe 85 PaL Do Compound 2-cylinder locomotives 8 Pd3L D Compound 2-cylinder 67 Pg compound F =- D Compound 4-cylinder 1.6 PdpL D Compound 4-cylinder locomotives .67 Pd,L 25 Pa? LL spa es See working simple F = locomotives working locomotives working simple F = working compound FF = Mallet compound eee locomotives 52 Pd iL D ; d7 = diameter of high pressure cylinder in inches. d\=diameter of low pressure cylinder in inches. Tractive force determined by the above formule holds when the locomotive is operat- ing on a level track at a uniform speed up to seven miles per hour. _ As the speed increases and the cut-off is re- duced or takes place earlier in the stroke the resulting tractive force is less. Drawbar Pull The drawbar pull or trac- tive force of a locomotive is indicated on a dynamometer. This force is dependent upon the weight of the locomotive on the driving- wheels and upon the power of the locomotive. The drawbar pull at that point where the driv- ing-wheels begin to slip: is known as the ad- hesion of the locomotive. The adhesion varies with the coefficient of friction between the driving-wheels and the track. Values of the ee of ae ie are given in the following table working compound F = Dry rail, good cuudiien ae, RNG Fe) t6825 Maximum with sand...... BRE hoes ji arate) Moist Fae iPr Tad er BE ae, F==15 Worst condition" Vaurgip oo, Bi 20: eS Drawbar pull weight on drivers in pounds times f. : 7 Engineering News gives R=2+ 4 Baldwin: Locomotive Works[{ gives R==3-+ y in which R= resistance in pounds per ton (2,000 pounds), on straight level track and V = velocity in miles per hour. Under good conditions the, drawbar pull necessary to haul one ton varies from 6 to 8 pounds on straight level track, increasing with curves and grades.. The increased resistance due to grades is as follows: One mile con- 575 tains 5,280 feet, and the force necessary to move one ton up a grade of one foot per mile is 3788 pounds. When the grade is expressed in feet per mile the number of feet per mile multiplied by .3788 will give the resistance in pounds per ton. When the grade is expressed in feet per hundred, or per cent, the resistance for each per cent of grade will be 20 pounds per ton. The resistance due to curves is not easily determined. The construction of the roadbed, speed of train and various other con- ditions of service make it impossible to give an exact rule for computing the resistance due to curves of any given radius. This resistance has been estimated at from .6 to .7 pounds per ton per degree of: curve. By degree of curve is meant the number of degrees of central angle subtended by a chord of 100 feet. One degree of curvature equals a radius of 5,730 feet. Therefore, the number of degrees di- vided into 5,730 gives the radius in feet to a very close approximation. A starting force of about 18 pounds per ton is necessary to overcome train resistance. However, considerable variation from this force is likely to be experienced. Values mentioned by numerous authorities range from 14 to 30 pounds per ton. These figures are not in- tended to cover inertia but represent slow starts. The resistance reduces the instant the train moves. Slack in couplers or compression in draft springs aid the locomotive by permit- ting the train to start one car at a time. Engi- neers realize this and locomotives draw trains - with entire satisfaction which if all the cars in the train were rigidly coupled could not be started. The effect of wind resistance is of such importance that consideration should be given the same. Winds blowing with the train help the locomotive while head-on winds add to the resistance to be overcome by the loco- motive. Winds at right angles to the direc- tion’ of travel of Vthe train :are,.as ia. rule, considerably harder on the locomotive than head winds. The side wind causes high flange friction on the far side and it is not uncommon during heavy wind storms on the prairies to have trains delayed as the locomotives are unable to maintain their scheduled speed. Trains in starting will require, as stated above, about 18 pounds per ton and as the speed increases to five miles per hour will drop to four or five pounds per ton. The formule as hereinbefore given for determin- ing the value of R, or draw bar pull, are not general. We know that R does not increase at the same rate for heavy trains as for lighter trains. For a 100-ton train 30 pounds per ton will be the approximate tractive effort when the speed is 80 miles per hour and for a 600-ton train 15 pounds per ton at the same speed will be required. Inertia.— Inertia, the amount of which de- pends upon the weight and change in velocity, effects all bodies in motion. Locomotives move on the track at varying speeds, some. of the parts have various speeds with respect to each other and the motions of the parts are in different directions. The locomotive must be built to withstand these inertia forces safely. The inertia forces are small when the speed is low, but should nevertheless be given care- ful consideration. At high speeds many fail- ures have resulted due to improper size of the 576 parts. For instance, a locomotive running at 60 miles per hour has its brakes applied as it approaches a curve. It is obvious that the locomotive must be built to withstand the iner- tia forces and be balanced to resist the tend- ency to overturn as curves are met. Economy of Modern Locomotives.— Tests reported (Bulletin No. 26, University of Illinois Experiment Station) show the follow- ing increase in economy with increase in boiler pressure: Boiler pressure, lbs. PELisG., i 1h he; Gee Steam per I. H. P. per hr. in lbs..... Coal per I. H. P. per Hritin lbs. ees 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 20 Ao 27.920. 0 -26..0::25..5..25. bk 24.4 4.0 3.8713.6.0326°304 374 63.3 In Engineering News, 8 March 1894, Mr. C. H. Quereau reports that the mean effective pressure decreases as the speed of the loco- motive increases: Miles per hour...... AG 251-253. fs 51 60:66 eile ingeee per min- NEE Cocos ot Woke tee ren Mean effective pres- sure, lbs. per sq. in. 51.5 44.0 43.0 41.3 42.5 37.3 36.3 2245+ 248 5258 263: 25277) 1:292 321 Mr. Quereau also states the following rela- tive to the variation of steam consumption with speed: Soh seh SL SINGLE EXPANSION COMPOUND Steam : Steam - Revolu- ise per I. H.| Revolu- ied rp I. tions ed P. per tions Pp 4 PEt our hai hour hour 1 Tbe! in lbs. 100-150 21-31 18.33 151 31 21.7 150—200 31-41 18.9 219 45 20.91 200-250 41-51 19.7 253 52 20.52 250-275 51-56 21.4 307 63 20.23 Ath cP ed eR 3 SET 321 66 20.01 The maximum indicated horse power per square foot of grate surface lies, for the freight locomotives, between 21.1 and 31.2, for passenger locomotives between 28.1 and 35.0. Cylinder Performance.— Cylinder per- formance is affected by variation in both speed and cut-off. Run at a constant speed, the steam consumption per indicated horse power in simple locomotives is a minimum at from SPEED DRY SEE PER I.H.P. PER HOUR, LBS. : Per cent Miles R.P.M cut-off 20 40 30 per hour 50 40.. 2 30.0 28.8 28.0 27.4 60.. 10 2725: 26.8 25.9 Aa | 80.. 13% 26.0 25.5 24.6 24.0 100... 162 Ppa) 24.9 24.0 23.6 120.3% 20 2526 24.5 23.8 23.3 140.. 234 26.0 24.5 24.0 23.3 Hee 264) \fet on ae eae ge DR pea 2S a SO Sole. oe PAs peak hal ieapt i Wek Sh ee nn See 200.. EXY ah pn iee eee 255 |se see tests ee 30 to 40 per cent cut-off, increasing at either earlier or later cut-offs. When run at constant cut-off, the steam consumption decreases rap- idly with the speed until it reaches a minimum LOCOMOTIVE at a speed of approximately 150 revolutions per minute, and then increases as the speed increases beyond this point. The preceding table gives typical perform- ances for a simple freight locomotive operating at 200 pounds pressure. Boiler Performance.— The | evaporation per square foot of heating surface per hour varies from 5 to 15 pounds. Under ordinary conditions the evaporation is about 11 pounds per hour and the locomotive is seldom driven above this amount. Under the conditions of service prevailing it will average nearer 7.. Therefore each square foot on the average will be good for about .2 of a boiler horse power and when driven will supply around 4 B.H.P. Slightly less than one-half of the evaporation takes place on the heating surface of the firebox although it constitutes between 4 and 8 per cent of the total heating surface. Most of the heating surface is in the tubes. Evaporation results in ordinary practice will as a rule fall between the values given in the following table: Water Waters evaporated evaporated per lb. per sq. ft. of of heating dried coal surface as per hour fired in lbs om Oa Fos Up iitahs SEU gr ANI Le MRA rn) ey cA es te, a Tid toch, Vin Gere cee cuele ea cee Se eee 4 7 .3.t0°105 7. 2 ee ee ae ee se 5 712 to MO? 23re RR ee Say Aree Se 6 TO 1029 £855 Saree cate eee ee 7 658 to. 49.4. ee ee Net ape cd: eee 8 G2 SOOO Cor ae eer Se er ie a ee a 9 6.2405 SieSii.is: Mead a ee tk ee Oe 10 620 to A8cLshy.. nck oa easel eee ; 11 SU B10. 1 HL cn. ee a LO Sine ete ae 12 5 Sto 255, oe een ee Be a ee 13 502 tOjPOL8 ue eee Ba. te ded eee 14 5.0 to- 6:4. 255 [Yee ee eee 15 Compound Locomotives.—Any locomotive equipped with cylinders in which the expansion of steam is begun in one cylinder and con- tinued in another is called a compound loco- motive. When steam is expanded in two or more cylinders successively the number of ex- pansions per cylinder is less than when only one is used, and therefore the range of tem- perature in each cylinder is less. Reducing the range of temperature in each cylinder reduces the condensation losses. The main object of compounding is to reduce the amount of steam per horse power per hour. With compound en- gines as applied to locomotives the saving in steam consumption as compared with simple engines is a very uncertain quantity. Ten to 20 per cent less steam is used per indicated horse power per hour in compound locomotives than in the simple engine when the cylinders, pis- tons and valves are all in good condition. Locomotives with more than two cylinders are as a rule made compound. In two-cylin- der compounds it is quite important that the work done in each cylinder be equal. The ex- haust or back pressure of the high pressure cylinder is the initial pressure of the low pres- sure cylinder. They are arranged, however, to start as simple engines and the general arrange- ment is to allow the high pressure cylinder to exhaust directly into the atmosphere, the steam from the boiler to the low pressure cylinder being reduced in pressure by passing through a reducing valve. TE8T JO SoUIN}SOd 9q} Ul passoip o1¥ Ulel) plo ey} UO SIasUessed OY “MOY Uv So[IUI GT 0} B WIOIJJ Jo poads v }¥ ULI puL AresIOATUUY YJONOUIU SII UO Po[pUryeI Soy SI PLY ‘Test ul ApvjeueyoS puv AuLqTy Usemjeq URI 4SIY YIYM ‘oulsUa JouING-poom pjo eyL “Iz6I AIN{ FI “A *N ‘UOWIERy 38 ANOWOIO] ,, VOJUTTD HIME ,, WI0}sTY oy} Aq UMLIP UleN JeZuessed js1y s,AUedUIOD }vY} opIssuole pvopeY [e1jUID HIOX MON 94} Jo popu] AInjueDg qlonuemy 1Z6L Vys4Adoy -ojoyg Aoarwyy we SR Te ty = LOCOMOTIVE Under ordinary conditions the cylinder per- formance of compound locomotives as com- pared with simple locomotives is as given in the following table: LBS. OF DRY STEAM PER I.H.P. PER HOUR rc OC - owmaooOo Simple Compound SPEED IN R. P. M. locomotives locomotives GOs: le ERIS 2. DOT 27.3 to 30.0 20.3 to 22.0 CEH EE TE RESTLESS otek bata 26.0 to 27.9 20.1 to 21.7 Og BOs To: IN SR ee) ge 24.9 to 26.3. 19.9 to 21.6 TORE, ete I S28. ATS AS 24.0 to 25.3 19.8 to 21.4 A20 ATA FAIS SAE SF 23.7 to 24.8 19.8 to 21:5 PAGS Tae seis Sie ot. Sire othe aks 23.6 to 24.7 20.0 to 21.7 1GQ Shae SE PER OF Pele. PREZ 23.7 to 24.8 20.2 to 22.0 TSO cpt at A... ote te SES 24.0 to 25.2 20.6 to 22.3 PUN RESO dae AS Sh OIE niet oes 24.5 to 25.9 21.0 to 23.0 220 D3 Se. Sages BE Bes 25 Jotown. OF “2114 to 2578 DAT ee MES, po OES San SH See ohes 3 26.7 to 28.2 22.0 to 24.6 ZOOM 3G. EE Psa... Oee...t2. F 27131 £O-297 2) 222 8ito 25.35 Geared Locomotives.— Geared locomotives are especially designed for logging service, where steep grades, sharp curves and uneven tracks are encountered. They are carried on 8 or 12 wheels, which are grouped in two or three trucks; each truck having four wheels: Power is applied to all the wheels, in order that the whole weight of the locomotive, in- cluding the fuel and water supply, is available for adhesion. As a general rule the engine drives a transverse shaft. The transverse shaft is bevel gear connected to longitudinal shafts which extend to the trucks. Universal joints are arranged as fitted to the longitud- inal shafts to compensate relatively changing positions of the trucks when the engine is traversing curves. ‘The trucks are so arranged that the boxes can play in their respective pedestals without throwing the gears out of mesh. In case it is desired to transport the locomotive on its own wheels the gears can be thrown out of mesh so that the transmission mechanism does not act when the locomotive is moved. Bibliography.—American Locomotive Com- pany, ‘Locomotives? (New York 1902 to date) ; American Railway Association Proceedings (New York 1886 to date); American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Asso- ciation Proceedings and Reports (Chicago 1900 to date); American Railway Engineering Association Manual (Chicago 1915 to date); American Railway Master Mechanics Associa- tion, Locomotive Dictionary (Newark, N. J., 1870 to date) ; American Society of Mechanical Engineers Transactions and Journal (New York 1880 to date); Baldwin Locomotive Works, ‘Locomotive Data? (Philadelphia 1909 to date) ; Engineering News (New York 1875 to date); Garbe, R., ‘Locomotives? (London 1908) ; Goss, W. F. M., ‘Locomotive Perform- ances? (New York 1907); Henderson, G. R., ‘Locomotive Operation? (Chicago 1904) ; Inter- national Railway Fuel Association Proceedings (Chicago 1914 to date); Master Car Builders Association Proceedings (Chicago 1875 to date) ; Pennsylvania Railroad Company, ‘Loco- motive Testing? (Altoona, Pa., 1904 to date); Pettigrew, W. F., ‘Locomotives» (London 1909) ; Purdue University, ‘Locomotive Test- ing? (Lafayette, Ind., 1895 to date); Sinclair, A., ‘Locomotive History? (New York 1907) : United States Interstate Commerce Association, “Locomotive Boilers? (Washington, D. C., 1912 to date); University of Illinois, ‘Engineering VOL. 17 — 37. 577 (Urbana, IIl., W. F. VERNER, Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan. LOCOMOTIVE, Principal Parts of.— The following list embodies brief descriptions of the construction and operation of the vari- ous principal parts of the modern locomotive. For further information consult articles under the titles Locomotive; Locomotive INDUSTRY; ENGINE INDUSTRY in this Encyclopedia. Arr . BELL-RINGER.— Air-pressure connection for ringing the signal bell. AIR-BRAKE Hose.— The flexible hose connection by which the brake-pipe of the locomotive is attached to that of another locomotive. AIR-CYLINDER OF BRAKE-PUMP.— The lower cylinder of the air-pump which furnishes the compressed-air for setting the air-brakes. AIR-DRUM.— The main air-reservoir. See Main Reservoir. AIR-GAUGE.— A pressure gauge provided with two hands, one of which indicates the amount of air-pressure in the main reservoir, and the other one the pressure in the main brake-pipe or train-pipe. In the latter the pressure is usually maintained at 70 pounds as indicated by the gauge, and in the main reservoir somewhat in excess of this amount, so as to ensure the proper action of the valves of the air-pump. ArIR-PUMP.— An air-compressing pump which is worked by steam taken from the boiler. It supplies the com- pressed-air used for operating the air-brakes, and for signal purposes. AIR-PUMP EXHAUST-PIPE.— The pipe from the steam pases of the air-pump to the steam-pipes in the smoke- OX AIR-PUMP LUBRICATOR.— The cup or arrangement which contains the oil used in lubricating the air-pump. It is located in the cab. AIR SIGNAL-HOSE.— The flexible hose which connects the air signal-pipe in the cab with the air signal-pipe con- nections in the cars. APRON.— The. sheet-iron plate which covers the space between the locomotive and the tender. ARCH-PIPES.— The steam-pipes in the smoke bak which connect the branches of the T-pipe with the steam-chests. BELL-YOKE or BELL-STAND.— The cast-iron arch placed : upon the top of the boiler, in which the bell is swung. BISSEL-TRUCK.— A wheel arrangement or truck designed to relieve the lateral rigidity in locomotives, and facilitate Experiment Station Bulletins? 1904 to date). their travel around curves. . BLow-orFr Cock.— A plug-cock at the bottom of the fire- box, by the opening of which the boiler is blown off or emptied. BLOWER-PIPE.— The pipe in the smoke-box connected 'with the blower-cock in. the cab. By blowing steam through it, a draft is produced when the locomotive is at rest: BoILer.— The large sheet-iron cylindrical structure, con- stituting the main upper body of a locomotive, filled with tubes, in which the steam used for driving the locomotive and operating its various auxiliary appliances is generated. BoILER-JACKET.— See Jacket. BONNET.— The wire cap or netting placed over the smoke- stack to restrain the sparks and cinders. Boxes.— The bearings which rest upon the journals of the axles. BrRAKE.— The appliance by which a locomotive or a train is brought quickly to a standstill. Ordinarily, it consists of a flexible piece of strap-iron lined with woeden blocking which is applied to the tires of the wheels by means of rods and levers actuated by the pressure of compressed-air, or by hand. BRAKE-PIPE.— The pipe through which compressed-air is conducted from the various air-reservoirs connected with the air-pump, to the brake-cylinders of the loco- motive, the tender, and the cars composing the train. Each car has its own brake-pipe and brake-cylinder. When the cars are made up into a train, these pipes are connected with each other and with those of the tender and the locomotive, by means of flexible hose, and when thus connected, it is called the train-pipe. BRASSES.— The brass boxes on the cross-heads and the crank-pins. BUMPER BLocks.— Pieces of timber bolted to the bumpers for the purpose of reducing the shock of impact when the cars come together. BumpER SHEET.—A sheet of metal placed on the front end of the frame, to cover the space between the bumper and the cylinders. BuMPERS or BUFFERS.— Massive pieces of timber bolted to the front end of the engine frame, and to the rear end of 578 the tender to receive ‘‘ bumps’”’ without fracturing the metal behind. CAB.— The hood or house placed on the back end of the boiler, and over the foot-plate, for occupancy by the engineer and fireman. Cas HaNDLES.— Handles attached to the sides of the cab for the use of the engineer and fireman, in getting on or off the engine. CELLARS.— Recesses or chambers in the jaws of the boxes, which hold the oil for lubricating the journals. CENTRE-CASTING.— The cast-iron plate which connects the truck bolster to the front-end of the boiler. CHECK-CHAMBER.— A chamber attached to the waist of the boiler, through which the water passes from the connecting pipe to the boiler. ; CHECK-VALVE.— A wing-valve inserted in the feed-pipe between the feed-pump. and the boiler, to prevent the return of the water from the boiler to the pump. CONNECTING-RODS.— The rods or bars attached to the piston-rods, by means of which the power developed in the cylinders is transmitted to the driving-axles. They convert the rectilinear reciprocating motion of the pistons ae. be rotary motion of the crank-pins of the main driving wheels. COUNTER-BALANCES or COUNTER-WEIGHTS.— Large blocks of iron cast on or otherwise secured in place between two or more spokes of each driving-wheel, opposite the crank-pin, for the purpose of balancing the weight of the parallel and connecting rods, and to steady the motion of the engine by equalizing the forces or moments around the axle. CouPLER.— See Draw-bar. CouPLING-RODS.— The rods by which the crank-pins on adjoining driving-wheels are connected together, so as to cause the wheels to rotate in unison. Cow-CATCHER or PiLot.—A triangular structure of steel, or iron bars, or curved sheet-metal, attached to the front end of the locomotive. It is provided for the purpose of removing stray cattle and other obstructions from the track, and thus prevent them from getting under the wheels. CRANK-PIN.— A pin in the crank of a driving wheel uniting the connecting-rod with the driver. Cross-HEADS.— Blocks. which move in guides and unite the piston and connecting-rods, and slide-blocks together. CROWN-BARS.— Bars placed on the upper side of the crown- sheet in the water-space, with their ends resting on the edge of the furnace-sheet, to strengthen the crown-sheet. CROWN-SHEET.— The top sheet of the furnace, to which the crown-bars are attached. It is placed directly over the fire. Cut-orF.— The termination of the period of admission of steam into the cylinders. The point of cut-off is regulated by the amount of lap on the slide-valves. CYLINDERS.— Steam-tight, cylindrical, metal receivers at- tached to the front end of the boiler on each side of the lower part of the smoke-box. They contain the pistons, which are actuated by the steam obtained from the boiler. There may be two, four or eight of them, according to the type of locomotive — simple-engine, compound-engine and tandem-compound engine, respectively. They are called high-pressure or low-pressure cylinders, according to the manner in which the expansive energy of the steam is utilized therein, and are given the additional designations — outside or inside cylinders, according to their position relative to the engine frame. CYLINDER-COCKS.— Small cocks placed on the lower parts of cylinder-heads, to drain off water of condensation. CYLINDER-HEADS.— The front and back ends of the cylinders. The latter hold the stuffing-boxes through which the piston-rods move. ; DamperS.— The doors in the front and rear ends of the ash pan, by which the air admitted to the furnace is regulated. DASHERS.— The sheet-iron plates attached to the inside shell of the boiler, opposite the pump-check, to prevent the cold water from drenching the tubes. DEFLECTOR.— A bell-shaped or trumpet-mouthed ‘opening used in the furnace to effect a mixing of the air and gases so as to cause the latter to ignite and thus render the combustion of the fuel more perfect. DomeE-Bopies.— The sheet-iron jackets which envelop the dome outside of the wooden “ lagging.’ DomE-sTtays.— The braces attached to the crown-bars and the dome, to strengthen the dome and the crown-sheet. DoME or STEAM-DOME.— The elevated, dome-shaped chamber on the top of the boiler, from which the supply of steam for the cylinder is taken, because it is partially superheated. DRAW-BAR or COUPLER.— The bar attached to the front of the pilot, by means of which the locomotive may be attached to cars or to another locomotive. The name is also applied to the rod or bar by which the locomotive is coupled to its tender.. Drip-cock or Drip.— The receptacle placed under the gauge-cocks, to receive the water and steam discharged. DRIVING-AXLES.— The axles which communicate the motion of the connecting-rods directly to the driving-wheels. LOCOMOTIVE DRIVING-SADDLES.— The yokes which straddle the frame and support the driving-springs. DRIVING-WHEELS or Drivers.— The wheels which are ; attached to the driving axles. The driving-wheel arrange- ment of a locomotive may consist of the 4-coupled, 6-coupled, etc., wheel type. They form what is calied the ““ wheelbase ’’ of the locomotive. The tractive power of a locomotive is derived from the adhesion of the driving- wheels to the rails, and depends upon the weight of the locomotive and the area of the wheelbase. EccENTRIC.— A device for operating the slide-valves. This change in motion is effected by giving the eccentric a definite ‘‘throw’”’ or eccentricity equal in amount to one-half of the travel of the valve. A locomotive has two pairs of eccentrics and their attachments. One eccentric of each pair is set on the shaft in such a position that the operation of the valves will run the engine in one direction, and the other one is set soas to operate the valve to run the engine in the opposite direction. The ends of each pair of eccentrics are attached to a link by means of which either of the eccentric-rods is engaged with or dis- engaged from the rockers. ECCENTRIC-SHEAVE.— The body of the eccentric or the eccentric itself, which is forged or keyed directly on to the axle or crank-shaft. _ ENGINEER’S BRAKE-VALVE.— The air-valve arrangement located on the right side of the cab, by means of which the engineer operates the driving-wheel and other brakes on the locomotive, and also the several sets of air-brakes attached to the cars of the train. ENGINE-TRUCK.— See Truck. | EQUALIZING-LEVERS.— Bars suspended at their middle points underneath the engine-frame, and connected at their ends to the springs of the driving-wheels, for dis- tributing the force of the shocks. EQUALIZING-SPRINGS.— The spiral or elliptical springs on the reverse-shaft, provided for the purpose of equalizing the weight of the links. EXHAUST-PORT.— The middle opening in the seat of each slide-valve. ; EXPANSION-CLAMPS.— The clamps bolted over the main- frames and the furnace-pads, to allow for the expansion of the boiler under the influence of heat. Also, the clamps bolted to the fire-box under the main-frame to hold the latter against the liners. FEED-PIPE.— The pipe which conveys the feed water from the feed-pump to the boiler. See Injector. FEED-PUMP.— The force pump which supplies the boiler with feed-water. It forces the water into the boiler against the pressure in the boiler. See Injector. FEED-TANK.— The water tank provided for the purpose of oe the feed-water for the boiler. It is located in the tender. FEED-WATER.— The water used for the supply of the boiler. FirE-Box.— The furnace, or that part of the boiler, in which the fuel is burned. FirE-poor.— The door in the back end of the boiler, through wich the fuel and the firing irons are introduced into the ~ e-box. FLuES.— The pipes in the boiler which carry off the smoke and the waste-gases from the fire-box to the smoke-box, and thus produce the draft necessary for the combustion of the fuel. They are made of iron, the diameter of the tubes being kept as small as possible so as to subdivide the volume of the smoke and gases into a large number of small streams, thus exposing them to a large radiating ~ surface, through the medium of which the heat is trans- mitted to the water surrounding the tubes. FOLLOWER-PLATES.— The plates which cover the spring» packing on the front ends of the piston-heads. Foot-BoArp.— A platform on the back end of the boiler, on which the engineer stands. Foot-pPLaTE.— A cast-iron plate bolted to the back end of the frame opposite the fire-door. FRAME.— The strong metal skeleton which supports the boiler, machinery, and axles of the locomotive. FRAME-SPLICE.— The connecting arrangement between the front and main frames. ; FRONT-END.— That part of the locomotive which includes the extended outer-shell of the boiler, comprising the smoke-box and all of the appliances contained therein. such as steam and exhaust pipes, nettings, diaphragms, draft-pipes and the base of the smoke-stack. The function of the front-end is to draw atmospheric air into the ash-pan, and thence through the grate and the fire-box, and to draw the furnace gases through the flues, and thence under the diaphragm into the smoke-stack, and force them out into the atmosphere. FRONT-RAIL.— A single-bar attachment which extends from the front of each of the main frames to the front bumper. Frosr-cocxs.— Cocks provided for the purpose of admitting steam from the boiler to the feed-pipes to prevent them from freezing in cold weather. . Frost-pLuGs.— Plugs screwed into the pump chambers and pump cages to allow the water to drain out and prevent them from freezing: LOCOMOTIVE FuRNACE-PADS.— The knees bolted on the shell of the fire-box, to place the weight of the boiler on the frame. FURNACE-RINGS.— The wrought-iron rings which connect the outside and inside sheets in the water space at the bottom of the furnace. Gis.— The fixed wedge employed to compensate the wear in the boxes, on the cross-heads, and of the crank-pins. GLanp.— A bush by means of which the packing in the stuffing boxes is secured in place, to receive the wear of the piston-rod, and to prevent the leakage of steam. GoosE-NECK.— A bent pipe of brass, or iron, employed to connect the front end of the feed-pipe with the lower chamber of the pump. GOVERNOR or PUMP-GOVERNOR.— A valve arrangement. con- nected with the steam pipe and the brake-pipe or train- pipe attached to the air-pump. It is employed to regulate the action of the pump in operating the air-brakes. It is usually set to maintain a pressure of 70 pounds as indicated by the air-gauge. GRATE.— The area made up of the grate bars in the fire-box, on which the fuel is burned. GRATE. SHAKING-RIG.— A bar attached to the movable grate-bars of shaking or rocking grates, by which they are moved back and forth with a rocking motion, thus dis- turbing the fire over the whole area of the grate, to effect proper combustion. It is operated by means of a suitable lever placed in the cab. GuImDE-BARsS.— The parallel bars between which the cross- heads move, thus giving a perfectly horizontal motion to the piston-rods.. They may consist of two parallel bars, double-guides or a single guide-bar, attached to the back head of the cylinder and to a support called the guide- yoke, a strong plate usually fastened to both the frame and the boiler, and placed across the frame at a point well forward of the front driving-wheels. GumwE-BLocks.— The blocks. on the back-head of the cylinders, and on the guide-yoke, to which the guide-bars are attached. HAND-HOLES.— Openings provided in the outside shell of the furnace near the ring, through which deposits of rust or dirt in the water-legs of the furnace are removed. Hanp-RAILS.— Brass or iron pipes attached by brackets or studs to the upper part of the boiler, and extending from the cab to the smoke-box. They are used by the engineer in getting on or off the running-board. HeapiicuT.— A large light placed on the front end of the locomotive to illuminate the track in front and thus disclose any obstructions that may exist thereon, and to signal the approach of the locomotive. HEATER-COCKS.— Cocks attached to the back end of the boiler, by which steam is blown through the feed-pipes, to prevent them from freezing in cold weather. Ho.itow-stays.— Hollow stay-bolts inserted through the inside and outside sheets of the furnace near the crown- sheet, through which air is admitted to the furnace to increase the combustion. HousE.— See Cab. INDUCTION-PORTS.— The passages in the valve-seats, through which steam is admitted to the cylinders. See Steam-ports. InJECTOR.— A mechanical device by means of which a continuous supply of feed-water is given to the boiler. Partial condensation of the steam is essential to efficient action. The injector will not feed water too hot to condense the steam. JACKET.— The outside coverings of the cylinders and the boiler. The boiler jacket is composed of layers of wood called ‘“‘lagging’’ about seven-eighths of an inch in thickness, felt, and iron, placed around the boiler to prevent . the loss of heat by raidation and convection. ; JamM-Nuts.— Lock-nuts used for setting-out the spring- packing in the piston-heads. Jaws.— The parts of the frame formed by the frame-legs, and which hold the axle-boxes. JouRNALS.— That part of the axle on which the weight of the locomotive rests. The journals are situated on the inner side of the wheels, and turn on brass “* journal- bearings’ which resists the friction of the axle. The bearings are held in cast-iron or steel boxes called ‘‘ journal- boxes ”’ or ‘‘ axle-boxes.”’ Kerys.— The wedges employed to tighten the “straps” Rach hold the ‘‘ brasses ’’ at the ends of the connecting- rods. KING-BOLT or CENTRE-PIN.— The bolt or pin which passes through the centre-casting and the centre of the truck, thus making a flexible connection between the engine and the truck, enabling the latter to turn about the king-bolt so as to allow the axles to assume positions approximating the radii of the curves of the track. KNUCKLE-JOINTS.— The joints on the valve-rods, -which allow the rods to vibrate freely with the radius of the rocker-arm. Link.—A_ variable-radius expansion-gear by means of which the slide-valves are operated. See Eccentric. LINK-BLocK.— A block which fits into the curved slot of the link, and moves freely from one end to the other thereof. LINK-HANGERS.— Rods or bars by which the links are suspended to the horizontal arms of the lifting-shaft. 579 LUBRICATOR.— The valve through which oil or tallow is admitted to the cylinders for the purpose of lubrication. Main RESERVOIR.— The main air-reservoir of the loco- motive. It is usually located on the front of the main frame, and immediately behind the cylinders. MAIN-RODS.— See Connecting-rods. Mup-pruM.— A cylinder attached to the under side of the ‘‘ waist ’’ of the boiler, to receive the deposits from the feed-water. This material is discharged from the drum by means of a valve called the ‘‘ mud-cock.’’ Mupb-HOLES.— Openings provided in the back end of the #fire-box, through which the accumulations of mud in the lower water-space. are removed. These openings are ‘ usually closed by means of brass plugs. MupD-RING.— The wrought-iron ring which unites the inner and outer shells of the fire-box; completely surrounding the inner shell and closing the water space between the two shells. NETTING.— Wire netting placed in the front end of the smoke-box, and in the smoke-stack. This netting acts as a sieve, arresting the sparks and cinders, but allowing the smoke to escape. OIL-cups.— Cylindrical metal receptacles with glass linings, employed to contain oil, and to distribute it to moving contact surfaces, for the purpose of lubricating them. PACKING.— The hempen, metallic or other substance used in the stuffing-boxes, and in the steam and pump cylinders, to aes the moving parts of the pistons steam and water tight. PETTICOAT OR DRAFT PIPE.— The pipe through which the exhaust-steam is’ conducted to the exhaust-nozzles in the smoke-box, thus creating a partial vacuum in the smoke-box, which sucks the smoke and gases out of the flues with great power, and forces them out into the open air by the blast or the action of the exhaust steam. PiLotT.— See Cow-catcher. PISTON-HEAD.— The disc-like plunger in the cylinder which is moved with a reciprocating movement by the steam, converting the energy of the*steam into motion. PISTON-ROD.— The rod attached to the piston-head, and by means of which the motion of the piston-head is communicated to the connecting-rod or crank. PRIMER.— The valve by means of which the air in the water-space of the pump is expelled, and a partial vacuum produced so as to cause an inflow of water to start the action of the pump. QUADRANT.— A slotted curved bar which holds the reverse- lever in the proper position by means of a reverse-latch. Also, a toothed bar located in the cab, by means of which the variable exhaust is regulated. RADIUS-BAR.— The angle-bar attached to the back end of the truck frame and to the radius-bar cross-tie by means of a pin. REACH-ROD.— The rod which connects the reverse-lever with the reverse-arm of the reverse-shaft. REVERSE-LATCH.— The tongue which fits into the notch of the quadrant by which the reverse-lever is held in the right position. REVERSE-LEVER OR REVERSING-LEVER.— The lever by which the direction of motion of the locomotive can be changed, and the travel of the valves increased or decreased. It is located in the cab within easy reach of the engineer. Rockers.— The double-cranks connected with the link- blocks at one end and the valve-rods at the other, and through which the valves receive the motion of the eccen- trics and links. \ SADDLE-PIN.— A pin by which the link-hangers are attached to the saddle-plate, and by means of which the link is raised or lowered. SADDLE-PLATE.— The plate which fits into and slides in the slot of the link. SAFETY-HANGERS.— Chains fastened to the front-bumper and to the front end of the truck-frame, to prevent the truck from swinging around and breaking the links in case the locomotive happened to run off the track. SAFETY-VALVES.— Spring-valves attached to the dome-cover, by which the steam-pressure in the boiler is prevented from exceeding a certain limit. SAND-BOX.— The cylindrical or dome-shaped box attached to the top of the boiler to contain the sand used for the purpose of sanding the rails in order to increase the adhesion, and prevent the driving-wheels from slipping at starting, or when hauling a heavy load, or when running up a heavy grade. SAND-PIPES.— The pipes on each side of the locomotive through which the sand from the sand-box is conveyed to the rails in front of the driving-wheels. SIDE-RODS or PARALLEL-RODS.— See Coupling-rods. SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATOR.— See Lubricator. SIGNAL-PIPE.— The air-pressure pipe by means of which the engineer communicates with the trainmen. SIGNAL-WHISTLE.— A steam-whistle attached to the top of the dome. It consists of an inverted metal cup, usually made of brass, which is placed immediately over the annular opening of a hollow valve-stem screwed into the top of the dome. SLIDE-VALVES.— The valves which control the admission and exhaust of steam to and from the cylinders, 580 SMOKE-BOx.— A cylindrical chamber at the front end of the boiler, which is utilized to contain the arch-pipes, lifting-pipes, exhaust-pots, exhaust-nozzles, steam-pipes and exhaust-pipes. It also forms a convenient receptacle for the smoke before it escapes into the open air through the smoke-stack. SMOKE-STACK.— The chimney through which the smoke escapes: from the smoke-box. SpRINGS.— Bundles of steel plates placed one on top of the other and bound together at the middle by metal bands, and their end connécted to the equalizing beams, for the purpose of reducing the effects of the shocks delivered to the locomotive by inequalities in the smooth- ness of the track. In order to place the weight of the locomotive on the axle-boxes of the driving-wheels, the axle-boxes are arranged to slide up and down in the jaws formed by the legs of the frames, and the springs are placed on saddles which rest on top ofthe axle-boxes. SPRING-BALANCES.— The spring attachments in the cab which connect the safety-valve levers to the top-sheets of the boiler. STACK-BASE.— The lower part of the smoke-stack, by which the stack is attached to the top of the smoke-box. In some forms it is provided with a hand-hole through which the accumulation of sparks may be conveniently removed. STAND-PIPE.— See Steam-pipe. STAY-BOLTS.— The bolts screwed through the inner and outer shells of the fire-box at frequent intervals, usually about four and a half inches apart, to connect the shells - together and enable them to resist the full pressure of the steam. STEAM-CHESTS.— The boxes located on top of the cylinders, and which contain the slide-valves through which the steam is admitted to the cylinders. STEAM-GAUGE.— A gauge attached to the back end of the boiler, in the cab, to indicate the pressure of steam per square inch in the boiler. STEAM-PIPE.— Any pipe carrying steam, but especially the pipe through which steam’ is conducted from the boiler to the steam-chests, thence through the openings in the seats of the slide-valves to the cylinders. Starting at the dome, the pipe makes a bend called the throttle-pipe; then it extends vertically downwards until it clears the vertical walls of the dome, this vertical part is called the stand-pipe. The stand-pipe is connected to the dry-pipe which extends to the top of the smoke-box where it is connected to the T-pipe, the branches of which are con- nected to the arch-pipes or steam-pipes connecting with the steam-chests. . STEAM-PORT.— A port or passage in a slide-valve for admis- sion of steam. é STEAM-VALVE.— The valve inserted in the steam-pipe connecting the boiler with the injector. STUFFING-BOXES.— The chambers in the back-heads of the cylinders, through which the piston-rods move. SupPLy-PorTS.— The openings in the steam-chests through which the steam is admitted from the steam-pipes. SWING-BOLSTER.— A swinging bearing in the centre of the truck on which the forward end of the locomotive rests, and which enables it to make curves easily. T or NicGeR HEAp.— See Steam Pipe. TENDER.— The carriage coupled to the back end of the locomotive, and used for the purpose of carrying water and fuel. THROTILE.— The double poppet-valve or throttle-valve, placed in the throttle-pipe near the top of the dome. This valve is operated by the engineer by means of a lever called the throttle-lever located in the cab, and connected by a rod called the throttle-stem to the lower arm of a bell-crank called the throttle bell-crank, the ou arm of which is connected by a rod to the throttle- valve. Trres.— The steel bands which form the peripheries of the driving-wheels. : TRAILING-WHEELS.— The back pair of driving-wheels in a four-coupled wheel arrangement, or a small pair of wheels placed behind the main driving-wheels where only one pair of driving-wheels is employed. TRAIN-PIPE.— See Brake-pipe. TRUCK-BRAKE.— The air-brake equipment of the truck, as Sree agg from the air-brake equipment of the driving- wheels. TRUCK or ENGINE-TRUCK.— The frames, wheels, springs, swing-bolsters, etc., which support the weight of the front of the locomotive. TuBEs.— Pipes for the passage of water. Compare flues. TUBE-SHEETS.— The plates at the front and back ends of the boiler in which the tubes are inserted. TUMBLING SHAFT.— See Lifting Shaft. VALVE Ports.—.See Slide-valve. VALVE-YOKES.— The wrought-iron or steel bands placed around the slide-valves in the steam-chests, and to which the valve-stems are attached. Warst.— The cylindrical portion of the boiler. Waist SHEET.— A sheet of wrought-iron bolted to the waist by an angle-iron, to which the guide-braces, guide-bearers and cross-ties are attached. LOCOMOTIVE DEVICES — LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY WATER-PIPE.— The connected. WATER-TUBES.— Any tubes carrying water, as the iron tubes, about two inches in outside diameter, which are attached to the front and back ends of the fire-box at such an inclination as to allow a continual circulation of water through them to keep them cool and thus prevent them from being burned out by the intense heat. WATER-VALVE.— See Injector. WHISTLE-RIG.— See Signal Whistle. LOCOMOTIVE DEVICES. See Sarety DEVICES. LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE, The. LocoMOTIVE, LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY, The. Un- like many of the great American industries the history of the inception and growth of loco- motive engineering in the United States may be clearly traced from the day when the first loco- motive was run upon the rails of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Other lines of rails had previously been laid but they had been con- structed for special purposes, and it was not until 1828, when both the Baltimore and Ohio and the South Carolina railroads were started, that there was any system constructed with the definite object of conveying both passengers and freight. The first American built loco- motive was operated upon the Baltimore and Ohio tracks, and although it was nothing more than the mere working model which was con- structed by Peter Cooper in 1829, and was not intended for permanent service, it demonstrated - the practicability of the invention so conclu- sively as to prove to the world that railway lines might be operated by locomotive power. In fact, it was largely due to this successful demonstration that the road was finally com- pleted. If the experiment had failed, the proj- ect would have been abandoned. The Peter Cooper model was a little engine with a single cylinder three and a half inches in diameter, with a boiler that was scarcely larger than that of an ordinary kitchen range, and with tubes that were improvised from gun- barrels. In spite of all the crudities in its con- struction, however, its trial run was completed so successfully that Peter Cooper, who himself was the engineer, was able to drive his loco- motive, which hauled 41 persons, including him- self, at a speed of 18 miles an hour. Slight - as such speed would seem at the present time, it was a great achievement for those days, when the locomotive was so generally regarded as the dream of an impracticable visionary. Moreover, it meant the beginning of the great development of the American locomotive and engine industry. The first locomotive to be constructed.in the United States for actual work was made in 1830. In 1829, however, Horatio Allen had im- ported a locomotive from Stourbridge, England, for the use of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company. It was known as the “Stourbridge Lion,» and was the first “real” locomotive ever used in this country. The first distinctively American locomotive, the “Best Friend,” was manufactured to the order of the South Caro- lina Railroad by the West Point Foundry. Hoe of these machines were operated success- _ ully. It was in 1831 that Matthias W. Baldwin, a manufacturer of bookbinders’ tools in Philadel- phia, was employed by the proprietors of Peale’s Museum, in that city, to construct a model loco- pipe to which the feed-pipe hose is See LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY motive for exhibition purposes. This was the time when the public excitement over the Rain- hill contests that had been held in England was at its height, and Robert Stephenson’s victory with his “Rocket” had made the people very curious to witness the operations of such an engine. To gratify this craving for novelty the museum managers built a circular track, and, upon this, the Baldwin locomotive was operated. His model worked so well that the officials of the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railroad Company engaged him to construct a larger machine for use upon their lines. This locomotive, which was completed in November 1832, was named “Old Ironsides.” It was a four-wheeled engine, very similar in design to that of the English make, and weighed, when placed on the tracks, a little more than five tons. The rear, or driving wheels, which were 54 inches in diameter, were placed on a crank axle; while the cylinders, which were nine and a half inches in diameter, by 18 stroke, were attached horizontally to the smoke box. The frame was made of wood, while its wheels, which had wooden spokes and rims, were strengthened by the wrought-iron tires and heavy cast-iron hubs. There was no cab, and the tender, which also ran on four wheels, had wooden sides and back to hold the wood that was required for fuel, and an iron tank, used for carrying water. Roughly made as this locomotive would seem if compared to the engines of this day, the speed which it was able to attain, with its train of cars attached, was frequently over 30 miles an hour. In September 1832, the firm of Davis and Gart- ner of York, Pa., built three locomotives of the “grasshopper” type for the use of the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad. They were made -from designs prepared by Phineas Davis and Ross Winans, and were so serviceable that several of them were in use for fully 60 years. Thus, step by step, the locomotive industry was developed. By 1834, the building of such en- gines had extended to many works in several parts of the country, and such pioneers of railway mechanics as Cooper, Allen, Baldwin, Rogers, Norris, Winans, Campbell and others paved the way for the greater achievements of Mason, Cooke, Milholland, McQueen and Hudson, to say nothing of the countless geniuses whose accomplishments represent the modern development of the art of engine building. In the old days, of course, there was no guide that anybody could follow. There was no_ such teacher as experience. Moreover as there were few skilled workmen, and practically no shop facilities, the pioneer locomotive builders labored under difficulties which make their suc- cess remarkable as the extraordinary acnieve- ment of indomitable perseverance. The early American locomotives were so similar in every essential feature to the en- gines of English make that it seems quite probable that they were constructed as a close copy of that model. Later, however, the Amer- ican inventive genius came to the front, ex- hibiting itself in such radical departures from the imported machines that it was no longer necessary to bring locomotives from Europe. Taking these evidences of development the im- provements upon the locomotives of English type were reached in about the following order: The four-wheel swiveling truck, or bogie, was 581 substituted for the pair of fixed carrying wheels in 1832; the cross-head pump for supplying feed water to the boiler was invented in 1833; the half-crank driving axle took the place of the crank-axle in 1834; outside connection ‘to the driving wheels was introduced in 1835; the coupling of two pairs of driving-wheels was patented by H. R. Campbell in 1836; counterbalance weights for the revolving and reciprocating parts were first used in 1837; equalizing beams connecting the driving springs were first applied by Eastwick and Harrison in the same year; the use of lap-welded wrought-iron boiler tubes first took place in 1838; and of bar-frames of forged iron with forged pedestals, in 1840; the wooden cabs with glass windows originated during the winter of 1840-41, having been invented in New Eng- land, where the excessively cold weather neces- sitated some such protection for the engine- men; the Baldwin flexible-beam truck was in- vented in 1842; the first “ten-wheel” locomotive, with six coupled wheels and a leading four- wheeled truck, was used in 1846; the Mogul locomotive, with six coupled wheels and a lead-' ing two-wheeled truck, came into use in 1861, while the Consolidation type, consisting of eight coupled wheels and a leading two-wheeled truck, an engine which was designed by Alex- ander Mitchell of the Lehigh Vallcy Railroad, was first built at the Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1866. Among the other features of the locomotive which have been added from time to time, and all of which appealed to the eye of the foreign manufacturer as peculiarly American inventions, are the pilot, or “cow- catcher,” the bell, the boiler covering of plan- ished or Russian iron, the large headlights and the directness and visibility of the pipes and other appurtenances. Up to within as recent a time as the early seventies the so-called “American” type of locomotive, with its four coupled wheels and its four-wheeled truck, was the class of engine most generally adopted by railroad men in the United States. In fact, ever since the day of its first construction hy Campbell, in 1836, it had been continuously used for almost every kind of general service — for the carrying of passengers as well as for freight and switching purposes, and it was not until the demand of the public upon the railways in- creased so greatly as to create the need of more powerful locomotives that special engines for freight service were constructed. It was to meet these requirements that the Mogul and ten-wheel types were adopted during the sixties, and that the Consolidation engines became the standard for the heaviest freight service be- tween 1870 and 1880. During the seventies, the maximum load per axle was limited by the strength of the track to approximately 12 tons. This period, however, witnessed the general introduction of steel rails and steel tires; and the way was thus paved for a great increase in the weight and capacity of locomotives.- Rail- way men became convinced of the superiority of the large locomotive, with its high tractive force and liberal heating surface; and the weight of the engines was increased to the limit permitted by the strength of tracks and bridges. If, in the beginning, the building of these excessively heavy engines was largely an experiment, it was not long before their practicability had become so well established 582 that their size and weight continued to increase until cars were made that were capable of carrying loads of 50 tons or even more, in special cases; and locomotives were constructed with over 30 tons weight per axle. Such power- ful locomotives were more costly and difficult of construction, but when the _ practicable economies in the matter of transportation which were made possible only by the use of cars of such great carrying capacity were taken into consideration, the balance was so strongly in favor of the big cars and the heavy, powerful locomotives, that railroad men found no reason to hesitate because of the question of first cost. Since the beginning of the art of locomotive construction in the United States, American en- gine designers have been actuated by one desire: To produce a machine with sufficient flexibility of wheel-base to enable it to pass sharp curva- ture and adapt itself to the unevenness of track surfaces resulting from the action of severe frosts, as well as to facilitate the matter of repairs by striving to make every part so accessible that it might be removed without affecting the other parts of the engine. Among the locomotive-builders whose ex- periments contributed to this result and who also played an important part in the work of increasing the capacity of the American engine were several establishments that either disap- peared altogether or that discontinued the manufacture of this kind of machine to enter lines of business in which the competition was -less intense. To speak of these firms recalls such names as the Norris Brothers of Philadel- phia, whose work, in the early days of the in- dustry, presented the most active competition to such builders as Baldwin and Rogers. After many business vicissitudes this firm ceased to exist in 1865; and in 1873 their plant was in- corporated in the Baldwin Locomotive Works. In Baltimore, in the old days, there were two works, those of Ross Winans and the. Den- meads. Boston had several plants, notably those of Seth Wilmarth, John Souther’s Globe Works, the McKay and Aldus Works at East Boston and the Hinckley Locomotive and Ma- chine Works, which was one of the representa- tive houses in the industry up to 1888 or 1889. In fact, New England has always been a sec- tion of the country most actively interested in the work of locomotive building, the prin- cipal plants, in addition to those already named, being the works of Ballard Vail, at Andover, Mass.; Corliss and Nightingale, of Providence, R. I. a firm which, although George H. Cor- liss, the great engine builder, was at its head, proved less successful in the building of loco- motives than in other branches of the trade; A. Latham and Company, of White River Junc- tion, Vt.; the Locks and Canal Works, at Lowell, Mass.; the Amoskeag Locomotive Works, at Manchester, N. H.; the Lawrence Locomotive Works, at Lawrence, Mass.; the Taunton Locomotive Works, and the Mason Machine Works, at Taunton, Mass.; and the Portland, Me., Locomotive and Car Company. Among other sections of the country New Jersey has been a special field for the manu- facture of locomotives. The plant of William Swinburne, at Paterson, afterward known as the New Jersey Locomotive Works, and later as the Grant Locomotive Works, was one of LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY the offshoots from the Rogers Works. For years it conducted business most successfully. Finally, in 1885, the Grant Locomotive Works found that it was impossible to meet the de- mands of modern. requirements with its antiquated shop and inadequate facilities. Hence the works at Paterson were closed and the company removed to Chicago, where, after they had reorganized with new capital and thoroughly, modern shops, they continued in operation until 1893. The financial depression of that year was too much for them, however, and the entire plant was sold to the Siemens and Halske Electric Company of Chicago. For a time it was operated both for the manufacture of electrical equipment and locomotives; but the business at last proved so unprofitable that the plant was closed. Among the other New Jer- sey manufacturers of locomotives were Breese, Kneeland and Company, who operated the Jer- sey City Locomotive Works, and Van Cleeve, McKean and Dripps, whose shops were located at Trenton. | . For several years the firm of Eastwick and Harrison built locomotives at Newcastle, Del., and, when they failed in 1840, they were suc- ceeded by the Newcastle Manufacturing Com- pany, a concern that gained both wealth and international fame by their railway operations in Russia. In the West there were several manufacturers of note, some important works being located at Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, Chicago and San Francisco. The Rome Loco- motive Works, at Rome, N. Y., started under favorable auspices, but, after several years of more or less disastrous operations, went out of business in 1891. The Baldwin Locomotive Works, of Phila- delphia, has the distinction of being not only one of the pioneers in the business of locomo- tive manufacture but is still one of the repre- sentative establishments in the industry. Es- tablished in 1831, by Matthias W. Baldwin, its product has steadily -increased until it is now in excess of 200 locomotives a month. The works occupy an area of about 20 acres in the central part of the city, and when running at full capacity give employment to about 19,000 men. An extensive plant has also been erected on a tract of 225 acres of Eddystone, Pa., about 12 miles from Philadelphia; and a tract has been purchased at East Chicago, Ind.; where shops will be erected when business conditions warrant such expansion. Another important plant was that of the Rogers Locomotive Works at Paterson, N. J. Founded in 1836, by the firm of Rogers, Ket- chum and Grosvenor, the mechanical genius of the concern was Thomas Rogers. When he died, in 1856, the firm was incorporated under the title of the Rogers Locomotive and Ma- chine Works, with Jacob S. Rogers as. presi- dent, and business was transacted under this name until 1892, when the corporation. was again reorganized and assumed the name of The Rogers Locomotive Works. The Rogers Company then had an annual capacity of more than 300 locomotives, and gave employment to about 2,000 persons. Up to the time of the war with Spain the spirit of consolidation which had already shown its effect in other industries had been an un- knewn factor in the business of locomotive LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY making. Soon after 1898, however, several of the competing works began to talk of the organization of a larger corporation, or com- bination, and the movement finally became so popular that, in July 1901, eight of the large manufactories were consolidated under the name of the American Locomotive Company, with a capital of $50,000,000, half of which is in common stock, and half in 7 per cent cumu- lative preferred. The works acquired by the organization were as follows: Locomotives per annum. Schenectady Works, Schenectady, N. Y........... 450 COOES LOT ks < IDtin citic me NE Gay ba sib. co hats ernasen rary ore 450 Pittsburgh Works, Pittsburgh, Pa... 8. wl. ee 200 Rhode Island Works, Providence, R. I............. 150 Richmond Works, Richmond, Va.ii.c.i.f. 20008 150 GeokerWorks~Paterson,.N.. Jean steesceins doers 125 Manchester Works, Manchester, N. H............. 100 Dickson Works! Seranton,Passs... 28.227. : 85 Approximate total*capactt yi nr... Vcc tee shod s | 1,710 In March 1904, the American Locomotive Company also acquired the stock of the Loco- ‘motive and Machine Company of Montreal, Limited, with works in Montreal, Canada, en- gaged in the building of locomotive and struc- tural steel works. With. the addition of the Rogers and the Montreal works the American Locomotive Company operated 10 plants with a total annual capacity of 3,100 locomotives. 583 operation late in 1865. Originally intended as a small shop, its capacity being at first limited to 30 locomotives per annum, they were so suc- cessful in placing orders for their product that the establishment now occupies an area of fully 12 acres. In their work of extending their ca- pacity the best of fire-proof buildings have been erected, and the works are equipped with the latest and most improved electric, hydraulic and pneumatic appliances known to the art of loco- motive construction. The Rhode Island Locomotive Works, at Providence, R. I., commenced operations in 1865, and continued to occupy one of the most prominent positions in the rank of locomotive manufacturers up to the time of their absorp- tion by the combination. The Brooks Locomotive Works, at Dunkirk, N. Y., was originally intended to serve exclu- sively as the locomotive building and repair shops of the Erie Railroad. In 1869, however, the railway company decided to abandon these shops. Newer works had already been con- structed in a more convenient location for the _railway company’s purposes and Jay Gould, who was then president of the road, saw no reason why the Dunkirk plant should not be closed. At that time, however, Horatio G. Brooks was the superintendent of motive power and machin- ery construction for the Erie road. As his home was at Dunkirk, and as all his interests Schenectady Works of the American Locomotive Company (1864). Of the 10 plants the Schenectady Locomo- tive Works was established by the Norris Brothers in 1848. In 1863 it passed into the hands of John Ellis, who was eventually suc- ceeded by his sons, John C., Charles G,, Edward, William D. Ellis and Walter McQueen. The Cooke Locomotive and Machine Com- pany of Paterson, N. J., was established about 1800 but for nearly half a century they were employed almost exclusively in the manufacture of machinery. In 1852, however, they began to make locomotives, and as this branch of their business increased, the old shops were aban- doned and new and up-to-date works were constructed. The Pittsburgh Locomotive Works began centred about that place, he realized that the removal of these works would prove a severe blow to the prosperity of the town. As the re- sult, he offered to lease the shop and its ma- chinery for the purpose of undertaking the es- tablishment of an independent concern, and as Mr. Gould was nothing loath to make such a mutually advantageous agreement, the lease was signed in November. Before the close of the year 1869, two locomotives had been turned out, and from that time the works were extended until, in 1883, the entire plant, which then covered an area of more than 20 acres, was purchased from the New York, Lake Erie and Western Railroad Company by the Brooks Locomotive Works. 584 The Richmond Locomotive and Machine Company, of Richmond, Va. was the only ‘locomotive manufacturing plant in the South. When it was established, in 1865, it was in- tended for the manufacture of plantation and saw-mill machinery, and it was not until many years later that it began to build street cars — horse cars at first, and, finally, motor cars. In 1889 the company secured a contract from the government to build the machinery for the new battleship Texas, and, although this work was successfully completed, the concern has since devoted its attention almost exclusively to the making of locomotives. The Dickson Manufacturing Company, of Scranton, Pa., was establishc 1 in 1862, and, ever since that time, the concern has been suc- cessful manufacturers of locomotives and min- ing machinery, operating two separate estab- lishments in Scranton for these purposes. The locomotive works were acquired by the Ameri- can Locomotive Company in 1901. The Manchester Locomotive Works, of Man- chester, N. H., have been prominently identified with the locomotive building industry since they were established, in 1854, Ly Aretas Blood, one of the pioneers in engine construction. The works of the H. K. Porter Company at Pittsburgh, Pa., were established by the firm of Smith and Porter, in 1866. Later the concern was known as Porter, Bell and Company. AlI- though locomotive builders in the strict appli- cation of the term, their efforts have been de- voted exclusively to such lines as light loco- “motives for use in mines, manufacturing estab- lishments and for all kinds of contractors’ and construction work. A concern which has attained considerable prominence in locomotive building, especially during the past few years, is the Lima Locomo- tive Corporation of Lima, Ohio. This com- pany built its first locomotive in 1879, at which time it was known as The Lima Machine Works, and made a specialty of saw-mill ma- chinery. In 1880 a geared locomotive was con- structed in accordance with patents granted to Ephrarin Shay, a Michigan lumberman. This type proved especially suitable for work on heavy grades, sharp curves and uneven tracks: and large numbers of Shay geared locomotives have been built, the great majority of them for logging service. The company was sub- sequently réorganized as the Lima Locomofive Corporation and new shops were built and were equipped to handle the heaviest kind of locomo- tive work. With its present facilities, the com- pany is successfully building all sizes of both geared and direct connected locomotives, from light engines for -contractors’ or industrial service, up to the heaviest classes of motive power for trunk line railways. From the figures covering annual produc- tion which have already been given, it is not difficult to estimate that the aggregate capacity of the locomotive manufacturing establishments of the country, not including the railroad shops and the shops not regularly engaged in this business, is in excess of 5,000 locomotives. Of course, the demand for such machines varies from time to time, being dependent. upon two factors: (1) The general prosperity of the country, a condition upon which the volume of freight to be transported, which is the basis of railroad earnings, so largely depends, and (2) LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY the mileage of new lines under construction, the completion of which means new equipment. These two factors are really one, as new lines are scarcely ever built in those periods of financial stagnation when the people are hoard- ing their money and capitalists are too timid to venture to encroach upon their principal. As a result, business prosperity in the locomotive- manufacturing industry is intermittent. As the average life of a locomotive is about 20 years, it requires an annual production of some 2,500 machines to supply the demand due to natural conditions; and as the locomotive shops of the country possess a capacity of about twice that number of engines, the difference between these 2,500 and the total production of all the Ameri- can works must find an outlet through one of these three channels: They must be used in the equipment of new lines; in the improvement and extension of old lines, or they must be ex- ported to other countries. The following table shows the total production from 1898 to 1915 as well as the number exported to other lands than Canada or Mexico. LocoMOoTIVES PRoDUCED AND NUMBER EXPORTED. Number exported Total omitting Remainder production Mexico and not YEAR reported Canada exported L808. yar se eee 1,875 ~ 468 1,407 LS9O8 Teresa, vere ate 2,473 517 1,956 1900 tae teen 34.153 525 2,628 LOD Liste -eearr sess 3,284 423 2,861 L9OQ2 2 Sere 4,070 365 3,705 1903) 22S oy roe ee 5152 289 4,863 1904. SSsjshape eae See 3,441 504 2,937 TOOS see. creek eastece aces 5,491 583 4,908 19007. aoe Ss ae 6,952 720 6,232 LOO igre ic. ato Gee 7,362 798 6,564 1908 ee eee ae 2,342 456 1,886 1Q0O eS ee ne oe 2,887 291 2,596 AOL Ope .. cpese cc clteee oihs 4,755 314 4,441 LOLI eee, Pe has 3,530 387 3,143 1012 i ape ae ae 4,915 512 4,403 E91 Sie 2 Mase. eee cas , 085 835 1,250 19 LO Re eas Lewes oe 3,251 “Ei. Sere ae ee ee 192 Pe area 2 O31 oO Sseh) hee Beginning with 1905, the figures for total production include the Canadian output; and beginning with 1912, they also include locomo- tives built in railroad company’s shops. Sta- tistics published by the Interstate Commerce Commission show the number of locomotives in service on railroads in the United States to be as follows: 1908, 56,733: 1909, 57,212; 1910, 58,947; 1911, 61,327; 1912, 62,262; 1913, 63,378; 1919, 64,618. Recent statistics covering the number of men employed in the locomotive building industry are difficult to obtain. In 1905, this number was approximately 40,000; and their wages amounted to fully $25,000,000 per annum. At the present time the total value of the products of the locomotive building es- tablishments in the United States, when op- erating at full capacity, would annually be about $110,000,000. Although American locomotive builders at first depended upon English models in their work, they were soon able to produce ma- chines that attracted attention abroad. As far as is known, the first locomotives exported from this country were shipped to Cuba in 1838, by the Baldwin Locomotive Works. . In 1840, locomotives were built for the Birming- ham and Gloucester Railway, in England, by William Norris. In the following year, the LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY Baldwin Locomotive Works built a locomotive for Austria; and in 1845 they built three for the Royal Railway of Wurtemberg. Three years later the Rogers Locomotive Works shipped locomotives to Cuba, and the export business was well under way. Even England and Continental Europe, in spite of their fa- cilities for locomotive construction, have at times purchased American built locomotives. ‘Unfortunately there are no figures that can tell authoritatively how many locomotives were exported by the United States builders during the early years of the industry, and, as even the later statistics are incomplete, in view of the fact that they do not cover the shipments to Canada and Mexico, it is very difficult to ob- tain anything like a comprehensive idea of the subject. According to the best figures obtain- able, during the 26 years that elapsed between 1879 and 1904, inclusive, no less than 6,173 were sent to foreign countries from ports in the United States, while their value was placed at $57,843,005. At the present time, American locomotives are in use in almost every inhab- ited portion of the globe. One excuse for England’s interest in Amer- ican locomotives may be found in the labor conditions that have existed from time to time in that country. Thus, in 1898, when the Mid- land, the Great Northern and the Great Cen- tral railroads together ordered no less than 80 of our machines, 70 from the Baldwin works and 10 from the Schenectady works, they were somewhat compelled to resort to this method of relief. All through the year 1897 the engi- neering works of Great Britain had been af- fected by a strike, and, in 1898, when the men finally returned to their work, the several . plants were so overcrowded with orders that it was impossible for them to meet all the de- mands that were made upon them. Naturally, when the American locomotives appeared they were subjected to all sorts of adverse criti- cism by the British builders. Efforts were made to show that they could not be com- pared to the English machines, either in point of speed, or in matter of economy, but as the statements made were all biased and incon- clusive, the American manufacturers have not taken them greatly to heart, especially in view of the fact that they are constantly being called upon to furnish machines for use in various parts of Asia and Africa, where, coming into direct competition with the English product, the railroads have had an opportunity to test the truth of such charges. The European War, which broke out in 1914, caused a considerable demand for Amer- ican locomotives for service abroad. Engines for military purposes were ordered by the British, French and Russian governments and were built in remarkably short time. For ex- ample the Baldwin Locomotive Works built 20 light tank locomotives for the French gov- ernment in 16 working days from the time the order was received. In 1832, the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railroad Company paid Matthias W. Baldwin the sum of $3,500 for the locomo- tive “Old Ironsides.”» From that time the price charged for such machines slowly but steadily increased until, during the period of the Civil War, sums ranging from $30,000 to $35,000 585 were received for the heavy freight or passen- ger locomotives. Of course, locomotive build- ing was no exception to the other industries, and, after war times, the prices of its product declined to about $7,000 for a 35-ton passenger locomotive. This was the price that prevailed about 1879, During 1880 and 1881, prices rose rapidly until fully $15,000 was paid for a simi- lar machine; and they then declined gradually until 1896, when from $8,000 to $9,000 was paid for an average passenger locomotive and from $9,000 to $10,000 for an average freight loco- motive. In general, as the total weight of loco- motives has increased, there has been a de- crease in the price per pound. The introduction of the 50-ton steel car, in 1897, brought about a marked advance both in the weight and power of locomotives. To meet this new demand the weight of the ordi- nary consolidation freight locomotive, which had ranged from 60 to 70 tons, was increased to 80 to 100 tons, while some of the machines that were constructed were as heavy as 115 tons, exclusive of tender. As such an increase of weight and power had been inspired solely by business conditions, the railroads were quick to respond to such an evidence of pros- perity by ordering the kind of rolling stock that was necessary to. enable them to meet these new requirements and which would just as certainly increase their own earning power. In. 1897 materials were expensive and wages were high. Taking these facts into considera- tion, it is by no means surprising that the con- struction of such heavy locomotives should have brought the price to $15,000 or $16,000. During more recent years, the weight and power of locomotives has continued to advance. The Consolidation type has been superseded, to a considerable extent, by the Mikado, which provides increased steaming capacity in pro- portion to adhesion. Locomotives with five pairs of coupled driving-wheels have also been introduced, on a number of roads, for heavy freight service; while for the heaviest kind of work the Mallet articulated type, with driving- wheels arranged in two groups, is successfully employed. This type is the invention of Ana- tole Mallet, a French engineer, whose first ar- ticulated locomotives were built in Europe in 1889. The American Locomotive Company built the first Mallet for service in the United States in 1904. This engine was constructed for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and proved a decided success. The largest Mallet locomotives built for service in thts country far exceed in weight and capacity any that are in use abroad. The Baldwin Locomotive Works has devel- oped the Mallet articulated design by placing driving-wheels under the tender, and thus uti- lizing the weight of the latter for tractive pur- poses. The first locomotive of this type was built in 1914, for the Erie Railroad. It runs on 28 wheels, 24 of which are used as driving- wheels; develops a tractive force of 160,000 pounds and weighs in working order 853,000 pounds. At the time of its construction, it was the heaviest steam locomotive ever built. It was a similar demand for more powerful locomotives, for engines not only capable of hauling heavy trains at sustained high speed, but also of accelerating speed rapidly after 586 starting, that brought the new and heavier types of passenger locomotive into existence. The old American, or eight-wheel type, was wholly incapable of meeting such requirements. The ten-wheel engine, which had been used quité successfully on heavy grades, proved unsatisfactory in such an emergency, owing to its comparatively small driving wheels, its in- adequate firebox, an adhesion considerably in excess of the requirements, and excessive re- sistance within the machine itself. To over- come these difficulties the Baldwin Locomotive Works constructed the Atlantic type of engine. It was substantially a ten-wheel locomotive, in which the rear pair of driving wheels was replaced by a pair of trailing wheels of smaller diameter, permitting the introduction of a deep firebox with ample grate area and volume suff- cient to admit of thorough combustion. Great boiler capacity was available in proportion to the adhesion; the driving wheels were closely coupled, and the total wheel base was suff- ciently long to give smoothness of motion at high speed, and, at the same time, sufficient flexibility. A development of the Atlantic type is found in the Pacific type, which has three pairs of driving-wheels with a four-wheeled leading and a two-wheeled trailing truck. Since the intro- duction of steel passenger cars, which fre- quently weight 75 tons or more apiece, Pacific type locomotives have come into extensive use, because of their great starting power and their ability to run at sustained high speed when ‘hauling heavy trains. The prices of these heavy locomotives are materially higher than those of the engines built in 1897; and large locomotives for road service now frequently cost $25,000 or more. The fuel cost is the largest single item of expense in the operation of locomotives, and various devices have been tried, from time to time, with a view to promoting fuel economy. Compound locomotives, which were first intro- duced in Europe, were built with this end in view; and were at one time extensively used in the United States. These locomotives were successful as fuel savers; but, under the methods of operation prevailing on American railways, they proved difficult to maintain; and they are no longer being built, except in the case of the Mallet articulated compound loco- motive, which is practically two single expan- sion engines placed under one boiler. The cylinders of the two engines are of different sizes, the larger, or low-pressure, receiving the exhaust from the smaller, or high-pressure; but the various features which proved unde- sirable in other types of compound locomotives are eliminated in the Mallet design. The most effective fuel saving device at present in use on locomotives is the super- heater. When saturated. steam is used in the cylinders of a locomotive, a considerable por- tion of it—-sometimes as much as 25 or 30 per cent—4is condensed into water, and does no useful work. This loss can be avoided by heating the steam, before it enters the cylinders, to such an extent that its temperature will not be lowered to the point of- condensation. In a locomotive using superheated steam, a number of the small boiler tubes are replaced by con- siderably larger tubes, and in these are placed groups of pipes through which the steam cir- ‘perature is LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY culates before it enters the cylinders. The steam absorbs heat from the furnace gases passing through the large tubes, and its tem- raised to such an extent that cylinder condensation is avoided. The increase in temperature depends upon-the design of the superheater and the conditions under which the engine is working. It frequently amounts to 200° F. or more, and the fuel saving effected per horse power developed, as compared with a similar locomotive using saturated steam, averages about 25 per cent. The economies resulting from the use of superheated steam have long been known, but it is only during comparatively recent years that superheaters fitted for use in locomotives have been devised. Much of the pioneer work along this line.has been done by two German engineers, Wilhelm Schmidt and Robert Garbe. The great majority of heavy locomotives built in the United States since 1912 have been equipped with superheaters, the Schmidt sys- tem being used to the practical exclusion of all others. Many railroads have ‘improved the efficiency of old locomotives, built to use satu- rated steam; and the results obtained have been highly satisfactory. Fuel economy has also been promoted by improved furnace design, and the use of such devices as brick arches and combustion cham- bers. The largest coal-burning locomotives are now fired with mechanical stokers, and are developing powers which would be unattainable with hand firing. As has been stated, Peter Cooper’s first model attained a speed of 18 miles per hour. According to statements that ought to be re- garded as reliable Baldwin’s “Old Ironsides” once attained a record speed of 60 miles an hour for a short distance, and other examples of high speed had several times been shown by ~ the old-time locomotives. In fact, the real progress in locomotive development in the United States had not been marked by an in- creased capacity for speed so much as by an increased hauling power. Instead of designing locomotives capable of breaking the speed record the American builders had been endeav- oring to construct locomotives that would draw heavy trains at a steady rate of speed, and in this effort their success had been phenomenal. In the early nineties, however, there was a marked tendency to increase the speed of trains, especially on the principal Eastern lines. The following are some of the speed records made by American-built locomotives: In November, 1892, locomotive No. 385—a Vauclain compound — running on the Philadel- phia and Reading and the Jersey Central rail- roads, between Philadelphia and Jersey City, with a train of four heavy cars attached, at- tained a speed equal to 97 miles per hour, by covering one mile in 37 seconds. On 19 July 1893, locomotive No. 682, on the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, accomplished the re- markable feat of hauling a train of nine heavily loaded passenger cars from Winslow Junction to Pleasantville, a distance of 26 miles, in 22 minutes, which was equivalent to an average © speed of 70.9 miles an hour. On 27 August the same locomotive succeeded in hauling 17 loaded passenger cars the same distance in 27 minutes, or at an average speed of 57 miles per hour, a performance which was even more LOCOMOTIVE INDUSTRY remarkable, considering the weight of the train attached. On 11 Sept. 1895, the Empire State Express, on the New York Central Railroad, with its four cars, ran from New York to East Buffalo, a distance of 436%4 miles, in 407% minutes, this being an average speed of 64.26 miles per hour. In 1897, and for several years thereafter, the Philadelphia and Reading Rail- road operated during the summer months a service in which trains of five or six passenger cars were hauled between Camden and Atlantic City, a distance of 55%4 miles, in 48 minutes, and these runs were made with great regularity. The locomotives used for this purpose were of the Atlantic type, with Wootten boilers and 84-inch driving wheels. On 9 July 1905, what is known as the Scott Special, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railway, left Los Angeles for a continuous trip to Chicago. The distance of 2,245 miles was covered in 43 hours and 55 minutes, making an average of 52 miles per hour for the entire distance, the highest speed officially recorded for a given distance being at the rate of 106.1 miles per hour. During the past few years, the subject of electric traction has received considerable atten- tion from railway managers, and several instal- lations are in_ successful operation. Among these may be mentioned the New York Central, the New York, New Haven and Hartford and the Pennsylvania electrifications, in and about New York City; the electrification of the Pennsylvania’s suburban service between Phila- delphia and Paoli; and the electrification of the Hoosac Tunnel, on the Boston and Maine; of the Cascade Tunnel on the Great Northern Railway, and of the Saint Clair Tunnel at Detroit, on the Michigan Central Railroad. The tunnel electrification of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad at Baltimore should also be mentioned, as the first undertaking of this kind to be tried on an extensive scale. Two examples of heavy grade electrification—those of the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul Railway in the Rocky Mountains, and of the Norfolk and West- ern Railway in the Elkhorn district —are notable as cases where through traffic is being moved over trunk line railways for consider- able distances, using electricity as a motive power. In all the cases mentioned above, the oper- ating results have proved satisfactory, and some remarkable records are made in regular service. On the Norfolk and Western, for ex- ample, the speed of freight trains up the heavy grades has been practically doubled, while two electric locomotives handle as much tonnage per train as three of the large Mallet steam locomotives formerly used. The general electrification of steam railways is highly improbable for some time to come, not so much because of the difficulty in design- ing suitable equipment as because of the enor- mous cost involved. The electrification of a steam railway requires, not merely the re- placing of steam locomotives by electric loco- motives, but also the installation of power house and transmission equipment, of new shop and terminal facilities and various other items. Thus, while material savings in operation may, under favorable conditions, be effected by the use of electric locomotives, the first cost in 587 the majority of cases is prohibitive. For some time to come, therefore, electrification will probably be confined to city terminals and large tunnels, to mountain grades and to congested districts where the amount of traffic moving is fairly constant during the greater part of the day. No uniform method of developing, trans- mitting and utilizing electric power in railway work has as yet been adopted. Direct and alternating current, the overhead wire and the third rail, and various different types of loco-= motives, are all in successful use. Each elec- trification problem must be studied by itself, and that system used which is best fitted for the special conditions to be met. The majority. of electric locomotives are built on a co-operative plan, one company sup- plying the mechanical parts and another the electrical equipment. The Baldwin Locomo- tive Works and the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company have worked together in this way, as have also the American Loco- motive Company and the General Electric Com- pany. Thus the locomotives, in both their mechanical and electrical features, represent the work of designers and builders who are experts tn their respective lines. Before closing this review, mention should be made of the use of internal ‘combustion motors in locomotive work. The extremely variable conditions as to speed and load, under which locomotives operate; the weight and space limitations which are necessarily imposed, and various other considerations, have hin- dered the introduction of this class of motor in general railway service. There is, however, a growing field for the internal combustion loco- motive in light switching, contractors’ and industrial service; and the success of these machines in such work points to their increas- ing use in the future. The fact that the internal combustion loco- motive consumes no fuel while standing idle makes it specially suitable for work in which the service requirements are intermittent. In plantation service, for example, when the mills are not grinding, it is desirable to have loco- motives ready for immediate use, even though they may only occasionally be needed. Gasoline locomotives meet these conditions admirably, as they are dependent upon no external source of power, consume fuel only when operating and can be placed in service without previous preparation. The Baldwin Locomotive Works has made a special study of the gasoline locometive, and has developed a series of four standard designs weighing three and one-half, five, seven and nine tons, respectively. In many respects these machines follow steam locomotive practice. The entire’ construction, including the motor and transmission, is spring supported. The motor drives a transverse jack-shaft, from witch power is transmitted to the wheels by means of side rods. No chains are used in the trans- mission system, and there is a positive drive from motor to wheels. The minor fittings and equipment are arranged, in each case, to suit the special conditions under which the loco- motives operate. The locomotives can be built for any practicable track gauge, and can, if desired, be arranged to use alcohol for fuel instead of gasoline. ; 588 The immediate future will probably witness a continued increase in the weight and capacity of steam locomotives, and a greater refinement in their design for the purpose of developing maximum power in proportion to the fuel and water consumed. Electrification will be ex- tended in districts where its advantages can be fully realized. The internal combustion motor possesses many advantages for railway work, and its extensive use in large locomotives may be expected as soon as a suitable design is produced. The difficulties here are by no means insurmountable, and there are prospects that a type of internal combustion motor will be de- veloped which will, in turn, revolutionize the present methods of railway operation. LOCOMOTIVES, Compound. See Lo- COMOTIVE. LOCOMOTIVES, Electric. See ELec- TRIC RAILWAYS. LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA, a _ popular name for a disease of the nervous system, which is caused exclusively by syphilis, al- though less than half of 1 per cent of those who have syphilis develop it, and usually occurs in adults from 40 to 50. It is characterized by pain, inability to walk and by progressive weak- ness which leads finally to death. The malady is long drawn out, becoming serious sometimes as many as 40 or 50 years after the first in- fection, and while not entailing, as a rule, a great amount of physical pain, causes extreme _ inconvenience to the patient. It is present in men more frequently than in women, because syphilis is more frequent in men. In the vast majority of patients it first shows itself by neuralgic pains of the lower extremities. Thus, there may be acute darting and lightning-like pains, lasting from half an hour to an hour or two, about the ankles, in the instep, shooting up the leg or in the thighs. Occasionally these pains are present in the arms and trunk. They are frequently diagnosed as neuralgia, and it is not until development of the symptoms of ataxia (q.v.), a word which means “inability to co-ordinate”— inability to walk in the dark and to place the foot or hand where the mind wishes it to be placed—that the true nature of the constant neuralgic pains is recognized. The patient finds himself insecure on uneven sur- faces. He stumbles and falls, and must keep his eyes glued to his legs or the surface on which he is walking if he is to be able to con- trol them. With the gradual development of the inability to walk there may be a number of other symptoms — acute, lightning-like pains in the stomach, intense, sometimes acute, pain in the bladder, sometimes loss of voice, etc. There may be patches of anesthesia over the body and there is usually progressive muscular weakness. Loss of knee-jerks is an important early sign. Associated with ataxia of the legs, which prevents the patient from walking readily in the dark, or up and down stairs, there may be some ataxia in the hands, whereby the finer movements of buttoning the clothing, of writ- ing, etc, may be interfered with, although there may be no loss in muscular strength un- til the last stages of the disease. A very con- stant and usually a very early sign of locomotor ataxia consists in certain changes in the reac- tions of the pupil of the eye to light. This LOCOMOTIVES — LOCUST symptom is technically known as the Argyll- Robertson pupil, and shows a fixed pupil when exposed to the influence of light, but a pupil that dilates or contracts normally when tested for its powers of accommodation. Thus in a patient who has this symptom the pupils con- tract on looking at a near object and dilate on looking at a far object; but if a candle or beam of light is thrown suddenly on the eye, normal quick contraction of the pupil is dimin- ished or absent. The Argyll-Robertson pupil is sometimes found as early as the neuralgias, and a diagnosis may often be made on that alone. The progress of the disease is usually very slow; remissions occur, which give great hope to the patient and afford ample opportunities for all forms’ of charlatanism; but the final outcome is usually hopeless. Many conditions of the spinal cord are known in which some of the symptoms of locomotor ataxia are present, chronic neuritis from alcoholism being one. As many of these are recoverable, the diagnosis of locomotor ataxia is an extremely difficult one, and can be made only by the com- petent specialist. Consult Jelliffe, | White, ‘Diseases of the Nervous System? (1917). See SypHILIs oF THE Nervous SySsTEM; TaBES DorSALIS. LOCRIS, the parts of ancient Greece in- habited and named after the Locrians, the old- est Grecian peoples. There were four branches — the Epicnemidian, the Opuntian, Ozolian and Epizephyrian Locrians, the last a colony from the Ozolian stock, living in Lower Italy. Their capital, Locri, was one of the most powerful, splendid and wealthy cities of Magna Grecia. LOCUS, in mathematics, a converging lo- cation; when the conditions of a problem are not sufficient to determine the absolute position of a point, but restrict it to a certain line (or lines), this line is called the locus of the point. Thus, if the base. and area of a triangle are given, the locus of the vertex is a straight line parallel to the. base; or if the distance of a point from another point is in a given ratio to its distance from a given fixed line, the locus of the point is a conic section. LOCUST. See GrAssHoppers; CICADA. LOCUST, a genus (Robinia) of legumi- nous trees and shrubs. The species have odd- pinnate leaves; pea-like flowers in drooping racemes, and pods containing several bean-like seeds. They are all useful for ornamental planting, and one species, R. pseudacacia, is highly valued for its timber. This species, which is the best known, and is also called false acacia and black locust, is the largest of its genus, attaining heights exceeding 75 feet and girths greater than eight feet in the rich al- luvial soils of Tennessee and Kentucky. Its hard, tough, close-grained yellow wood is espe- cially useful for ship-building, fence-posts and other purposes in which great durability is re- quired. It is also employed for making cog- wheels, tree-nails, for the interior finish of houses, for furniture and other uses where a highly polished wood is needed. It is the favorite material for policemen’s clubs, not only because of its weight and toughness, when well seasoned, but because of its unusual reso- nance, giving a ringing report when struck LOCUST BIRD — LODGE upon the pavement as a signal which can be obtained from no other wood. In various parts of Europe great attention has been paid to the propagation of this tree, for ornament as well as for its useful properties, and its cultivation is further encouraged by the absence of the de- stroying insects mentioned below. It forms a pleasing object along the borders of many of the railways on the Continent, its spines adding to its usefulness as a hedge. When in bloom the large pendulous racemes of fragrant white flowers, contrasting with the light-green foliage, produce a fine effect and give this tree a rank among the most ornamental. The chief objection to the tree is its liability to the attacks of insects, more than 40 species being known to feed upon its leaves and wood. The foliage destroyers, which include leaf-roll- ers, leaf-miners and several species that feed in exposed positions, are sometimes seriously destructive, the larve of one species, a saw-fly (Nematis similaris), sometimes destroying all the green parts. But they are less destructive than the borers, which tunnel through and weaken the wood. Sometimes these are so numerous that the trees become mere shells of bark with a honeycomb of wood. The more important of them are the locust borer (Cyllene robini@), a black and yellow striped, long- horned beetle in the adult stage, which is com- mon in the eastern United States; and the ‘larve of a moth (Sciapteron robinie), trouble- some in the Pacific Coast region. These and some others have discouraged the commercial planting of this valuable tree. Other American “locust” trees are the two species of the genus Gleditsia of the senna family. These are the water or swamp locust (G. aquatica) of Florida, which has enormous spines and reddish flat oval pods; and the well- known and widely-planted honey locust or honey shucks (G. triacanthos). This large, graceful but exceedingly thorny tree bears especially fragrant flowers, and its pods are gathered by country people in the South and eaten for the sake of the sweet pulp between the seeds. The great pods measure 10 to 20 inches long, are curved, and “in drying twist and retwist while they open, and skilfully scat- ter seeds in diverse directions.” LOCUST BIRD. See Pastor. LOCY, William Albert, American zoolo- gist: b. Troy, Mich. 14 Sept. 1857. In 1881 he was graduated at the University of Michi- gan, and subsequently studied at Harvard, Ber- lin and Chicago. In 1887-89 he was professor of biology, in 1889-96 of animal morphology at Lake Forest University, Illinois. Since 1896 he has been professor of zoology at Northwest University. In 1902-03 he was employed as in- vestigator at the Naples Zoological Station. He has written numerous scientific papers and monographs in technological journals; was editor in charge of zoological articles, and au- thor of several in cyclopedias and author of ‘Biology and Its Makers? (1908), and ‘The Main Currents of Zoology? (1918). LODDON, Australia, one of the most im- portant rivers of Victoria, rising on the north- ern slopes of the Dividing Range, in Talbot County, flowing northwest for 250 miles and joining the Murray at Swan Hill. It drains a basin of 4,800 miles and is subject to floods. Good cod and bream abound in it. 589 LODE, a metalliferous deposit, usually | having the character of an ore-producing vein; or often a parallel system of closely spaced veins. See VEINS. LODESTAR, LOADSTAR, POLARIS, or GUIDING STAR, various names given to the polar star which is the last star in the tail of the Little Bear. It is a star of the second magnitude, located 1° 20’ from the North Pole. LODEVE, 1o’dév’, France, town and capi- tal of an arrondissement in the department of Hérault, on the Lergue, 36 miles west-north- west of Montpellier. It has many interesting remains, including its ancient walls, a fortified cathedral dating from the 10th century, an ancient monastery and a communal college. The principal industry is the manufacture of army woolens. ‘Cloth, wine, brandy and wool are exported. Lodeéve, the ancient Luteva, ex- isted before the Roman period. By _ the Romans it was known for a time as Forum Neronis. In the 4th century (323) it became a Christian city under Saint Flour, its first bishop, and remained an episcopal see down to the Revolution of 1789. The town fell suc- cessively to the Visigoths, Franks, Ostrogoths, the Arabs and Carolingians, became a count- ship in the oth century and afterward became the domain of its bishops. It was sacked in 1573 during the religious wars. Pop. 6,300. LODGE, Gonzalez, American classical scholar: b. Fort Littleton, Pa., 19 Dec. 1863. He was graduated from Johns Hopkins Uni- versity in 1883, and in 1886 was professor of Greek in Davidson College, N. C., 1886-88, and of Latin at Bryn Mawr College, 1889-1900. Since 1900 he has been professor of Greek and Latin at Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity. He has published ‘Lexicon Plautinum? (1901-14), and with Gildersleeve, ‘Gilder- sleeve-Lodge Latin Grammar and Latin Com- position.» He has edited ‘The Gorgias of Plato? (1890), and supervised the ‘Gilder- sleeve-Lodge ‘Latin Series? (16 vols.). His studies in the essential vocabulary of Latin, ‘The. Vocabulary _of ..High . School ..Latin? (1907) have formed the basis of all recent high-school textbooks. He was joint-founder ees of the Classical Weekly from 1907- 1913. LODGE, Henry Cabot, American states- man and historian: b. Boston, 12 May 1850. He was graduated at Harvard in 1871 and from the Law School there in 1874. From 1873 to 1876 he edited the North American Review. In the three years following he lec- tured on American history at Harvard and in 1879-81 edited the International Review. He was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1880-81, member of Con- gress 1886-93 and thereafter United States senator from Massachusetts, being re-elected in 1899, 1905, 1911 and 1917. He was perma- nent chairman of the Republican National Convention of 1900 at Philadelphia, chairman of the committee on resolutions of the Chicago Republican Convention of 1904 and permanent chairman of the Republican National Convention of 1908 at Chicago. He was a member of the Alaska Boundary Commission; was regent of the Smithsonian Institution, 1886-93, and again appointed regent in 1905. In politics he is a Re- publican of conservative tendency; was a 590 staunch supporter of the McKinley administra- tion during the war with Spain. He has fa- vored laws to safeguard the franchise and has advocated an educational test law for immi- grants. He is a member of the American Institute of Arts and Letters and many other societies and has received academic honors from several of the leading American universi- ties. His published works include ‘The Land Law of the Anglo-Saxons? (1877); ‘Life and Letters of George ‘Cabot? (1881) ; ‘Short His- tory of the English Colonies in America? (1882) ; ‘Life of Alexander Hamilton? (1883) ; ‘Life of Daniel Webster? (1885); editor ‘Works of Alexander Hamilton? (9 vols., 1886) ; ‘Studies in History? (1889); ‘Life of Washington? (2 vols., 1891) ; ‘History of Bos- ton? (1892); ‘Historical and Political Essays? (1895) ; ‘Hero Tales from American History,” with Theodore Roosevelt (1897) ; “Certain Ac- cepted Heroes? (1898); ‘Story of the Revolu- tion? (2 vols., 1899); ‘Story of the Spanish War, ‘A Fighting Frigate? (1906); ‘A Fron- tier Town ‘and .QOther. Essays? (1910); “Speeches and Addresses 1884-1909? (1913) ; “Early Memories? (1915); ‘One Hundred Years of Peace? (1915); ‘The Democracy of the Constitution and Other Essays? (1915). LODGE, Sir Oliver Joseph, English physicist: b. Penkhull, Staffordshire, 12 June 1851. He was educated at University College, London, became demonstrator in physics there in 1875, and professor of the same subject in 1877. He was professor of physics at Univer- sity College, Liverpool, 1881-1900, and in the latter year was appointed principal of the Uni- versity of Birmingham. He was Rumford Medallist of the Royal Society in 1898; Ro- manes lecturer at Oxford 1903; president of the Physical Society of London 1899-1900 ; president of the Society for Psychical Research 1901-04; and president of the British Associa- tion, 1913-14. He was knighted in 1902. He achieved eminence as a physicist in his work in connection with electricity, including the theo- ries of contact electricity and electrolysis, the oscillatory discharge of Leyden jars, the pro- duction of electro-magnetic waves in air, ex- periments in the mitigation of fogs through electrical dispersion, and in the invention of the “coherer» in wireless telegraphy. His work as an educational reformer has heen overshadowed in the public mind by his atti- tude on the vexed question of religion and science, and by his views on psychical research and spiritualism. He has expounded the view that communication between the living and the dead may be attained unhampered. In this connection his latest book, ‘Raymond; or Life and Death? (1916) has a pathetic interest. His son Raymond was killed in September 1915 in the Great War, and the book records com- munications begun soon after his death, made in the ordinary spiritualist way at séances held in presence of Sir Oliver and his family. His works include ‘Elementary Mechanics? (1877) ; “Modern Views of Electricity? (1889) ; ‘Light- ning Conductors and Lightning ‘Guards? (1892); ‘Pioneers of Science? (1893) ; ‘Mod- ern Views on Matter? (1903); SLife and Mat- ter? (4th ed., 1907); ‘The Substance of Faith (1907) ; ‘(Man and the Universe? (5th ed., 1909) ; “The Immortality of the Soul? (1908) ; ‘The Ether of Space? (1909); ‘Parent and LODGE — LODGINGS Child? (1910); ‘Modern Problems? (1912); ‘Continuity? (1914); ‘Raymond, or Life and Death? (1915); ‘Christopher? (1919). LODGE, Thomas, English dramatist and poet: b. West Ham, near London, England, about 1556; d. London, September 1625. He entered at Lincoln’s Inn, but seems to have led a wild and rollicking life, and in 1589-91 varied his life by taking part in two sea expeditions against the Spaniards, in the neighborhood of the Azores and Canary Islands. On the earlier of these he wrote the famous pastoral ‘Rosa- lynde Euphyes’s Golden Legacie? (1590), which supplied Shakespeare with the basis of “As You Like It. Lodge himself wrote two dramas, ‘The Wounds of Civil War (1594; reprinted in Hazlitt’s Dodsley’s ‘Select Collec- tion of Old Plays,’ Vol. VII), and ‘A Looking- glass for London and England? (1594), in col- laboration with Robert Greene. Consult Jus- serand, ‘The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare? (1890). LODGING-HOUSES. Shelters for home- less people. The modern trend of workers to the cities has greatly increased the floating population and many people of this class are without means of purchasing adequate accom- modations. Many systems for caring for this homeless population have been tried with more or less success and in all large cities there are now rescue missions and lodging-houses where a bed or room for the night may be had for a few cents. In New York conspicuous among such institutions are the Mills hotels with pri- vate rooms, free baths, etc., for a charge of 20 to 40 cents.. The larger cities of America, such as Boston, Chicago, New York, have in recent years established municipal lodging-houses where lodging and breakfast are given in re- turn for a few hours’ labor, or free of all labor or compensation of any kind. There are strin- gent regulations, however, regarding the num- ber of times a homeless person may avail him- self of such accommodations. The Salvation Army and other charitable organizations also minister to the homeless. In Europe the mat- ter is similarly handled. Consult Riis, Jacob, ‘The Children of the Poor? (New York 1902) ; Dawson, W. H., ‘The German Workman’ (London 1906); Robins, Raymond, ‘What Constitutes a Municipal Lodging House? (New York 1904). LODGINGS, furnished rooms or apart- ments let by the owner or sublet by a tenant in possession for occupancy for limited periods, usually by the week or month. An agreement to let furnished lodgings is an agreement to land under the Statute of Frauds, and, in the absence of part performance, cannot be en- forced, unless in writing signed by the de- fendant. In the letting of furnished apart- ments there is an implied warranty that the rooms are fit for occupation. Any person who lets lodgings without disinfecting them after infectious disease, or gives a false answer to any question as to the existence of any infec- tious disease, is liable to fine or imprisonment. | A lodging-house-keeper is not liable for the loss or destruction of the lodger’s goods with- out the former’s fault. The relation is not that of landlord and tenant, the lodger acquir- ing by his contract no right of property in the premises but only a license to use the same, LODI— LOEB subject to the terms of agreement. The above provisions are the features of the New York code which in general is followed in other State jurisdictions. See LANDLORD AND TENANT. LODI, 10’dé, Cal. city in San Joaquin County, situated on the Mokelumne, and on the Southern Pacific and Central California rail- roads, 35 miles south of Sacramento. It con- tains a city administration building, Carnegie library and a high school. It has extensive fruit-growing interests and has great packing sheds, fruit juice factories, etc. The city owns the water-supply system and the electric- light- ing system. Pop. (1920) 4,850. LODI, Italy, a town in the province of Milan, Lombardy, on the Adda, 18 miles south- east of Milan. The principal buildings are the duomo or cathedral, a Gothic structure of the 12th century; the octagonal church of the In- coronata, built in the 15th century; the town- house; the episcopal palace; the Barni and Merlini palaces. Majolica and delftware, re- fined wax, saltpeter and chemical products are manufactured. Stracchino and Parmesan cheese, which, Parma, from which it was first exported, is almost wholly made in the district around Lodi, utilizing the milk of thousands of cows. The chief incident in Lodi’s history is the entry by Napoleon after the famous passage of the bridge of Lodi effected against the Austrians, 10 May 1796. Four miles to the west are the famous ruins of an old Roman colony. Pop. of commune, 28,032. LODI, N. J., borough in Bergen County, adjoining Passaic on the northeast, on the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railroad. It contains several silk and cotton mills, bleaching works, rubber works, etc. The borough owns the water-supply system. Pop. (1920) 8,175. LODOMERIA, 16-d6-mé’ri-a, Poland, a former independent principality in “Volhynia, after the division of Poland in 1772 constituting an integral part of Galicia (q.v.). LODZ, 16dz, Poland, the capital of a dis- trict in the government of Piotrkow, 76 miles southwest of Warsaw, and an important manu- facturing centre, the terminus of a branch line from the Warsaw and Vienna Railway. It has made considerable modern progress, owing to the flourishing condition of its cotton, woolen and other manufactures. Silk goods ‘are also manufactured, and there are dyeworks, breweries, machine-works, etc. The Roman Catholic Poles number about 40 per cent, Ger- man Protestants 33 per cent and Jews 27 per cent of the population, which from 50,000 in 1872 had increased in 1912 to 450,000. Cap- tured by the Germans in the early days of the Great War which began in 1914, it was recap- tured by the Russians in 1916, ‘and again fell into the hands of the Central Powers in 1917. LOEB, léb, Jacques, German-American physiologist and biologist: b. Germany, 7 April 1859. He studied at Berlin, Munich and pe epcciie e was assistant at both Wiirzburg (1886-88) and Strassburg (1888-90), studied at the Naples zoological station, and in 1891-92 was associate professor of biology | at Bryn Mawr College. In 1892 he became assistant professor of physiology and experimental biol- ogy at the University of Chicago, and in 1895 though it takes its name from > 591 associate professor. He was also professor of physiology at the Rush Medical College of Chi- cago from 1900. In 1902 he was appointed pro- fessor of physiology in the University of Cali- fornia. After 1910 he was a member of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York. His experiments were in different fields of physiology and biology, all trying to show that complicated life phenomena can be reduced to simple physico-chemical laws. In his earlier work he showed that complicated animal instincts are identical with those reac- tions of plants which are known as _ tropisms, and he and his collaborators showed that the law of Bunsen and Roscoe which controls the chemical effects of light also expresses the in- fiuence of light upon those animal instincts which fall under the name of heliotropism. His experiments on artificial parthenogenesis have furnished the proof that the fertilizing effect of the living spermatozoon can be replaced by simple solutions. Other experiments dealt with the influence of salts upon life phenomena, with regeneration and heteromorphosis, with effects of temperature, etc. He published numerous papers in scientific journals and several books, including ‘Der Heliotropismus der Tiere und seine Ubereinstimmung mit dem Heliotropismus der Pflanzen? (1890); ‘Untersuchungen zur physiologischen Morphologie der Tiere? (1891- 92): “Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology? (1900) ‘Studies in General Physiology» (1905); ‘The Dynamics of Living Matter? (1906); ‘The Mechanistic Conception of Life? (1912); ‘Artificial Par- thenogenesis and. Fertilization? (1913); ‘The Organism as a Whole? (1916); etc. He died Bermuda, 11 Feb. 1924. LOEB, James, American banker and Hel- lenist: b. New Work, NEYE'6 Aug 1607, Ble was graduated at Harvard University in 1888 and from that year until 1901 was a member of the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb and Company, New York. He is a member of the English Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies; in 1911 he turned over his collection of Aretine pottery to the Fogg Museum at Harvard, and in the same year perfected plans for the publi- cation of a library of Greek and Latin authors —text and translation. The volumes, known as the Loeb Classical Library, began to appear . in 1912 and were continued in the following years. Mr. Loeb has published translations of Paul Delcharme’s ‘Euripides and the Spirit of His Dreams,? and of Maurice -Croiset’s ‘Aristophanes and the Political Parties at Athens.? LOEB, Leo, American holes b. Ger- many, 21 Sept. 1869. He received his education at the universities of Heidelberg, Berlin, Zurich and Freiburg (1889-96) and in 1903 was research Fellow at McGill University, Montreal. In 1900-01 he was adjunct profes- sor of pathology at the University of Illinois; in 1902 experimental pathologist of the New York State Pathological Laboratory at Buffalo; in 1904-10 assistant professor of experimental pathology at the University of Pennsylvania; in 1910-15 director of the department of pa- thology of the Barnard Skin and Cancer Hospi- tal, Saint Louis, and since 1915 professor of comparative pathology at Washington Univer- sity. Professor Loeb is fellow or member of. 592 many scientific societies and is a contribator, chiefly on tissue and tumor growth, physiology of generative organs, pathology of circulation, venom of Heloderma, etc. to professional journals. LOEB, Louis, American artist: b. Cleve- land, Ohio, 1866; d.-1909. He completed his studies in art under Gérome in Paris, winning honorable mention at the Salon in 1895, and a third medal in 1897. As artist, illustrator and teacher he secured a notable place. As an il- lustrator of books and magazines he showed both strength and inventive ability. In 1903 his exhibition of oils at the new rooms of the Co-operative Society in New York aroused in- terest in his later work, which shows a steady progress in his artistic achievements. His best- known works are ‘Temple of the Winds? (1898), in the Metropolitan Museum, New York; ‘The Breeze? (1900); ‘The Dawrm (1903) ; “The Siren? (1905); portrait of Elea- nor Robson (1905); ‘Miranda? (1906), in the Metropolitan Museum, New York; ‘The Sum- mit? (1907); ‘Princess Zomona? (1908). He was awarded two silver medals at the Saint Louis Exposition 1904. LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY. LorEs, JAMES. LOEFFLER, léf’lér, Charles Martin Tor- nov, American musician and composer: b. Miuhlhausen, Alsace, 30 Jan. 1861. He was educated in Switzerland, Germany and France, came to America in 1881 and for over 20 years “was violinist with the Boston Symphony Or- chestra. Since 1909 he has been director of the Boston Opera Company. His compositions are remarkable for ittheir technique although lack- ing in originality. They include ‘Les veillées de l’Ukraine,» suite for orchestra and violin (1891) ; ‘Fantastic Concerto” (1894); ‘Diverti- mento in A minor,? for violin and orchestra (1895) ; the symphonic poem, ‘The Death of Fintagiles,’ for orchestra and viola d’amore (1897); ‘Divertissement Espagnol, for or- chestra and saxophone (1901); ‘La bonne chanson,” a symphonic poem; ‘La Villanelle du diable,> symphonic poem; quartet in A minor, chamber music; ‘Deux Rapsodies,» for oboe, viola and piano (1901); ‘By the Waters of Babylon,» Psalm 137, for female chorus See (1902) ; “For One Who Fell in Battle,» chorus | for eight parts (1906); ‘Pagan Poem, for orchestra and piano, also many songs, tran- scriptions, etc. LOEFFLER, Friedrich, German bacteri- ologist: b. Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1852; d. 1915. He was educated at Wurzburg and Ber- lin, in 1879 was made assistant in the Imperial Health Office and in 1884 staff physician at the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute, Berlin. Four years later he was appointed to a chair at the University of Greifswald. ‘Loeffler rendered important and lasting services to bacteriology by his original methods of staining, by the dis- covery of the bacillus of glanders in 1882, and by the discovery of the bacillus of diphtheria. He also investigated the foot-and-mouth dis- ease. In 1887 Professor Loeffler founded the Zentralblatt fiir Bakteriologie und Parasitik. To it he contributed several articles on profes- sional topics, also articles on malaria in Leyden and Klemperer ‘Deutsche Klinik? (1903). He . been active in its formation. LOEB — LOEWE published ‘Vorlesungen tiber die geschichtliche Entwicklung der Lehre von den Bakterien? (1887) and ‘Die Schutzimpfung gegen die ~Maul und Klauensenche? (1903). LOESS, lés or ld’es, a loamy deposit of Pleistocene Age, abundantly developed in the valleys of the Rhine, the Danube, the Rhone and many of their tributaries. It is a pulveru- lent yellowish-gray or brownish loam, homo- geneous and non-plastic, and consists principally of clay with small angular grains of quartz, and extremely minute scales of mica, together with a larger or smaller admixture of carbonate of lime and some iron oxide. It has a tendency to cleave in vertical planes, and thus forms cliffs where streams intersect it. The organic re- mains of the loess consist principally of land- shells of existing species, but now and again fresh-water shells are met with. Occasionally, also, the remains of man and the Pleistocene mammals are encountered. The deposit varies from a small thickness up to nearly 300 feet, and occurs at greatly differing levels, so that more than one agency would seem to have Escaping flood- waters from glaciers are believed to have made some of the deposit; some of it may have been the result of weathering and rain-washings. The European loess is undoubtedly associated with the glacial deposits of the Continent, and in North America the same relationship ob- tains. Many geologists of the United States Geological Survey maintain that the accumula- tions which cover enormous areas in the great basin traversed by the Mississippi and _ its affluents are essentially fluviatile. Richthofen believes the Chinese accumulation, the largest in the world, to have been of Aolian origin, and this theory of wind-blown material has also been advanced with respect to deposits in the United States. There is no unanimity of opinion as to its origin, but loess is probably in part fluviatile and in part wind-blown. Consult Sixth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey (1888) ; Chamberlin and Sal- isbury, ‘The Driftless Area of the Upper Mississippi Valley?; McGee, ‘The Pleistocene History of Northeastern Iowa, in the United States Geological Survey, Eleventh Annual Re- port (1891); Geikie, ‘Prehistoric Europe? (1881). LOEWE, leé’vé, Wilhelm (also called LoEWwE-KALBE), German politician: b. Olven- stedt, near Magdeburg 1814: d. 1886. He was educated at Halle, and adopted the medical pro- fession. Elected in 1848 to the Frankfort Parliament, he acted with the extreme party of democracy; became first vice-president of the Parliament; and later, at Stuttgart, was its president. Charged with sedition in this, which was considered a revolutionary procedure, and once acquitted, he was nevertheless sentenced to life imprisonment for contumacy. After some years in Switzerland, France and Eng- land, he came to this country, and for eight years practised medicine in New York. Avail- ing himself of the amnesty in 1861, he returned to Germany, and in 1863 was elected to the Prussian House of Deputies. Four years later he was a Progressist member of the North German Reichstag. Disagreeing with his party in 1874 on the military law, he attempted to form a new Liberal party. He favored the LOEWY — LOG policy of high protection adopted in 1879. In the elections of 1881 he lost his seat. LOEWY, lé-vé’, Maurice, French astrono- mer: b. Vienna, 1833; d. Paris, 16 Oct. 1907. He was given a position in the observatory at Paris by Leverrier, and after the latter’s death assisted Mouchez in the observatory of Montsouris, becoming director in 1896. He was noted for his invention of the equatorial-coudé, or Elbow-equatorial, in which the observer re- mains seated at the upper end of. the polar axis of the telescope, as if working with a microscope on a table, with the means of di- recting his view to any part of the heavens under his control. He also devised improved methods of determining the constants of as- tronomical refraction and aberration. He was joint author (with Puiseux) of ‘Atlas photo- graphie de la lune? in six volumes (1896-1908). LOFFTZ, léftz, Ludwig, German painter: b. Darmstadt, 1845: d. 1910. He studied at Nuremberg under Kreling and Raupp and at Munich under Diez. In 1879 he became pro- fessor at the Academy of Munich, and from 1891 to 1899 was director of this institution. His best-known paintings are ‘Cardinal Playing the Organ? (1876; exhibited in New York 1909); portrait of Liszt; ‘Avarice and Love? (1879, owned by W. H. Vanderbilt, New York) ; ‘Erasmus, in the Stuttgart Museum; ‘Pieta,? and ‘Eurydice? (1898), both in the New Pinakothek, Munich, ‘Assumption of the Vir- gin? (1889), in Freising Cathedral. In his later years he painted several landscapes, but his greatest success lay in his work as a teacher. LOFOTEN, 16-fd’‘ten, or LOFODDEN, Norway, a group of islands off the northwest coast, stretching southwest to northeast about 175 miles and including the Vesteraaelen islands to the north. The largest are Andoen, Langoen, Hindoen (the largest 860 square miles), East and West Vaagen and Flagstadoe. They have bold, precipitous, rugged and deeply indented coasts, ‘the channels between which are deep, narrow and tortuous, and an elevated, sterile interior, several containing mountains which, though not lofty, are covered with per- petual snow. The highest peak is Higrafstind (3,811 feet). Immense shoals of cod and herring frequent their shores, and extensive and valuable fisheries are carried on, The princi- pal cod-fishery beginning January-February ends in April, but the herring-fishery continues, and furnishes an important branch of national revenue. In ordinary years about 4,000 boats, each manned by five hands, are employed. The celebrated whirlpool, the Maelstrom, is situated at the southwest extremity of these islands. Permanent population of group, about 40,000. LOFTIE, William John, Irish-Anglican clergyman, writer on Tea ee b. Tandragee, County Armagh, 25 July 1839; d. 16 June 1911. He was educated at Trinity College Dublin, and after holding church appointments joined the staff of the Saturday Review, and in 1894 that of the National Observer. As a writer on antiquarian subjects he combined learning and picturesque statement. He pub- lished ‘Round About London? (1877; 4th ed., 1880); ‘Plea for Art in the House? (1877) ; “Memorials of the Savoy? (1879); ‘A Ride in Egypt? (1879); ‘A History of London? (1883) : ‘Authorized Guide to the Tower of London? VOL, 17— 38 593 (1886) ; ‘London? (1887); ‘Windsor? (1887) ; ‘Westminster Abbey? (1890); ‘The Cathedral Churches of England? (1892); ‘Inigo Jones and Wren? (1893); ‘Inns of Court and Chan- cery? (1894); ‘London Afternoons? (1901) ; ‘Coronation Book of Edward VID; ‘Colour of London? (1907). LOFTUS, Lorp Augustus William Fred- erick Spencer, English diplomatist: b. 4 Oct. 1817; d. 9 March 1904. He entered the diplo- matic service in 1837 as attaché at Berlin and was likewise attaché at Stuttgart in i644 “Ete was secretary to Stratford Canning in_ 1848, and after serving as secretary of legation at Stuttgart (1852), and Berlin (1853), was en- voy at Vienna (1858), Berlin (1860) and Munich (1862); became Ambassador at Berlin 1865, to the North German Confederation (1868-71) and to Saint Petersburg (1871-79). He was governor of New South Wales (1879- ph He published his Reminiscences (1892— LOG, in nautical parlance, an apparatus used to measure the rate of a ship’s velocity through the water. For this purpose there are several inventions, but the one most generally used is the following, called the common log. It is a piece of thin board, forming the quad- rant of a circle of about six inches radius, an balanced by a small plate of lead, nailed on the circular part, so as to float vertically in the water, with the greater part immersed. The log-line is fastened to the log by means of three leads, two being knotted, through holes at one corner and the top while the other is attached to a pin fixed in a hole at the other corner, so as to draw out when a considerable force is exerted on it. The log-line is divided by means of knots of colored cloth into equal lengths, which are in the same proportion to an equal number of geographical or nautical miles, as a half or quarter minute is to_an hour of time. It is wound upon a reel. The whole is employed to measure the ship’s head-way in the following manner:— The reel being held by one man, and the half-minute glass by another, the mate of the watch fixes the pin and throws the log over the stern, which floating vertically offers immediate resistance through its area set at right angles to the direction of the ship, and is considered as stationary, the line being allowed to run freely over the stern to prevent the pin being pulled out. The knots are measured from a mark on the line at the distance of 12 or 15 fathoms from the log. The part of the line between the log and this mark is called the stray-line. The glass is turned at the instant that the mark passes over the stern, and as soon as the sand in the glass is run out the line is stopped. The resistance of the water then acting on the log dislodges the pin, so that the board, now presenting only its edge to the _ water, is easily drawn aboard. The number of knots which had run off at the expiration of the glass determines the ship’s velocity. Two types of sand-glasses are in common use among mariners, one emptying in 30 seconds, and the other in 28 seconds. In the first instance, in laying out the knots in a log line the proportion would read: 1 hour (3,690 sec.): 30: : 1 mile (6,080 feet): I knot. making the length of ie “knot” — that is, the length between two knots on the line — 50 feet 594 7 inches. Where the 28-second sand glass is used the “knot” is 47 feet 3 inches in length. Where the speed of the vessel is greater than six knots that is, six natitical miles per hour — the line would run out an inconvenient distance in 28 or 30 seconds, so in faster ships a 14- second or 15-second glass is used, and the num- ‘ber of knots passing in that period multiplied by two to give the speed per hour. The patent log or taffrail log is an alto- gether different instrument for the same pur- pose. Instead of a long line running out freely, the patent log has a fixed length of line, about three fathoms for each knot of the ship’s average speed, and is dragged after the ship. The drag is an arrangement similar to a screw, having a central shank, and fins running lengthwise around it in helical form. When it is dragged through the water the fins cause it to rotate, and the faster it is dragged the faster it rotates. The entire log line turns with it and the number of turns is recorded by nechanism fastened to the taffrail of the vessel, and is shown on a dial. LOG-BOOK, a book in which are offici- cially recorded the proceedings on board a ship, supplied in England by the Board of Trade. In it the contents of the log-board are daily trans- scribed at noon, together with every circum- stance deserving notice that may happen to the ship or within her cognizance, either at sea or in a harbor, etc. In addition to the weather, speed, astronomical observations, etc., the en- tries required to be made include convictions, offenses, punishments, conduct of crew, illnesses and injuries, deaths, births and marriages, quit- ting the ship, wages of men entering the navy, wages of deceased seamen, sale of deceased sea- men’s effects, collisions —ain short, every con- dition, occurrence and transaction which comes under official notice. The log-book must be signed by master and mate, and certain other persons in particular cases. Properly authenti- cated entries are admissible in a court of law. A log is also kept by the master for the bene- fit of the owners. On steamships the chief engineer is also responsible for the keeping of a log in which are recorded all details con- nected with his department while the ship is at sea. LOG CABIN AND HARD CIDER, a term used in American politics in the campaign of 1840. The Whig candidate for President, William Henry Harrison, was a military man of plain manners. One of the Democratic papers, scoffing at the Whigs for taking a can- didate not of the first calibre, advised that Harrison be given a log cabin and a barrel of hard cider, and he would stay contentedly in Ohio. ‘This was taken up by the Whigs, and really helped to make their candidate popular with the masses. Log cabins were erected in great numbers in the cities, and were carried in De eee accompanied with barrels of hard cider. LOG-CABIN HARRISON. CABIN AND Harp CIpER. LOG PERCH, a fish of the darter group, and its largest member. It is locally known as hogfish, hog molly, rockfish, etc., and is easily distinguished by its zebra stripes. It attains a length of eight inches and frequents clear cold streams, Consult Jordan and © Copeland, See Loc LOG-BOOK — LOGAN ‘Johnny Darters? (in American Naturalist, Vol. X, Salem 1876). LOG-ROLLING, in American politics, a term used for manceuvers of. politicians, by which they seek to secure co-operation in carry- ing favorite measures through legislatures and other bodies. Generally log-rolling is employed by individuals who approach others in support of personal schemes and interests. The word was formerly very popular in the United States, but has become almost obsolete, being sup- planted by the term “button-holing.” LOGAN, 106’gan, English name of the American Indian chief Tah-gah-jute: b. about 1725; d. 1780. He was the son of Shikellamy, a celebrated chief of the Cayugas, who lived at Shamokin .on the Susquehanna, and was called Logan from James Logan, the secretary of Pennsylvania and a firm friend of the Indians. In his early manhood he was known throughout the frontier of Virginia and Penn- sylvania for his fine personal appearance, en- gaging qualities and his friendship for the whites. About 1770 he removed with his family to the banks of the Ohio, where he gave way in a measure to intemperance. In the spring of 1774 his family were massacred, it was alleged, by a party of whites led by Captain Crésap, under the pretext of retaliation for Indian murders; but it is exceedingly doubtful whether Cresap had any connection with the transaction. Logan at once instigated a war against the scattered settlers of the Far West, and for several months fearful barbarities were perpetrated upon men, women and_ children. He disdained to appear among the chiefs who subsequently sued for peace, but sent by an interpreter to Lord Dunmore, the governor of Virginia, the noted speech explaining his con- duct, which was first published in Jefferson’s ‘Notes on Virginia.» Its authenticity is open to much doubt, however. While intoxicated he attacked a party of friendly Indians and was killed by his relative Tod-hah-dohs in self- defense. LOGAN, Benjamin, American pioneer: b. Augusta County, Va., about 1752; d. Shelby County, Ky., 11 Dec. 1802. He early crossed the Alleghanies ‘and became a settler in Ken- tucky. He was an associate of Simon Kenton and Daniel Boone in the Indian fighting then constantly in progress on the frontier. During the Revolutionary War he was also active in the contests between the colonial frontiersmen and the British and their Indian allies. In 1776 he built one mile east of Stanford, Ky., on the site now called Saint Asaph’s Spring, the stockade known as “Logan’s fort.” When this fort had for weeks in 1777 been besieged by Indians, Logan made his way through the enemy’s lines and traveled 150 miles to Holston where he obtained supplies and reinforcements. He participated as second in command in Col. John Bowman’s expedition against the Shaw- nees at Chillicothe, and led the force sent against the Indians under Simon Girty. His advance guard, through over-haste, was de- feated at Blue Licks, and Logan himself did not reach the scene of battle until the succeed- ing day. In 1788 he commanded a force of 600 against the northwestern Indians. -He was for many years a member of the Kentucky legislature; and sat also in the State constitt- LOGAN tional conventions of 1792 and 1799. His prowess was celebrated on the frontier. LOGAN, George, American statesman and philanthropist; grandson of James Logan (q.v.): b. Stenton, now a part of Philadelphia, 9 Sept. 1753; d. there, 9 April 1821. He was educated in England, subsequently ‘studied medicine in Edinburgh, where he took the de- gree of M.D., and afterward returned in 1779 to America. For many years he devoted him- self to agricultural pursuits, which he was one of the first in America to prosecute successfully in a scientific manner. He also served several terms in the Pennsylvania legislature. At the outbreak of the French Revolution he embraced with enthusiasm its democratic doctrines, and joined Jefferson and the Republican party in opposition to the Federalists. In 1798, the United States being then’ on the brink of a ‘rupture with the French republic, he departed cor France, under the idea that he might con- tribute to the preservation of peace. He was well received by Talleyrand and Merlin, then chief of the Directory, and returned to ica with the assurance of the desire of the French government to renew amicable relations with the United States. But as he had taken - with him letters of introduction from Jefferson and Governor McKean instead of passports from the State Department, he was denounced by the Federalists on his return as the treason- able envoy of a faction who had undertaken to institute a correspondence with a foreign and hostile power. He was coldly received by Washington and President Adams, and in the latter part of 1798 an act, known as the “Logan act,” was passed by Congress, making it a high misdemeanor for a private citizen to interfere in a controversy between the United States and a foreign country as he had done. He was subsequently elected to the United States Senate, of which body he remained a member 1801-07; and in 1810, urged by the same philan- thropic motives which had induced him to visit France 12 years before, he went to England in the hope of preserving peace. In 1797 he pub- lished ‘Experiments on Gypsum? and ‘Rota- tion of Crops. LOGAN, James, American colonial states- man and author: b. Lurgan, Ireland, 20 Oct. 1674; d. Stenton, near Philadelphia, Pa., 31 - Oct. 1751. By his own efforts he acquired a knowledge of the chief ancient and modern languages, and in 1699, being then established in trade in Bristol, England, accepted an invi- tation from William Penn to accompany him to America in the capacity of secretary. In 1701, upon the return of Penn. to England, he was appointed provincial secretary, and subse- quently filled the offices of commissioner of property, chief justice and president of the council, discharging in the last capacity the duties of governor of the province for two years after the demise of Governor Gordon in 1736. The latter years of his life were passed at his country-seat called Stenton, in the pur- suit of literature and science. His chief work, ‘Experimenta et Meletemata de Plantarum Generatione? (Leyden 1739; London, trans- lated from the Latin by Fothergill, 1747), an - expansion of a paper on the growth of maize published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions? for 1735, was considered an important contribu- Amer- 595 tion to the science of botany. He was the au- thor of two other Latin treatises of a scientific character published in Holland, of an English translation of Cicero’s ‘De Senectute,? pub- lished in 1744 by Benjamin Franklin, and of Cato’s ‘Distichs,? the latter in verse; and he left a variety of papers on ethics and philology. The translation of Cicero was the first original one of a classical author printed in America. His library, numbering about 2,000 volumes, was, in conformity with his desire, presented to the city of Philadelphia, and is deposited ina separate department of the Philadelphia library under the name of the Loganian library. He was one of the founders of the University of Pennsylvania. He was a member of the Soci- ety of Friends. LOGAN, John, Scottish poet and Presby- terian clergyman: b. Soutra, Midlothian, Scot- land, 1748; d. London, 25 Dec. 1788. In 1773 he was licensed as a preacher, was in the same year ordained to the second charge of South Leith, and because of his eloquence and fervor in the pulpit soon became popular. In 1783 his tragedy of ‘Runnamede? was acted at the Edin- burgh Theatre. His association with the stage gave offense to his flock, and owing to this, and to intemperate habits which he had inher- ited from his father, he was in 1786 constrained to leave the ministry and going to London there engaged in literary work. His name is now best known in connection with that of Michael Bruce and the controverted authorship of the ‘Ode to the Cuckoo.» That Logan is entitled to a place among the minor poets of Scotland is sufficiently attested by his exquisite lyrics, ‘The Braes of Yarrow.? - Consult Ander- son, R., ‘British Poets? (vol. xi, 1795); and separate edition (1805). LOGAN, John Alexander, American sol- dier and politician: b. Jackson County, Ill, 9 Feb. 1826; d. Washington, D. C., 26 Dec. 1886. He studied at Shiloh College,. volunteered as a private in the Mexican War, became a lieuten- ant in the First Illinois Infantry, after the war studied law, was graduated from Louisville University in 1851, was admitted to the bar, and was elected to the Illinois legislature in 1852 and 1856. In 1858 he was elected a repre- sentative in Congress as a Douglas Democrat, in 1860 was re-elected, but resigned his seat in 1861, and on 13 September was appointed colonel of the 31st Illinois Infantry. He led this regi- ment in the attacks on Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, and was wounded at the latter. On 5 March 1862, he was made a brigadier-general of volunteers, and after commanding the 3d division of McPherson’s corps (the 17th) in the northern Mississippi campaign, became major-general on 26 Nov. 1862. He fought at Port Gibson, Raymond, Jackson and Champion Hill, commanded the centre at Vicksburg and was appointed military governor of the town upon its capture. In November 1863 he was made commander of the Fifteenth corps, which he led until the fall of Atlanta, save for a short period when in command of the Army of the Tennessee. He then returned to take part in the Lincoln presidential campaign, but rejoined his corps, continued with it till Johnston’s sur- render, 26 April 1865, and afterward for a time commanded the Army of the Tennessee. In 1866-69 he sat in the 40th and 41st congresses 596 as a Republican. He was one of the managers of the impeachment proceedings against Presi- dent Andrew Johnson. He was also re-elected to the 42d Congress, but before taking his seat was chosen by the: Illinois legislature to the Senate, where he served from 1871 to 1877. He began legal practice in Chicago, but on 18 March 1879 again entered the Senate. While in Congress he distinguished himself by his elo- quence. He was consistently opposed to the restoration of Fitz-John Porter to the army, and in June 1880 made a four days’ speech on the Porter bill. At the Republican National Convention in Chicago in June 1884, he was a candidate for nomination to the Presidency, and after Blaine’s nomination was nominated Vice-President by acclamation. Shortly after the defeat of this ticket, Logan was again chosen Republican senator from Illinois. Blaine said of him: “While there have been more illustrious. military leaders in the United States and more illustrious leaders in legisla- tive halls, there has, I think, been no man in this country who has combined the two careers in so eminent a degree as General Logan.” Major-General Logan published a volume on the Civil War entitled ‘The Great Conspiracy: Its Origin and History? (1886) and ‘The Vol- unteer Soldier of America? (1888). Consult Andrews, G. F. Byron, ‘Biography of General John A. Logan, with an Account of his Public Services in Peace and in War? (New York 1884), and Dawson, ‘Life and Services of General John A. Logan? (Chicago 1887). LOGAN, Olive, American actress, lec- turer and author: b. Elmira, N. Y., 16 April 1839; d. Bunstead, England, 27 April 1909. She was educated in Paris and London and fitted for a stage career, which began in Philadelphia in 1854. She appeared at Wallack’s Theatre, New York, in 1864, in her own play, ‘Eveleen,? retired from the stage in 1868 and became a lecturer on social topics and a contributor to various periodicals. She published ‘Chateau Frissac? (1865); ‘Photographs of Paris Life? (1861) ; “Women and Theatres? ; ; and ‘Before the Footlights and Behind the Scenes: a Book about the Show Business? (1870); a metrical translation of Coppée’s ‘Le Passant? and a dramatization of Collin’s ‘Armadale.’ LOGAN, Stephen Trigg, American ju- tist: b. in Franklin County, Ky. in 2lsogsed. 1880. After studying law and for a while prac- tising in Kentucky he removed (1832) to Springfield, Ill., and there continued in the work of his profession. He became a circuit judge in 1835; was. three times (1842, 1844, 1846) elected to the Illinois legislature; and was associated as law partner with Abraham Lincoln, from 1841 to 1844. He was one of those who in 1847 framed the new constitution of Illinois; was again elected to the legislature in 1854; joined the Republican party at its for- mation, and was a delegate to its national con- vention in Chicago in 1860, at which Lincoln was nominated. In 1861 he attended the Peace Conference at Washington and then retired from public life. He was regarded as the lead- ing member of the Illinois bar. LOGAN, Sir William Edmond,: Canadian geologist: b. Montreal, 20 April 1798; d. Castle Malgwin, Cardiganshire, Wales, 22 June 1875. LOGAN — LOGANBERRY He was educated chiefly in Edinburgh; was for a time a clerk in London, and afterward be- came manager of a copper-smelting works in Swansea, While there he devoted himself to the study of geology. In 1840 he went to Can- ada, and he was the chief of the Geological Survey of that country 1842-70. His writings appeared in the annual reports of the Canadian Survey; in the Proceedings of the British Association, the Geological Society, etc. He published ‘Geology of Canada? (1863). LOGAN, Ohio, village, county-seat of Hocking County, on the Hocking River, and on the Hocking Valley Railroad, about 45 miles southeast of Columbus. It is situated in the natural gas and oil belt, and in the vicinity of some good farm lands. Nearby is found clay suitable for pottery and bricks. Its chief man- ufactures are flour, furniture, brick for pav- ing and. building, pottery, foundry products, sewer pipe, shoes and machinery. The village owns and operates the waterworks. The pub- lic library has nearly 3,000 volumes. Note- worthy features are the Cherrington Hospital, Rock House, Rock Bridge and Ash Cave. The village is named after John Logan, the famous Cayuga chief. It was first settled in 1802. Pop. (1920) 5,493. LOGAN, Utah, city, county-seat of Cache County, on Logan River, and on the Oregon Short Line Railroad and Ogden, Logan and Idaho Interurban Railroad, about 70 miles north of Salt Lake City, by rail, 105 miles. Jt was. settled in 1859 and incorporated in 1866. It is located in an agricultural region with valuable mineral deposits in the vicinity and is sur- rounded by 30 towns of Cache Valley. The chief industrial establishments are sugar fac- tory, condensed milk factory, knitting mills, flour mills and lumber mills. Some of the educational institutions are the Utah Agricul-. tural College, the Brigham Young College, opened in 1878 under the auspices of the Latter Day Saints, New Jersey Academy, under the auspices of the Presbyterians. The water- works and electric-light plant are owned and operated by the city. The city government is conducted on the commission plan. Pop. (1920) 9,439. LOGAN, Mount, the second highest peak in North America, Mount McKinley (q.v.) being first, in the southwestern part of Yukon Territory, Canada. Its height is 19,500 feet. It was long considered the highest peak in the continent, but in 1898 the United States Geo- logical Survey found that it was exceeded by Mount McKinley. LOGANBERRY, a fruit related to the raspberry and blackberry. It was, originated in 1881 by Judge J. H. Logan of Santa Cruz, Cal, and is believed to be the result of a cross between a wild blackberry (Rubus vitifolius) of California anda red raspberry, probably the Red Antwerp. The fruit is pur- plish red and very large, and is: similar in form to the blackberry, while its flavor is in- termediate between those of the parents. Loganberries are cultivated extensively from British Columbia to southern California. They are used fresh as a dessert fruit, and in addi- . tion are canned and dried in large quantities, The juice has become a popular beverage, LOGANIACEA — LOGAG:DIC VERSE LOGANIACEZ, a natural order of corol- lifloral exogens, consisting of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, with opposite entire leaves, and usually with stipules, which adhere to the footstalks to form sheaths. Tt includes about 30 genera and 400 species and is common in the tropics and in the warmer regions of the temperate zones. The calyx is 4-5 partite; the corolla hypogenous, regular or irregular, 4-5 or 10-cleft. The stamens arise from the corolla. The ovary is generally two-celled; there is one style. The fruit is a capsule, a drupe or a bérry. No natural order of plants is more strongly characterized by poisonous properties, especially by strychnine. It includes the strychnos, from which is ob- tained nux vomica and the woorali poison. * LOGANSPORT, Ind., city, county-seat of Cass County, locally known as the “City of Bridges,» 77 miles north by west of Indian- apolis, where the Eel River flows into the Wabash. The city is an important railroad centre, being entered by the Chicago, Rich- mond, Bradford and Effner divisions of the Pittsburgh, ‘Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis ’ Railroad; the Michigan division of the Van- dalia, and its 94-mile branch northeast of But- ler, and by the Wabash. ern terminal of the interurban line operated by the Fort Wayne and Wabash Valley Trac- tion Company and the northern terminal of the line operated by the Indiana Union Trac- tion Company. The business of the city is de- rived largely from its railroad shops, from its manufactories and from the surrounding agri- cultural region, and the chief products being wheat, corn, oats and small fruits. There are manufactories of automobiles, radiators, lum- ber, carriages, plows, flour, baskets, lime, brooms, window shades, soaps and foundry products. Kenneth quarries, two miles west of the city limits on the north bank of. the Wabash, furnish large quantities of crushed limestone. The city has several churches. Its educational facilities are embraced in the Logansport Business College, Holy Angels’ Academy (R. C.), a high school, the building being of Lake Superior red sandstone, and ward schools, in addition to the Catholic and Lutheran parish schools. The most important public institution is the Northern Indiana Hos- pital for the Insane, popularly known as “Long- cliff,» comprising over 34 buildings, and several hundred acres of land. Saint Joseph’s Hos- pital (R. C.), the Home for the Friendless, the Orphans’ Home, the Carnegie library, the Fed- eral building, completed in 1905 and costing $75,000, and the Masonic Temple, are among the more prominent institutions. The city also has about 15 acres of parks. The soldiers’ monument in Mount Hope Cemetery, costing $10,000, was dedicated 14 July 1887. Logans- port was named after Captain Logan, a Shaw- “nee chief, killed by the Indians in November 1812, near the Maumee River, and was first written Logan’s Port. The first. permanent settlement was made in August 1826 by Alex- ander Chamberlain, who erected a log cabin on the south bank of the Wabash, directly op- posite the mouth of the Fel River. It was in- corporated as a town 5 Sept: 1831; as a city, 3 April 1838. Its elective officers consist of a mayor, judge, clerk and treasurer, each for four years, ineligible for two consecutive It is also the west- 597 terms; and seven councilmen, one from each of the five wards, and two at large. The business of the city is largely delegated to its board of public works, which consists of three members, appointed by the mayor, and not more than two of which can belong to the same political party. The police commissioners are appointed by the governor. The city also owns and operates its own electric light and water plant. Pop. (1920) 21,626. - LOGACEDIC, (lég’a-é’dik), VERSE. The derivation of the adjective, logacedic, from Gr. Adyog (pr. logos = speech, discourse, prose) and ody (pr. a-oi-dé = song), the combination giving the sense of prose-song, prose-poetry, shows sufficiently the basic mean- ing of the phrase. In other words, logacedic verse is so called because, to some extent at least, its rhythmic effect is supposed to re- semble that of prose. Logacedic verse, as used in Greek and Latin prosody, may be defined as a rhythm, in three-eighths time, based on the trochee (— wv); but admitt ng with considerable freedom the use of other feet instead of the trochee. The substitute feet thus generally used are the cyclic dactyl (*W VU), that is, a dactyl in three-eighths instead of four-eighths time; the irrational trochee (—>), which gets its name from the fact that its parts are not, or at least seem not to be, related to each other in the regular ratio of two to one; the triseme (_); the tribrach (UU UY); and occasion- ally, but only in the first foot, or base, of the line, the iambus (VY —), the pyrrhic (oy \), or the anapaest (Y Y—). Anacrusis, that is, a short or unaccented initial syllable, occasion- ally occurs; double anacrusis not so frequently. Throughout this article the sign A indicates a pause or rest. The principal logacedic forms are: I, Dipody (two feet); II, Tripody (three feet) ; III,, Tetrapody (four feet).; and IV, Composite : (a) Pentapody (five feet) and (b) verse containing more than five feet. Examples are: J, Drropy.: ; sy zo 1. Adonic= ovdév er iket ocior aura (This may also be scanned 4+,|4y|WA) II, Tripopy. Pherecratics. These are known as First or Second Pherecratic according as the cyclic dactyl is the first or second foot. 2. (a) First Pherecratic (acatalectic) or Aristophanic: ene doe hued | 4u é¢ yapi TOV méev bfee temperat ora frenis This may also be scanned: *tUw | +vwU | wl|wWA (b) First Pherecratic catalectic (not known in Latin, except in composite verse): Suiw AY | L. Webdeot Tol Aotc 3. (a) Second Pherecratic (acatalectic) : Le pee ae déte Tat Tent [L000 cras do naberis haedo 598 This may also be scanned « > a nis || i | «4A, that is, as a syncopated tetrapody catalectic. (b) Second Pherecratic. catalectic (not known in Latin, except in composite verse) : Kaitep ayvipe VOC , III. TerrApopy. Glyconics. These are called First, Second, or Third, according to the position of the cyclic dactyl. 4. First Glyconic (not known in Latin): 45uU 2wv Si MUNG eh oP a kal Kvay éuBo Aot G0 | ai 5. Second Glyconic: LS 4M 4 af TOVTOV verpept @ v6 | TW) Sic te diva po tens Cy |, pri 6. Third Glycomic. (not known in Latin, ex- cept in composite verse) : BAH) ND | AY aT geta| PavTa Tavoayt @ 7. Nine-syllable Alcaic (with anacrusis) : ae as rb ee Le) LtV TO: OévOev: Gp ec 0 av TO péooov Dilys: arvaeca, boran tes ge luque 8. Lesser Alcaic (decasyllabic) : olvoy év elkapé VOLE Me Gvodev flumina constite rint a cuto IV. Composite: (a) Pentapody. 9. Lesser Sapphic (two trochaic dipodies, separated by a cyclic dactyl) : RAG I w Aad One) Dy ya ee A TOLKL Adbpov’, | aOdvar’ | ’Adpo | dita iam sa | tis ter | risnivis | atque ! dirae _10. Greater Alcaic (hendecasyllabic; begins with anacrusis) : > By | ED SU oe TEN ov : vp Kal] Koscoe | OVMOY E| wiTpé | TED per : mitte | divis | cetera | qui sil mul 11. Phalecean (hendecasyllabic) : Bee see ee wet wy XS) sy | év pip | rov xAadt | ro §t | do¢ do phow cui do no lepi | dumno ! vumli | bellum ComposiTE: (b) more than five feet: . 12. Greater Sapphic (third Glyconic and first Pherecratic) : a, on SS ET ee filiium dilcunt Theti sub lacrilmosa|Troiae oe £9|/4>|t0u/ 4: || tw peu “LI|~A | 13. Lesser Asclepiadic Pherecratic catalectic) : (second and first £5 PAVE WY l|4tulZn nAgbec | &k mepa yac éAe | davti | vac Maece ! nas ata | vis ||. edite regi | bus 14. Greater Asclepiadic (this is the Lesser Asclepiadic with a syncopated or catalectic dipody (||[,U|) inserted between the two tripodies) : | A. ie pndév aAdodv | teb | onc mpdre | pov Nullam | Vare sa !cral vite pri | us on) Coy aad Abed Y A dévd plov aprél|Aw severis | arbo|rem LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL Most of Horace’s ‘Odes? are in logacedic verse. He adopted his measures from the Greek poets, but in his practice he generally shows greater strictness than his models. Thus, for instance, he always has a spondee (— me or irrational trochee (—>), instead of a trochee proper (—w), before the first occurring cyclic dactyl (UO uw). When he uses anacrusis, its quantity is usually long, and in the fourth book of the ‘Odes? always so. Catullus, Horace’s predecessor, as a rule uses the trochee as the basis of his Glyconic and Pherecratic verse, more rarely the spondee or the iambus. In his Asclepiadic lines he uses the spondee as the basis. Great variety of Glyconic verse is found in Greek poetry. The tragedians use as the basis not only the trochee and the spondee, but also the iambus (V—), the pyrrhic (UW), and the tribrach (UY Y), and Euripides even admits the anapaest (4YW—). Sophocles, and more _ frequently Euripides, secured still greater variety by the © displacement of the dactyl and other licenses. Such verses are known as Glyconei polysche- matistt. On account of the frequent occurrence of an apparent Choriambus (—ww—), as, for example, in the Adonic and the Greater Sap- phic, logacedic verses were formerly, and some- times still are, called Choriambic, and it is possible to scan them so; but it is doubtful if they are truly Choriambic, and it 1s in conform- ity with the practice of modern scholarship to name and scan them as logacedic. Logacedic verse is found in English but rarely, and then generally in imitation of a classic form. ‘Thus Tennyson has the follow- ing reproduction of the Alcaic strophe: O mighty-mouth’d inventor of harmonies, O skill’d to sing of Time or Eternity, God-gifted organ-voice of England, Milton, a name to resound for ages. And Swinburne has this imitation of the Sap- phic strophe: Clothed about with flame and with tears, and singing Songs, that move the heart of the shaken heaven, Songs, that break the heart of the earth with pity, Hearing, to hear them. See VERSIFICATION. Bibliography.— Schmidt, J. H. H., ‘Intro- duction to the Rhythmic and Metric of the Classical (ei neraoes (tr. by J. W. White, Boston 1878; new ed., 1902); Hadley, J., and Allen, F. De F., ‘Greek Grammar? (New York 1887) ; Miller, L., “Greek and Roman Versifi- cation” (tr. by S. B. Planter, Boston 1892) ; Moore, C. H. (ed.), ‘Horace: The Odes, etc. (New York 1892); Greenough, J. B., and Allen, J.; Hy ‘Latin Grammar? (revised ed., Boston 1895); Goodell, T. D., ‘Chapters on Greek Metric? (New York 1901) ; White, J. W., ‘Verse of Greek Comedy? (London 1912) ; Journal of Classical Philology (Vol. VIII, Chi- cago 1913); Shorey, P., and Laing, G. J. (ed Dy ‘Horace: Odes and Epodes? (ChueaKo 1916}. . LENNOX. LOGARITHMIC Anacapa SPI- RAL, the curve described by a point which moves along a uniformly revolving straight line with a velocity proportional to its distance from the fixed point of the line. Its equation in polar co-ordinates is r= Greg. It cuts all the radii through the origin at a constant angle, whose tangent is 1/a. When a0 the spiral LOGARITHMS — LOGIC becomes a circle. The evolute of the spiral is an equal spiral. Descartes and Bernoulli studied the properties of this curve and New- ton showed that if the force of gravity had varied inversely as the cube of the distance the paths of the planets would have been loga- rithmic spirals. Consult Bernoulli,. J., ‘Acta Eruditorum? (1691); Brocard, ‘Notes. de bibliographie des courbes géométriques’? (Bar- le-Duc 1897) ; id., ‘Partie complémentaire? (ib. 1899). LOGARITHMS. The common logarithm of a number is the index of the power to which 10 must be raised to be equal to the number. Thus 10° 1,000, so that the logarithm of 1,000 (usually written log. 1,000) is 3. Now 10°10, 10 100, 10*= 1,000, 10° 1,000,000, and it is well known that 10°=1, 10-*—0.1, 10-*— 0.01, etc., thus: Log. 0.001 = —3 Log. 10=—1 Log. 0:01 *== —2 Log. 100 — 2 Log. -0ns: «== —11 Log. 1,000 = 3 Log. 1 ==!) 0 Log. 10,000 = 4 It is evident that the logarithm of any num- ber greater than 1 and less than 10 is frac- tional;* the logarithm of any number greater than 10 and léss than 100 is greater than 1 and less than 2. Again, the logarithm of any num- ber less than 1 is negative. The logarithms of numbers have been calculated by Napier, Briggs, Mercator, Newton, Leibnitz, Halley, Euler, L’Houillier, Vlacq, Sherwin, Gardner, Hutton, Taylor, Callet, Schrén, Huntington, Moore and others. Of works giving tables of logarithms we may mention those to which the names of Hutton, Callet and Vega are respec- tively attached. Chambers’ Mathematical Tables is a useful little treatise; it gives loga- rithms of numbers to seven places of decimals. Suppose we wish to know the logarithm of the number 18.1. In a book of tables we only find the fractional part of the logarithm, it is .257679. Now 18.1 is greater than 10 and less than 100, so that its logarithm is greater than 1 and less than 2; hence log. 18.1=1.257679. To give examples: Log. 18100 = 4.257679 | Log. 1.81 == 0.257679 Log. 1810 == 3.257679 | Log. 0.181 = 1.257679 Log. 181 = 2.257679 Log. 0.0181 == 2.257679 bogs 18.4 == 12257679 Log. 0.00181 == 3.257679 3.257679 means — 3 + 0.257679. (For a full ex- planation of the finding of logarithms and nat- ural’ numbers by tables consult treatises on trigonometry, etc.). The integral part of a loga- rithm is called its characteristic, the fractional parts its mantissa. Logarithms make arith- metical computations more easy, for -by means of a table of them the operations of multiplica- tion, division, involution or the finding of powers, and evolution or the finding of roots, are changed to those of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, respectively. For instance, if + and y are the logarithms of any two numbers, the 10% and 10¥; now the product of these numbers is 10 4 + y, so that the loga- rithm of the product of two numbers is the sum of the logarithms of the numbers. Again, the quotient of the numbers is 107%; so that the logarithm of the quotient of two numbers is the difference of the logarithms of the num- bers. Again, 10% raised to the nth power is 10"2; so that the logarithms of the nth power 599 of a number is times the logarithm of the number. Again, the nth root of 107 is 10; so that the logarithm of the nth root of a num- ber is “th of the logarithm of the number. Hitherto we have spoken of common loga- rithms, which were invented by Briggs; their base, as it is called, is 10. Now logaritlms were first used by Napier of Merchiston (see NAPIER, JOHN), and he employed a base which is smaller than 10, it is) the number 2.7182818...., or the sum of the infinite series 2+4+5!5+5.44+, etc. This base is denoted by € in mathematical treatises, and the Napier- ian logarithm of any number, say 7, is log. € 7, to distinguish it from log. 7, which is the com- mon logarithm, whose base is 10. The com- mon logarithm of a number is found from the Napierian by multiplying by 0.43429448. Napierian logarithms are of. great importance in mathematics. _ LOGCOCK, a local name for either of two birds: (1) the pileated woodpecker (see Woop- PECKER) ; (2) the woodcock (q.v.). LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. See Turrte. LOGGERHEAD TURTLE. See Hawks- BILL. LOGGIA, 16j’a, a word used in Italian architecture with several significations. It was applied to a hall open on two or more sides, where there were pillars to support the roof. Such are the Loggia de’ Banchi in Genoa and the Loggia de’ Lanzi in Florence. It is also applied to an open colonnade along the side of a building. The name loggia is also given to the large ornamental window consisting of sev- eral parts, which is often seen in old Venetian palaces; and lastly, it is used to designate a small airy hall, usually open on all sides, con- structed on the roof of an edifice. See also ARCHITECTURE. LOGGING, a name given by iumbermen to the practice of rolling logs from whence they are cut, or drawing them on sleds or wagons, to the stream by which they are transported to the mill. In some places logs are thus moved from one point to another by means of flumes and waterways. LOGIC. Logic is that philosophical science which deals with the principles and methods of all thinking. The processes of thought, although varied in fotm and content, have always a single end; to interpret the past and the present, and by means of such interpre- tation to forecast the future. It is by think- ing that we are able the better to understand the experiences of to-day and the more wisely to prepare for the events of to-morrow. Any object of thought —a thing, a person, an event —if it is to be really grasped by the thinking mind and to become a part of our body of knowledge, must be correctly interpreted by us. And by interpretation is meant the revelation of its essential significance in the light of the universal principle or the universal nature which the particular object under investigation illustrates. The primary function of logic is this: the interpretation of the particular by means of the universal which underlies it. The development of all logical theory is merely the 600 elaboration of this fundamental principle. To refer any object of consciousness to a universal is the sole method of describing its character- istics, or expressing its significance. If, for instance, I declare a certain plant to be poison- ous, I have characterized it by an adjective which admits an indefinite variety of applica- tions but preserves always one and the same essential significance, and this is the meaning and the function of the universal. Any noun which stands for a class or group of objects, or any adjective which may be variously ap- plied, is a universal; or as it is technically known in logic—a concept. Moreover, the reference of any particular object of thought to a universal, ie, to a concept which serves to interpret it, is a judgment. Inasmuch as the reference is always con- fronted with the possibility of error, it is of the very nature of a judgment to raise the question of its truth or falsity, according as the knowl- edge upon which it is based is accurate or in- accurate, adequate. .or, inadequate..».In the manifold conflict of opinion there is an obvious need of some definite and fundamental cri- terion to discriminate between the true and the false. The final court of appeal as to the truth or the falsity of knowledge must be to the main body of knowledge as a whole. This is the test: does the new experience square with our accumulated experience or not? Truth as regards its logical significance must measure up to the supreme standard, namely, of consistency with all that constitutes the world of knowledge as we understand it. As the judgment is the logical vehicle of expressing truth, it is natural that it should take the form of a reference of the immediate object of consciousness to the general body of knowledge which has been already received, tested and assimilated by the mind. Thus, every new experience is to be illuminated and interpreted by the old. This is the program of thought and the way of all logical procedure and progress. However, there can be no essential progress in thought when the judgment is merely the recognition of the appropriate place of a new thought in our general body of knowledge. Progress is mani- fest when the object of thought, in the light of our knowledge as a whole, gives rise to some new idea which is not expressed in the given object of thought alone, nor yet in our general body of knowledge alone, but which is néver- theless necessitated and revealed by the com- bination of the two sources taken together. Our general body of Knowledge contributes a part, and the given object of thought con- tributes the other part. When brought together the two parts fuse into one, forming a complete whole. Thought in this sense is creative. The given elements at hand may be old, but thought constructs them into new forms, ever adding to the store of knowledge from the very ele- ments which knowledge itself furnishes. This process is the consummation of all the various logical functions and is known as the process of inference. Inference is possible because our judgments contain more knowledge than they ever express upon the surface. There is a de- posit of knowledge which is implicit in every judgment, and this is due to the fact that all of our judgments are interrelated and inter- dependent. The complete significance of a judgment is revealed only in the light of all LOGIC its relevant and cognate judgments. The im- plicit becomes explicit only when a given judg- ment is brought into relation to some other judgment which has already been tested and found place in our body of general knowledge; this is what occurs in the process of inference. For instance, if it is asserted that a bar of soft iron will become a magnet if an electric current is allowed to pass through a coil of wire bound about it, such an assertion is based upon our general knowledge which is con- tained in the judgment that a current of elec- tricity passing through a coil of wire always transforms an iron bar within the coil into a magnet. Without this general knowledge the mere fact of having a coil of wire wound around a piece of iron would be meaningless. To have any significance such a fact must have the light of our general knowledge brought to bear upon it. Then only does the given fact become suggestive and fertile in the increase of knowledge. Or again, if in any triangle there are given the two angles and the included side, one can infer by means of the knowledge of trigonometrical principles the other angle and the remaining two sides. Such a process of inference consists in the combination of what is given with certain general principles which constitute a part of our body of knowl- edge. That which is given without the general principles to interpret and develop it in all of its implied bearings and relations would remain devoid of significance and with no value as knowledge whatsoever. In inference, therefore, there is always the extension of our knowledge, for the given judgment contains something which is not ap- parent when observed in its own light simply, but which is revealed only in the light which plays upon it from our general body of knowl- edge as a central source of illumination. The ground of inference, indeed, that which makes the inferential process a possibility at all, is the supposition which we are constrained to make and upon which we are constantly rest- ing, in the exercise of our reasoning faculty, namely, that the various elements which con- stitute our body of knowledge as a whole must be related to each other in such a way as to form a system of interconnected and interde- pendent parts. When we have given a single part, other parts of the whole to which the part belongs can be inferred, because of our knowl- edge of the general system which binds them together through the inner connections of necessity. That which is implicit in any judg- ment and which forms the germ of inference can be revealed only when one thoroughly un- derstands the complete system of relations and connections which underlies the judgment in question. If our knowledge were not system- atized, and the various parts duly related and properly co-ordinated and subordinated each to each, then there could be no basis for any inference, and no possibility of constancy and consistency in our thinking. As aids to sys- temization there are the processes of definition, division and classification which are treated at length in textbooks on the formal logic and can only receive passing mention here. While inference depends upon organized knowledge it is also instrumental in producing the very organization of our knowledge itself. It draws from it and at the same time it con- LOGIC tributes to it. This twofold function gives rise to the two kinds of inference, known as de- ductive and inductive. In deductive inference we proceed from our general knowledge to the characterization of the special case which de- pends upon it; or inasmuch as our general knowledge is expressed in the form of uni- versal concepts we can put it simply — that de- duction is from the universal to the particular. Induction, on the other hand, is from the par- ticular case, or rather particular cases, to the universal. It is essentially a process of general- ization, by which we rise in thoughf from the investigation of special cases to the universal principle or law which embraces them and underlies their nature. Inference. is always either the interpretation or else the elaboration of knowledge. When that which is given is illuminated by some universal principle or law so that its. implicit significance is thereby made explicit, we have the process of deduction. But when there is no recognized universal, and such must evidently be sought, we turn naturally to the relevant instances before us so as to discover in them some suggestion of the desired law or principle. Such a procedure is induc- tion. For example, when the physicist sees certain dark lines in the solar spectrum, he in- fers that they indicate the presence of iron vapor in the sun. This is deductive inference because it is a process of thought which rests upon the universal and well-known connection between certain definitely positioned lines in the solar spectrum and the presence of iron. On the other hand, however, suppose the in- vestigator is ignorant of the meaning of these dark lines. In his knowledge they possess no significance whatever and suggest nothing to his mind. It is obvious that he must experi- ment in various ways with the phenomena of these lines until he is able to discover their general relations and significance. Then he will be able to formulate the results of his investi- gation in a universal law which not only shall embody the special cases coming under his observation but all others also of a similar nature. It will be readily seen that deduction and induction are complementary phases of one and the same process. With every special case which comes before consciousness one of two methods of procedure is possible, that is, if it is to be the subject of inference at all; if it evidently falls under some universal law or principle to which we do not hesitate to refer it, then it becomes invested with the full pur- port and significance. of such a universal; if, however, there is no recognized universal to which we can refer it, the special case presents a problem for us to solve by experiment and observation, namely, what is the universal which we are constrained to believe must underlie it, and which the special case in some way not yet revealed necessarily illustrates. Whenever, therefore, we face a new experi- ence, a new fact or event we must treat it by one or the other of these two methods accord- ing as our knowledge is adequate to its inter- pretation or not. In the one case we are rea- soning deductively; in the other, inductively. Where the limitations of knowledge obstruct progress in one direction, it is possible to pro- ceed in the other direction so as to remove eventually these very limitations themselves. If we do not possess sufficient knowledge to 601 suggest the appropriate universal from which to reason deductively, we can proceed in an inductive manner to search for the universal which invites our investigation. In our thinking these two processes cannot be separated, for some elements in the phe- nomena under observation appear immediately illuminated by our knowledge, others again are not so illuminated, but when properly tested are found to emit the light which is in them; these various elements are so closely joined together that the two processes must ever run parallel. The form of inference which best illustrates the deductive reasoning, although by no means exclusively, is that of the Syllogism (q.v.). The syllogism is that method of reasoning which combines two judgments so as to pro- duce a third; as for example: Whatever turns blue litmus paper red is an acid. This compound turns blue litmus paper red. Therefore, it is an acid. It will be observed that the two judgments which combine to produce the third have a term in common; this is called the middle term of the syllogism. Moreover, the third judg- ment or conclusion is proved by the process of eliminating the middle term, and taking as the subject and predicate of the conclusion the remaining terms of the given judgments. The subject of the conclusion is called the minor term; the predicate, the major term, and of the two given judgments, the one containing the major term is called the major premise, and the one containing the minor term, the minor premise. It is the peculiar function of the major premise to exhibit some aspect of our general knowledge, and of the minor prem- ise to exhibit a more particular phase of our general knowledge, or as it more frequently occurs some special case embodied in a con- crete experience. It is the combined function of the two together to apply some portion of our general knowledge to a special case so as to yield its true interpretation. It is impos- sible to discuss here at length the various rules by which the validity of the syllogism may be tested. It may be said, however, that the rules of the syllogism depend upon the fundamental principle that if a special case can be proved to fall within the area of a uni- versal, then the inference follows that the spe- cial case becomes invested with the essential characteristics of the universal itself. But if the special case falls outside the scope of the universal, either wholly or in part, then the inference does not follow. For instance, in all cases at law the special case is referred to some law principle, that is, to a universal which completely covers its essential signifi- cance and thereby determines the issues of the trial with the attending damages. or punishment. Whenever a judicial decision is reversed by a superior court it is because the special case under investigation did not properly come under the law principle to which it was re- ferred. It is obvious that the syllogistic method of reasoning admits of abuse by con- necting premises in a merely formal manner which have no real-connection. Such an arti- ficial and mechanical treatment of the syllogism leads naturally to empty subtleties and weak sophistries. It was this exclusive emphasis upon the formal and technical side of the syllo- 602 gism that brought the writings of the school- men to such ill repute, so that the term scholas- tic has become suggestive of a complete divorce of thought from reality. Aristotle, to whom we owe the formulation of the syllogistic method of reasoning, placed supreme stress upon the real connection which must underlie all formal relationship in the structure of the syllogism. Thus he states that “the middle term must express the real cause,” TO pév yap aittov To péoov. Anal. Post. ii. 2, 90A 6. The force of Aristotle’s observation will be appreciated if we trace the usual process of thought whenever any judgment of ours is questioned. Suppose that one asserts that there is going to be a storm within a few hours, and he is asked concerning the ground of his opinion. The reply would be that there is a rapidly falling barometer, and also that a rapidly falling barometer indicates an ap- proaching storm. Here the middle term, “rap- idly falling barometer,” serves to unite the uni- versal judgment to the special case as observed and at the same time to connect the two parts of the reasoning process by a real tie repre- senting the underlying cause upon which they are based. Inference, indeed, is often defined as the process by which the ground of a judg- ment is explicitly disclosed. The ordinary categorical syllogism, that is, one which is formed of judgments in the sim- ple form, x is y, although it is essentially grounded in the causal relation, nevertheless in a large measure conceals it. On the other hand, in the hypothetical syllogism, whose major premise is a hypothetical judgment, that is, of the form, if x is y, z is w, and whose minor premise affirms or denies one of these two clauses categorically, the causal relation is brought into the foreground, inasmuch as it states explicitly a consequence as dependent upon its ground. There is still another kind of syllogism known as the disjunctive syllogism in which the major premise is a disjunctive judgment that is of the form, 4 is either 2 or w, and the minor premise is an affirmation or denial of one of these alternatives while the conclusion is the corresponding denial or affir- mation of the other. This affords a method of reasoning by elimination, and is most useful in deciding between possibilities. In this form of the syllogism the causal relation is not ex- pressed on the surface at all, but is essen- tially implied; for in order to state possibilities one must know all the underlying causal rela- tions of the system in which these possibilities emerge. For instance, one cannot state that the contents of a stomach which have been chemically examined indicate the presence of arsenic or antimony unless there is known also the exact causal connection between these two poisons and the partially digested food; the disjunctive judgment standing as the major premise of the disjunctive syllogism always presupposes some definite knowledge of deter- mining causal relations which exist in the sys- tem under consideration. The validity of the syllogism turns, as will be readily seen, upon the possibility of re- ferring a special case to its appropriate univer- sal. But there are often situations and cir- cumstances when this method of reference is not at all possible and yet nevertheless a valid inference can be drawn. In other words, the "Zn Ce. LOGIC syllogistic procedure by no means exhausts the possibility of deductive inference. There may be other relations which grow out of a system of interconnected parts and which are of such a nature as to warrant an inference from them. For instance, we may have the follow- ing inference: The two angles of a triangle, A and B, equal 95 degrees. Therefore, the third angle must equal 85 degrees. This is ‘not a syllogism proper and yet is a perfectly. valid course of reasoning. While there is no middle term there is an identical point of reference, namely, the given triangle; and there is also the universal upon-which the inference ‘depends, namely, the relations which underlie the very nature of the triangle itself and are rendered constant by it. Thus, all of the essentials of inference are found to be present in such a form of reasoning. Various kinds of inference may thus arise according to the different relations which may obtain in the system wherein they occur. To have a valid inference in any such case we must establish some identity of relation between the parts which we are comparing; otherwise we can- not logically pass from one to the other. And identity of relationship can be established only in systems of such simplicity that no unknown elements which might enter to disturb the exist- ing relations can be conceived. Our thought in other words must command the system com- pletely; otherwise we are never justified in using our knowledge as the basis of reasoning, In the inductive process as we have seen, the procedure is from particular instances to the universal which underlies them and which they illustrate; there is here, however, an evident break in the continuity of the logical process. The conclusion contains more than the prem-. ises; for in the universal reached by induction our knowledge goes beyond our actual experi- This is the so-called “nductive leap” or “Inductive hazard.” It is not, however, a leap in the dark. Such it would be, were we com- pelled to use the mere data of experience as the sole ground of our inferences. But it is pos- sible to formulate as a postulate some univer- sal truth which the mind is constrained to assume and which serves to bridge the gap between the particular and the wniversal. This postulate has been variously expressed by dif- ferent authors, yet with substantially the same underlying significance in all. In the older logic -this is put in the convenient formula of “the uniformity of nature,” that is — beyond the sphere of experience phenomena are supposed to behave under like conditions in the same manner as in the sphere of immediate obser- vation and experiment. In the modern logic, the phrase “uniformity of consciousness” takes the place of “uniformity of nature,” the latter © being regarded as somewhat indefinite and as implying a view exclusively objective. By “uni- formity of consciousness” is meant, that our knowledge must be consistent throughout with itself, part to part, and parts to the whole, and that the world for us is the world as it is con- structed and interpreted by our knowledge. Whenever a concrete instance is present in consciousness it is to be regarded as having its appropriate place in a system of universal and necessary relations, so that a correct interpre- LOGIC tation of the concrete case must reveal the uni- versal element which underlies it and gives it a place and meaning in our world of knowl- edge. Nature after all is only another word for the world as we know it —a world of uni- versal and necessary relations; otherwise it could not be a world of order and uniformity. The one relation above all others which enables us to discover the universal significance of concrete instances is the relation of cause and effect. When in the phenomena of nature or the events of life, a simple causal relation can be discovered, even though it is illustrated only in a certain case, there is sufficient ground for the generalization of the connection thus discovered. The method of inductive investi- gation, therefore, consists in various tests for the exhibition of true causal relations of such a simple nature as to furnish evidence that these relations are both definite and constant. A complex relation is too indefinite and vari- able to warrant any generalization which is based upon it. But however complex the phe- nomenon may be, it may be always subjected to some process of analysis which will reveal a more simple causal relation underlying it. Moreover, it is necessary by proper inductive tests to discriminate between a causal con- nection and a mere coincidence. All of this is provided for in the so-called inductive methods —the method of agreement, of difference, of agreement and difference, of concomitant vari- ation and of residues. These are essentially the methods of scientific procedure, the methods of research and experimentation. The func- tion of hypothesis in inductive investigation must not be overlooked. An hypothesis is a supposition which is made concerning the prob- able cause of a phenomenon either as prelim- inary to an experiment which may prove or disprove the supposition or in the place of an experiment or systematic observation when such are impossible owing to the peculiar conditions of the phenomenon itself. In the first instance the function of hypothesis determines the line of experiment in a definite manner and does not leave the phenomenon in question to inde- terminate and haphazard investigation. This may be illustrated by a quotation concerning Charles Darwin, taken from the ‘Reminis- cences? of his son, Francis Darwin: “He often said that no one could be a good ob- server unless he was an active theorizer. It was as though he were charged with theoriz- ing power ready to flow into any channel on the slightest disturbance, so that no fact how- ever small could avoid releasing a stream of theory and then the fact became magnified into importance. In this way it naturally happened that many untenable theories occurred to him; but fortunately his richness of imagination was equalled by his power of judging and con- demning the thoughts that occurred to him. He was just to his theories and did not con- demn them unheard; and so it happened that he was willing to test what would seem to most people not at all worth testing.» (‘Life and Letters of Charles Darwin,’ Vol. I, p. 126). But there is a second function of hypothesis — where an explanation is needed to account for phenomena which it is impossible to repro- duce in the form of an experiment. We are not always able to perceive the relations be- tween facts and yet we are constrained to 603 think of them as related; but in order to syste- matize them we must supply the lacune which appear in the phenomena as perceived. A sup- position of this nature which is necessary in order to construct a body of facts into a sys- tem is an hypothesis—as for instance the nebular hypothesis of Laplace. No course of reasoning, however, can be carried on to any extent or to any effect which does not combine the two processes of deduction and induction in a manner provided for by the complementary relation which they sustain one to the other. The combination of the deductive and inductive processes has been called by John Stuart Mill the deductive method simply. A more dis- tinctive name, however, would be — the induc- todeductive method. This combined method consists of three stages: 1. A preliminary process of induction whose results may be expressed tentatively at least in the form of a universal law or principle. 2. A process of deduction based upon this universal principle or law as its major premise, and thus extending our knowledge to the de- termination of new cases which have not as yet gained a place in our body of knowledge. 3. A process of verification, by which the results of the process of deduction are com- pared with the facts as actually observed. When there is not an exact correspondence be- tween the theoretically deduced results and the observed facts, and we are able to assure our- selves that there has been ‘no flaw in the proc- esses of deduction, then the original induction stands as so far forth discredited and must be revised so as to square it with fact. This com- bined method of deduction and induction serves as a check on the one hand upon all tendency to hasty generalization, and on the other it is most valuable as a means of extending our knowledge into unknown regions beyond the sphere of immediate observation. We are con- stantly using our inductive results as a basis for a deductive inference concerning the things not yet seen; and then when seen, at once com- paring the former inference with present fact we are either confirmed in the result which we had reached by the processes of reasoning, or else compelled to discard the earlier inference as false or inadequate as may be. The-.unseen which we are determining in our minds by what we think the seen necessitates we are, however, from time to time compelled to alter. Bacon has insisted that “anticipations of na- ture” are a source of innumerable errors and that the truly scientific method consists in the interpretation of nature by means of direct ob- servation and experiment simply. It must be remembered, however, that it is largely through these anticipations of nature that progress in science has been attained. A distinction must be drawn between anticipations of nature which are subjected to careful verification and those which are in themselves regarded as final. Bibliography.—Aikins, ‘The Principles of Logic?; Aristotle’s various writings, sp. ‘Or- ganon? (Eng. trans. by O. F. Owen, 2 vols., London 1908-10) ; Bacon, Francis, ‘Novum Or- ganum?; Baldwin, J. M., ‘Thought and Things» (New York 1906-11); Bain, Alexan- der, ‘Logic, Inductive and Deductive? (2 vols., London 1895); Bentham, ‘Essay on Logic’ (Vol. VIII of his Works); Bergmann, Julius, ‘Die Grindprobleme der Logik? (Berlin 1895) ; 604 Bosanquet, Bernard, ‘The Essentials of Logic? (New York 1895) ; id., “Logic? (2d ed., 2 vols., Oxford 1911); Bradley, F. H., ‘The Princi- ples of Logic? (New York 1905); Bode, B. H., ‘Outline of Logic? (ib. 1910) ; Clarke, ‘Logic? (London 1889); Couturat, Louis, ‘L’Algebre de la logique? (Paris 1905; Eng. trans., Chi- cago 1914); Creighton, J. E., ‘Introductory Logic? (3d ed., New York 1909) ; Croce, Bene- detto, ‘Logica como scienza del concetto puro? (2d ed., 1909); De Morgan, ‘Formal Logic? ; Descartes, ‘Discourse on Method’; Dewey, John, ‘Studies in Logical Theory? (Chicago 1903); Dinwiddie, William, ‘Essentials of Logic? (New York 1914); Erdman, J. E, ‘Logik? (Halle 1892); Fischer, Kuno, ‘Sys- tem der Logik und Metaphysik, oder Wissen- schaft?; Fowler, Thomas, ‘The Elements of Deductive Logic? and ‘Elements of Inductive Logic? (10th ed. Oxford 1892); Gibson, W. R. B., ‘Problem of Logic? (London 1908) ; Gilbart, J. W., ‘Hope for the Million? (Lon- don 1913); Hamilton, Sir William, ‘Lectures on Logic? (London 1859); Harms, Friedrich, “Geschichte der Logik? (Berlin 1881) ; id., ‘Die Philosophie in ihrer Geschichte?; Hegel, G. W. F., ‘Wissenschaft der Logik? (Berlin 1831); id. ‘Encyklopadie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse; Erster Theil, Die Logik? (Heidelberg 1817; Eng. trans., 1894) ; Hermont and Van di Waile, ‘Les prin- cipales théories de la logique contemporaries? (Paris 1909); Hibben, J. G., ‘Inductive and Deductive Logic? (New York 1905); Hob- house, L. T., ‘Theory of Knowledge? (London 1896) ; Hyslop, J. H., ‘Elements of Logic? (New York 1892); Husserl, E., ‘Logische Un- tersuchungen) (2 vols., Halle 1901); Jevons, W. S., ‘Substitution on Similars? (London 1869) ; id., “Pure Logic? (New York 1890) ; id., ‘Elementary Lessons in Logic? (London 1895) ; ‘Studies in Deductive Logic? (3d ed., New York 1896); id., ‘Principles of Science? (ib. 1900) ; Joseph, H. W. B., ‘Introduction to Logic? (Oxford 1906); Jones, A. L., ‘Logic, Inductive and Deductive? (New York 1909) ; Kant, Immanuel, ‘Logik? (Konigsberg 1800) ; Lange, ‘Logische Studien”; Laird, ‘Les logi- ciens anglais contemporains? (Paris 1878); Leibniz, ‘Nouveaux Essais sur l’entendement humain?; Lotze, R. H., ‘System der Philoso- phie: Logik? (Leipzig 1880; Eng. trans., Ox- ford 1881); Locke, ‘Essay Concerning Human Understanding’ ; McColl, H., ‘Symbolic Logic and its Applications? (New York 1906); Mc- Cosh, ‘The Laws of Discursive Thought? ; Mansel, H. L. ed. ‘Aldrich’s Artis Logi- ce Rudimenta>? (London 1851); id., ‘Prole- gomena Logica? (Oxford 1851); Mellone, ‘In- troductory Textbook of Logic?; Mill, John Stuart, ‘System of Logic, Ratiocinative and In- ductive? (8th ed., New York 1900) ; Minto, Wil- liam, ‘Logic, Inductive and Deductive? (ib. 1894) ; Newman, ‘Grammar of Assent?; Pear- son, ‘Grammar of Science?; Prantl, Karl von, “Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande? (4 vols., Leipzig 1855-70); Russell, L. J., ‘Introduction to Logic from the Standpoint of Education? (New York 1914); Schiller, F. C. S., ‘Formal Logic: A Scientific and Social Problem? (Lon- don 1912); Schopenhauer, ‘Ueber die Vier- fache Wurzel des Saltzes vom zureichenden Grundes?; Schiippe, Wilhelm, ‘Erkenntniss- theoretische Logik? (Bonn 1878); Sidgwick, LOGIC, SYMBOLIC Alfred, ‘The Process of Argument? (London 1893) ; id. ‘The Application of Logic? (New York 1911); id. ‘Elementary Logic? (ib. 1914); Sigwart, Christoph von, ‘Logik? (3d ed., Tubingen 1904; trans. by Denby, London 1895) ; Shearman, A. T., ‘Development of Sym- bolic Logic? (London 1906); id. ‘Scope of Formal Logic? (ib. 1911); id., ‘Formal Logie (ib. 1912) ; Stoeckl, ‘Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters>; Stock, George, ‘Logic; Thomson, William, ‘Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought? (4th ed., New York 1863) ; Trendelenburg, ‘Logische Untersuchungen? (3d ed., Leipzig 1870); Turner, ‘Lessons in Logic? (Washington 1910); Ueberweg, ‘Friedrich, “System der Logik? (5th ed. Bonn 1882); Ul- rici, H., ‘System der Logik?; Venn, John, ‘Symbolic Logic? (London 1881); ‘Empirical Logic? (ib. 1889); Welton, J.. ‘Manual of Logic? (ib. 1896); Whately, Richard, ‘Ele- ments of Logic? (New York 1855) ; Whewell, ‘History of the Inductive Sciencés? ; Wundt, Wilhelm, ‘Logik? (2d ed., Stuttgart 1895). JoHN Grier HIBBEN, President of Princeton University. LOGIC, Symbolic. Symbolic Logic, or Mathematical Logic, or the Calculus of Logic, —called also the Algebra of Logic (Peirce), Exact Logic (Schroder), and | Algorithmic Logic or Logistic (Couturat),— covers exactly the same field as Formal Logit in general, but differs from Formal Logic (in the ordinary acceptation of that term) in the fact that greater use is made of a compact symbolism — the device to which mathematics owes so largely its immense development. Formal Logic may be defined as that science which has for its object the complete analysis and systematic presentation of the principles and methods of deductive reasoning, or the type of reasoning in which conclusions are drawn from given premises. It is not con- cerned with the truth of the premises or of the conclusions, but simply takes care that if the premise is true the conclusion shall be; it is the study of the forms of valid inference with- out regard to the content or subject matter of the propositions which are inferred or of those from which the inference is drawn. Symbolic Logic is then that treatment of For- mal Logic which employs, instead of many of the words of ordinary language, a system of special symbols which secure not only greater precision and compactness, but also greater generality in its discussions. These symbols, like the symbols of mathematics, form, in real- ity, a new symbolic language; and it may be said that the choice of a convenient and accu- rate symbolism has been, in logic as in mathe- matics, an indispensable condition for the prog- ress of the science. A partial use of symbolism in Formal Logic is as old as the time of Aristotle; for example, “Tf both A and B include the whole of C, it follows that some A is B.” What is called Symbolic Logic simply carries this device farther; it would express the whole of the above statement in symbols, as, for example, thus: A >» C.B > C.< AyYyB. The immense advantage that accrues from the full carrying out of this idea of Aristotle’s can only be realized by those who have given some atten- tion to mastering the details of the method, LOGIC, SYMBOLIC The thorough-going application to Formal Logic of the symbolic method, with the accom- panying extension of the field of logical inquiry, is a development of the latter half of the 19th century. The essential features of the modern theory, to be sure, were known to Leibnitz as early as 1700, and some valuable contributions were made by Lambert in 1781; but the first work which brought the possibilities of the symbolic method forcibly to the attention of logicians was ‘An Investigation of the Laws of Thought? by George Boole, in 1854; and Boole is commonly regarded as the founder of the modern science. The new ideas did not at first meet with favor; the logicians, wedded to the classical methods, in which reasoning is carried on by means of living words, refused to admit what they called a mathematical intru- sion into their science; while the mathemati- cians on their side regarded the whole move- ment as of no possible interest except to logi- cians. The field remained for some decades a no-man’s land between mathematics and ® logic; the few who cultivated it worked largely without knowledge of previous or contem- porary workers in the same field; and the difficulty of defining the relation of logical symbolism to mathematical form, and the limits of the analogy between them, led to many errors. By the end of the century, however, owing to the labors of Peirce and Schréder, the new methods had established themselves on a sound footing, and had proved their value in logical investigations. To mention only -the illustration of their power, the Syllogism, and the so-called “laws of thought (namely, the principle of identity, the principle of contra- diction and the principle of excluded middle). have now been completely analyzed by the symbolic method, with results for which most logicians were not prepared: in the first place, it is now known that the three “aws of thought” are entirely independent of one another, in the sense that no one is a necessary consequence of the other two; secondly, that the principle of the syllogism, in its primitive form, is not a consequence of the other three laws, but must be assumed as a separate principle; and finally that all four of the laws taken together are not sufficient for some of the most ele- mentary processes of mathematical reasoning — that for these an entirely different discipline is required, namely, the Logic of Relations (see below). This example alone is sufficient to justify the assertion that the study of Sym- bolic Logic has put a wholly new spirit into the Logic of Aristotelian traditions, and has transformed a discipline which had remained nearly stationary since the Middle Ages into one of the most progressive of the modern sciences. While this development was taking place in logic, an equally important movement in a similar direction was being carried forward in the field of Pure Mathematics, and a brief ac- count of this movement must be given before we can understand the present position of Symbolic Logic. Up to the middle of the 19th century, mathematics had been so busily en- gaged in testing the power of the newly ac- quired calculus of Newton and Leibnitz, and cbtaining results by its aid, that few inquiries had been made into the logical foundation of the theory. Since that epoch, however, increas- 605 ing attention has been paid to these funda- mental questions, among the early leaders being such men as Bolyai, Lobatchevsky, Cauchy, Weierstrass, Reimann, De Morgan and Robert Grassmann, all of whom, except the first two, were contemporaries of Boole’s. The first re- sult of these inquiries was the recognition, more clearly than ever before, that every mathemat- ical theory is based on a small number of fundamental hypotheses, or postulates, from which all the other propositions of the theory can be deduced, and careful lists of postulates are now being worked out for most of the im- portant mathematical branches. Secondly, it became increasingly evident that the real in- terest of the mathematician lies not so much in the material content of the hypotheses which he assumes, as in the logical processes by which further propositions are deduced from those hypotheses. The natural outcome of this con- viction was an immediate and very great ex- tension of the field of mathematical inquiry. No longer confined to the study of number, quantity and space, mathematicians invented for themselves new systems of hypotheses, and de- duced from them new theories. Any set of postulates would serve, provided they involved no internal contradiction, and in the exuberance of new freedom the subject matter was some- times chosen with an almost playful disregard of practical utility. Perhaps the most striking example of the new tendency was the accept- ance of the non-Euclidean geometries of Lo- batchevsky and Bolyai as legitimate branches of mathematics. These theories had at first been regarded as heretical, or at least as non- mathematical; but now, when it became clear that their assumptions, though unusual, were still not self-contradictory, they were assigned their proper places as hypothetical-deductive theories; they therefore became as much a part of mathematics as the older theory of Euclid, that theory being itself now recognized as a hypothetical-deductive theory; and the mathematical interest of either theory was seen to be quite independent of the question whether an illustration of it could or could not be found in the world of space-perceptions. Another example is that of Hamilton’s quaternions, which is a new algebra in which the funda- mental assumptions differ in several respects from the laws which hold in the more familiar algebra of quantity. Similarly, all the host of artificial algebras, the invention of which was promoted especially by Hankel (1867) and Benjamin Peirce (1870), are hypothetical- deductive theories exhibiting varying degrees of divergence from the ordinary algebra of quantity; perhaps the simplest of all these alge- bras is that invented by Boole himself for the purposes of symbolic logic. In arithmetic and geometry the work of Peano, Padoa and Pieri in Italy, and of Pasch, Frege and Hil- bert in Germany, should be especially mentioned. Finally, the theory of abstract groups, and the whole operational calculus, are outgrowths of the same tendency. In short, pure mathema- tics came to be regarded, at the end of the century, as a collection of hypothetical-deduc- tive theories, distinguished from one another by the nature of the assumptions adopted as the basis of each theory, but depending for their mathematical interest not so much on the material content of those assumptions as 606 on the logical relations between the resulting propositions. As the outcome of these two movements, therefore, the sciences of logic and mathematics | found themselves in a wholly unexpected posi- tion at the beginning of the 20th century. Instead of being separate, almost antagonistic, disciplines, they suddenly discovered that they were both working in the same direction — that their problems and aims were identical. The field of symbolic logic, which had hitherto occupied a rather uncomfortable position be- tween the two opposing forces, now became the common meeting-ground where mathematicians and logicians can work together to mutual advantage. The researches of Peirce and his pupils in America, and of Schroder in Germany, became more widely known. Peano and his school in Italy began the publication of the ‘Formulaire de Mathématiques,? which is in- tended to become a complete cyclopedia of mathematical knowledge, expressed in the lan- guage of symbolic logic. Russell and White- head in England, and Couturat in France, be- came active exponents of the new mathemat- ical-logical theory. Even the strictly mathe- matical researches of Georg Cantor began to arouse lively interest among the logicians. Finally, it remained for Russell (1903) to announce the surprising thesis that logic and mathematics are in reality. the same science; that pure mathematics requires no material be- yond that which is furnished by the necessary presuppositions of any logical thought; and _ that formal logic, if it is to be distinguished as a separate science at all, is simply the ele- mentary, or earlier, part of mathematics. It is too early to predict what the final out- come to this new movement will be; the limits of the inquiry are not yet well defined; the terminology and notation are still in an ex- perimental stage; many important matters of detail are likely to remain for some time in debate;.but at any rate this much is clear: a new program has been proposed for mathe- matics and logic, and the true nature and scope of what is now called symbolic logic cannot be finally determined until this broader question of the relation between logic and mathematics is decided. It may be that, in the merging of these two sciences, no place will be left for symbolic logic as a distinctive science; it may be that the studies now pursued under that name will be supplied with a more appropriate title; or it may be that some new form of symbolic logic will absorb the whole of logic and mathematics. In view of these considerations it is clear that any account of the subject which can be given at the present time must be regarded as tentative and transitional—a snap-shot at a rapidly moving phenomenon — certain to be- come obsolete with the change of perspective which is taking place in all our mathematical- logical notions. The sketch which now follows, after this long introduction, must therefore be understood as containing not a body of uni- versally accepted facts, but merely the writer’s individual selection of some of the results which, in their view, seem.most likely to be- come of recognized value. The main results which Symbolic Logic claims to have secured are briefly the following: 1. A thorough-going investigation into the LOGIC, SYMBOLIC foundations of logic,—an enumeration of ap- propriate groups of first principles (axioms and postulates) and the deduction from them of the whole structure. 2. The furnishing of a wonderfully concise and compact method of expressing premises and deductions from premises. It is impos- sible to overestimate the mastery which this gives over trains of thought. 3. A method for putting any number of premises, of any degree of complexitv, into the intellectual mill, and extracting all the in- formation which they convey about any term or any combination of terms, without the fatigue of conscious reasoning. ‘Machines have been devised, like Jevons’ “Logical Piano,” by which these conclusions can be reached (not, however, in interesting forms) without even the aid of paper and pencil. The only diff- culty is to find any real problems that are hard enough for this branch of the subject to attack: These results have been due to: (a) The generalization of the relation 7s, implies (made possible by the convention that “all a is b» does not involve the existence of a; this generalization is due to Leibnitz). (b) The introduction of the logic of and and or (there is no reason why logic should not discuss, e.g., equivalences — perfectly common in real life—such as “The undevout astron- mer is mad=Any astronomer is either mad or else devout”). (c) The introduction of the Special Terms, o and © (nothing and everything, or the non- existent and the existent). (d) The excision of the non-valid syllo- gisms, and hence the reduction of valid syl- logisms to a perfectly symmetrical collection, all (universal and particular) tested by one simple and easy rule. (e) The introduction of an appropriate sym- bolism. | As has already been intimated, much of the new matter of modern logic has no necessary connection with its symbolism. The first four of the above improvements could perfectly well have been attained without its use; that they were not is the greater proof of the utility and power of the symbolic method. For the purposes of more detailed exposi- tion, the subject may be divided into three parts: (1) The Logic of Classes or Concepts; (2) The Logic of Propositions; and (3) The Logic of Relations; although this can hardly be called a scientific division. (The use to which the term “Algebra of Logic” is now commonly ot will be explained below). 1. The Logic of Classes or Concepts.— In conducting any scientific inquiry, we usually, whether consciously or unconsciously, confine our attention to a particular realm of thought, which may be called the universe of discourse, or simply the universe, for that particular in- quiry; any object outside the universe is irrel- evant to the discussion. For example, astron- omy deals with the universe of material objects on a large scale; anthropology deals with the universe of human beings; botany deals with the universe of flowers and plants; etc., ete. This universe, in any particular discussion, is : preted gst by the symbol oo, or by the sym- ol 1 LOGIC, SYMBOLIC Within any given universe, we have to speak of classes, a class being a group of objects of thought which are distinguished in any way from the rest of the universe. The objects belonging to a class are usually characterized by the possession of certain common characters in which we are interested; and of these charac- ters we then may form a “concept” But in Symbolic Logic we view a class merely as (in any: way whatever) distinguished from the other classes of the universe. Any class is represented in symbolic logic by a letter of the alphabet, and the comple- mentary class, comprising all the rest of the universe, by the same letter with a dash or accent. "Thus, in the universe of men, we may let a= the class of Americans, b=the class of bankers and c= the class of Californians: then a’ will represent the class of all foreigners, b’ the class of all non-bankers, and c’ the class of all men who do not live in California. Of course it is possible at any time to enlarge the borders of our universe, so that, for example, b’ may come to mean not only all men who are not bankers, but also all things of any kind which are not bankers, as microbes, demonstrations, virtues. In any case, two classes x and x’ together exhaust. the universe considered, and have no part in common; either of two such classes is called the negative of the other. When a criterion, or means of distinguishing the objects of a class + from the rest of the universe, is so defined that no object in the universe will satisfy this crite- rion, it is convenient to speak of x as an “empty or “nulP class. Any null class is rep- resented by the symbol 0. Thus, the class of all plane figures which are at the same time round and square, and the class of all prime numbers which end in the digit 4, are exam- ples of null classes. The common part of two classes x and y is represented by ry, and is called their logical product. Thus, in our example, ab=the class of American bankers, a’b =the class of foreign bankers, a’c= the class of foreign Californians (this last being of course a null class). The class composed of two classes x and y together (whether or not these classes Beertaps is represented by x + y, and is called the logical sum of x and y. Thus; a+ b= the class con- taining all Americans and all bankers; a+ a’b, or the class containing all Americans and all foreign bankers, is of course the same class. When two classes x and y are given, it may happen that every element of x is also an element of y; this relation is represented by x (1760). Consult Kretzsch- mar, H., ‘Zwei Opera Nicolo Logroscinos? (in Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters, Leip- zig 1908). LOGUE, lég’, Michael, CarpiNnaL, priest of the Roman Church and primate of all Ire- land: b. Raphoe, 1 Oct. 1840. Before he was yet a priest he filled the chairs of theology and belles-lettres in the Irish College, Paris, where he was ordained in 1866. Returning to his native diocese of Raphoe in 1874, he was con- secrated its bishop five years later. The chair of Saint Eunan in the early ’80’s was no mere seat of “learned leisure” for its occupant and for his flock in famine times he in one year collected close on £30,000 ($150,000). The parish priests of Armagh chose him as coadjutor to Primate McGettigan in 1887, their choice was approved by Rome and he became within a few months archbishop and primate of all Ireland. His elevation to the cardinalate in 1893 was a dig- nity never before attained in the line of 108 primates from Saint Patrick. Like his English compeer, Cardinal Vaughan, who received the red hat at the same consistory, he has labored strenuously for his own cathedral, the memorable consecration of which took place in the presence of the papal legate in July 1904. Cardinal Logue visited the United States and Canada in 1908, and was present at the ceremonies in cele- bration of the centenary of the archdiocese of New York. A second visit was made to Amer- ica two years later. An omnivorous reader and a close student and follower of public affairs, he is an admirable though not a prodigal speaker; and is a keen student of nature, a lover of the sea and an expert yachtsman. Cardinal Logue is a representative of the old school of con- servative Irish churchmen, whose policies and ideas differ widely from those of the younger clergy of the Ireland of to-day. LOGWOOD, the heart-wood of- Hema- toxylon campechianum, a leguminous tree which grows wild, in most places, along the eastern shores of. Mexico and Central America. From its abundance in some parts near the Bay of Campeachy it is sometimes called Campeachy- wood. The leaves are pinnate; the flowers small, yellowish and. disposed in auxiliary racemes at the extremity of the usually spinous branches. The wood is red, tinged with orange and black, so heavy as to sink in water, and susceptible of receiving a good polish; and it yields an extract much used in dyeing. (See Dyes). Though cultivated to some extent in Jamaica, the logwood of commerce is chiefly obtained from Honduras, where the cutting of it forms an extensive but unhealthy branch of business. Haiti and Santo Domingo also pro- 612 duce much. The finest kind comes from Cam- peachy, the inferior qualities from Honduras and trom Jamaica, to which island it is not indigenous although it grows abundantly since its introduction. In the preparation of this wood for use, the trees, which are 20 to 50 feet high, are cut down, the bark and alburnum re- moved and the hard centre parts cut up into three-foot logs. It is afterward hewn into much smaller pieces, and ground or rasped to small chips. The aqueous extract is muddy and of a reddish-brown color. By acids the red color is made paler; by alkalis it is converted to purple. Salts of iron, aluminum and lead give precipitates of a blue, violet or purple color. Logwood is chiefly consumed in dyeing cotton cloth, silk, wool and leather; by mor- danting the fabric with iron, black is produced; with alumina, violet and lilac; with copper, blue; and with chromium, a black or green — the exact tint depending on the composition of the mordants and logwood liquors, and the mode of application. The coloring power of logwood depends chiefly on a crystalline in- gredient called hematoxylin (q.v.). In: medi- cine both the extract and the decoction of logwood are used to some extent. The former is prepared by exhausting the wood with boil- ing water, filtering and evaporating to a thick- ish syrup; the latter is the water extract of the wood along with some cinnamon. Both are used as astringents in diarrhoea and dysentery. LOHE, 1é’8, Johann Konrad Wilhelm, German divine and philanthropist: b. Furth, near Nuremberg, 21 Feb. 1808; d. Nuremberg, 2 Jan. 1872. He received his education at the universities of Erlangen and Berlin and in 1831 was appointed vicar at Kirchenlamitz. Here his fervent evangelical preaching won him gen- eral attention and also caused his removal by the authorities on a charge of mysticism. A similar experience awaited him at Saint Egidia, Nuremberg; in 1837 he became pastor at Neu- endettelsau, where his work transformed the community and made his name and fame inter- national. Fearing spiritual dangers for the Germans emigrating to the United States he founded two missionary training houses- for them. He founded the Lutheran Society of Home Missions in 1849 and an institution of deaconesses in 1853. He also founded a lunatic asylum, a Magdalen refuge and hospitals. He was a forceful preacher, being gifted with a fine physical presence and a powerful voice. He wrote ‘Sieben Predigten? (1836); ‘Sieben Vortrage uber die Worte Jesu am Kreuze? (1859) and other volumes of sermons; also ‘Samenk6rner des Gebets? (36th ed., 1899); ‘Drei Biicher von der Kirche? (1845; 4th ed., 1904) ; “Von der weiblichen Einfalt? (13th ed., 1903). Consult Deinzer, J., ‘Wilhelm Lohes Leben” (3 vols., Giitersloh 1873; 3d ed., Nurem- berg 1901). LOHENGRIN, 16’én-grén, a romantic opera in three acts, both music and words by Richard Wagner ; first performed at Weimar, Germany, on 28 Aug. 1850; first production in America, 3 April 1871, at the Stadt Theatre, New York; in London, 1875. In this, perhaps the most popular of all his operas, Wagner draws his material from the old 13th century legend of the Holy Grail. The scene is laid near Antwerp, LOHE — LOIGNY early in the 10th century. The German suze- rarn, King Henry (the Fowler) has arrived to levy troops, and finds a general commotion. Count Frederick of Telramund accuses the fair Elsa of Brabant of having killed her young brother, Godfrey, heir to the late Duke of Brabant, who had left the two children in Telramund’s charge. The latter has married Ortrud of Friesland and lays claim to the duchy of. Brabant. Elsa is innocent of the crime imputed to her and declares that her brother was taken away. The king resolves to decide the case by a tourney or ordeal by combat, in which Telramtnd must fight any champion who may take up the gauntlet on behalf of Elsa. The latter has no champion; in strong faith she tells of a heavenly knight she had dreamed of who would come to her aid, and publicly declares she will bestow her hand and crown upon her defender. In answer to her prayer a boat drawn by a swan appears on the water, bearing a gallant knight in silver armor. He agrees to fight for her on two conditions — that she -shall marry him, and never ask his name, to both of which Elsa pledges herself. Telramund is quickly thrown in the contest, but the knight spares his life. Telramund and his wife are both outlawed; it is she in fact who has stolen the boy and then told her husband that she had witnessed his murder by Elsa. Seeking revenge, Ortrud appeals to Elsa's sympathy and fills the girl’s mind with suspicions about her lover. The knight and Elsa are married, in which scene occurs the famous wedding march. In the third act the couple are alone when Elsa, prompted by the incitements of Ortrud, asks her husband the fatal question. Telramund bursts into the room, sword in hand, but is stricken down dead by the knight, who now leads his wife before the king and announces that she has broken her pledge; he must now divulge his name and leave her forever. He proclaims himself to be Lohengrin, the son of Percival, and a knight of the Holy Grail. The swan reappears with the boat; when Ortrud declares that she had changed young Godfrey into a swan by sorcery. Lohengrin utters a prayer — the swan changes again into the missing boy; Lohengrin glides away in the boat— drawn by a dove, and Elsa falls broken-hearted in her brother’s arms. LOHSE, 106’zé, Otto, German orchestral leader: b. Dresden, 1859. He received his artistic training under Draeseke, Willner, Griitsmacher and Richter at the Dresden Con- servatory of Music. In 1877-79 he was cellist in the Court Orchestra at Dresden and in 1880- 82 was piano teacher at the Vilna Imperial Music School. Subsequently he was conductor of the Wagner Society of Riga where in 1889. he was made conductor of the new Municipal Theatre. Four years later he was made first conductor of the Hamburg opera. In 1895-97 he made a tour of the United States as con- ductor of Damrosch’s German Opera Company. In 1897-1904 he was general musical director at Strassburg and in the latter year removed to a similar post at Cologne. LOIGNY, lwa’nyé’, France, village in the department bf Eure-et- ‘Loir, 43 miles south by west of Paris. It was the scene of a battle during the Franco-Prussian War, on 2 Dec. LOIR — 1870. The Grand Duke of Mecklenburg gained a great victory over the French under Chanzy. The French lost 15,000 in killed, wounded and prisoners and the "Germans 4,200. The Ger- mans as a result of the victory at Loigny were enabled to move on Orleans, which soon after- ward fell into their hands. LOIR, lIwar, France, a river which rises in Eure-et-Loir, flows southwest for a distance of 186 miles and debouches into the Sarthe. It has been rendered navigable for a total dis- tance of about 70 miles. LOIRE, Iwar’ (anc. Liger), France, the largest river of the country, dividing it into two nearly equal portions. It rises on the western slope of the Cévennes, in the department of Ardéche, and flows generally northwest and west to its outlet in the Bay of Biscay below Nantes. Its principal affluents on the right are the Arroux, Niévre, Maine, etc.; on the left the Allier, Vienne, Cher, Indre, etc. Below Nantes, it is more a tidal estuary than a river, and is studded with islets. Above Nantes navi- gation is much impeded by shallows. Its whole course is about 645 miles, of which about 450 miles are navigable. The river is subject to disastrous inundations, and dikes (levées) have been constructed along its course. It is connected by canals with the Saone, Seine and Vilaine. LOISY, lwa-sé’, Alfred Firmin, French ecclesiastic and exegete: b. Ambriéres (Marne), 28 Feb. 1857. Of peasant extraction, he attended the school of his native village. Two prizes, one in history and one in orthog- -raphy, which he received in his last year at school (1868), drew attention to him and led to his being sent to the college at Vitry. The Franco-Prussian War interrupted his studies and returned him to his family; but in October of the following year we find him back at col- lege, this time, however; at Saint Dizier. Dur- ing a religious retreat he conceived the desire of becoming a priest and, rather against the wishes of his family, entered the Grand_Sémi- naire of Chalons-sur-Marne, without taking his degree. Among his instructors was Abbé Ludot, who fell under the suspicion of insinu- ating into his students the ideas of Montalem- bert and Lacordaire. In November 1878, after he had been ordained subdeacon, Loisy was designated by his bishop, Monsignor Meignan of Chalons, later cardinal-archbishop of. Tours, to continue his studies in the newly organized Institut Catholique in Paris. He did not, how- ever, enter into the spirit of the new founda- tion, and in less than two months returned to his seminary at Chalons, where in June of the next year (1879) he was ordained by special papal dispensation a priest in the 23d year of his age, and at once appointed curé of Broussy- le-Grand and later of Landricourt, the latter quite near his native Ambriéres. Academic studies being more to his liking, however, than parochial duties in a small curacy, Loisy ob- tained the permission of his diocesan to resume his interrupted course at the Institut Catho- lique. Here he threw himself with such ardor into the study of Hebrew and Biblical exegesis that in little more than a year he was given a lectureship in Hebrew, to which was added in 1883 a course in Old Testament exegesis based directly on the Hebrew text, and in 1886 still LOISY 613 another in Assyriology. All the while he was engaged on his own dissertation for the doc- torate (‘Histoire du Canon de |’Ancien Tes- tament?), which was published in 1890, AI- ready therein he exhibits a bias toward the new Scriptural criticism which later on was defined by papal encyclicals as “Modernism.” The tendency was so marked in his next work, “Les mythes Chaldéens de la création et du déluge” (1892), that the seminarians of Saint Sulpice were forbidden to attend his lectures. His dis- missal from the Institut followed the appear- ance of a number of articles of adjudged modernistic trend in the L’Enseirgnement bib- lique, a bi-monthly, written throughout and published by himself. This publication he voluntarily suppressed shortly thereafter on the issuance of the encyclical “Providentissimus Deus” of Pope Leo XIII, which condemned the very critical views championed by Loisy. A retirement for the next five years to the chaplaincy of a girls’ school at Neuilly-sur- Seine, under; the direction of a convent of Dominican nuns, afforded Loisy the necessary leisure to perfect his apologetic method and prepare for his weighty articles in the Revue @histoire et de littérature religieuse and the Revue du clergé francas under various pseu- donyms, until, after the appearance in the latter of the first of a series of articles on “La religion @Israel (October 1900), Cardinal Richard forbade their acceptance. Separated from the Institut and denied the clerical jour- nals, Loisy asked and obtained leave from the Minister of Instruction to give courses in the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, which he continued until 1904. The works of Loisy which brought him most sharply in conflict with the Church were ‘La Religion d’Israel? (1901); ‘Etudes évangéliques? (1902); ‘L’Evangile et l’Eglise> (1902, Eng. trans. 1903) : ‘Autour d’un petit livre? (1903), an elaboration of the views ex- pressed in the preceding work; and ‘Le quat- rieme Evangile? (1903). All these books were condemned by the Congregation of the Index on 4 Dec. 1903.. Five: years later he was ex- communicated. on the publication of ‘Les Evangiles. synoptiques.? ‘He thereupon ceased the attempts he had previously made at recon- ciliation with the Church, discarded the clerical garb and accepted the chair of history of reli- gions in the Collége de France. Among the modernistic, French clergy in the last decade of the 19th century and the first of the 20th Loisy was the: very, storm.centre of the movement, carrying its critical exegesis to the logical con- clusion of denying to, the Church all vestige of dogmatic magisterium in the traditional sense. Yet. throughout:the whole period of his most active participation in the movement, at least up to the moment of his formal excommunica- tion, he stoutly maintained his devotion to the See of. Peter and the Church for which it stands, ‘Catholique _jétats, catholique — je reste, he wrote to Bailey Saunders in 1904 (“Quelques Lettres). D:> Zl).yo@ut me.adds; “Critique jétais, critique je reste.” His friends and foes alike, both within his communion and without it, expressed surprise at this attitude. Yet it was not that he was merely straddling the fence. His anomalous position is perhaps understandable from the nature of his reply in “L’Evangile et lEglise? to Harnack’s ‘Wesen des Christentums.? Against the ultra-Protest- 614 antism of Harnack that the essence of Chris- tianity, being the interior and individual reali- zation of God in the human soul, does at the present time not only not need an organized church, which, at all events has deteriorated from its pristine purity, but is perhaps better off without it, Loisy strenuously maintained the necessity of the church’s being a genuine organization, with all hierarchic and governing machinery, with sacraments and means of grace, ordained by God and directed by Him, whose specific function it is to mediate God to the inward man, of course, but to mediate Him through externalities and symbols, and whose function thus to mediate God ever be- comes more perfect. Harnack conceives the transformations through which the Church has past under the metaphor of a stream issuing from a pure fountain, but becoming polluted by the soils through which it flows and discol- ored and vitiated by the tributaries that pour into it; Loisy, who claimed to regard the de- velopment of the Church in the same light as Newman did, looks upon these transformations as necessary and inevitable, as much so as those of a tree from the seed. But he leaves Rome when he refuses to admit that this Church was really founded by Christ in the form it later assumed. Rather he regards it as the eschat- ological “kingdom,” which in the designs of God was to become the repository of faith by a process of development, but which the his- torical Jesus of the Gospels, when that narra- tive is stripped of later Christian accretions, knew naught of, nor could know aught of, be- cause He was unconscious of divine consub- stantiality with the Father and assumed the Messianic role only in the sense in which it was understood by the Jews of His time. It was only with the Council of Nicea that Jesus was recognized to be, in the words of its Creed, “true ‘God of true God; begotten not made: consubstantial with the Father.» With this explanation of the development of the Gospel, Loisy was prepared to accept the whole authoritative teaching of the Roman Catholic Church. The objection usually brought against Loisy’s method of apologetics, by Catholic as well as Protestant opponents, is that, whereas he professes to be a historical critic, he is rather a rationalistic philosopher; that instead of reasoning from critically authenticated facts of history, he puts reason above history, whence too readily that which is thought to be counter to reason is necessarily assumed to be unhistorical and fictitious. Bibliography.— A sympathetic biographical sketch is furnished by Alfred Détrez, ‘“L’Abbé Loisy: Biographie critique, etc.» (1909) con- taining a bibliography of Loisy’s books and principal articles, and some critical references. Fair but adverse criticisms of Loisy’s views may be found in Sterrett, J. M., ‘The Freedom of Authority? (1905) and Lepin, M., ‘Les Thé- ories de M. Loisy: Exposé et Critique? (1909). Consult also Pesch, C., ‘Theologische Zeit- fragen? (4 Folge, 1908); Lilley, A. L., ‘“Mod- ernism? (1908); Bampton, J. M., ‘Modernism and Modern Thought? (1914); Gisler, A., “Modernismus? (2d ed., 1912). Francis J. HEMELT, Associate Professor of English Language and Literature, Catholic University of America. LOJA— LOKMAN LOJA, lo’ha, or LOXA, Ecuador, capital of the province of the same name, situated near the southern frontier of the republic, in a beautiful valley and at an elevation of nearly 7,000 feet. The climate is moderate, due to the great elevation. The city has a cathedral and a college. Its industrial establishments are limited to woolen mills. Gold, silver and cop- per are mined in the vicinity; stock raising is carried on with success and cereals, sugar, cotton and tobacco are grown in the surround- ing district, giving the city a large trade in these articles and their products. Alonzo de ae founded Loja in 1546. Pop. about LOJA, or LOXA, Spain, town in the province of Granada, situated 30 miles west of the city of that name, on the Genil, and on the Granada-Algeciras Railway. The town is built on the slope of a hill atop which is a Moorish citadel. It contains two ancient churches and a modern ducal palace. Coarse woolens, leather, paper and silk are manufactured. Loja was a place of great military importance during the struggle with the Moors and was strongly fortified by the latter, being one of the two keys to Granada. Loja is first mentioned in Arab chronicles of 890 a.p. It was taken by Ferdinand III in 1226; was afterward abandoned, fell to the Moors, who lost it to Ferdinand and Isabella after a siege on 28 May 1486. A fine Moorish bridge and many ancient dwellings were destroyed by the earth- quake of December 1884. Pop. 18,900, LOKEREN, 10’kér-én, Belgium, town in the province of East Flanders, situated at the southern end of the district called Pays de Waes, on the Durme, 20 miles south of Ant- werp. It contains a fine church dedicated to Saint Laurent, is well built and has manufac- tures of cottons, damasks, chemicals, linen. and tobacco. The neighboring region until 1830 or thereabouts was merely a sandy moorland, but has been rendered one of the most fertile re- gions of Belgium, producing grain, hemp and flax, in which articles the town has a large trade. Lokeren, like other towns of Belgium, suffered severely from the German invasion and occupation (1914-18). The machinery of its factories was either destroyed or trans- ported to Germany, its industries being thus de- stroyed. Pop. 22,600. LOKI, 10’ké, in mythology, the god of strife and spirit of evil. He artfully contrived the death of Balder, when Odin had forbidden everything that springs “from fire, air, earth and water” to injure him. The mistletoe, not being included, was made into an arrow, given to the blind Hoder, and shot at random; but it struck the beautiful Balder and killed him. This evil being was. subsequently chained with 10 chains, and will so continue till the twilight of the gods appears, when he will break his bonds; then will the heavens disappear, the earth be swallowed up by the sea, fire shall con- sume the elements, and even Odin, with all his kindred deities, shall perish. LOKMAN, 16k-man’; a name that figures in the proverbs and traditions of the Arabians. According to tradition Lokman was a scion from the stock of Ad, and was once sent with a caravan from Ethiopia to Mecca to pray for LOLA MONTEZ —LOLOS rain in a time of great drought. But God’s anger destroyed the whole family of Ad except Lokman, the only righteous one, whereupon the Creator of the world gave him his choice to live as long as the dung of seven gazelles, which lay in an inaccessible hole in a mountain, should last, or for a period equal to the lives of seven successive vultures. Lokman chose the last, and lived for an almost incalculable length of time. The fables bearing the name of Lokman were for the first time made known to Europe through the press in 1615. They were first published in Arabic, with a Latin translation, were afterward appended to an Arabic grammar, published by Erpenius at Leyden, and have since gone through many editions. The most complete manuscript of the fables of \Lokman is in the library of the Vati- can, in Persian. LOLA MONTEZ. See Montez, Lota. LOLACH. See LeEpmposiren. LOLIEE, 1d'lya’, Frédéric Auguste, French essayist and critic: b. 1856. Always devoted to literature he has written a great number of works the majority of which deal with com- parative literature. He has been the recipient of several prizes from the French Academy. Among his principal works are “Nos gens de lettres? (1887); “Le paradoxe? (1888); ‘Les immoraux? (1891); ‘Dictionnaire des écrivains et des littératures» (1897); ‘Histoire des lit- tératures comparées? (1905; Spanish and English translations) ; ‘Les femmes du Second Empire? (1906; English: and German transla- tions); ‘La comédie francaise, histoire de la maison de Moliére? (1906); “La féte impé- riale’ (1907; English and German _transla- tions); ‘La vie d’une impératrice? (1908; Eng- lish and German translations); ‘La comtesse de Castiglione? (1912). LOLLARDISM, lo6l’ar-dizm, in Great Britain, the tenets of the followers of John Wyclif. The views of Wyclif underwent a process of development as his researches and experience extended, and were by no means the same at all periods of his life. In so far as they departed from Roman Catholicism, they approached and, in some cases, went be- yond what subsequently became the doctrine and discipline of Calvinism or Puritanism, commingled with an antagonistic element, Erastianism; in a large measure they reconciled the English people later to the establishment of the Reformation. Among the articles pro- nounced “heretical” by an assembly of ecclesi- astical notables, convened in London in 1382 by William Courtnay, archbishop of Canter- bury, were these: ““1. That the substance of material bread and wine doth remain in the Sacrament of the Altar after consecration. “3. That Christ is not in the Sacrament of the Altar truly and really in His proper corporeal person. That if a man be only contrite, all exterior confes- sion is to him superfluous and invalid. “7. That it hath no foundation in the Gospel that Christ did ordain the mass. ‘8. That if the Pope be a reprobate and an evil man, and consequently a member of the devil, he hath no power over the faithful of Christ given to him by any, unless, per- adventure, it be given him by the emperor. “9. That after Urban VI. none other is to be received as Pope, but that Christendom ought to live after the man- ner of the Greeks under its own laws. ‘10. That it is against the sacred Scriptures that eccle- siastical persons should have any temporal position.”’ 615 Among 14 articles adjudged to be “erro- neous” were the following: “13. That a prelate or bishop excommunicating a cleric who hath appealed to the king or the council of the realm, in doing so is a traitor to the king and the realm. “15. That it is lawful for any deacon or presbyter to preach the Word of God, without the authority or license of the Apostolic See, or of a Catholic bishop or of any other recognized authority. ‘17. Also that temporal lords may at will take away their ioeg 7 Beda goods from churches habitually delinquent. That tithes are pure alms, and that parishioners may a the offenses of their curates detain them, and bestow them on others at pleasure, and that tenants may correct delinquent landlords at will. “24. That friars are bound to get their living by the labor of their hands, and not by begging. Consult Gairdner, J.,. ‘Lollardy and the Reformation in England? (3 vols., London 1908-11) ; Powell and Trevelyan, ‘The Peas- ants’ Rising and the Lollards» (London 1899). LOLLARDS, 16l’ardz, a name which arose in the Netherlands in the 14th century, and which during that and the following century was applied. somewhat indiscriminately as a term of contempt to various sects or fraterni- ties deemed heretical by the Roman Catholic Church. Different accounts are given of the derivation of the name. According to one opinion the name was first applied to a frater- nity formed about the year 1300 at Antwerp, the. members of which devoted themselves to the care of the sick and the burial of the dead, and were called Lollards. from the Low German lollen or lullen, meaning to sing in a low tone, from. the subdued and plaintive dirges that they were in the practice of singing while accom- panying dead bodies to the grave. According to another opinion the name was first bestowed upon the followers of one Walter Lollard, who preached peculiar doctrines both in England and on the Continent between 1315 and 1322, till in the latter year he was burned as a here- tic. Whatever may have been the origin of the name, it became well known in England about the end of the 14th century, when it was applied to the followers of Wyclif. See Lot- LARDISM ; WYCLIF. LOLOS, 106’lés, an ancient people, so called by their neighbors, holding a large, mountain- ous territory in the western edge of Sze- Chouan, China, and hitherto almost unknown, by reason of their savage exclusiveness. They formerly occupied, with the Miao-tze (q.v.) and other primitive tribes, an extensive region in southwestern China conquered from the local autocthones; but they were themselves con- quered by the Chinese in Yunnan in the 14th century, and more completely subjugated about 1727 by the Manchu power. A part of the Lolos then succumbed to circumstances and remained in Yunnan, where they still form a large but humble part of the population. Great num- bers of the tribe, however, migrated to the wild, elevated region in western Sze-Chouan between the Blue River (Yang-tze Kiang) and the Great Snowy Mountains along the border of Tibet, where they set up a community of independent clans with a feudal social system. Their hereditary chiefs, however, were orig- inally appointed by China, and acknowledge vassalage to China, although refusing admis- sion to their country, or any sort of obedience, to Chinese officials. They go boldly among the Chinese — are in fact great wanderers; but no stranger is oa to enter Lolo territory 616 except by arrangement with a native prince who will guarantee his good behavior and. final exit. It was only by accommodating himself tactfully to this custom that Vicomte D’Ollone, to whom we owe most of our knowledge of this secluded race, was enabled to travel in Lolo Land. The Lolos are in race allied to the eastern Tibetans. They are tall and powerfully built, most of the men exceeding six feet in height; have straight, vigorous forms, a complexion resembling that of a swarthy Greek or South Italian, with the eyes large and protected by well-arched eyebrows, the nose aquiline, the mouth shapely, and a self-assured expression and demeanor. Their country has a cold and stormy climate, and the dress of the men is much like that of the Chinese, but each man carries habitually a mantle of thick felt which is his wrapping by day and his bed by night. The women are tall, with regular, often hand- some features, and a frank and cheerful dis- position, and wear garments singularly like the ordinary dress of European women, often of rich materials procured from the Chinese. Their hair is tastefully arranged, and covered out of doors by a silken turban. The serving class is, of course, much more simply appareled. Soldiers wear a kind of armor, and carry swords, lances and bows, with a few in pos- session of poor guns. They travel and fight mainly on horseback, and are skilful riders on their small, tough horses. _. The social system is purely feudal. A powerful family has attached to it a group of hereditary serfs that attend to the simple farm- ing and care of livestock, of which a large amount is kept, including pigs and chickens. They are assisted by slaves. These slaves are the captives of war-raids, or their descendants; and after a few generations they become serfs; but nowadays few slaves can be captured. A group of the landholding “lords” are united in vassalage to some one of the several heredi- tary “princes” that exercise some sort of con- trol of certain large districts, and are fre- quently at war with each other. The feudal lords replenish their wealth by raids on their neighbors, by payments from Chinese for the privilege of going into the Lolo country to obtain timber, minerals, furs, the eggs of the wax-insect, etc. The country abounds in coal, copper and precious minerals, but mining ceased with the expulsion of the Chinese since about 1906. The Lolos, despite the fine personal fea- tures described, and a respectable body of laws, formalities and courtesies, are without much civilization. They have no roads or bridges or wheeled vehicles, and almost no industry or trade among themselves. Their best houses even are the rudest of plank-built huts, and contain no furniture except some chests and cupboards; in the centre is a stone fireplace, the smoke from which escapes where the rain comes in, for the roof is simply unmatched boards held in place by big stones. Around the lord’s house are clustered the even worse huts of his servants, and the whole is usually enclosed by a defensive wall, for robber-raids are frequent. The villages are walled. Rice is cultivated in the valleys where irrigation is possible, and elsewhere oats, barley, buckwheat and potatoes. The low degree of social cul- LOMAMI — LOMAX ture is a result of isolation and. hardships, rather than of stupidity, for in old times. the Lolos had the art of writing, which seems: to have been general among them, . using the equivalent of very ancient Chinese characters. Certain nobles and a class of learned. men among them still preserve and copy ancient manuscripts of a genealogical and religious nature; and many such documents are sacredly guarded in Lolo communities in Yunnan, where carved inscriptions in the Lolo language may be found. A collection of these literary relics was taken to France by the D’Ollone expedi- tion, and a French-Lolo dictionary has been compiled. French missionaries have reached the independent Lolos, and interested them in Western knowledge; and preparations are mak- ing, with the help of one of the most influential “princes,” to express their language in Roman letters, and to print books for these benighted but quick-witted people, to whose many ster- ling qualities every European who has become acquainted with them willingly testifies: A period of regeneration therefore seems to be at hand for the Lolo race. Consult Davies, R. H., ‘Yunnan, the Link between India and: the Yanktze? (London 1909); D’Ollone, Vicomte, ‘In Forbidden China? (Eng. trans. by B. Miall, Boston 1913); Andrews, R. C. and Y. Se Bee and Trails in China? (New York 1918). ; LOMAMI, 16-ma’mé, Kongo Free State, a navigable river of Central Africa which rises near Kazaidi (Msoa), and after flowing almost parallel with the upper course of the Kongo River enters the latter at Isangui several miles below Stanley Falls. LOMAX, John Avery, American folklor- ist: ‘b. Goodman, Miss., 23 Sept. 1870. In 1897 he was graduated at the University of Texas and subsequently studied at the universities of — Harvard and Chicago. He was instructor and associate professor of English at the Agri- cultural and Mechanical College of Texas from 1903 to 1910 and became secretary of the Uni- versity of Texas in 1910. He is well known as a lecturer on American folklore and folk- songs; is member of the Modern Language As- sociation of America and was president of the American Folklore Society in 1912 and in 1913. He is one of the founders of the Texas Folk- lore Society. He has published ‘Cowboy Songs? (1911); ‘The Book of. Texas, with H. Y. Benedict (1916); ‘Plantation Songs of the Negro (1916). LOMAX, Lunsford Lindsay, American soldier: b. Newport, R. I., 1835; d. 1913. ° His father was an army officer of a Virginia family. Young Lomax was graduated at West Point (1856) and assigned to a cavalry regi- ment. He served on the frontier until Virginia seceded when he resigned and entered the Confederate army as captain. 'He served as a staff officer under Joseph E. Johnston in 1861, and in the West under McCulloch and Van Dorn (1862). While with the Western armies he was engaged in the battles of Pea Ridge, Shiloh and Baton Rouge. From 1863 to 1865 Lomax held a cavalry command in Lee’s army and took part in all the great battles.. He reached the rank of major-general in 1864. When Lee surrendered, Lomax escaped to Johnston in North Carolina with whom he sur- LOMBARD — LOMBROSO redered. After the war he engaged in farm- ing in Caroline County, Va., until 1889, when he became president of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. He was afterward engaged in com- piling the official war records at Washington and served as a member of the Gettysburg Battlefield Park Commission. LOMBARD, l6m’bard, Peter, also known under his Latinized name, Perrus LoMBARDUS, Italian theologian: b. Lugelogno, near Novara, Lombardy, about 1100; d. Paris, 20 July 1164. He was a scholar of Abélard, and traditionally the first doctor of the University of Paris. He then became a teacher of theology, and in 1159 bishop of Paris. In his ‘Sententiarum Libri Quatuor,’? which became the subject of almost countless commentaries, and until the Reforma- tion had almost classical authority among theo- logians, he placed the opinions of the Fathers, particularly Augustine, in regard to doctrines under certain titles, and then stated the ob- jections made to them and the answers given by Church authorities, but without offering any judgment of his own. The name of his work has given him the surname of Master of Sen- tences. Consult ‘Life» by Protois (1881). LOMBARD ARCHITECTURE. ARCHITECTURE. LOMBARD COLLEGE, a coeducational institution founded, in 1851, in Galesburg, IIL, under the auspices of the Universalists. In 1917 there were connected with the school 27 instructors and 234 students. The library con- tains about 8,000 volumes. It has a preparatory department and a classical department. The degree A.B. is conferred on those completing the classical course. LOMBARD STREET, a short street in London, which received its name from having been the residence of the Lombards, the first bankers of modern Europe, who’ began to flour- ish in the 12th and 13th centuries, and whose usurious transactions caused their expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. It is now chiefly occupied by bankers, and is a place of much importance in the London com- mercial world. It is the English equivalent of Wall street. LOMBARDS, LONGOBARDI, or LAN- GOBARDI, a Germanic or Teutonic people who at the beginning of the Christian era were dwelling on the lower Elbe. They make little . appearance in history till the 6th century, when, under their king, Albion, they entered Italy in April 568, and, with the help of Saxons and others, conquered the northern portion, which hence received the name of Lombardy. From 713 to 744 the Lombards had a powerful king in the person of Liutprant, who extended his sway, at least temporarily, over the whole of Italy. From that time the power of the Lom- bards gradually declined, and finally Char- lemagne captured Pavia after a six months’ siege, and put an end to the Lombard kingdom (773 or 774), the last monarch being Desiderius. LOMBARDY, 16m’bar-di, Italy, that part of upper Italy between the Alps and the Po, with Venice on the east and Piedmont on the west. it formed an ancient kingdom, now a northern compartimento embracing the eight provinces of Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Cremona, Mantua, Milan, Pavia and Sondrio, with an See 617 aggregate area of 9,299 square miles and a population in 1911 of 4,790,473. Lombardy took its name from the Longobardi or Lombards. (See LompaArns). Herding is a thriving indus- try on the mountains; on the lower slopes vines, fruit trees and silkworms are cultivated; on the plains rice and maize are among the principal crops. Linen and cotton are among the manufactures, also motor cars and accesso- ries. After the fall of the Lombard kingdom (774) this territory remained attached to the empire of Charlemagne and his successors till 843, when an independent kingdom arose, though before its end (961) it had broken up into a number of independent duchies and civic repub- lics. They successfully resisted the attempts of the Emperors Frederick I and II to curtail their liberties, and defeated them in battle. Freed from external danger, they quarreled among themselves, and the country was for many years more or less an object of contention be- tween the king of France and the emperor. The last named having won, Lombardy passed through Chatles V to Spain (1535) which held possession until 1713, when Austria acquired the duchies of Mantua and Milan. The provinces were then called Austrian Lombardy, a name which they retained till Napoleon formed in 1797 out of them and other districts the Cisalpine, afterward the @lian, Republic, and at last, in 1805, the kingdom of Italy. By the Peace of Paris, 1814, and the act of the Congress of Vienna, 1815, Austria received back its old Lombard possessions; but in con- sequence of the war of 1859 was ‘compelled to cede them to Victor Emmanuel, king of Sar- dinia, by the Peace of Ztirich, and in 1861 they became part of the new kingdom of Italy. LOMBOK, Dutch East Indies, one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, east of Java, between Bali on the west and Sumbawa on the east. Area, 3,136 square miles. The island is moun- tainous and of volcanic origin. Between the two ranges which traverse the island, one of them rising to the height of 11,800 feet, there is a plain fertile in rice, cotton, maize, coffee and tobacco. The upper and former ruling class are Brahmans, and the mass of the peo- ple of Malay extraction are Mohammedans. The capital, Mataram, on the west coast, was bombarded in 1894 by a Dutch expedition, since when the island is administered by the Dutch resident on Baili, with which it is conjoined for administrative purposes. Pop. about 400,- 000. LOMBROSO, 16m-br6-z6, Cesare, Italian criminologist, the founder of the’ science of criminology: b. (of Jewish parents) .Verona, 1836; d. Turin, 19 Oct. 1909. He developed early, and was writing on learned subjects be- fore he was out of boyhood. He was educated at Paris, Padua, and in 1862 he was ap- pointed professor of psychiatry at Pavia. In 1872 he made the important discovery that pellagra, a disease that affects the Italian peasantry, is caused by diseased maize. He became widely known through his investiga- tions of the abnormal human being, and spent much time in minute measurements of criminal types. His theories encountered great opposi- tion, and are not yet entirely accepted; but they formed in part the basis for the present crimi- nal anthropology. He looked on genius as a 618 form of degeneracy; and criminality as mark- ing a reversion to an earlier type and as largely the product of nervous disease. He was the author of numerous works including ‘The Criminal? (1887-95); ‘The Man of Genius? (1890; Eng. trans. 1891); ‘The Anarchists? (1895); ‘The Causes of and Con- test against Crime? (1902); ‘After Death — What? (Eng. trans. 1909), and ‘The Female offender? (with Ferrero; Eng. trans., New York 1895). Consult the study by Kurella (1892) ; the biography by his daughter (Turin 1906) ; and Ferrero, T. L., ‘Criminal Man ac- cording to the Classification of Cesare Lom- broso? (New York 1911). LOMENIE DE BRIENNE, 16'ma’né’dé bré’én, Etienne Charles de, French eccle- siastic and politician: b. Paris, 9 Oct. 1727; d. 16° Feb. 1794. He entered the Church, in order to facilitate his personal advancement. He be- came a doctor of theology in 1751 and in the following year became grand vicar to the arch- bishop of Rouen. In 1760 he was consecrated bishop of Condom and three years later was translated to the archbishopric of Toulouse. He was intimate with Morellet, Turgot and Voltaire. He became prominent in the gen- eral assembly of the clergy.and took a deep interest in social questions. In 1770 he was elected to the™Academy and in 1787 became president of the Assembly of Notables... In the same year he succeeded Calonne as head of the Council of Finances. He was involved in several disputes with the Parliament, and finally was obliged to promise to summon the States-General in return for the abolition of Parliament. In 1788 he became archbishop of Sens and on 29 August of that year he was forced out of office. He was made cardinal 15 Dec. 1788 and spent the following two years in Italy. After the outbreak of the Revolution he re- turned to France and subscribed to the civil constitution of the clergy. For this he was re- pudiated by the Pope. The leaders of the Revolution viewed his activity with suspicion in the light of his past political acts and had him arrested at Sens on 9 Nov. 1793. He died in prison either by poison or of an attack of apo- plexy. Cardinal Loménie of Brienne published ‘Oraison funébre du Dauphin? (1766); “Compte-rendu au roi? (1788); ‘Le Concilia- teur,? with Turgot (1754): Consult Perrin, J., “Le Cardinal Loménie de Brienne épisodes de la Révolution® (Sens 1896). LOMOND, Loch, 16k 16-mond, Scotland, the largest and one of. the most beautiful of Scottish lakes in the counties of, Stirling and Dumbarton. Its length is about 24 miles; the breadth at the lower or southern end five miles, at the upper end less than half a mile. For 14 miles from the head the breadth does not ex- ceed one and one-half miles. The lake is al- most entirely surrounded with ranges of hills; and its surface is studded with numerous islands. The principal hills are on the eastern side, where a branch of the Grampians culmi- nates in Ben Lomond, 3,192 feet high, on the very border of the lake. Through the glens intersecting the surrounding hills the drainage of the district flows into the lake by the Fal- loch, Endrick, Fruin, Luss and other streams; and the river Leven at the southwestern ex- tremity conveys the overflow to the Clyde. LOMENIE DE BRIENNE — LONDON The greatest depth is in the narrower part of the lake, where it reaches 623 feet. Rail- way steamboats ply on the loch. LOMONOSOV, 16-m6-no'sdf, Mikhail Vasi- lievich, Russian poet and man of science: b. Denisovka (now Lomonosov), near Archangel, 1711; d. 1765. His father was a fisherman in poor circumstances and the youth’s schooling was confined to a few books which he almost committed to memory. At the age of 17 he decided to go to Moscow to obtain an educa- tion and in that city with the aid of friends secured admission to a school. There he lived in want but made rapid progress in his studies and in 1734 was sent to. Saint Petersburg. In the capital he made great progress in physical - science and was chosen one of the youths to be sent abroad to finish their education. At Mar- burg he studied metallurgy and subsequently spent two years at Freiberg. In 1739 he pub- lished his ‘Ode on the Taking of Khotin from the Turks,» which attracted great attention. He also wrote dramas, epigrams, etc., in the style of the period. In Germany Lomonosoy married a German girl and soon found himself unable to maintain his domestic establishment on the irregular remittances from his govern- ment. He left Germany secretly and in his native country soon rose to distinction. He was at first professor of chemistry in the Uni- versity of Saint Petersburg of which he was’ later made rector, and was appointed Secretary of State in 1764. His Russian grammar was long the standard work in its field and did much to stamp the form of the new Russian after its break with Church Slavonic. Per- haps Lomonosov’s greatest monument is the great University of Moscow, of which he was the founder and the early policy of which he planned. He was one of the most learned men in Europe. His Russian grammar is said “to have drawn out the plan, and his poetry to have built up the fabric of his native lan- guage” He is called “the father of Russian literature.” Consult the edition of his works issued by the Imperial Academy of Sciences (4 vols., Saint Petersburg 1892-98); Pekarsky, ‘History of the Academy of Sciences? (Vol. II, ib. 1873); the lives by P. Borzakovsky (Odessa 1911) and B. N. Menshutkin (Saint Petersburg 1911). LOMZA, 16m’zha, Poland, town on the Narew, 100 miles northeast of Warsaw. It contains an ancient church, a theatre, gymna- sium and government buildings. It formerly had a large trade with Prussia and Lithuania; was well fortified; had two citadels, but was several times taken by Germans, Tartars and Cossacks. It fell to Prussia in 1795, but in 1807 came under the rule of Russia. In the Great War of 1914 a battle was fought here between the Germans and Russians, in which the latter were defeated and forced to fall back. In 1918 it became part of the newly erected Polish state. Pop. 28,000, mostly Poles and Jews. LONDON, Jack, American author: b. San Francisco, 12 Jan. 1876; d. Glen Ellen, Cal., 22 Nov. 1916. He was the son of John London, a frontiersman, scout and trapper, who had come to San Francisco in 1873. His early life was spent on California ranches up to the age Building ion ’s Christian Associat CANADA ’ 2 Young Men LONDON 1 Normal School ever i - ‘a eden. yon) hg aes LONDON of nine years, when the family removed to Oakland, Cal. From his ninth year, with the exception of intermittent periods at school, his life was one of toil, which has been vividly presented to the readers of his work, for prac- tically all of his novels and short stories have a background taken from his own life. His experiences in youth as an oysterman and bayman, his long voyage on a sealing ‘ schooner along the coast north of the Russian side of the Behring Sea, his many short voy- ages, his year of following the life of a tramp bent on acquiring experience and investigating - social and economic conditions, have all been brilliantly built into his many works of fiction. At 19 years London entered the University of California, but half way through his freshman year he had to quit for lack of money or means to support himself. He went to work in a laundry, writing in all his spare time. London gave up work in the laundry to go to the Klondike during the gold rush there in 1897. He was one of the few who made it in the win- ter of that year over Chilcoot Pass. After a year of unsuccessful gold seeking he fell a victim of the scurvy. Unable to get a home- bound steamer, he and two camp mates em- barked in an open boat for the Behring Sea. It was immediately upon his return to San Francisco that he began to turn out literature. More than once in his books London insisted that he gained his literary equipment through his hard life. His Alaskan experiences were reflected in his earlier works. He leaped into fame as one of the foremost young American authors with ‘The Call of the Wild? (1903). In 1904 and 1905, after the series of Alaskan stories had given him great fame and founded the school of writers who for some years after placed their stories in an Arctic setting, London went to Korea as a war. correspondent. After his return he settled down to produce fiction in amazing volume, interrupting this only for a number of picturesque cruises. In recent years he and Mrs. London had lived a large part of the time at Hawaii. London was the author of the following: ‘The Son of the Wolf? (1900) ; ‘The God of His Fathers? (1901); SA Daughter of the Snows? (1902); ‘The Chil- dren of the Frost? (1902); ‘The Cruise of the Dazzler? (1902); ‘The Faith of Men? (1904) ; ‘The Sea Wolf? (1904); ‘The Game? (1905) ; “War of the Classes? (1905); ‘Tales of the Fish Patrol? (1905);-‘Moon Face? (1907); “White Fang? (1907); ‘Love of Life? (1907) ; “Before Adam? (1907); “Lost Face? (1909) ; “Martin Eden? (1909); ‘The Iron Heel? (1908); ‘The Road? (1908); ‘Revolution (1910); ‘Burning Daylight? (1910); ‘Theft? (1907) ; ‘When God Laughs? (1910); ‘Adven- ture? (1911) ; ‘The Cruise of the Snark? (1911) ; “Smoke Bellew (1912) ; “Night-Born? (1912) ; “The Abysmal Brute? (1913); ‘The Valley of the Moon? (1913); ‘Mutiny of the Elsinore? (1914); ‘The People of the Abyss (1903), his adventures in the East End of London; “The Kempton-Wace Letters? (1903) and “John Barleycorn, or Alcoholic Memoirs? (1913) ; ‘The Strength of the Strong (1914); ‘The Scarlet Plague? (1915); ‘The Star Rover? (1915); ‘The Little Lady of the Big House? (1916); ‘Jerry? (1916); ‘The Turtles of Tasmar? (1916). 619 LONDON, Meyer, American lawyer and Socialist: b. Russia, 29 Dec. 1871. His early years were spent in southern Russia but in his 20th year desiring to obtain a higher education, then impossible in Russia for a man of Jewish race, and being under the surveillance of the secret police because of his known sympathy with the radical elements in Russia, he emi- grated to the United States. He earned a pre- carious livelihood in New York as printer and cigarmaker for several years. At length he was engaged by the Educational Alliance and — there was afforded his long-sought opportunity of educational advancement. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1898. Estab- lishing his practice in New York’s great East Side Mr. London soon became prominent as counsel for labor unions, many of which he organized and helped to build up. In 1910 he helped in the settlement of the cloakmakers’ strike in New York by means of the industrial protocol. Two years later he was equally suc- cessful in bringing about a settlement between the garment workers and their employers. Meanwhile, Mr. London was very active on the East Side as a community worker and had become a prominent member of the Socialist party. He attended several of the national conventions of that party and in 1914 was ap- pointed delegate to the International Socialist Congress at Vienna, which, however, was not: held because of the outbreak of war that year. In November 1914, Mr. London was elected member of the 64th Congress from the 12th New York District, being the first member of his party in the East and the second in the country to be so honored. He was re-elected to the 65th Congress in 1916. Considerable criticism was directed toward his attitude to the many measures introduced in the House after the entry of the United States into the Great War. He voted against the declaration of war and against the selective service act and many other measures for the active participa- tion of the country in the war. In November 1918 Mr. London was for the third time the Socialist candidate for Congress from the 12th District, but his defeat was brought about by a coalition of the Democrats and Republicans, who placed a fusion candidate in the field against him, and by a united vote were enabled to overcome the strong Socialist vote in the district. LONDON, Canada, city in the County of Middlesex, Ontario, at the junction of the north and south branches of the Thames River, midway between Niagara Falls and Windsor, about 23 miles north of Lake Erie, and on the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, the Michi- gan Central and the Pére Marquette railroads. London was selected by Governor Simcoe in 1794 as the location of the future capital of Upper Canada, but this selection was set aside in favor of York (Toronto). The first clear- ings were made by the Talbot settlers here in 1818. The principal manufactures are stoves, furniture, car works, lumber products, chew- ing gum, cigars, clothing, agricultural imple- ments, carriages, electrical machinery and sup- plies, shoes, iron rolling mills, flour mills, chemicals, breweries and cement products. The principal institutions are the Western University, the Academy of the Sacred Heart, 620 the Provincial Asylum for the Insane, Victoria and Saint Joseph’s hospitals, two orphanages, Conservatory of Music and Harding Hall, a college for young ladies and a collegiate insti-' tute. London is the seat of Roman Catholic and Anglican bishoprics. Pop. (1921) 60,685. LONDON, England, the largest city in the world, the capital of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Empire, situated on both banks of the Thames River, about 40 miles from its mouth, the latitude and longitude of Saint Paul’s Cathedral being respectively 51° 30’ 48” N, and 0° 5’ 48” W. Modern London consists of the city of London as the nucleus, and the occupied sur- rounding parts of about 120 square miles taken from the counties of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent. In 1855 the Metropolis Management Act was passed, defining for sanitary purposes, out- side the nucleate city of London with 675 acres, 85 parishes, the whole, including the city, cover- ing an area of 75,379 acres, 31,422 acres being the county of Middlesex, 23,893 acres in Sur- rey and 20,064 acres in Kent. By the Local Government Act of 1888 this area was consti- tuted the administrative county of London. In 1899, by the London Government Act of that year, the boundaries of the county were slightly altered, and the whole, with the exception of the city of London, was divided into 28 metro- politan boroughs, including the city of West- minster. The area of the administrative county is now 74,816 acres, including 31,652 acres formerly in Middlesex, 23,100 formerly in Sur- rey and 20,064 formerly in Kent. See Lonpon County CoUNCIL. Table of the metropolitan boroughs, with their acreage and population in 1901 and 1911: Area — Pop., Pop., ROROUEE acres 1911 1901 North of the Thames City off Dend6n. -. 1547. 2 675 19,657 26,923 City of Westminster...... 2,502 160,261 183,011 Bethnal’ Green. 5: mde: 759 128,183 129,680 Chels@na tink weet a ee 660 66,385 73,842 Finsbtutys <2 i.e ihe co Os 586 87 ,923 101 , 463 uthaim srs SH gee. octet 1,703 153 , 284 137,289 Packie yao ce ee et fey 3,287 222 ,533 219,272 iamiimersmitiece as. 2,286 121,521 112,239 Hampstead 270..2.07. 291 2,265 85,495 81,942 Hplborn steve. -tarinsscc . 40 49,357 59,405 NSIC CONS ae acute ee 3,091 327 , 403 334,991 Kensington... ves: AL 2,291 Li), S17 176,628 PaGgdinetoti:c. dae spare 1,356 142 ;551 143,976 Poplanest ee peeet tats ce eRe © Vas PMY) 162 ,442 168,822 Saint Marylebone........ 1,473 118,160 133,301 saint Panerasi|.) . O17 2.1.0. 2,694 | 218,387 235,317 Shorediteh bo... efi. ., 658 111,390 118,637 MLEDNEY get so vcr Eee The 2 1,766 279 , 804 298,600 Stoke Newington......... 863 50,659 51,247 South of the Thames Battersea 10. : wee 2,160 167, 743 168 ,907 Bermondsey Fie. 1,500 125,903 130,760 Camberwell: 2 i)0s...070..- 4,480 261,328 259 , 339 Wentiard: aegis 1,563 109, 496 110,398 Greenwich..... bectigs So poet ene 3,852 95 ,968 95,770 Lambeth Ws 29 4. 6. Ae 4,080 298,058 301 , 895 Lewishanes-2192. taries 7,014 160,834 127,495 DOUGH WAT «cacy aan 11st 191,907 206,180 WVieriaSwOnrtie + scares ak cere 9,107 311,360 232 ,034 Wobdlwich! 2; 7O4q. TI 8,277 121,376 117,178 SRGLON cece

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Further up the river Westminster and Lambeth are again connected by Lambeth and Vauxhall bridges. The Chelsea Suspension bridge connects Chelsea and Pimlico on the north side with Battersea to the west of Batter- sea Park; and the Battersea Bridge unites Chelsea and. Battersea a littler further west. Putney Bridge, a magnificent structure of granite, connects Fulham and Putney; and Hammersmith Bridge, the last in London, con- nects Hammersmith with Barnes. There are also six railway bridges across the Thames. One of them, at Charing Cross, displaced the old Hungerford Suspension Bridge, but is provided with a footway on one side. The two railway bridges at Pimlico, which look like one, belong to the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway Company and the London, Chatham and Dover. The latter company owns a bridge close to Blackfriars _Bridge. The modern bridge at Vauxhall is said to be as notable a combination of art and utility as the famous Alexander III bridge in Paris. The once famous Thames tunnel, two miles below London Bridge, opened in 1843 as a roadway under the river, now serves as a railway tunnel. A subway under.the river, lined with iron hoops, connects Tower Hill and Tooley street, South- wark; and there is a great tunnel for foot- passengers and vehicles between Blackwell and East Greenwich and one for foot-passengers only between the Isle of Dogs and Green- wich. A tunnel for both vehicular and pedes- trian traffic between Shadwell and Rotherhithe was opened in 1908. Three underground elec- . tric railways pass under the river. There is a free steamboat ferry between North and South Woolwich. Since the passing of the Metropolis Manage- ment Act of 1855 great changes have been made in the condition of London. The gigantic operations connected with the sewerage of London and the embankment of the Thames, from Blackfriars to Chelsea on the north side, and from Westminster Bridge to Vauxhall on the south, have produced great changes, while important lines of streets have opened up dis- tricts formerly almost inaccessible. These operations have also absorbed the former little rivers and rills, leaving only a corner, an alley or a street — for example, Fleet street — with their name for a monument. In all the districts of London, and particularly in the city and west end, there has been great improvement in the quality of architectural decoration and in public buildings, and stone has to a considerable extent replaced brick and plaster, though not so far as to change the aspect of some localities. Though some of the leading streets are wide, others are narrow and irregular. The decora- tive character of the streets about Lombard street, and the Mansion House in the city, has been fostered by the growth of numerous bank- ing and insurance companies, while the new office and store buildings in various quarters, especially the one opposite Saint Mary-le- Strand, the hotels and apartment-houses on the American steel structure plan, have added an entirely new style of brick architecture. “The City” —the historic centre of London —is bounded south by the Thames; it extends north to Charterhouse Square, east to Middle- sex street and west to the New Law Courts. Till 1878 this last boundary was marked by 621 _ Temple Bar, an old gateway crossing Fleet street near the Temple; but in that year this structure was removed, and a memorial was erected on the site. The portion of the city inside the area of the former medizval walls is known as “London within the walls”; and all the wards are bounded by the site of the old walls; the portion outside extends irregularly all.around and is known as “London without the walls.” Of the streets that run through modern London the most important from west to east is that which enters from Kew into Hammersmith, and passing through Kensington forms the finest of all the approaches to London. It stretches on through Brompton, Knightsbridge and Piccadilly, past fashionable Belgravia, with Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park and Padding- ton on the north, and with Apsley House and numerous other palatial edifices facing the Green Park, which constitutes its south bound- ary for about half the length of Piccadilly. This line is broken at the east end of Pic- cadilly, but passes by Regent street (or by the Haymarket) and Trafalgar square into the Strand, which continues it farther east and much nearer the river, and it stretches on past the Temple, along Fleet street, Ludgate Hill, Saint Paul’s Churchyard, where it runs into Cannon street, leading to the Tower on one side, and on the other into Cheapside, Poultney, Lombard street, Fenchurch street, Aldgate and by Whitechapel road and Mile-end road through the congested poorer districts to the county boundary at Bow. The next great artery be- tween the west and east extends along the Uxbridge road from Acton, entering: the county boundary at Shepherd’s Bush and pass- ing through Notting Hill, along Oxford street, through Holborn and Newgate street, where it joins the more south line above described, at the west end of Cheapside. Farther north is a third line, extending from near Kensington Gardens, through Oxford and Cambridge Ter- race along the Marylebone, Euston, Pentonville road, to Islington, and thence by the city road to Finsbury square. Among the leading thoroughfares running north and south the extreme west is Edgeware road, which enters the county at Kilburn, terminating at its south extremity in Oxford street, from which it runs northwest, but communicating through Park lane with Piccadilly, a little to the west of which, from Hyde Park Corner place, Gros- venor place leads down to Buckingham Palace road, from which Vauxhall road forms a con- necting line with the river. Park lane and Grosvenor place on this line contain many of the most select residences of the aristocracy. East of the Edgeware road, Regent street with Portland place, Tottenham Court road with Charing Cross road, and other connecting lines leading to Westminster, Pimlico and Chelsea, Gray’s Inn road, and the line of Chancery lane, Farringdon street, etc., leading to Fleet street and Blackfriars Bridge, form some of the most important communications in this direction. Piccadilly and Pall Mall, running east and west, Bond street, Regent street and Saint James’ street, north and south, are among the most fashionable streets in the West End, each with its own distinctive character. Bond street con- tains the shops most, patronized by the aristoc- racy; Regent street, according to some tastes 622 the handsomest street in London, is the fashion- able promenade and has some of the finest shops. It unites by Portland place in the north with | Regent’s Park and Primrose Hill Park, and intersects Oxford street and Piccadilly, and reaches south to Waterloo place, by which it communicates with Saint James’ Park. The greatest and most picturesque thoroughfare in London, not of an exclusively mercantile char- acter, is the line of the Strand and Fleet street. By the clearing away of congested streets, and the construction of Kingsway and Aldwich, the largest and most important improvement has been carried out since the construction of Regent street in 1820, and a connection given between North and South London at that part which needs it most. The Thames Embankments belong to the modern features of London. The Victoria Em- bankment on the north side consists of a wide roadway; with a granite retaining wall, sur- mounted by a parapet broken by pedestals for lamps. There are well-contrived landing-stages and recesses, these features of the Embank- ment being rendered highly ornamental by balustrades, pedestals for sculpture, etc. From the Temple to Charing Cross portions of land reclaimed from the Thames have been laid out in public gardens. The Chelsea Embankment extends from the Albert Suspension Bridge eastward past Chelsea Hospital. From the fine building of Saint Thomas’ Hospital next West- minster Bridge, on the south side of the river, - extends the Albert Embankment, continuous with the old quay at Lambeth. A very valuable improvement in the city was the Holborn Val- ley Viaduct, extending from Newgate street to the end of Hatton Garden. Broad roads also lead to the Central Meat Market, and to the lower level of Farringdon street, which is crossed by the viaduct obliquely, with three Gothic arches supported on 12 hexagonal columns of polished red granite. The estimated length of streets in London is considerably over 2,000 miles. Public Buildings in the City— A number of the most important buildings are situated within the ancient city. The nucleus of the whole is formed by: the Bank of England, the Royal Exchange and the Mansion House, which all face toward an open area, the centre of bustle and business, near the middle of the city, adorned with the handsome offices of several assurance companies. The Bank of England, in Threadneedle. street, was built in 1732-34 and now forms a low flat, insulated, irregular parallelogram covering four acres of ground. The Royal Exchange is an extensive and ornate building, having a portico sur- mounted by a pediment enriched by sculpture. It surrounds an open interior quadrangle, in the centre of which is a marble statue of Queen Victoria. In this court, which is surrounded by covered arcades, the meetings of the merchants on Change are held. An equestrian statue by Chantrey of the Duke of Wellington occupies the area in front of the building. The Royal Exchange, originally founded by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1566, was burned down in 1666, rebuilt, and again burned down in 1838, the present edifice being erected on its site. The exchanges for special purposes are: The Stock Exchange in Capel court; the Coal Exchange, LONDON Lower Thames street, a sumptuous though rather incongruous building, the great hall of which is circular, 60 feet in diameter, and 74 feet to the apex of the glazed dome; the Corn Exchange, in Mark lane, opened in 1747, enlarged and partly rebuilt in 1827, and again almost entirely rebuilt. The Mansion House, the official residence of the lord-mayor, was built in 1739-53. The Guildhall, at the north end of King street, Cheapside, is where the principal business of the corporation of the city of London is conducted. The civic ban- quets are given here. A splendid new council chamber was completed in 1885. The hall itself is now covered with a decorative open timber roof of the Perpendicular Gothic style; the old front has been replaced by a new Gothic front. The hall is capable of seating 3,000 persons, and contains some monurhents of ordinary sculpture; and at the west end, raised on ped- estals, are colossal figures of Gog and Magog. In 1872 a handsome suite of rooms was added to the Guildhall for the Corporation Library and Museum. Of late years some of the city companies have remodeled or rebuilt their halls. Of these the Clothworkers’ Company have prd- duced the most elaborate street facade, but its confined situation in Mincing lane does not permit it to be seen to advantage. The Gold- smiths’ Hall behind the post’ office; the Fish- mongers’ Hall near London Bridge; and the Ironmongers’ Hall, in Fenchurch street, are the principal structures. In the city many old and familiar landmarks have been removed. The once famous East India House in Leadenhall street, and the Excise Office in Broad ‘street, have been replaced by immense piles of offices; Doctors’ Commons was cleared away for the new street to the Mansion House; Sir C. Wren’s College of Physicians is supplanted by meaner buildings; the site of the Steel-yard, memor- able in the history of old London, is absorbed by the city terminus of the South Eastern Rail- way; old churches have been leveled, and old inns, hostelries and streets, replete with great historic and literary associations,- have dis- appeared; while outside the city a whole region full of good and bad memories was cleared way for the new Law. Courts; the Statepaper Office is displaced by the Foreign Office; Tattersall’s is crossed by streets; cham- bers occupy the ground of the Old Thatched House; and a gymnasium has supplanted the British Institution. The Tower.— This. celebrated fortress, which formed the dominating feature of Nor- man London, stands on the north bank of the Thames, immediately adjoining the boundary of the city.. Besides its use as a fortress the Tower was the temporary residence of several kings and queens of England, but is now only used as a storage for armor and.as headquarters for certain military matters. It occupies an area of 12 acres, enclosed within a wall surrounded by a ditch, now dry, and laid out as a garden. On the south side is an archway called the “Traitors’ Gate,» through which state prisoners were brought from the river. The whole region of the Tower abounds with reminiscences of English history, conjured up by such names as Raleigh, Algernon Sidney, Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard, etc. .The most ancient part is the keep, now. known as the White Tower, LONDON which was erected about 1078 for William the Conqueror by Fundolph, bishop of Rochester. It stands near the centre of the quadrangle, around which are placed several other towers, each having its distinctive name. The Tower contains the Wellington Barracks, erected on the site of the grand storehouse, burned down in 1841; the jewel room, a modern edifice, in which are preserved the regalia of Great Bri- tain; the horse armory, Queen Elizabeth’s armory and the church of Saint Peter-ad-Vin- cula. Church Buildings.— Saint Paul’s Cathedral stands on the summit of Ludgate Hill, on a site which was formerly used for pagan worship, and has been occupied by a church from early Saxon times. Old Saint Paul’s, a vast Gothic building, was destroyed by the great fire of 1666 and only a few columns of the chapter house now remain to view. The present church, on the same site, the greatest and most conspicu- ous architectural ornament of London, planned and carried out by Sir Christopher Wren, was begun in 1675 and completed in 1710. It is 510 feet in length from east to west, while the tran- sept is 250 feet long, exclusive of the semi- circular portico at each end; the breadth of the west front is 180 feet and the height of the walls 110 feet. The building is crowned with an immense dome, surmounted by a lantern with ball and cross, the height of the latter being 404 feet from the ground. It is built of Portland stone and cost £747,954, which was paid by levying a tax on coal. The interior has been decorated at great cost by voluntary means, ac- cording to the original intentions of Wren. ‘Among the monuments it contains are those of Wellington, Nelson, Sir Ralph Abercromby, Sir John Moore, Dr. Johnson, Howard, Sir Joshua Reynolds and eminent men of more modern times. Near together, under the centre of the dome, lie interred Lord Nelson and the Duke of Wellington. Westminster Abbey, one of the finest specimens of the Pointed style in Great Britain, dates from the reign of Henry III and Edward I, when it was erected on the site of the Saxon minster founded by Sebert. The beautiful chapel at the east end was added by Henry VII, and at the beginning of the 18th century the upper parts of the two towers at the west end were erected from designs of Sir Christopher Wren. It is 360 feet long and 195 feet wide within the walls. Here kings and queens have been crowned, from Edward the Confessor to George V, and here many of them are buried, some with and others without monu- ments. In the south transept are the tombs and honorary monuments of great poets, from Chaucer down to Tennyson, whence it is called “Poets’ Corner,” and in other parts are numer- ous sculptured monuments to statesmen, war- riors, philosophers, divines, patriots and emi- nent individuals generally, many of whom are interred within its walls. Of other sacred edifices in London the most remarkable are Saint Bartholomew’s in West Smithfield, which consists of the chancel and lady-chapel only of the original church and contains some beauti- ful specimens of Norman, Early English and later styles of architecture; Saint Saviour’s in Southwark, now a cathedral, boasts of the best Early English architecture in London in its choir and lady-chapel, the principal portions of the old church which remain; Saint Giles’, 623 Cripplegate, a beautiful pre-Reformation church; Saint Stephen’s, Walbrook, the inte- rior of which is extremely fine and generally regarded as one of Wren’s best works; and the Temple Church, which is one of the very few round churches now remaining in Eng- land, and combines transition Norman archi- tecture with Early English, the latter in the choir, which was founded in 1240. Besides these there are very few of the older churches left, among the most interesting of which is Bow Church. Of the remainder, Wren’s churches are very beautiful, and perhaps Saint Bride’s in Fleet street and Saint Martin’s-in- the-Fields may also be specified. During the Georgian period hideous specimens of archi- tecture were erected, and these still predominate. Among Roman Catholic churches in London are Saint George’s Cathedral, in Southwark, finished in 1848, and the magnificent new cathe- dral of Byzantine architecture at Westmin- ster, with an imposing campanile 300: feet high. The largest arch over any known church doorway admits 10,000 worshippers to ample accommodation under a central dome 120 feet high. The plan dispenses with stained-glass windows —a_ wise arrangement in dark Lon- don. Twenty-nine marble columns support aisles, galleries and arches of transepts, with bases of Norwegian granite and capitals of white Carrara elaborately carved. Many of the Non-Conformist churches are handsome structures. Among the finest of them are the City Temple on the Viaduct, opened in 1874; Christ-church in Westminster Bridge road; the Apostolic (or Irvingite) Church in Gordon square; and the Tabernacle, Newington Butts; while the site of the former Royal Aquarium at Westminster is now occupied by a mammoth connectional building, built by the Wesleyan Methodists. The Houses of Parliament.—These consist of the House of Peers and the House of Com- mons, with the connected apartments and offices, the whole practically forming one struc- ture. It is a highly decorated structure in the Tudor Gothic style, after designs by Sir Charles Barry. It stands on the left bank of the Thames, between the river and Westminster Abbey, and extends over an area of about eight acres. The facade which overlooks the river is 900 feet in length. The walls are of brick, faced externally with magnesian limestone, and the whole edifice is separated. from the river by a terrace of Aberdeen granite. It is paneled with rich tracery, and profusely decorated with statues and shields of arms of the kings and queens of England from the Conquest to the present time. In the southwest angle is the Victoria Tower, supported on four pointed arches 60 feet in height; it is 75 feet square and 340 feet in height. There is also a tower in the centre, 300 feet high by 60 feet, surmounted by a lantern; and the clock tower, at the north end of the edifice, with its richly decorated spire, rises 320 feet. The House of Peers is an apart- ment 97 feet long, 54 feet wide and 45 feet high; magnificently decorated throughout with carved oak paneling, a profusion of gilding, paintings in fresco and richly stained glass win- dows. The House of Commons is a somewhat smaller apartment, fitted up in a much plainer style. Paintings in fresco and the water-glass medium and statues of great statesmen have 624 been added to the internal decorations; and a statue of the architect has been placed on the staircase leading up to the committee rooms. Westminster Hall, the most magnificent hall in the kingdom, 290 feet long, was built by Wil- liam Rufus and improved by Richard II. The hall is not now used except as a members’ en- trance to the House of Commons. Palaces.— Saint James’, erected by Henry VIII, from a design by Holbein, at the foot of Saint James’ street, is an irregular and pictur- esque brick building. It is well adapted in- ternally for royal levees and drawing-rooms, which are held here during the fashionable season. Buckingham Palace, facing the west end of Saint James’ Park, was built by George IV, and consists, since the erection of the east front, of a quadrangular range of buildings. In the gallery, which is 160 feet long, are some good pictures. The king resides here oc- casionally in the spring and summer. White- hall—the Banqueting House—designed by Inigo Jones in the Paladian style, is the only remnant of the ancient palace of Whitehall; the ceiling, painted by Rubens, is the most ex- tensive work of that artist existing in the coun- try. Kensington Palace, in Kensington Gar- dens, is a brick building of the Jacobean period, and was thrown open to the public by Queen Victoria shortly before her death. It was the birthplace of her majesty. Lambeth Palace on the Surrey side of the river, opposite the Houses of Parliament. has been for many centuries ' the residence of the archbishops of Canterbury. It is a brick edifice, and comprises a great variety of styles in architecture, from Early English downward, and contains a magnificent library. Fulham Palace, the residence of the bishops of London, is a building of no archi- tectural pretension. It is pleasantly situated on the Thames, and at one time had extensive and well-timbered grounds. Greenwich Palace, once the home of the Tudor and Stuart sover- eigns, is a stone building of considerable beauty, now used as a training school for the navy. Eltham Palace, once a residence of Henry VIII, is now a picturesque and well-preserved ruin. Government Offices.— These are mostly situated in and near Whitehall. The Treasury, Home Office and Education Department occupy one range of buildings, which have been im- proved by a uniform and handsome facade. The India Office and the Local Government Board face Saint James’ Park. The Horse Guards, which are somewhat nearer Charing Cross, have little to admire in their external appearance, but opposite, and next to the ban- quet hall of the old Whitehall Palace, from the window of which Charles I stepped to his execution, rises the New War Office, and farther on the New Admiralty Office. An ex- tensive pile of government offices, for the Foreign Office and the Colonial Office, has been erected in Downing street. The style is Italian, and the building exhibits a large amount of decorative detail, part of it in red and other colored marbles and granites. Some of. the public offices are in Somerset House, once a royal palace of Charles II. It has a spacious and handsome quadrangle, finished in 1782, from designs by Sir W. Chambers; its north facade, 200 feet in length. faces the Strand; and its south front, 800 feet lonz, overlooks LONDON the river. The post office, near Saint Paul’s, is a spacious and handsome building. It is 390 feet long, 130 feet wide and 64 feet high. Its facade, which is toward Saint Martin’s-le- Grand, has three Ionic porticoes. A. supple- mental building for telegraph and other busi- ness occupies the opposite side of Saint Mar- tin’s-le-Grand. The mint, a stone building of the ordinary Georgian architecture, finished in 1810, stands on Tower Hill, and occupies about 10,000 square yards. The royal arsenal and dockyard for military stores is at Woolwich. Courts of Law.— London is the seat of the supreme courts of the kingdom. Several of these were long accommodated at Westminster Hall, but in 1883 were removed to the New Law Courts at the junction of the Strand and Fleet street. This great building occupies an area of nearly four acres. It is of a somewhat heavy medizval character, a large western tower be- ing its chief feature. The Old Bailey, adjoin- ing the famous Newgate Prison, has, with the latter, been demolished to make way for the palatial Sessions House of the city of London. It is the central criminal court for the trial of prisoners who have committed serious offenses in the metropolitan district. One or more of the judges of the law courts sit here also in the old court, while the new court is presided over by the recorder and common sergeant of the. city of London. There are numerous County Courts within London for the trial of small debt cases. Besides the above there are also the Clerkenwell Session House; the city police courts, which are held at the Mansion House and Guildhall, and are presided over by the lord-mayor and one of the aldermen; and numerous police courts, each of which is pre- sided over by a barrister of at least seven ~ years’ standing. The Inns of Court, as they are - called, are four, the Inner Temple, Middle Temple, Lincoln’s Inn and Gray’s Inn. Every law student, before he can be called to the bar, has to be entered as a member of one of these inns, and’ to dine a certain number of times in the common hall. The Inner and Middle Temple are close to Temple Bar, be- tween Fleet street and the river. The roof of Middle Temple Hall, built in 1572, is considered the best specimen of Elizabethan architecture in London. Linceln’s Inn is situated between Chancery lane and the extensive square called Lincoln’s Inn Fields, now open as a _ public garden. A handsome hall and library in the Tudor style, from the designs of Hardwick, have been erected in the gardens. Gray’s Inn stands on the north side of Holborn. The other “Inns,” Staple Inn, New Inn, Sergeant's Inn, are now in private hands and not connected with the law. ae Clubs.— Many of these establishments, hay- ing most elaborate and ornate buildings, are among the principal architectural features of West London. They are situated chiefly in and near Pall Mall and vie with each other in elegance and luxury. The principal are the Atheneum, possessed of. a fine library, and having a great many artists and men of science and letters among its members; the Army and Navy, the United Service, the Guards’ and the Junior United Service; the Carlton, the great Tory Club, standing side by side with the Reform Ciub in Pall Mall, the former number- LONDON 2 Houses of Parliament 1 Trafalgar Square | Pee \ I oy WESTMINSTER ABBEY LONDON ing 2,000 and the latter 1,450 members; the Junior Carlton; the Oriental; the Travelers’; Brooks’, one of the oldest of the clubs; White’s, a still older club, much frequented by the Con- servative nobility: the Conservative; the Devon- shire; the Oxford and Cambridge; the Garrick, frequented by lovers of the drama; the Royal Automobile, and four political clubs, which have the largest numbers of members, the Con- stitutional having 6,500, the National Liberal 5,000, the Junior Conservative 2,500, and the Junior Constitutional 5,000. Geo tk Hotels— The Grand Hotel, Trafalgar square, occupying part of the site of old North- umberland House; the Victoria Hotel and Hotel Metropole in Northumberland avenue; the Hotel Cecil in the Strand; the Savoy Hotel on the Embankment; the Carlton Hotel at the corner of the Haymarket; the Russell Hotel, occupying the greater part of the east side of -Russell square, recently built; the Piccadilly, occupying the site of Saint James’ Hall; and De Keyser’s immense hotel at Blackfriars, are the most important and attractive... There are large hotels at Charing Cross and’ Cannon street in connection with the South Eastern Railway, at Saint Pancras in connection with the Midland Railway, the last named being the largest and one of the handsomest in London; and at Marylebone in connection with the Great Central Railway. Also associated with railways are the Great Western Hotel at Pad- dington; the Great Northern Hotel in King’s Cross; the Grosvenor Hotel at Pimlico. Other large hotels are the Langham Hotel, Portland place; the Westminster Palace Hotel in Vic- toria street; the Salisbury Hotel, in Salisbury square, Fleet street; the First Avenue near Gray’s Inn; and the famous Ship Hotel at Greenwich. : Theatres, Public Halls, etc.— The principal theatres: are Covent Garden (the Royal Opera House), opened in 1858; His Majesty’s, the historic Drury Lane, the Haymarket, the Strand, the Adelphi, the Surrey, the Gaiety, the Vaudeville, Saint James’, the Savoy, the Avenue, the Comedy, Criterion, Terry’s, the Lyric, the Garrick, the Shaftesbury, the Duke of York, the Prince of Wales, Wyndham’s, the Court, Daly’s, the Kingsway and the London Opera House. There are also many new erec- tions, whose names are not so familiar as those “just named. Local theatres have been built in many of the outlying parts of London. Saint James’: Hall, remarkable almost entirely for its interior and chiefly devoted to musical entertainments of a high class, has recentiy been demolished.. The Queen’s Hall in Port- land place, and the Albert Hall at Kensington, are devoted to high-class music. Hanover Square Rooms were once famous as concert rooms. The Freemasons’ Hall in Great Queen street is» well known, and Olympia, at West Kensington, is a large and imposing hall in an extensive area. The Congregational Memorial Hall; and the Agricultural Hall, Islington, the largest. covered area in London, are also im- portant buildings of this kind. The Empire and the Alhambra in Leicester square and the Hippodrome in Charing Cross road are the chief of numerous music halls in London. Markets.— These are numerous, but have generally little to attract either in external beauty or in internal arrangement, The prin- - VOL. 17— 40 ; cipal ones are Billingsgate for fish; the Borough Market, Southwark, and the famous Covent Garden for vegetables, fruit, flowers and plants; Leadenhall for poultry, game, etc; Deptford for foreign cattle: Smithfield for fresh meat, poultry and fish; the Islington Cattle Market, in the Caledonian road. The Spitalfields Market and the Woolwich Market, for vegetable products, are included in the pub- lic markets. But London is inadequately pro- vided. The city corporation owns all the largest markets, and exercises charter rights to prevent others being erected. The result is that all retail markets are in the hands of costermongers, Museums, Galleries, Libraries.— The Brit- ish Museum (q.v.), founded in 1753, in Great Russell street, 1s a spacious and imposing edi-. fice, with a classical facade and sculpture in the pediment, built between 1823 and 1857. It contains an immense collection of books, manu- scripts, engravings, drawings, sculptures, coins, minerals, stuffed animals,. fossils, preserved plants, etc, and a magnificent collection o ethnographical. objects, Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan, Greek and other antiquities. An ex- tensive building (about 650 feet long) has been erected in the South Kensington quarter for the accommodation of the natural history collec- tions. The museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, on the south side of Lincoln’s Inn Fields, a rather handsome building, contains a magnificent collection of human skulls from all parts of the world, and many curious surgical preparations. The Soane Museum, on the north side of Lincoln’s Inn Fields, possesses many valuable objects, consisting of books, paint- ings, prints, manuscripts, drawings, maps, models, plans, etc. The Dulwich College Gal- lery contains many interésting pictures left by Alleyne, a contemporary actor of Shakespeare’s age. The great South Kensington or Victoria and Albert Museum contains most valuable collections, carefully arranged for purposes of instruction, in connection with which are the schools and headquarters of the Department of Science and /rt. The London Museum has, since 1914, through the munificence of Sir William Lever, been accommodated at Lancaster (formerly called Stafford) House, which he bought and presented to the nation. Museums have also been established at Bethnal Green and in South and North London, and Hertford House, acquired in 1900, with its priceless art treasures, the gift of Sir Richard Wallace, and the Horniman Museum at Forest Hill, the gift of the late Mr. F. J. Horniman, have been added to the London museums. The chief picture gallery in London is the National Gal- lery, on the north side of Trafalgar square. It contains upwards of 1,600 paintings, acquired partly from donations, partly by purchase. The National Portrait Gallery is a collection of over 1,600 portraits, busts and medallions, brought together since 1858. For this collec- tion a new building beside the National Gallery has been provided by private munificence; and the Tate Gallery of British Art, on the Thames Embankment, has been similarly acquired. The Royal Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences, a memorial to the prince consort, is a huge building between the Horticultural Gardens and Kensington road. It was erected for the pur- poses of science and art, musical performances, 626 exhibitions, etc. It is chiefly used for concerts and is capable of accommodating an audience of 8,000, while the orchestra itself accommo- dates 1,000 performers. The building also con- tains a picture gallery. In Hyde Park, im- mediately opposite this building, is the Albert Memorial. The north wing of Burlington House, Piccadilly, has been granted to the Royal Academy and a suite of rooms built in the rear of it for exhibitions. The east and west wings of Burlington House are occupied by various learned societies, the Royal Society, the Society of Antiquaries and’ others. Near the South Kensington Museum and the Albert Hall is the splendid block of buildings of the Imperial Institute, with its various permanent collections and exhibitions and _ institutions. Besides the British Museum Library the chief libraries are Lambeth Palace Library, the Guild- hall Library, Sion College Library, the London Library (subscription), London Institute Li- brary, and in addition large circulating libraries and many free public libraries supported by rates. Educational Institutions.— At the head of these stands the London University (q.v.) which promises. to become the foremost scien- tific university in the kingdom. Other institu- tions are denominational colleges for theology (in some combined with general education), the Royal Naval College, Greenwich; the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; the Royal Col- lege of Science; the medical schools attached to the hospitals; Royal Academy of Music; Royal College of Music; Trinity College, chiefly for music; several colleges for ladies, etc. Among the grammar and secondary schools are Saint Paul’s School, founded in 1509, which provides a free education for 153 boys, with scholarships to Oxford and Cambridge; the Merchant Tay- lor; Westminster School, founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1560; University College School, King’s College School, City of London School, Mercers’ School and schools of the several other city companies. Besides the above and numberless private schools, there are the city and guild institutions for technical education, many high schools for girls, many free schools, numerous schools of the National Society, and the numerous schools of the London county council. Several polytechnics and centres: of technical education have been equipped and sup- ported by the London county council, who have also established a system of county scholarships for students. The county council expends an- nually about $25,000,000 on elementary and $5,000,000 on higher education. Of this sum about $10,000,000 is furnished by the govern- ment, the remainder being raised through a special tax levied by the council. Scientific Associations, etc.— Associations for promoting science, art, learning, etc., are exceedingly numerous. The chief are the Royal Society, Burlington House, founded in 1660; the Society of Antiquaries, in the same build: ing, originally founded in 1572; the Royal Academy (of painting, etc.), in Trafalgar square, founded in 1768; the Royal College of Physicians, founded by Linacre, physician to Henry VIII, in 1518; the Royal College of Surgeons; the Royal Geographical Society, with a choice geographical library and large collec- tion of maps; the Institution of Civil Engi- neers; the Royal Institute of British Architects, LONDON possessing a good library of architectural works; the Royal Institution of Great Britain, established in 1799; the Royal Horticultural Society, which possesses the botanic gardens in Regent’s Park, as also at South Kensington and at Chiswick; the Royal Astronomical So- ciety; the Royal Asiatic Society; the British Association; the Zoological Society, with its collection of animals in Regent’s Park; the Geological Society and the Anthropological Institute. Hospitals and Charitable Institutions.— Besides the three great endowed hospitals, Saint Bartholomew’s, in West Smithfield, Guy’s, Southwark, and Saint Thomas, Lambeth, oc- cupying a large and splendid range of buildings on the Thames Embankment opposite the Houses of Parliament, there are the London Hospital, Saint George’s. Hospital, the Middle- sex Hospital, Westminster Hospital, Charing Cross Hospital, King’s College Hospital, Uni- versity College Hospital, Saint Mary’s Hospital and Royal Free Hospital, all with medical schools attached. Other general hospitals are the Great Northern Hospital, the West London Hospital and the Metropolitan Hospital; be- sides the German Hospital, Dalston; hospitals for special diseases, as consumption, fever, can- cer; hospitals for women, for children, etc. Bethlehem Hospital (Bedlam), in Saint George’s Fields, south of the river, is the chief hospital for lunatics ; Saint Luke’s Hospital is also for insane patients. The Foundling Hospital (see FOUNDLING) is rather an asylum for illegitimate children generally than a hospital for found- lings. Chelsea Hospital and Greenwich Hos- pital are institutions by themselves. Prisons.— There are altogether about a dozen criminal prisons. The most celebrated of these, Newgate, near Saint Sepulchre’s Church, a gloomy and massive structure, the scene of a great many executions, was pulled down in 1903. Millbank penitentiary, or prison, an im- mense brick edifice with external walls enclos- ing upward of 16 acres, has been demolished, and the site utilized partly for workmen’s dwellings, and partly for the Tate Picture Gallery. The. chief existing prisons are the Wandsworth prison, Holloway prison (for females) ; the model prison, Pentonville, con- taining 1,000 cells, in which the inmates are taught useful trades; Wormwood Scrubs prison, a large building standing on the borders of London. Squares and Public Monuments.— The squares of London are characteristic; many of them are of great beauty and extent, and planted with shrubbery. Among them are Saint James’ square, north of Pall Mall; Eaton, Belgrave (10 acres), Grosvenor, Portman, Cavendish squares, all in the West End; Russell square (10 acres), Bedford, Bloomsbury, Tavistock and Euston squares, in the west central part of the town; Trafalgar square, at Charing Cross, fronting one of the principal thoroughfares, and adorned with public buildings, fountains, the Nelson Column and statues of Charles I, George IV and others. The most conspicuous public monuments are “the Monument” on Fish Street Hill, London Bridge, a fluted Doric column, 202 feet high, erected in 1677, in com- memoration of the great fire of London; the York Column, at the south end of Waterloo Place,.a plain Doric pillar of granite, 124 feet LONDON high, surmounted by a bronze statue of the Duke of York; a fluted Corinthian column in Trafalgar square, 176% feet high, raised in honor of Nelson, and surmounted with a colos- sal bronze statue of the hero, having the pedes- tal decorated with bronze sculptures in high relief, and four magnificent lions, by Sir E. Landseer, at the angles; the Albert Memorial, Hyde Park, the most splendid and costly monu- ment of recent times, being a Gothic structure, 176 feet high, with a colossal seated statue of the prince under a magnificent canopy elabo- rately sculptured and adorned; and the magnifi- cent memorial to Queen Victoria (designed by Sir Thomas Brock and unveiled in 1911) with its beautiful surroundings in front of Bucking- ham Palace. There is a statue of the Duke of Wellington in front of the Exchange, and a statue of Sir Robert Peel at the top of Cheap- side. Statues of Sir Charles J. Napier, Sir Henry Havelock and General Gordon stand in Trafalgar square. On the Thames Embank- ment, not far from the Temple, now stands the Egyptian obelisk known as Cleopatra’s Needle; and west of it are statues of Robert Raikes, the founder of Sunday schools, General Out- ram, John Stuart Mill and others. In Water- loo ‘place is a memorial to the Guards who fell in the Crimea, and here is also a statue of Sir John Franklin. An equestrian statue of the Duke of Wellington at Hyde Park Corner was erected in 1888. A monument to Sir Hugh Middleton, who brought the New River water to London, has been erected on Islington Green. Among other memorials are the Westminster Crimean Memorial, in the open space at the west of the Abbey; the Peabody statue behind the Royal Exchange; an equestrian statue of Prince Albert in Holborn Circus, a statue of Carlyle on Chelsea Embankment and of Lord Beaconsfield in Westminster Palace Yard. The Parks.— Of these the finest and most fashionable is Hyde Park (q.v.), which lies between the Uxbridge and Kensington roads, and contains about 364 acres. Kensington Gar- dens (275 acres), with which Hyde Park com- municates at several points, are beautifully wooded and finely laid out. Here carriages are not admitted. Saint James’ Park (93 acres) extends from Buckingham Palace to the Horse Guards, and in its centre is an ornamental sheet of water, studded with islets covered with trees and shrubs, and around which swim a great variety of aquatic fowls. The Green Park, 53 acres in extent, lies between Saint James’ Park on the south and Piccadilly on the north. Re- gent’s Park, on the north side of London, covers an area of 472 acres. Round the park is a drive nearly three miles long, and an inner circular drive encloses the Botanic Gardens. At the north end are the Zoological Gardens, to which a fine broad avenue leads along the centre of the park. Battersea Park (200 acres) is on the south bank of the Thames, opposite to Chelsea Hospital. Victoria Park (217 acres) is in the northeast of London, laid out and pianted as a place of recreation for the poorer inhabitants of this part of London. Southwark Park (63 acres) is another artificially formed recreation ground. Greenwich Park (185 acres) is one of the most delightful features of South London, and has great natural beauties; the famous Greenwich Observatory is situated here. There are many other parks acquired for use of the 627 public during late years. Brockwell Park and Dulwich Park in the south; Avery Hill in the southeast; Finsbury Park and Clissold Park, on the north borders of London, are the most extensive. But even more typically a part of modern London are the numerous and beautiful heaths and commons preserved. for the public: Hampstead Heath on the north, Hackney Marsh on the northeast, Blackheath and Plumstead Common on the southeast and Tooting and Streatham commons on the south. Places of Popular Resort.—There are vari- ous places of popular resort in London. The Exhibition at Earl’s Court, a vast open-air en- tertainment accompanied by exhibits of special descriptions arranged in courts and_ buildings within the grounds, is the largest. Olympia at Kensington is of less magnitude. The Zoologi- cal Gardens and the Botanical Gardens, both in Regent’s Park, are very largely frequented. The People’s Palace, established by contribu- tions of the benevolent, in the East End of London (Mile-end road), and opened in 1887, provides a hall for concerts and other enter- tainments, a library and reading-rooms, swim- ming baths, gymnasiums, social meeting-rooms, winter garden, technical schools, etc. Outside London there are other places of this descrip- tion. The most important is the Crystal Palace (q.v.), at Sydenham, formed to a considerable extent of the materials of the exhibition build- ing of 1851, removed from Hyde Park. It was originally designed as a great educational mu- seum of art, natural history and ethnology; and its gardens and fountains were to rival or sur- pass those of Versailles. For years music has taken an important place in the arrangements of the palace. Entertainments of a merely amus- ing character have also been largely introduced. A somewhat similar building is the Alexandra Palace, occupying a conspicuous site on Mus- well Hill on the north. Both the Crystal Pal- ace and the Great White City at Shepherd’s Bush, also an amusement centre, were used for military purposes during the Great European War. Kew Gardens (q.v.) on the west and Hampton Court palace (q.v.) and grounds, built by Cardinal Wolsey and enlarged by William III, are situated further out toward the southwest. Lighting, Sewerage and Water.— London is supplied with gas by three separate com- panies. These companies include in their area of supply a considerable district outside Lon- don. Since 1886 a large number of electric lighting companies have come into existence: in 1916 13 companies and 16 local administra- tions possessing statutory powers to supply electricity. The county council has been given powers to buy out the electricity undertakings. The sewage works, with which the metro- politan board was charged, were formally opened in 1865. The system consists of lines of intercepting sewers on both sides of the Thames intersecting the old outlets, which are retained for service during heavy rainfalls. It consists of three main lines on the north of the river, at different levels, called, respectively, - the High Level, Low Level and Middle Level sewers; and of three on the south side, called the High, the Effra and Low Level sewers. The lines on the north side converge at Lee River, whence, after the Low Level sewage has been ’ pumped to the higher level, the whole 628 flows in five parallel brick culverts, built in an embankment upward of five miles in length, on to the Northern Outfall and reservoir, about 14 miles below London Bridge. On the south side the Low Level sewage is pumped to the higher level at Deptford, whence the whole is conveyed to a point near the mouth of the river. Works have been established for precipitating the sewage; the deposit after precipitation is carried out to sea and deposited several miles from land. There were formerly eight water companies supplying London and an extensive area around, extending into Essex, Hertford- shire, Kent, Middlesex and Surrey. In June and July 1904, the undertakings of these com- panies were transferred to the metropolitan water board. The total quantity of water sup- plied in 1914-15 amounted to nearly 243,000,000 of gallons daily, an average per head of 36.08 gallons. About 56 per cent of the supply is drawn from the Thames area, 24.7 from the Lee, and 19.3 from wells and springs. The reservoir now under construction at Chingford, with those to be built at Littleton and Stanwell, will enable the board to face its obligations for the next 20 years. By an act passed in 1852 all the companies making use of the Thames are obliged to draw from above the limit of the tidal flow. Even above this point the water is not free from pollution by the sewage of numerous populous towns and by the drainage of richly-manured land. Means are adopted for storing the water, and it is all filtered through layers of gravel and sand before en- tering the mains; but the system of supply is liable to various “objections. Cemeteries.— The provision of cemeteries - for London is in the hands of the metropolitan borough councils and of private companies. Many of those provided by the borough councils and mosi of those under private management are situated outside the county. Amongst the latter may be mentioned Kensal Green Ceme- tery, in which several royal personages have been buried. It was opened in 1832, occupies about 70 acres of ground, and is tastefully planted and laid out. Kensal Green Roman Catholic Cemetery occupies 30 acres. The City of London Cemetery is at Ilford, in Essex. Communications.— The. London population commands two systems of locomotion, namely, internal. and external. The former has refer- ence to the purely London requirements, and is by means of omnibuses, tramways, steamboats and railways; the latter has reference to the connection .of London with the rest of the kingdom and the Continent, and are by canals, railways and the Thames. The internal traffic of London has become almost overwhelming. There are 626 railway stations in Greater Lon- don and 669 route miles of railways. In 1913 there were 1,933 horse-drawn cabs, 6,308 elec- tric tramcars and motor omnibuses and only 182 horse omnibuses and tramcars and 8,376 motor cabs. There were also available the Metropolitan, the Metropolitan District and the electric railway systems on other lines. These are extending in all directions. The great English railways long ago reached the limit of their ability to cope with suburban traffic in and out of London. The old under- ground railway was designed to be complete in an inner and outer circle, but the outer circle LONDON was found to be insufficient before it was built, while the inner circle does not even touch what might be called suburbs. Yet so long as it was without competition the two companies owning this system drew great dividends and ignored the demands of their dependent patrons for better service. Not until competition arose in the shape of the ‘Central London Electric Tube Railway did the directors of the District and Metropolitan lines bestir themselves. Ameri- can enterprise in acquiring control of the Dis- trict .Underground brought a flood of* under- ground railway schemes forward, and Parlia- mentary committees were kept busy deciding between rival schemes. They have been care- ful to reserve all manner of rights to the goy- ernment, refusing, for instance, to grant any route unless the proposed company agreed to provide and maintain a subway for pipes and wires along its lines. This is an effort to un- ravel the tangle of such things which the least upturning of the streets shows. These lines are also refused complete independence of each other, and are compelled to arrange transfers and joint time tables. There are 157 miles of tramways in Lon- don, almost entirely under the county council, and Greater London has 353 miles. For 1913-14 the county council tramways carried 522,952,640 passengers, and the receipts were £2,202,489. Some idea of the immensity of the traffic may be obtained from the Greater London passen- ger statistics for 1913: Tramways, 811,397,317; omnibuses, 732,931,201 ; local railways, 462,- 019,537; trunk railways from a 30-mile radius, 250,000,000. The continuous battle between road and rail for public support, and the en- croachments of the latter on the former, may be illustrated by stating that whereas in 1909 60 per cent of journeys were by road and 40 by rail in 1913 the figures were 68 by road and 32 by rail. Motor power for passenger traffic has developed with enormous rapidity in London: in 1914 the fast horsed vehicles had dwindled down to 4 per cent of the fast vehicles on the street, and that within a period of 12 years. In 1911 they formed 13 per cent. This development as regards goods traffic has been comparatively slow: 85 per cent horse- drawn vehicles compared with 94 per cent in 1911. The faster moving motor power has assisted materially in the migration of the pop- ulation from the inner to the outer ring; but the liability to accidents is greater, the number of fatal street accidents having increased from 451 in 1911 to 658 in 1914. Previous.to 1905 the Thames had almost been allowed to drop out of existence as a local traveler's route. In that year the county council inatigurated a steamboat service between Hammersmith and Greenwich, with calls at 25 intermediate points; but the venture did not prove a success, and the especially built fleet of 30. steamboats was sold. The principal railway stations are: The Great Eastern, Liverpool street, Fenchurch street; the London, Tilbury, and Southend, Fenchurch street; the London and North West- | ern, Euston; North London, Broad street; Great Western, Paddington; the Great North- ern, King’s Cross; Midland, Saint Pancras; Great Central, Marylebone; South Eastern, London Bridge, where there is a congeries of LONDON Charing Cross and Cannon street; London, Chatham and Dover, Ludgate Hill and Victoria; the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, Victoria and London Bridge; the South Western, Waterloo. Many of these stations communicate by the Metropolitan and District railways, distinct systems, but both popularly known as the “underground,” afford- ing means of internal communication within the city. Many of the termini are elaborate piles of costly architecture, and have associated with them large and handsome hotels. The Thames affords communication by steam ves- sels with the most important points on the British and Continental coasts, as well as with all parts of the world. Manufactures.— It is impossible within the limits of this article to specify the different kinds of articles manufactured in London. It contains the largest breweries, distilleries and sugar refineries in the kingdom; was long the principal seat of silk weaving; has extensive manufactures in metal, including machinery of all kinds, plate jewelry, watches and brass works, and an enormous production of books and prints. Millinery, the making of clothes and: of boots and shoes are also extensive branches of industry. Besides these, there are cabinet making, coopering, coach building, rope making, leather working, hat making, ship- building, mast making, etc., all of which are departments of manufacture conducted on a large scale; and there are numerous extensive chemical works, soap manufactories and dye works. It is not generally known that London is a very large manufacturing centre. Commerce, Docks, etc.—For customs purposes the port of London may be said to extend from Teddington Lock to the sea, a distance of 70 miles. Up till within recent years the upper section was under the care of the corporation of the city for sanitary pur- poses, under *he Thames Conservancy for navigation and under all sorts of other au- thorities for various other purposes, London enjoying the unenviable distinction of being probably the worst-managed port in the world. In 1908 a drastic reform was effected, under which the various and conflicting division of powers was abolished, and the Port of London Authority created to administer everything concerning the port. It consists of a chair- man and vice-chairman and 10 nominated and 18 elective members, who are chosen by various persons and bodies representative of the trade of the port. Under its enlightened manage- ment London is rapidly becoming one of the most up-to-date ports in the kingdom. Until the beginning of the 19th century there were no wet docks in the port of London, and ships were loaded or discharged in the river or at wharves. The West India docks, the first to be constructed, were opened in 1802. The docks, some of which are of great extent, are surrounded by wharves, sheds, store- houses, vaults and warehouses of the most spacious kind. Saint Katherine’s docks, Lon- don docks, the West India docks, the East India docks and the Millwall docks (in the Isle of Dogs) extend along the north side of the river from the Tower to Blackwall; and on the south side, between Rotherhithe and Dept- ford, are the extensive Surrey Commercial docks (350 acres), forming one compact sys- stations, 629 tem of water basins, extending from the port to Limehouse Reach. The Blackwall tunnel blocks the channel tc the upper docks for large vessels, and steamers are compelled to dis- charge at from 10 to 20 miles below London Bridge. The dock accommodation of the port was greatly increased by the construction of the Victoria and Albert docks (opened re- spectively in 1855 and 1880), which follow next in order on the north side of the river (op- posite Woolwich), which, with extensions, will have a combined water area of 252 acres. Be- sides these, there are the splendid docks at Tilbury, on the Essex shore opposite Graves- end, 22 miles by river from the Tower, con- structed for the purpose of admitting the lar- gest vessels at any state of the tide. Here the docks have an area of 90 acres, with two large graving docks. The total water area of the London docks is 645 acres. From London Bridge to Blackwall Tunnel the channel is from 450 to 500 feet wide and 14 feet deep at low water; from Blackwall Tunnel to the Royal Albert dock it is from 500 to 600 feet wide and from 16 to 20 feet deep; from the Royal Albert dock to Crayfordness 600 feet wide and 30 feet deep, and from Crayfordness to the Nore it is 1,000 feet wide and 30 feet deep. The vessels registered at the port in 1914 numbered 3,313, with an aggregate ton- nage of 2,513,588 tons. London is the greatest importing and dis- tributing centre in the kingdom, holding as regards imports a position analogous to that held by Liverpool in exports. For East and West India goods, London is the great port; tea, sugar, tobacco, wine, corn, timber, tallow, hides, wool and drugs form large items. Value of imports in 1913, £253,879,289; exports (of United Kingdom), £99, 104, 682 (of foreign and colonial goods), £58,808, 178. The revenue of the Port of London Authority for the year ending 31 March 1915 was £3,738,795, and ex- penditure £3,550,987. Administration.— Greater London has. a representation of 62 members in the House of Commons. London is governed by the county council with the city corporation and 28 metropolitan boroughs administering local matters. The most ancient civic officer of London is the lord-mayor of the city of Lon- don. He is annually elected from among the aldermen who have been sheriffs of the city, on 29 September, and installed in office on 9 November, when a procession takes place, called the lord-mayor’s show. The court of aldermen consists of 26 members, including the lord-mayor. They are chosen for life by the taxpayers of the wards. There are 27 wards. One alderman is elected for each of 24 wards, one for 2 wards, and one serves (is not elected) for a nominal ward. They are prop- erly the subordinate governors of their re- spective wards, under the jurisdiction of the lord-mayor, and preside over the business in the courts of Wardmote. The civic sheriffs, two in number, are annually chosen by the livery or general assembly of the freemen of London. The common council is a court con- sisting of 206 representatives returned by 26 of the wards in proportion to their relative extent; the 27th, or Bridge Ward Without, be- ing represented by an alderman. The general business of this court is to legislate for the 630 internal government of the city, its police, reve- nue, etc. The recorder is generally a barrister of eminence, appointed for life by the lord- mayor and aldermen as principal assistant and adviser to the civic magistracy and one of the justices of oyer and terminer. The “livery” of London is the aggregate of the members of the several city companies, of which there are 75. Of these 12 are termed great companies, and from one or other of them the lord-mayor was formerly chosen. In order of precedence they are: The Mercers, Grocers, Drapers, Fishmongers, Goldsmiths, Skinners, Merchant Tailors, Haberdashers, Salters, Ironmongers, Vintners, Clothworkers. Many of the companies are very rich and possess large halls. the ancient city of London there are under the act of 1899 the 28 metropolitan boroughs, al- ready enumerated, each of which for local pur- poses is governed by a mayor, aldermen and council. The county council consists of the chairman of the council, 19 aldermen and 118 councillors, the latter being elected by the tax- payers of the several divisions, which are, however, not coincident with the boroughs. Other London authorities are 31 boards of guardians, dealing principally with poor re- lief; four boards of school district managers and two boards of sick asylum district man- agers, appointed from among their own num- ber by the guardians of those unions which are combined into districts; the metropolitan asylum board, partly elected by the guardians and partly nominated by the local government board, and whose chief duty is provision for infectious sick and harmless insane; the cen- tral (unemployed) body and 29 distress com- mittees, for the provision for distress from lack of employment, the latter appointed by the city of London corporation and the metro- politan borough councils, the former (with the exception of eight members) appointed by the London county council, the distress com- mittees and the local government board; the metropolitan water board, appointed by the London county council and the local authori- ties in the area supplied by the board. The cost of administration of city and county is about £18,000,000 annually. Assessed valua- tion, 1915-16, £45,384,722. Including city, county and borough councils, district councils and boards of guardians, about 170 authorities minister to the needs of Greater London — to what is really one community. The Police.— The city police, confined to the city proper, is administered by the city corporation as a municipal force, and num- bers about 1,161 men. The metropolitan police is not municipal. It is administered by a com- missioner appointed by the Home Office. It consists of nearly 22,500 men, whose central offices are New Scotland Yard, a massive build- ing on the Embankment near Westminster Bridge. Its area of jurisdiction extends for 15 miles from Charing Cross. For postal purposes the authorities divide the major portion of Greater London into dis- tricts designated by their initial letters, E. C., W. C,, W., S. W., S. E., E., N., N. W., signify- ing East Central, West Central, etc. History.— Though, by the evidence of its name and by archeological remains, London was occupied by the Celtic Britons before the arrival of the Romans, it was not till the Ro- Besides. LONDON man era that it became a place of importance. There were probably two Roman Londons: the first destroyed by Boadicea and probably con- ‘sisting of the area extending from near the Tower on the east by the course of the Lang- bourne (now preserved in Langbourne ward) ; on the north, by the course of the Walbrook on the west and the Thames on the south; the second probably coincident with the medizval walled city. The Roman walls were destroyed by the Danes and were restored by King AIl- fred. After the Romans left Britain, London assumed a certain amount of independence, and throughout the Anglo-Saxon period it appears to have supported the monarch who was ac- ceptable to the rest of the kingdom. Alfred was the first king of the Anglo-Saxons who thoroughly understood the importance of its military position. It suffered by fire in 764, 798 and 801. It was sacked by the Danes, who obtained a considerable settlement in South- wark and on the western boundary of the city beyond the Ludgate. At the Conquest London treated with and finally submitted to William. William’s first act was to dominate the city by building his military stronghold, the beginning of the Tower of London. He then granted the city its ancient rights by a charter, which is still preserved; on the accession of Henry I a new charter was granted, and the charter grants increased considerably under the Plan- tagenets, while its municipal privileges were made the standard for governing many of the municipal. boroughs in the provinces. London sided with Stephen against Matilda, took part in the struggle against John for Magna Charta, was severely oppressed by Henry III, strongly supported Edward IV and the Yorkist party in the wars of the Roses, and was faithful to Richard III; it equipped and dispatched ships to the navy collected to fight the Spanish Armada, and its citizens, officered by the alder- © men of the city, fought for the Parliamentarian side against Charles I. Under the later Stuarts and the Georges it became more political than municipal and lost much of its ancient power. In the reign of Henry II the walls on both sides of the river are described in a contemporary account as supplied with numerous towers; London Bridge, erected instead of a wooden one, was begun in 1176 and finished in 1209. This was to a great extent the same that was taken down in 1832. In 1218 the forest of Middlesex was cleared, and that portion of London north of the city began to be built. In the year 1328 the village of Southwark was in- corporated with the city, as it had previously served as a place of refuge for malefactors. In 1349 and 1361 London was visited by the plague. In 1381 broke out the rebellion of Wat Tyler, who fell by the hands of the lord- mayor, hence the dagger on the city arms. In 1416 street lamps were introduced; in the same century some of the principal streets were paved, and wooden houses began to be replaced by others of brick. In the next century im- provements were continued, and Westminster was connected with the city by a row of noble-— men’s mansions along the river, the last of which, Northumberland House, has made way for the road leading from Trafalgar square to the Embankment. In the 17th century Spitalfields was covered with houses, and the space north of the Strand as far as Holborn LONDON and from Temple Bar to Saint Martin’s lane was extensively built on, as well as the neigh- borhoods of Charing Cross and Pall Mall. The New River was completed and many houses were supplied with water; sewers were dug; smooth pavements were laid down for passen- gers and hackney coaches came into general use. But the streets were so narrow and dirty and the houses in so filthy a state that the city was scarcely ever exempt from the plague, which sometimes committed great ravages. In 1666 the great fire broke out and spread over 336 acres, destroying 13,200 houses, 90 churches and many public buildings. In rebuilding con- siderable improvements were introduced, and a fire in Southwark 10 years after gave a similar opportunity of improving that district. Popula- tion and trade now rapidly increased, partly from the immigration of French Protestants driven from their country by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In the 18th century Lon- don steadily advanced in extent, prosperity and splendor. In 1780 took place the Gordon Riots, when the mob was in possession of London for two days and committed frightful havoc. Since that disgraceful outbreak the peace of London has never been seriously endangered, and the troops stationed in and around the capital, together with the effective police force that now exists, seem quite adequate to insure it against any similar disturbance. The exten- sion and improvements which took place during the 19th century are greater than in any former period, and further changes of great import- ance are in operation. The most remarkable event of the century in the history of Lon- don was the carrying into effect in 1851 of the first great truly international industrial ex- hibition, which has since led to numerous ex- hibitions of a similar kind both there and abroad. In 1862 took place the second great international exhibition, and since that time various exhibitions of an international charac- ter and largely representing the colonies have been held in specially constructed buildings at South Kensington. . The history of London contains many episodes of vast importance to the nation as well as to London itself. As now united for government, it will have to face problems of vast moment. The largest, most populous and richest city that civilization has ever produced, the study of its history and its development must ever be of great import- ance and interest. For incidents in London during the Great War and the air raids on the city see War, EUROPEAN. Bibliography.— The earliest account of London is Stow’s Survey of London, published in 1598, which incorporates the account by Fitzstephen, a monk of the 12th century. Stow’s work was continued by other hands. _Consult edition published in Oxford in 1908. Among numerous publications the following are recommended: Adcock, St, J., ‘Booklover’s London? (New York 1913); Allen, ‘History and Antiquities of London, ‘Westminster and Southwark? (London 1827-29) ; Besant, Sir Walter, ‘Survey of London? (8 vols., London 1902-10); ‘The Fascination of London? (11 vols., London 1902-08) ; Bond, Francis, minster ‘Abbey? (Oxford 1909); Booth, Charles, ‘Life and Labours of the People of London? (4 vols., London 1892-1902); BEos- West- - 631 worth,;. G...F.,,. “East . London? 1911); ‘West London? (‘Cambridge 1912) ; Bradley, E. T., ‘Annals of Westminster Abbey? (London 1895); Cecil, Evelyn, ‘Lon- don Parks and Gardens? (London 1907); Chancellor, E. B., ‘Walks Among London’s Pictures? (London 1910); ‘History of the Squares of London? (London. 1907); ‘The Private Palaces _of London? (Philadelphia 1909) ; Cook, E. C., ‘Highways and Byways in London? (London 1902); Ditchfield,. P. H., ‘London Survivals: Old Buildings and their As- sociations? (London 1914); ‘Memorials of Old London» (2 vols., London 1908) ; Dugdale, Sir William, ‘History of St. Paul’s Cathedral? (London 1818); Gomme, Sir Laurence, ‘Lon- don in the Reign of Victoria» (London 1898) ; “The Governance of London? (London 1907) ; Hare, Augustus J. G., ‘Walks Around London? (2° vols., London 1878); Hutton, Laurence, ‘Literary Landmarks of London» (Boston 1885); Knight, Charles, “London? (1841-44) ; Loftie, ‘W. J., ‘London City: Its History, Streets, Traffic, Buildings and People? (Lon- don 1891); Lucas, E. V., ‘A Wanderer in London? (London 1912); May, T. R., ‘Ancient Royal Palaces In or Near London? (New York 1901); Stanley, A. H., ‘Historic Memorials of Westminster Abbey? (6 vols., London 1888) ; Timbs, John, ‘Clubs and Club Life in London? (New York 1899); Wheatley, H. B., ‘Ho- garth’s London» (New York 1907); ‘London, Past and Present? (3 vols., London 1891); ‘The Story of London” (in the Medizeval Towns Series ‘London 1904). The guidetooks of Baedeker and Ward Locke and Murray’s ‘Handbook for Travelers» contain, besides a wealth of information, valuable maps and plans. For statistical information the annual “London Statistics? and ‘Municipal Year Book» may be recommended. G. L. Gomng, F-.S.A., Clerk to the London County Council; Revised by D. S. Douctas, Toronto. LONDON, Ohio, village and county-seat of Madison County, on the Pittsburgh, Cin- cinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis, the Cleve- land, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis and the Ohio Electric railroads, about 25 miles southwest of Columbus and 65 miles northeast of ‘Cincinnati. It is situated in an agricultural and stock-raising region. The manufactures are agricultural implements,+tiles, flour, lum- ber, shoes and cigars. Meat- packing and corn- canning are also of importance. The village has a public library, courthouse, State peni- tentiary farm and a State fish hatchery. The village owns and operates the electric-light plant. Pop. (1920) 4,080. LONDON, Declaration of. See DEcLARA- TION OF LONDON. LONDON, Pact of. An agreement en- tered into and signed by the representatives of Great Britain, France and Russia on 5 Sept. 1914, according to which The British, French and Russian governments mutually engaged not to conclude peace separately during the Great (Cambridge ar. The three governments agreed that when terms of peace came to be discussed no one of the allies would demand conditions of peace without the previous agreement of each of the other allies. The declaration was signed by Sir Edward (now Viscount) Grey, M. Paul Cambon, 632 French Ambassador in London, and the late Count Benckendorff, the Russian Ambassador. Japan became a party to the agreement on 19 Oct. 1915, and Italy on 30 Nov. 1915. The: United States did not subscribe to the treaty, for, as Mr. A. T. Balfour declared in Wash- ington on 25 April 1917, “no treaty could in- crease the undoubted confidence with which we look to the United States, who, having come into the war, are going to see that war through. If there is any certainty in human affairs, that is certain.” LONDON, Treaties and Conventions of. The following are the most important of the treaties and conventions concluded in London in modern times. The Quadruple Alliance, formed 2 Aug. 1718. On 6 July 1827, a treaty was signed between England, France and Rus- sia for regulating the affairs of Turkey and Greece, which led to the establishment of the kingdom of Greece. On 22 sApril 1834, a quadruple alliance was formed between Eng- land, France, Spain and Portugal against the claims of Don Carlos and Don Miguel to the crowns of Spain and Portugal. On 15 July 1840, a treaty was concluded between England, Russia, Austria and Prussia to compel Mehemet Ali to restore Candia and Syria to the Porte, and on 27 November, at the conclusion of a short campaign by an Anglo-Austrian army in Syria, Mehemet Ali agreed to the terms of the treaty. A convention to close the Dardanelles against ships of war was signed on 13 July 1841; and a convention between France and England for suppression of the slave-trade, 29 May 1845. Austria, France, England, Prussia, Russia and Sweden were parties to a treaty, signed 8 May 1852, for settling the succession to the Danish crown and guaranteeing the in- tegrity of its dominions in relation to the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein. The rights of the German Confederation were reserved and the claims of the Duke of Augustenburg on the duchies relinquished on satisfaction. On 13 March 1871, at a conference of the great powers, the neutralization of the Black Sea, effected by the Treaty of 1856, was abrogated. The neutralization of Luxemburg was guaran- teed by the five powers at the conference of London, 11 May 1867. The Convention of Lon- don, which was concluded on 27 Feb. 1884, be- tween the Transyaal and Great Britain, abro- gated the Pretoria Convention of 3 Aug. 1881, and instead gave the Transvaal (thenceforward to be known as the South African Republic) independence in regard to its internal affairs, but reserved to the queen the right of veto over all treaties concluded “with any state or nation other than the Orange Free State,» or “any native tribe to the eastward or the west- ward of the Republic.” See DECLARATION OF Lonpon. » 4 Following on a conference of the 10 leading maritime powers convened in London on 4 Dec. 1908, a code of rules was drawn up in February 1909, under the title of the Declaration of Lon- don, for the purpose of unifying international practice in the treatment of commerce on the high seas in time of war. This declaration bade fair to revolutionize the position of Great Britain, as the leading maritime power, in wars of the future. Great Britain’s traditional pol- icy has been to maintain the right of capturing LONDON and confiscating the goods of alien enemies found in enemy ships, and also contraband of war found in neutral vessels. Under the Dec- laration of Paris, 1856, the right to capture enemy goods in neutral ships was given up. Under the Declaration of London a further step was taken, and enemy property at sea was to be treated on practically the same footing as enemy property on land. Its advocates con- tended that it would save England from many of the difficulties she might otherwise experi- ence in time of war in securing supplies; and its opponents contended that it would mean a virtual abrogation by England of the advan- tages her sea power gave her, especially in the destruction of an enemy’s commerce. . The pro- posed adoption of the Declaration of London gave rise to a spirited controversy in England. At the instance of the British government, the Declaration passed the House of Commons, but was refused ratification by the House of Lords. Accordingly the Declaration of London failed to secure that unanimous consent of the subscribing powers necessary to put it into op- eration. At the outbreak of the Great Euro- pean War in August 1914 Great Britain an- nounced her intention to adhere to the terms of the Declaration of London, but this attitude was later abandoned and the constricting pres- sure of her sea power on the commerce of the Central Powers was exerted with increasing vigor by the application of her traditional policy. This action led to vigorous protests from neutral powers, headed by the United States. See WaAr, EUROPEAN. LONDON, Treaty of (1915). (1898), dramatized by Belasco, and the inspiration of Puccini’s great opera; ‘The Fox- Woman? (1900); ‘The Prince of Illusion? (1901); ‘Naughty Nan? (1902); ‘Little Miss Joyv-Sing?:, .¢1902),;.. “Sixty. Jane?,, «(190332 ‘Heimweh and Other Stories? (1905); ‘Billy Boy? (1906); ‘Felice? (1908); and the plays. ‘Andrea? (1904); ‘The Dragon Fly, - with ; Carpenter (1905); ‘Dolce? (1907); “Kassa? (1910); ‘Baby Grand? (1912); ‘War —or What Happens When One Loves One’s Enemy? (1913); ‘Lady Betty Martingale? (1914); ‘Billy Boy» (1915); cantatas, ‘Yo- Nennen,? with Mr. Leps (1903); ‘Gar-Anlaf,? with the same (1905); ‘The Song of Times,’ with Dr. Parker (1911); the operas, ‘Andon,’ with Leps (1904) ; and ‘Hosni-San,? with the same (1906). - ; LONG, Stephen Harriman, American en- gineer: b. Hopkinton, N. H., 30 Dec. 1784; d. Alton, Ill., 4 Sept. 1864. He was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1809, and after teaching school entered the United States engineer corps in 1814. He taught mathematics at West Point 1814-16, and was subsequently engaged for sev- eral years in surveys of the country west of the Mississippi River, as well as of the Upper Mis- sissippi. Long’s Peak in the Rocky Mountains was named in his honor. When the construc- tion of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was commenced in 1827 Long became chief engi- neer of surveys and introduced many improve- ments in wooden bridges, to adapt them for railroad purposes. In the construction of rail- roads he established a system of curves in locating roads. He served for some years on the board for the improvement of the Mis- sissippi, and in 1856 was placed in charge of that work. He was appointed colonel of engi- neers in 1863, retiring the same year. His ‘Railroad Manual? (1829) was the first work of its kind published -in the United States. Consult Keating, W. H., ‘Narrative of an Ex- pedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River, Lake Winnipeck, Lake of the Woods, etc., Per- es in the Year 1823? (2 vols., London LONG, William Joseph, American Con- gregational clergyman and author: b. North Attleboro, Mass., 3 April 1867. He was gradu- ated from Harvard in 1892 and from the Andover Theological Seminary in 1895. He held a pastorate at Stamford, Conn., 1899-1904, and is at present pastor at large. He has lec- tured on animal life, literature and nature and made a notable defense of ministerial liberty at the Cambridge Council of 1898. He is the author of ‘The Making of Zimri Bunker? (1898) ; ‘Ways of Wood Folk? (1899); ‘Wil- derness Ways? (1900); ‘Beasts of the Field? (1901); ‘Fowls of the Air? (1901); ‘Secrets of the Wood? (1901); ‘School of the Woods? (1902) ; ‘Following the Deer? (1903); ‘A Lit- tle Brother to the Bear? (1903); ‘Northern (1905); ‘Brier Patch Philosophy? - ©Whose Home is the Wilderness? (1907) ; ‘History of English Literature? (1909) ; ‘American Literature? (1913), and contribu- tions to magazines. LONG BEACH, Cal., a city in Los An- geles County, situated on the beautiful San Pedro Harbor, directly south of Los Angeles, about 20 miles distant. It is on the Southern LONG BEACH — Pacific Railroad and is connected by steamers with Santa Catalina Island. It has an excellent commerce in fruit and produce, as well as lum- ber, and is also well known as a watering place, having many attractive scenic features and points of interest. Pop. (1920) 55,593. LONG BEACH, N. Y., a seaside resort, 25 miles from New York City, situated on an island just off the coast of Long Island, beyond Rockaway. It has a winter population of 500 and a summer population of 3,000. It is reached by the Long Island Railroad, and has several hotels, many cottages and a fine board walk built on concrete piles and girders. LONG BRANCH, N. J., city, in Mon- mouth County, on the Atlantic Ocean, and on the Pennsylvania, the New Jersey Southern -and the Central of New Jersey railroads, about 35 miles by water, 45 miles by rail and 30 miles in direct line south of New York City. Long Branch extends four miles on the Atlantic Ocean, with about 5,000 acres of area. During the summer season steamers run regu- larly several times a day between New York and Long Branch and there are numerous elec- tric and railway lines. The city is governed by the commission plan, composed of five com- missioners who choose the mayor from their number. They are elected at large and serve for four years. Assessed property values ex- ceed $16,000,000. There are five banks with a combined capital of $400,000, with deposits of upward of $2,500,000. Long Branch is one of the oldest summer resorts in the United States, taking its name from a brook, a branch of the South Shrewsbury River, which runs in a direct line northward. The Indians had a fish- ing village here in 1734 and called the place Land’s End. Before the Revolution Long Branch was owned by Colonel White, a British officer of New York who had.a summer home here. After the war the property was con- fiscated by the government and in 1788 was taken by Elliston Perot of Philadelphia. Perot was a pioneer landlord on the New Jersey coast and his boarding-house was the fore- runner of the multitude of modern hotels. From the beginning Long Branch attracted fam- ilies from both New York and Philadelphia soon becoming noted as a resort of wealth and fashion. During the administration of President Grant, Long Branch was the summer capital of the United States and became not -only the gathering place of the leaders of so- ciety but the home as well of the President of the United States, members of the Cabinet and foreign ambassadors. President Garfield sought rest and recreation here and when felled by the assassin’s bullet was brought here think- ing the benefits of the wonderful atmosphere would restore his health. Its proximity to New York, Philadelphia and other large Eastern cities give it a large transient summer popu- lation. Pop. (1920) 13,521. LONG BRIDGE, a bridge connecting the city of Washington, D. C., with Virginia on the opposite bank of the Potomac. It was of su- preme importance as a line of communication during the Civil War, and was strongly held by the Union forces. LONG ISLAND, N. Y., an insular pro- jection which forms the southeasternmost por- tion of the State and is connected by five LONG ISLAND 637 bridges and several ferries across East River with Manhattan Island, New York City. It is bounded on the north by Long Island Sound, separating it mainly from the south shore of Connecticut. The Atlantic Ocean bounds it on the east and south, while The Narrows, New York Bay and East River, already mentioned, connecting the ocean with the Sound, complete the boundaries on the west and _ northwest. Several small islands around the coasts are in- cluded in its political boundaries, the best known being Coney, Rikers, Berrian, South Brother, Fire, Barren, Shelter, Gardiner, Fisher and Plum. Long Island has a maximum length of about 118 miles, varies in width from 12 to 23 miles and has an area of 1,682 square miles. It is divided into four counties, Nassau, Suffolk, sais and Kings, the last two, metropolitan oroughs of New York City, occupying a con- siderable portion of the western end of the island. Queens County embraces the populous centres of Long Island City (q.v.), Maspeth, Corona, Flushing, Jamaica, Woodhaven and _Far Rockaway, while the boundaries of Kings County are those also of the former city, now the metropolitan borough, of Brooklyn (q.v.). The 280 miles of coast line are indented with numerous bays and inlets. A deep bay, 30 miles long, divided into Great and Little Peconic and Gardiner’s bays, splits the eastern end of the island into two long, narrow penin- sulas, the southern terminating at Montauk Point, and the northern at Orient Point, with Plum and Fisher’s islands extending beyond. Great South Bay, from two to five miles broad, extends along the southern coast for nearly half the length; it is separated from the Atlan- tic Ocean by Fire Island or Great South Beach, a sandy strip from a quarter of a mile to one mile wide, communicating with the ocean by several openings. Jamaica Bay is on the south coast also, New York Bay on the west, while along the north coast are Flushing, Little Neck, Manhasset, Hempstead, Oyster, Huntington and Smithtown bays. A government system of lighthouses, life-saving stations, fortifications and masked batteries extends around the coast. The level sea-coast of the south side, with its extended views of bay and the broad ocean, contrasts sharply with the hilly north side and its deep indentations looking out upon the land- locked Sound. The rolling stretches of Mon- tauk Point and Shelter Island afford another contrast to the many square miles of scrub oak and level sandy plains in the centre of the island. The island reaches a height of over 380 feet in West Hill, Suffolk County, and in Har- bor Hill at Roslyn, the loftiest points in the range of glacial hills that extends along the northern coast. The island is well watered by several small streams, the Peconic, 15 miles long, flowing into Great Peconic Bay, being the largest. Natural ponds or lakes abound, and there are about 116 square miles of salt marsh throughout the island. The eastern portion especially is well wooded and noted for its pine forests well stocked with deer and other game. Like other insular positions the climate is milder than that of the adjacent continent, the average temperature being several degrees be- low that of the metropolis, while the hottest days are tempered by cool and_ refreshing breezes from ocean or Sound. The soil gen- erally is productive and under a high state of 638 cultivation. In the southern flat lands it is of a light, sandy nature, well calculated for raising ~ grain, especially Indian corn; in the hilly north the soil is strong and adapted to the culture of grain, hay and fruits. Market gardening for metropolitan demands constitutes the principal portion of the agricultural industry of Kings and Queens counties. Oyster, clam and other fisheries are important sources of food supply. The Long Island and other railroads give easy access from New York City to the remot- est parts, Montauk Point, the southeastern- most point, being only three hours away. Long Island is noted especially for exceptional op- portunities, embracing all sorts of summer recreation. The roadways are admirably adapted to all forms of locomotion, and riding, driving, automobiling and wheeling are equally desirable methods for enjoying the region. In the numerous villages and towns along Jamaica Bay, Great South Bay, Peconic Bay and the Sound, there are ample facilities for sailing, rowing, fishing and bathing, which are fully utilized. For golfing, lawn tennis and all other forms of outdoor sport and recreation, every possible facility is found, and the golf courses, especially at Garden City and Shinnecock, are notable. The chief seaside resorts along the south coast are Bath Beach, Bensonhurst, Coney Island, Brighton, Manhattan, Rockaway Beach, Far Rockaway, Long Beach, Fire Island, Patchogue and Montauk Point; along the north coast are Greenport, Port Jefferson, Cold- spring Harbor, Oyster Bay, Glen Cove, Seacliff, College Point and North Beach. The popula- tion of Long Island is over 2,000,000; of this number over 1,800,000 reside in Brooklyn borough. When discovered in 1609 by Hudson, Long Island was inhabited by 13 tribes of Algonquin Indians, by whom the island was variously called Panmancke, Wamponomon, Mautowacks and Sewanhacky. A few descendants mixed with negro blood, and retaining no knowledge of their ancient language, dwell near Montauk Point and Shinnecock Neck. French Protes- tants from near the river Waal, in the Nether- lands, made the first settlement in 1625 under Dutch protection, and immigrants from New England established themselves in different lo- calities shortly afterward. Lange Eylandt, the Dutch name, was changed by the colonial legis- lature to that of Nassau, a name which survives in one of the counties, but was never adopted by the people for the island. Long Island was a busy base of military movements during the Revolutionary’ War, and the battle of Long Island (q.v.) is the principal event in its history. LONG ISLAND, Battle of, one of the early American defeats in the Revolutionary War, was fought 27 Aug. 1776, in Brooklyn, N. Y., mainly within the present limits of Pros- pect Park, the column in Battle Pass to the memory of the 400 Maryland troops who fell in the battle, and the foundation remains of the redoubt on Lookout Hill, marking the central point of defense and attack. After the evacu- ation of Boston by the British, Washington made strenuous efforts to fortify New York and its approaches. General Greene, in com- mand of a considerable body of troops, mostly raw recruits, was entrusted with the defense of Long Island, and constructed a line of en- LONG ISLAND trenchments and redoubts from Wallabout Bay to Gowanus Cove. The main works at the Wallabout end were on the hill afterward known as Fort Greene, now marked by Wash- ington Park. At Gowanus Cove, a battery was erected at Red Hook and a fort on Governor’s Island, nearly opposite. About two anda half miles from the entrenchments, between them and the southwest side of the island, the range of low hills in this section was then densely wooded and crossed by three roads; one on the right of the works passing near the Narrows to Gravesend Bay, the central one through Flat- bush and the third far to the left through Bed- ford to Jamaica. In the midst of his prepara- tions, General Greene fell ill and the com- mand devolved upon General Sullivan, then just returned from Lake Champlain. Unacquainted with the ground and with Greene’s plans the’ change of command caused considerable con- fusion. Nine thousand British troops landed in Gravesend Bay on 22 August without resist- ance; they were commanded by Sir Henry Clinton, assisted by Lords Cornwallis and Percy, General Grant and Sir William Erskine. Lord Cornwallis, rapidly advancing to the central pass, found it occupied by the rifle regiment of Colonel Hand, and without risking an’ en- counter took up a position at Flatbush. Wash- ington inspected the American lines on the 24th and placed General Putnam in command. The following day the British were reinforced by two brigades of Hessian troops, under Gen- eral De Heister, and on the 26th began to carry out their plan of operations. The road through Bedford to Jamaica unfortunately had been comparatively neglected by the Americans, and eluding the patrol, the British contingent under General Clinton, accompanied by General Howe, the commander-in-chief, and by Lords Percy and Cornwallis, guided by a local Tory, gained possession of the road and neighboring heights undiscovered during the night of 26-27 August. In the morning General Grant, with the left wing of the British army, advanced along the road by Gravesend and the Narrows, and was resisted by Colonel Atlee with a guard of Penn- sylvania and New York militia, who retired fighting until he had fallen back upon Gen. William Alexander (Lord Stirling), whose two regiments had hastened to his assistance. Here active firing was kept up by both sides without an attempt at a general action. At the same time, as diversions, De Heister opened up a cannonade from Flatbush upon Colonel Hand and his riflemen, while the guns of the British war-vessels were trained upon the Red Hook battery. Meanwhile on the right Clinton opened his guns upon the Americans, and at this signal De Heister advanced to storm the central pass and the redoubt of which General Sullivan had taken command. The latter, who found his left . flank engaged and himself in danger of being surrounded, ordered a retreat, but not soon enough to escape the British light infantry, who drove him back upon De Heister and his Hes- sians. The Americans fought with desperate valor, a large body. cutting their way through the entrenchments, the rest who were not killed either escaping among the hills or surrendering as prisoners, among the latter being General Sullivan. On the left Colonel Atlee and Lord Stirling, who had maintained their position in LONG ISLAND CITY — front of General Grant, found themselves cut off by Cornwallis. They gallantly attacked the enemy with such determination that the British held their ground only by the assistance of re- inforcements, when Stirling seeing the useless- ness of further resistance surrendered. Having forced all the approaches the British proceeded to invest the American works. Washington arrived in the evening and took command, the following day bringing over ad- ditional troops. But with the formidable British force opposed to him, and indications that the British fleet intended moving up the river so as to cut the force in Brooklyn entirely off, Wash- ington, on the night of 29-30, favored by a thick mist, made a strategic and masterly retreat to Manhattan, greatly to the discomfiture of the British, who were unaware of the movement until some time after the last American had crossed in safety. The Americans lost over 900 men in the battle, while the British loss in killed, wounded and missing was 400. Consult Carrington, H. B., ‘Battles of the American Revolution? (Brooklyn 1876); Dawson, H. B., ‘Battles of the United States> (New York 1858) ; Field, T. W., ‘Battle of Long Island? (Brooklyn 1869); Johnston, H. P., ‘Campaign of 1776 around New York and Brooklyn? (ib. 1878) ; Rayé-Smith, E. M., ‘Battle of Brooklyn? (New York 1913); Mather, F..G., ‘The Ref- ugees of 1776 from Long Island to Connecticut? (Albany 1913), and Adams, C. F., ‘Battle of Long Island? (in American Historical Review, New York 1896). LONG ISLAND CITY, N. Y., formerly a city in Queens County, but now the first ward of the borough of Queens, city of New York. This section became a part of Greater New York by the Act of Consolidation of Janu- ary 1898. As early as 1640 Dutch settlers had taken possession of the land in this vicinity and gradually a number of Kittle villages were formed on the western end of the island, on the East River and the Sound. In 1870 a number of little villages, Astoria, Blissville, Dutch Kills, Hunters’ Point, Middletown, Ravenswood and Steinway, were united into one municipality and called Long Island City. Newtown Creek separates this section for a distance of four miles from the borough of Brooklyn. It is connected with the borough of Manhattan at 59th street via the Queens- boro Bridge, which was opened in 1909; and by the “Queensboro Subway,” opened June 1915, to 42d street, Manhattan. The Second avenue elevated extension in New York and the new tunnel under the East River at 60th street will give additional rapid transit connections. The Long Island Railroad and the Pennsyl- vania Railroad furnish excellent railroad com- munication, and the New York Connecting Rail- road, joining the New Haven and Pennsylvania systems across the bridge at Hell Gate, gives an all-rail route with the mainland. This section has*extensive manufacturing interests, excellent schools, several hospitals and churches of all denominations. Pop. (1920) 50,000. LONG ISLAND HISTORICAL SOCI- ETY, an association founded in 1863 at Brook- lyn, N. Y., and having for object the promotion of the study of the history and antiquities of Long Island. It maintains a library of 80,000 yolumes, and museum rich in Americana. The LONG PARLIAMENT 639 Society has published a number of volumes on early American history, including two volumes on the battle of Long Island, a volume of George Washington’s letters, town records of Jamaica, L. I., and ‘Dankers and Sluyters Voyage to New York in 1679-80 ~ LONG ISLAND SOUND, a body of water which separates Long Island, in New York State, from the mainland. It is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean, extending northeast and southwest, about 110 miles long and from 10 to 25 miles wide. It is connected with the Atlantic on the east by The Race, a narrow passage south of Fisher’s Island; and on the west by a strait called the East River, which enters New York Bay and through the Narrows to the ocean. The coast on the north is irreg- ular, and has a number of small bays and capes. The south or Long Island coast is irregular from East River to near Port Jefferson; and from Port Jefferson to Orient Point the coast line has few indentations. The largest indenta- tions on the north side are New Haven Harbor and Pelham Bay. There are several good har- bors at the mouths of rivers and in places sheltered by small islands. On the south shore the principal indentations are Northport, Oyster, Manhasset, Little Neck and Flushing bays. The north coast is fringed by small rocky islands or reefs. In the western part of the Sound there are a number of small islands, which have been improved so as to be desirable resorts or resi- dential locations. Chief among these are Glen Island and City Island. At the entrance to East River there are a number of islands used chiefly by the health department of New York City. At the east entrance is a group of islands which extend diagonally from Long Island to the State of Rhode Island. The largest of this group is Hisher’s Island. (See New York City). »The chief. rivers which flow into the Sound, all from the north, are Connecticut, Mystic, Thames and Housatonic. Since the improvements made (1865-85) at Hell Gate (q.v.), Long Island Sound is an available route for ocean steamers. The large passenger steamers which ply daily between New York and New England ports pass through the Sound. A large number of forts with modern equipment are located along the shores, thus guarding most carefully the entrance to New York City by this route. LONG PARLIAMENT, in English his- tory the fifth Parliament of Charles I, sum- moned in 1640. Largely liberal and holding tenaciously by its own rights, thanks to the campaigning efforts of John Pym, it .declared ship-money illegal, claimed the right of taxa- tion as belonging solely to the Commons and not to the Crown, passed the Triennial Bill, abolished the Star Chamber and the High Com- mission and, attacking the king’s favorites, put Laud in prison and Strafford to death. It also passed an act declaring that it could not be dissolved except by its own consent. In Novem- ber 1641, passing successfully a reactionary crisis, it adopted the Great Remonstrance, and in January of the next year refused to obey the king’s order to surrender “the five members,” its leaders, Hampden, Pym, Hollis, Haselrigg and Strode. Thus it brought on the Civil War, through which it continued in power, and was in 1648 “purged” by Colonel Pride of 96 640 members who, supporting an attempted com- promise with the king in 1648, had made them- selves obnoxious to the chiefs of the Parliamen- tary army. The handful of members left com- posed the “Rump,” which was nominally in power until expelled in 1653 by Cromwell. After the death of Cromwell it was again summoned in 1659, but in October of that year the members were turned out by General Lambert. In 1660 it was again briefly reconvened. See CROMWELL. LONG-TAILED DUCK. See OLp Squaw. LONG-TAILED HUMMER, a humming- bird very common in Jamaica (Aithurus polyt- mus), remarkable for its pair of long crossed tail-feathers. It is also distinguished by a long black crest. It builds a nest of silk cotton, bark, lichen, etc., and covers the outside with spiders’ webs. LONG TOM, (1) the name given a 42- pound gun captured by the British in 1798 from the French battleship Hoche. It was afterward purchased by the Americans and used in the attack on Haiti by the French in 1804, and re- mained idle till 1812, when it was placed on the General Armstrong. This vessel ran the British blockade at New Orleans, 9 Sept. 1814, and put into the bay near Horta, Fayal, being disabled in an encounter with a British squadron. Here the gun was dismantled and remained till Colonel Reid, son of the commander of the General Armstrong, had it brought back to New York, 18 April 1893. (2) An apparatus for washing gold from the earth or gravel in which it is found. It consists of a wooden trough, from 12 to 25 feet long and about a foot wide. At its lower end it widens and its floor there is of sheet-iron pierced with holes half an inch in diameter, under which is placed a flat box a couple of inches deep. A stream of water is kept running through it by means ofsa hose; the dirt is shoveled in, and stirred at the lower © end, where the earth and gravel fall through the sieve into another box, where they are again sifted. The machine, like the “rocker,” was cheap and wasteful; and both were soon dis- placed by the sluice. LONGACRE, James Barton, American engraver: b. Delaware County, Pa., 11 Aug. 1794; d. Philadelphia, 1 Jan. 1869. He was apprenticed in Philadelphia, first attracted at- tention by his plate of Andrew Jackson after Sully, and in 1819-31 was employed in the illustration of many of the foremost American works then published. At first with James Her- ring, and later independently, he published the ‘National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans? (1834-39), many of whose engrav- ings were from sketches by himself. His por- traits are good likenesses, executed with con- siderable life. Stipple work was his forte but he occasionally turned to line engraving. In 1844 he was appointed engraver to the United States mint, and from that time until his death designed all new coins. He also remodeled the coinage of Chile. LONGAN, a tree and its fruit. See Litcut. LONGARD DE LONGGARDE, Doro- thea. See GERARD, DoroTHEA. LONGCHAMPS, 16n-shon, Paris, France, a celebrated racecourse on the southwest side of the Bois de Boulogne, where the race for the “Grand Prix” is run. Prior to, its sup- LONG-TAILED DUCK — LONGEVITY pression in 1792, part of the site was occupied by the Convent of Longchamps, founded in 1260 by Isabel, sister of Saint Louis. Miracles performed at her tomb caused many princesses to seek the veil there; but in the 16th century it began to lose its sanctity, and in 1652 Saint Francis de Sales protested against the worldly life of its inmates. In 1727 the celebrated opera singer, Mlle. Le Maur, took the veil here. It was a popular resort for carriage driving, es- pecially during the week preceding Easter. The Emperor William I of Germany held a review Chant i at Longchamps during the War of 1870. LONGE, a local name (Vermont) for the lake trout (q.v.). | LONGEVITY. The normal duration of life differs in different species of animals, but what factors determine the length of life of a particular species have not been discovered. Observation has taught a few generalities, that large animals live longer than small ones, ‘that species having a numerous progeny are short- lived, that those that have a long period of gestation live longer than those that have a short period of gestation, etc. Buffon, Fleuron and other naturalists have devised formule for estimating the normal duration of life, but none will apply to more than a few species or will apply to man. To obtain a rational basis for estimating the normal duration of human life we must consider the human being possessing the in- herent factors and living under the most favor- able conditions necessary to complete the nor- mal cycle of life. Possessing the inherent fac- tors of heredity and sound constitution and living in the proper environment and follow- ing a natural mode of living, the normal cycle of life falls naturally into three distinct periods, development, maturity and decline, each lasting about 30 years. That few complete the nor- mal cycle is due in most cases to accidental and avoidable causes, while the few ‘who greatly exceed the normal duration are consid- ered as freaks of nature, comparable to giants in growth. An important factor conducive to longevity is the adaptability of the human or- ganism to diverse environmental and living conditions. Instances of longevity are found in the torrid and frigid zones as well as in the temperate zone, in the smoke-laden atmosphere of manufacturing cities as well as in the clear atmosphere of the plains and mountains, in the ghettoes and slums and in the homes supplied with every known hygienic device. The factor of heredity-is dominant as Jong as there is no change in environment and mode of life. A large proportion of the Jews in the European ghettoes reach old age. Transplanted to the United States and subjected to the same influ- ences that shorten the lives of Americans, they deteriorate and few reach the age of their parents. The same applies to the children of Trish and Russian peasants when they come to this country. The factors especially conducive to longevity, beside the inherent factors of heredity and constitution, are outdoor. active life, the activity being gauged by the physical capacity of the individual; coarse, fresh food not in excess of the needs of the body, as indicated by the sense of hunger; immediate attention to the call for the elimination of LONGEVITY waste; sleep, the time and amount regulated by the needs of the body without regard to the clock; rational recreations on the principle that the ‘recreation should be the antithesis of the work which made it necessary; freedom from worry and other causes of mental de- pression. These factors prevail to the greatest extent in the peasant class and in this class is found the largest number and largest propor- tion of persons who complete the normal cycle of life. The peasant as he grows old gradu- ally adapts his mode of life to the changing physical conditions, he works more slowly, rests more, sleeps longer and takes naps dur- ing the day, eats less, and as the mental powers wane he takes a lessened interest in the events of the day and is less affected by cares, wor- ries and excitement. Under the stress of mod- erm commercial and manufacturing activity, especially in the cities, it is becoming more and more difficult to live in such a manner that the factors conducive to longevity can be made available, and consequently premature senility and avoidable causes of disease and death are everywhere becoming more prevalent. The statistics and records of longevity are notoriously unreliable. Records are either absent or defective. With advancing years the faculty of memory becomes weakened .and the mind shows a tendency to exaggeration and the appropriation, through auto-suggestion, of incidents belonging to the lives of others, or the invention of incidents which through frequent telling become so firmly impressed. upon the mind as to appear real. Forgetting their exact age they say they are near or about the next semi-decade and in a year or two they will - have passed that semi-decade and are near or about the next semi-decade. Having thus reached 90 they say they are near 100, about 100 or have passed the century mark. This explains why the census records show more persons living at the age of 80 than at the age ~ of 79, more at 85 than at 84, more at 90 than at 89, more at 95 than at 94 and many more at oe or over than at the age of 96, 97, 98 or 99, According to the Bible man’s days shall be 120 years (Gen. vi, 3), but this does not har- monize with the ages of antediluvian Biblical characters. We find however a progressive reduction in ages after the flood. Noah was 950 years old, his son Shem was 600 years old and Shem’s son Arphaxad was 438 years old. The first born of the 4th, 5th and 6th genera- tions after Arphaxad were between 230 and 239 years and those who came later were less than 200 years old. Abraham was 175 and Joseph, the third generation after Abraham, was 110 years old. Few later Biblical charac- ters exceeded this age. Moses was 120 years old and Aaron reached the age of 123 but David was only 70 when he was described as being old and stricken in years. Numerous instances of extreme longevity are recorded by ancient writers but it is impos- sible to verify them. Pliny records 170 cen- tenarians found in a population of 3,000,000 inhabitants living between the Apennines and the Po, in a tax census taken during the reign of Vespasian. Pliny, Lucian and other writ- ers record ages ranging from 200 to over 800 years. It is possible that under the rigorous regimen then in vogue the weaklings died VoL, 17 — 41 = 641 young and those who survived reached old age but we have no means of verifying those ages. Hippocrates is one of the few notables whose age is’ supposed to have exceeded 100, yet his biographers give his age variously as 84, 90, 104 and 109 years. In most modern instances of extreme lon- gevity critical investigation fails to substantiate the reputed age. In the celebrated case of Thomas Parr, the Shropshire peasant who died at the reputed age of 153, and who was buried in Westminster Abbey, critical investi- gation thas virtually disproven the recorded age. In the case of Petraz ‘Czarten, a peasant who died in 1724 in the village of Kapros, Hungary, at the reputed age of 185, there are no records except the statement of his son who was 95 years old at the time of his father’s death. In 1797 Joseph Surrington, a Norwe- gian peasant, died at the reputed age of 160, leaving several children, the oldest claiming to be 103, the youngest 9 years old. A factor which makes the verity of these great ages still more doubtful is the late age at which they are said to have married. Parr is said to have married at the age of 120 years; Drakenburg, a Danish peasant, married at the age of 111 and reached the age of 146, and a number of other centenatians are said to have married in the ninth and tenth decades of life. Gurgen Doug- las who married at the age of 85 had eight children, Peter Albrecht had seven children after he married at the age of 85. In these cases the individuals were ignorant peasants, there are no records by which the ages can be verified and the ages given were probably rough guesses made by persons who had no means of determining the real age. A number of cases of extreme longevity have been reported in the United States but in very few cases has it been possible to verify the ages owing to lack of records. Most cases were those of Indians, negroes and illiterate whites who had no means of knowing their exact age. The tendency. to exaggerate is evi- dent from the census reports which show a . greater number of persons who give their age as. at a semi-decade, 80, 85, 90, 95 or 100, than at a year or two younger.- In cases where it has been possible to make a critical investiga- tion exaggeration has almost invariably been found. In the celebrated case of Noah Raby who died in. 1904. in Piscatawney almshouse, New Jersey, at the reputed age of 132, the Census Bureau made a critical investigation. No record of his birth could be found. Raby stated that he was in the United States navy in 1809 but the records of the navy showed that Noah Raby was first mentioned in the navy records in 1839. The census records showed that Noah Raby was in the almshouse in 1870, his age then given being 59. This and other incidents of his life that could be verified made his actual age 93 or 94. The unreliability of longevity statistics is apparent when we consider that the largest number of reputed centenarians are found in countries having a large illiterate population and incomplete records or no records at all. According to the 1910 census there were 3,300 centenarians in Rumania in a population of 8,000,000 and the same number in Bulgaria with half that population... The largest number is reported from Russia. In countries where 642 census and church records are fairly reliable the number of centenarians is small. In France there were 164, in Great Britain there were 94, in Germany there were 76 and in. the. United States there were only 40 centenarians whose ages could be verified. Statements from igno- rant peasants which cannot be verified through reliable data are devoid of scientific value. It is safe to assume, however, that under the un- hygienic conditions existing in Rumania, Bul- garia and Russia only the most vigorous sur- vive the vicissitudes of childhood and these have a fair chance to complete the normal cycle of life. In other countries where 1m- proved methods of hygiene have been intro- duced, where the science of medicine has di- minished infant mortality and through a better understanding of tuberculosis and other infec- tious diseases diminished the death rate in early life, more persons reach middle age. After this time, however, the causes for rapid ageing, especially insufficient. sleep, improper food, intense excitement and depressing emo- tions, cause a rapid increase in the death rate and few reach old age. Only a complete revolution in our mode of life, involving a re- turn to the slow, quiet life of the country, and applying to it the advantages of modern sani- tary science, gives any hope for an increase of human longevity. See Otp AGE; SENILITY. I. L. Nascuer, M.D. Author of Geriatrics: Diseases of Old Age and Their Treatment. LONGFELLOW, Ernest Wadsworth, American artist: b. Cambridge, Mass., 23 Nov. 1845; d. Boston, 24 Nov. 1921. -He studied under Couture in Paris, and among paintings by him may be named (Italian Pines»; ‘Misty Morn- ing”; portrait of his father, Henry W. Long- fellow, the poet; ‘Evening on the Nile? ; ‘Morn- ing on the A*gean’?; ‘Solitude?; ‘The Matter- horn,’ and many pictures of Egypt and a number ef portraits. Association, New York. LONGFELLOW, Henry Wadsworth, American poet: b. Portland, Me, 27 Feb. 1807; d. Cambridge, Mass., 24 March 1882. He was the second son of Stephen Longfellow, lawyer and congressman, and Zilpah, daughter of Gen. Peleg Wadsworth— thus coming from excellent stock on both sides. He seems to have combined the best characteristics of both parents and to have passed an ideal kind of childhood in the beautiful seaport town. His disposition was gentle, sympathetic and studi- ous, and his education was such as to bring out his finest qualities. He was encouraged to read the best English poetry and early began to write verses on his own account, doubtless finding in the success of his favorite volume, Irving’s ‘Sketch-Book,? encouragement to be- lieve that a bright future lay in store for Amer- ican writers. In 1822 he entered Bowdoin College, of which his father was a trustee. He continued to lead much the same wholesome life he had led at home, avoiding rough sports, showing a chivalrous regard for women, especially his mother, reading and writing poetry, and per- forming faithfully his academic duties. Some of his poems were published in The United States Literary Gazette, of Boston, and brought him in a tiny sum of money besides an amount He was a member of the Century — “on topics of foreign literature, and LONGFELLOW of notice altogether out of proportion to their merits. He also gave much thought to the choice of a profession, and, rejecting the law and, despite his piety and attachment to his faith, the Unitarian ministry, he fixed his mind upon the calling of a man of letters. His father prudently did not altogether thwart him, and soon another but not alien calling offered itself. He stood so well in his class — of which Nathaniel Hawthorne (q.v.) was a member — that the trustees proposed to him that he should go to Europe to fit himself to be the first in- cumbent of a chair of modern languages. they had determined to establish. Their. offer was accepted, and after a few months of study at home he sailed for Havre, landing there on15 June 1826. C His friend George Ticknor (q.v.) had ad- vised him to get all he could from the systema- tized scholarship of Germany, but Ticknor was in advance of his fellow-countrymen, and Long- fellow wisely followed his own instinct to steep himself in the color and movement and romance of the Old World’s life and literature. He was not idle—for in France, Spain, Italy and Ger- many he cultivated his exceptional linguistic gifts and prepared himself for the main duties. of his chair; but the end he proposed to ‘him- self was plainly’ culture, not scholarship. It was Old-World culture and romance that the new world needed, and these Longfellow later showed that he could transmit even better than Irving had done, and much better than his light- hearted contemporary N. P. Willis (q.v.) was to do. Although his popular reputation will always be that of a poet, Longfellow’s import- ant place in the history of American literature is partly due to his eminent services as a trans- lator and a transmitter of culture. Although very young, the traveler made friends everywhere, both with natives and with fellow Americans, and although his precocious Muse was singularly silent for some ‘years, he laid up a valuable stock of poetic impressions. There was a slight hitch with regard to his pro- fessorship, but this was overcome and he re- turned to America in August 1829 and entered upon his duties at Bowdoin. These he fulfilled with great success, acting also as librarian. He translated and edited textbooks for his students, with whom he always stood in friendly rela- tions, he prepared his lectures carefully, he wrote articles for The North. American Review he pub- lished, in another magazine, sketches of travel, which were collected in 1835 under the title of ‘Outre-Mer.» It was a quiet and useful life and one that was rendered still happier by his marriage in September 1831 to Miss Mary mioret pe plier, OF Eortiand > aes A little over three years later he was invited to succeed Ticknor as Smith professor of modern languages at Harvard, with the inti- mation that. he would do well to spend some months in Germany before beginning his work. He sailed with his wife in April 1835, and spent the summer in Sweden and Denmark, studying the Scandinavian literatures, which were destined to have a strong influence upon his writings. In the autumn Holland was vis- ited, and there at. Rotterdam, after a protracted illness, his: young wife died. Much. affected, Longfellow went to. Heidelberg and settled LONGFELLOW down for study, yielding his bereaved spirit all the more willingly to the influence of German sentiment and the not yet outworn romanticism of the epoch. Then, after some pleasant trav- eling in Switzerland, he returned home in October 1836. Two months later found him at work in Cambridge and soon he was established in the famous ‘Craigie House. He devoted himself to his lecturing and to superintending his assist- ants — foreigners, who gave him not a little trouble. He was no recluse, and enjoyed es- pecially the society of such men as the historian W..H. Prescott (q.v.), Charles Sumner (q.v.), and that “heartiest of Greek professors,” as he was called by Dickens, whom Longfellow also knew pleasantly, Cornelius C. Felton (q.v.). Soon he resumed his long-abandoned habit of writing verses, and after gaining popularity in the magazines through such pieces as ‘The Psalm of Life,» he issued his first volume of poems, ‘Voices of the Night, late in 1839. . It made an instant appeal, partly through its sound, moral didacticism, partly through its sentiment and its melody, both of which had been in considerable measure derived. from Longfellow’s study of German poetry. Earlier in the same year he had published a prose work equally or more indebted to German literature —‘Hyperion, a Romance,’ which was also very popular. This idealized record of his foreign experiences and the later prose tale of New England village life, ‘Kavanagh? (1849), have long since ceased to hold the majority of read- ers, but ‘Hyperion? was very important in his work as a transmitter of Old World culture. Late in 1841 his second volume of verse, ‘Bal- lads and Other Poems,’ with such moving pieces as ‘The Wreck of the Hesperus? se- cured him in his position as the most popular of American poets—the singer whose songs have gone straightest to the largest number of hearts. There is evidence that he deliberately sought to move the people’s feelings, and never was conscious literary effort, more thoroughly successful. In 1842 he paid a third visit to Europe, forming this memorable friendship with the German poet Freiligrath and getting the in- spiration for such poems as ‘The Belfry of Bruges.’ While sailing back he wrote his ‘Poems on Slavery, published late in the year. His gentle nature did not fit him to be a mili- «ant poet like Whittier, but his slave lyrics were effective through their sincerity and their met- rical and descriptive power. In July 1843, he married Miss Frances EFliza- beth Appleton, of Boston, a beautiful, cultured and wealthy young woman whom he had met on his second visit to Europe and had portrayed as Mary Ashburton in ‘Hyperion.? She bore him’ children, made his home a hospitable cen- tre and ministered to him in an ideal way until her tragic death. The next 17 years formed a period of quiet work and maturing fame. His drama ‘The Spanish Student» (1843) was a failure, but ‘The Poets and Poetry of Europe> (1845) and ‘The Belfry of Bruges and Other Poems? (1846) did him credit, and the beauti- ful idyll ‘Evangeline? (1847) not only won all hearts, but enabled his admirers to proclaim him as’an American poet who had succeeded in a fairly elaborate work of art. The not yet naturalized hexameters and the bookish origin 643 of the descriptions have not effectively counter- acted the narrative power and the pathos of the story, and ‘Evangeline’? seems destined to hold its own with readers yet unborn. Longfellow had already planned a still more elaborate work on which he labored for many years, but which he was never able to make a success. This was ‘Christus, a Mystery,? finally completed in 1872, a poem designed to picture Christendom in the apostolic, the medieval and-the modern periods. The second portion, ‘The Golden Legend? (1851), was the: part first published and was by far the best. Its pictures of medieval life have deservedly won high praise, but the general public has re- mained singularly cold to the merits of the work. Meanwhile, the duties of his professorship, little onerous though they seem to have been, weighed more and more heavily on Longfellow, who was also troubled with weak eyes, fre- quent attacks of neuraligia and the importuni- ties of autograph hunters and other bores. In 1854 he resigned his chair and thenceforth de- voted himself entirely to literary work and pleasant social life. His Indian epic ‘Hiawatha? (1855), written in the trochaic measure of the Finnish ‘Kalevala,> was immediately popular, and three years later in ‘The Courtship of Miles Standish,» he reached his highest point as a narrative poet. Excellent though ‘Evange- line,’ ‘The Golden Legend» and ‘Hiawatha? had been, they had, nevertheless, been too plainly the work of a sophisticated poet writing in his library; ‘Miles Standish,» dealing as it did with the past of Longfellow’s native New England, drew part of its inspiration from the poet’s own life and character, molded as they were by tradition and environment. During the agitated period which immedi- ately preceded the Civil War Longfellow sym- pathized with the cause represented by his friend Sumner, but took no active part in the strife. In July 1861 the tragedy of his. life came to him late—his wife was burned to death, her light dress having caught fire from a match on the floor. _He was practically heart-broken, but bore his bereavement man- fully. Taking up a task that had long befere interested him, he sought solace in translating the great poem of Dante. With the aid of Lowell and Prof. Charles Eliot Norton (q.v.) he completed the work in about five years (published 1867-70). It ranks with the best of such ‘renderings of great poems into English, though some have questioned, whether Longfellow was not more successful in his earlier attempts to translate a poet always dear to him. Meanwhile, in 1863, he had published his ‘Tales of a Wayside Inn,» some portions of which, such as ‘The Saga of King Olaf, were excellent. In 1868 ‘The New England Trage- dies,» the final section of ‘Christus, failed to attract readers, as did also the first section, ‘The Divine Tragedy, which appeared in 1871. In the spring of 1868 he sailed for the last time to Europe and remained over a year, re- ceiving degrees from Oxford and Cambridge and other evidences of the affection and ad- miration his works had gained for him abroad. The rest of his life was marked only by the appearance of an occasional volume, and by a growing veneration among his countrymen for 644 his character and his genius. Probably the most significant productions of his old age were some of his sonnets and his dignified ‘Morituri | Salutamus,? delivered at Bowdoin (in 1875) at the semi-centennial of his class. He lived on, declining in health but still preserving the serenity of his disposition, until 24 March 1882, when he died after a short illness. Two years later his bust was placed in the Poets’ Corner of Westminster Abbey—for his fame was almost as truly a British as an American pos- session. Longfellow is generally admitted to be the most popular of American poets, and the cele- bration of his centenary showed that there has been no real abatement of his countrymen’s regard for his character and his works. Natu- rally, however, he has not escaped censure on the score of the comparatively derivative and facile quality of his genius. Authors of greater individuality, of finer artistic powers and train- ing, of more pronounced national and demo- cratic qualities Emerson, Poe, Hawthorne, Whitman, for example,— have received higher praise from critics and have aroused in their devotees a more perfervid admiration than has fallen to Longfellow’s lot, at least of late years. Waiving comparisons, we may frankly admit that Longfellow did follow, in the main, well- beaten paths, that he was much indebted to the culture of other nations, that he fell short of the higher reaches of the art of poetry, that a considerable proportion of his work is of but slight value. On the other hand, we should in- sist that nearly all his work, whether in prose or verse, was important in the development of American literature and the American char- acter, that within his limits he was a true and very accomplished artist, that he succeeded in both elaborate and unelaborate forms, that his fame transcended the bounds of his own. lan- guage, and that, as a narrative poet and a writer of appealing lyrics of sentiment and re- flection, he has left a body of work of per- manent and individual value. It seems to be hypercritical | not to allow the author of ‘Flowers, “The Building of the Ship, ‘The Bridge,’ ‘The Day is Done,» and scores: of similar lyrics, of such sonnets as the, beautiful “Cross of Snow’ (in memory of his second wife), and of such sustained. poems as ‘Evan- geline,’ ‘The Golden. Legend, ‘Hiawatha? and ‘The Courtship of -Miles Standish, the un- grudging praise due to the poet who is both great and essentially good and wholesome. Longfellow’s more important. publications have already been named, but to them may be added ‘The Seaside and the Fireside? (1850), which contained ‘The Building of the Ship’; “Flower-de-Luce? (1867); ‘Aftermath? (1874) ; ‘The Masque of Pandora and Other Poems? (1875), which included ‘Morituri Salutamus? ; ‘Kéramos and Other Poems? (1878); ‘Ultima Thule? (1880); ‘In ‘the Harbor? (1882) ;.and “Michael Angelo? (1883)... For bibliography see Foley’s ‘American Authors and the ap- pendix, to E. S. Robertson's memoir in. the ‘Great Writers? series. A very useful list. of authorities is given im -C.H.}Page’s;{ ‘Chief American Poets,”. pp. 641-642: See EVANGELINE; HIAWATHA; TALES or A WaysIpDE INN?” Bibliography.— There are good editions of the complete works (e.g., the Riverside in 11 LONGFELLOW vols., Boston 1886-90), and of the poems (e.g., Cambridge, 1 vol.). The standard biography is that by Samuel Longfellow (3 vols., Boston 1891 — superseding the ‘Life, 2 vols., and ‘Final Memorials”). An excellent brief sketch is that by G. R. Carpenter in_ the ‘Beacon Biographies” (Boston 1901). The volume in the ‘American Men of Letters? is by Col. T. W. Higginson. Consult also W. D. Howells. “My Literary Friends,» (New York 1900), and Charles Eliot Norton’s ‘Longfellow: (Boston 1907 — with poems of an autobiographical char- acter) ; Robertson in the ‘Great Writers Series” (London 1887) ; Wendell, ‘Literary History of America» (New York 1900) ; Bliss, Perry, ‘The Centenary of Longfellow?’ (Boston 1908); Liv- ingston, L. S., ‘Bibliography of the First Edi- tions in Book Form of the Writings’ of Henry Wadsworth ‘Longfellow? (New York» 1908): For criticism’ consult Stedman’s ‘Poets of America? (New York 1885), and the histories of American literature. cw ictal P. TRENT, Professor of English Literature, C olumbia Uni- versity. LONGFELLOW, Samuel, American Uni- tarian clergyman atid poet: b. Portland, Me., 18 June 1819; d. Cape Elizabeth, Me., 3. Oct. 1892. He was. a-.younger brother of H. W. Longfellow, and was graduated from Harvard in 1839 and from Harvard Divinity School in 1846. After his ordination to the ministry he was pastor of the Unitarian church at Fall River, Mass., 1848-51; of the Second Unitarian Church in Brooklyn, N. Y., 1853-60; and of the Unitarian church at Germantown, _Philadel- phia, 1877-82. His remaining years were spent in Cambridge. His fame as a poet has been overshadowed by that of his brother, but he had a very distinct poetic gift, and his hymns, of which he wrote many, are among the best of modern religious lyrics. He wrote a number of essays for the Radical, 1866-71. His published works include ©A..Book of Hymns,” with S. Johnson (1846), a compilation revised in 1864 as ‘Hymns of the Spirit? ; ‘Thalatta: a Book for the Seaside, with T. W. Higginson (1853), averse compilation partly original: ‘Life ‘of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow? (1886) : Final Memorials of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow? (1887) ; ‘Essays and Sermons? (1894) ; ‘Hymns and Verses? (1894). Consult May, Joseph, ‘Memoir and Letters of Samuel Longfellow? (Boston 1894). LONGFELLOW,. William Pitt ‘Preble, American architect: b...Portland, Me. 25 Oct. 1836; d. 1913. He wasa nephew of Henry W. Longfellow (q.v.), and was graduated from Harvard. in 1855. He was assistant architect of the Treasury Department, 1869-72; was a Fellow of the American Society of Architects, and was the original editor of The American Architect. In 1881-82 he was adjunct professor of architectural design at the Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology. He was chairman of the architectural section of the Board of Judges of the World’s: Columbian Exposition, 1893. He published ‘Abstract of Letters on Perspec- tive? (1889); ‘Cyclopedia of Architecture in Italy, Greece and the Levant? (1895; new -ed., 1903), a work of great value; ‘The Column and the | Arch? (1899) ; ‘Applied wide sf (1901). ims LONGFORD LONGFORD, Ireland, county-town of Longford County, on the.Camlin River, and on the Midland Great Western Railway, 75 miles west northwest of Dublin. It contains the magnificent cathedral of Saint Mel of the diocese of Ardagh, one of the finest ecclesiasti- cal buildings in Ireland. It is also the seat of a Roman Catholic college and has corn mills, a spool factory, brick yards and tanneries. A large trade is carried on in bacon, butter, grain and other farm produce. Early in the 16th century the ancient name of the town Athfada was Anglicized Longford. It was chartered in the reign of Charles IIT and sent two members to Parliament. It lost its representation in 1800. The town government is vested in an urban district council. Pop. 3,760. LONGICORNES, or LONG-HORNED BEETLES. See CERAMBYCIDZ. LONGINUS, Cassius, Athenian Neo- platonic philosopher and. rhetorician: b. about 213 a.p.; d. Palmyra, Syria, 273 av. Greek literature was the principal subject of his studies, He studied the philosophy of the day under Ammonius. Sacas. at Alexandria, but subsequently became an ardent adherent of the Platonic philosophy. and annually celebrated the birthday of its founder by a banquet. He afterward visited the East, and on the invita- tion of Queen Zenobia went to Palmyra to in- struct her in Greek learning and to educate her children. On the death of her husband he was employed by her in the administration of the state, and advised her to throw off the Roman yoke, by which means he was involved in the fate of this queen. For when Zenobia was taken prisoner by the Emperor Aurelian, and could save her life only by betraying her coun- sellors, Longinus, as the chief of them, was seized and beheaded 273 av. He suffered death with all the fir-iness of a philosopher. He was distinguished by his oratory as well as his statesmanship and love of liberty. He ap- pears to have known Latin and Syriac as well as Greek. The work known as ‘Longinus on the Sublime, the best piece. of literary criti- cism in the Greek language, was written either by him or by a certain Dionysius Longinus, whose date is the Ist century after Christ, It was edited by Vahlen, and published at Bonn in 1887. (See Sustime, Tur). Consult Rob- erts, ‘Longinus. on the Sublime? (2d ed.; Cam- bridge 1907). LONGITUDE. The longitude of a place on the earth is the angle at the pole between the meridian of Greenwich and. the meridian passing through the observer’s place; or it is the arc of the equator intercepted between these meridians; or, since this arc is measured by the time required for the earth to turn. suffi- ciently to bring the second meridian into the same position held by the first, it is simply the difference of their local times, usually reckoned in hours, minutes and seconds, instead of degrees. Since it is easy for the -observer to find his own local time by the methods which have been given, .the problem is really this: being at any place, to find the corresponding local time at Greenwich without. going there. There are three principal methods of finding longitude. Finding Longitude by Means of Signals Simultaneously Observable at the Places be- — LONGITUDE 645 tween which the Difference of Longitude is to be Found.— 1. A Lunar Eclipse. When the moon enters the shadow of the earth, the phe- nomenon is seen at the same moment, no mat- ter where the observer may be. By noting, therefore, his own local time at the moment, and afterward comparing it with the time at which the phenomenon was observed at Green- wich, he will obtain his longitude from Green- wich. 2. Eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter may be used in the same way, with the advan- tage that they occur very frequently — almost every night, in fact; but the objection to them is that they are not sudden, 3. The appearance and disappearance of meteors may be and has been used to determine the difference of longi- tude between places not more than two or three hundred miles apart, and gives very accurate results. This method is now superseded by the telegraph. 4. Artificial signals, such as flashes of powder and rockets, can be used between two stations not too far distant. The differ- ence of longitude between the Black Sea and the Atlantic was determined by means of a chain of signal stations on the mountain tops; so also, the difference of longitude between the eastern and western extremities of the north- ern boundary of Mexico. This method is now superseded by the telegraph. Finding Longitude by Regarding the Moon.— Since the moon revolves around the earth once a month, it is continually changing its place among the stars; and as the laws of its motion are now well known, and as the place which it will occupy is predicted for every hour of every Greenwich day three years in advance in the nautical almanac, it is possible to deduce the corresponding Greenwich time by any observation which will determine the place of the moon among the stars. The almanac place, however, is the place at which the moon would be seen by an observer at the centre of the earth, and consequently the actual observa- tions are in most cases complicated with very disagreeable. reductions. for parallax before they can be made available. 1. That of Moon Culminations.— We. merely observe with a transit. instrument the time when the moon’s bright limb crosses, the meridian of the place; and immediately after. the moon we observe one or more stars with the same instrument, to give us the error of our clock. As the moon is observed on the meridian, its parallax does not affect its right ascension, and accordingly, by a simple reference to the almanac, we can ascertain the Greenwich time at which the moon had the particular right ascension deter- mined by the observation. The method has been very extensively used, and would be an admirable one were it not for the effects of personal equation. 2. Lunar-Distances— At sea it is impossible to observe the moon with a transit instrument, but we can observe its distance from the stars near its path by means of a sextant. The distance observed will not be the same that it would be if the observer were at the centre of the earth, but by a mathe- matical process called “clearing a lunar” the distance as seen from the centre of the earth can be easily deduced, and compared with the distance given’ in the ‘almanac. From this the longitude can be determined. 3. Occultations.— Occasionally, in its passage through the sky, 646 the moon overruns a star, or “occults” it. The star vanishes instantaneously, and, of course, at the moment of its disappearance the distance from the centre of the moon to the star is pre- cisely equal to the apparent semi-diameter of the moon: we thus have a “lunar-distance” self-measured. Observations of this kind fur- nish one of the most accurate methods of de- termining the difference of longitude between widely separated places, the only difficulty aris- ing from the fact that the edge of the moon is not smooth, but more or less mountainous, so that the distance of a star from the moon’s centre is not always the same at the moment of its disappearance.- 4. In the same way a solar eclipse may be employed by observing the mo- ment when the moon’s limb touches that of the sun. This and the preceding methods (the methods of occultation and solar eclipse), do not belong in the same class with the method of lunar eclipse, because the phenomena are not seen at the same instant at different places, but the calculation of longitude depends upon the determination of the moon’s place in the sky at the given time, as seen from the earth's centre, There are still other methods, depending upon measurements ot the moon’s position by observations of its altitude or azimuth. In all such cases, however, every error of observation entails a vastly greater error in the final re- sults. Lunar methods (excepting occultations) are only used when better ones are unavailable. Finding Longitude by Mechanical Meth- ods.— 1. By the Chronometer; which is simply an accurate watch that has been set to indicate Greenwich time before the ship leaves port. In order to find the longitude by the chronom- eter, the sailor has to determine its “error” upon local time by an observation of the alti- tude of the sun when near the prime vertical. If the chronometer indicates true Greenwich time, the error deduced from the observation will be the longitude. Usually, however, the indication of the chronometer face requires correction for the rate and run of the chro- nometer since leaving port. 2. The Telegraph. — When we wish to find the longitude between two stations connected by telegraph, the process is as follows: the observers at both stations proceed to determine their own local time by a series of star observations with the transit in- strument. Then, at a time agreed upon, the observer at the first station “switches his clock” into the telegraphic circuit, so that its beats are communicated along the line and received upon the chronograph of the second, or say the Western station. After the Eastern clock has thus sent its signals, it is switched out of the circuit, and the Western observer now switches his clock into the circuit, and its beats are re- ceived upon the East chronograph. The oper- ation is closed by another series of star obser- vations. We now have upon each chronograph sheet an accurate comparison of the two clocks, showing the amount by which the West- ern clock is slow of the Eastern. If the trans- mission of electric signals were instantaneous, the difference shown upon the two chronograph sheets would exactly agree. Practically, how- ever, there will always be a small discrepancy amounting to twice the time occupied in the transmission of the signals; but, the mean of the two differences will be the true difference LONGLEY — LONGMANS of longitude of the places after the proper cor- rections have been. applied. Care must be taken to determine with accuracy and eliminate the personal equations of the observers. See LATITUDE. LONGLEY, James Wilberforce. Canadian politician: b. Paradise, Nova Scotia, 4 Jan. 1849: d. Halifax, N. Ge 16 March 1922. He was educated at Acadia College, Nova Scotia, studied law in Halifax and was called to the bar in 1875. He was chief editorial writer for the Acadian Recorder, 1873-87, and.was managing editor of the Halifax Morning Chronicle (1887—- 91). After 1882 he was a member of Nova Scotia Assembly and in 1884-96 was attorney-general and from 1896-1905 was commissioner of Crown lands. He passed in 1890 a bill for the abolition of imprisonment for debt. He was appointed a puisne judge of the Supreme Court of: Nova Scotia in 1905. His literary works include ‘Socialism: Its Truths and Errors?; ‘Canada and Imperial Federation” ; and ‘Joseph Howe? in the ‘Makers of Canada? series. LONGMAN, Mary Evelyn Beatrice, American sculptress: b. Winchester, Ohio, 1874. In 1896-98 she studied at Olivet Col- lege, Michigan, and in 1898-1900 studied sculp- ture at the Art Institute of Chicago, taking her degree with honors in the latter year. For several years after 1901 she was assistant in the studio of Daniel Chester French. At Saint Louis in 1904 she was awarded a silver medal for her ‘Victory? and in 1906 won the com- mission for the bronze doors at the chapel of the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis. She also executed the bronze doors of the Wellesley College Library and the Storey Memorial in the cemetery of Lowell, Mass., Foster Memorial at Middleburg, N. Y., a torso in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, the busts, ‘John Stewart Kennedy, “Louise? and (Enigma. » In 1909 she was made an associate National Academician and a member of the American Federation of Arts, the American Numismatic Society, the Municipal Art Soci- ety and the National Sculpture Society. Miss Longman was the recipient of silver medals at Et) aie ie Exposition, San Francisco, 1915. LONGOBARDI. See Lomsarps. LONGMANS, London publishers for many years identified with high-class literature. Thomas Longman (1699-1755) was apprenticed to John Osborne, bookseller, Lombard street. Longman bought the business of William Tay- lor, publisher of ‘Robinson Crusoe,’ conducted in Paternoster Row, whence he moved in 1726 to the present site. Longman was a share- holder in many important publications, such as Boyle's ‘Works, Ainsworth’s ‘Latin Diction- ary, Chambers’ “Cyclopedia? and Johnson’s ‘Dictionary. His nephew and successor, Thomas Longman (1730-97), published a new edition of ‘Chambers. With Thomas ‘Norton Longman (1771-1842) the firm reached a high degree of literary and commercial prosperity. Lindley Murray’s ‘Grammar? was published and proved valuable, while the firm had literary. connection with Wordsworth, Southey, Cole- ridge, Scott, Moore (to whom it paid £3,000 for ‘Lalla Rookh), ‘Sydney Smith and other leading authors. In 1826 the Edinburgh Re- LONG’S PEAK — view became the property of Longmans. The next important members of the firm were Thomas Longman (1804-79), the eldest son of T. N. Longman who issued a beautifully illus- trated New Testament, and William Longman (1813-77), the third-son, who wrote ‘Lectures on the History of England» (1859); ‘History of the Life and Times of Edward IID (1869); and ‘History of the Three Cathedrals of Saint Paul (1873). The events of this generation were the publication in succession of Macau- lay’s ‘Lays of Ancient Rome? (1842); ‘Es- says? (1843); and ‘History. The famous check for £20,000 paid to Macaulay as his share of the profits of the third and fourth volumes for the first few months (1855) is still pre- served. The partners of the fifth generation were Thomas- Norton Longman and George Henry Longman, sons of Thomas Longman, and Charles James Longman and H. H. Long- man, sons of William Longman. One of the earliest ventures of this time was Disraeli’s ‘Endymion, for. which the author received £10,000. The connection with Lord _ Bea- consfield had begun in 1870, when they pub- lished his ‘Lothair.». A magazine— Long- man’s — was also established by the house in 1882, and ceased publication in 1905. In 1890 Longman’s took over the business of Riving- tons, an older firm even than their own. In the persons of Thomas Norton Longman, Charles James Longman and Sir Hubert Harry Longman, the family connection with the busi- ness is still maintained. LONG’S PEAK, one of the highest eleva- tions of’ the Rocky Mountains, in Colorado, about 48 miles northwest of Denver. Its height is 14,271 feet. It was named in honor of Col. Stephen Harriman Long (q.v.). LONGSPURS, a group of large finches, typically of the genus Calcarius, distinguished by the great size of the claw of the hind toe. All are northern birds, frequenting open lands and inclined to form into flocks. The Lapland longspur (C. lapponicus) is known throughout the northern parts of Europe and Asia as well as America, and breeds only in the extreme north, coming south of the area of deep snow in winter, but always rare and irregular in the United States. Three other species are re- stricted to North America, one of which, the chestnut-collared (L. ornatus), is well known in the West, as it breeds abundantly on the plains of Dakota and’ Montana, making its nest on the ground. All are handsome birds, with a mixture of colors, in which black, chestnut, red and buff are conspicuous. Detailed descriptions of all may be found in Dr. E. Coues’ ‘Birds of the Northwest? (Washington 1874). LONGSTREET, Augustus Baldwin, son of William Longstreet (q.v.), American jurist and author: b. Augusta, Ga., 22 Sept. 1790; d. Oxford, Miss., 9 Sept. 1870. He was grad- uated at Yale College in 1813, began the study of law at Litchfield, Conn., and was admitted to practice: in Georgia in 1815. In 1821 he represented the county of Greene in the legis- lature, and in 1822 was made judge of the Superior Court of Ocmulgee circuit. Declining re-election to the bench, he returned to the bar, and was especially distinguished for his efforts and successes in criminal cases. In 1822 he re- moved to Augusta, Ga., and founded the LONGSTREET 647 Sentinel. In 1838 he entered the ministry of the Methodist Church, and was president of Emory College 1839-48, then of Centenary Col- lege, Louisiana, and subsequently of the Uni- versity of Mississippi. He resigned this post after six years and became a planter, but in 1857 he became president of South Carolina College, and a few years later resumed his former post at the University of Mississippi. His works include ‘Georgia Scenes, a series of broadly humorous sketches, long: popular (1840). Heis said to have disowned the second edition (1867) and vainly tried to destroy the first, “Letters From Georgia to Massachusetts.’ LONGSTREET, James, American soldier: b: in -Edgeheld district, ‘S.-C., 8 Jan: 1821; d. Gainesville, Ga., 2 Jan. 1904. He was grad- uated at the United States Military Academy in 1842; entered the army as lieutenant of in- fantry and, after performing duty at various Western posts, served in the Mexican War, in which (at Chapultepec) he was badly wounded and for gallantry in which he received the bre- vets of captain and major. From 1847 to 1852 he was stationed on the Texas frontier and in 1858 became paymaster with the rank of major. In June 1861, the Civil War having broken out, he resigned from the United States army and entered that of the Confederacy as a brigadier- general. At the first battle of Bull Run (q.v.) he commanded a brigade, and in 1862 was made a major-general. In the retreat before Mc- Clellan, during the Peninsular campaign (q.v.), he was in command of Gen. J. E. Johnston’s rear guard, and contributed greatly to the safe withdrawal of the main army to Richmond. In the Seven Days’ Battles (q.v.) he fought with credit to himself and his division, whose losses were very heavy; and at the second bat- tle of Bull Run (q.v.) he displayed promptness, energy and generalship to which the Confederate victory was largely attributed. He com- manded the right wing at Antietam, and at the battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.). had command of the left, repulsing the desperate assault of Burnside’s army. After Fredericksburg he was made lieutenant-general, and with that rank commanded one of the three corps of the Con- federate army of invasion, known as the Army of Northern Virginia. At the battle of Gettys- Hurg (q.v.) during the second and third days, he commanded the right wing, which sustained the chief burden of the conflict, furnishing the columns that made Pickett’s charge. Trans- ferred to the Army of Tennessee, Longstreet arrived on the field in time to save the day at the battle of Chickamauga (q.v.). He next moved unsuccessfully against. Burnside at Knoxville (q.v.) and early in 1864 rejoined General Lee in Virginia. Again distinguishing himself in the battles of the Wilderness, he was severely wounded and for some months disabled, but was in command of the first corps of the Army of Northern Virginia during the later months of 1864 and took some further part in active field-service, retaining to the last his distinction as a general and a fighter, and com- ing out of the war at its close with the respect of the whole country, which has never dimin- ished. After the war he engaged in business as a cotton factor in New Orleans and, having become a Republican in politics, was surveyor of customs at that port, 1869-73. In the same 648 city he was afterward postmaster. He re- moved to Georgia in 1875; was United States Minister to Turkey, 1880-81; in 1881-84 served as United States marshal of Georgia, and was appointed United States railway commissioner in 1898. He wrote for periodicals, and pub- lished ‘From Manassas to Appomattox? (1896; 2d ed, Philadelphia 1904). Consult Long- street, Helen D., ‘Lee and Longstreet at. High Tide? (Gainesville, Ga., 1904). LONGSTREET, William, American in- ventor: b. New Jersey, 1760; d. Georgia, 1814. He settled in Augusta, Ga., in early life and on 26 Sept. 1790 wrote a letter to Thomas Telfair of Savannah asking his. assistance in raising the means to construct a boat to be propelled by steam. This letter was published in the Savan- nah and Augusta newspapers, but funds were not immediately obtained, though he stated his entire confidence in the success of_the scheme. He was subsequently furnished with the neces- sary means for experiment, and constructed a small model boat, upon a plan very different from Fulton’s, which went on the Savannah River against the stream at the rate of five miles an hour. Cotton had previously been ginned by two rollers, not quite one inch in diameter, which caught the fibres, pressed out the seed and delivered the clean cotton on the other side, where it was taken by the ginner’s hand, and deposited in a bag attached to his person. Long- street invented and patented the “breast roller,» moved by horse power, which entirely super- _seded the old method. The inventor set up two of his gins in Augusta, which were propelled by steam, worked admirably and promised him a fortune. They were, however, destroyed by fire within a week. He next erected a set of steam mills near Saint Mary’s, Ga., which were destroyed by the British in an invasion in the War of 1812. These disasters exhausted his resources and discouraged his enterprise, though he was confident that steam would soon super- sede all other motive powers. LONGTON, England, former town of Staffordshire, two miles southeast of Stoke-on- Trent, on the North Staffordshire Railway. It is situated in the potteries district and there are coal and iron mines nearby. Chinaware and earthenware are manufactured in great quan- tities. It contains the fine recreation ground named Queen’s Park. In 1865 Longton was incorporated as a town; in 1910 it became part of the borough of Stoke-on-Trent. Pop. 37,470. LONGUEUIL, lon-gél, Canada, town of Chambly County, in the province of Quebec, on the Saint Lawrence River, and on the Canadian Pacific Railroad. It is situated opposite Hochelaga, the northeastern. part of Montreal. Longueuil is a residential suburb of Montreal, and the country around contains many summer homes of city residents. Its in- dustries include the Armstrong-Whitworth steel plant, saw mill and foundry. Pop. (1921) 4,736. LONGUEVILLE, Anne Geneviéve de Bourbon-Condé, an zhén-vé-éy dé boor-bdn kon-da long-vél, DucHess or, French beauty and politician: b. Vincennes, 28 Aug. 1619; d. Paris, 15 April 1679. Her father, Henry II, Prince of Condé, was prisoner in the chateau of Vincennes at the time of her birth. Her brothers were the great Condé and the Prince LONGSTREET — LONGWORTH of Conti. The Prince de. Joinville, to whom she had been betrothed, having died, she mar- ried in 1642 the Duke de Longueville, a widower double her age. Imbibing a fondness for poli- tics, and actuated by hostility to the court and Mazarin, she took an active part in organizing the first Fronde. In order to punish the duchess, her brothers and husband were ar- rested by order of Anne of Austria, the regent, in 1650; but she persisted in her resistance to the court, and repaired to the citadel of Stenay in Flanders, of which she took the command, and was able to induce Turenne to join the Fronde. After the peace of 1659 she devoted herself to a religious life and her influence in Rome was said to have secured for the Jan- senists the so-called peace. of Clement IX (1668). The later part of her life was spent in the Carmelite convent of Paris in most string- ent observance of religious duties. Cousin, in his ‘Madame de Longueville? (6th ed., 1859), calls her “the soul of the Fronde” Consult also Cousin’s ‘Youth of M..de Longueville? (1854) ; and Williams, H. N., ‘A Princess of Intrigue? (London 1907). LONGUS, long’iis, Greek writer, supposed to have lived about the close of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century A.D. Concerning his history nothing is known. He was the author of a pastoral romance entitled ‘The Pastorals of Daphnis and Chloe,» of which the best editions are those of Villoison (1778), Courier (1810), Passow (1811). Longus is the latest of the bucolic poets and in the Renais- sance period was widely read, his pastoral descriptions, as given in Amyot’s French trans- lation (1559), having not a little to do with the revival of the pastoral form. (See DAPHNIS AND CHLOE). Consult Wolff, “Greek Romance Pa Say Prose Fiction? . (New York 1 : LONGVIEW, Tex., town, county-seat of Gregg County, on the Texas and Pacific, the Texas, the International and Great Northern, and the Texas and Gulf railroads, about 240 miles northeast of Austin and 120 miles east of Dallas. It is situated in an agricultural section, in which are raised large crops of grain and cotton. The chief manufacturing establish- ments are foundry, lumber mills, railroad shops, cottonseed-oil mills, crate and box factories and plow works. The principal offices of the Texas, Sabine Valley and Northwestern Rail- road are in Longview. The trade is principally in agricultural products, livestock, hides, cot- tonseed-oil and lumber. The waterworks and sewage system are the property of the munic- ipality. Pop. (1920) 5,713. LONGWORTH, Nicholas, American wine manufacturer and horticulturist: b. Newark, N. J., 16 Jan. 1783; d. 1863. At 21 he went to the then unimportant settlement of Cincinnati, where he studied law. After, 25 years’ ex- perience at the bar he retired from professional life in order to devote himself to the cultivation of the grape, with a view of manufacturing wine. At first his efforts were unsuccessful from his having adopted the erroneous notion of the early American vine growers, that foreign plants were alone to be relied upon. He had imported many different species from every vine-growing country in Europe before trying those indigenous to the United States. LONGWY — LOOM About 1828 he commenced the experiment, and became a high authority in agricultural matters as well as in vine culture, being not infre- quently called the “Father ‘of American Grape Culture.” His writings, now obsolete, attained a wide influence in his time. LONGWY, long’vé’, France, fortified town in the department of Meurthe-et- Moselle, 90 miles northwest of Nancy, 19 miles southwest of Luxemburg, near the Belgian frontier. It is situated on a plateau, 1,240 feet above the sea, overlooking the Chiers, an affluent of the Meuse. The town comprises an upper and lower town. The former on a hill 390 feet high commands the Luxemburg road and is strongly fortified. The industrial establishments are in the lower tower and include manufactures of iron and steel, jewels, gold and silver ware and porcelain. It has a fine town-hall, built in 1730, a hospital and a 17th century church. Longwy (Longus Vicus) is known as the Iron Gate of France. In 1678 it came into French possession and was fortified by Vauban. The Prussians took it in 1792, 1815 and 1871. In the Great War of 1914-18 Longwy was the first French fortress attacked and although de- fended with spirit it soon fell to the German invader. Pop. 9,700. LONNROT, lén’rot, Elias, Finnish philolo- gist: b. Sammatti, in Nyland, 9 April 1802; d. there, 19 March 1884. Recognizing the value of the people’s songs and ballads for Finnish language study, he spent years— for the most part alone and on foot—in collecting such material in Finland, Lapland and adjoining provinces, and published the fruits of his re- searches in a series of volumes. Among his “finds” is to be numbered the great popular epic ‘Kalevala,? of which only a few cantos were previously known to the learned world. He wrote a ‘Finnish-Swedish Dictionary? (1866-80). He was professor of the Finnish language and literature at Helsingfors, 1853-62. See KALEVALA. LONS - LE -SAUNIER, 16n-lé-sd’nya, France, town and capital of the Department of Jura, situated on the Valliére, and on the Paris- Lyons Railway, 75 miles northeast of Lyons. It is surrounded by vine-clad hills; contains a 12th century church, law courts, chamber of commerce, lycées, training colleges and a bank. There are salt works in the neighborhood. There is a brisk trade in livestock, cheese, cereals and wood. Wine and leather making are the principal industries. The town was founded by the Gauls, by whom it was called Ledo. The Romans called it Ledo Salinarius. The English burned it in 1364 and it suffered a like fate in 1637 at the hands of the Duke of Longueville. Not until 1674 did. it become definitely a part of France. At Lons-le-Sau- nier Ney and Napoleon met after the latter’s return from Elba. It is the birthplace of General Lecourbe, to whom a monument has been erected. There is also a monument to Rouget de l’Isle, author of ‘La Marseillaise, who was born nearby at Montaigu. Pop. 11,060. LOO (short for lanterloo, from the Dutch name), a game of cards best played with five (three cards is the more common form), dealt from a whole pack, either by threes and twos, or one at a time. After dealing, a card is 649 turned up for trumps. The jack of clubs, or the jack of the trump suit, as agreed on, is the highest card, styled “pam”; the ace of trumps is next, and then the other cards as in whist. Five cards of a suit, or four with “pam,” com- pose a “flush,” which sweeps the board, and yields only to a superior flush, or the elder hand. When the ace of trumps is led, it is usual to say, “Pam be civil”; the holder of the jack (of trumps or clubs; see above) is then expected to let the ace pass. Each player has the liberty of changing his cards for others from the pack, or of throwing up the hand, in order to escape being looed, that is, failure to gain a trick. All those that win tricks divide the pool or “loo,” to which on entering the game each player contributes chips (usually three) in proportion to the tricks taken. Every player who is looed must again contribute a stake, which, with the dealer’s stake, forms a new ‘pool. At one time the most popular of the round card games, it gave way to “Nap” in England and poker in the United States. Con- sult Foster’s ‘Complete Hoyle? (London 1911). LOO-CHOO ISLANDS. See Liv-Kiu ISLANDS. LOOFAH, Egyptian, the fibrous portion of the fruit of one or two species of the genus Luffa of the gourd family, sold for use as a bath-sponge or flesh-rubber. There are about 10 species of the genus known,-but the “towel gourd,” as this bath-sponge is sometimes called, appears to be obtained chiefly from L. egyptiaca. In the West Indies the fruit of L. acutangula yields a similar network of fibres, and is there used as a sponge or dishcloth, and worked up into baskets and small ornamental articles. LOOKING BACKWARD, 2000-1887, a romance by Edward Bellamy, published in 1888. It had a sale of nearly 400,000 copies in the next 10 years, and is still in demand. It re- counts the strange experiences of Julian West, born in 1857, who in 1887 is put into a hypnotic sleep. In the year 2000, Dr. Leete, a retired physician, is conducting excavations in his garden, when West’s subterranean chamber is disclosed. The doctor discovers and_resusci- tates the young man, who finds himself in a regenerated world. LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN. TANOOGA, BATTLE OF. LOOM, a term originally meaning simply “tool,” but now particularized so as to apply to a machine for weaving. The simplest form of the loom, still in use among See CHAT- -semi-primitive tribes and up to the middle of the 18th century practically the only form, was the hand loom, a_ rectangular frame, from one side of which yarn is stretched to the opposite side, where it is so secured that the transverse threads may be Pot passed by hand “over and es under” the threads already stretched. Fig. 1 shows the simplest form of this loom. From ancient carvings it appears that this simple loom frame was at first hung vertically from an over- head support, and in all probability was ar- ranged to be lowered as the weaving progressed, so as to keep the work at a convenient level. So long as the warp lay inert before the 650 weaver it was a very slow process to pick up each alternate thread by hand in order to pass the weft under them. This was overcome from the earliest times by the device of attaching these alternate threads to a staff on which was a loop into which the weaver inserted his great toe and pulled the alternate threads of the warp down together, producing a “shed” below the level of the cloth through which he could throw his shuttle with a single cast. The loose- ness of the cloth thus woven called for some method of firming it as the weaving proceeded, and at first this was done by lengthening the shuttle so that it was longer than the width of the cloth, and using that to press the newly laid thread or “pick” snugly into the angle or shed of the divided threads of warp. This function: was later performed by the “reed” or “sley» —a frame hanging upright, from pivots at the top and filled, at first, with very thin strips of bamboo, but later of fine polished wire. According to the firmness of the cloth to be woven the wires were passed between every two threads of warp, or between every other pair or every other triplet. After each throw of the shuttle the reed is pulled forward, pressing the pick solidly against the newly woven cloth on the cloth roll: When working a wide piece of cloth it was customary to have an assistant at one end to throw the shuttle back to the weaver’s end, or if the piece were very wide two shuttle throwers were required, on at each side of the loom. The first important improvement was the “fly shuttle? invented by John Kay in 1733. This consisted of a pair of shuttle boxes fastened each at one end of a smooth wooden shelf or deck running along the lower part of the reed, and coming close up against the threads of the warp. In each of the shuttle boxes was placed a block of hard wood known as a “picker” strung on a wire, and connected by a cord to a handle immediately above the cloth and in front of the weaver. A sharp pull on the handle would drive the picker against the shuttle with a quick blow and send it flying through the shed. Kay’s invention practically revolutionized the weaving industry, as it in- creased four or five fold the output of a loom fitted with the “fly shuttle,» and rendered assistants unnecessary. He was granted a patent but the weavers everywhere appropriated the device in spite of the patent, and finally mobbed him and drove him to France, where he died in extreme poverty. Nevertheless his invention was a long step forward toward the development of the power loom. — The hand loom for most of the modern textiles has been superseded by the power loom, but for some classes of work it cannot be re- placed. It is still in constant use for working out new patterns to be eventually wrought on power looms, and many kinds of, high grade fabrics in silks, velvets, fancy cloths and the so-called art fabrics are still made on_it. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 2) shows ina simplified form the essential parts of the hand loom as it existed up to the time of Cartwright’s invention of the power loom in 1785. The primitive frame (Fig. 1) occupies a horizontal position in the framework (AAAA), and the former end pieces have become rollers, so that the length of the piece of cloth is no longer necessarily less than the length of the LOOM frame. These rollers are the beam or yarn- roll (B), which is at the back of the loom, and upon which the warp threads are wound, and the cloth beam (C) to which the threads are fastened and which winds up the cloth as it is made. The threads of the warp, held tight by weights (b, b) acting upon the yarn-roll to pull it backward, pass through the eyes of the healds, by which they are separated to permit of the passage of the shuttle, and also between the wires of the reed. The shuttle in the hand loom is thrown by the operator, and in the power loom by the picker-staff pee G in either case it is made of hard wood, pointed at either end with iron and carries in a recess the quill or bobbin. D shows the hanging batten frame with the reed at the bot- tom, and the shuttle boxes at each end. At E are the treadles which operate the healds (H) and at G are the points which separate the threads of the warp so that a broken yarn can be quickly identified and mended. Fic. 2. This hand loom was first improved, after the unsuccessful attempts of De Gennes in 1678, by Edmund Cartwright, who undertook in 1785 to counterfeit by mechanical means the three simple motions of weaving. He was a clergyman, with neither mechanical nor textile training, but his loom though cumbrous and awkward is essentially that now in use. Dr. Jeffrey, working independently, achieved about the same indifferent results. The first substan- tial advance was made by Andrew Kinloch in 1793 and William Horrocks added his contri- bution in overcoming some of the mechanical difficulties. But some minor inadequacies re- maining, his loom was quickly superseded by the superior Richard Roberts loom built on the same principles but with greater mechanical skill. The simplest modern loom differs essen- tially from the hand loom in that the warp yarn is no longer stretched direct. from the yarn roll to the cloth beam, and these two parts are no longer placed at the same height from the base of the frame nor at so great a distance as before. The yarn runs upward from the warp-beam over the whip-roll, thence is carried through heald, heddle or (the American term) harness, and through. the reed, and down from the latter to the cloth roll. The advantage of LOOM so[puids usatip-ode} YM oWeIY SUSIME ¥ smMVIY sUIAOY wood € ‘a0y UIeX pesoidwy z (jUOJJ) DUIQIeI. SUIQqUIOD poaAoIdmMy T LOOM 1 Silver Lap Machine 2 Ribbon Lap Machine 3 Heavy Duck Loom LOOM PIVD ILIA Bcrapoasy F smMvIg ZuIUUIdS [OOM Z suvIA Suruuidg sAliq edey mt LOOM 1 Dobby Loom 2 Wide Loom « LOOMIS this arrangement is greater stability and a dis- tinct saving in space, the depth of the loom being materially decreased. The ordinary power loom has no mechanical device for re- newing the weit as it is used. The ordinary bobbin will run in a power loom for not more than four to six minutes — depending upon the fineness of the yarn. Then the loom must be stopped and a new bobbin put in. Two meth- ods have been adopted to overcome this diffi- culty: changing the shuttle, as in the Harri- man loom, and changing the bobbin, as in the Northrop loom. In practice it has been found that at the speed the loom is usually run, changing the shuttle takes too much time, and the loom has to be slowed down to a standstill. This is accomplished automatically, the shuttle changed and the loom started again. The other method has been even more effective, and the necessary mechanism quite simple. At the proper moment the loom sets in operation a lever which pushes a fresh bobbin from a mag- azine into the shuttle at the moment it lies stationary in the shuttle box, and the same movement releases a catch and the empty spin- dle drops out. With the old-fashioned heddle only the sim- plest and most regular webs could be woven, the number of heddles being limited to six. The demand for a greater variety in color, pat- tern and texture led to the invention of the dobby, a lever operated by a projecting pin which engages in the pattern chain. The dobby is not operated alone but in a series, or “bat- tery» ranging in number from 10 up to 25. Each dobby works a harness connecting with a certain set of warp threads in forming the shed, and the more dobbies on the loom the greater variety possible in the fabric. For highly ornate and figured patterns the most ef- fective mechanism is the Jacquard attachment, patented by a weaver of Lyons, Joseph Marie Jacquard, in 1801. This machine lends itself readily to use with any loom. It may be de- scribed as a means of controlling the shed. A revolving prism or “cylinder” is so perforated as to receive certain selected needles, which in turn govern a set of perpendicular hooks. These hooks lift or depress the threads of the warp, so that the weaving is no longer of neces- sity simply “under or over». How many threads are to be skipped is determined by a perforated card-board, the perforations occur- ring where the thread of the warp is to lie above the weft; but if the warp-threads are not to be raised no holes are cut in the cards, the needles do not enter the cylinder and the hook attached to the needle does not lift (by means of its neck-cord or loop of twine), the thread of the warp. A connected series of these cards, each with different perforations, makes an almost infinite combination of pat- terns possible, as each card makes a different shed. As each card represents a single pick, a series for an intricate pattern is very large, reaching sometimes 30,000 cards.. The hand loom is still used for the manu- facture of rugs and fine carpets, but the power loom, driven by various powers, electricity being the latest- and in some ways the most economical, is used for almost any purpose. The ribbon loom, for instance, weaves simul- taneously a number of narrow pieces. Many attachments, invented in a long series, have 651 continuously and wonderfully decreased the need of any supervision of the loom, making it more and more automatic: thus a shuttle protector automatically stops the machinery if the shuttle fails to fly all the way across the warp; the filling stop motion protects the machinery from running on uselessly when the filling breaks or runs out; and take-up, let-off and warp-stop motions are further automatic devices. A very ingenious machine known as the Chernack circular loom is used in weaving tubular fabrics such as constitute the basis of fire-hose. This loom resembles in appear- ance a knitting machine. Its shuttle travels around the circuit of upright needles in a circu- lar track being propelled by a pinching move- ment of the rising and falling needles, in a fashion similar to jumping a fresh apple seed with the pressure of thumb and finger. This loom is used also for weaving wire. Consult Ainley, A., ‘Woolen and Worsted Loomfixing? (Lawrence, Mass., 1900); The Draper Company, (‘Labor-Saving Looms? (Hopedale, Mass., 1907) ; International Library of Technology (Vol. LXXX, Scranton, Pa., 1905); Murphy, W. S., ‘Textile Industries? (Vol. IV, New York 1912); Posselt, E. A., “Manufacture of Narrow Woven. Fabrics? (Philadelphia 1916). _ LOOMIS, Alfred Lebbeus, American phy- | sician: b. Bennington, Vt., in 1833; d. 23 Jan. 1895. He was graduated at Union College in 1851, and studied medicine in New York City at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, where he was graduated in 1852. He gave his attention to diseases of the lungs at a time when auscultation and percussion were acquir- ing great scientific importance in medical prac-. tice, and in the treatment of such diseases be- came an efficient specialist. In 1859 he was appointed visiting physician to Bellevue Hos- pital, New York, and was made lecturer on physical diagnosis at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1862: Having spent some months in the Adirondack Mountains for the improvement of his health, in later years he established the Sanitarium at Saranac and the Hospital for Consumptives at Liberty, N. Y. In 1866 he accepted the professorship of theory and practice of medicine at the University of the City of New York, remaining in connec- tion with that institution until his death. The work done by him for its medical department was of great and lasting importance, as were also the services he rendered to the New York Academy of Medicine. In 1874 he was ap- pointed visiting physician to Mount Sinai Hos- pital; was president of the New York Academy of Medicine, 1889-90 and 1891-92. His publi- cations include “Lessons in Physical Diagnosis? (1870); “Lectures on Fevers? (1877); and ‘A Text-book of Practical Medicine? (1884). He also edited ‘An American System of Medicine? (1894). LOOMIS, Charles Battell, American hu- morist: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 16 Sept. 1861; d. 1911. He was educated at the Brooklyn Poly- technic Institute and held a business clerkship 1879-91, which he resigned to devote himself to the writing of humorous sketches. He was a frequent contributor to periodicals and pub- lished ‘Just Rhymes? (1899) ; ‘The Four-Masted Cat-boat?. (1899); ‘Yankee Enchantments? & 652 (1900) ; (Cheerful Americans? ‘A Partnership: in Magic? (1903) ; (1903) ; ‘More Cheer- ful Americans? (1904); ‘I’ve Been Thinking’ (1905); — “Minerva’s Manceuvres? (1905) ; ‘Cheer Up? (1906); ‘A Bath in an English Tub? (1907); ‘Poe’s “Raven” in. an Elevator? (1907); a third edition of ‘More Cheerful Americans, The Knack of It? (1908); ‘A Holi- day Touch? (1908) ; ‘Just Irish? (1909). LOOMIS, Chester, American painter: b. near Syracuse, N. Y., 18 Oct. 1852. He was educated at Cornell University (1868-71) ; studied painting*at Paris under Léon Bonnat, and after a residence of 11 years in France opened a studio at Englewood, N. J. He is favorably known as a figure, portrait and land- scape painter and his pictures are found in many private collections. His ‘Christopher Sly? was purchased by the Indianapolis Art Association. His ‘Normandy Milkmaid? was awarded a gold medal at the Massachusetts Charitable and Mechanics’ Institution Exhibi- tion. Of recent years he has turned his atten- tion more to portrait and mural painting than to the production of genre pictures and land- scape. He is an associate member. of the National Academy of Design, and member of the National Society of Mural Painters, the Architectural League, the Artists’ Fund Society and the National Arts Club. LOOMIS, Elias, American physicist: in. Willington, Conn., 7 Aug. 1811; d. New Haven, Conn.,' 15 Aug. 1899. He was graduated at Yale College in 1830, and was tutor there in 1833-36. He was the first person in America to obtain a view of Halley’s comet, at. its return in August 1835, and his observations on that body, with a computation of its orbit, were published in the American_ Journal of Science. After a year’s study in Paris he was professor (1837-44) of mathematics in West- ern Reserve College, Ohio, of natural philoso- phy (1844-60) in the University of. New York, . and of natural philosophy and astronomy (from 1860) at Yale. He devoted much of his time to original research, wrote more than 100 scientific treatises and published a series of textbooks on mathematics, natural philosophy, astronomy and meteorology, of which more than 500,000 copies were sold; they included ‘Elements of Algebra? ; ‘Elements of Geometry and Conic Sections?; ‘Recent Progréss in Astronomy. LOOMIS, Francis B., American journalist and diplomatist: b. Marietta, Ohio, 27 July 1861. He was a graduate from Marietta College and in 1883 joined the staff of the New . York Tribune. He was State librarian of Ohio 1885-87; consul at Saint Etienne, France, 1890- 93, and editor-in-chief of the Cincinnati Daily Tribune 1893-96. He was United States Envoy- Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Venezuela, 1897-1901, and while there was active in promoting the interests of Amer- ican commerce in South America. His succes- sor, H. W. Bowen, charged that Loomis had carried on improper business transactions while in Venezuela, but these charges were dismissed by President Roosevelt. He filled the same diplomatic position at the court of Portugal 1901-02, and became Assistant Secretary of State in January 1902, resigned in 1905. He was designated as special Ambassador to France LOOMIS — LOOSESTRIFE in 1905 to receive the remains of John Paul Jones, was special envoy to Japan in 1908, com- missioner-general to the Tokio Exposition 1911, and to the Exposition at Turin in 1912. He was made grand officer of the Legion of Honor, France, 1904, and has received decorations from the emperor of Japan and the king of Italy. LOOMIS, Gustavus, American soldier: b. Thetford, Vt., 1789; d. 1872. He was gradu- ated at West Point and received his commission as sub-lieutenant of artillery in 1811. He saw service on the Niagara frontier from 1812 to 1813, in which latter year he took part in the capture of Fort George (27 May) and was made prisoner the following December at Fort Niagara. During the war with Great Britain, the Black Hawk War and the campaign against the Seminole Indians, he held important com- mands, and after the Civil War, in which he served as superintendent of the general recruit- ing service, was retired with rank as colonel of infantry. In 1865 he received the brevet of brigadier-general of the United States army. LOOMIS, Silas Laurence, American scien- tist and inventor: b. Coventry, Conn., 1822; d. 1896. He was graduated from Wesleyan Uni- versity in 1844, from the Medical School of Georgetown University in 1856 and was pro- fessor of physiology at Georgetown in 1859- 60. In 1857 he was appointed astronomer to the United States Coast Survey, in 1860 instruc- tor in. mathematics to naval cadets, in 1861-67 was professor of chemistry and toxicology at Georgetown, and subsequently occupied a chair at Howard. Among. his inventions are a process for manufacturing a textile fabric from the palmetto, and another for making profitable use of chromium ores. He wrote textbooks of arithmetic, a ‘Key to the Normal Course? (1867); ‘The Education . and | Health of Woman? (1882), and other. works. LOON, 16-6n’, Philippines, a pueblo 68 the province of Bohol, situated on the west coast 13 miles north of Tagbiliram, and opposite Dalaguete, Cebu. A mole 328 feet long, pro- tecting the harbor, extends to the town; which is reached by steps cut in the rock. It is’ pic- turesquely situated on the slope of the Cam- manoc hills and has an old Spanish fort with bastions. It is centrally located for trade, and is the largest town in the province. Pop. 15,400. LOON. See Diver. LOOS, 16s, Charles Louis, American edu- cator: bs Woerth-sur-Sauer, | Basse-Alsace, France, 23 Dec. 1823; d. 1912... He came to the - United States in 1832, and. settled at New Franklin, Ohio, where he studied English. He was eraduated from Bethany College in 1846, where he was professor of ancient languages 1858-80. _He was president of Kentucky Uni- versity 1880-97. In 1849 he was ordained to the ministry of the Disciples and was of great prominence in his. denomination. He | held pastorates at Wellsburg, Va., Somerset, Pa., and Cincinnati, Ohio. LOOSESTRIFE, a plant of the genus Lysi- machia, of the primrose family, about 40 species of which grow in the temperate zones. Several ~ yellow-flowered species belong to the United States, but those best known are the whorled or four- leaved, L. quadrifolia, and’ the bulb- LOOT — bearing, L. terrestris. Two or three species, es- pecially L. nummularia, popularly. known as moneywort,. creeping Charley and _ creeping Jenny, have been introduced from Europe. One kind is eaten in India as a pot-herb with fish. “Again and again,” says Miss Lounsberry, in her ‘Southern Wild Flowers and Trees,’ “we come across the loosestrifes during our summer and early autumn rambles. And soon we learn to. associate with them. their opposite, or whorled, leaves, always entire, and their up- right, rather stiff manner of growth, and very frequently we look for their petals to be darkly spotted near the bases. In personality the genus reminds us somewhat. of the St. John’s-wort, but we think of the latter as being usually freer, more prolific bloomers. The old and pretty legend concerning our present plants is that they loose strife; that they act as peace-makers especially among cattle that are quarrelsome. Believing this, people in the old country used to tie such a spray to their ‘yokes before starting out on a long journey.” The name loosestrife is also given to species of the genus Lythrum of the familv Lythracee, of which about a dozen species are widely dis- tributed in temperate climates. They are char- acterized by four-angled stems, usually opposite leaves which are sometimes whorled, and red- dish-purple or white flowers, solitary above and whorled lower down the stems. Some are culti- vated for ornament in borders and among shrubbery, where they succeed well. The best- -known species is the purple loosestrife (L. salicaria), which is frequently. planted. LOOT, formerly the plunder taken from an enemy in war, now more specifically, goods of citizens or soldiers of the enemy country taken without authority by the invaders. All civilized nations forbid looting under pain of severe penalties. During the Great War (1914-18), frequent complaints were made by. the _in- habitants of the occupied regions of Belgium and France that the Germans were systematic- ally looting the country either with the con- nivance or under the express order of. the higher .command. After the. liberation in November 1918 these complaints in many in- stances were shown to have been well founded. LOPE DE VEGA, 16-pa da va-ga. See VecA Carpio. LOPES, or LOPEZ, 16’path, Fernao, Por- tuguese chronicler: b. about 1380; d. after 1459. He was appointed chief archivist of the king- dom by Dom Joao I in 1434, and spent his life in historical research and the composition of chronicles, which for literary and critical value were unsurpassed in his century. His ‘Chron- icle of Sefior Don John I,? describing the great struggle between Portugal and Castile, invites comparison with Froissart’s chronicle on ac- count of its picturesqueness, naive simplicity and dramatic reality. Equally vigorous are his chronicles of Dom Pedro I and Don Fernando. LOPEZ, 16’paz or 16’path, Carlos Antonio, President and dictator of Paraguay: b. near Asuncion about 1790; d. there, 19. Sept. 1862. He was educated in Asuncion, studied civil and canon law at the ecclesiastical seminary there and became noted for his legal acquirements. During Dr. Francia’s incumbency of the presi- dency Lopez lived in seclusion to avoid the hostility of the former, After the death of LOPEZ 653 President Francia, in 1840, he was secretary of the junta which controlled Paraguay for a few years. In March 1844 the Paraguay Congress adopted the constitution he had drawn-up and elected him President of Paraguay for 10 years. He was re-elected for three years in 1851; and again in 1857 for seven. He followed Francia’s policy in the main and became in- volved in quarrels with foreign nations. In 1859 the United States sent a naval force to the Plata to enforce demands against him. He offered to submit the question of damages to- arbitration, but afterward evaded the claim. He organized an army and navy and made com- mercial treaties with several foreign nations, built a railroad and in general furthered the material prosperity of the country. The Con- gress had empowered him to name his successor at will, and he was succeeded by his son, Fran- cisco Solano Lopez (q.v.). LOPEZ, Francisco Solano, Paraguayan President: b.. Asuncion, 24 July 1827; d. near the Aquidaban, 1 March 1870.. He was the son of Carlos Antonio Lopez (q.v.). He was edu- cated in Paris and in his 18th year his father made him a brigadier-general in the war against Rosas, the dictator of Buenos Aires.. He after- ward filled some of the principal offices of state, and was sent to Europe in 1853, accredited to the chief courts there. He negotiated treaties with England, France and Sardinia. In 1855 he returned to Paraguay, became Minister of War, and on the death of his father, in 1862, President for 10 years. He had aimed at the foundation of a great inland empire, and as his military preparations were now complete, and his army superior to that of any of the Saiki American states, he began hostilities against Brazil in 1864 by taking possession of the province of Matto Grosso. He was made marshal of the army by Congress and extraor- dinary powers were granted him. In 1865 he demanded permission of Argentina to cross her territory in order to invade Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Permission being refused he seized Corrientes and hada measure of success in his early campaigns. The Argentine Republic and Uruguay allied, themselves with Brazil, and after five years’ conflict Lopez was reduced to extremities, and was finally surprised on the banks of the Aquidaban by a troop of Brazilian cavalry and slain. Lopez recruited his forces by a conscription of all males between 12 and 70 years. The latter part of his career had been stained by many cruelties and wanton murders. (See Paraguay — History). Consult Thomp- son, ‘The War in Paraguay? (1869) ; Master- man, ‘Seven Eventful Years in Paraguay’ (1869) ; Burton, ‘Letters from the Battle Fields of Paraguay? (1871); Washburn, ‘History of Paraguay? (1871): Schneider, ‘Der Krieg der Triple-Allianz> (1872-75). ; LOPEZ, José Hilario, h6-sa’ hé-la’ré-o, Colombian politician: b. Popayan, 18 Feb. 1798; d. Neiva, 27 Nov. 1869.. He was Presi- dent of New Granada (Colombia) from March 1849 to 7 March 1852, and in the last- named year slavery was abolished and changes were made looking to the formation of a fed- eral government. In the revolutions of 1854 and 1859-62, he fought with the Federalists and was commander-in-chief for part of this period. He was a member of the provisional govern- ‘654 ment 1862-63, and subsequently President of Tolima. In 1867 he was named commander-in- chief of the army. LOPEZ, Martin, the first shipbuilder of the American continents. He was in the em- ploy of Cortés, or formed one of the army of the conqueror when he began his famous march against the city of Mexico (Tenochtit- lan). He was a shipbuilder by trade and had been attracted to the New World by the stories of wealth to be had there and the spirit of adventure that had taken possession of all Spain at the beginning of the 16th century. While Cortés was in the city of Mexico for the first time, he made the Emperor Moctezuma a prisoner in his own palace, and to please his captive he had Lopez construct two vessels to navigate the waters of Lake Texcoco, which then surrounded the capital of the Aztecs ex- cept on one side. This gave him the idea, a year later, of building a number of larger vessels of various sizes with which to attack the city of Mexico from water while his army con- tinued the siege from land. Lopez built 13 vessels in the neighboring town of Tlaxcala, all brigantines, and some of them of considerable size. He made them in parts, so that they could be carried on the backs of Indian peons over the mountains to the town of Texcoco, where he had them set up. From there a canal a mile and a half long and 12 feet deep was dug to the lake to float the vessels down to it. It required 20,000 men, warriors and car- riers, to bring the ships from Tlaxcala to Texcoco, a distance of 60 miles;.and the work of transportation occupied nearly a week. The convoy stretched across the country for six miles. At the Texcoco end-of the line 8,000 men were employed for over two months dig- ging the canal to connect the city with the lake. All the Spaniards in Mexico, the Tlaxcalans in Texcoco and thousands of Texcocans, includ- ing all the representatives of royalty and nobility, a mighty host in holiday attire. turned out to see the 13 vessels launched (1521) at an elevation of a mile and a half above sea-level. These 13 brigantines played a very important part in the reduction of the capital of the Aztecs. They held the whole water front and prevented the Aztecs getting supplies of food and other necessities; and the guns on the vessels frequently directing a cross-fire at the besieged while the land cannon were pounding them from several other directions. Finally they prevented the escape of the emperor, Guatemotzin and numerous nobles after further defense of the city had become impossible. Consult Letters of Cortés; Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, ‘The True History of the Conquest of New Spain”; Prescott, ‘The Conquest of Mexico.’ LOPEZ, Narciso, Cuban revolutionist: b. Venezuela, 1799; d. Havana, Cuba, 1 Sept. 1851. He served for some time in the Spanish army, from which he retired in 1822 with the rank of colonel. After the evacuation of Venezuela by the Spanish troops, he established himself in Cuba, and afterward during a stay at Madrid joined the party of Isabella against Don Carlos, and became successively adjutant of Valdes, governor of the Spanish capital, and senator for Seville, but threw up his offices after the refusal of the Cortés to admit the reoresentatives of LOPEZ— LOPEZ DE AYALA Cuba. Valdes became governor-general of that island, and Lopez on returning thither was em- ployed by him in various capacities. He was soon absorbed by the project of throwing off the yoke of Spain, and he proceeded in 1849 to the United States, where he sunk almost his whole fortune in the organization of three suc- cessive expeditions to Cuba: the so-called Round island expedition in 1849; the “invasion of Cardenas” expedition in May 1850, both of which failed, and the Bahia-Honda expedition, of August 1851, which ended fatally. Lopez, with several hundred persons of different nationalities whom he had enlisted in various parts of the United States, landed at Morillo, near Havana, where he left 200 of his men under the command of Colonel Crittenden, who were taken by the Spaniards and shot. Lopez went to Las Pozas, where he succeeded in re- pelling an attack of the Spanish soldiers; but, isolated from his friends, sought refuge in the mountains, where he was captured and taken to Havana. He was sentenced to death, which he met with great firmness. Consult Claiborne, J. F., ‘Life and Correspondence of John A. Quitman? (New York 1860) ; Morales, V., “Iniciadores y primeros martires de la revolucién cubana»? (Habana 1901); D. T., ‘El General Narciso Lopez y la. Isla de Cuba>~ (Caracas 1851). LOPEZ, Cape. See Care Lopez. LOPEZ DE AYALA, Adelardo, Spanish dramatist and politician: b. Seville district, 1 May 1828; d. Madrid, 30 Jan. 1879. He was educated at the University of Seville, and at Madrid in 1851 had his first drama, ‘Ei Hombre de Estado, produced. In 1857 he was elected deputy from Badajoz to the Cortés, and subsequently he was a member of Alfonso XII’s first Cabinet. He was the-author of numerous lyrics which take excellent rank in Spanish literature, especially of the ‘Epis- tola.2. But he was better known as a dramatist of high literary and popular success skilful in his construction of plot but deficient in his drawing of character. Chief of his plays are ‘Tanto por Ciento? (So Much per Cent), which was recognized by the bestowal upon him of a gold crown, and ‘Consuelo.» ‘Both are search- ee arraignments of the principles of modern ife. LOPEZ DE AYALA, Pedro, pa’dr6, Span- ish poet: b. Murcia, 1332; d. Calahorra, 1407. He served, with an eye to his own interest, Henry II, John I and Henry III, kings of Castile. He was taken prisoner by the Black Prince at Najara in 1367, and again at Aljabar- — rota in 1385, and is said to have spent 15 months in an iron cage at Oviedes. He attained the highest dignities, including those of lord chan- cellor (1398) and high chamberlain of Castile, and wrote the ‘Cronicas de los Reyes de Castilla» (‘Chronicles of the Kings of Castile, first complete edition 1780), which covers the period from King Peter to Henry III. In this work he strove to substitute for the dry record of the historiographers a pragmatic account of historical events which is remarkable for its vivid pen portraits. He also wrote lyrics, and the ‘Rimado de Palacio? (‘Rime of the Pal- ace), a satiric poem on political and social questions. . LOPEZ DE LEGAZPI— LORD LOPEZ DE LEGAZPI, 14-gith’pé, or LEGASPI, 1a-gas’pe, Miguel, Spanish soldier and navigator: b. Zumarraga, about 1510; d. 1572. He went to Mexico in 1545 and fora time served with distinction as chief secretary of the city and government there. As a re- ward he was placed in command of Velasco’s expedition, fitted out in 1564 for the conquest of the Philippines. He took the expedition over in four vessels, arriving there in-1565. He established the first settlement at San Miguel on the island of Cebu. Several parties were sent out to explore and occupy the country, and by May 1571 Lopez had conquered Luzon and in that month founded Manila. He named the islands Isles Filipinas in honor of his sovereign, Philip II. His conquest’ was accomplished with little trouble due to the tact and-kindness of Lopéz. LOPEZ Y PLANES, 1o’paz or 16’path é pla’nés, Vicente, Argentine poet: b. Buenos Aires, 1784; d. there, 1856. He was prominent as a soldier and politician, was member of Con- gress, 1819-25, and provisional President of the republic, 5 July to 13 Aug. 1827.. He presided over the Supreme Court of Justice, and was governor of the province of Buenos Aires. He was the author of the ‘Argentine National Hymn? and other. poems. LOPHIODON, an extinct tapir-like animal, found in the Eocene fresh-water deposits of central Europe and to some extent in the White River and neighboring formations of Wyoming. It is. one of the early and general types of perissodactyls, or odd-toed ungulates. The genus is typical of a family (Lophiodontide) which includes also the genera Hyracotherium, Hyrachus, Systemodon and Orolippus, and is a very generalized group probably ancestral to the rhinoceroses. LOPHOBRANCHII, 16-f6-brang’ki-i, a suborder of bony fishes, including the “sea- horses” and “pipe-fishes” (Syngnathide). See ICHTHYOLOGY. LOQUAT 1d’kwat, or JAPAN PLUM, a shrub or small tree (Eriobotrya japonica) of the family Malacee. It attains heights of about 20 feet, bears thick evergreen leaves near the ends of the branches, and fragrant, woolly, whitish flowers in terminal panicles in late sum- mer and autumn, followed by downy, yellow, oval or pyriform fruits (pomes)° which ripen in very early spring. The fruits, which in favorable climates are borne in profusion, are highly esteemed for their sub-acid flesh and their pleasantly flavored seeds, the former being used as a dessert, the latter for flavoring cook- ery. The tree is a native of Japan and China, whence it has been taken to subtropical climates throughout the world. In the Gulf States and in California it is widely popular as a home fruit, though it appears in Northern markets. In California several highly improved varieties were produced during the closing decade of the last century. In the North it is often grown in conservatories. LORAIN, 16-ran’, Ohio,. city, in Lorain County, on the south shore of Lake FErie, at. the mouth of the Black River, and on the New York, Chicago and Saint Louis (Nickel Plate), Baltimore and Ohio and _ other railroads, about 26 miles west of Cleveland. The first 655 permanent settlement was made in 1822 by Barney Meeker. It was incorporated as a vil- lage in 1873 and as a city in 1895. It is situ- ated in an agricultural and natural-gas region, and is a shipping port for farm products, for the output of the central Ohio coal fields, and for the lumber and iron ore of a large section of the State. The chief industries of the city are ship-building, coal shipping, manufacturing steel, automatic shovels, stove works, general manufacturing and fishing. The city has ex- cellent public and parish schools, a public li- brary, 22 churches and Saint Joseph’s Hospi- tal. About 75 per cent of the inhabitants are American born. The government is vested in a mayor, elected biennially, a unicameral coun- cil and administrative. boards. The water- works are owned and operated by the city. Pop. (1920) 37,295, LORCA, lor’ka, Spain, city, in the province of Murcia, on the Sangonera River, about 20 miles north of Aguilas, the Mediterranean port. It is an anciént city, established before the Moors came to Spain, as is evidenced by the older houses; but the main part of the city now existing is of Moorish construction. It has a fine old castle, considerable flour and textile manufactures, and in the vicinity are valuable mines of silver, sulphur and _ lead. The farms in the surrounding country have to be irrigated in the dry seasons, and for the storage of water of the Sangonera a dam, 800 feet long and 160 feet high, was built near the city. In 1802 the dam burst, and the valley was flooded, when many lives were lost. The dam was reconstructed in 1886. Lorca was the scene of many battles between the Christians and the Moors. Pop. 70,807. LORD, Chester Sanders, American jour- nalist: b. Romulus, N. Y., 18 March 1850. He studied at Hamilton College, was for a time associate editor of the Oswego (N. Y.) Ad- vertiser, and in 1872 became a member of the staff of the New York Sun, and of which he was managing editor in 1880-1913, when he retired from business. He was regent of the University of the State of New York 1897- 1904; was re-elected regent in 1909 for the term ending in 1922. LORD, Edwin Chesley Estes, American geologist and petrographer: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 7 May 1868. Educated in the public schools of New York City and in Brunswick and Heidel- berg, Germany, and in Harvard University, Cambridge. Received the degrees of Ph.D. (Heidelberg) and M.S. (Harvard). He served as field assistant in the United States Geological Survey, 1895-97, was professor of Geology and mineralogy in Hamilton College, New York, 1899-1900, Austin Teaching Fellow and assistant in mineralogy and petrography, Harvard Univer- sity, 1900-01. He was assistant in petrography and chemistry of the United States Department of Agriculture 1901-04, and has been petrop- rapher:in the office of public roads and rural engineering of the United States Department of Agriculture since 1904. He has published a geological and petrographical paper on igneous rocks from Bavaria, Germany, Mexico, Texas and Maine, U. S. A., 1894-1900. Since 1900 _has published papers on the petrography of rocks for road building, and the relation of mineral composition and rock structure to the 656 physical properties of road materials, ‘Bulle- tins 31 and 37,” Office of Public Roads, and ‘Bulletin 348, United States Department of Agriculture; and on the mineral composition and utilization of blast furnace and other slags, Proceedings Seventh International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 1909. LORD, Herbert Gardiner, American phi- losopher: b. Boston, 29 March 1849. He was the son of the Rey. Daniel Miner Lord and was graduated at Amherst College in 1871 and at the Union Theological Seminary in 1877. He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1878 and served as pastor of the church of the Redeemer, Buffalo, 1877-95. During 1895-98 he was professor of philosophy at the School of Pedagogy, University of Buffalo; from 1890 to 1900 was principal of Franklin School, Buffalo; and in 1900 was appointed professor of philosophy at Columbia University. He was one of the joint authors of ‘Essays Philosophical and Psychological in Honor of William James”; and is the author of ‘The Psychology of Courage? (1918). LORD, John, American historian and lec- turer: b. Portsmouth, N..H., 10 Sept. 1812; d. Stamford, Conn., 15 Dec. 1894. He was grad- uated from Dartmouth in 1833; studied theol- ogy for a time at Andover Theological Semi- nary, and in his second year there wrote a series of lectures on the Dark Ages, which he delivered soon after during a tour of northern New York. He became an agent of the Amer- ican Peace Society. Though not ordained to the ministry occupied Congregational pulpits in New Marlboro and Stockbridge, Mass. After 1840 he devoted himself to literary work and lecturing. In 1843-46 he was in England giv- ing lectures on the Middle Ages, and on his return to the United States continued to lec- ture for many years in the principal towns and cities, giving over 6,000 lectures in all. From 1866-76 he was lecturer on history at Dart- mouth College. His lectures were published under the title ‘Beacon Lights of History? (1883); he also wrote ‘Modern History for Schools? (1850); ‘The Old Roman World (1867); and ‘Ancient States and Empires? (1869) ; ‘Points of History? (1881). LORD, John King, American educator: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 21 Oct. 1848. He was gradu- ated at Dartmouth College in 1868. In 1869 he was made a tutor in Latin in Dartmouth; professor of Latin and rhetoric, 1872-80; pro- fessor of oratory and belles-lettres, 1880-82; associate professor, 1882-92, and after 1892 professor of the Latin language and literature. He was acting president of Dartmouth College, 1892-93; and acting president of the faculty in the absence of the president, 1893-1900. He has edited many Latin textbooks and Chase’s “History of Dartmouth ‘College? (Vol. I, 1891), is the author of an ‘Atlas of the Geog- raphy and History of the Ancient World (1902), and has translated Hertzburg’s ‘Ge- schichte der R6mer in Alterthum? (1902) ; ‘His- tory of Dartmouth College, 1815-1909 (1913). LORD (Anglo-Saxon “hlaford, for “hlaf- weard,” bread-keeper), English title of honor or dignity, used in different senses. In feudal times the lord was the grantor or proprietor of the land, who retained the ultimate property in it, the use only being granted to the tenant. LORD —LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR Between the superior lord, or lord paramount, and the actual tenant, stood the lord of the manor or mesne lord. Lord is also a mere title of dignity, attached to certain official sta- tions, which are sometimes hereditary, but sometimes only official or personal. Of the latter may be cited the lord’s justices in Eng- land and the judges of the Court of Session in Scotland; lord advocate, the chief law officer of the Crown in Scotland; lord mayor and lord provost, the former applied to the chief magis- trate in certain English and Irish cities, and the latter to the corresponding officials in sev- eral Scottish cities, as lord advocate, or lord mayor, a title applied to the chief magistrates of London, York and Dublin. (See also Lorp CHAMBERLAIN and Lorp LIEUTENANT). In its most definite sense in English it is equivalent to peer, but does not express any special rank or degree of nobility. The five orders of no- bility — dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts and barons — constitute the “lords temporal,» in contradistinction to the prelates of the Church, or “lords spiritual,” that is, such archbishops and bishops of the Church of England as are members of the legislature and sit in the House of Lords. The title is also applied, but only by courtesy, to the sons of dukes and marquises, and to the eldest sons of earls. LORD CHAMBERLAIN, an officer in England who has control of the establishment attached to the chapels royal; of officers and servants attached to the royal chambers, except of those of the bedchamber; and over the med- ical men of the household. ‘He appoints royal tradesmen, directs all great royal ceremonies, receives all applications to attend levées and drawing-rooms, superintends the royal ward- robe and the jewel house at the Tower, and licenses theatres and plays, his power extend- ing to the cities of London and Westminster, and certain other parts of the metropolis, as well as to those places within which the sover- eign may reside occasionally. LORD HERBERT OF CHERBURY, The Autobiography of. See HERBERT, EDwArp, Lorp HERBERT OF CHERBURY, AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF. LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR. The highest legal dignitary in the British govern- ment and principal legal adviser to the Crown; ex officio president or speaker of the House ot Lords and Keeper of the Great Seal. He may fulfill those offices even though not a peer. By virtue of his office he is a Privy Councillor and takes precedence of all but royal dukes and the archbishop of Canterbury. He presides when the House of Lords sits as a Court of Appeal, and reads the speech from the throne in the absence of the sovereign. He is also a mem- ber of the judicial committee of the Privy Council; of the commission for giving the royal assent to bills; president of the Chancery division of the High Court and of the Court of Appeal; visitor of all hospitals of royal founda- tion; general guardian of all infants, idiots and lunatics, and general supervisor of all chari- table trusts. It is his duty to nominate the younger and County Court judges and most of the county magistrates, in addition to which he is the patron of numerous ecclesiastical benefices. Until recently a Roman Catholic was not eligible for the office. The Lord Chancellor has a seat in the Cabinet and goes out of office with the LORD HOWE ISLANDS —LORD’S PRAYER ministry, with a pension of $25,000. His salary is $75,000. LORD HOWE ISLANDS, a group of small islands in the Pacific Ocean, nearly 500 miles east of Sydney, Australia. They are of volcanic origin, are steep and mountainous and have a fine climate; area, 3,220 acres. The group was discovered in 1788 by Lieutenant Ball, but was not occupied until 1834; in 1840 New South Wales was given charge of the gov- ernment. In the surrounding waters there is an abundance of fish. The only article of ex- port is the seed of the palm Ficus colom naris. op. 107. LORD OF THE ISLES, a title borne by chiefs who ruled the western islands of Scot- land. They were descended from Somerled, the Lord of Argyll, on whom David I conferred the islands of Arran and Bute after he had driven the Norwegians out. The father of John, the first to adopt the title, fought at Bannockburn. John, fourth and last Lord of the Isles, was deprived of his title and estates by the Parliament of May 1493. In 1540 the Lordship of the Isles was annexed to the Scot- tish crown, and from it the Prince of Wales de- rives one of his titles. LORD-LIEUTENANT, a British official of high rank, representing the sovereign, as: (1) The viceroy, or Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, who is nominally a member of the ministry, and retires from office on the resignation of the Cabinet. The office dates back to a remote period in the English occupation; but since the union its holder has resided in Dublin. His powers are nominally quasi-regal, and he con- fers the honor of knighthood; but the substance of power is in the hands of the secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant, who is generally a member of the British Cabinet. The abolition of the office is contemplated. (2) The Lord-Lieutenant of a county, the principal honorary official of a county, at whose nomination all deputy-lieu- tenants and justices of the peace are appointed. The office dates from the time of Henry VIII. He was head of the military organization of the county; but after the Cardwell reorganization in 1871 his powers were transferred to the - Secretary for War; but under the territorial scheme of 1907 the ancient authority in defense was to a great extent restored. - LORD-MAYOR’S DAY, the 9th of No- vember, on which a great procession accom- panying the newly elected lord mayor of Lon- don from Westminster to the Guildhall takes place. The procession, formerly famous for its historical and allegorical devices, notably the huge wooden effigies called Gog and Magog (now deposited in the Guildhall), has recently been shorn of much of the burlesque-spectac- ular features that formerly attended it. . LORD ORMONT AND HIS AMINTA, a novel, by George Meredith, published in 1894. In this tale the author’s enigmatical laughter sounds louder than usual; possessing at the same time a quality which leaves the reader in doubt whether the mirth is at his expense or at the expense of the characters. The basis of the story is founded on the secret marriage of Charles Mordannt, Earl of Peterborough, with Anastasia Robertson. VOL. 17 — 42 657 LORD ULLINS’ DAUGHTER, a bal- lad written by Thomas Campbell in 1809. It became a prime favorite and found its way into many schoolbooks. It was set to music by George Thomson. LORDS, House of. — PARLIAMENT. LORDS OF THE CONGREGATION, a title given in Scottish Church history to the chief nobles and gentlemen who signed the Covenant of Liberty of Worship (3 Dec. 1557). The whole body of adherents was called the Congregation, probably because the word con- gregation is found so frequently in the docu- ment. See CONGREGATION AND COVENANT OF LIBERTY OF WORSHIP. LORD’S DAY. See Saspartu. LORD’S PRAYER, The, sometimes called “Our Father” or the “Pater Noster,” from the first two words in English or in Latin; and called the “Lord’s Prayer” because taught by our Lord to his disciples. The prayer is given in the Bible, in Saint Matthew vi, and in Saint Luke xi. It is given both as a prayer and as a model or standard of prayer, and in Matthew is introduced by the words: “After this manner therefore pray ye In Luke the introduction is: “When ye pray say,” and is followed bv the words. There is a difference in the form as. given in the two gospels mentioned. -In Matthew the words are “Our Father who-art in heaven, hallowed be thy name; thy king- dom come; thy will be done as in heaven so upon earth. Give us to-day our daily bread; and forgive us our debts, as we also have for- given our debtors; and lead us not into tempta- tion; but deliver us from evil. Amen” In. Luke the words are: “Father, hallowed be thy name; thy kingdom come. Give us day by day our daily bread; and forgive us our sins; for we also forgive everyone indebted to us; and lead us not into temptation.” The doxology, “For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory for ever, Amen,” is not found in many of the best ancient au- See GREAT BRITAIN thorities, and for that reason it is omitted in Tischendorf’s eighth edition of the New Testa- ment and in the Westcott and Hort Greek New Testament. The prayer was introduced or taught in the “Sermon on the Mount,” and as given in Mat- thew consists-of nine parts — one salutation or invocation, seven petitions and “Amen.” In the salutation there are three distinct points; first, the word “Father,” implying fatherhaod, son- ship. Second, the word “Our,” which includes all mankind, a profession of brotherhood, a manifestation of charity in the most effective manner. Third, “Heaven,” where God is in His glory, for where His glory is revealed that is heaven. The seven petitions are usually divided into three parts. The first three peti- tions refer to the honor of God; the last three to our own advantage; and the fourth petition has an element.of both the first and the last groups. The “Amen” is a common ending to prayer, usually derived from the Hebrew verb meaning “to be firm,” or from a Hebrew noun meaning “truth,” and commonly rendered “so be it” or “may it be so.» In this place its signification is usually regarded as -meaning a stronger con- 658 firmation of what has just been said. In places in the liturgy of the Roman Catholic, the Protestant Episcopal and the Greek churches where the word “Amen” occurs, it is usually said by the server or clerk; but the “Amen” belonging to the “Lord’s Prayer” is said by the celebrant of the mass. Some of the early writers divided the peti- tions into six, joining the sixth and seventh. Many Protestant writers make this division, but Roman Catholic writers follow Saint Au- eustine, and divide the prayer into seven peti- tions. Lutheran writers generally follow this division, also the Protestant writers, Bleck, Hilgenfield, Keil and Tholuck. The gradation of a petitions is remarkable: First, the honor and glory of God is sought; second, our own greatest good; third, the necessary means to attain eternal life; fourth, necessities for the present life; fifth, to be freed from the great- est evil; sixth, to be freed from the evil next to the greatest; seventh, to be freed from all evil. The fifth, sixth and seventh petitions are directed against the respective impediments op- posed to the good mentioned in the second, third and fourth petitions. The doxology is explained in various ways, as a liturgical addition, as an ancient continua- tion used by the priests and then the people. The “kingdom” in the doxology seems to refer to the first and second petitions; the “power” to the third petition; and the “glory” to the fol- lowing petitions. Directly following the “Lord’s Prayer,” in the gospel of Saint Matthew vi, 14, there is an extension or explanation of the fifth petition, giving again the conditions of forgiveness; “For if ye forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive you.” Commentators differ as to the exact relation between the form of the “Lord’s Prayer” in the gospel of Matthew and in Luke. It is held by many authorities that the prayer was tanght on two different occasions, to different persons, ex- cept the apostles who were present on both oc- casions. Both forms were given as models and both contain the essentials. It appears in the earliest manual of Christian devotion, the ‘Didache,? at the beginning of the 2d century, and was first associated, not with the Eucha- ristic sacrifice, but with the daily offices. The prayer occurs in all ancient liturgies except the so-called Clementine liturgy— given in the Apostolic Constitutions. In all ‘the principal liturgies it occurs shortly before the Com- munion. Many polyglot collections of the prayer have been published. from the 16th century down- ward, the most remarkable of which were those of John Chamberlayne in 150 languages (1715), of Conrad Gesner in 200 (1748) and that of Padre Hervaz in 307 (1787). There are ex- positions of the Lord’s Prayer by Origen, Chrysostom, Gregory Nyssa, Cyprian, Luther, Leighton and Tholuck. Bibliography.— Maas, ‘The -Gospel Ac- cording to Saint Matthew? : Kenrick, the gos- pels of Saints Matthew and Luke in ‘The Four Gospels?; Saint Thomas Aquinas, ‘The Lord’s Prayer?; and the following authors in various writings, Bleck, Meyer, Kiel, Schanz, Spirago, Jannaris, Tholuck, W. Grimm, Hilgen- field, Peischel, Wendt, Weiss, Saint Augustine and Saint Alphonsus. Consult also Plummer LORDS SPIRITUAL — LORD’S SUPPER in Hastings’ ‘Dictionary of the Bible? and Nestle and Lambert in the ‘Dictionary of _ Christ and the Gospels,» with authorities quoted thereunder. LORDS SPIRITUAL, in Great Britain, archbishops and bishops of the Anglican Church who are given seats in the House of Lords. These are the archbishops of Canter- bury (the Primate of all England) and York, and 24 of the bishops. The bishops of London, Durham and Winchester are invariably mem- bers of the House of Lords; the other bishops are called according to seniority. Suffragan bishops are not eligible for the Upper House. On his retirement from his bishopric the Lord Spiritual ceases to be a member of the House of Lords. The Lords Spiritual.are not peers of the realm, but only Lords Spiritual of Par- liament. They have no right to demand trial by the House of Lords as peers, but are amen- able to the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts of law. Although the Lords Spiritual of the Upper House are distinct from the Lords Tem- poral, they do not vote separately, but jointly, forming for purposes of legislation one estate. The prelates vote on every subject brought be- fore the Lords, except in trials for high trea- son and other cases of a criminal nature. On such occasions they never attend or vote; this, however, is in deference to those canon laws which forbid them from participating in mat- ters of blood, and not owing to any Parliamen- tary requirement. The Spiritual Lords cannot vote or even take their seats in the House un- less robed in their jecclesiastical vestments, with rochet, lawn sleeves and mortar-board cap complete. The distinction between peers of the realm and the Lords Spiritual of Parlia- ment also extends to the families of the latter, courtesy titles not being accorded to them. LORD’S SUPPER (Lat. Cena Domini, Fr. La Sainte Céne, Ger. Abendmahl), one of the sacraments of the Christian religion, in the observance of which Christians commemorate the death of the Founder of their religion. It is so called because the Lord Jesus Christ insti- tuted the rite when he took his last meal with his disciples. It has also the names of eucha- rist and communion, and is celebrated by all Christian bodies however much their views may differ as to its nature and efficacy, except the Quakers. It was instituted at the time of the Jewish passover, as we read in the gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke, the two former agreeing very closely in their accounts, while that of Luke has features of its own. A brief statement to the same effect is in 1 Cor. xi. There is no eee section in the fourth gospel, though in John vi Christ speaks of the eating of his flesh and the drinking of his blood. In all the churches founded by the Apostles the Lord’s Supper was introduced. In the lst and 2d centuries this rite was cele- brated in connection with the agape or love- feast. After the 3d century, when the congre- gations became more numerous, the agape ceased, and the Lord’s Supper was from thence celebrated separately in the churches, in such a way that all present could partake, with the exception of catechumens (that is, Christians not yet baptized) and unbelievers. ‘These were obliged to withdraw when the celebration of the Lord’s Supper commenced, because com< | LORD’S SUPPER munion was considered as a mysterious act, which was to be withheld from profane eyes, The deacons carried the bread of life to those whom sickness or imprisonment had prevented from being present at the meeting of the con- gregation. It was always believed to possess a peculiar efficacy, and ideas of the awful and mystical were associated with it. From the first Christians ascribed supernatural power to the rite, and the consecrated bread and wine were regarded as more than mere bread and wine, and as having became, in some mystical way, the body and blood of our Saviour. In the early Church there was no definite dogmatic formulation of the change undergone by the sacred elements, but in the 9th century, in consequence of the attacks of Berengarius (q.v.) on the doctrine of the Real Presence, the term transubstantiation, commonly ascribed to Paschasius Radbertus, first came into use to describe metaphysically the real and objec- tive change of the elements of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. .This term was adopted by the Council of Rome in 1079, and confirmed in 1215, in the Fourth Lateran Council, by Innocent III, and has ever since been employed by the Roman Catholic Church as the authentic expression of her faith in the doctrine of the Eucharist. The Council of Trent in the 16th century laid it down as of faith to confess the “change of the whole sub- stance of the bread into the body, of the whole substance (substanti@) of the wine into the blood [of Christ], only the appearances (spe- cies) of bread and wine remaining; which change the Catholic Church most fitly calls Transubstantiation”™ The Roman Catholic Church holds that the Eucharist has been both a sacrament and a sacrifice from the beginning. This, she declares, is evident from Christ’s words of institution, as narrated in the synoptic gospels, and-from Saint Paul’s words in his first Epistle to the Corinthians. And unbroken tes- timony from the Apostles through the Fathers of the Church, she further avers, bears ample evidence to her claim; besides this, she claims that her own witness as the duly divinely ap- pointed guardian of the deposit of revelation and its infallible interpreter commissioned to teach all nations is sufficient seal to the truth of the doctrine. As a sacrament it is the true body and blood of Christ under the appearance of bread and wine to be partaken by the faith- ful as a means of grace and union with Christ; as a Sacrifice it is the unbloody oblation of the body and blood of Christ by a duly appointed minister, that is, priest, by whom alone the ele- ments can be consecrated. Such she declares has been the Christian teaching and practice from the beginning. The reception of the sac- rament under both kinds, that is, under the forms of both bread and wine, was general until the Middle Ages, when communion under one kind, bread alone, began to be adopted, partly to avoid the danger of spilling the con- secrated wine and partly to counteract a grow- ing heresy that Christ was not received whole and entire under either kind alone. The Coun- cil of Constance, in the 15th century, made it universally obligatory to communicate under one kind to meet the heresy of Huss and Jerome of Prague. The position taken up by the Protestant re- foemers in the: 16th century was that the 659 Church had deviated in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper from the purpose of Christ and the example of the apostolic age. Both the German and Swiss reformers agreed in reject- ing the doctrine of Transubstantiation and the Mass, maintaining that the Lord’s Supper ought always to be celebrated before the whole con- gregation, and with the administration of both bread and wine. In explaining the words by which the supper was instituted, Luther and Zwinglius differed, and their different opinions on this subject formed the principal subject of the dissension between the Lutheran and Cal- vinistic churches. Luther took the words, “This is my body,” etc., in their literal sense, and maintained that the body and blood of Jesus - Christ were united, in a mystical way, with the bread and wine, which, however, remain un- changed, so that the communicant receives, in, with and under the bread and wine, the real body and blood of the Redeemer. Zwinglius, on the other hand, understood the words in a figurative sense: that Jesus “Christ meant to say, “The bread and the wine represent my body and my blood” He maintained, there- fore, that the bread and wine were mere sym- bols of the body and the blood of Christ, and that the Lord’s Supper was a simple com- memoration of the death of Christ, and a pro- fession of belonging to his church, and this view was in substance adopted by the Socin- ians and Arminians. From this difference of opinion arose a_ violent dispute between Luther and Zwinglius, which in later times has been continued between the Lutheran and Cal- vinistic divines. The opinion advanced by Cal- vin, by which the spiritual presence of the body and blood of Christ is manifest in the com- munion, and by partaking of which the faith- ful receiver is brought into union with Christ, through the medium of the Holy Ghost, though it came nearer to the Lutheran doctrine than that of Zwinglius did, yet was essentially dif- ferent, and therefore also met with a strong opposition from the strict adherents of Luther. The Calvinist position is known as Reception- ist or virtualist. Melanchthon inclined to the Calvinistic notion, and so did many other Lutheran divines, who were called, by the op- posite party, Philippists and Crypto-Calvinists. The formula concordia, or articles of religious peace, suppressed the Crypto-Calvinists in the greatest part of the Lutheran Church, and established the position of Luther; conse- quently there was a final separation of the Lutheran and Reformed or Calvinistic churches, but in recent times many’ Lutheran divines have inclined to the Calvinistic doc- trine. The Greek Church has substantially held the doctrine of Transubstantiation in its whole extent. The Oriental Christians differ from the Western in using leavened bread in the Lord’s Supper and in administering it to chil- dren. (See GREEK CHURCH). It thus appears that the differences between the contending churches hinge on the mode in which the body and blood of Christ are present in the elements of bread and wine, for that they are in some way way present is admitted by them all. The majority of Protestant churches hold that presence means presence in efficacy, and will admit that it is “real” in the sense of being efficacious, though not in the sense of being corporeal. However, when they 660 are called onto define efficacy they differ in this, that some mean by it a sacrificial, and others a mysterious supernatural efficacy, ema- nating from Christ’s glorified body. The con- fessions of the Protestant churches framed expressly to conciliate the Lutherans, and contain, in consequence, more of the mys- tical element than is consistent with the senti- ments of the framers, as expressed in their writings. The 28th article of the Church of England, while repudiating Transubstantia- tion as “repugnant to the plain words of Scripture,” declares “that to such as rightly, worthily, and with faith receive the same, the bread which we break is a partaking of the body of Christ, and likewise the cup of blessing is a partaking of the blood of Christ.” It further declares that “the body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in the supper only after a heavenly and spiritual manner. And _ the mean whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the supper is faith.” But the High Church party in the Anglican Church makes an approach to the Roman position by belief in what is termed the “objective real presence.» The Westminster Confession, chap. xxix, s. 6 and 7, thus formulates the doctrine adopted by the Presbyterian Church of Scot- land, which in the main agrees with that pro- pounded by Calvin: ‘That doctrine which maintains a change of the substance of bread and wine into the substance of Christ’s body and blood (commonly called Transubstantia- tion) by consecration of a priest, or by any other way, is repugnant not to Scripture alone, but even to common sense and reason, over- throweth the nature of the sacrament, and hath been and is the cause of manifold superstitions, yea, of gross idolatries. Worthy receivers, out- wardly partaking of the visible elements in this sacrament, do then also inwardly by faith, really and indeed, yet not carnally and cor- porally, but spiritually, receive and feed upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of his death: the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in, with or under the bread and wine; yet as really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in that ordi- nance, as the elements themselves are to their outward senses.” The elevation, adoration and carrying about of the host, practised in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, is thus spoken of in the 28th article of the Anglican Church: “The sacrament of the Lord’s Supper was not by Christ’s ordinance reserved, car- ried about, lifted up, or worshipped.» While the Roman Catholic Church makes its com- municants receive the consecrated waiter with the mouth from the hands of the priest, the Protestant churches put the bread and the chalice into the hands of the communicant. In the Greek and Roman Catholic churches the Eucharistic sacrifice is offered daily; in the Anglican Church the practice varies, the High Church ideal being a daily celebration of Holy Communion. It was formerly the custom in the Scottish Presbyterian Church to observe the rite once a year; but it is now more fre- quently administered, generally four times a year. Bibliography.— Only a partial and frag- mentary list can be included here: Adamson, R. W., ‘Christian Doctrine of the Lord’s Sup- per? (Edinburgh 1905); Armstrong, ‘Sacra- Were LORDWOOD — LORELEI ments of the New Testament? (New York 1880) ; Bridgett, T. E., ‘History of the Holy Eucharist in England? (London 1908) ; Bright- man, ‘The Eucharistic Sacrifice? (ib. 1890) ; Dimock, N., ‘On Eucharistic Worship in the English Church? (ib. 1911); ‘Papers on the Doctrine of the English Church Concerning the Eucharistic Presence? (2 vols., ib. 1911); Frankland, W. B., ‘The Early Eucharist? (Cambridge .1902) ; Gardner, P., ‘Origin of the Lord’s Supper’? (London 1893); Gore, C.; ‘The Body of Christ? (ib. 1901); Groton, W. M., ‘Christian Eucharist and the Pagan Cults? New York 1914); Harnack, ‘History of ogma?. (Eng. trans., London 1894-99) ; Lam- bert, J. C., ‘The Sacraments in the New Testament? (Edinburgh 1905); Mortimer, A. G., ‘Catholic Faith and Practice’ (Philadel- phia 1898); Moule, ‘The Supper of the Lord? (London 1889); Perowne, J. J. S. ‘The Doc- trine of the Lord’s Supper? (London 1887) ; Pusey, E. B., ‘The Doctrine of the Real Presence as contained in the Fathers? (Oxford 1870) ; Sanday, W., ‘Priesthood and Sacrifice? (London 1900); Stone, D., ‘History of the Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist? (ib. 1909) ; Wilberforce, R. I., “The Doctrine of the Eu- charist? (ib. 1854); Wiseman, Cardinal, ‘Lec- tures on the Real Presence? (Dublin 1852); and the article in the ‘Encyclopedia of Reli- gion and Ethics. LORDWOOD. See LIQUIDAMBAR. LOREE, Leonor Fresnel, American rail- road president: b. Fulton City, Ill., 23 April 1858. In 1877 he was graduated at Rutgers. College and the same year entered the railway service as assistant in an engineers’ corps of the Pennsylvania Railroad. In 1879-81 he was transitman in the engineer corps of the United States army. He was leveler, transitman and topographer of the preliminary survey and loca- tion of the Mexican National Railway from the Rio Grande to Saltillo, Mex., in 1881-83. In the latter year he became assistant engineer of the Chicago division of the Pennsylvania, engineer of the maintenance of way of the I. and V. division in 1884-86, divisional engi- neer 1886-88 and superintendent of the Cleve- land and Pittsburgh division from 1889 to 1896. In 1896-1901 he was general manager of the system and became fourth vice-president in 1901. In 1901-04 he was president of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, of the Rock Island Com- pany of New Jersey in 1904. On 10 April 1907 he became president of the Delaware and Hudson Company and is president or director of 34 companies controlled or affiliated with it. Mr. Loree served as chairman of the United States delegation to the International Railway Congress at Paris in 1900. In April 1918 he was appointed member of the War Labor. Board, Washington, D. C. LORELEI, 10’ré-li, or LURLEI, loor'li, a rock on the right bank of the Rhine, near Saint Goar, about 425 feet above the river, through which a tunnel has been bored. Once a serious menace to passengers on the river and always famed for its echo, the rock has been personified by German poets, notably Heine, as a siren, luring sailors to destruction by the music of her voice, an evident idealiza- tion of the danger of the rock and of its echo. : LORENTZ — LORENTZ, 106’rénts, Hendrik Antoon, Dutch physicist : b. Arnheim, 1853. He received his education at the University of Leyden; was a teacher for five years in 1872-77 in his native place and in the latter year was made professor of mathematical physics at the Arn- heim ‘University. He developed Maxwell’s ether theory, and was one of. the founders of the electron theory. He arrived at the formula for the function of refraction at the same time as his namesake Lorenz of Copenhagen and subsequently developed the so-called “Zeeman effect.” In 1902 Lorentz was awarded, with Zeeman, the Nobel prize for physics. In 1906 he lectured at Columbia University and in 1912-13 at the Collége de France. In 1907 and 1909 he was director of scientific expeditions to New Guinea. His published works include ‘La théorie électromagnetique de Maxwell? (1892) ; ‘Versuch einer theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Kor- pern? (1895); ‘Textbook of Differential and Integral Calculus? (1882; 2d ed., 1907); ‘Text- book of Physics? (1888-90; German trans., ’ 1907); ‘Zichtbare en onzichtbare bewegingen” (1901; German 1902); ‘Abhandlungen wtber theoretische Physik? (1907) ; “The Theory of Electrons? (1909). LORENZ, 10’rénts, Adolf, Austrian ortho- pedic surgeon: b. 1854. He was graduated from the University of Vienna in 1880, and worked as an assistant under Theodor Billroth in Vienna. On the advice of the latter he be- gan specialization in orthopedic surgery, and after years of study developed his so-called “bloodless” method .of reducing congenital dis- location of the hip joint. Before he developed his own method of operation he was one of the chief exponents of Hoffa’s cutting method, which, however, he modified largely. His oper- ation consists of the forcible stretching of all the soft parts about the hip until the head of the bone can be brought to the place where the socket should be (the acetabulum), and then holding it in that position and rotating the joint to secure it in the depression of the acetabulum. A plaster of paris cast is worn by the patient from six to nine months after the operation. Dr. Lorenz has performed this operation successfully in a large percentage of his cases; he demonstrated his method before the Medical Congress at Berlin in 1895; and thas‘also given demonstrations in England and the United States. His visit to the United States (1902) aroused widespread interest and enthusiasm.. He. is now professor of ortho- pedic surgery at the University of Vienna and a government councillor. His publications in- clude ‘Orthopadie der Hiiftgelenks-Kontrak- turen und Ankylosen? (1889); ‘Das instru- mentelle kombinierte Redressement der Hiift- gelenks-Kontrakturen? (1898); ‘Ueber die Heilung der angeborenen Hiiftgelenks-Verren- kung durch unblutige Einrenkung und func- tionelle Belastung? (1900); and with Saxl, “Orthopedics in Medical Practice? (translated by L. C. P. Ritchie (New York 1913). LORENZ, 16’rentz, Ottokar, German his- torian: b. Tglau, 7 March 1832; d: 1904. His first work was ‘The Consular Tribunal? (1855). He was appointed professor of history in the University of Vienna, 1862, and in 1885 ac- cepted a call to the University of Jena. Among LORETO 661 his writings are ‘German History in the 13th and 14th Centuries’ (1863); ‘Sources of Medizval German History» (1870); ‘History of Alsace,’ with Scherer (1871); ‘History and Politics? (1876) ; “Genealogical Manual of the History of European States? (1895); ‘The Jubilee of Frederick, Duke of Baden? (1902) ; ‘Kaiser William and the Foundations of: the Empire from 1866 to 1871 (1902). LORENZO, 10-rén’so, or LOURENEO MARQUES, 16-ran’s6 mar’kés, East Africa, capital and one of the principal ports of Portu- guese East Africa, and the name of one of the districts of the province of Mozambique, The port, which is on Delagoa Bay, is the entrépot for a great hinterland, including the Trans- vaal colony. The railway to Pretoria was com- pleted in 1895; a new line to the Swagiland border is under construction, 44 miles being open for traffic in 1915. The number of vessels entered in 1915 was 546. Pop. about 13,514, of which about half are Europeans. See DeLtacoa Bay. LORETA, 1o-ra’‘ta, Pietro, Count, Italian surgeon: b. Ravenna, 1831; d. 1889.. He re- ceived his education at the University of Bo- logna; became anatomical prosector there in 1861 and four years later became director of the surgical clinic. He was appointed to the chair of surgery at Bologna University in 1868. His publications include ‘Nuovo metodo di cistotomia perineale?; ‘Nuovo metodo di cura degli aneurismi?; ‘La divulsione digitale del piloro?; ‘La divulsione instrumentale del car- dia; ‘La resizione del fegato. LORETO, 15-ra’to, Italy, city in the province of Ancona, about five miles from the Adriatic Sea and 15 miles south of the city of Ancona. It is. situated in -a fertile agricultural region, remarkable for its beautiful scenery. It is a famous place of pilgrimage, being visited by about 50,000 pilgrims annually, the centre of attraction being the Santa Casa, said to be the house in which Jesus, Mary and Joseph lived while in Nazareth. . The building is 31 feet in length and 13 feet in width. It is enclosed in a stately domed church (the church of the Holy House), the work of Bramante, in which there is a bronze statue of the Virgin and Child by Girolamo Lombardo, and stands under the dome. The original outer walls have been covered, but inside the coarse stonework of the original masonry is visible. The material is a dark reddish-colored stone, unlike the stone in the vicinity. The tradition is that after the power of the Christians was destroyed in Palestine, by the capture of Acre, in 1291, on 10 May 1291, angels moved this house from Nazareth to the hill of Tersatta, near Fiume. After a time, on 10 Dec. 1294, the house was again removed by angels to the opposite side of the Adriatic, near Recanati; and again, in 1295, it was removed to where it now stands. The trade i is mainly in the making of crucifixes, rosaries, etc.. for the pilgrims. Pop. of commune about 7,066. LORETO, Peru, an interior department bounded on the north by Ecuador and territory claimed by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the south bythe departments of Cuzco and Huanuco, and “west by Amazonas and Libertad. It is watered for thousands of 662 miles by the Marafion and its tributaries; area, 288,456 square miles; pop., chiefly Indians, about 100,000. The quickest route from the coast to this province, which is only about 700 miles distant in a direct line, is round the northern coast of South America and up the Amazon, a journey of 6,500 miles.- Loreto is separated from the coastal departments by the Andes, has a tropical climate and is densely forested; the chief products are rubber, salt, quinine, tobacco and tropical fruits. Rich gold deposits are believed to exist in the river beds. The principal towns are Iquitos, the capital, Moyobamba and Taropoto. LORETTE, Ancienne, 4n-sé-én l&rét, Quebec, Canada, a village seven miles south- southwest of Quebec city, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, with industries connected with the waterworks of Quebec on Lake Charles. Pop. 1,600. Three miles to the north is In- DIAN or JEUNE LoreETTE, peopled by about 300 Christianized Indians, descended from the last of the Huron Indians who had found a refuge at Ancienne Lorette in 1650. The settlement was removed to Jeune Lorette in 1697. Jeune Lorefte commands a fine view of Quebec, for which it is visited, as also for the falls of Lo- rette and for its ancient chapel and statue of the Virgin, a replica of those at Loretto, Italy. Pop. 1,588 LORETTO, or LORETO, Sisters of. See Orpers, RELIGIOUS. LORIA, lo’ré-a, Achille, Italian econo- “mist: b. Mantua 1857. He studied law at Bo- logna and proceeding successively to Rome, Berlin and London made a study of economical problems. He was professor of economics at Siena, 1881-91; at Padua, 1891-1903; and in the latter year was appointed to Turin. He has approached the subject of wealth distribu- tion and land-tenure in a spirit of optimism and has published many works on the subject. Among his writings are ‘Studii sul valore della moneta? (1891); ‘La terra ed il sistema so- ciale? (1892); ‘La costituzione economica odierna? (1889); and ‘Il capitalismo e la sci- enza (1901); ‘La scutesi economica? (1909 ; Eng. trans., ‘The Economic Synthesis, 1914) ; ‘Le basi economiche della costituzione societa? (Eng. trans., ‘Economic Foundations of So- ciety? (1899). LORICATA (from Latin looricare, to clothe in mail). Jn zoology, (1) the group of pagolins (see MAnts); (2) the group of Cro- codiha; (3) a group of -decapod Crustacea, which includes the spiny lobsters (Palinurus, etc.), and the bear-crabs (Scyllarus, Ibacus, etc.). These forms are large, with thick shells and without pinching claws. All are edible, the spiny lobster replacing the true lobster as an article of food in the warmer parts of the earth; (4) in ichthyology, a sub-order of ga- noid fishes : (5) animalcule provided with a alee such as certain infusorians and roti- ers. LORIENT 16-ré-6n, or L’ORIENT, France, a fortified seaport town, in the depart- ment: of Morbihan, at the junction of the ‘Scorff with the Blavet, on the Bay of Biscay, about 40 miles west of Vannes. It was founded in 1666.by the French East Indies Company and in 1690 it became a military fort. After the dissolution of the company, in 1782, the ) tion of the LORETTE — LORIMER government bought the . ship-building plant The large harbor can accommodate with safety a great number of vessels. Lorient is a sta- French fleet and has extensive docks, two graving docks and is a great, port for naval construction, the shipyards occupy- ing 38 acres. It has also large artillery bar- racks, an artillery park, a marine arsenal and a great powder magazine in the middle of the channel. It has an observatory, schools. of marine, artillery and hydrography and other educational institutions and a large number of manufacturing establishments, including iron foundries and forges. The principal imports are coal, pitch and timber; the exports include oil, wood and sardines and there are extensive oyster beds. Lorient was unsuccessfully. at- tacked by the British in 1746. Pop. about 42,463. -About five miles south of Laplene: is the fortified town of Port Louis, L’ORIGNAL, 10’ré’nyal’, Canada, town and county-seat of Prescott County, Ontario, on the Ottawa River and the Canadian North- ern Railway, 50 miles east of Ottawa. Steam- boats connect it with Ottawa and Montreal.’ Lumbering is the principal industry. The town is the seat of a Roman Catholic convent and possesses an electric plant. Pop. 1,350. | LORIKEET, a small kind of lory: (q.v.). LORIMER, loér’i-mér, George Claude, American Baptist clergyman: b. Edinburgh, Scotland, 1838; d. Aix-les-Bains, France, 7 Sept. 1904. He came to the United States in 1856 and was educated at Georgetown College, Kentucky. . In 1859 he was ordained to the Bap- tist ministry and held pastorates at Harrods- burg, Paducah and Louisville, Ky.; ‘he was then at Albany for a short time, at the Shaw- mut Avenue Church and Tremont Temple in Boston in 1870-79 and in Chicago till 1891. -In the latter year he returned to Boston to be- come pastor at Tremont Temple: In 1902 he went to New York as pastor of the Madison Avenue Church. He was associate editor of the Watchman and wrote ‘Isms Old and New? (1882) ; ‘Under the Evergreens? (1872); ‘The Great Conflict? (1876); ‘Studies in Social Life? (1886); ‘Christianity and the Social State; ‘Christianity in the Nineteenth Cen- tury?; ‘Messages of To-day to the Men of To- morrow? (1897); ‘Master of Millions? (1903), a story of modern life; ‘The Modern Crisis in Religion» (1904). He edited ‘The People’s Bible History Prepared in the Light of Regeht Investigations»? (1895). LORIMER, George Horace, American editor and author: b. Louisville, Ky., 6 Oct. 1868. He was educated at the Mosely High School, Chicago, at Colby and at Yale. He was engaged in business in Chicago until 1896 when he became a reporter and correspondent, 1896-97.. He became literary editor and man- aging editor of the Saturday Evening Post 1897, becoming its editor-in-chief in 1899, His remarkable faculty of discerning popular taste and fancy has made for the immense success of that periodical. His best-known work is ‘Let- ters of a Self-Made Merchant to His. Son? (1902), remarkable for its humor, wit and use of slang to drive home a work-a-day philoso- phy. Other works are ‘Old Gorgon Graham? (1904); ‘The False Gods»? (1906); ‘Jack Spurlock — Prodigal» (1908). LORIMER — LORING LORIMER, John Henry, English painter: b, Edinburgh, 1856. He was educated at the Edinburgh Academy and University and began his art studies at the Royal Scottish Academy. One of his pictures was admittted to the an- nual exhibition of that institution when he was but 19. .He was elected a member of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1900. His most important exhibited pictures are ‘The Ordination of EI- ders?; ‘Pot Pourri?; ‘The Eleventh Hour? (1896), which in 1900 was awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exposition. In 1894 the French government bought his ‘Benedicite, which is now in the Luxembourg, where his portrait of Col. Anstruther Thompson has also been deposited. LORIMER, William, American capital- ist and politician: b. Manchester, England, 27 April 1861. At the age of five he came to the United States with his parents and in 1870 to Chicago. At 10 he became a sign-painter’s ap- prentice and subsequently obtained employment in packing-houses and with a street railroad company. He received no schooling, but ob- tained the rudiments of an education through his own efforts. He entered the real estate business in 1886 and later was member of the firm of Murphy and Lorimer in building and brick manufacturing business. Since 1900 he has been a member of the contracting firm of Lorimer and Gallagher. He was connected with the Chicago water department as super- intendent of water-main extensions and later superintendent, in 1887-93. Lorimer was a member of Congress from 1895 to 1909, with the exception of the term 1901-03. On 26 May 1909 Lorimer was elected United States sen- ator for the term 1909-15. He resigned from the House of Representatives and took his seat in the Senate on 18 June 1909... The. validity of his election was challenged in the Senate, 9 Jan. 1911. By a vote of 46 to 40, on 1 March 1911, the challenge was not sustained. This de- cision was unpopular as corrupt practices were suspected to have secured the election and when Congress reconvened the Senate decided to re- open the investigation (1 June 1911). A ma- jority of the Committee on Privileges and Elections reported that Lorimer’s election had not been brought about by corrupt practices. A bitter quarrel followed in the Senate, which divided into reactionaries and progressives ir- respective of. old party lines and on 14 July 1912 a resolution was sustained by a vote of 55 to 28, declaring that corrupt methods and practices had been employed in the election; that the election was in consequence invalid; and Lorimer’s seat vacant. Almost a direct result of the Lorimer case was the triumph of the movement for the election of United States senators by direct popular vote. From 1910 to 1915 Lorimer was president of the La Salle Street Trust and Savings Bank. This and a number of affiliated concerns failed in 1914, and Lorimer and several others were in- dicted for misappropriation of funds. LORING, loér’ing, Charles Greely, Amer- ican lawyer and orator: b. Beverly, Mass., 1794; . 1868. He was graduated from Harvard in 1812 and practised his profession in Boston, be- coming in 1857 actuary of the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company. entered the State senate. He was of much In 1862 he | 663 prominence as an orator and a prominent mem- ber of the Massachusetts Historical Society, was the author of ‘Neutral Relations between the United States and England? (1863); ‘Life of William Sturgis? (1864). LORING, Charles Greely, son of the preceding: b. Boston, 1828; d. Pride’s Crossing, Beverly, Mass., 20 Aug. 1902.. He was gradu- ated from Harvard in 1848 and served in the Union army during the Civil War, being bre- vetted major-general of volunteers at its close. He became a trustee of the American Museum of Fine Arts in 1873 and was the executive aticel the institution from 1876 until his eatn. LORING, Charles Harding, American naval engineer: b. Boston, Mass., 1828; d. 1907. He received his education in the public schools; became a machinist’s apprentice and in 1851 was appointed third assistant engineer in the United States navy. During the Civil War he was civil engineer of the Minnesota and participated in the action with the iron- clad Merrimac. Afterward he had charge of the construction of monitors; was fleet engi- neer of the Asiatic squadron and in 1881 be- came a member of the first Naval Advisory Board. In 1884 he was engineer-in-chief of the United States navy, a position he held until his retirement in 1890, When war broke out with Spain ‘in 1898 he was made ‘inspector of engineering work at the New York navy yard. He was honored, in 1892, with the presidency of the American Society of Mechanical Engi- neers. LORING, Ellis Gray, American lawyer: b. Boston, 1803; d. 1858. He was educated at the Boston Latin School, entered Harvard in 1819, but without graduating left college and studied law. In 1827 he was admitted to the bar, where he soon won high distinction. He was one of the first pleaders for the abolition of slavery and one of the founders of the first anti-slavery society, in Boston, 1832, whose constitution he wrote. As a defender of fugi- tive slaves he gave freely of his time and tal- ents and. shared the odium visited upon all the early abolitionists.. Before the Supreme Court of Massachusetts he made a memorable. de- fense of a slave-child called Med, by which, against so formidable an opponent as Benja- min R. Curtis (q.v.), he secured a decision de- claring that every slave brought into that State thereby became legally free. The effect of his convincing argument was both instantaneous and lasting, and his triumph was a substantial service to the anti-slavery cause. He published numerous addresses on the slavery question. LORING, George Bailey, American agri- culturist: b. North Andover, Mass., 8 Nov. 1817; d. Salem, Mass., 14 Sept. 1891, He was graduated from Harvard in 1838 and from. the Harvard Medical School in 1842, and after several years of medical work at the Chelsea Marine Hospital devoted himself from 1850 onward to scientific agriculture, writing many essays and papers. on farming and allied topics. He became famous as an orator, served several terms in Massachu- setts legislature, was member of Congress 1876- 81, United States Commissioner of Agriculture 1881-85. and. Minister to Portugual 1889-90. 664 He was president of the Massachusetts State Agricultural Society for many years and a member of the Republican national conven- tions of 1868 and 1872. He published ‘The Farm-Yard Club of Jotham? (1876). LORING, William Wing, American sol- dier: b. Wilmington, N. C., 4 Dec. 1818; d. 30 Dec. 1886. He entered the United States army as a private in a troop of volunteer cavalry and was active in the Florida War in 1835-42. He studied at Georgetown College and then vol- unteered in the Texas struggle for independ- ence. From 1839 to 1842 he was a member of the Florida Territorial legislature and in the latter year was admitted to the bar. During the war with Mexico he was distinguished for bravery at Contreras, Churubusco and. Chapul- tepec and was brevetted lieutenant-colonel and colonel. In 1849-51 he commanded the troops in the Department of Oregon and campaigned against the Indians in the Rio Grande region 1851-56. In 1857-58 he served under A. S. Johnston in Utah. Although opposed to seces- sion he held State Right views and in May 1861 resigned his commission and became a brigadier-general in the Confederate army and later major-general. He served in West Vir- ginia and as a corps commander in Georgia, Mississippi and Tennessee; was active in the Vicksburg and Atlanta campaigns and served as second in command to John B. Hood at Franklin and Nashville. He also served under Joseph E. Johnston in the Carolinas, and with him surrendered to Sherman in April 1865. For a few years after the close of the war he was a banker in New York, then went to Egypt in 1869 and was made a pasha and chief of staff in the army of the Khedive. He re- organized the Egyptian army with great suc- cess, was successively commandant of Alex- andria, chief of the coast defenses and general of division. In 1879 he returned to the United Stees and published a description of his Ori- ental experiences in ‘A Confederate Soldier in Egypt? (1883). LORIS. See Lemur. LORIS-MELIKOFF, © 10’ris - mél'i - kof, Mikhail Tarielovitch Tainoff, Count, Rus- sian soldier and statesman: b. Tiflis, Russia, 1 Jan. 1826; d. Nice, France, 22 Dec. 1888. He was of Armenian descent, entered the army in 1843, served in several campaigns in the Cau- casus and became major-general in his 30th year and distinguished himself at the capture of Kars in 1854. He served in the Crimean War and was made lieutenant-general in 1863. In the Turco-Russian War of 1877 he won the victory of Aladja Dagh in October, following up which he took Kars in November and for his services in the campaign was made a count in 1878. He was recalled from Tiflis (where in charge of several districts he had intro- duced liberal reforms) during the Nihilist menace in 1879, and in 1880 was appointed Minister of the Interior, in which post he be- gan by introducing liberal measures, but the assassination of the Tsar (13 March 1881) was followed by the adoption of a reactionary policy on the accession of Alexander III, his position became untenable and he resigned. LORNA DOONE, by Richard Doddridge . Blackmore, published in 1869, was one of the LORING — LORRAINE earliest and by far the most popular of all Blackmore’s dozen or more novels.’ By’ some critics it has been esteemed one of the great pieces of English fiction, but this’ praise is un- doubtedly excessive. The theme is entirely romantic, there being little realism and no “problem” writing whatever. It is the theme of apparently hopeless, but finally triumphant, love; of feminine pity and distress; of manly courtesy and resolution; of the success of the noble-hearted and the discomfiting of evi] men. John- Ridd, a young rustic giant of North Devon, rescues the high-born Lorna from the hands of her outlaw relatives and finally rises not only to the possession of Lorna’s hand, but to high position on .the strength of his own merit. There is some historical background out of the reigns of Charles II and James II, most vividly represented at the battle of Sedgemoor. The Doones themselves are largely legendary. Probably their formidableness and knavery are very much exaggerated over any actual facts, just as the scenery of Devon and Somerset, es- . pecially the description of Doone Valley, are great exaggerations. Interwoven with the ro- mantic and semi-historical pictures of the tale are many pleasant details of country life and many quiet scenes and adventures of a placid rural sort. The length of the story. is not di- minished by being told in the first person by the hero, but it is full of honest spirit and of attractive detail. Oe | WILLIAM T. BREWSTER. LORNE, lorn, MarQuis or (JOHN GEORGE DoucLaAs SUTHERLAND CAMPBELL). See Ar- GYLE, CAMPBELLS OF. ; LORRAINE, Claude. RAINE. LORRAINE, 16-ran’, or LOTHARIN- GIA, a province of France, situated on its northeastern frontier and includes such import- ant towns as Metz and Thionville. It was in- corporated in the Germanic Empire in 855, when Lothair II, son of. the Emperor Lothair J, obtained the lands between the Scheldt, Meuse and Rhine, called Lotharingia, or Lorraine. It at first included Alsace and Friesland; but these provinces were separated in 870, being divided between’ Louis the German and Charles the Bald, king of the West Franks. About 911 the county of Lorraine was elevated into a dukedom. In 945 it was divided into two parts, Upper and Lower Lorraine. Lower Lorraine came into possession of the dukes of Brabant in the 13th century and from that time was known as Brabant. Philip the Good of Bur- gundy incorporated it -in his dominions in. 1429 and it now forms part of the kingdom of Belgium and province of Brabant and Guelder- land in Holland. Upper Lorraine continued to be governed by its own dukes until 1736, was given to Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, and on his death in 1766 was awarded to France. It was afterward divided into four departments, Meuse, Moselle, Meurthe and Vosges. The dis- trict between Metz and the Vosges, which in- cludes Metz and Thionville, was ceded to Ger- many at the close of the Franco-German War, under the Treaty of Frankfort, 10 May 1871, and was part of the Reichsland of Alsace-Lo- thringen, until its occupation by the troops of the Allied nations in November 1918. See CLAUDE* Lor- LORTZING — LOS ANGELES ‘lorts'‘ing, Gustav Albert, German composer: b. Berlin, 23 Oct. 1801; d. there, 21 Jan. 1851. His parents were actors and at 19 young Lortzing made his theatrical début at Aachen and Diisseldorf. In 1824 he brought out his first opera, ‘Ali Pascha von Jannina,. but attracted little notice. —Two years later he became a member of the Court Thea- tre Company at Detmold.. ‘Der Pole und sein Kind appeared in ‘1831. Lortzing’s fame, how- ever, rests on the two operas, ‘Czar .und. Zim- mermann” (1837) and ‘Der Wildschtitz? (1842). The former is one of the master- pieces of comic opera and still holds the boards in German opera-houses, although it was indif- ferently received at its first production at Leip- zig. ‘Undine? appeared in 1845 and ‘Der Waffenschmied? in 1846. Lortzing was made conductor of the Leipzig Opera in 1844, but re- signed soon afterward after a quarrel with the management. He was reinstated through the influence of friends, but his temperamental na- ture soon involved him in a second quarrel and brought about his removal. He was made ca- pellmaster of the Friedrich Wilhelmstadtisches Theatre, Berlin, in 1850. Consult Kruse, G. R., Albert ‘Lortzing? (Berlin 1899) and Wittmann, Herman, ‘Lortzing? (Leipzig 1889). LORY, any of several East Indian and Australian parrots, but more especially one of the brush-tongued Australian family Tricho- glosside, the smaller examples of which go by the name of lorikeets. Both the lories and the lorikeets are remarkable for their extensible tongue, furnished with a pencil at its extrem- ity, by which they are enabled to lick up the nectar of flowers. In doing so they carry pol- len from blossom to blossom, performing an * important service of cross-fertilization, espe- cially for the eucalyptus trees. (See FLOWERs, FERTILIZATION OF, BY Birds). The lorikeets are smaller than the lories and have long taper- ing tail-feathers. Swainson’s lorikeet (T._no- vehollandig) is the best-known species. It is found in eastern Australia _and Tasmania and is popularly known as the Blue Mountain lory or the Blue Mountaineer. The name lory is also given to the large, brilliantly colored parrots of the psittacine genus Eclectus. Consult Newton, ‘Dictionary of: Birds? “ (1896) ; Evans, ‘Birds? (in Cam- bridge Natural History, Vol. IX, New York 1901).; and see Parrots. LOS ANGELES, Cal., city, county-seat of Los Angeles County, about 15 miles in an air line from the! Pacific Ocean, in the valley of the Los Angeles River, a dry river-bed in sum- mer, but in winter a considerable stream after heavy rainfalls. The Sierra Madre range of mountains, about 10 miles north of Los An- geles, may be seen from most any part of the city. There is also a lower range of mountains extending from the city to the ocean. Origi- nally Los Angeles covered an area of 36 square LORTZING, miles, extending three miles in each direction. from the old plaza. Within the past few years numerous additions have been made, including a “shoe-string strip» extending from the city to the ocean and taking in the ports of Wil- mington and San Redro. The area at present is 351.1 square miles. The average altitude is 270 feet above sea-level. The northern part of the city is hilly. 665 The city has railroad competition: in four transcontinental lines, two southern Pacific systems, By way of Ogden and El Paso, the SA Fé y way of Albuquerque, and the Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad, from Salt Lake. Altogether there are a dozen lines of railroad leading to Los Angeles, including an elaborate suburban electric railroad system, ag- gregating over 1,100 miles of track, some of the lines having four tracks. The electric street railway system is also extensive, the total mile- age of single track being over 300 miles. Half. a dozen lines run large and commodious steam- ships 475 miles northward to San Francisco, also to Portland and Puget Sound on the north, and to San Diego on the south. Los Angeles Harbor is guarded from the rare storms of the Pacific by a breakwater two and one-half miles long, built by the United States government at a cost of $3,500,000. Active work has been accomplished on the. further dredging of the harbor, construction of wharves and warehouses. The harbor is municipally owned and controlled. The harbor projects under construction include 21%4 miles of munic- ipal wharfage, besides a large area of wharfage under private ownership, Los An- geles Harbor is absolutely safe and in any weather may be entered by vessels under their own power. Los Angeles has the advantage of being located on the shortest road by the low- est grades between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Since the opening of the Panama Canal it is close to the direct route of vessels sail- ing from the Atlantic to the Orient. Los An- geles is the commercial and social metropolis of the Southwest, including southern Califor- nia, southern Nevada and Arizona. It also does a large and increasing trade with northern Mexico, Central and South America. The two most important products of the country sur- rounding Los Angeles are citrus fruits and petroleum. The annual value of the orange and lemon output of this section is about $40,000,000. These fruits are marketed under a thoroughly organized co-operative system of distribution. Los Angeles is the central dis- tributing point for important petroleum fields with an annual output aggregating about $40,000,000. There are half a dozen beet sugar factories in the country tributary to Los An- geles, with a total output of $18,000,000. Other important products of the surrounding coun- try are beans and other vegetables, deciduous fruits, walnuts and grain. Los Angeles is rap- idly becoming an important manufacturing city, possessing great advantages in the .way of mild climate and cheap fuel in the shape of crude petroleum and electric power, derived from mountain streams. The annual value of its manufactired products is placed at $140,- 000,000. There are 32 banks in the city with a total combined annual clearance of about $1,293,000,000. Building operations have an ‘an- nual average value of about $20,000,000. Los Angeles is a residential city, a large proportion of the people owning their own dwellings. The city is practically frostless; callas, heliotropes and other delicate plants flourishing throughout the winter in the open air. The residence streets are generally aligned by evergreen shade trees. The city is the seat of the University of Southern Cali- fornia, a Methodist establishment. Occidental 666 College is conducted by the Presbyterians. The Roman Catholics have a college and three acad- emies. There is a State normal school, several high schools, a polytechnic high school, a pub- lic library with nearly 280,000 volumes, 350 handsome church buildings of all leading de- nominations and a model institutional church. There are 25 public parks within the city lim- its, aggregating over 4,000 acres, four of them having lakes of considerable size. The city de- rives its water supply from the snow-clad slopes of Mount Whitney, in Owens Valley, 240 miles from Los Angeles, and from wells. A sewer system extends to the ocean. The mayor of Los Angeles holds office for two years. He appoints five trustees for the li- brary and is ex officio a member and chair- man of several committees. The city council of nine members, chosen by election from the city at large, has four commissioners who have charge respectively of police, health, fire and park departments. The board of education consists of nine members chosen by election from the city at large. : The pious Spanish pioneers who first in- troduced civilization in Alta, California, were in the habit of giving names to places in accord- ance with the Church calendar. Consequently, when mass was first celebrated on the present site of the city, in 1781, it was named Nuestra Senora Reina de Los Angeles, which the prac- tical Yankees upon their arrival at once pro- ceeded to abbreviate. The growth of Los Angeles has been re- markable. Until 1817 Los Angeles alternated with Monterey as the seat of Mexican provin-. cial government of Alta, California. In 1846 it was taken by Commodore Stockton of the United States navy. It received its city char- ter in 1851. In 1850 its population was 1,610. The census of 1880 gave it a population of 11,311. The census of 1910 gave it 319,198. In 1914 the government. estimate of the popula- tion was 438,914, and the present (1920) popu- lation is 576,673. LOS INTERESES CREADOS, los in’ta- ra’sés kra‘a-dos (‘The Bonds of Interest), by Jacinto Benavente, the most popular and widely-known production of Spanish letters during the 20th century, was first presented at Madrid, 9 Dec. 1907. With this comedy the modern movement in Spanish art attained full maturity, the play taking its place immediately among the classics of the stage. The theme is the duality of human nature in the conflict be- tween the real and the ideal, ever present to the Spaniard in the persons of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, but here transferred to the domain of the will and embodied in Leander and his servant, the rogue Crispin, to whom falls the task of grovelling that his master may rise. The philosophy of the play is prag- matic, while life is depicted as a series of ap- proximations incapable of unification. In feel- ing and technique, ‘Los Intereses Creados> belongs to the neo-romantic school, of which it must be accounted one of the finest exam- ples. Delicacy of poetic feeling is combined with an unfailing many-sided humanity in a portrayal of varied lights and shades, which is reinforced by the vivid colors of the satiric picaresque tradition, and couched in a diction which is among the most notable specimens of LOS INTERESES CREADOS — LOSE modern Spanish prose. Although employing the forms of: the Italian commedia dell’ arte Benavente achieves as in his other works an absolute de-artificialization of theatric effect. A continuation, ‘La Ciudad Alegre y Confiada,>» followed in 1916, but in this the intellectual element is directly predominant, both in con- ception and style, the second part being wholly distinct from its predecessor. “Los Intereses Creados? has been translated into the principal European languages. It is ‘included in Benavante’s ‘Teatro? (Vol. XVI, Madrid 1908), having previously been issued independently by the Sociedad de Autores Espafioles. The English version is published in the ‘Plays by Jacinto Benavente? (New York 1917). . JOHN GARRETT UNDERHILL. LOS SUENOS, los stia’nyds. Francisco Gomez Quevedo Villega composed his ‘Suefios,? or ‘Visions, at intervals between the years 1606 and 1627, at which latter date they were first published at Barcelona. The conception of .a dream or vision of the other world, peopled by contemporaries of the author in this, was familiar in medieval literature, and is utilized by Quevedo with. full realization of its possi- bilities in the sphere of personal satire and scandalous attack. The satire of the ‘Suefios? is rather journalistic than philosophic, more akin to the opportunism and animosities of the periodical press than to the spirit of belles- lettres. Ductile and incisive by turns, the humor is both crushing and keen. Clergy, physicians, merchants, Jews, actors, poets, all the cherished abominations of the author, pass in rapid kaleidoscopic review, more effective indeed at the outset, as in the “Vision of the Last Judgment,” and in miniature than in the later pages, which suffer from the repetition in- evitable in the monotony of the scheme. Usually reckoned as six in number, an addi- tional vision is admitted by many editors — “La Hora de Todos y la Fortuna con Seso.” Mature and highly mannered in style, this was printed posthumously in 1658, constituting a substantial volume in itself. It is properly a cento of later writings of the author. The earlier Visions? circulated in manuscript, or surreptitiously as pamphlets. Two years after the first collected edition, a reprinting under the title ‘Juguetes de la Nifiez y Travesuras del Ingenio» was authorized by the Inquisition at Madrid (1629), the more offensive passages being deleted, and the text revised through the substitution of names of pagan deities for those of the Christian dispensation. Although inferior in directness and energy, this version is that which has since been commonly known. The standard Spanish text, edited by Aurelio Fernandez Guerra, is included in the ‘Obras? of Quevedo, ‘Biblioteca de Autores Espafioles?, (Vols. XXIII and XLVIII, Madrid 1880 et seq.). The ‘Suefios? are also reprinted in the series of ‘Clasicos Castellanos? (2 vols., Madrid 1916-17), with an introduction by Julio Cejadot y Frauca. The familiar English ver- sion is by Sir Roger L’Estrange. : JoHN GARRETT UNDERHILL. LOSE, George William, American clergy- man and author: b. Pleasant Unity, Westmore- land County, Pa., 28 Sept. 1852; was gradu- ated Capital University, Columbus, Ohio, 1871, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. wee Riveesteristht’ ane 1 One of the principal streets in the shopping district 2 Terminal Wholesale Market qinog + Mol[esuNng LOS ANGELES, CALIF. LOSSING — LOST PLEIAD and from the theological seminary of same institution 1874. Entered the Lutheran min- istry and held several pastorates in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Editor of several Lutheran pe- riodicals and author of many books, including ‘Esther and Other Poems? (1883); ‘The Tri- umph of Faith? (1888); ‘The Lives of the Twelve Apostles”? (1888); ‘From Darkness to Light? (1898); ‘The Pace that Kills? (1905) ; ‘Ralph the Orphan” (1906); ‘Bread Upon the Waters? (1908); ‘The Secret of Happiness? (1909) ; “Christmas Eve at Eddington Place’; ‘The Melnore Parish?; ‘The Song of the Pilgrim? ; ‘Promises Fulfilled ; ‘Their Mother’s Prayers’; ‘Theodore’; ‘Dorothy’ ; ‘The Better Way’; ‘A Good Investment? ; ‘Zaun?; ‘Commit Thy Way unto © the Lord?; ‘The Sandrock Estate?; ‘Lifting the Sandhill. Mortgage’; ‘Aunt Hannah’s Cup of Cold Water?; ‘The Last Son?; ‘The Good Shepherd?; ‘Clouds and Sunshine? (1914); ‘Coals of Fire? (1914); ‘Through the Fire? (1914) ; ‘Catechism Bible Narratives» (1915). LOSSING, lds’ing, Benson John, Amer- ican historian and engraver: b. Beekman, Dutchess County, N. Y., 12 Feb. 1813; d. near Dover Plains, N. J., 3 June 1891. In 1826 he was apprenticed to a watchmaker in Pough- keepsie and subsequently entered into partner- ship with his employer, but in 1835 relinquished the business and became joint owner and edi- tor of the Poughkeepsie Telegraph. He soon after settled in New York as an engraver on wood, and at the same time edited and _illus- trated the Family Magazine. His connection with his newspaper enterprises in Poughkeepsie, however, continued until 1841. That year ap- peared his ‘Outline History of the Fine Arts,? followed in 1847 by an illustrated work, SSeven- teen Hundred and Seventy-Six, and in 1848 by ‘Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence.’ His ‘Pictorial Field Book of the Revolution? was issued in numbers in 1850- 52, with more than 1,000 illustrations by him- self. In the preparation of this work, which is remarkable for the minute and accurate in- formation which it conveys, the author traveled at different times upward of 9,000 miles, visit- ing every important battlefield of the Revolu- tion and making sketches on the spot. Among other works are ‘Illustrated History of the United States for Schools and Families? (1854) ; “Our Countrymen, or Brief Memoirs of Eminent Americans? (1855) ; ‘Primary His- tory of the United States? (1857); ‘Mount Vernon and its Associations,’ illustrated by himself (1859); ‘Life and Times of Philip Schuyler? (1860); ‘Life of Washington? (3 vols., 1860); “Lives of the Presidents”; ‘Pic- torial Field Book of the War of 1812? (1868) ; ‘The Civil War in America? (1866-68); ‘The American Centenary? (1876); ‘Cyclopedia of United States History? (1881); ‘History of New York City? (1884); “Compendious His- tory of the Commonwealth of New York? (1887). LOST CAUSE, The, a phrase which first became current through the title of a history of the Civil War (1886) by E. A. Pollard. It is used as an expressive designation for the purposes and aims which the Southern people, through the war, vainly sought to realize in the 667 permanent establishment of the Confederate States of America. LOST CHORD, The, title of poem writ- ten by Adelaide A. Proctor. It was. first printed in Household Words, and appeared again in her collection of ‘Legends and Lyrics? (1858). The verses became widely. known when set to music by Sir Arthur Sullivan; his mood was so attuned to that of the poet that words and music both sound a strain of grandeur, intellectual and emotional, mutually. interpretative. _LOST or HIDDEN ISLAND, an appel- lation anciently applied to Cephalonia, early navigators often being unable to find it on ac- count of its diminutive size. The name also has been given to islands in different parts of the world that once discovered have disap- peared or have not been found again. _ LOST PARADISE, The. The symbolical title of ‘Das verlorene Paradies? (“The Lost Paradise”) (1892) by Ludwig Fulda designates the world in which the vast majority of men and women eat bread in the sweat of their brows. The play is intended to arouse sympa- thy for workmen who strike rather than see their families starve. Contrasted with their state is that of an absentee Berlin proprietor whose luxurious mode of life leaves but a narrow margin for charitable concessions to his workmen, and who is just now especially impeded by having admitted to equal partner- ship in the business a young man of aristo- cratic name about to become his son-in-law. The latter attempts to cow the laborers into submission. But the daughter, visiting the factory for the first time on the occasion of her betrothed’s appearance there, is touched with pity for the employees, and is stirred to such indignation at the bargain for a son-in- law which her parents have made that she breaks the engagement and beseeches her father to grant the demanded increase of wages. The drama reflects conditions in Germany rather than any conceivable conditions among us. No American manufacturer would sup- pose that a gilded youth— though the son of an inventor—could assume the management of a machine-shop, or could avert a strike; none would regard his business as merely the dowry of his daughter, or would face bank- ruptcy rather than dispense with a socially dis- tinguished son-in-law. And even in Germany Herr. Bernardi’s daughter — sophisticated, but inexperienced, unused to feeling and yet sensi- tive to others’ wrongs—is an unlikely prod- uct of her environment. The superintendent of the factory has a keen sense of the joy of work and of social justice; Bernardi’s attitude is a mixture of aloofness and sentimentality. The play contains a number of dramatic mo- ments and an abundance of realistic dialogue, but also considerable stretches of sententious conversation. Translated by H. C. De Mille (New York 1897); edited by P. H. Grum- mann (Boston 1906). Witt1AmM G. Howarp; Assistant Professor of German, Harvard Un- versity. LOST PLEIAD, ple’ad, a star of the Plei- ades constellation which tradition says was once visible, being the seventh of that cluster. =) 668 Only six stars are now to be seen with the naked eye. In mythology the lost Pleiad is said to represent both Merope and Sterope who hid themselves ashamed at having married mortals; also as Electra, mother by Jupiter of Dardamus, who fled to avoid seeing the fall of Troy. The legend figures in modern poetry and art; a poem by Letitia Landon and a paint- ing by Thomas Buchanan Read each bear the title. LOST TEN TRIBES, The. After the death of Solomon the 10 northern tribes of Israel seceded and established the separate kingdom of Israel. It existed for 200 years, until it was finally brought to an end when Samaria was overthrown by Sargon of Assyria in 722 p.c. At that time 27,000 people were taken to different parts of the Assyrian Empire. It was formerly one of the puzzles of history to know what finally became of the Ten Tribes. There were several theories. Because of the fact that some Jewish monuments were found in China some writers traced them to that land. Others found their descendants in India. The theory that the Anglo-Saxons were the descend- ants of the Ten Tribes had many propagators, and the Anglo-Israelite theory, as it is called, produced a large literature. The general con- sensus of scientific opinion, however, is that ° the tribes became absorbed, as subsequent van- ished races have, in neighboring nations, and thus were not lost in the real significance of the term. In the Palestinian Talmud and Midrach Gen. Rabba Ixiii, the region of the exile of the 10 tribes is recorded as around the river Sabbation (q.v.), the Sabbatic River, so named from the sacred Sabbath of the Jews, identified in modern times with the stream running from the seven-days intermittent spring Fauwar ed-Deir in the Lebanon. In the ‘Eldad ha-Dani,» the narrative .of Eldad the Danite which appeared in northern Africa about the 9th century, and the source of con- siderable medizval legend and speculation, the lost children of Moses are described as a pow- erful Utopian race whose territory was sur- rounded by this wonderful river. Among re- cent recensions of his text are Epstein’s edi- tion (Pressburg 1891) and Miiller, D. H., in the Denkschriften of the Vienna Academy (Phil- hist. cl. .xli, I p. 41). Dr. Giles Fletcher (1548- 1611) identified the Tartars with the lost 10 tribes: consult his ‘The Tartars,> printed in ‘Israel Redux,? edited by S. Lee (1667). Dr. Whiston (1667-1752) revived this identification. Dr. Francois Bernier (1620-88), French physi- cian for 12 years to the Great Mogul of India, in ‘Les voyages de Bernier contenant la de- scription des Etats du Grand Mogul de |’Hin- doustan? (1699), speculates on the Kashmiris as descendants of the lost 10 tribes from cer- tain customs and rites, and the prevailing type of facial features, as also of the neighboring Afghans and the Tajiks of Badakshan, being distinctly Hebraic. Numerous authors propa- gated the doctrine that the British races are _ descendants of the lost 10 tribes. (See ANGLOo- IsRAELITE THEORY). Consult Streator, M. L., ‘The Anglo-Alliance in Prophecy, or the Promises to the Fathers? (2 vols., New Haven, Conn., 1900). The relation of the lost 10 tribes to the “white” Indians of North Amer- ica, reputed descendants of Madoc (q.v.), the LOST TEN TRIBES —LOTHAIR I Welsh prince who with his followers, accord- ing to tradition, emigrated to America in 1170, has also been a source of fruitful discussion, for which consult Henshaw,.H. W., “Popular Fallacies respecting the Indians” (in American Anthropology n. s. Vol. VII, pp. 104-113, 1905) ; . Mooney, J. (in American Anthropology Vol. IV, pp. 393-394, 1891); Mallery, G., ‘Israelite and Indian: A Parallel in Planes of Culture? (in “Proceedings? of American Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 287-331, 1889) ; The ‘Book of Mormon? (q.v.) (1830) is typical of a recurrent phase of the theory. LOT, according to the book of Genesis, the son of Haran, and the nephew of Abraham. In order to avoid dissensions between his follow- ers and those of Abraham, he went east into the plain of Jordan, toward Sodom, while: his uncle dwelt in Canaan. After being taken cap- tive by some marauders (styled kings in Gen. xiv), Lot was delivered by Abraham. Having received two angels into his house in Sodom, an attack was made upon it by the inhabitants, who were struck blind, and the impending de- struction of the city was announced to Lot. He escaped with his family; but his wife, look- ing back, “became a pillar of salt” The name “Lot’s wife” is still given to a detached pillar. about 40 feet high, on the Jebel Usdim, a height near the Dead Sea. According to Gen- esis xix, 31-38, from Lot’s incestuous inter- course with his daughters originated the Moa- bite and Ammonite nations. LOT (ancient Loda or Olitis), France, one of the largest tributaries of the Garonne River, rises at Mount Lozére, one of the Cevennes,. near Mende, department of Lozére. It flows west by south across the departments of Lozére, Aveyron and Lot, and joins the Garonne at Aiguillon, in the department of Lot-et-Garonne.. Total course about 250 miles, of which 180 miles, commencing at Entraigues, are navigable. LOTA, Chile, a city in the province of Concepcion, situated on Arauca Bay, lat. 37° 5’ S. At present the centre of Chilean coal min- ing, it was a fishing village until 1852, when the Cousifio family demonstrated the existence. of coal there in paying quantities. The Com- pafiia Esplotadora de Lota y Coronal, formed and controlled by the same family, with capital of about $20,000,000, has mines at Playa Negra, Coronal and Buen Retiro, in addition to those at Lota. Undersea and underground galleries in the Lota mines have electric lighting and tramways. The company controls also the Lota copper-smelting, pottery, bottle and fire-: clay-brick works, and a fleet of coasting steam- ers and sailing vessels. It provides for its workpeople free housing, schools, coal, medical attendance, hospitals and almshouses, a church and chaplain. A part of the Cousifio fortune has been employed in the creation of the fa- mous park above the town, containing trees and plants from all quarters of the globe, the statue of Caupolican, by Nicanor Plaza, etc. Pop. about 15,000. ) LOTHAIR (16-thar’) I, Roman emperor, eldest son of Louis-le-Debonnaire: b. about 795; d. Priim, Prussia, 29 Sept. 855. He be- came associated with his father in the govern- ment of the empire in 817 and was crowned and LOTHAIR II — LOTTER FAMILY named king of the Lombards in 820 and em- peror in 823. On his father’s death Louis and Charles, his brothers, joined their forces and defeated him at Fontenoy in June 841. In 843 the three brothers concluded the noted treaty of Verdun, by which Lothair retained the title of emperor, with Italy, and some French prov- inces beyond the Rhine and the Rhone. Charles then became king of France and Louis received a tract of country bordering on the Rhine. LOTHAIR II, called THE Saxon, Roman emperor: b. about 1060; d. near Trent, 4 Dec. 1137. He became Duke of Saxony in 1106 and was elected king of Germany in 1125, and crowned by Pope Innocent II in 1133. By his performing certain acts of homage to the Pope, the claim was made that the empire was a fief of the Holy See. It was during his reign that the Diet of the empire claimed for itself the sole right to levy taxes, and to have in its hands the issues of peace or war. - LOTHAIR, a novel by Benjamin Disraeli, published in 1870. The scene of this extrava- gant, but remarkable, story is laid chiefly in England about the period of its publication. The hero, Lothair, a young nobleman of wide estates and great wealth, has been surrounded by a Protestant atmosphere. When, in accord- ance with his father’s will, he goes to Oxford to complete his education, his other guardian, Cardinal Grandison, determines to bring him into the Roman Church. The story is a graphic description of the struggles of rival ecclesias- tics, statesmen and leaders of society to secure the adherence of the young nobleman. LOTHROP, Amy. See WarNER, ANNA Bagtr_eit. LOTHROP, Harriet Mulford Stone (Marcarer Sipney), American writer: b. New Haven, Conn., 4 Oct. 1844; d. 2 Aug. 1924. She was married to ‘the Boston publisher D. Lothrop, in 1881, and was founder and president of the National Society of the Children of the American Revolution. Among her numerous publications mainly for young people, may be cited ‘The Five Little Pep- pers? series (1882-1907); ‘So As_ by Fire? (1881) ; “The Pettibone Name’ (1883) ; ‘The Golden’ West? (1885); ‘The Minute-Man? (1886); ‘Dilly and the Captain’ (1887) ; ‘Little Maid of Concord Town’ (1898); ‘The Judge’s Cave: a Romance of the Days of Regi- cides?; ‘Little Maid of Boston Town,” etc. She was also a constant contributor to the lead- ing juvenile periodicals. LOTI, Pierre (Louis Marie JULIEN Viaup), French author: b. Rochefort, 14 Jan. 1850; d. Hendaye, 10 June 1923. After a school education in his native, town he entered the French navy in 1867, becoming midshipman. in 1873, and resigning in 1898 with the rank of lieutenant. _He visited, in the course of his calling or otherwise, a great part of the world, and descriptions of foreign scenery figure largely in his works. He served with distinction in the Tonkin campaign, but incurred official displeasure by describing the cruel proceedings of French soldiers at Hué in’a series of letters to the Figaro in 1883. In 1887 he was honored by admission into the Legion of Honor, and in 1891 was elected a member of the Academy. Zola being a rival candidate on the occasion. He published 669 many stories, tales and sketches under the pseudonym “Pierre Loti” among them being ‘Aziyadé? (1879); ‘Rarahu» (1880), reprinted in 1882 as ‘Mariage de Loti?; ‘Le Roman d’un Spahi? (1881); ‘Fleurs d’Ennui? (1882); ‘Pécheur d’Islande? (1886), his chief work; for which he received the Prix Vitet from the Academy; ‘Madame Chrysanthéme”? (1887); ‘Japonneries d’Automne? (1889); ‘Au Maroc? (1890); ‘Le Roman dun Enfant? (1890) ; “Fant6me® d’Orient?'’ (1892), “a” sequel to ‘“Aziyadé?; ‘Le Désert? (1894); ‘Jérusalem? (1895); ‘La Galilée? (1895); ‘Ramuntcho? (1897); and ‘Figures et Choses qui Passaient? (1898). Many of these have been translated into English. His works are in general of an exotic’ character, dealing predominantly with the East, which he had studied during his naval service. (See THE IceELrAND FISHERMAN). Consult Lemaitre, ‘Contemporains”» (Vol. III, Ree Doumic, ‘Ecrivains d’aujourdhui? LOTION, a wash, solution or medicinal mixture for external application to the body; usually a liquid remedy, . consisting principally of water, as a menstruum, and applied to cir- cumscribed. portions of the skin, or of the mucous. surfaces. Lotions are either cooling, stimulating, astringent, soothing or sedative. Water combined with spirit or vinegar is an example of the first. The spirit is added to the water in the proportion of half an ounce and upward to the half-pint. The lead lotion is at once cooling and astringent. A good stim- ulating lotion is procured from a mixture of water with a third or a half of its bulk of spirit of wine, which is applied to the skin by means of lint, and covered to prevent evapora- tion. Astringent lotions are formed by adding from 1 to 10 grains of sulphate of zine or of white vitriol to an ounce of very cold water, having other astringents.in solution. Soothing lotions consist of the various preparations of opium, of the decoction of. poppies, hemlock, etc., and prussic acid is employed in the prep- aration of sedative lotions. Stimulating lo- tions are applied to indolent ulcers and tumors, and sedative and narcotic mixtures. are em- ployed to alleviate pain. A fomentation is a lotion used hot. So-called antiseptic. lotions contain bichloride of mercury, or carbolic acid, or boracic acid. LOTOPHAGI. See Lorus-Eaters. LOTTA. See CRABTREE, CHARLOTTE. LOTTER (lét'tér) FAMILY, a ‘family of printers in Germany, the founder of which, Melchior Lotter, born at Aue, appeared in Leipzig about 1491. There his publications of breviaries and missals brought him reputation, which his larger enterprises extended. He published ‘Persius? (1512); ‘Horatii Episto- le> (1522); “Lutheri Tessaradecos Consolato- ria pro Laborantibus” (1520), etc. One of his innovations was the reservation of Gothic types for German and use of Roman for Latin. He is supposed to have given at least secret sympathy and aid to the Reformation. His son, Melchior, who died about 1540, was the original printer of Luther’s Bible (1522-24), and was succeeded by Hans Lufft (q.v.). His publications also included various works of Luther, Melanchthon and other writers. 670 LOTTERY, a public gambling scheme, by which, for a valuable consideration, one may by favor of the lot obtain a prize of a value su- perior to the amount or value of that which he risks. In its best and most frequent applica- tion, the word describes those schemes cf this nature which are conducted under the super- vision and guaranty of government, and the proceeds of which are devoted to public objects. Almost all modern states have, at some period of their history, employed lotteries as a means of revenue. But though they supply a ready mode of replenishing the public treasury, they have always been found to exert a mischievous influence upon the people. The poor are in- vited by them rather than the rich. They are diverted from persistent labor and patient thrift by the hope of sudden and splendid gains; and as it is the professed principle of these schemes to withhold a large part of their receipts, a necessary loss falls upon that class which can least afford to bear it. Between the years 1816 and 1828 the French government derived from lotteries an annual income of $2,400,000. Some years later the government suppressed them, and in January of the next year $110,000 more were found to be in the savings banks of Paris alone than in the same month of the preceding year. In France of to-day the lottery is used to secure state and municipal bonds at a low rate of interest—some of those in- vestments being subscribed 20 times over. Each subscriber gets a lottery bond, with prizes drawn four, six or eight times a year, and every care is exercised in the drawings for prizes. In several other European states gov- ernment lotteries are still maintained. They have become an almost indispensable source of revenue; and they are defended -by the argu- ment that as the passion for play is irrepres- sible among the people, and their money would otherwise be invested in foreign or in secret and less fairly managed schemes, the state may well assume the conduct of lotteries at home; that under its supervision the evils attendant upon them are diminished, and their earnings are devoted to the public welfare. Dice for the casting of lots have been found in ancient Egyptian and Assyrian tombs. The lot is fre- quently mentioned in the Bible as a means of settling disputes and partitioning land. One of the Apostles, Matthew, was chosen by_ lot. Venetian and Genoese merchants are known to have got rid of surplus stock by lottery. The first recorded public lottery was held at Bruges in 1446. The first in England was drawn in 1569; they were finally abolished in 1826. th the United States, the lottery has. been from the earliest settlement of the country a familiar means of raising funds, which in. this country could have been secured in no other mode so easily, if at all. The Virginia com- pany: derived a large profit from English lot- teries, and the influence of them extended grad- ually. 'to the Eastern colonies; for it is reported that an assembly of ministers at Boston in 1699 denounced the lottery as “a cheat,» and its agents as “pillagers of the people.» Generally, however, lotteries enjoyed a fair reputation and cer tainly were soon, extensively employed throughout the country. In the 18th century they were extraordinarily popular in America. Legislatures authorized lotteries for every spe- cies of public improvement, for the building of LOTTERY — LOTUS churches and colleges, for the repair of losses to individuals by fire and otherwise; for exam- ple, Faneuil Hall, after the fire of 1761, was rebuilt by lottery. The Continental Congress tried to raise money by lottery in 1777. V3 In 1833 a society was formed in: Pennsyl- vania which advocated their suppression. In July 1834 the society issued an:address to the public, setting forth its objects and views. It was the educative work of this society that first arrested public attention to the. evils inherent in lottery systems, and it has been followed. by legislative action. Lotteries are now prohibited in all the States and Territories of the United States; in Massachusetts raffling is forbidden by express statute. The schemes known as art unions are held to be lotteries by express deci- sions. In the language of the court in New York: “These associations distribute a small number of prizes among a great number of persons. The prizes and blanks.are drawn in the same manner as in other lotteries... The intention of these schemes is to sell works of art for more than they can be sold for at private sale, and this is to be brought about by an appeal to the universal passion for playing at games of chance. They have all the attributes and elements of lotteries.” The sums annually employed by Americans in lottery speculations probably amounted to hundreds of thousands. The last lottery sup- ported by governmental encouragement was the Louisiana State Lottery. An Act of Congress passed in 1890 attempted to crush it by for- bidding it the use of the United States mails, which act compelled its removal to Honduras, where in 1903 it was still in existence, - and thousands of tickets for this lottery were sold monthly in the United States, particularly on the Pacific Coast, where as late as November 1903 the daily newspapers issued “extras”. giv- ing the winning numbers in the drawings. of the Honduras company. Consult Ashton, J., ‘History of English Lotteries? (London 1893) ; Palgraves, ‘Dictionary of. Political Economy’ (ib. 1896) ; Ross, A. F., “History of Lotteries in New York? (in Magazine of History, New. York 1907); Spofford, in the ‘Annual, Report of the American Historical Association? (Wash- ington 1892); Van Vorst, ‘Naples’ and the Lotti,?> (in Harpers’ for September 1910); and ‘Report of the Joint Committee on Lotlerads to the British Parliament? (London. 1908), , LOTTO, a game having its origin in Italy but now played occasionally in other countries. It is played on boards, divided into 27 small squares arranged in three horizontal rows five squares in each row are marked with numbers between 1 and 90, four of the squares being left blank. Each person playing is provided with a board upon which he covers the space marked with the particular number called out by the dealer, who draws the counters from a bag. The player who first covers all the five numbers on any horizontal row is declared the winner. / LOTUS, in art, the lotus played an import- ant part in the art of the ancients. It. is com- mon in all Egyptian decoration, especially in borders. It was not unknown in the .art of the Assyrians and Persians and from all these sources it was derived by the Greeks and made familiar to the West by the Romans.. Some scholars unduly overrated its importance and LOTUS-EATERS — LOUDON frequency in Egyptian ornament, ascribing to it a kind of solar: symbolism; this is denied by others of equal authority. Consult Goodyear, W.H., ‘Grammar of the Lotus? (London 1891) and Flinders Petrie, W. M., ‘Egyptian Decora- tive Art? (ib. 1895). LOTUS-EATERS (Latin Lotophagi), in ancient Greek legends a people on the north coast of Africa: who lived on the fruit of the lotus-tree. According to Homer they received Ulysses and his followers hospitably, but the sweetness of the fruit induced such a feeling of happy languor that they forgot their native land and ceased to desire to return to it, their sole object being to live in delicious dreamy idleness in Lotusland. See Lorus. LOTZE, Rudolph Hermann, German phi- ‘osopher and physiologist: b. Bautzen, Saxony, 21 May 1817; d. Berlin, 1 July 1881. He studied philosophy and medicine at Leipzig and in 1842 was appointed extraordinary professor of phi- losophy in that university and in 1844 ordinary professor in G6ttingen. In 1881 he filled the same chair in Berlin. His philosophical posi- tion is that of a teleological idealist, and he makes metaphysics to be destitute of all inde- pendent existence, apart from ethics. The uni- verse has its cause in the notion of the Good, which underlies all the phenomena and activities of the world. His position as a teleologist is the same as that of Asa Gray, and while allow- ing that mechanism obtains in the movements of the universe the denies that this excludes the possibility of creative design. Lotze is, how- ever, considered to have done his most original work in the domain of psychology. He teaches that our space-consciousness is built out of the distinctive, non-spatial sense-attributes, which - vary according to the locality of. the sense- organs stimulated. Among his works are “Metaphysik? (1841); “Logik? (1843); ‘Mi- kroskosmus? (1856-64); and ‘Geschichte der ZEsthetik in Deutschland? (1868).' Consult Falckenberg, ‘Hermann. Lotze? (Stuttgart 1901); Hall, C. S. ‘Founders of Modern Philosophy? (New York 1912); Hartmann, “Lotze’s Philosophy? (Leipzig 1888) ; Jones, H., “Critical Account of the Philosophy of Lotze? (Glasgow 1895). LOUBAT, Joseph Florimond, zhé6-zef flé-ri-m6nd loo-ba, Duc bE, French author and philanthropist: b. New York, 21 Jan. 1831. He was graduated from the University of Paris and has been a liberal giver to public institu- tions, among his benefactions of this char- acter being a gift of $1,000,000 to Columbia University, including valuable books and manu- scripts. He has likewise given much to the Roman Catholic Church, and in recognition. of this fact received his title of Duc de Loubat from Pope Leo XIII in 1893. He has written ‘Narrative of the Mission to Russia in 1866 by G. V. Fox”; ‘Medallic History of the United tates. LOUBET; loo-ba, Emile Francois, French statesman: b. Marsanne (Drome), 1838. He was graduated in law at Paris, in 1865 was admitted to the bar at Montélimar, attracted attention by his legal ability, became counsel for the Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Rail- way, in 1869 was elected conseiller d’arrondis- sement, and 4 Sept. 1870 was chosen mayor of Montélimar. Elected in 1871 to the general 671 council of the Drome, of which he afterward (1885) became president, he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies for Montélimar in 1876, where he. served with the Republican left until 1885. In 1885 he entered the Senate for the department of Drome, and from December 1887 until April 1888, when he retired with his colleagues of. the ministry, filled with much credit the post of Minister of Public Works in the Tirard Cabinet. He was chairman of the Finance Committee of the Senate in 1890, chairman of the Customs Committee in 1893; - and on 29 Feb. 1892 was made Premier by President. Carnot. His Cabinet, in which he held the portfolio of the Interior, lasted. until November of that year, when its retirement was caused by attacks on its supposed, laxity in the prosecution of the Panama case. In 1896 he was’ chosen president of the Senate. Upon the sudden death of President Faure (16 Feb. 1899), the National Assembly met in. congress (18 February) and elected Loubet President of the Republic on the first ballot. His position in politics is that of a moderate Republican, “without the tendency to Radical views -some- times ascribed to him. He has been not only a skilful) administrator, but’ a close. student of economic questions. He is a protectionist, though not of the extreme type, and. an ‘ad- vocate of economy in finance, having made an able speech on financial reform in 1895. His administration as President did’ much © to strengthen the Republicans, and the Monarchist party ‘has almost entirely disappeared as a serious factor in national affairs. Among the events of his term were the trial of Captain Dreyfus at Rennes and the remission of the 10 years’ sentence there passed upon him; the strike of the miners at Montceau and of the dock-workers at Marseilles; the ‘complete separation of Church and State and the dis- turbances attendant on the passing of the law of the associations; and the conclusion of an entente with England, which left France a free hand in Morocco in return for non-inter- vention in Egypt. In 1906 he was succeeded in the Presidency by Clément Armand Falliéres (q.v.);,. See FRANCE — History. LOUDON, low’dén, James, Canadian physicist: b. Toronto, 1841. He received his education at the College of Upper Canada and at Toronto University. In 1862 he was ap- pointed instructor in classics at the latter insti- tution and subsequently became ‘assistant pro- fessor of mathematics.. From 91875 to 1887 he held the chairs of mathematics and physics and from 1892 to 1906 was president of ‘Toronto University; In 1872 he was one of the original Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada, and was. its. president in, 1901-02.. He is a member of several learned societies. His publications include papers in the ‘Transactions? of: the Canadian Institute, the American. Journal. of Mathematics, the Philosophical Magazine, etc., and the volume ‘Elements of Algebra? (1873). LOUDON, Fort, a name given to two forts built during the Colonial period, and in- tended for defense against the Indians. . One, built in 1750, was in Loudon County, .Tenn., on the Tennessee River. An Indian massacre took place here a few years after the erection of the fort.. The. other Fort Loudon was erected in 1752, near Winchester, Va. It was 672 a square building with four bastions, mounting 24 guns. It was large enough to accommodate nearly 500. men. LOUGHBOROUGH, lif’bir-6, England, market town and municipal borough of Leices- tershire, on the Loughborough Canal, and the Great Central, the London and Northwestern and the Midland railways. It contains a 14th century church (restored) and several modern churches, a grammar school, free library, town and county halls, etc. It has hosiery, engi- neering, iron and dye works and bell foundries. The town has undergone extensive improve- ments. There is a fine public market, and the water, gas and electric plants, market, ceme- teries and allotment gardens are municipally owned. Garbage and waste are used to gener- ate steam for pumping the sewage, which is utilized on farms. Loughborough (Lucteburne) was given by William the Conqueror to Hugo Lupus. Pop. 23,000. Consult Fletcher, W. G. D., ‘Chapters in the History of Loughborough? (1883). LOUGHEAD, 16’héd, Flora Haines, Amer-* ican novelist and journalist: b. Milwaukee, Wis., 12. July 1855. She was graduated from Lincoln University, and was married in 1875 to C. E. Apponyi, and in 1886 to John Loug- head, a journalist. She has done much jour- nalistic work in Chicago, Denver and San Francisco, and is the author of ‘The Libraries of California? (1878); ‘The Man Who Was Guilty? - (1886).; ‘Handbook of Natural Sci- ence? (1886) ;. “Quick Cooking? (1890) ; ‘The Abandoned Claim? (1892); ‘The Man- from Nowhere? (1892); ‘Santos’s Brother? (1892) ; ‘A Crown of Thorns? (1892); ‘The Black Curtain? (1897); ‘The San Franciscan? ; and of several plays. She edited the ‘Biography of Oscar Lovell Shafter? (1915). LOUGHREA, loch-ré-a, Ireland, market- town and episcopal seat in County Galway, on the north shore of Lough Rea; and on the Midland Great Western Railway, 20 miles east by south of Galway and 116 miles west of Dublin. It contains the magnificent cathe- dral of Saint Brendan, erected 1900-05, and is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Clonfert. Near the railway station are the remains of an early English Carmelite friary (about 1300) which survived the Dissolution. It was founded by Richard de Burgh, part of whose castle also survives. The town was once fortified and parts of the old ramparts remain. Later it was a military station; the military barracks still remain. The town has a large trade in farm produce; a great market is held every Thursday. Lace-making is the chief in- dustry, and is of small proportions. During the Agrarian strife, Loughrea was the scene of several disturbances. Pop. 3;100. LOUGHRIDGE, loch’ridj’, Robert Mc- Gill, American Presbyterian clergyman, mis- sionary and lexicographer: b. Laurensville, S. C., 24 Dec. 1809; d. Waco, Tex., 8 July 1900. His father, James Loughridge, was a native of County Antrim, Ireland, and his mother, Deborah Ann (McGill) Loughridge, was a native of South Carolina and of Scotch- Irish extraction. His parents removed to Eu- taw, Ala., in his early youth. Robert M. Lough- ridge was educated at Miami University, gradu- LOUGHBOROUGH — LOUIS I ating in 1837... He then entered Princeton Theological Seminary, but remained only one year, the death of his father necessitating his return home ‘to aid his mother in the manage- ment of the family’s affairs. _He continued to pursue his theological studies under the direc- tion of his pastor, Rev. Dr: John’ H. Gray. He was licensed to preach by the Presbytery of Tuscaloosa, in 1841. In October 1842 he was ordained. by the same Presbytery being under appointment of the Presbyterian Mission Board as a missionary to the Creek Indians. He went to the Creek Nation. only. five years after the people of that tribe had expelled all mis- sionaries. When he presented , himself. before the Creek Council and-asked permission to take up his work it was granted with great reluct- ance and he began the organization of the mis- sion at Coweta, in February 1843, where a school was established. Six years later, his work had so prospered that the Creek Nation founded a manual labor school at Tullahassee, of which he was made superintendent, and where he continued to labor until the work of the mission was interrupted by the outbreak of the Civil War. Mr. Loughridge then moved to Texas, where he engaged in pastoral work until 1880, when he returned to the Creek Nation to accept the superintendency of the new manual labor school at Wealaka, in which capacity he continued to labor until his final retirement in 1892, after having reached the age of 82. He mastered the Creek or Muskogee language, translating the catechism, portions of the Bible and many hymns into that tongue and also compiling a Creek-English dictionary, which, however, was not printed until after his death. LOUIS, loo’is (Fr. loo-é), called THE CuiLp, king of Germany: b. 893; d. 911. He was the son: of the Emperor Arnulphus, and succeeded him in 899. During his nominal kingship the government was mainly conducted by Archbishop Hatto of Mainz. Atthis time the empire was constantly ravaged by the Hun- garians. He was the last prince in Germany of the Carlovingian race: . LOUIS I, surnamed Lr DEBONNAIRE, Roman emperor: b. 778; d. near Mainz, Ger- many, 20 June 840. He was the 3d son of Char- lemagne, was early appointed by his father king of Aquitania, and in 813 was named joint- regent of France, of which, in the following year, he became sole sovereign, as well as em- peror of the West. In 817 he divided his do- minions among his three sons, Lothair, Pepin — and Louis, and thereby gave rise to disturbances and contests which lasted during the whole period of his reign. In 829, in consequence of the solicitations of his second wife, Judith of Bavaria, who had borne him a.son, Charles the Bald, he made a new division of the empire. In 830 the brothers Lothair and Pepin combined against their father, took him prisoner, charged their stepmother with adultery, and shut her up in a monastery. The design of Lothair to make himself sole sovereign having been dis- covered, the Diet of Nimeguen obliged him to submit at discretion. Strife continued for the test of Louis’ life. In 837 Louis made a new division in favor of Charles, who obtained Neustria in addition to Aquitania.. Though not without good qualities Louis had neither the LOUIS II—LOUIS VIII statesmanship nor decision necessary for ruling so large an empire. He was succeeded as em- peror by Lothair, to whose protection he had recommended his favorite son, Charles. LOUIS II, Roman emperor: b. about 825; d. Brescia, 12 Aug. 875. He was the son of Lothair I, was made king of the Lombards in 844, and became emperor, in succession to his father, in 855. He was an able ruler, who contended victoriously against the Saracen in- vaders of southern Italy. LOUIS III, Roman emperor, surnamed THe Biinp: b. about 880; d. 928. He was the son of Boson, king of Province, and Ermen- garde, daughter of the Emperor Louis II. He succeeded his father on the throne of Provence at the age of 10, and in 900 contested the im- perial throne with Berengar I. Berengarius forced him to leave Italy, and take oath never to return. In 904 he returned and won some ‘successes; but Berengarius surprised and took him prisoner at Verona in 905, and deprived him of his sight. LOUIS IV, surnamed the BavarIANn, Ro- man emperor: b. 1287; d. near Munich, 11 Oct. 1347. He was the son of Louis the Severe, Duke of Bavaria, and succeeded his father in the dukedom in 1294 and was elected emperor in 1314. Frederick le Bel of Austria was also chosen at Cologne by a minority of electors, and a war between the rivals ensued. Freder- ick was taken prisoner in 1322, and only gained his liberty by renouncing his claims. Pope John XXII then issued his bull of deposition against Louis, and the latter, appealing to a general council, went to Italy, where he declared the deposition of John and set up Peter de Corbiére as Pope under the name of Nicholas V, by whom he was crowned at Rome. In 1338 the German electoral princes in a council at Rhense announced that the emperor’s title to the Ger- man and imperial crowns were derived from his election by them and required no further sanction from the Pope, the validity of which proceeding was not recognized by the papacy. LOUIS I, king of France. See Louis I, Roman emperor. LOUIS II, surnamed LE BEcuE (the Stam- merer), king of France: b. 846; d. Compiégne, France, 10 April 879. He was the son of Charles the Bald, was crowned king of Aqui- taine in 867 and succeeded his father on the throne of France in 877. He was obliged to deliver up Provence to Boson, by whom it was erected into a kingdom. His children, Louis and Carloman, divided the kingdom between themselves and a posthumous son, afterward known as Charles the Simple. LOUIS III, king of France: b. about 863; d. 882. He was the son of Louis II and the brother of Carloman, with whom he divided the rule of the kingdom. He defeated Hugh the Bastard, son of Lothair, marched against Boson, king of Provence, and successfully op- posed ‘the Normans at Saucourt (3 Aug. 881), a battle celebrated in the famous German poem, the ‘Ludwigslied? and in the ‘Chanson du roi Louis, LOUIS IV, surnamed D’OutTREMER (“from beyond the seas”), king of France: b. 921; d. September 954. He was the son of Charles the Simple, was educated at the court of King VOL. 17 — 43 673 Athelstan of England, and became king in 936, on the death of Rudolph of Burgundy. He invaded Normandy, but was defeated and taken prisoner in 944. He was set free the next year after being obliged to concede Normandy to Richard, son of Duke William, and Laon to Hugh, father of Hugh Capet, the latter being, however, restored. LOUIS V, surnamed LE Farnéant (Do Nothing), king of France: b. 966; d. May 987. He was the last French monarch of the Carlo- vingian dynasty. In spite of the name con- ferred upon him he was an active ruler. He succeeded his father, Lothair, in 986, and soon after becoming king took the city of Rheims and was preparing to march to the assistance of the Count of Barcelona, hard pressed by the Saracens, when he is said to have been poisoned by his mother. Consult Lot, ‘Les derniers Carolingiens: ‘Lothair, Louis and Charles? (Paris 1891). LOUIS VI, surnamed LE Gros (the Fat), king of France: b. 1081; d. 1 Aug. 1137. He was the son of Philip I, with whom he was as- sociated in the government in 1100, and whom he succeeded in 1108. His reign was greatly disturbed by contests with the Normans, and by wars among his turbulent vassals in the Isle de France. He quarreled with Henry I of Eng- land, and thus was begun the struggle between the English and the French, which continued three centuries. He was a benefactor of the Church and of the poor. He was ably coun- seled by his minister, Abbé Suger. Consult Luchaire, ‘Louis VI le Gros? (Paris 1889); Thompson, J. W., ‘Development of French aie under Louis VI le Gros? (Chicago 1 : LOUIS VII, called Le Jeunes, king of France: b. about 1120; d. 18 Sept. 1180. He was the son of Louis VI, and succeeded him in 1137. He contested with Pope Innocent II the right of presentation to benefices, and was ex- communicated by Innocent and his kingdom placed under interdict. By the persuasions of Saint Bernard, Louis embarked on the Second Crusade, but was defeated by Saladin, and while returning to Europe was captured at sea by the Greeks, but afterward rescued by Roger, king of Sicily. His divorced queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, married Henry of Normandy, afterward Henry II of England, bringing with her. as dowry the provinces of Poitou and Guienne. This caused a long war between Eng- land and France. Consult Luchaire, ‘Etudes sur les actes de Louis VII? (Paris 1885); Hirsch, ‘Studien zur Geschichte Konig Ludwigs VII von Frankreich? (1892); Lavisse, ‘Histoire de France? (Vol. III, Paris 1901). LOUIS VIII, surnamed THE Lion, king of France: b. 1187; d. Montpensier, Auvergne, France, 8 Nov. 1226. He was the son of Philip Augustus of France and married Blanche of Castile in 1200. Accepting the offer of the English crown made him by the English barons, in 1216 he landed in England, took Rochester and Winchester, and received the homage of the barons at London. After the death of John and the accession of Henry III he was de- feated at Lincoln, signed the Peace of Lam- beth in 1217 under which he received a small indemnity. He was excommunicated by the legate and withdrew to France in September 674 1217. He succeeded his father in 1223, and soon regained most of the English possessions in France. In 1226 he led a crusade against Raymond, Count of Toulouse, and the Al- bigenses; took Avignon after a three months’ siege, and laid waste Languedoc. Consult Petit- Dutaillis, ‘Etude sur la vie et la régne de Louis VIIP (Paris 1894). — LOUIS IX, called Satnt Louis, king of France: b. Poissy, France, 25 April 1214; d. near Tunis, Africa, 25, Aug. 1270. He was the son of Louis VIII and Blanche of Castile, and came to the throne on the death of his father. Being only in his 12th year he was placed under the guardianship of his mother, who was made regent of the kingdom, and he was declared of age in 1236. In 1243 Louis defeated the English in several engagements, and a truce for five years was concluded. Having made a vow, in the event of recovering from a dangerous dis ease, to march against the infidels in the Holy Land, he in 1248 embarked at Aigues-Mortes with an army of 50,000 men. - This expedition proved disastrous, and Louis with his army was captured by the Saracens. Damietta, which had been taken by the French, was demanded as the price of the monarch’s freedom, and a vast ran- som was also claimed for his followers. In 1254 he returned home, and in the interval Queen Blanche, who had ruled the kingdom well in his absence, had died. Louis now turned his attention to the administration of the law. The subjects were now suffered to appeal from the decision of their lords to four royal tribu- ~ nals, and men of learning’ were introduced into the Parliament. Louis also diminished the taxes and he founded the Sorbonne. The code of laws known as the ‘Etablissements de Saint Louis? is the work of some unknown compiler. In 1270 he undertook a crusade against Tunis, in the midst of which enterprise he died. He was succeeded by his son Philip III. He was canonized by Boniface VIII in 1297. The Sieur de Joinville wrote his life, of which an English translation by Hutton appeared in 1868. Consult Berger, ‘Saint Louis et Innocent IV? (Paris 1893), and ‘Histoire de Blanche de Castile? (ib. 1895); Faure, ‘Histoire de Saint Louis? (2 vols., Paris 1866) ; Lavissé, ‘Histoire de France? (Vol. III, Paris 1901) ; Lecoy de la Marche, ‘La France sous Saint Louis» (ib. 1893) ; Perry, F., ‘Saint Louis the Most Chris- tian King? (New York 1901); Sepet, ‘Life? (Paris 1903). LOUIS X, surnamed Le Hurtin (the Quar- reler), king of France: b.. Paris, 1289; d. Vin- cennes, 4 June 1316. Through his mother he inherited the kingdom of Navarre in 1305, and in 1314 he succeeded Philip the Fair, his father, on the throne of France. His posthumous son, John I, survived but a few months, and Louis’ brother then succeeded as Philip V. LOUIS XI, king of France: b. Bourges, France, 3 July 1423; dd. Plessis-les-Tours, France, 30 Aug. 1483. He was the son of Charles VII, but in all respects very unlike him, and in 1440 he left the court and headed an insurrection against his father. Charles par- doned his son but the latter soon entering into new conspiracies was obliged to take refuge in Burgundy, and lived there five years in a de- pendent condition. On reaching the throne after the death of his father, in 1461, he dis- LOUIS IX—LOUIS XIII missed the former ministers and surrounded himself with obscure men, having neither char- acter nor talents to recommend them. In all his _acts.a crooked policy and sinister views were evident. Pretending to reconcile contending parties, he secretly instigated them against each other, and, when negotiating with a foreign government he bribed its messengers and estab- lished secret correspondences with them. He carried on a war with Charles the Bold, after- ward Duke of Burgundy, which lasted 1465-72, and on the death of Charles in 1477, at the bat- tle of Nancy, he joined Burgundy to France. In 1481 he united Anjou, Maine and Provence to the kingdom. Louis both reigned and governed, and was inflexible in his purposes. He vanquished the feudal lords, put an end to anarchy, consolidated the central power, art- fully played off the cities against the nobility and was implacable in his revenges. He greatly improved the means of communication. Until his last years he had no regard for the appear- ances of power, and dressed meanly. His later years were spent in the dread of death; he lav- ished gifts upon the saints, and spent his time in ascetic practices which failed to bring relief to his tortured mind. Consult ‘Louis XI et les villes> (Paris 1893): Hare, €., ‘Louis XP (London 1907); Kitchen, ‘History of France? (Vol. I, Oxford 1885); Lavissé, ‘Histoire de. France? (Vol. IV, Paris 1902), and, for its vivid presentation of the king, Scott’s ‘Quentin Dur- ward.? LOUIS XII, surnamed the FATHER oF His PEopLe, king of France: b. Blois, France, 27 June 1462; d. 1 Jan. 1515. He was the son of Charles, Duke of Orleans, and on coming to the throne in 1498 he pardoned all who had wronged him previously. His reign was con- tinually disturbed by war. He subdued the Milanese, Genoa and Naples. His joining of the League of Cambrai (1508). enabled him to conquer Venice; but the Holy League was formed against him in 1511; and in 1513 the French were expelled from Italy. Henry VIII of England, a member of the league, attacked Louis in his own dominion and he was obliged to sue for peace after the battle of the Spurs in August 1513. For his third wife he married the young Princess Mary, sister of Henry VIII, who after his death was married to her first lover, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Louis XII was honest and magnanimous; he was friendly to science, and France prospered under him and his able chancellor, Cardinal d’Am- boise. Consult Claviére, ‘Histoire de Louis XID (Paris 1890 et seq.) ; Hauser, ‘Les sources histoire de France XVIe siécle? (ib. 1906), and Lacroix, ‘Louis XII et Anne de Bretagne? (1882). LOUIS XIII, king of France: b. Fon- tainebleau, France, 27 Sept. 1601; d. Saint Ger- main-en-Laye, France, 14 May 1642. He was the son of Henry IV, whom he succeeded under the regency of his mother, Mary de Medicis, and who made alliances with Spain and the Pope. In 1614 he was declared of age and the next year he married Anne of Austria who after 23 years of married life gave birth to a son, afterward Louis XIV. The realm at the beginning of his reign was in a very disturbed state. The Huguenots were threatening and a great part of the kingdom rebelled. In 1624 LOUIS XIV Louis chose Cardinal Richelieu as his Prime Minister, and the remainder of his reign was to all purposes that of the great cardinal: Under him the Huguenot power was broken by the capture of La Rochelle in 1628.. The govern- mental power centralized and the influence of Austria materially weakened. In the Thirty Years’ War he supported Gustavus Adolohus and the Dutch against Spain and Austria. During his reign the Etats généraux —a body more ancient than the parliaments — met for the last time till the reign of Louis XVI. Con- sult Patmore, K. A:, ‘The Court of Louis XIID (London 1910) : Raumer, “Geschichte Ludwigs XIII und des Kardinals Richelieu» (1830); Topin, ‘Louis XIII et Richelieu» (1876); Zel- ler, ‘La Minorité de Louis XIII? (1897). See RICHELIEU. LOUIS XIV, king of France: b. Saint German-en-Laye, 5 Sept. 1638; d. Versailles, I Sept. 1715. He was only five years old when he succeeded to the throne, but his mother, Anne of Austria, was made regent during his nonage which ended in 1651, when he was 13. Cardinal Mazarin was then Prime Minister, and the French army under the leadership of Condé and Turenne was gaining much glory in the war with Spain and the emperor. But inter- nally the nation was in the throes of a civil war; Mazarin’s avarice and the peculations of Fouquet had disgusted the Parisians, who were moreover incensed with Anne of Austria’s con- duct of the regency and the supremacy of her agent the cardinal. The king and his mother were compelled with the unpopular Prime Min- ister to flee from the capital, and the Spanish armies streamed over the northeast boundaries from Holland and held their way victoriously through Champagne and Lorraine. When war broke out between England and Holland, Louis threw his strength on the side of the latter; but the conflict was largely confined to the sea, and after a few sea fights the war was ended by the Peace of Breda in 1667. Mazarin had died in 1661,.Fouquet was condemned to per- petual imprisonment after being compelled to disgorge his ill-gotten gains and when the king was asked who was to be referred to on mat- ters of public business he astonished his cour- tiers by saying “Myself.” And indeed he reigned as absolute monarch to the end of his days. He appointed Colbert to take charge of the public exchequer, and the consequence was a multitude of needed reforms.. He had forced the court of Spain as well as Pope Alexander VII to submit to his personal dictation and make ample reparation for the wrongs suffered by French ambassadors at the hands of Span- iards and Italians in foreign capitals; the king of England was his pensioner. All Europe was impressed by his bold self-assertion, and his well-known saying “L’état cCest moi» “I am the state,” was felt to be literally true. But the greaf desire of Louis was the at- tainment of military glory. When a child his chief amusement had been to turn his play- mates into soldiers and engage in a mimic war. After his victorious campaign in Holland, closed by the Treaty of Nimeguen in 1678, he was acknowledged to be the leading sovereign in Europe. He had the most numerous, the best drilled, the best equipped army. in the world. His diplomacy had triumphed in every court, and the French nation led Europe in 675 art, science and letters, while trade and indus- try were amazingly flourishing; and he success- fully established the liberties: of the Gallican: Church (1682). Louis shone among his min- isters, generals and literary courtiers as the sun among the stars, an ideal king, a paragon of learning, strength and wisdom. At Ver- sailles he built himself a palace. at a cost of 150,000,000 francs. Here the splendor of his surroundings was the envy and admiration of all other monarchs. But his wisdom and polit- ical sagacity were much criticised when in 1685, under the influence of Madame de Main- tenon, he revoked the Edict of Nantes by which the policy of Henry IV had made cer- tain indulgences to Calvinists of France. By unsheathing the sword of religious persecution he drove away many citizens whose industrial skill and steady lives formed one of the sta- blest and most precious elements in French national life. Soon after this half of Europe formed a league against France. Holland, Germany and Spain joined their forces in an attempt to humble the overweening arrogance of a monarchy whose greatness was a menace to each of them. In 1688 the Dauphin took Philipsburg on the Rhine, but was forced to evacuate and retreat before the overwhelming forces of the allies. The war continued with varied fortunes until the Peace of Ryswick, 1697. The death of Charles II of Spain, the last of the house of Hapsburg (1700), brought on the war of the Spanish Succession. He left his crown to Philip of France, Duke of Anjou, who assumed the title of Philip V, but his claim was disputed by the Archduke Charles, who had the support of the emperor, as well as of Holland and England. In 1704 Prince Eugene and Marlborough routed the French forces at Blenheim, Barcelona surrendered to the Arch- duke Charles, Marlborough won the battle of Ramillies in 1706, and in 1708 that of Oude- narde. The fatal defeat of Malplaquet the fol- lowing year decided the struggle in favor of the allies and the Peace of Utrecht (1713) completed the humiliation of ‘France and added to the power and ascendancy of England. The treaty inflicted a heavy blow on French power in America, as under it Newfoundland, Acadia and Hudson Bay were ceded to England. France was, however, saved from dismember- ment, mainly through the boldness and vigor of Louis and his counsellors, and the principal foreign conquests of the king were not for- feited. For the two remaining years of his reign the country enjoyed tranquillity. Louis in his declining years expressed regret for the distress: he had brought on his well-loved coun- try by his love of foreign conquest and war- like glory. His unworthy private life had some part in rousing the remorse which tortured his last days, and caused him to show that. spirit of piety and devotion which Lesage ridiculed as hypocrisy. His mistresses, La _ Valliére, Montespan, Fontanges and others had made his court a by-word of scandal. Madame de Main- tenon, who was married to him a year after the death of his queen, Maria Theresa (1683), was influential in rousing his sense of past licentiousness. In this she was aided by the eloquence of Bossuet. The reign of Louis le Grand was made bril- liant by the great soldiers, sailors, literary men, artists and men of science who were his con- 676 temporaries. His reign has indeed been aptly styled the Augustan or golden age of France. Among his sea commanders were Chateau-Re- nand, Duquesne and Tourville; Vauban was his military engineer; Perault, Mansart and Blondel architects; among his painters were Claude Lorraine, Poussin and Lebrun; among poets and writers of his reign were Corneille, Racine, Moliére; among his great preachers were Massillon, Bossuet and Flechier. He was worthy of the title of the Great Monarch for his strong and astute statecraft, the magnifi- cence of his court, his dignity and munificence, and he fixed for the French monarchy that type of absolutism which Balzac has declared to be in France the safest and best foundation on which national greatness was to be devel- oped. Consult Barine, ‘Louis XIV et La Grande Mademoiselle? (Paris 1905); Blennerhassett, ‘Louis XIV and Madame de Maintenon? (London 1910); Bourgeois, E., ‘The Century of Louis XIV? (Eng. trans. by Hoey, ib. 1895) ; Gérin, ‘Louis XIV et le Saint-Sieége? (Paris 1894) ; Hassall, “Louis XIV and the Zenith of the French Monarchy? (New York 1895); Lavissé, ‘Histoire de France? (Vol. VIII, Paris 1906) ; Ormesson, ‘De l’administration de Louis XIV? (ib. 1850) ; Pardoe, J., “Louis XIV and the Court of France in the 17th Century’ (3 vols., London 1886); Philippson, ‘Das Zeitalter Ludwigs des Vierzehnten? (Berlin 1879) ; Voltaire, ‘Siecle de Louis XIV? (Eng. trans., ed. Masson and Prothero, 3 vols., Cam- bridge 1882-1912); and ‘Cambridge Modern History? (Vol. V, Cambridge 1908). An an- notated edition of his letters and other docu- metas was published at Paris in six volumes in 1806. LOUIS XV, king of France: b. Versailles, France, 15 Feb. 1710; d. there, 10 May 1774. He was the great-grandson and successor of Louis XIV, and coming to the throne when only five years old, Philip, Duke of Orleans, was made regent. Louis was declared of age in 1723 and married Marie Leczinska, daughter of the king of Poland. The Duke of Orleans died that year and was succeeded as Prime Minister by the Duke of Bourbon, who was removed in 1725 to make way for Cardinal Fleury, who died in 1743. After the cardinal’s death the king’s mistresses, Pompadour and Du Barry, controlled the election of the prime min- ister and other officers. In 1741 France be- came entangled in the war of the Austrian Succession against Austria, which was ended by the Treaty of Aix-latChapelle.in 1748. In 1756 she was involved in the Seven Years’ War, in which Austria was the ally of France. This was ended by the Peace of Paris in 1763. By this treaty Louisiana and Canada, as well as her Indian possessions, were lost to France. In 1764 the Jesuit order was suppressed. The kingdom was left impoverished at the death of Louis, partly by war and partly through the enormous sums squandered upon the royal mis- tresses. Consult Broglie, ‘Le secret duroi? (Paris 1878); Carré, H., ‘La France sous Louis XV? (Paris 1891); De Tocqueville, ‘Histoire philosophique du régne de Louis XV (Paris 1846); Fleury, ‘Louis XV intime et les petites maitresses? (Paris 1909); Gon- court, ‘Le maitresses de Louis XV? (ib. 1860) ; LOUIS XV — LOUIS XVI — Haggard, ‘The Real Louis XV? (2 vols., Lon- don 1906); Pajot, ‘Les guerres sous Louis XV? (Paris 1881-92); Cambridge, ‘Modern History? (Vol. VI, Cambridge 1908). LOUIS XVI, king of France: b. Ver- sailles, 23 Aug. 1754; d. Paris, 21 Jan. 1793. He was the third son of Louis and of Marie Josepha, daughter of Frederic Augustus, king of Poland and Elector of Saxony. During the lifetime of Louis XV he bore the title of Duke of Berri. Amid the corruptions of the French court he kept aloof from ‘licentiousness, was reserved and taciturn, and took most delight in practising some mechanical art, such as lock- making or printing. In 1770 he married Marie Antoinette, archduchess of Austria, and four years later became king by the death of his grandfather. He began his reign with many popular measures tending to alleviate the finan- cial distress under which the country labored, and his appointment of Turgot (1775) as Min- ister of Finance, gave general satisfaction. The people were moreover pleased to see the par- liaments again convened (1774), and the king set an example of national economy and re- trenchment by the simplicity of his personal life, and the reduction of his retinue. The war of the American Revolution had sent Franklin and Deane to Paris to ask help for the young republic. Louis XVI was weak enough to take sides with the English colonists against their mother country, and the French and English war cost France an amount of treasure that almost plunged her into bank- ruptcy. At the same time French enthusiasm, roused in favor of republicanism, caused a feel- ing to prevail which threatened to endanger the stability of the monarchy. Necker, who had become Controller-General in 1776, by his at- tempts at reform and economy in order that the privileged orders should bear their share of taxation, so offended the nobility that he was compelled to resign (1781) and was suc- ceeded by the reckless and wasteful Calonne. The queen was meanwhile very unpopular, and the affair of the “Diamond Necklace” in 1785 (q.v.) was made to aggravate public disaffec- tion toward the throne. The notables met in 1787, but rejected a measure for universal tax- ation which would comprise the notables and clergy of the realm. Calonne, the finance min- ister, resigned, bankruptcy menaced the nation and Necker was recalled (1778), and suggested the convening of the States-General. The assembly met amid great popular excitement in May 1789, at Versailles; a series of reforms in public expenditure was begun, and the country was filled with enthusiasm. Necker sought to reproduce on French soil the limited monarchy of Great Britain. Louis proposed concessions, which were coldly greeted, and when he dis- solved the assembly, Mirabeau, who sat in the Third Estate, defied the royal power, and re- fused, in the name of the people, to obey the mandate of dissolution. So great meanwhile was the excitement and anxiety which reigned in Paris that a national guard was formed with Lafayette for a commander. The king vacil- lated, dismissed Necker, surrounded Paris with his army and the people rose in a burst of frenzy and sacked the Bastile. The king or- dered the approach of the troops on Paris, but to conciliate the people appeared at Hotel de LOUIS XVII— LOUIS XVIII Ville wearing the tricolor. Meanwhile . the princes of the blood and the nobles were leav- ing the country, Necker was recalled, and the king returned to Versailles, but on 5 October the mob- took possession of the royal palace there, and compelled the king and the royal family to return with them to Paris, where they were kept strictly guarded in the Tuileries, There they were confined as prisoners till the following year (1790). Necker had fled to Switzerland; Mirabeau, the one hope of the monarchy, had died. The king made an at- tempt to visit Saint Cloud (1791) but was pre- vented by the mob. He then escaped unnoticed from the Tuileries, but was stopped at Va- rennes, 150 miles from Paris. The invasion of France by the Prussians and Austrians roused the Parisians to fury. They stormed the Tui- leries and massacred the Swiss guard; the royal family were imprisoned in the ancient fortress known as the Temple. The national conven- tion met on 20 September; in December they brought the king to trial on a charge of con- spiring to overthrow the constitution and re- store the ancient order of things. He was condemned to death by an absolute majority of one vote in a house that contained 749 mem- bers (5 Jan. 1793) and was guillotined. A feeble but well-meaning ruler, he suffered for the sins of his house. His elder son had died in 1789; his younger son (Louis XVII) became the Dauphin, and his daughter was known as the Duchess of Angouléme. Consult Beau- court, ‘Captivité et derniers momento de Louis XVPD (Paris 1892) ; Bouvet, ‘Histoire de Louis XVP (ib. 1825); Courian, ‘Louis XVI et la Révolution® (ib. 1893) ; Haggard, At Cabs ‘Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (London 1909); Jobez, ‘La France sous Louis XVI (Paris 1877-93) ; Lavissé, ‘Histoire de France? (Vol. IX, ib. 1910) : Saint- Amand, ‘Marie An- toinette and the Downfall of Royalty? (Eng. trans. by E. G. Martin, New York 1898). LOUIS XVII, titular king of France: b. Versailles, 27 March 1785; d. Paris, 8 June 1795. He was the second son of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette; was at first styled Duc de Normandie; and after the death of his elder brother, in 1789, became heir to the throne. With his relatives, in 1792, he was imprisoned in the Temple; after his father’s death in the following year was styled king by the Royal- ists; but being given into the keeping of a shoemaker named Simon, in derision called his tutor, was subjected to brutal treatment, from which he died. The fact of his death was denied by certain impostors, whose claims to his name and to the throne found some sup- porters, was discredited by many, and there was no lack of claimants to the title, there being in all some 40 persons who claimed to be the legitimist king. The chief among these was the so-called Comte de Richemont, whose real name was Francois Hébert, a native of the Rouen district, and who first claimed in 1828; and the Potsdam watchmaker, Karl Wilhelm Naundorff (d. 1845), who certainly bore a striking resemblance to the Bourbon family, resided in France for three years, and was banished in 1836, and whose children raised actions in 1851 and 1874 to vindicate their claims. About the middle of the 19th century, Eleazar Williams (q.v.), a half-breed Indian 677 missionary, born in the State of New York, was led to believe that he was the lost Dauphin, he and his friends declaring that he had been delivered from prison and while still very young brought to this country. He died in 1858. Although Williams made little attempt to enforce his own claim, others argued it, and a book was written in its support. But nothing in the nature of historical proof has been established to cast doubt on the actual death of the Dauphin as above related. ‘Con- sult Bourgeois, A., ‘Etude historique sur Louis. XVID (Paris 1905); Bilau, “Geheime Ge- schichten undratselhafte Menschen? (Vol. II, 2d ed., Leipzig 1863); Chantelauze, ‘Louis XVII, son enfance, sa prison, et sa mort au Temple? (Paris 1895); Evans, ‘The Story of Louis XVII’ of France?- (London 1893); Hanson, “The Lost Prince?’ (New York 1854); and J. Sanford Saltus’ ‘Bibliography of Louis XVIP (New York 1908). LOUIS XVIII, “Stanislaus Xavier (given the title of Le Desir&, by the Chamber of Deputies), king of France: b. Versailles, France, 17 Nov. 1755; d. Paris, 16 Sept. 1824. As the younger brother of Louis XVI he was designated Monsieur, his rank in the nobility being Count of Provence. He early showed himself a political marplot, a hinderer of re- form and one of the great obstacles to his brother’s success in handling the difficulties of the revolutionary movement. When the king escaped from the guards of the Tuileries (1791), Monsieur was by his side, and while Louis XVI was seized and taken back to con- finement, escaped to the frontier. With his brother, ‘the Count d’Artois, he held court for some time at Coblenz, where he issued animad- versions on the revolutionists in France, and seriously complicated the difficulties of the roy- alist cause by his want of temper and judg- ment. When the Duke of Brunswick invaded France, Monsieur and the Count d’Artois joined his forces and shared his disasters. On the death of Louis XVI (1793) the Count of Provence declared his nephew king, and when Louis XVII died (1795) he took the title of king of France. He wandered from court to court of Europe, and finally settled in England (1807), where he remained until the fall of Napoleon. At last he crossed the Channel and entered Paris (3 May 1814) after an absence of 23 years. His reign was inaugurated with the bitter retaliatory measures of the White Terror (q.v.). When Napoleon made his escape from Elba and arrived at Paris (1 March 1815) the unpopularity of the Bourbon restoration was proved by the enthusiasm and devotion of those who flocked to his standard. The king fled from Paris, but, after the battle of Waterloo, was once more restored, entered the capital under the protection of victorious Wellington, and appointed a new ministry with Talleyrand at the head of it. Louis proceeded to disband the army, to exclude from the general amnesty those who came under the head of “rebels,” those who had voted for the death of Louis XVI and were consequently “regicides,”» and those who had received rank and honors from Napoleon in 1815. The rest of his reign was satisfactory neither to Blues nor Reds, and the real stay of the country was the Duc de Riche- 678 lieu, the successor of Talleyrand. In accord- ance with the policy of the Holy Alliance the despotic Ferdinand VII was re-established on the Spanish throne by a French army (1823)! and the last year of the king’s life was spent in disease, followed by paralysis, which carried off a feeble and illiberal monarch whose only work in life had been to prove that political disquiet in France had not been and was not to be allayed by the restoration of the Bour- bons. Consult Daudet, E., ‘La terreur blanche? (Paris 1878); and ‘Histoire de la’ restauration, 1814-30? (ib. 1882); Dulaure and Anguis, ‘Histoire de la révolution depvuis 1814 jusqu’a 1830? (1834-38); Hall, J. R. ‘The Bourbon Restoration? (Boston 1909); Romberg and Malet, ‘Louis XVIII et les cent-jours a Gand? (Paris 1898); Saint-Amand, ‘The Duchess of Angouléme and the Two Restorations? (trans. by J. Davis, New York 1902); Viel Castel, ‘Histoire de la Restauration? (Paris 1860 et seq. ). LOUIS PHILIPPE, fé-lép, king of the French: b. Paris, 6 Oct. 1773; d. Claremont, near Windsor, England, 26 Aug. 1850. He was the éldest son of Duke Louis Philippe Joseph of Orleans, afterward surnamed Fgalité, and of the Princess Louise Marie Adelaide of Pen- thiévre. In infancy he held the title of Duke of Valois, and in 1785 that of Duke of Chartres. In 1782 his father entrusted the education of Louis Philippe and his other children to Ma- dame de Genlis. Having entered the national guard in 1790, he became a member of the Jacobin Club. In May 1792 he commanded a brigade of cavalry in Luckner’s army, rose under Kellerman in September to be lieutenant- general and did good service in the famous cannonade at Valmy. He next joined the army of Dumouriez, and took part in the victory of Jamappes. Dumouriez had formed a scheme for placing him on the throne as a constitutional monarch, and being included in the order of arrest directed against Dumouriez, in April 1793 he took refuge within Austrian territory. After many wanderings he procured the situation of teacher of geography and mathematics in the school of Reichenau, near Coire, where, during eight months, he passed under the name of Chabaud-Latour. In 1796 Louis Philippe, since his father’s death Duke of Orleans, arrived in America, where, in the following year, he was joined by his two younger brothers. The three princes traveled in the United States, and at last took ship for England, where they landed in 1800. The brothers lived about seven years at Twicken- ham, near London. After the news of Na- poleon’s downfall the Duke of Orleans set out for Paris, where he was received by Louis XVIII, not without distrust and in 1814 ap- pointed colonel of hussars. On the news of Napoleon’s return he set out for I.yons to assist the operations of the Count d’Artois. After an unsuccessful attempt to hold the northern departments for the Bourbons, he left Lille and set out for England to join his family, who had preceded him. He returned in July 1815 and obtained the removal of the sequestration of his domains, which had been imposed by the imperial government. The estrangement of Louis XVII from him was, however, increased, and he withdrew in October LOUIS PHILIPPE — LOUISBURG 1815 to England, but returned to Paris in the following year. After the coronation of Charles X his relations with the court became more friendly. During the bloody days of 27, 28 and 29 July, the court had entirely for- gotten him. Nor during the struggle was his name mentioned in. Paris. On the 29th the provisional chamber, on Laffitte’s suggestion, resolved to offer him the regency as lieutenant- general of the kingdom. In a sitting of the chamber on 9 August he swore to the reform charter, and ascended the throne as king of the French. Being hated by the extreme Demo- crats, frequent attempts were made on his life; but during this period France made vast prog- ress in industry and wealth, and the durability of the July throne seemed to be thereby con- solidated. But his selfish policy had estranged the European courts, and a loud demand for a change in the electoral system being foolishly cpposed by the king and the Guizot Ministry, his position in France became extremely precarious. On 22 Feb. 1848 an insurrection began in the streets of Paris. Next day Guizot gave in his resignation; but the insurrection gained in extent and intensity, and neither the command given to the troops on the morning of the 24th to stop firing, nor the abdication of the king a few hours after in favor of his grand- son, the Count of Paris, sufficed to allay the storm. Louis Philippe, completely disheartened, unsupported by any administration, and for- saken even by the courtiers, about midnight of 24 February quitted the Tuileries with his family, and fled from Paris, and on 3 March 1848 took up his residence in England, which he never again left. Consult ‘Mon Journal événements de 1815>; (Paris 1849); Arnaud, R., ‘Louis Philippe and his Sister? (London 1908); Blanc, Louis, ‘Histoire de dix ans 1830-40? (Paris 1841-44) ;. Lemoine, ‘Abdica- tion du roi Louis Philippe? (ib. 1851) ; Dumas, A. (1852); Nouvion (1861) ; Villault de Gerain- ville (1870-76); Sternberg, ‘The Secret of Louis Philippe? (New York 1914); Weill, G, ‘La France ‘sous la monarchié du Juillet? (Paris 1902); and ‘Cambridge Modern His- tory? (Vol. X, Cambridge 1907). LOUIS D’OR, loo’é dor (Fr. “golden Louis”), a gold coin formerly current in France. It was first struck in consequence of an edict of Louis XIII, dated 31 March 1640. It was 22 carats fine, and originally was worth 10 livres of the period (equal to 21 francs 33 centimes). Afterward it ranged in value from about $4 to $4.60. In 1810 the louis d’or was replaced by the napoleon of 20 francs. In some parts of Germany the five-thaler gold piece was popu- larly known as the louis dor. LOUISA, loo-é’za, queen of Prussia. See LuIsE, AUGUSTE WILHEMINE AMALIE, QUEEN OF PRUSSIA. LOUISBURG, loo’is-berg or 1loo’é-berg, town of Cape Breton Island in the province of Nova Scotia; on the coast at the entrance to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The earliest men- tion of English Harbor, later called Louisburg, is found on Champlain’s map of 1612 and was, in his time, the resort of fishermen mainly from England. It was ‘not until 1713 that Louisburg came into prominence by the removal to it of the French officers and inhabitants from Acadia LOUISE — LOUISIANA and Newfoundland, then ceded to England under the Treaty of Utrecht. The city is chiefly noted for the historical events which transpired in and around it and for the ruins of the fortifications. These fortifications were commenced in 1720 and completed about the year 1744 at a cost to the French government of 30,000,000 livres, equal to-day to about $10, 000, 000. They enclosed an area of about 100 acres and had a _ circumference of 2% miles. On the declaration of war in March 1744 between France and England, Louisburg was the object of an attack by the expedition sent out by the New England colonies. This was composed of 3,250 men from Massachu- setts, 516 from Connecticut, 304 from New Hampshire and 150 from Rhode Island, sup- plemented by 14 vessels, carrying 200 guns, fitted out by the provinces, and by Commodore War- ren’s West India fleet of 10 vessels carrying 460 guns, beside the captured Vigilante of 64 guns. The siege, begun on 30 April 1745, ended in the capitulation by Governor Ducham- bon on 16 June. By the Treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle in 1748, the island of Cape Breton was restored to France and the fortifications at Louisburg were considerably strengthened, and a new battery erected at Point Rochefort at a cost of $5,000,000. In 1758, two years after war had been declared between France and Eng- land, a second expedition, consisting. of 23 ships of the line, 18 frigates and 120 transports with 12,000 troops, assembled at Halifax, ar- rived at Louisburg on 28 June, laid siege to the fortress; and on 26 July it was surrendered to the British under the command of General Amherst, who had-as one of his brigadiers James Wolfe. Thus what has been called the “Keystone of the arch of French power in America” had been shattered, and the way was cleared for the culminating attack on the for- tress of Quebec. Shortly after the capture the great fortress was razed to the ground, and to-day only the casements or bomb-proofs re- main. The ruins are now being preserved, and a memorial tower has been erected bearing the names of the killed and wounded in both sieges. The first school in Nova Scotia is said to have been established at Louisburg by the Ladies of the Congregation in 1737: Louisburg is now becoming a port of con- siderable importance, having been established as the eastern terminal port of the Intercolonial Railway and used by the Dominion Steel Cor- poration as a shipping port for a large portion of their products. See CoLonIAL Wars IN AMERICA. LOUISE, loo-éz, an opera of Parisian life by Gustave Charpentier. First performed in Paris 1900; in New York 1908. Louise, a charming young dressmaker, attracts the atten- tion and love of a romantic young artist, Julien, who finally persuades her to give up her life of drudgery and live with him in a little home amid the gay and careless Bohemian circle of Montmartre. During a lively revel Louise’s mother appears and begs the girl to return home, as her father is ill. With an effort Louise tears herself away and resumes her former drab life. The reproaches of her father serve only to accentuate the memory of Julien’s loving kindness—and she goes back to the man who had given her happiness. 679 LOUISEVILLE, loo’éz-vil, or RIVIERE DU LOUP (enhaut), ré-vé-a dii loo, Canada, town, capital of Maskinongé County, in the province of Quebec, on Lake Saint Peter, an expansion of the Saint Lawrence River, and on the Canadian Pacific Railroad, about 18 miles west of Three Rivers. The mineral springs of Saint Léon in the vicinity, bring many people to Louiseville. The chief industries are a foundry, planing mill, box making and_ shirt factory. Pop. 1,675. LOUISIADE (loo-é-zé-ad) ARCHIPE- LAGO, in the Coral Sea, southeast of New Guinea; belongs, administratively, to British New Guinea. The largest islands of the group are Southeast (Sudest) Island, Saint Aignan and Rossel. Southeast Island is about 45 miles long and from 4 to 10 miles wide. Rossel and Saint Aignan each have an area of over 100 square miles. They are all mountainous. Saint Aignan has a peak about 3,500 feet in height. Many of the small islands are of coral forma- tion; and the vegetation is varied and luxuriant. The islands were discovered in 1666 by Torres, and became British possessions in 1888. The majority of the inhabitants are uncivilized, and are of the Papuan race. LOUISIANA, one of the United States, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, one of the most important of the Southern States. The name “Louisiana” was first applied by La Salle in 1683 to the vast territory watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries, which he thus dedicated to King Louis XIV. It was admitted as a Territory 20 Dec. 1803 after the completion of the purchase and was the fifth State admitted to the Union under the Federal Constitution in 1812. It lies between lat. 28° 59’ and 33° N. and long. 88° 40’ and 94° W. Its extreme length is 281 miles, and extreme width 275 miles, with an area of 48,506 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Arkansas on parallel of 33° to the Mississippi and thence on the parallel of 31° eastward to Pearl River; on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, on the west by the Sabine River and a line drawn from it directly north to meet the 33° parallel. Within these limits are included 45,409 square miles of land and 3,047 of water, 637 in rivers and 3,370 in lakes. The State is divided into 64 parishes gradually created from the five original divi- sions under French and Spanish domination. Rivers and Lakes.— The Mississippi River in its devious course splits Louisiana in twain with 37,000 square miles on the western bank. With but rare interruptions the river flows through alluvial soils of low elevation requir- ing the protection of levees. The coast line of the delta and eastward consists of lands little above sea-level intersected by small tracts of elevated prairies and low ridges covered with live oak. Northwestward the land rises until in North Louisiana the hills attain the height of 500 feet. Both on the Mississippi and the other river valleys, the highest land is formed by the banks themselves, from which the land slopes away gradually to the marshes. To pro- tect these low-lyirig lands there have been built at vast expense some 1,500 miles of levees of great strength. These, however, give way Oc- casionally before the mass of waters brought down by the Mississippi in flood, and great dam- age results. (See LEVEE). The drainage sys- 680 tem of the State is toward the Gulf and mainly through the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Red River and the Ouachita. On the east Pearl River and on the west the Calcasieu River and the Sabine, which divides Louisiana from Texas—each drain small districts. The Red River formerly flowed directly to the Gulf of Mexico. Its old channel is now filled by the Atchafalaya, which has increased so rapidly of late years as to give rise to fears of its becom- ing the main channel of the Mississippi. The lakes of Louisiana are of two kinds. Those on the coast are shallow estuaries enclosed - within the delta, of which the greatest are lakes Pontchartrain and Maurepas. At the entrance to the former is Lake Borgne. A second class is formed by the curved sections of the river which are cut off and silted up as in the smaller rivers by the action of accumulated débris and rafts of driftwood such as are found above Shreveport. These are rapidly disappearing through the removal of the obstructions, and the lands are being reclaimed. Of the 29,061,760 acres of land in the State only 5,626,226 are in cultivation. Nearly the en- tire upland is covered by strata of drift or red sandy clays. One thousand nine hundred square miles are alluvial. The soil next the river is the lightest; the surface of the back- lands consists of a peculiarly friable soil known as buckshot to such a depth as to permit of the deepest cultivation and with a high absorptive power which secures crops against drought. South of the Red River the soils are less varied in character, but all are rich in the essential elements of plant food and require only drain- age and good culture to produce excellent crops. The land is distributed as follows: Alluvial lands, 13,225 square miles; bluff prairies, 5,739 square miles; oak uplands, 8,103 square miles; long-leaf pine hills, 7,582 square miles; long- leaf pine flats, 2,556 square miles; central prai- ries, 785 square miles; coast marshes, 7,420 square miles. Geology and Mineralogy.—The entire State is part of the Mississippi deposit on the bottom of an ancient gulf whose shore touched Cairo, Ill. Its oldest sediments were Cretaceous, now covered except in a few small spots in. the north- west. The upland region west of the northern course of the Calcasieu, and of the Ouachita, is a mass of horizontal Tertiary beds, clays. and clay sandstones. The entire alluvial region and coast swamps, besides much bordering prairie, is Quarternary. Such formations could hardly be rich in minerals, and though some iron ore and low-grade brown coal are found in the Tertiary districts, the only important minerals are rock salt, sulphur and petroleum. The salt is found in the chain of isolated hills known as islands, commencing with Petite Anse on the Gulf and extending to New Iberia. The first workings were at Avery’s Island; two other mines have been opened and the output has been increased to over 300,000 tons annually. The development of the oil and gas industries has been very large. From the nine fields were pro- duced in 1922 34,171,000 barrels. Several other localities show indications of great promise. The production of natural gas from seven fields was over 58,000,000,000 cubic feet. The amount of sulphur produced from the mines at Cal- casieu was, in 1915, 379,885 tons. Climate and Rainfall.— Louisiana, ranging LOUISIANA from the parallel of lat. 33° to 29° N. is semi- tropical in climate and products. The summer heat reaches 105 and averages 85 for the hottest month; it does not reach zero south of Shreve- port, and the coldest month ranges on an aver- age from 45° to 60°, according to location. The gulf vapors make it very equable, the prevail- ing winds being south and southwest — that is, from the ocean. There are only three months of frost in the year, the beginning varying from the lst of November to the lst of December. The rainfall varies from an average of 60 inches a year in the southeastern part, to 50 in the northern. This abundant moisture and the steady warmth cover the State with luxuriant tropical growths, and the magnificent profusion and beauty of its flowers are famous. The mag- rolia is most familiar as a specially Southern product, but the roses, jasmines, oleanders, camellias, etc., are notably beautiful. The orange, fig and most other semi-tropical fruits will flourish here. Fauna. The only large quadrupeds sur- viving are black bears and a few catamounts in the less accessible forests and swamps. Many deer are found during the winter. The wild- cat is not uncommon, and the raccoon and opossum are familiar. The alligator is com- mon to all bayous and ponds. Bird-life is plentiful; it comprises eagles and vultures, peli- cans and cranes, besides wild turkeys, geese and ducks. Under the working of the Con- servation Commission created in 1916 the fauna of the State are fully protected and exact sta- tistics are compiled showing the value pro- duced. Deer have largely increased in number. In 1917, 185,614 ducks were marketed, a de- crease from the number of preceding years. The yield of fur-bearing animals, of which 5,002,840 were killed in 1912, fell to 1,813,190 in 1917. The alligator catch is diminishing rap-. idly. Through the action of the Sage Fund the area of bird preserves is now the largest in the United States and many rare species have been saved from utter extinction which threat- ened them. Forestry.— A large proportion of the entire forest wealth of the State is represented by im- mense areas of long and short leaf pine. It is estimated that the standing timber in 1918 was 91,000,000,000 feet. of pine, cypress and hard- wood. The present rate of cutting over 60,000,- 000 annually cannot be maintained for more than 10 years. Fortunately the cut-over lands are valuable for farming purposes. The for- estry division of the Conservation Commission has done much for the protection of the for- ests from destructive fires and has taken steps toward reforestation. In lumber production Louisiana ranks second in the United States. Agriculture.—From the considerations men- tioned, an exceptionally fertile soil, a warm climate with variations from northern high- lands to southern coast plains, Louisiana has remarkable natural advantages for a great va- riety of products, from temperate to semi- tropic. Yet less than two-fifths of the soil has been even nominally in farms, and only one-. fourth improved; and of the total in 1920, $231,506,000 in value of farm crops, $121,854,- 000, or over one-half, was in two money crops and two food crops, « ion and sugar- cane, corn and rice. This lack of diversifica- tion of crops is largely a result of the old Abbeville, (F7).... 3,461 Abita Springs, (L6) oe eC] O) ic. ene Addis, (H6)...... 473 Adeline, (G7)..... 450 Albamarle, (H7).. 1,200 Alberta, (D2).. 500 Alden Bridge, (C1). 150 Alexandria, (F4) ..17,510 Allemands, (K7) . 400 Altos. (G2) eo ecraae 600 Alton (LO)e neni. 100 Ama, (KiQ)icee acc 800 Amelia, (H7)..... 400 Amita, (K5)...... 1,854 Anacoco, ee. ee eee 200 Anchor, (HS5).. 300 Andrew, (F6).. 100 Angie, (E5).tos04 230 Ansley, (E2)...... 40 Antrim, (C1)..... 350 Arabic (lid)enaes sles 250 Arbroth, (H5)ee 300 Arcadia, (F1) 1,240 ae (IGS) 100 GW Wowace c 1 Pei see) 408 Ashland, (D2). 200 Athens, (D1) a 493 * Atkins, (D2)...... 300 Atlanta, (E3). 311 Avery Islan “G2. 200 Avoca, (H7)..... 522 200 Ayers, (D4)...... 250 (seins, (sy. acc 100 Baldwin, (H7).... 964 Bancroft, (C5).... 200 Bannister,(D5)... 100 Barataria, (K7)... 300 Barham, (D4).... 250 Basile, (E6)...... 552 Baskin, (G2)..... 654 Bastrop, (Gia. 2152.16 Batchelor, (Gs). 200 BATON ROUGE, ee (6 Bayou Chicot, (F5). 150 Bayou Goula, '(H6) 1,000 Bayou Sara, (HS). 934 ‘Belair: (ie wee 600 Belcher, (CHe 200 Bell City, (E6).. 330 Belle Alliance, (Ho) 700 Belledeau, (F: Aye 150 Belle Helene, (J6). 160 Belle Rose, (H6) .. 500 Benson, (C3)..... 320 Bently, (E4)...... 200 Benton, (C1)..... 318 Bermuda, (E3)... 100 Bernice, (F1)..... 662 Berties (J) ane ere 160 Bertrandville, aL?) 300 Berwick, (Ha. 1,691 Bethany, (B22. 250 Bienville, (E2)... ae nis Bigcane, (G5).... 150 Blanchard, (C1)... 200 Boleyn, (D3)..... 35 Bolinger, (C1) 300 Bolivar, (K5) 100 Bonami, (D5 300 Bonita, (G1)...... 310 Bordelonville, (G4) 200 LOUISIANA Bowie, (Vi)ecea ee Hs Boyce, (E4)...... a Bridge, (G6 Broussard, (G6)... Brushy. CELO)ick er Bryceland, (E2)... Buckeye, (F4) Bunkie, (F5 . Buras, (L8)..... . Burnside, (J6) - Burton jif)ccie ects Caden (GO)an ee ¢ Calhoun, (F1).... Cameron, (D7)... Campti(D3).. =a. Canton (ES) mea Carencro, (F'6).... Carson (D5)2e. Carville, (H6).... Caspiana, (C2) ... Castors (D2)h acer Cataro, CES) taeeere Cecilia, (G6).sceoe Cedar Grove, (C2) Centerville, (H7) 2 Central, (J6)..... Chacahoula, (J7).. Chalmette, (L7)... Chamberlin, (H5) . Charenton, (G7) .. Chatham, (F2)... Chataignier, (F5).. Chauvin, (J8).. Cheneyville, (4). Cheniere, (F1).. Choudrant, (E1).. as Church Point,(F6). Cinclare. “H6).... Clarks, (F2) << :..< Clinton) 5)eeme. Clio™ (iG) Srcacaeee Cloutierville, (E3). Colfaxy-(E3) ss Collinston, (G1)... Columbia, (F2)... Convent, (J6).... Converse, (C3) ... Cooper, (D4)..... Cottonport, (F5).. porn Valley, ee) Coushatta, (D2). . Covington, (K6) .. Crawford, (G7)... Crescent, (H6).. Crowley, (E26). Crowville, (G2 e Se Cut Off, (K7).. Davant, ‘yidy Bie Dean, (Fi).. ve Delcambre, (F7) aA Delis (G2) sec Delta, (JZ) eens « Denham Springs, (QED servis ore cee Denson, (J6)..... De Quincy, (D6).. a Ridder, (D5).. Ta CE2 ie cet ReCe asee (H6 Donner, (J7).. 1,200 1,060 Oss (Gl)... «6c eeeLOO Doyie, (J5)....... 100 Doyline, (D1). 150 Dry Ling (E3).. 100 Dubach, (E1).. 726 Dubberly, (D1). 200 Dubuisson, (F gy 250 Dunbar, (L6):. 200 Duson, (F6) Ah ie 192 Dutch Town, (J6). 100 Duby G3) eo. ac 100 Dykesville,(D1).. 100 Easton, (F5)..... 300 East Point,(D2).. 100 Echo; (P4) 20% 6.6 281 Edgard, (J7)..... 300 Edna, €E6).53.... 200 Beans (BG)stac oe. 100 Elizabeth, (E5)... 200 Ellendale, (J7).... 100 Elton, (E6)....... 995 Empire, (L8)..... 270 Biola Gii5) tee rere 400 Pirathe(h7 ee oes 713 ros Gi2)see.. eee 1,184 SthersGio/) ens aee 100 Estherwnod, (F6).. 571 Bithel(HS)s..2 150 Eunice, (F6)...... 3 o2ie Evangeline, (F6).. 400 VaHsen(1)5))seae oe 100 Evergreen, (F5)... 262 Farmerville, et 632 Ferriday, (G3). a 044 00 Fisher, (D4)...... 6 Kloras (k3)teel ees i) Florenville, (L6) .. 100 Florien, (D4)..... 250 fioyawCHt) oe... 200 Folsom, (K5)..... 100 Fordoche, (G5)... 200 Forest Hill, (E4).. 200 Fort Jesup, (D3).. 100 Koster! (Hi )ieno 100 Franklin, (G7).. 3,504 Franklinton, (K5). 064 French Settlement, (JG) Wee cae 210 rey (iO) ac vers 100 Frierson, (C2). . 300 Fullerton, (E4)... 2 412 Fulton, (D6) ee "150 Gansville, (2) eee LOD Garden City (H7)> 500 Gardere, (H6).... 150 Gardner, (E4).. 200 Garyville, Qos 1,000 Ged, (C6)........ ’80 Geismar, (TG) tee 250 Genesee, (K5).... | 600 Gheens, (K7).. 500 Gibsland, (D ive 798 ison, (H7) aah ear 200 Gilbert, (G2)..... 442 Gilliam, (C1)..... 150 Gillis; (D6) acres 100 Girard, (G2)...... 100 Glencoe, (G7)... 100 Glenmora, (E5) .. 2,298 Gloster, (C2)..... 130 Gold Dust, (F5)... 100 Goldonna, (E2)... 150 Gonzales, (J6).... 150 Good Pine, Go . 500 Gordon, (D1).. 100 Grace, (E3) pate 250 Gramercy, (J6).. 300 Grand Cane, (C2). 378 Grand Coteau, (G6) 470 Grand Isle, (L8)., 200 Grappes Bluff, (D3) ae Garay il )c eae Grayson, (F2). 337 Greensburg, aie 286 Greenwood, (B2).. 250 Gretna, (K7) ae 7,197 Grosse Tete. CE 500 Gueydan, (E7). 233 Gulletts, (J5).. 200 Hackberry, (7: 200 Hackley, (K5) 250 Hadley, (€2)). ©. i: 100 Hahnville, (K7)... 300 Hailes (61). 120. Hammond, (K5)—. 3,855 Haraham, (K6).. 100 Harrisonburg, (G3). 399 Harvey, (K7).. 340 Haughton, (D2)... 249 Hawthorn, (D4).. 200 Hayes, (E6) Se sae 140 Haynesville, (D1). 903 Head of Island, GJiG) essere ares 3 100 Hecker, (D6)..... 200 Hermitage, CHS)ie e200 Hessmer, (F4).... 325 Hineston, Sue Peete LOU Hobart, (J6).. 100 Hodge, (B2).. 300 Hohen Solms, (H6) 170 Holden.(j5)ine ere. 200 IEolvan( G2) eee 200 Holly Ridge, (G2). 100 Homeplace, (L8).. 180 HomernChis) pres 3,305 Hope, (D2)....... 200 Hope Villa, Soe meee LOU Hornbeck, (D4).. 350 Hosston, (C 1 Dy. 100 Houltonville, (K6) * 250 Houma, (J7) Saltias 5,160 Howard, (D2).... 100 Howcott, (F3).... 100 Husser, (K5)..... 200 Hydropolis, (F4).. 200 da; (C1)eentese ire 400 Independence, (K5) 1,032 Indian Village, (H6) ne Tota (iG) er sraeere 802 Trish Bend, gui 150 Jackson, (H5).. 2,020 Jeanerette, (Cie 25k 2 Nena Ch 3). een 520 0 Jennings, (E6).. 3,824 Jesuit Bend, (K7). 350 Jones, (G1)...see. 100 Jonesboro, (E2).. 837 Jonesville, (G3)... 1,029 Juanita, (D5).. 250 Junction City, (E1) 322 ‘Kahns, (EL). aan 225 Kaplan, (F'6)@.. 2 876 Keatchie, (C2).... 500 Keithville, (C2).. 100 Kelloggs Landing, CHi2) ein. aie 350 Kellys (F3)seces > 150 Kenner, (K6)..... 1,882 Kentwood, (J5)... 3,059 Kilbourne, (H1).. 150 Kinder, (E6),.... Mie Kingston, (C2). 500 Kipling, (D5).. 100 Klotzville, (H6).. 400 Krotz Springs, (G5) 247 Laark Glee ae 120 Greenwood Sop ———_t. P. js. ongvie d S ] NM pers Sec Reiso: Manton iboll Je. Prestridge o7 Pt. Bolivar *) Galveston| Entrance GALVESTON G as d’s New 8 x 11 Map of Loulsiana = Copyright C.S. Hammond & Co.,N.¥u = A 94°30’ B 3 oOBay} Zwolle ori ton u Scie yids, Sa \ t. Jos Lorin, ] fe) 2° Hawtho Sherwood 7 “Winnfield Oo , é (Couley i 89°80’ ML 89° N LOUISIANA SCALE OF MILES 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 36 MILES TO THE INCH State Capital @) County Seatse Quitman [N%,. | | | = | | ! ! | Pi cd es \ if a, e} Monticello 3B, 30 /Pase Manchae —— “HORN I petit Bois 1. a “DD ; i TV ye CHANDELEUR- | ii pu Sound oy == Bes 8 ISLANDS * | BRETON SOUND LE —partuevorne _North Pt, ———— Bird I. Sas = ———— —raptineg SS = carga Pest, oi PO ME X I CO} Wire = — ZAEEPS No) th Hast Pass C= TBE -MISSISSIPPE——— : Upptie Nes : oct Nast Pose = == == ~Q. A 7¥ __ Caillou| Bay \ > fe Raccoon Pt, — SS —DERNIERE|!, 80’ from FX Greenw. 91° Cy; rns Oy : | LOUISIANA - Cont’d. Labadieville, (H7). 500 Mer Rouge, (G1).. 656 Pleasant Hill,(C3). 554 Sondheimer, (Hi) 300 Lacombe, (K6)... _ 400 Merryville, Say 2,963 Point ala Hache,(L7)500 Sorrento, (J6) . 500 Lafayette, (F6)... 7,855 Midland, (E6).. 200 Point Pleasant, (H2) 130 South Highlands, Lafourche Crossing, . Millikin, (H1).. 300° Pollock). (4) i cae (C2) 55 Se 612 CUT) Re eects 400 Milton, (F 6).. 200 Ponchatoula, (K6) 955 South Mansfield, Lake Arthur, (E6) 1,882 Minden, (Di). 6,105 Port Allen, (H6).. 920 (C2) cee ee 441 Lake Charles, (D6)13,088 Mira, (C1) Smrcee 150 Port Barre, (G5).. 588 Spearsville, ee 1202 Lake End, (D3)... 100 Moberly, (K7).... 350 Port Barrow, (J6). 500° Springfield, (J6).. 250 Lakeland, (H5)... 100 Mboeling, (E5).... 125 Port Eads, (M8).. 200 Springhill, (D1).. 748 Lake Providence, Monroe, (F1).....12,675 Port Hudson, (H5) 350 Springville, J 6)... 100 CED) ee eevee epee Montegut, (K8).... 150 Port Vincent, (J6) 200 Stables, (D4)..... 350 Lakeside, (E6).. 230 Montgomery, (E3) 224 Potash, (L8)...... 320° Standard, (F3) 500 Lamourie, (F ay 150 Montpelier, (J5).. 300 Powhatan, (D3).. 200 Sterlington, (F1).. 400 Laplace, (K6). ... 320 Montrose, (D3)... 250 Prairieville, (J6).. 200 Stevenson, (G1)... 100 L’Argent, (H3)... 200 Mbooringsport,(B1) 992 Pride, (J5)....... 150 Stonewall, (C2)... 150 Larose, (K7)..... 190 Moreauville, (G4). 867 Provencal, (D3).. 262 Stonypoint, (J5).. 100 Lauderdale, (J6).. 250 Morgan City, (H7) 5,429 Quitman, (E2).... 177 Strader, (K6)..... 200 Laura. (Heer 200 Morganza, (G5)...- 332 WRaccourci, (G5)... © 100 Strange; (E3)....: 150 Lawrence, (L7)... 150 Morley, (H6)..... 400 Raceland, (J7).... 700 Sulphur, (D6).... 1,714 Lecompte,'(F4).°.. 1,034 Morrow, (F5)..... 283 Ragley, (D5)..... 300 Summerfield, (E1) 100 Leesville, (D4).... 2,518 Morse, (F6)...... 482 Ramos, (H7)... 250 SUT Clo) eee 250 Lenzburg, (D2)... 300 Mossville, rE 200 Ramsay, CKS)E 139 Sunrise, (GEIS) Saet 100 Leonville, (G6)... 325 Mound, (H2).. 100 Randolph, (E1).. 500 Sunset, (CEG). 433 Lettsworth, (G5).. 400 Mt. Airy, (J6).. 150 Rayne, (F6)...... - 2,120 Sycamore, (E4).:. 200 Lewiston, (K5)... 100 Mt. Herman, (K6) 150 Rayville, (G1).. 1,499 Tatty (Rachie 200 Libertyhill, (E2).. 150 Mt. Lebanon, (D2) 250 Reddell, (F5)..... 100 Tallulah, CH )ie 1,316 Lillie, (1) 25.235 = 150 eeViyrtis. (Bd) pacer 250 Reeves, (D5) ARES, 243 Tangipahoa, (K5). "252 Lions CO) hea ZOO meINalrzs 7S) sere 300 Reserve, (J6)..... 400 Thibodaux, abe 3,526 Lisbon, (E1)...... 100 Naomi, (K7);..... °220° Riceville; (E6)2.. 2 7150 Thomastown, (J2) 120 Livingston, GS). .. 450 Naples, (G4).. 250 Ringgold, (D2)... 335 Tickfaw, (J5).. ten. 200 Livonia, (G5)..... 300 Napoleonville, (H7) 74a RIO (155) eeetererete 265 ‘Timberton, (J6)... 400 Lobdell, (H6)..... 500 Natalbany, (K5). 150 Roanoke, (E@)2 oe 200 = iiogas (F4) per 585 Lockport (KT) .. 803 Natchitoches, (D3) 3,388 Robeline, (D3).. 495° Portas, (G5) .e 500 Logansport, (C3) 7 8052 = Neamie. (D5)nee "500 Rochelle, (F3).. 400 Tremont, (F1).... 500 Logtown, (F2).... 200 Nero, (L7) Sales eet 150 Rodessa, (B1).. 100 “Trenton; (C3) on 1-00 Lonepine, (F5).... 130 Newellton, (H3).. 541 Rogillioville, (HS) LOO ei Crout. (F3)eee ee 500 Longbridge, (F4).. 500 New Iberia, (G6). .6,278 Roosevelt, (H1).. 100 Lullos (ES) eee 100 Longleaf, (E5).... 500 Newlin, (D5)...... 200 Rosedale, (G6) ... 400 Turkey Creek, (F5) 100 Longstreet, (B2).. 146 New Orleans, Roseland, (K5)... 603 Tyne, (D3)....... 100 Longville, (D5)... 900 (Lyte 4 oe 387,219 ~Rosepine, (D5)-3... 9325: Union WiG6) 2-0) Longwood, (H1).. 250 New Roads, (H5).. 1,294 Routon, (F3)..... 150 Urania, (F3)..... 250 Loreauville, (G6).. 439 New Verda, (E3).. 182 Ruddock, (K6)... 900 Vacherie, (J7). 250 Loring, (C3) Pants 450° SNicholls)\Gi8)..0. 6.250 Ruston; (a2) ane 3,389 Varnado, (Libite 275 Loulsas(Go)) atic. 175. Noble; (C3)e- sa 316 Rustville, (D4). 250 Venice, (M8) gee 350 Lottie; (G5) 2 iscnic 100 Norwood, (H5)... 150 Saint Amant, (J6). 150) Verda. *(E3) eens 150 Lucy, ai O) ie 100 Oakdale, (EDS 4,016 Saint Amelia, Chem 250.6 Vernon (i 2)neteres 100 Ludington, (DS)... 300 Oak Grove, (H1).. "700 Saint Bernard, (L7) 500 Victoria, pes) 350 Luling, (K7).. 350 Oak Ridge, (G1).. 318 Saint Francisville, Vidalia, (H3).. * 1,246 Lutcher, (J6)..... ; 1,700 Oberlin, (E5)..... 623 (HS) Ree ce 67435). Vienna, (Et) ee 400 McCall, (H6)..... 700 Oil City, (C1).... 900 Saint Gabriel, (H6) 500 Ville Platte, (F5) 1,364 McDonoghville, Olivier, (G7)...... 100 Saint James, (J7). 350 Vinton, (D6) Ris Mor 1.441 CK-/) setae 1<700> Olla, G3) aeemee. « 266 Saint Joseph, (H3) 734 Vivian, (C1)...... 1,364 McNary, (E5).... 1,318 Opelousas, (F5)... 4,437 Saint Landry, (F5) 210 Walker, CS) Ree 371 Madisonville, (K6) 1 103 Oscar. (CHS) eee 100 St. Martinville, Wallace, (J7) Sorc. 0e OOO Maeda, (F4)..... 100 Ouachita, CEN) 00 (G6). 222 2 ae 2,465 Ward, (E5)... 150. Mattlard(G7)ter e200) Oxtords (G3 ee 150 Saint Maurice, (E3) 100 Warnerton, (K5) 150 Mamou, (F5)..... 649 Paincourtville, ah 550 Saint Patricks, Ce 00 Washington, (G5) 1,041 Manchac, (H6).. 150 Palmetto, (GR 5 168 Saint Rose, (K7).. 500 Mb ea (H3) "340 Mandeville, (K6).. 1,130 Paradis, cET0 150 Saint Tammany, Weeks, (G 7) vane 200 Mangham, ae 462 Parcperdue, (F6).. 200 (1G) ec ioeiosters 280 Welcome, WO) Base Mansfield, pos 2,564 Parks, (G6).. 766 Seu CD)2)) renee 390 Welsh, {E6)...... Beier Manske, (L5).. 150 Patoutville,(G7).. 150 Sarepta, (D Cty. 300 Westlake, (D6)... 1,700 Mansura, (F4).. .».. 829 Patterson, (H7).. . 2,538 Sartori, (F4).. 125 West Monroe, Many, (C3)erames 663 Paulina, (J6) Sic NaS 150 Scanlon, KD) $30 100 CED).at ee eee 2,240 Marco, (E3).. 300 Pearl, (D6)....... 200 Schriever, (J7).... 100 Westwego, (K7).. "700 Maringouin, (G6). 399 Pearl River, ries a OS . SCOLE CEO) sek oto 324 White Castle, H6) 1,566 Marion, @1)..... 371 Peason, (D4). see, 900s Sellersi CR O)eae ccc 200 Whitehall, Go. 200 Mark, (H6) LPcraats 300) (Pelicans (C3) ance 300 Selma, (F3).. 500 Wildsville, (G3).. 150 Marksville, aoe 1,185 Perry, (F7) Jiidtrae 5 Seymourville, 5 cH6) 500 Willetts, (G3) ie OU Marrero, (K7).. 240 Phoenix, (L7)..... 100 Shamrock, (D3) . 150 Wilson, (H5)..... 470 Marston, (L5).. 150 Pickering, (D5).. 750 Shongaloo, (D1) 100 Winnfield, (E3)... 2,975 Marthaville, (D3). 285 Pine Grove, (J5y 22 100 Shreveport, (C1). 43,874 Winnsboro, (G2). 1,176 Mathews, ne. 800 Pineville, (F4) .. . 2,188. Sibley, (D1)..,... 900 Winona, (E2).. "200 Maurepas, (J6)... 150 Pinewood, (DS). 250 Sicily Island, (G3) 150 Wyatt, (E2)..:... 300 Maurice, (F6).... 100 Pioneer, (H1).. 150 Simsboro, (E1)... 290 Yellow Pine, (D2) 1,000 Maxie, (F6)...... 100 Pitkin, (E5).. ~-. 150 “Singer; (DS) Re iciatars 100 Youngsville, (F6). 361 Melrose, (E3)..... 100 Plain Dealing, (C1) 655 Slaughter, (H5)... 215 Zachary, (HS).. 524 Melville, (G5).... 958 Plaquemine, “(H6) 4,632 Slidell, (L6)...... 2,958 Zimmerman, (E4) 500 Meridian, (F5).... 300 Plattenville, (J7)... 150 Smoke Bend, sr) 600). Zona (K5) 0,0 oe 220 Mermenton, (E6), 364 Plauchtville, (G5), 335 Solitude, (HS)... 206 Zwolle, (C3)...... 909 LOUISIANA slave system, which tended to concentrate at- tention upon a few staples roughly cultivable by gangs. ‘There are some indications of a change; but the chief feature has been the enormous de- velopment of irrigated rice culture, as told be- low. There has also been a progressive subdi- vision of farms; the average plantation of 1860 was over 500 acres, the average farm of 1920 was 74.0 acres. This does not, however, imply the cessation of large farms; on the contrary, Louisiana is the State of great plantations, there being 795 in 1920 containing more than 1,000 acres each, This is. due to the heavy capital needed to carry on the sugar business, which must have a large territory to make fair returns. One result of the growth of the class of colored farmers, besides the cutting up of farms —their average being 40 acres to 150 for the white farmer—is the increase of rentals, they being usually too poor and unthrifty to buy. They almost equal in number the white farm- ers, but they own only 17.7 per cent of their farms against 63.0 per cent @wned by the whites, and there are nearly three times as many cash tenants and two and a half times as many share tenants as white. They operate but about one-fifth of the farm area, however. In cotton culture, Louisiana has been slower to recover from the Civil War than any other State, having not yet reached the figures of 1860, while several others have immeasurably surpassed them, and it has not greatly grown since 1890; its product in 1922 was 357,000 bales of a value of $42,840,000. Cane sugar, the great specialty of the State, produced in 1922, 534,000,- 000 pounds, worth $42,000,000. Louisiana pro- duces three-fourths of all the cane grown in the United States, outside of Hawaii, and more than 11 times as much as the next heaviest pro- ducer, Georgia. This is an extensive crop, con- centrating a great value on a small area; while the value of the crop was over half that of cotton, in 1920 its acreage was only one-fifth as much; with about one-sixth the total value of farm products, it occupied only 6 per cent of the farm acreage. One of the great draw- backs to Louisiana sugar-cane raising is that about one-fifth has to be kept for seed and cannot be replaced in the same season, while in Cuba the tops of unfit canes are simply dropped into hoe-made holes, and there are plenty always to be had; the Louisiana seed cane often rots, the Cuban never. The Cuban cane is also much richer in sugar, and the yield per acre is about double. From all these causes, the cost oi making a pound of sugar is about double in Louisiana what it is in Cuba. Corn, as in all the Southern States—owing to its value as a food crop, for feeding swine, cattle and other live-stock—has always had far greater attention. than any other cereal. In 1922 the crop was 29,002,000 bushels valued at $24,072,000. But the great coming food crop is rice, whose culture increased about two and a half times in the last decade, and nearly all of this in the last three years: owing to the in- troduction of improved methods by a number of Iowa immigrants, and of a new system of irrigation, which has revolutionized rice cul- ture and worked a complete transformation in the great coast-prairie belt of southwestern Louisiana and southeastern Texas, formerly almost in primitive solitude. Up to 1897 nearly all the rice grown on these prairies was 681 “Providence” rice, dependent mainly on rainfall. Then two years of drought showed that there was no security without irrigation, and there was a stampede to the “pump lands,” where a new world was created by raising watet from bayous. This district, as above said, is full of slightly raised ridges; the canals are run along these, not by digging, but by throwing up parallel dikes for a channel; as the water in all these regions lies below the land to be irrigated. it is raised by pumping plants at the heads of the canals and distributed to the lands by grav- ity; sometimes two or more pump stations are needed on the same canal to lift the water high enough. This immense draft on the water sup- ply has created alarm for the future; but the whole region is underlaid with exhaustless water: bearing gravel strata, and easily bored wells can irrigate 100 acres without diminishing the flow. This prairie has the further advantage over the delta district, formerly the chief seat of the culture, that in the latter the heavy machinery needed for improved cultivation was apt to sink in the soil. In 1922 the rice grown was 19,980,000 bushels of a market value of $17,782,000. The values of other crops for 1922 were: AUS eee Gate ais Sele clic ae apa Re Pee ohdeaN is, Le $862 , 000 SNM EE) LULA SET Seo a dese ankle tal gk adi pte igs etl 2,279,307 Ngo AS ee Coie Leer at eRe Mee 00 BOS Ba eG rea oe Be 4,549,000 Sweet potatoes. sit aya pios ie de seule 4,770,000 SLODACET YE une cers, apes ths en | 8 SLES yy 48 , 000 Ba Vee ae an es ds SARS PL bade sy MRR Da eg 745 ,000- PPOtGOGS 4 oc Pte Pk oot hed ee Te 2,632,000 Stock Raising— The importance of the State for stock raising is receiving recognition. The statistics for 1 Jan. 1923 as shown in the following table are: Nia bol fp Sauiea n,n Aiea dene i brs, aad a te ET 171,000 NMialehycowstened ghee. nt ey, San aa oe 216,000 Other Cattle tien osetia ras eae al. ete eke 585 ,000 ICED aicacce tates ee OSA nev feral ed Bete a pc 122,000 SWINE ie ares he et tn eee ee Ne 756,000 WIEST, darter onto ceh eine ati ete ee ieee ath 176,000 The parish fairs have been highly successful. Fisheries.— Louisiana ranks next to Florida among the Gulf States in the value of its fish- catch. As a whole, however, the industry seems not to be increasing largely; the statis- tics for, 1917 show fresh fish, $1,141,259.33; salt water, $750,000. The oyster fishery is second only to that of Chesapeake Bay. It produced in 1917 2,310,972 bushels employing 680 boats. The oyster reefs extend almost unbroken from the mouth of Atchafalaya Bayou to the State line. Large canneries have been established on the Gulf. The seine fishery is declining; but Louisiana is still the chief source of shrimps. The total fish catch of 1918 was 24,953,376 pounds, value $1,419,367. The alligator industry is decreasing with the gradual exhaustion of the supply; at the same time the scarcity of hides constantly enhances the market value. Manufactures.— These are chiefly repre- sented by the working up of the large natural resources and are principally carried on in New Orleans, by far the largest of the six cities of the State. In 1919 the manufactured products were valued at $676,190,000, and those of New Orleans $182,799,000. The industrial tendency is to increase production, but to reduce labor. With the exception of sugar the chief industries 682 of the State show a steady increase in value accompanied by a regular decrease in the num- bers of wage-earners, a proof of a growth of labor efficiency. 1910 was 84,243. In 1919 it was 98,265. The second industry in the State was concerned with the utilizing of the immense timber resources. In 1919 585 establishments turned out products valued at $130, 521,000. The sugar and molasses produced in 1919 were in value $141,842,924. The manufacture of cotton-seed oil and cake held third place in 1919; the products were valued at $57,162,000 from 28 mills. This in- dustry is fostered by the immense facilities for export and import afforded by the Mississippi River. The cleaning and polishing of rice gave a product of 505,323,945 lbs. from 46 mills. A wonderful increase occurred in the manufacture of food preparations, which starting in 1900, in the year 1919 attained the value of $34,406,000. War conditions largely influenced manufactur- ing in 1918. One of the principal effects was the erection of important shipbuilding industries in and about New Orleans and the digging of a wide and deep canal connecting the Mississippi with Lake Pontchartrain. Commerce and Transportation.— Louisiana is the richest State in the Union in total length of navigable streams, 3,771 miles. Its lower part is a vast web of paths to the ocean, aggre- gating 2,500 miles. The entire 600 miles of the Mississippi’s length in the State is navigable and largely navigated; the jetties have trebled its value and made New Orleans a far greater corn and cotton port than before. A canal from the river to Lake Borgne has greatly lessened the distance from the city to the Gulf and to the coal fields of Alabama, hence reducing the cost of fuel for manufacturing purposes.. The railroad facilities have not been very extensive till the last decade, when they increased from 1,739 to 2,801 miles and are now 5,276, The growing importance of New Orleans has led a number of trunk lines to make a special effort for its business; owing to the nature of the Gulf coast all turn away many miles from it. The chief lines are the Southern Pacific, the Texas Pacific, the Louisville and Nashville, the Queen and Crescent and the Illinois Central. Many others are laying plans for entering the city. As with most Western and Southern States now, rates are fixed by railroad com- mission. New Orleans is the third port in the United States in amount of foreign commerce, next to New York and Boston. For the year ending 30 June 1909 its imports and exports (principally the latter) amounted to over $190,- 000,000. For the year ending 30 June 1921 its imports were $110,282,795 and exports $423,- 043,019. In the year 1921 there were entered ships of a tonnage of 5,275,133 and cleared 5,613,737. Banks.— The State has an excellent banking system, very conservative in its holdings of re- serves; the New Orleans banks were notable for their ‘exceptional solidity and punctuality in meeting Northern obligations when the Civil War broke out. On 30 June 1922 there were in operation 230 State banks with resources of $312,979,000. There were also individual deposits, including dividends unpaid and postal savings, in national banks aggregating $73,443,000. In the year 1922 the exchanges at the United States clear- ing-house at New Orleans were $2,266,898,000. The number of laborers in. LOUISIANA Government and Finance.— The constitu- tion of 1898 was devised to exclude the illiterate negro vote, except for owners of property to over $300 who are not subject to educational | qualification. Otherwise than that, each voter must be able to fill out his application blank for registration, but this does not apply to anyone who was a voter on 1 Jan. 1867 (that is, before the 14th or 15th Amendment was passed), or his son or grandson of mature age. Women taxpayers .can vote on all questions of tax- paying in any subdivision of the State. State officers are elected for four years. The gov- ernor has $7,500 salary, the pardoning power and a veto by items, which may be overriden by a two-thirds vote ‘of the elected members of each house. The legislature holds biennial ses- sions limited to 60 days; both houses are elected for four years; the senate may be from 36 to 41 in number, the house from 98 to 110, and as. a fact the numbers are now 39 and 101; there must be one representative to each parish, and to each ward of New Orleans. The judi- ciary is headed by a Supreme Court, consist- ing of a chief justice and six associates ap- pointed by the governor with the consent of the senate, for 12 years. There are judicial districts, to be not less than 20 nor more than 29; the judges are elected for nine years, as is the district attorney for each. From and after 1 July 1904 there has been a Court of Appeals, composed of two district judges designated by the Supreme Court. The State has a large Democratic majority. It sends two senators and eight members to Con- gress. The assessed valuation of property in 1921 was $1,718,286,902. The legislature cannot incur debts except to repel invasion or suppress insurrection. The bonded debt in 1922 was $14,345,981. The budget receipts for 1921 were $26,146,996.76. Education.— Louisiana, formerly near the foot of the ladder in the general education of its people, has made extraordinary efforts in the past two decades and in some respects has surpassed all other Southern States; a fact more creditable from its large negro population. The average school term (191.4 days) was the longest of any Southern State. The term of colored schools was as long as those of the white, and the amount expended is exceedingly creditable, being in 1920, $11,088,689, or nearly half as much as the current receipts of the State. The school revenues are made up of 113/20 mills from the State property tax of six mills on the dollar, a poll-tax of $1 13/20 on all males over 21—retained in the parish where levied, and other local taxes may be laid — special corporation taxes, etc. By the law of 1902 the school administration is cen- tralized in a State board of education consisting of the governor and.eight appointees, the super- intendent of education and the attorney-gen- eral; this appoints a four-year board of educa- tion for each parish (county), who appoint parish superintendents. The enrolment in schools during 1920 was 75.9 per cent of the children from 7 to 13, and 65.6 per cent of those of 14 and 15 years of age. Despite all efforts, however, the load of illiteracy is a heavy one to struggle against. In 1922 there were 8,060 teach- ers, nearly three-fourths female; over 1,200 col- ored teachers, about evenly divided. Besides LOUISIANA esnoy uojeg 3B [o}Ideg 93e1S : peer Sone Be & Fee oe . i ¥ ow a wis i ' “oO Ae? or r¢ as A Ss orn SY Pe) tthe he Oa an sip’: =r - ’ r f oe a . ; ' : ‘ : mY ¥ . me . haven 2 H . 24 4 ‘ ud - ¥ © t , ‘ s) 4 - = ‘ ' C . ’ . 2% . : ke ¥ ‘ . - % fA t . bs ’ * ‘ y “4 ; - oe a pA" | | aye oS OgHE TRARY Se : ie _ | 72°08 THE, UNIVERSE Gir IAL LOUISIANA these there were matiy hundred private teach- ers. The pupils in the Catholic schools alone were about 25,000. Total pupils enrolled in common schools were 339 687. For higher edu- cation there were 222 public high and second- ary schools, two industrial colleges, the In- dustrial Institute at Ruston (North Louisiana) and the Southwestern Industrial Institute at Lafayette, two normal schools, the State at Natchitoches and that of the city at New Orleans; the State University. and Agricul- tural and Mechanical College at Baton Rouge, partly supported by the United States; Tulane University, with affiliated special colleges, one of the best reputed institutions in the South, and a number of Roman Catholic and sectarian colleges. For the colored people are four — Southern University, Leland University, New Orleans University and Straight University. Charitable and Penal Institutions.— The State Board of Charities and Corrections can only inspect and report. The old system of leasing out convicts to private contractors was abolished by the constitution of 1898, and they are now only employed on public works or con- vict farms, or in manufactures owned and operated by the State; and parish jail inmates may be employed on public works within that parish. The State Insane Asylum is at Jack- son, a Lepers’ Home in Iberville Parish, insti- tutions for the deaf and blind at Baton Rouge and there are State hospitals at New Orleans and Shreveport. The health of New Orleans is regulated by a board of health composed of three members appointed by the New Orleans city council. Churches.— The strongest denominations in order of church societies are the Baptists, Southern Methodists, the two forming the bulk of the Protestants, Roman Catholics, Presby- terians, Protestant Episcopalians, Lutherans and Unitarians. The Roman -Catholics are stronger here from the long Spanish and French domination than anywhere else in the South. In New Orleans are located a Roman Catholic archbishop and bishops of the Protestant and Methodist Episcopal churches. ‘There are also Roman Catholic bishops at Natchitoches and Leatayette. History.— The earliest knowledge of Louis- iana dates from the discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi in 1528 by Narvaez. De Soto, 13 years later, crossed the great river on rafts at some point about the Arkansas; of the im- portance of this discovery the Spaniards were wholly ignorant. The next Europeans to sail on the great river were the French. In 1673 Marquette and Joliet were sent by the governor of Canada to seek the river which might lead to the great western ocean. They descended as far as the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1682 they were followed by La Salle. who completed the work of discovery and took possession of the country, which he called Louisiana, in the name of Louis XIV. In 1684 he sailed from France with colonists to form a settlement. He missed the mouth of the river, landed at Matagorda Bay and was murdered in 1687. Braye men were not lacking to take up the enterprise, and in 1698 Iberville, with his brother, Bienville, sailed from Brest for the Mississippi. Finding the Spanish in possession of Pensacola, he stayed for a short time at Mobile and ‘then entered and explored the lower part of the 683 rivers. His first settlement was at Biloxi, despite the protest of the Spanish governor of Pensacola. In 1702 the site of the colony was removed to Mobile. Antoine Crozat obtained the concession of Louisiana in 1712. It was handed over for 25 years to the Western or Mississippi Company, founded by John Law. Bienville was again made governor and was able to carry out his long-formed plan to create a city where is now New Orleans. Later, in 1722, he was able to make it the capital of the colony. The Western Company sent out large numbers of emigrants, and the colony increased in population, but not in prosperity; misgov- ernment and Indian wars prevented all progress. In January 1732 Louisiana was surrendered to the king. Iberville resigned in 1743 and was succeeded by Vaudreuil, under whom were is- sued levee ordinances and police regulations for New Orleans. In the following years there was no improvement in the condition of the colony, ‘of which the annual expense was a drain on the exhausted resources of France. In 1762, by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Louisiana west of the Mississippi, together with the island of Orleans, was ceded to Spain, and in the next year Louisiana east of the Mississippi, together with Florida, was surrendered to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris. The dissatisfaction of the Louisianians and the long delay of Spain in taking possession of her new colony gave rise to a serious revolt which was sternly suppressed ~ by O’Reilly. He, however, provided for a form of government under which the colony made considerable progress. The great growth of the population on the upper Mississippi caused a demand for freedom from all restrictions of commerce on the river. This was obtained temporarily by concessions from the Spanish governors, but when the right of deposit was refused in 1803, there was grave danger of a descent on New Orleans. The desire of Napo- leon to create a colonial empire in America led to the secret Treaty of Saint Ildefonse in 1800, by which France acquired that portion of Louis- iana formerly ceded to Spain. In 1803 fear of English invasion induced Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States for $15,000,000. (See ANNEXATION; LoUISIANA PuRCHASE, for statistics of size and location). On 28 March 1804 the part south of lat. 33° N. was organ- ized as Orleans Territory; the northern part being organized as Louisiana Territory, after- ward changed to Missouri Territory. An en- abling act was passed 20 Feb. 1811 to form Orleans into a State, and it was admitted 8 April 1812. The French element was so strong that the constitution allowed members of the legislature to debate either in French or in Eng- lish, and the dividing line in politics was usually between the two, wth temporary alliances of other elements. ‘The organization of the Whig party, one of whose cardinal tenets was pro- tection, which helped sugar, turned Louisiana into one of the strongest Whig States in the South. she twice voting for Whig Presidents. The slavery issue, after 1860, made it more and more strongly Democratic, and in 1860 it was heavily for secession. New Orleans was cap- tured by the Federal troops 25 April 1862, and the State government, whose seat had been Baton Rouge since 1852, was transferred to Opelousas. During the rest of the war the territory held by the Federals was recognized 684 as the legitimate State government, though un- der a military governor, and sent members to Congress. On 30 July 1866 an attempt of the colored leaders to hold a constitutional conven- tion at New Orleans and secure the admission of their race to the franchise resulted in the massacre of many of the delegates by the whites, which had much to do with the exces- sive severity with which the subsequent Recon- struction government bore on the latter. (For the general history of the time, see REcoNn- STRUCTION. For the part borne by the State in the imbroglio of 1876, see ELECTORAL CoMMIS- SION). The most important item in the subse- quent history was the passing of the Constitu- tion of 1898, with the “Grandfather Clause,” to disfranchise the negroes, which reduced the negro registration to about 7,000, as against over 120,000 whites. GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY OF ORLEANS William CoCo Claibomes. <1 oe nee ee 1804-12 STATE William C. C. Claiborne. Democratic Republican. 1812-16 Jacques Philippe Villere. :. 1816-20 Thomas B. Robertson.. 3 = 1820-24 Henry Schuyler Thibo- deaux (acting)....... ed ¢ 1824 Henry Johnson........ € = 1824-28 Pierre Derbigny....... wg iy 1828-29 Passleeiee Beauvais (act- . 5. ANG) sizer nelerea he. 1829-30 Jacques Dupre (acting). e = 1830-31 Andre Bienvenu Roman. Whig................ 1831-35 Edward E. White...... AW AAR. ITO 1835-39 André Bienvenw-Roman:, 447 .. acesnase alt 1839-43 Alexander Mouton..... Oo aca ott Pope AE 1843-46 Isaac Johnson......... Democrate,te ee 1846-50 Joseph Walker......... f) mphaatTote: 1850-53 Paul Octave Hebert.... Seceters eels. « optes oy 1853-56 Robert C. Wickliffe. ... i pees Sale pie? 1856-60 Thomas O. Moore..... Me Mae may Se. BS 1860-62 George F. Shepley..... Military (250M AU oc 1862-64 Henry W. Allen....... Governor of Confederate p part of State... os. .. 1864-65 Michael Hahn......... Unionist and Military.. 1864-65 James M. Wells... .... Demoeérat? 22 6 D162: 1865-67 Benjamin F. Flanders. . Military.............. 1867 Joshua Baker. om... 5 ME ise RE 1867-68 Henry C. Warmoth.... Republican........... 1868-71 John McEnery.......: Democrat and Liberal Republican. Not rec- ognized by President ya ; or Goneress 2), oe). - 1873 William Pitt Kellogg... ‘‘ Custom House ’”’ Re- publicdny pa esa o 1873-77 Stephen B. Packard.... Republican claimant; ’ : not recognized. ..... 1877 Francis T. Nicholls..... Déniocrats +. . Eee he: 1877-80 LowsiA, Wiltasnonn $2. 3 rea ee ee pen. ae 1880-81 Samuel D. McEnery... OF ae or eee 1881-88 Francis T. Nicholls..... Oona, s, Boae 1888-92 Murphy J. Foster...... Anti-Lottery Democrat. 1892-1900 William W. Heard..... Democrat, eo kee 1900-04 Newton C. Blanchard... Pig agg Pee 1904-08 Jared Y. Sanders...) 2. ORIEL AO 1908-12 farther E. Hallirases . : TV SRRG Cave tints iclare) 1912-16 Ruffin G. Pleasant..... “207 ORT AT 1916-20 John M. Parker 7.4... Rategeta St aah acct ie as 1920- The following are the names of the principal authors who have written on Louisiana: His- tory: Le Page du Pratz, Villiers du Terrage, Martin, Gayarre, Fortier. Description: Darby, Stoddard. Botany: Rafinesque, Chapman. Ornithology: Audubon. Literature: Fortier. History and Development of New Orleans: Cable, King, Castellanos. For official information consult reports of State officers published at Baton Rouge and of Chief of Engineers, Washington, D. C. Population.— The census figures from 1810, when it was first counted separately as the Territory of Orleans, are as follows: (1810) LOUISIANA 76,556: (1820) 152,923; (1830) 215,739; (1840) 352,411; (1850) 517,762: (1860) 708,002; (1870) 726,915; (1880) 939,946; (1890) 1,118,587 ; (1900) 1,381,625; (1910) 1,656,388. In 1920 it was 1,798,509. The foreign born whites were 44,871, of whom 16,264, or over one-third, were Italians, 5,147 Germans, 4,182 French and 2,000 Irish. The colored population was 700,257, or 38.9 per cent of total, a relative decrease since 1890 of over 12 per cent, due to the higher death rate among the negroes. Louisiana was seventh in absolute number of colored inhabi- tants and sixth in relative number, being sur- passed by Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, North and South Carolina. The legislature is for- bidden to create new parishes with less than 625 square miles and 7,000 inhabitants, or divide an old parish so as to leave either portion less than these magnitudes, There are no large cities, except New Orleans with 287,104 people, in 1900, and in 1910 over 339,075, in 1920, 387,219; the great Mississippi port, and destined to a much larger growth. Shreveport, the next, on the upper Red River, had 43,874; Baton Rouge, the capital, on the Mississippi, 21,872. Among the others above 5,000 are New Iberia, Lake Charles, Monroe, Alexandria, Minden, Bogalusa, ae ned Gretna, Houma, Lafayette and Morgan ity. Sociology.— Owing to the preponderance of population and the general importance of New Orleans it has been found useful to locate these institutions usually found at the State capitol. The Supreme Court sits in the newly built Law Courts, in which is the State Library. The two most important libraries in the State are the Howard Memorial Library for refer- ence and the New Orleans Public Library for circulation established, which provide for the public of New Orleans the use of nearly 200,000 books. There are published in the State 117 newspapers, of which the New Orleans Times- Picayune is the most important daily. The literature of the State consists of two groups of writings: the one in French covering the period between 1835 and 1855, including those of Gayarra and Rouquette, and a brilliant series of works in English prose and poetry by Town- send, King, Davis, Fortier, Ficklen, etc., which have been produced in the last 30 years of the 19th century. WILLIAM BEER, Librarian, Howard Memorial Library, New Orleans. LOUISIANA, Mo., city, in Pike County, on the Mississippi River, and on the Chicago and Alton and the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroads, about 85 miles northwest of Saint Louis. It is situated in an agricultural region, and is the trade centre for a large ex- tent of country in both Missouri and Illinois. Its chief industrial plants are flour and lumber mills, button factories, brick yards, tools, baskets and lime works, shoe, stove and tobacco fac- tories, wagon and carriage factories. Nearby are large quarries and extensive nurseries. The trade is chiefly in its manufactured articles, dairy and nursery products, grain, fruit and live- stock. There is a good public library. Pop. about 4,060. LOUISIANA, Code of. In the history of law in the United States the first important LOUISIANA — LOUISIANA experiment with a code in the United States was made in Louisiana, which State, originally a French colony afterward ceded to Spain, again returned to France, and subsequently ac- quired by the United States from France, has had many changes of law. After the United States acquired Louisiana there arose a strong demand for a code, owing to the great con- fusion of laws. In 1806-08 a code was adopted, but only to supersede the ancient laws when they conflicted with it. A complete civil code was adopted for the State in 1824, which had for its basis the Code Napoléon, although some provisions of the common law were injected into it. The Louisiana code was the founda- tion for a later code prepared for the State of New York under the guidance and supervision of David Dudley Field. This code, although published, and having formed the foundation for many of the codes adopted by the various States, was never accepted by the legislature of New York. See Cope. LOUISIANA, District of. See ORLEANS, TERRITORY OF. . LOUISIANA CREOLES. This appella- tion belongs exclusively to persons of French and Spanish descent born in Louisiana: not- withstanding the prevalent error to the contrary according it to Louisiana-born children of any European blood. Though often misrepresented, the creoles of Louisiana, as a matter of fact, are intelligent, brave and generous, and are, by no means, inferior in the matter of educa- tion; they are also in the enjoyment of the highest social privileges. The women of true creole lineage are world-famed for grace and beauty. The creoles have furnished Louisiana some of its ablest governors, its most distin- guished military men, its eminent writers, its leading professional men, financiers and mer- chants. In 1904 they held a number of the most exalted offices in the State, and were likewise fully represented in all branches of high and meritorious effort. Very many of the creoles now in Louisiana are descended from high and noble families in France and Spain, and they treasure the lofty traditions of their ancestry. The expression “creole negro” is of- ten used, and its employment has perhaps con- tributed to the false impression which some entertained that the Louisiana creole, truly such, must be, or is, of negro blood. The term un- der immediate consideration simply means that the negro to whom it is applied, or his progeni- tors, has been reared under a creole master. So far as the true creole families are con- cerned, they have been jealous of their Cau- casian lineage and careful to maintain the purity of their blood. The word “creole” is often used to designate the origin of certain products of the field and farm, such as creole chickens, eggs, butter, etc. The meaning of this is that the products thus named are strictly from creole portions of the State of Louisiana. A certain debased idiom of the French em- ployed among negroes, and, to some extent, among creole children and lower whites, is popularly called “creole” It has figured in literature in the shape of short stories, proverbs, etc. The better element of creole adults speak and write the French language in its purity. The majority likewise have a correct and fluent PURCHASE EXPOSITION 685 use of the English language. An effective an- swer to the aspersions, by some sought to be cast upon the character of the olden creoles, is the following citation from the Chevalier Guy Soniat du Fossat, a distinguished officer of the French army who was in New Orleans in 1751. In his ‘Synopsis of the History of Loui- siana, etc.,> he gives the following: “Creoles are defined to be ‘the children of Europeans born in the colony.? They, in gen- eral, measure about 5 feet 6 inches in height; they are all well shaped, and of agreeable figure; they are lively, alert and agile, and, notwithstanding the great heat of this climate, are laborious. They are born with ambition, and an honest self-esteem. They are endowed with a natural disposition for all sciences, arts, and exercises that amuse society. They excel in dancing, fencing, hunting and in horseman- ship. Nature has favored them with a pene- trating and active mind, and they are capable of being easily instructed. The lack of teachers renders their education somewhat incomplete, and it must be said, in all justice, that among the many qualities which they possess are polite- ness, bravery and benevolence. They are good fathers, good friends and good kinsmen. “The women, besides having the qualities above enumerated, are agreeable in figure and seldom deformed. They make good mothers, and are devoted to their husbands and their children, and in their marital relations seldom are they unfaithful. I must also add that the stranger arriving in this wild and savage coun- try will be surprised to see in this capital, as exists in all countries of Europe, brilliant as- semblies where politeness, amiability and gayety reign supreme.” . BUSSIERE ROUEN, Officer d’Académie, Secrétaire perpetuel de PAthénée Loutsianats. LOUISIANA PURCHASE, The. See UNITED STATES — LOUISIANA PurRCHASE, THE. LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSI- TION, an international exposition held in Saint Louis, Mo., 30 April 1 Dec. 1904, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the pur- chase from France of the Louisiana. A tract of 1,142 acres in Forest Park was selected for the site. The plan included 15 large exhibition buildings, of which the main group were laid out in the form of a fan. The apex of the fan was formed of the four great Art Palaces, of which one in brick and stone survives as a memorial. These were from designs by Cass Gilbert. E. L. Masqueray designed the Hall of Sculpture, the Palace of Agriculture and the Palace of Transportation. The Palace of Edu- cation was designed by Eames and Young in reformed classic style. Carrére and Hastings designed the Palace of Manufactures in Cor- inthian. Other groups were the Palace of Electricity by Walker and Kimball, the Palace of Machinery by Widman, Walsh and Bois- selier, the Palace of Forestry, Fish and Game by E. L. Masqueray, the United States Govern- ment Building, housing exhibits by the various departments of the national government. In addition to these there were about 500 other buildings on the grounds, built by foreign gov- ernments, the States and Territories or for special exhibits. The French building was a 686 reproduction of the famous Grand Trianon of Versailles. There were 250 groups of decora- tive sculpture and over 1,000 single figures, erected under the supervision of A. Saint- Gaudens, J. Q. A. Ward and D. C. French. The landscape effects comprised a six-acre rose garden, sunken gardens and a colossal floral clock. There were several waterfalls and miniature lagoons on which were to be found Venetian gondolas and other watercraft. At the northern end of the grounds there was a street about one mile in length. Along it were leased various amusement concessions. It was known as “The Pike” Perhaps the most in- teresting and important were the anthropo- logical exhibits of aboriginal tribes, including the Philippine Division which represented all the important native tribes, with exhibits of their domestic life, arts, industries, etc. Of the total recorded admissions, 19,694,855, 12,804,616 were paid. LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, the head of the public school system of Loui- siana, is located at Baton Rouge, La. The organization of the institution was authorized in the State constitution of 1845. It was to be supported by the income from the sales of the “seminary” land grants. In 1855 the legis- lature provided for the organization of the institution and its location near Alexandria, La. In 1860 it was opened as the Louisiana State Seminary under the superintendency of W. T. (later General) Sherman. From 1863 to 1865 the institution was closed on account of the Civil War. In 1865 it was reopened under the presidency of Col. David French Boyd, who was for many years afterward: president of the institution. Owing to the destruction of the buildings by fire the seminary was removed to Baton Rouge in 1869. In 1870 the name was changed to Louisiana State University and in 1877 it was merged with the Louisiana Agricul- tural and Mechanical College, which three years earlier had been organized in New Or- leans under the “Morrill” Act of Congress (1862) which made grants of public lands for the support of agricultural and mechanical col- leges in each State. Since the merger the name of the institution has been Louisiana State Uni- versity and Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege. The university is now located on the grounds of the old United States military post on the banks of the Mississippi River which were donated to the institution by act of Con- gress in 1904. The campus contains over 200 acres. The university is organized into fae follow- ing schools and colleges: the College of Arts and Sciences; the College of Agriculture; the College of Engineering; the Audubon Sugar School; the Law School and Teachers College. The Law School offers a three- -year course leading to the degree of LL.B.; the Audubon Sugar School has a five-year course, in which agriculture and engineering are combined, leading to the degree of bachelor of science; the College of Engineering and the College of Agriculture each offers several four-year courses leading to the degree of bachelor of science; the four-year courses in the College of Arts and Sciences and Teachers College each leads. to the degree of bachelor of arts. All of the LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY — LOUISVILLE courses offered by the university are based upon the uniform admission requirement of four years of high school work. A model high school for observation and practice is attached to Teachers College. There is no preparatory department. The total enrolment for 1915-16 was 1,797, distributed as follows: In regular four- or five-year courses, 783; in the Law School, 66; in the Summer Session, 603; in the Farmers’ Short Course, 358. The total in- come for the session 1922 from State and Federal grants and other sources was $460,000. In 1922 the staff of administration and instruc- tion numbered 99: the student enrollment was 1,271, while the institution’s total property value was $2, 000,000. A military department is main- tained as required by Federal and State law. Graduate courses of one and two years in length are offered leading to the master’s degree. The institution is coeducational. . LOUISVILLE, loo’is vil or loo-i-vil, Ky., the capital of the county of Jefferson, and the principal city of the State of Kentucky, is situated opposite to the -falls of the Ohio River, on. the southern shore of the river, on the Louisville and Nashville, the Southern, the Chesapeake. and Ohio, the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern, the Pennsylvania and other rail- roads, 110 miles south of Cincinnati. Falls of the Ohio.— The falls of the Ohio River are caused by a ledge of Devonian rocks, rich in corals and other fossils, which were lifted from the bottom of the Silurian Sea, in which they were formed, and left here thou- sands of feet above their place of formation. In ancient. geological times this wall of rock, in the form of an anticlinal axis, dammed up the water 25 feet and formed a lake a mile wide and several miles in length, above the dam, while the water below rushed down the other side of the axis, at the rate of a dozen miles an hour, until it was lost in a seething whirlpool below. When the river was low, it was dangerous to attempt to conduct a boat over these falls, but when it was high, on ac- count of the narrowness of the stream below and its width in the lake above, the excess of water filled the narrower stream below to a level with the wider one’ above and _ vessels passed over the falls as if they had not been there.. In 1830 a canal two miles long was, fin- ished around the falls, on the Kentucky side, and on the 5th day of .December the steam- boat Uncas passed through it. The canal has since been enlarged and improved so as to meet the wants of the largest boats and is always used in going over the falls in low water. Plan of Louisville— The plan of Louis- ville as originally laid out by John Corbly, in the spring of 1779, consisted of one range of streets. parallel. with the river and another range cutting them at right angles. The streets parallel with the river and:running east and west bore names such as Water, Main, Market and Jefferson, while the cross streets were known by numbers, such as One, Two, Three, etc. This pkan was adhered to until additions to the original boundary made it necessary or gave an excuse for laying out new. streets differently. In some of the additions the streets now run in all directions. Broadway as orig- inally laid out is 120 feet wide; Main, Market LOUISVILLE and Jefferson each 90 feet, and the other streets with a few unimportant exceptions 60 feet in width. In 1813 the paving of streets began. Previous to this time they were mud holes in winter and dirt-piles in summer. That part of Main street from Third to Sixth was paved after the McAdam style. There are now in the city about 200 miles of streets and as many miles of alleys paved with vitrified brick, asphalt, granite or boulders, and a few with broken stone after the McAdam fashion. Original Area of Louisville.— The original tract of land given to Louisville for a site by the legislature of Virginia contained 1,000 acres. The land cost the State of Virginia nothing because it was confiscated from Dr. John Con- nolly, an adherent of the British during the War of Independence. The legislature simply took the land from Connolly and gave it to Louisville. The city has since added many other tracts of land to the original until its external boundary now embraces 27 square miles. Dwelling-houses.—The first dwelling-houses built in Louisville were 16 by 20 log cabins with board roof and puncheon floor where there was any floor at all, but in many in- stances the native earth was the floor. Louis- ville is to-day distinguished for no one thing more than for the handsome and comfortable dwelling-houses of her citizens. Business Houses.— The few rude dwellings were promptly followed by business houses equally rude if indeed the cabin used for a dwelling was not at the same time used for a shop or manufactory. Michael Humble so soon as the town was laid out erected a cabin near the fort at Main and Twelfth streets in which he made and mended guns and wrought out of metal the few things that were used. Joseph Cyrus had next to him a shop in which he made spinning-wheels and looms and every- thing that was carved out of wood. George Vensonier followed next with a tailor’s shop and Henry Duncan with a hat-shop. A little further up town, between Fifth and Sixth streets, Daniel Brodhead had a store in which every kind of article used in the community was sold over the same board counter. These were humble beginnings at manufacturing, but they continued -to increase until now, accord- ing to the census, we have in Louisville 800 manufacturing establishments which turn out manufactured articles valued at $101,000,000 annually. Our pioneers who were used to log cabins for all purposes could not conceive of the necessity of the modern establishments if they were to behold them now in use, built of stone or brick, some covering whole squares and others ribbed ,with steel ascending into the clouds. The public buildings of the city have proportionately increased in dimension and style until they have become real orna- ments. The courthouse with its severe classic features, the city hall in its Gothic outlines, the custom-house in its blended styles of archi- tecture, the sky-scrapers at the corner of Fourth and Main, and Main and Market, some of the great tobacco warehouses on Main street amd many of the manufacturing estab- lishments and stores in different parts of the city are fine specimens of architecture adapted to the wants of business, The Galt House on 687 the corner of Main and First is one of the finest hotels in the country and a new hostelry has just been erected on Fourth street which ascends high into the air and meets every want of the guest. A new jail has been erected on the site of one of the early churches which will not only rob the prison of some of its- horrors, but will be an ornament to the city. The great department stores by furnishing the purchasers with every want have revived the fashion of pioneer times when every article which was for sale was sold under the same roof and made shopping a delight rather than a burden. The building of the American Na- tional Bank on the corner of Third and Main and that of the Louisville Trust Company at Fifth and Market are palatial business houses, well suited to the purposes for which they were erected as well as ornaments to the city. Education.— Louisville as an educational centre is surpassed by but few cities. The University of Louisville with its law and med- ical departments, the Female High School, the Male High School, the Manual Training School and the Normal School, which are colleges of a high order, the ward schools where children are trained free of cost for the higher depart- ments, the medical colleges, the: theological seminaries, the musical societies, the Catholic institutions and the educational associations in some of which the sciences are taught, ail together offer advantages to students in almost every branch of knowledge. The Male High School, the Female High School, the Normal School and the Manual Training School, like the ward schools, are free institutions entirely supported by the city. Charitable Institutions.— Hospitals, asy- lums and homes are almost as numerous in Louisville as schools. The Children’s Free Hos- pital, where afflicted little ones are cared for, the Kentucky Institute for the Blind, where the sightless are taught to read and write, and 51 other institutions maintained for different purposes are prepared to meet almost every form of infirmity. Churches.-— There are 265 churches in Louisville, representing nearly all denomina- tions. The principal denominations are the Baptists, the Methodists, the Presbyterians, the Christians, the Episcopalians, the Catholics and the Lutherans, but there are also Unitarians, Evangelists, Jews, and those who call them- selves Non-Sectarians, Scientists, Seventh-Day Adventists, Social Settlements, Spiritualists, Swedenborgians, United Brethren and The- osophists. Some of the houses of worship, like the cathedral of the Assumption, the Warren Memorial, the Third Avenue Baptist and the Fourth Street Christian, are fine specimens of ecclesiastical architecture and capable of seat- ing large congregations. Banks.— There are 14 banks and banking institutions in Louisville with a combined cap-, ital of about $7,000,000 and a surplus of half as much more. If the trust companies and title companies which necessarily do a good. deal of banking business are added to the banks the capital and surplus of all combined will exceed $15,000,000. A farm loan bank was established here in 1916. Bank clearings are about $750,000,000 yearly. Finances.— The finances of Louisville will 688 compare favorably with those of any other municipality. According to the last published report of the assessors the assets of the city | amounted to $17,442,552 and the liabilities to $8,836,129. If the liabilities therefore are de- ducted from the assets, a balance of $8,616,422 will remain in favor of the city. The city, moreover, besides owning this large amount of property in its own name has an income from taxes sufficient to meet all of its fixed liabili- ties and current obligations. The property within the city limits owned by individuals is assessed at over $207,000,000. The charter only allows 95 per cent of this amount~to be considered in providing for current expendi- tures to be expended by the city during the year. The annual revenue from all sources exceeds $11,250,000. The tax rate averages about $1.79 for all purposes. This amount is distributed through the different departments of the city so as to provide for every liability and at the end of the year balances are gen- erally left in different departments which are again distributed. Largest Industries.— The largest industries are tobacco, cement, wagons, plows and leather. More leaf-tobacco is handled here than in any part of the world. The quantity of hydraulic cement and plows and wagons and leather made here is also enormous. The Board of Trade gives the following figures for 15 leading articles : Agricultural implements — pounds............ 40,000 ,000 ‘Boots-atid:- shoes *—— Casesie oie me cet os aha iota avons 114,000 Dry goods’ and notions —icases./96% ......t6d sda 678 ,000 Flouri=Darrels! copia Gas coacity ste oe eees eS 710,000 Burniture' —— poundSie-can <2. ei eceee are Salat ae 30,000,000 Hardware = Casesitcn. thats «a aie kre nie eee eae 985 ,000 Fine: leather—pounds. Sigs: 22 he Sse 11,500,000 Saddleryq— PACKAGES heyecd ie cece eewentevahuait 255,000 Stoves and stove castings — pounds........... 29,500,000 Soap! ——Pownelsa see aint, c'. Mataeneteretnn. Stble rs 27,000,000 Manufactured tobacco — pounds. :............ 52,000,000 White lead and paints — pounds.............. 17,500,000 ‘Wagons —-— POURS be inn na clon ga le eee mente ere 35 ,900 ,000 Whisky =—'Darrelse Sates afl d cian ee eae ee oreo ~. 365,000 15,000,000 Woolen goods — pounds............ceeeeeeeee Water.— The city owns the works which supply the citizens with water. A filter, cost- ing $3,000,000, has been added to the plant. The water is sold to the citizens at a price much lower than they could obtain it in any other way. Light.— The citizens have choice of three kinds of light furnished by different companies: these are electricity, artificial and natural gas. Natural gas is also much used for heat on ac- count of its cleanliness and convenience. Street Railways.—- Street railways on which cars run by electricity reach every part of the city and extend into the suburbs and to dis- tant neighboring towns. There are over 300 miles in operation. Steamboats.— Steamboats with headquar- ters at Louisville, in spite of the interference of railroads, are yet seen upon the Ohio and other Western waters, and afford cheap rates of freight. There are not, however, so many floating palaces upon the Western rivers as there were before railroads came into use, but there are yet a few which prevent the Ohio and its glories of old from being forgotten. Board of Trade and Commercial Club.— There is a board of trade which keeps an eye on the interests of Louisville, and a com- -_~-~ LOUISVILLE mercial club which helps in the work. Any enterprise which looks to the interests of the city can be brought before either or both of these associations and secure recognition and help if deemed worthy. Both of them have done valuable work in behalf of the city. Newspapers.— There are five daily news- papers, three issued mornings and two even- ings. Many weekly, semi-weekly, monthly and periodical sheets are also issued. The Courier- Journal and Herald appear mornings and the Times and Post evenings. Libraries.— The only. public library in the city is the Louisville Free Public Library, suc- cessor to the Polytechnic Library, which was in turn successor to the Public Library of Ken- tucky. It has some 177,000 volumes on its shelves, and its present equipment is due to the generosity of Andrew Carnegie. The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary has a valuable library at the corner of Sixth and Broadway, and there are several other smaller collections which have something of a public character. There are also several large li- braries in the city which belong to private citizens, and one of these, which has upon its shelves some 50,000 volumes, is one of the largest private collection in the country. Sewers.— The sewerage system of Louis- ville is extensive. The early engineers were disposed to do all the draining of the city toward “Paddy’s Run,” a probable survivor of the Ohio when its channel was farther to the south. This system, however, had to be aban- doned when it was found that Paddys Run would itself have to be drained as the city enlarged. The present sewerage system termi- nates in the Ohio River, where it should have gone at first. Fire Protection.— The fire department of the city, under a chief, several assistants and firemen, has a modern equipment of steam engines, chemical engines and all the necessary accompaniments of water-towers, hooks and ladders, etc. It is kept up at an annual ex- pense to the city of about $320,000. Police.— The police force is maintained at an annual cost of about $436,000. The mem- bers are arranged after somewhat of a mili- tary grading, and consist of one chief with the rank of colonel, one assistant with the rank of major, captains, lieutenants, sergeants, cor- porals, chief of detectives, detectives, special de- ‘tectives, district detectives, mounted men, sta- tion-keepers, wagoners, patrolmen and a secre- tary. Parks.— The parks of Louisville have only been established in recent years. The present system was organized in 1891, and lands pur- chased for an eastern, a southern and a west- ern park. There was no use for a northern park, as the river was on that side. The west- ern, known as Shawnee Park; consists of com- paratively level land and embraces 180 acres; the eastern, named Cherokee Park, has. 409 acres of gently rolling land cut into picturesque ravines by Beargrass Creek; and the southern, called Iroquois Park, contains 676 acres of land, partly level, but mostly hilly, with some of its eminences nearly 300 feet into the air. The park commissioners purchased of the Dupont estate 18 acres known as Central Park, which, added to Baxter and Boone squares, will en- ‘ LOUISVILLE large the intramural part’ of the system and meet the wants of those who cannot enjoy the suburban parks. The parks were named after the three Indian tribes who once asserted own- ership over the land. History— In 1773 Dr. John Connolly lo- cated 2,000 acres of land, to which he was en- titled for military service in the French and Indian War, on the south side of the Ohio River, immediately opposite the falls. This land was surveyed for him by Capt. Thomas Bullitt, and on 10 Dec. 1773 Lord Dunmore executed a ~ deed to him for it. Connolly then conveyed to Col. John Campbell one-half of this land, and the two undertook to establish a town thereon, which Bullitt had laid out in the original sur- vey. In 1774 they advertised lots for sale, but Indian disturbances arose and no one came to buy the lots. To the Indian troubles difficulties between Great Britain and her colonies suc- ceeded, and increased until actual war was on between them. Connolly, as an adherent of England, was arrested by the patriots and thrown into prison, and Campbell fell into the hands of hostile Indians on his way from the Falls to Fort Pitt. Under such adverse condi- tions, with both proprietors in prison, the projected town at the Falls came to an end, and was probably forgotten by all except the unfortunate projectors. In the spring of 1778, while Gen. George Rogers Clark was floating down the Ohio with his boats loaded with soldiers for the conquest of the Illinois country, he felt the necessity of some safe place in which he could discipline his raw recruits. When he reached an island in the midst of the Falls, afterward known as Corn Island, and saw the rapid waters dashing around it, he concluded that was the place he wanted, and that no deserter could make his escape from this island. Hence he landed on this island, on 27 May 1778, and immediately went to work to erect cabins for some 20 fam- ilies of emigrants who came on his boats, and a blockhouse for his soldiers and supplies. He was opposed to these families coming on his boats, but Wwas glad they had come, as he could leave the supplies he could not take with him in their care on the island and thus take with him every soldier. At the end of a month he thought his raw troops had been disciplined enough to make them reliable soldiers and moved off with them down the river to Fort Massac, leaving the emigrants on the island, while the sun was in a full eclipse. The fam- ilies thus left on the island became the founders of Louisville. So far as has been ascertained, there were about 50 in number, consisting of men, women and children and one negro. They remained on the island until the news came that General Clark had conquered Kaskaskia, Vincennes, etc., and put an end to the Indian raids that came from the British posts there to prey upon the helpless families of the Vir- ginia border. Then, by order of General Clark, they built a fort on the main shore and moved into it in time to celebrate their. first Christ- mas in the wilderness with a dinner and a dance. The interest attached to the subject among the descendants of these founders of Louis- ville, who are numerous, will justify the record of their names here for the preservation of vot. 17 —44 682 their memories. So far as has been ascer- tained they were the following: James Patton, his wife, Mary, and their three daughters Martha, Peggy and Mary. Richard Chenowith, his wife, Margaret, and their four children, Mildred, James, Jane and Thomas. John McManess, his wife, Mary, and their three children, John, George and James. John Tewell, his wife, Mary, and their: three children, Ann, Minnie and Jessie. William Faith, his wife, Elizabeth, and their son, John. Jacob Reager, his wife, Elizabeth, and their three children, Sarah, Mariah and Henry. Edward Worthington, his wife, Mary, his son, Charles, and his two sisters, Mary (Mrs. James Graham) and Elizabeth — (Mrs. Jacob Reager). James Graham, his wife, Mary. John Doune, his wife, Martha, their son, John, and their colored man, Cato Watts. Isaac Kimbley, and his wife, Mary. ; Joseph Hunter and his children, Joseph, David, James Martha (Mrs. John Doune) and Ann. Neal Dougherty, Samuel Perkins, John Sinclair and Robert Tevis. The above-named persons who came to the Falls with General Clark and those who joined them as immigrants in the following spring held a public meeting 10 April 1779 and ap- pointed William Harrod, Richard Chenowith, Edward Bulger, James Patton, Henry French, Marsham Brashears and Samuel Moore trus- tees to lay out a town. These trustees met on 17 April 1779, and, having agreed upon a plan of the town, named it Louisville and employed John Corbly, a su-veyor, to lay it out and make a map of it. The plan of the town, aS mapped out by Corbly, consisted of nothing but one street running along the bank of the river and 12 cross-streets cutting in at right angles. On 1 May 1780, the legislature of Vir- ginia, in response to a petition of those who had laid out the town, confirmed their act and appropriated 1,000 acres of the land which had been forfeited from Connolly, for the benefit of the town. The same act of the legis- lature appointed nine trustees to manage the affairs of the town. The city continued under the government of trustees, either appointed by the legislature of Virginia or Kentucky or elected by the people, from 1780 to 1828. By the charter of 1828 Louisville passed from the government of trustees to that of a mayor and 10 councilmen. The first election under the charter occurred 4 May 1828, when John C. Bucklin was elected mayor. The city has greatly prospered since the adoption of this charter, although the charter itself was not of long duration. It was super- seded by the charter of 1851, which added to the governing power a board of 12 instead of 10 aldermen, and increased the number of councilmen to 24. It also established the school board, the waterworks, the board of health, the board of police, the board of fire and the sinking fund. A third charter superseded the second in 1870, but the charter which added most to all departments of the city government was that of 1892. Under this charter a score of new departments or bureaus of the city were established. All of them report to the mayor and council, but it takes them all to conduct the affairs of the city. Population.— In the spring of 1779, joined by other immigrants, the 20 families of immi- grants who had come with General Clark laid out a town on the mainland and named it Louis- 690 ville, in honor of Louis XVI, king of France, who was then helping the colonists in their rebellion again Great Britain. By 1 May 1780 these emigrants had increased possibly to 100, and were at work building log cabins so as to free themselves from the confine- ment of the fort. By 1790 they had ‘prob- ably increased to 350, and in 1800, when the United States census for the first time recorded the population, but did not give it accurately, they had increased to 600. The population at present (1920) is 234,891. Consult Casseday, B., ‘History of Louis- ville, from its Settlement till the Year 1852? (Louisville 1852); Allison, Y. E., ‘City of Louisville and a Glimpse of Kentucky? (ib. 1887) ; Powell, L. P., ‘Historic Towns of. the Southern States?’ (New York 1900); ‘The Book of Louisville and Kentucky (1915). LOUISVILLE AND NASHVILLE RAILROAD.- The Louisville and Nashville Railroad Company’s main lines extend from Cincinnati, Ohio, to Atlanta, Ga., via Lexington, Knoxville and Chattanooga; from Cincinnati to Memphis, Tenn., via Louisville and Guthrie ; from Saint Louis, Mo., to Pensacola, Fla., and to New Orleans, La., via Nashville, Birming- ham, Montgomery and Mobile, and to inter- mediate cities. The road was chartered on 5 March 1850, and the main line was opened to the public in November 1859. The company prospered, and from time to time other branches of the road were built and other systems absorbed, until at the close of the fiscal year ending 30 June 1916 the company operated 5,041.61 miles of railroad, in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennes- see, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina and Louisiana. It also owns a majority of the capital stock or is joint owner or lessee of 2,360.07 miles more railroad lines, comprised in the following roads: » Nashville, Chattanooga and Saint Louis Railway, the Birmingham Southern Railroad, the Georgia Railroad and its dependencies, the Atlanta, Knoxville and Northern Railway, and the Chi- cago, Indianapolis and Louisville Railway, operated under separate organizations. If to this mileage be added that of 41 miles of roads operated by the Louisville and Nashville Rail- road, but whose earnings are not included in the earnings of the last-named railroad, and 264.91 miles of branch lines owned but not operated by the Louisville and Nashville Rail- road, the grand total of mileage for the Louis- ville and Nashville system amounts to 7,642.38 miles. The operating revenue for the fiscal year ended 30 June 1916 was $60,317,993, earned by the transportation of 11,925,101 passengers and 35,488,688 tons of freight. The passenger travel averaged 44.40 miles, at a charge of 2.17 cents per mile — aggregating in the year 529,- 426,981 miles, and $11,488,086. The freight traffic averaged 183.49 miles per ton, at a charge of 0.686 cents per ton mile — aggregat- ing in the year 6,511,946,570 ton-miles, and $44,658,860. The operating expenses for the year were $39,790,481. After deducting taxes and uncol- lectible revenue, the total operating income was $18,265,906. Interest on funded debt amounted to $7,681,718, and the total non-operative in- come was $4, 456,167. The total net income LOUISVILLE AND NASHVILLE RAILROAD — LOUNSBURY from all sources was-$14,039,130, of which $13,- 953,849 was transfered to profit and loss ac- count. The. dividend appropriations from sur- plus amounted to $4,320,000. The equipment of the system on 30 June 1916 consisted of 1,042 locomotives, with an aggregate tractive capacity of 32,593,600 pounds; 392 passenger cars; and 45,761 "freight cars, of which 20,368 were coal cars with an ageregate capacity of 894,462 tons. Bitu- minous coal constitutes the largest item of freight tonnage, amounting to 13,943,804 tons, or 40 per cent of all the freight handled. The operating revenue per mile of road was $11,964, and the operating expenses $7,892, making the net operating revenue per mile of road $4,072. The entire investment in the road and its equipment on 30 June 1916 was $271,683,491. Other investments of the company amounted to $35,026,729. The total stock outstanding on the date mentioned was $72,012,117, and the total long-term debt was $178,230,412. Accrued depreciation was placed at $31,538,865. The credit balance of the profit and loss account on the same date was $50,172,752. The Louisville and Nashville Railroad Com- pany owns but does not operate the Yellow River Railroad of Florida, a short line of less than 30 miles, operated independently. It also leases or operates the following roads, whose earnings are not included in the income ac- count of the lessee company: The Eastern Railroad of Alabama, about 20 miles of lines; the Elkton and Guthrie Railroad of Kentucky, about 11 miles of lines, and the Glasgow Rail- road of Kentucky, about 10 miles of lines. On 30 June 1916, $36,720,000 of the capital stock of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad was owned by the Atlantic Coast Line Rail- road Company. ~LOULANGES CANAL. See CANADIAN CANALS. LOULE, 16-14, Portugal, town in the dis- trict “or Faro, 10 miles from the seaport of Faro;*/'It contains many interesting remains, including its old walls and towers of the Moor- ish period, the pilgrim church of Nossa Sen- hora da Piedade. Copper and silver mines are worked nearby. Basket-making is the chief industry, but there are also manufactures of leather, porcelain and esparto grass and palm products. Pop. 19,680. LOULE, lo-la’; Maroutis or, Portuguese nobleman and statesman: b. Lisbon, 1785; d 1824. His early education was received in com- pany with John VI. In 1807 Loulé was given the title of Marquis and was placed in com- mand of the Portuguese army which formed part of the great force collected by Napoleon I in the Peninsular War. Loulé later joined John VI in Brazil and when that monorch returned to Portugal Loulé accompanied him. The Abso- lutists were antagonized by his loyalty to the king and by his liberalism and through devious means effected his assassination. LOUNSBURY, — lownz’ber-i, Thomas Raynesford, American scholar: b. Ovid, N. Y., 1 Jan. 1838; d.9 April 1915. He was graduated at Yale in 1859: in 1862 he enlisted as a volun- teer in the Union army and served as Ist lieu- tenant of the 126th New York Volunteers. He was mustered out at the close of the war, and, after private tutoring for three years, became LOURDES — LOUTH in 1871 professor of English in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University. For 33 ~ years he was also librarian of the school. He retired from active service in June 1906. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He became well known as a student and critic of Chaucer and Shake- speare. He edited Chaucer’s ‘House of Fame? and ‘Parlement of Foules? (1877); ‘Works of Charles Dudley Warner? (1904); ‘Yale Book of American Verse? (1912), and is the author of ‘History of the English Language’ (1879) ; ‘James Fenimore Cooper? in ‘Amer- ican Men of Letters? series (1883); ‘Studies in Chaucer, his Life and Writings? (1892) ; “Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist? (1901); ‘Shakespeare and Voltaire? (1902); ‘The Standard of Pronunciation, in English? (1904) ; ‘The Text of Shakespeare? (1906) ; ‘The Standard of Usage in English? (1908); ‘Eng- lish Spelling and Spelling Reform? (1909) : “Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist? (1912). LOURDES, loord, France, town, in the de- partment of Hautes-Pyrénées, on the Gave de Pau, about 85 miles southeast of Bayonne. It is situated where seven mountain passes lead to favorite resorts in the Pyrenees. Nearby are valuable marble and slate quarries. Formerly Lourdes was famed for its chocolate and its fortified castle, which was considered impreg- nable in the days before the invention of fire- arms. Lourdes was then called the “key of the Pyrenees.» In the 18th century the castle was converted into a prison and became the Bastile of the Mountains. In the year 1858 Lourdes acquired new fame. A little peasant girl, about 14 years of age, named Marie-Bernarde Soubir- ous (better known as “Bernadette”) reported to her parents, on 11 Feb. 1858, that she had seen a most beautiful lady in a grotto at the rocks of Massabielle, a part of the town. The pastor of the Roman Catholic church at Lourdes, and the priests of the neighboring towns, also the bishop of Tarbes, the diocese in which Lourdes is located, all gave the matter no attention un- til people from a distance began to visit Lourdes, and miracles were reported and scien- tists had begun observations and investigations. On 25 Feb. 1858 a spring appeared in a place where no water had been seen before. It was some days before the child gave a name to the lady; it was then Virgin Mary, under the name L’Immaculatée Conception. ‘The matter was then investigated by the. ecclesiastical authori- ties and pronounced a genuine apparition and many cures were said to be miraculous. The place has become noted for the large number of visitors, fully 600,000 annually. A magnifi- cent church, the Basilica of the Rosary, has been erected at the grotto, in which there is a great collection of votive offerings, and the flags of all nations show that pilgrims from the countries of the whole world have visited the place. The prosperity of the town is de- pendent on the pilgrims. Pop. about 8,805. Consult Benson, R. H., ‘Lourdes? (London 1914); Bertrin, Histoire critique des événe- ments de Lourdes? (2d ed., Paris 1905); Bois- saire, ‘Lourdes histoire médicale? (ib. 1891) ; Estrade, J. ‘Appearances of the Blessed Virgin Mary at the Grotto of Lourdes? (New York 1913); Saint John, ‘The Blessed Virgin in the 19th Century? (1902); Zola, E, “Lourdes? (Paris 1894). 691 LOURENCO, Marques. See Lorenzo. LOUSE, a small parasitic insect of a family (Pediculide) of doubtful affinities, but usually considered to be Hemiptera, much de- graded through long-continued parasitism. The lice are all of small size, have soft, much flat- tened bodies with thin integument, the ab- domen enlarged, the thorax indistinctly seg- mented and without the slightest trace of wings, and the short legs terminated with strongly hooked, stout claws. The mouth-parts are adapted for sucking. There is a short proboscis provided with hooks, from the centre of which, when fixed in the skin of the host, protrudes an extremely delicate tube. The head is also provided with a pair of short, three- or five-jointed antenna, and small simple eyes. Probably on account of their disgust- ing habits the lice have been but little studied, and beyond the fact of their parasitism very little is known of their habits. They feed ex- clusively upon blood, which is secured by wounding the host’s skin, fixing the proboscis by means of its hooks, and ‘inserting the delicate tube above mentioned in the wound. A suction-bulb in the head propels the blood through the long writhing cesophagus into the bilobed stomach. Lice never leave their host except to pass to another, and the eggs, as well as all stages of the young, are found with the adult. Only six genera and less than 50 species have been described, but probably many others remain undiscovered. They are found on mammals exclusively, each species of mammal commonly harboring a peculiar species of louse. Man is more richly endowed, having three species: the head-louse (Pediculus capitis), the body-louse (P. corporis) and the crab-louse (q.v.). The two first mentioned are very closely alike and are said to vary according to the different races of men which they infest. Human lice are of course associated with filth, and are found only upon neglected children and persons of uncleanly habits. A very re- markable louse is found on the seal, and is consequently aquatic. The bird-lice (q.v.), or Mallophaga, are en- tirely distinct from the true lice. Consult Piaget, ‘Les Pediculines?; Giebel and Nitzsch, ‘Insecta Epizoica? ; Ealand, (Tn- sects and Man? (New York 1915). LOUSEWORT, the plants of the genus Pedicularis, of the family Scrophulariacee, which are low, usually pubescent, perennial herbs, with chiefly pinnatified leaves and spikes of purplish yellow, two-lipped flowers. The species are few in North America, the most common being P. canadensis, sometimes called wood-betony. LOUSIAD, low’zi-ad, The. An_heroic- comic poem in five cantos by John Wolcott (1785), in which the author ridiculed the home life of George III. The poem, according to the author, was suggested by the presence of a louse on a dish brought to the king’s table. An order went forth immediately to shave the heads of the royal scullions. LOUTH, lowth, England, market town and municipal borough of Lincolnshire, on the river Lud and on the Grimsby branch of the Great Northern Railway, 141 miles north of London. A canal connects it with the Humber. The town contains the fine old church of Saint weve 692 James, a town hall, corn exchange, a grammar school, commercial school, a hospital, several almshouses, Thorpe Hall and the ruins of a | It has manufactures of agri- cultural implements, iron foundries and rope and brick-making establishments. There are municipal markets and a cemetery. Louth, ac- cording to the Domesday Book, was a 'bor- ough held by the bishop of Lincoln from Saxon times. It was surrendered to Henry VIII. In 1536 the Lincolnshire Rebellion broke out here. The town was incorporated under Edward VI in 1551 and a new charter was granted in 1830. Pop. 9,880. Consult Goulding, Richard W., ‘Louth Old Corporation Records? (Louth 1891). LOUVAIN, loo-van (Flemish, Leuven; German, Lowen), Belgium, city in the province of Brabant, on the Dyle, 15 miles east by north of Brussels. It was surrounded by earthen ramparts, which have been converted into pleas- ant promenades, which form almost a perfect circle, diameter nearly two miles. There are many buildings of historical interest, among which are the Hotel de Ville, one of the rich- est and most beautiful Gothic buildings in the world, elaborately and exquisitely decorated in every part of its exterior by sculptures of sub- jects taken, for the most part, from the Old Testament ‘(restored 1842, injured by lightning 1890) ; the collegiate church of Saint Peter, al- most opposite the Hotel de Ville, built at the end of the 14th century, an edifice of vast ex- ~ tent, which was rich in works of art, particu- larly a fine ‘Holy Family? by Matsys. The educational institutions were numerous, among them the university, which had a number of American students who were studying for the priesthood. It had an attendance of nearly 3,000 students and a library of 120,000 volumes, specially rich in examples of 15th and 16th century printed books. There are also a col- lege, an academy of fine arts, two normal schools for the training of teachers, several secondary and elementary schools. There are hospitals, homes for orphans and other chari- table institutions. It has a number of manu- factories, the most important of which are the tanneries. For a general trade the town is well situated, having ample communication both by railroad and the Louvain Canal. The name of Louvain first appears in history about the end of the 9th century. It was surrounded with walls in 1115, but was afterward much en- larged. The dukes of Brabant inhabited the castle till the 13th century. At the beginning of the 14th century Louvain was the capital of Brabant, contained 200,000 inhabitants and had an extensive and flourishing trade in the man- ufacture of broadcloth and all kinds of woolens. The populace, jealous of the privileges of the nobles, revolted in 1382, and being overcome by Duke Wenceslaus and subjected to severe oppression, emigrated in great numbers to Eng- land and thus caused the decay of the town. During the European War Louvain was taken by the Germans on 19 Aug. 1914. After six days of peaceful occupation the Germans ad- vanced beyond the city, but were driven back by the Belgian troops about Malines. Return- ing to Louvain, the German troops under the command of Major von Manteuffel, began to devastate the city. At midnight the houses Cistercian abbey. LOUVAIN were set in flames, while rifle and machine-gun fire swept the streets. The German version stated that the fighting was the outcome of a plot among the civilian population; the Bel- gians declare that a detachment of German troops, driven back from Malines, was fired upon in mistake by the Germans occupying Louvain. On the 26th fire and destruction con- tinued; the university with its library were set on fire, also the church of Saint Peter and many houses. Citizens were shot and others taken prisoners and compelled to go with the troops. Many of the civilians hid in cellars, but the soldiers fired down through the grat- ings. On 27 August orders were given that everyone should leave the city; it was going to be bombarded. The exodus began in the morn- ing; streams of men, women and children passed along the roads——in opposite directions — leading to Malines and Tirlemont. Groups of prisoners with tightly-bound hands were led by long ropes. About 1,000 refugees were brought back to Louvain on 28 August and placed in a large building on the cavalry exercise ground. “These prisoners were prac- tically without food from early morning on the 26th until midnight on the 29th. Of the corpses seen on the road some had their hands tied be- hind their backs, others were burnt, some had been killed by blows, and some corpses were those of children who had been shot. On the way from Rotselaer to Wespelaer 50 bodies were seen, some naked and carbonized and unrecognizable» (Bryce Report). A crowd of men, women and children from Aerschot (q.v.) were marched to Louvain and exposed to rifle and machine-gun fire. One batch of prisoners comprised 27 ecclesiastics, of whom Father Eugene Dupiéreux, aged 23, was executed in the presence of his colleagues for having in his pocket a piece of paper on which was written: “The Germans have in- vaded Belgium with fire and sword . when Omar destroyed the library of Alex- andria, none believed that such vandalism would ever be repeated. It was repeated in Louvain . such is the Germanische kul- tur of which they boasted so much” Father Schill, S. J., a native of Luxemburg, was com- pelled to read the document — which was in French — and translate it into German. Con- sult Massart, Jean, ‘Belgians under the Ger- man Eagle? (London 1916); Morgan, J. H., ‘Official Investigation on German Atrocities? (London 1916): ‘An Eye-Witness at Louvain? (per Father Thurston, S. J., London 1914) ; Toynbee, A. J., ‘The German Terror in Bel- gium>? (New York 1917). See War, Evro- PEAN: INVASION OF BeLctuM. Pop. 42,123. LOUVAIN, University of. An institution for higher education situated at Louvain, Bei- gium. It was founded in 1425 and was richly endowed. At one time it had 28 constituent colleges, including the Collegium Trilingue, founded in 1517 for the study of Hebrew, Greek and Latin. In the 16th century the uni- versity was attended by 6,000 students and was one of the first scientific institutions of Eu- rope, celebrated especially for its department of Roman Catholic theology. The university played an important part in the reformation from within of the Catholic Church in the 16th century. Some of its faculties were trans- L’OUVERTURE — LOVAGE ferred to Brussels in 1788, but during the French Revolution the university was sup- pressed and although it was reconstituted in 1817 it has not regained its past glory. The present foundation dates from 1834-35 when the Belgian bishops re-established the univer- sity on its present basis. In 1913 it had 2,855 students and a library of 250 incunabula and 120,000 volumes. In August 1914 the univer- sity and library were razed by the German hordes pouring over the border to attack France. All the work of the university was suspended at Louvain, but the leading British universities made generous offer of their facili- ties to the homeless faculties of Louvain and to such of its students as were able to continue their course. Consult Gill, H. V., ‘Louvain and its University? (in Irish Monthly, Vol. XLII, Dublin 1914). L’OUVERTURE, Toussaint. SAINT L’OUVERTURE. LOUVOIS, Francois Michel Le Tellier, fran-swa mé-shel lé tél-€-4 loo-vwa, MaArQuis or, Minister of War to Louis XIV: b. Paris, 18 Jan. 1641; d. 16 July 1691. He was early made a royal councillor through the influence of his father who was War Secretary. After 1666 he had the whole management of the Ministry of War and soon exercised great power under the king and over the army. His extensive knowledge, his decision, activity, industry and talents, rendered him an able minister; but he was too lavish of the blood and treasure of France and he pandered to the vanity and pas- sion for military glory of his master. Justly appreciated, Louvois must be considered as the evil genius of the showy but disastrous reign of Louis XIV. The war of 1672 against Hol- land was begun at his instigation. The vic- tories of Turenne in 1674 and 1675 were gained by a disobedience of the orders of the Minister of War; but the devastation of the Palatinate “was commanded by him. On the death of Col- bert (1683), of whom he had been the enemy, his influence became still greater; he opposed Louis’ secret marriage with Madame de Main- tenon; and to a large extent he was respon- sible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685), the dragonnades, and the consequent flight of so many peaceful and industrious Cal- vinists. The encroachments of France had united the European powers in the League of Augsburg. Louvois would have the king com- mence operations against the allies at once, but the growing influence of Madame ae Mainte- non was sufficient to prevent this. In 1688. how- ever, the French forces took Philipsburg on the Rhine, and on the order of Louvois the Pala- tinate was reduced to a wilderness in midwin- ter (1689). Louvois’ scheme of army organ- ization lasted till the empire; but he undid the constructive work of Colbert and destroyed the commerce of France. . Consult Rousset, “Histoire de Louvois? (Paris 1872); Michel, ' “Louvois et les protestants?. (ib. 1870). LOUVRE, loovr, The, an old royal palace at Paris, on the north bank of the Seine, a splendid quadrangular edifice, with a court in the centre, completed by Napoleon. The origin of its name and the time of the erection of the oldest part of it are unknown. It is only known that Philip Augustus, in 1214, built a fort and a state prison in this place, that Charles V, See Tous- 693 during the years 1364-80, added some embellish- ments to the building and brought his library and his treasury thither. From the great donjon tower in the centre of the castle the great fiefs of France took the feudal oath. Francis I erected that part of the palace which is now called the old Louvre. Henry IV laid the foundation of the splendid gallery which connects the Louvre on the south side with the Tuileries; Louis XIII erected the centre, and Louis XIV, according to the plan of the physi- cian Perrault, the elegant facade toward the. east, together ‘with the colonnade of the Louvre, which is still the most perfect work of archi- tecture in France. At a later period Louis XIV chose the palace built by him at Versailles for his residence. After Napoleon had taken possession of the Tuileries he began a second gallery, opposite to the former, by which the two palaces would have been made to form a° great whole, with a large quadrangular. court in the centre; only 600 feet of it were completed at the time of his abdication, and it remained uncompleted till 1857, when the work, in an improved and extended form, was finished. It was greatly injured by the communists in May 1871, the Richelieu pavilion, containing the magnificent library, being burned. A great re- construction was made between 1900 and 1902. The Louvre was set apart by the Convention as a museum for the national collections in science and art and was first called Le Musée National. It contains the museums of paint- ings, drawings, engravings, bronze antiques, sculptures, ancient and modern, tapestries, fur- niture, together with special collections of an- tiquities and an ethnographical collection. The collection of paintings is the largest in the world, French being best represented, and Dutch masters next.* There are works by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Rubens and Van Dyck. Since 1895 the Louvre has been given the right to buy and sell like a private individual, and a society exists for the purpose of helping the museum to buy works of importance. In 1909 the Museum of Decorative Arts was transferred from the Palais de I’Industrie to the Louvre. LOUYS, loo’é, Pierre, French ‘novelist and poet: b. Paris, 1870. He was educated at the Lycée of Janson de Sailly and at the Sor- bonne. In 1889 he founded the review, La Conque. He came into prominence in 1896 with the publication of the novel ‘Aphrodite. Ten years later it was produced as an opera. The scene is laid in Alexandria at the begin- ning of the Christian era. Louys’ ‘Chansons de Bilitis, roman lyrique’ purports to be a Greek translation. Its subject matter is objec- tionable. Other works are ‘Astarté? (1892) ; ‘La femme et le pantin? (1898); ‘Les aven- tures du roi Pausole? (1900); ‘Sanguines? (1903) ; ‘L’Archipel? (1906) ; ‘Psyché? (1909), and a translation from Lucan, ‘La vie des courtisanes? (1894). LOVAGE, an umbelliferous plant of the genus Levisticum, native to the south of Europe, sometimes cultivated in gardens, and notwithstanding its strong and peculiar odor, used as a salad plant. Its roots and seeds are aromatic, acrid and stimulant, and a liquor called “lovage” is made from them. The Scot- tish lovage is a native of the sea-coasts and 694 has become naturalized in maritime New Eng- land. It is eaten, both raw and boiled, by the Shetlanders. The flavor is aromatic, but acrid and very nauseous to those unaccustomed to it. | LOVAT, lo’vat, Simon Fraser, 12th Baron, Scottish chieftain: b. 1667; d. London, 9 April 1747. He was educated at King’s College, Aberdeen, and in 1699, on the death of his father, assumed the title of Lord Lovat, to which on the death of the 10th Lord Lovat his father had acquired a disputed claim. In con- sequence of proceedings taken in 1698 against him and his clan, in which he.was declared guilty of treason, he went to France. He afterward obtained a pardon and returned to Scotland. Being summoned before the High Court of Justiciary in 1701 for an outrage done to the Dowager Lady Lovat, whom he married by violence, he failed to appear, and was out- lawed. In 1715 he was asked by the Jacobites of his clan to espouse the cause of the Pre- tender, but inducing them to support the gov- ernment he received in reward the estate and title of Lovat, the other claimant of which had been involved in the rebellion. In 1740 he was the first to sign the association for the sup- port of the Pretender, and on the breaking-out of the rebellion, in 1745, sent his eldest son with a body of his clan to join the Pretender, while he remaining at home asserted his loyalty to the house of Brunswick. It was only after the prince’s success at Prestonpans that he al- lowed his real sympathies to be shown. He was arrested after Culloden, found guilty of treason and was executed on Tower Hill, in the 80th year of his age. Consult Burton, ‘Life of Simon, Lord Lovat? (London 1847) ; and Mackenzie, W. C., ‘Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat: His Life and Times? (ib. 1908). LOVE, Court of. See Court or LOVE. LOVE-APPLE. See Tomato. LOVE-BIRD, one of the very small par- rots of the genus Agapornis, not larger than sparrows, which show extreme affection for one another, two or more sitting as close as possible to one another, and cooing and caress- ing in a manner most delightful to watch. They are common as cage-birds all over the world, are pretty in color and fond of being petted. They are to be treated and fed in the cage in the same way as canaries. The true love-birds are African, but dealers give the same name to various other diminutive tropical species of similar habits. See Parrots and the books cited there. LOVE FEASTS, religious meetings held quarterly by the Wesleyan and other sects. Love feasts are retained in avowed imitation of the ancient Agape. See AGAPE. LOVE LIES A-BLEEDING. See Ama- RANTHUS. LOVEDALE, South Africa, an important educational and mission station about 40 miles west-of King William’s Town and 650 miles northeast of Cape Town. It was founded in 1841 by the Free Church of Scotland (now the United Free Church). Besides a general edu- cation, it trains teachers for native schools, and gives technical instruction in printing, book- binding, telegraphy, carpentering and other use- ful arts and crafts; its success has been most creditable. LOVAT — LOVEJOY LOVEJOY, Arthur Oncken, American professor: b. Berlin, Germany, 10 Oct. 1873. In 1895 he was graduated at the University of California, and subsequently studied at the uni- versities of Harvard and Paris. In 1899-1901 he was assistant and associate professor of philosophy at Leland Stanford Junior Univer- sity; from 1901 to 1908 professor of philosophy at Washington University, Saint Louis. In 1908-10 he held a similar chair at the Univer- sity of Missouri, and since 1910 has been pro- fessor of philosophy at Johns Hopkins. In 1907-08 he was lecturer in philosophy at Columbia University. Professor Lovejoy is Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; was president in 1909 of the Western Philosophical Associa- tion, and in 1915 served as secretary of the American Association of University Professors. He is a contributor to the Journal of Philoso- phy, the Journal of Ethics, the Hibbert Journal, Mind, the Monist, the Nation, etc. LOVEJOY, Elijah Parish, American abolitionist: b. Albion, Me., 9 Nov. 1802; d. wlll, 7 Nov. 1837. He was graduated at Waterville College in 1826, and at the Prince- ton Theological Seminary in 1833, and was or- dained to the ministry, but soon after assumed the editorship of the Saint Louis Observer, a Presbyterian paper of considerable influence. His utterances on the slavery question did not begin to appear in the Observer until he had been for some time in charge of its columns, and his first references to that subject were marked by moderation. But, stirred by the lynching of a negro murderer by burning, he published an editorial which incensed the pro- slavery part of the community. Hostility was so violent that he removed the paper to Alton, Ill, where a mob threw his press into the river. He was presented with another by Alton friends, and 8 Sept. 1836 published the first issue of the Alton Observer. He soon took a bolder anti-slavery stand, and began to call for the organization of a State abolition society. Again, in August 1837, he was mobbed, his office wrecked and the press destroyed, and when a new press was bought the ruin was again repeated. The fourth press was set up in a warehouse under an armed guard; but during the night of 7 Nov. 1837 a score or two of men attacked the building, disregarded Lovejoy’s warning, were fired upon and one of the assailants was killed. An attempt was then made to set the warehouse on fire, and when Lovejoy was preparing to shoot the in- cendiary, he himself received a mortal gunshot wound. The mob then took possession of the place, and once more Lovejoy’s press was de- stroyed. The whole country was excited by these events; public feeling was manifested in various ways; but the most significant effect of the tragedy was a more distinct arraying of forces for the “irrepressible conflict” which had already begun. Consult J. C. and Owen Love- joys ‘Memoir? (New York 1838); May, ‘Some Recollections of Our Anti-slavery Con- flict? (Boston 1869); Tanner, Henry (one of the defenders of the warehouse), ‘The Martyr- dom of Lovejoy? (Chicago 1881); Garrison, ‘William Lloyd Garrison? (New York 1885), and Martyn, ‘Wendell Phillips — the Agitator? (1890). LOVEJOY — LOVEJOY, Owen, American abolitionist: b. Albion, Me., 1811; d. 1864. He was a brother of E. P. Lovejoy (q.v.) ; was educated at Bowdoin College, and in early life he re- moved to Alton, Ill. Entering the ministry of the Congregational Church, he preached and lectured against slavery. with a power that roused his hearers and carried wide conviction. At Princeton, Ill, where he began a pastorate in 1838, he became conspicuous for the earnest- ness of his -anti-slavery addresses, and for his persistence in holding anti- slavery meetings in defiance of legal and official prohibitions. In 1844 he was elected to the legislature, and resigned his pulpit. Elected to Congress in 1856 he participated in its most exciting de- bates until the time of his death. He was with his brother Elijah at Alton, Ill, 7 Nov. 1837, and was a witness of his tragic death. LOVEJOY, Owen Reed, American soci- ‘ ologist: b. Jamestown, Mich., 9 Sept. 1866. In 1891 he was graduated at Albion College, Mich- igan. From 1891 to 1898 he was minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church and from 1899 to 1904 served as pastor of a Congregational church at Mount Vernon, N. Y. In 1904 he became assistant secretary and three years later general secretary of the National Child Labor Committee. He is a member of the American Association for Labor Legislation, the Ameri- can Economic Association, the American Polit- ical Science Association, the National Confer- ence of Charities and Corrections, the New York Academy of Political Science, ete. ube has published bulletins and papers on uniform child-labor laws, child labor in the glass indus- try, etc. LOVELACE, Francis, American colonial governor: b. Hurley, Berkshire, England, about 1618; d. England, about 1675. He was a younger son of the Ist Baron Lovelace; was an adherent of the royalist cause during the Puritan uprising and during the Common- wealth. In 1668 succeeded Richard Nicolls as governor of New York. He encouraged trade and the fishery interests and permitted re- ligious freedom, but oppressed the inhabitants by heavy taxation and became very unpopular. During his temporary. absence from the town in 1673 the Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor and the citizens speedily surrendered willingly. Lovelace was permitted to return to England, and it is believed that he died there about two years afterward. LOVELACE, Richard, English lyrical poet: b. Woolwich, Kent, 1618; d. London, 1658. He was educated at Oxford, entered the army and became a captain. He joined the ex- pedition to Scotland in 1639. He spent his fortune in support of the royal cause; was im- prisoned in 1642 for petitioning for a restora- tion of the rights of the king. After entering into the French service, in 1648, he returned to England and was imprisoned until the king’s death. His destitute condition at this time is in marked contrast to accounts of his hand- some person and splendid appearance earlier in life. He died in great poverty. His poems, which are light and elegant, were published in 1659 under the title of ‘Lucasta.». The best known of his lyrics are ‘To Althea, from Prison? and ‘To Lucasta, on Going to the LOVEMAN 695 Wars.’ Lovelace, who for spirit and gallantry has been compared to Sir Philip Sidney, also wrote ‘The Scholar? (1636), a comedy, and “The Soldier? (1640), a tragedy. An edition of his poems, edited by W. C. Hazlitt, was published in 1864. LOVELAND, liv’land, Colo., city in Lari- mer County, on the Colorado and Southern and the Great Western railroads, 60 miles north of Denver. The city has a Carnegie library, hos- pital, the Loveland Canon, Estes Park, also beet-sugar mills, canning factories, brick-yards, - gypsum mills and a co-operative condensing plant. The electric-light plant and the water- supply system are municipally owned. Pop. (1920) 5,279. LOVELL, James, American patriot: b. Boston, Mass., 31 Oct. 1737; d. Windham, Me., 14 July 1814. He was a son of John Lovell (q.v.), was graduated from Harvard in 1756 and taught in the Boston Latin School under his father in 1757-75. In 1771 he delivered the first anniversary-oration on the so-called “Bos- ton Massacre.” He was imprisoned by Gen- eral Gage and carried to Halifax, but was ex- changed in November 1776, and sat in the Con- tinental Congress, 1776-82. He was collector of the port of Boston, 1788-89, and its naval officer, 1790-1814. He failed to appreciate Washington’s qualities as leader and supported the Conway Cabal to place General Gates in supreme command. LOVELL, John, American educator: b. Boston, Mass., 16 June 1710; d. Halifax, N. S., 1778. He was graduated from Harvard in 1728. The next year he was appointed usher in the Boston Latin School and was its master from 1734 till the siege of Boston caused its suspension, 19 April 1775. He was a rigid dis- ciplinarian, but nevertheless genial and popular, and many of his pupils were leaders of the Revolution. In 1743 he was the chosen orator at the dedication of Faneuil Hall. A loyalist in his sympathies he went to Halifax on the evacuation of Boston by the English troops and died there. A portrait of him by Smybert is in Memorial Hall at Harvard University. LOVELL, Mansfield, American soldier: b. Washington, D. C., 1822; d. 1884. In 1842 he was graduated at the United States Mili- tary Academy; was commissioned lieutenant of artillery and saw active service against Mex- ico. He was wounded at. Monterey. He re- signed from the army in 1854 and entered civil life, becoming in 1858 superintendent of street improvements and deputy street commissioner of New York. On the outbreak of the Civil War he became a major-general in the Con- federate army; was attached to the Department of the South with New Orleans as headquar- ters. He surrendered that city to Farragut. In the later phases of the war he served in Mis- sissippi, Georgia and South Carolina. For some few years after the war he retired to a plantation near Savannah, but subsequently served as assistant to John Newton in deepen- ing the ship channel at Hell Gate in the East River, New York. LOVEMAN, Robert, American poet: b. Cleveland, Ohio, 11 April, 1864; d. Hot Springs, Ark., 10 July 1923. He received an academic education at Dalton, Ga., and thereafter traveled 696 and studied abroad. He was a frequent con- tributor to magazines, and his verse is marked by simplicity and earnestness. He published “Poems? in 1889, 1893 and 1897; ‘A Book ot Verse? (1900); ‘The Gates of "Silence, ” with “Interludes of Song? (1903); ‘Songs from a Georgia Garden”; ‘Echoes from the Gates of Silence? (1905); ‘The Blushful South and Hippocrene? ; ‘On the Way to Willowdale’. LOVER, Samuel, Irish painter, novelist and poet: b. Dublin, 24 Feb. 1797; d. Saint Helier, Island of Jersey, 6 July 1868. He first devoted his attention to painting, and in 1828 became a member of the Royal Hibernian Academy of Art. He afterward wrote novels, which he illustrated himself, dramas, operettas and songs which he set to music of his own. In 1844 he gave a series of public entertain- ments called Irish evenings, which he repeated in the United States and Canada in 1846. Among his works are ‘Legends and Stories of Ireland? (1831); ‘Rory O’More? (1837) ; “Songs and Ballads? (1839) ; ‘Handy Andy’ (1842); ‘Treasure Trove? (1844). . The Angels’ Whisper?; ‘Rory O’More?’; ‘Molly Bawn? and the ‘Low-backed Car are among his most popular songs. His works in six vol- umes, with introduction by O’Donohue, were issued in New York in 1900, and with intro- duction by Roche, in Boston, 1902. LOVE’S LABOUR’S LOST (circa 1590) is the most obviously experimental of Shake- speare’s plays and for that reason is reckoned his earliest unaided work (that it was actually earlier than ‘The Comedy of Errors,? which was written under classic guidance, cannot be asserted). It has one of Shakespeare’s two or three most original plots and technically one of the worst, though it is distinctly entertaining. The central situation is the converse of that in Tennyson’s ‘Princess?: for the sake of study a company of young gentlemen have bound themselves to absurd regulations against com- munication with women. Around the inevi- table shattering of these self-imposed vows the author puts together a loose succession of scenes quite lacking in coherence, but sug- gested by all the varied ideas which at the time happened to be in his mind; his recollection from Stratford of the comicality of the country par- son, schoolmaster and yokel; his almost naive admiration of the superficially brilliant London lords and ladies; and his yet far from intelli- gent interest in foreign affairs. The chief fig- ures are leading personages in contemporary French history: the Princess of France (Queen Catherine de Medici), Henry of Navarre, two Huguenot generals associated with him (Longa- ville and Biron), and — bizarrely enough — Na- varre’s arch-enemy, the Duc de Mayenne (Du- maine). These veteran diplomats and war- riors are represented as sentimental young peo- ple of the most charming wit and volatility. Insouciance is the keynote; the play’s the thing; but nothing that happens really matters and the plot leads nowhere. This comedy is primarily interesting as a study in style. Lyly exerts the strongest literary influence and there is much echoing of his mannered prose, as well as of his artificial pictures of social life at court; but rhyming couplets, blank verse, quatrains, anapestic rhyme, hexameter, dog- gerel and various lyric measures are all experi- LOVER — LOW mentally employed. Naturally enough, greater maturity appears in the lyric than in the dra- matic portions, Masefield calls the final song (“When daisies pied and violets blue?) “the loveliest thing ever said about England” Un- consciously, but certainly, Shakespeare mirrors himself in his chief figure, Biron, and the com- edy is revelatory in the most important degree of the author’s mental tendencies at the begin- ning of his career. An admirable and promis- ing sanity appears in Biron-Shakespeare’s final renunciation of the flimsy brilliancies which so enchanted him: “ Taffeta phrases, silken terms precise, Three-pil’d hyperboles, spruce affectation, Figures pedantical; these summer-flies Have blown me full of maggot ostentation. I do forswear them — (V.ii, 406 ff.) The play enjoyed a lasting esteem on the Eliza- bethan stage. There is no question that the * text as we have it includes alterations and ad- ditions made when Shakespeare’s art had fur- ther developed — probably when the comedy was revived for performance before Queen Elizabeth herself on Christmas of either 1597 or 1598 (consult Gray, H. D., ‘The Original Version of “Love’s Labour’s Lost, ete. Stanford Univ., 1918). Another court per- formance, before James I, was given by Shakespeare’s company at Whitehall early in January 1605. TUCKER BROOKE. LOVETT, Edgar Odell, American mathe- matician: b. Shreve, Ohio, 14 April 1871. In 1890 he was graduated at Bethany College, West Virginia, and later studied at the univer- sities of Virginia, Leipzig and Christiania. In | 1890-92 the was professor of mathematics at West Kentucky College; from 1892 to 1895 was instructor in astronomy at the University of Virginia. In 1897 he became instructor in mathematics, in 1898 assistant professor, in 1900 professor at Princeton.. In 1905-08 he held the chair of astronomy there. In 1908 Pro- fessor Lovett was made president of Rice In- stitute, Houston, Tex. He is a contributor on geometry, mechanics and mathematical as- tronomy to various American and foreign journals, LOVETT, Robert Scott, American’ rail- way Official: b. San Jacinto, Tex., 22 June 1860. He was educated in the public schools and Houston High School, followed by private in- struction. In 1882 he was admitted to the bar; was attorney for the Houston, East and West Texas Railway Company in 1884-89, assistant general attorney of the Texas and Pacific Rail- way in 1889-91 and general attorney of this road in 1891-92, From 1892 to 1903 Mr. Lovett was general attorney and counsel for all Southern Pacific lines in Texas. From 1904 to 1909 Mr. Lovett was general counsel for the Union Pacific and the Southern Pacific and affliated railroads, and from 1909 to 1913 he was chairman of the executive committee and president of these systems. In March ‘1918 he became director of the division of additions and betterments under the United States Railway Administration. LOW, Albert Peter, Canadian geologist: b. Montreal, 1861. He received his education at McGill University; began his connection with the Canadian Geological Survey in 188] LOW and was appointed geologist in 1891. From 1892 to 1899 he made extended explorations of the Labrador Peninsula (Ungava). In 1900, at the Paris Exposition Mr. Low had charge of the Canadian mineral exhibit. In 1901-02 he discovered workable iron deposits in Hudson Bay and in 1903 was in charge of an Arctic ex- pedition which claimed the Arctic islands for Canada. In 1906 he was made director of the Canadian Geological Survey and in the follow- ing year Deputy Minister of Mines. In 1896 he was awarded the Gill prize by the Royal Geographical Society of England and _ has served as vice-president of the Geological So- ciety of America and of the Canada Forestry Association. LOW, A(lfred) Maurice, Anglo-American author and journalist; b. London, England, 1860. He was educated at King’s College, London, and in Austria. He has been chief American corre- spondent of the London Morning Post and writer on American affairs for the London National Review since 1896. He investigated certain phases of English labor legislation for the United States Department of Labor in 1900, and English trade unions and industry in 1903. He has written ‘The Supreme Sur- render? (1901); ‘Protection in the United States? (1904); ‘American Life in Town and Country? (1905); ‘A Short History of Labor Legislation in Great Britain? (1907); ‘The American People: A Study in National Psychology? (2 vols., 1909-11), and contribu- tions to leading English and Americans re- views. LOW, Charles Rathbone, English histo- rian and naval officer: b. Dublin, Ireland, 30 Oct. 1837. He went to sea in 1853, has served in Asiatic and African waters and holds the rank of commander in the Indian navy. He is the author of numerous works, including ‘Tales of Old Ocean? (1860); ‘Land of the Sun? (1870) ; ‘History of the British Navy? (1872); “History of the Indian Navy? (1877): ‘His- tory of Maritime Discovery? (1899); ‘Her Majesty’s Navy? (1902); ‘Britannia’s Bul- warks? (1895) ; ‘The Epic of Olympas? (1897), rc. LOW, Mary Fairchild, American artist : b. New Haven, Conn., 1866. She studied in the School of Fine Arts, Saint Louis, the Academie Julien, Paris, and) with Carolus-Duran. In 1888 she married Frederick MacMonnies, the sculptor, and in 1909 Will Hicok Low, the fig- ure and genre painter. She was awarded a medal at the Chicago Exposition of 1893, a bronze medal at Paris, in 1900, bronze medal at the Buffalo Exposition 1901, gold medal at Dres- den 1902, the Julia M. Shaw memorial prize of the Society of American Artists, New York 1902, and.a gold medal at Rouen in 1903; her picture was bought by the city of Rouen and placed in the Museum of Fine Arts. In 1905 she was awarded a gold medal at Marseilles and a gold medal at Rouen in 1911. Mrs. Low is an associate National Academician. Her works in- clude ‘Early Morning Flower Market: “Little Women; ‘Christmas Eve’; ‘Portrait of Will Hicok Low?; ‘Dogwood in Bloom,” ete. LOW, Sampson, English publisher: b. London, 1797 « d. 1886. He became manager in 1837 of a fortnightly trade. journal styled The Publishers’ Circular, on which his ‘British 697 Catalogue? was afterward based and of which he became proprietor in 1867. He established the publishing house of Sampson Low & Co., in 1848. His various compilations include ‘In- dex to Current Literature? (1859-60) ; ‘Low’s Literary Almanac? (1873), etc. LOW, Seth, American educator and ad- ministrator: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 18 Jan. 1850; d. Bedford Hills, N. Y., 17 Sept. 1916. He was educated at the Brooklyn Polytechnic In- stitute and at Columbia, graduating from the latter in 1870. He then entered his father’s tea and silk importing business as a clerk, and passing through all the intermediate grades be- came a junior partner in the firm in 1875. In 1879 he and the other junior partners took full control of the business which was finally liqui- dated in 1888. He was early interested in pub- lic affairs, especially in charities, was prominent in the movement which resulted in abolishing the system of outdoor relief of Kings County, and was organizer and first president of the Bureau of Charities. He was also active in the Republican party, being president of the Young Republican Club in the Garfield campaign of 1880; and though he resigned the presidency re- mained an active member of this club, which soon began agitation for the non- partisan ad- ministration of city affairs. In 1881 he was nominated for mayor of Brooklyn on an inde- pendent ticket, and elected; after an efficient administration he was re-elected in 1883, serv- ing another two years. His administrations were marked by reforms in the system of taxa- tion, and in the public schools, but more es- pecially by the introduction of the civil service system and non-partisan appointments in city affairs. In October 1889 he was offered the presidency of Columbia College (now Columbia University), which he accepted. While he was president, the undergraduate department was enlarged, the graduate schools and Barnard closely affiliated, the institution organized as a university and the site changed. He also gave the university $1,000,000 for the erection of a library building. He retained his interest in public affairs, was a member of the Rapid Transit Commission, and of the Greater New York Charter Commission, and an earnest ad- vocate of consolidation; he was also twice a referee in labor troubles, In 1897 he was an independent cancidate for mayor of Greater New York and was defeated, though polling over 150,000 votes. In 1899 he was a member of the United States delegation to The Hague Peace Conference. In 1901 he was nominated for mayor of Greater New York on a’Fusion ticket, and was elected. His administration o£ the next two years led to a reduction of the taxes, sweeping reforms in the police depart- ment and an enlargement of the public school system, and showed a strict adherence to the principles of business-like administration of public affairs which characterized his Brooklyn mayoralty. In 1903 he was again Fusion candi- date for mayor, but was defeated, a defeat gen- erally attributed not to any serious mistakes or faults in his administration, but rather to party questions and complications. From 1907 until his death he was president of The National Civic Federation. In 1914 he was elected president of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York, which office he held until his death. In 1914 he was appointed 698 by President Woodrow Wilson chairman of The President’s Colorado Coal Commission. In connection with this appointment the great coal strike in Colorado was called off’ He was delegate-at-large and chairman of the Cities Committee of the New York State Con- stitutional Convention, 1915. LOW, Will Hicok, American painter: b. Albany, N. Y., 31 May 1853. He learned paint- ing at Paris under Gérome and Carolus-Duran (1873-77), and since 1890 has been Academician of the National Academy of Design, and is one of the founders of the Society of American Artists. He is classed among the most active and versatile of living American artists and has been alike successful in decorative wall paint- ings, stained glass (at which he worked with John La Farge, q.v.), portrait and book illus- tration in black and white. His strength as a designer and colorist has been recognized by the public awards made to his work and by the demand for his services on the part of private and public patrons and connoisseurs. He has also had charge of life classes in the schools of Cooper Union and the National Academy of Design. He delivered the Scammon lectures at the Chicago Art Institute in 1910. These were published later under the title, ‘A Painters’ Progress? (1910). The following are some of his best-known pictures: ‘Portrait of Albani? (1877); ‘Chloe? (1882); ‘My Lady? (Lotus Club, New York) ; ‘Aurora? (1894), Metropolitan Museum, New York; ‘Homage to Venus? (mural painting, Waldorf-Astoria, Ne York); ‘The Orange Vendor,> in the Art In- stitute, Chicago; ‘Christmas Morning, in Washington National Gallery. There are 10 stained-glass windows by him-in Saint Paul’s Methodist Episcopal Church, Newark, N. J.; and mural painunes in Saint Paul’s Church, Albany, N. Y., and the Federal Building, Cleve- land, Ohio. He also installed a frieze in the Legislative Library at the New York State Capitol, and completed 20 mural paintings for the rotunda of the New York State Educa- tion Building, Albany, N. Y. He has published “A Chronicle of Friendships? (1908); and has contributed on art to the Century, Scribner's, McClure’s, etc. LOW CHURCH, a popular name given to a section of the Church of England whose opinions are opposed to those of the -High Church party, and are especially hostile to ritualism and sacerdotalism. LOW COUNTRIES. See Betcrum anp HOLLAND, LOW POTENTIAL SYSTEM. ELECTRICAL TERMS. LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, so called to emphasize the contrast be- tween the great feast of the Resurrection and the Sunday which ends the octave. In the Mis- sal (q.v.) and the Breviary (q.v.) the name is “Dominica in Albis,» because on this day the newly baptized wore their white robes for the last time. Mention is made of this custom in the Breviary hymn used in the vespers of Low Sunday, “Ad regias Agni dapes.» The name “Beloken Paschen,” close of Easter. is used fre- quently in Holland; and “Quasimodo,” the first word in the Introit of the Mass for the day, is the common name for this day in Germany and France. See LOW — LOWE - LOWDEN, Frank Orren, American pub- lic official: b. Sunrise City, Minn., 26 Jan. 1861. In 1885 he was graduated at the State University of Iowa, and two years later re- ceived the degree of LL.B at the Union College of Law, Chicago. From 1887 to 1902 Mr. Lowden practised his profession in Chicago and in 1889 held the chair of law at North- western University. In 1906 Mr. Lowden was elected member of the 59th Congress for the unexpired term of R. R. Hitt, deceased.. He was re-elected to the 60th and 6lst Congresses (1907-11), and in 1916 was elected governor of Illionis for the term 1917-21. LOWE, Charles, English journalist and biographer: b. Balconnel, Forfarshire, Scot- land. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh and on the Continent, and was for 13 years Times correspondent at Berlin, returning to England in 1891. He published two biographies of Bismarck; ‘Bismarck’s Table Talk? ; ‘Alexander III of Russia? ; ‘King Edward VID; ‘Our Greatest Soldiers, etc. LOWE, Sir Hudson, British general: b. Galway, 28 July 1769; d. London, 10 Jan. 1844. He entered the army at an early age and saw much service in Europe; in 1813 was attached to the army of Bliicher, and took part in the invasion of France in the early part of the following year. Appointed in 1815 to the com- mand of the English troops which were to co-operate with the Austro-Sardinian army in Italy. He was the first to bring to England news of Napoleon’s abdication, in 1814, and was created K.C.B. in 1816. On the fall of Napoleon he was appointed governor of Saint Helena, and entrusted with the care of the ex- emperor. He returned to England in July 1821, and was afterward on the staff in Ceylon, 1825-30. He has been accused by the partisans of Napoleon for want of courtesy and for rigor and cruelty to his prisoner. It is, how- ever, freely admitted that Napoleon and _ his suite made a system of exaggerating their grievances, and even sedulously tried to pro- voke them, with a view to exciting sympathy in Europe and especially in England. Many of the grievances were puerile, as that Sir Hudson would not give Napoleon the title of emperor, which England had never recognized, and which he was forbidden by his government to use. Consult Forsyth, ‘Captivity of Napoleon at Saint Helena from Letters and Journals of Sir Hudson Lowe? (London 1853); O’Meara, ‘A Voice from Saint Helena: Napoleon in Exile’ (the work of the deposed emperor’s physician: ib., 1822); Rose, J. H., ‘Napoleonic Studies’ (ib. 1904) ; Lord Rosebery, “Napoleon: the Last Phase? ; Seaton, ‘Sir Hudson Lowe and Napoleon? (ib. 1898). LOWE, John, American rear-admiral: b. Liverpool, England, 11 Dec. 1838. He was edu- cated in his native city and Columbus, Ohio, and entered the American navy in 1861. He served through the Civil War and accom- panied the Greely Relief Expedition in 1884. He was the first naval officer of any nation to serve in a submarine torpedo-boat. This he did in 1898. He made the first report ever presented to the Secretary of the Navy upon that topic. He was promoted rear-admiral 11 Dec. 1900, and retired the same day. LOWE — LOWELL VISCOUNT SHERBROOKE, English politician: b. Bingham, Nottingham- shire, 4 Dec. 1811; d. London, 27 July 1892. He was educated at Winchester College and at University College, Oxford, and directly upon his admission to the bar in 1842 went to Aus- tralia, where he quickly attained prominence in political affairs. In 1843 he became a member of the Legislative Council of New South Wales, and made himself famous by his opposition to the land monopoly, as well as by the part he performed in the development of education and the regulation of finance. He also made effect- ual protest against the English practice of transporting convicts to Australia. Meanwhile he was not neglectful of his private affairs, but acquired great wealth, and returned to England in 1850 and became a leader writer on the Times. He sat for Kidderminster, 1852- 58; Calne, 1859-67; and London University, 1868-80. He was vice-president of the Board of Control 1852-55, and vice-president of the Board of Trade 1855-58; joint secretary of the Board of Control, and in 1859, under Palmerston, was placed practically at the head of educational affairs. In consequence of a mistaken vote of censure by the House of Commons in 1864 he resigned his office, but only to participate with ability more marked than before in the pro- ceedings of that body. The rejection of the Whig Reform Bill in 1866 was considered to have been largely due to his brilliant and power- ful speeches against it. As one of the Adul- lamites (q.v.) he received overtures from the government of Lord Derby, but although he called himself an outcast from the Liberal party he refused to leave it. In 1867 he made a number of speeches designed to justify his opposition to extension of the suffrage. His strong support of the resolutions for disestab- lishment of the Irish Church, in 1868, restored him to favor in the Liberal party; and in December of that year he became Chancellor of the Exchequer under Gladstone, giving up that office in 1873 to accept the post of Home Secre- tary, in which, however, his tenure was brief. His reforms as Chancellor of the Exchequer related especially to reduction of sugar duties, the replacing of assessed taxes by license duties and like readjustments. After the fall of the Gladstone ministry in 1874 Lowe took comparatively little part in public affairs. He was raised to the peerage as Viscount Sher- brooke in 1880. Consult Parkes, ‘Fifty Years LOWE, Robert, of Australian History? (1892); Martin, ‘Life of Lord Sherbrooke? (1893); Hogan, ‘Robert Lowe, Viscount Sherbrooke? (1893); also Hansard, ‘Parliamentary Debates.” LOWE, Thaddeus S. C., American in- ventor and scientist: b. Jefferson, N. H., 20 Aug. 1832; d. 1913. He constructed balloons in 1856 and 1858-59 in order to study atmos- pheric phenomena, and during the Civil War was chief of the aeronautic corps. He devised a system of signaling in 1862, and valuable in- struments for atmospheric. investigation, etc., constructed and operated in 1858 the largest aerostat ever built up to that time, invented a compression ice machine and made the first artificial ice in the United States (1865); and established the Lowe Observatory in the Sierra Madre Mountains, Cal. Other inventions by him were metallurgical furnaces for gas and oil 609 fuel 1869-72, and the water-gas apparatus 1873- 75. After 1897 he put into operation the Lowe coke-oven system. LOWELL, 10’éi, Abbott Lawrence, Amer- ican educator ‘and author: b. Boston, 13 Dec. 1856. He was graduated from Harvard in 1877, from the law school of the university in 1880, was a legal practitioner in Boston in 1880-97, and from 1897 to 1899 was a lecturer at Harvard. In 1900 he was appointed there to the chair of the science of government, and _ in 1909 he became president of Harvard Uni- versity. He has thoroughly reorganized the financial affairs of the university. He is a trus- tee of the Lowell Institute since 1900, and of the Carnegie Foundation of the Advancement of Teaching, is a member of the American Acad- emy of Arts and Letters, of the British Acad- emy and honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy. He has received academic honors from the leading American and foreign uni- versities. Among his works are ‘Transfer of Stock in Corporations,” with Francis C. Lowell (1884); ‘Essays on Government? (1889); ‘Govern- ments and Parties in Continental Europe? (1896); ‘Colonial Civil Service,’ with H. Morse Stephens (1900); ‘Influence of Party in England and America? (1902); ‘The Gov- ernment of England? (1908) ; ‘Public Opinion and Popular Government? (1914). LOWELL, Charles, American clergyman: b. Boston, 15 Aug. 1782; d. Cambridge, 20 Jan. 1861. He was a son of John Lowell (1743- 1802). He was graduated from Harvard in 1800, studied theology at Edinburgh, Scotland, and from 1 Jan. 1806 until his death was pas- tor of the West (Unitarian) Church of Boston. His ill-health caused his absence in Europe and the East (1837-40), and in his later years his place in the pulpit was largely taken by his colleague, Cyrus A. Bartol (q.v.). He was an able orator and of strong anti-slavery views. A founder and member of the Society of Northern Antiquarians of Copenhagen, he was also secretary of the Massachusetts Historical Society and a corresponding member of the Archeological Society of Athens. He was the father of James Russell Lowell and Robert Traill Spence Lowell. Among his published writings are ‘Meditations for the Afflicted, Sick and Dying?; ‘Devotional Exercises for Communicants ; ‘Occasional Sermons? ; ‘Prac- tical Sermons? (1855). LOWELL, Charles Russell, American soldier: b. Boston, 2 Jan. 1835; d. near Middle- town, Va., 20 Oct. 1864. He was graduated from Harvard in 1854, at the beginning of the Civil War was manager of the Mount Savage ironworks, Maryland, on 20 April 1861 was made a captain in the 6th United States Cavalry, and during the Peninsular campaign, at the close of which he received the brevet of major, commanded a squadron of that regiment. Having been assigned to the personal staff of General McClellan, he distinguished himself at Antietam. In November 1862, he organized the 2d Massachusetts Cavalry, of which he be- came colonel on 10 May 1863. In the winter of «863-64 he commanded the advanced de- fenses of Washington, and subsequently he was in command of the provisional cavalry brigade hi: ‘ 700 under Sheridan in the Shenandoah, and, ulti- mately, of the reserve brigade, consisting of three regiments of United States cavalry, the 2d Massachusetts and a battery of artillery. With this force he fought at Opequan Creek (Winchester) (19 Sept. 1864), and defeated General Rosser’s cavalry (9 October). In the battle of Cedar Creek (19 October), he suc- cessfully resisted the Confederate attack until the arrival of Sheridan, but later in the action, while leading the final charge, was mortally wounded. LOWELL, Edward Jackson, American author: b. Boston, 18,, Oct: 1845 3». d.= Gotuit; Mass., 11 May 1894. He was the grandson of Francis Cabot Lowell (1775-1817) (q.v.). He was graduated from Harvard in 1867, was ad- mitted to the Suffolk County bar in June 1872, for a time practised law in Boston, but subse- quently devoted himself exclusively to literary work. He was a member of the Massachusetts Historical Society and a fellow of the Amer- ican Academy of Arts and Sciences. Among his writings are ‘The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary. War? (1884), recognized as standard; ‘The Eve of the French Revolu- tion? (1892) ; and the section on ‘The Diplo- macy and Finance of the Revolution? in Win- sor’s ‘Narrative and Critical History of Amer- ica? (1884-89), and numerous magazine and review articles. LOWELL, Francis Cabot, American ’ manufacturer: b. Newburyport, Mass., 7 April 1775 ;%d. Boston; 10; Age Visi” “Ee was grad- uated at Harvard in 1793 and entered on a mercantile career in Boston. During a visit to England he was seized with the idea of intro- ducing and successfully carrying out the manu- facture of cotton in America. In 1812 he be- gan his attempts to manufacture cotton cloth, an undertaking then rendered the more difficult by the fact that the war in progress with Great Britain prevented the importation of English machinery. He finally succeeded, by the aid of Paul Moody, a mechanic of Newburyport, in making a suitable loom, and with P. T. Jack- son, his brother-in-law, obtained a charter as the Boston Manufacturing Company, with $100,000 capital, and established at Waltham what is believed to have been the first mill in the United States to combine in one establish- ment the several operations necessary in manu- facturing finished cloth from the raw cotton. He was active in introducing into the tariff act of 1816 the clause imposing a minimum. duty on imported cotton fabrics. Jackson, subse- quent to Lowell’s death, bought a portion of Chelmsford and there located mills; and in 1826 the town was incorporated as Lowell. LOWELL, Guy, American architect: b. Boston, 6 Aug. 1870. In 1892 he was gradu- ated at Harvard University and in 1894 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in 1899 at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris. ‘He began practice in Boston in 1900, was architect of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Cum- berland County Courthouse, Portland, Me., and the New Hampshire Historical Society Build- ing at Concord, N. H., and numerous educa- tional, commercial and residential buildings. From 1900 -to he was lecturer on- landscape architecture Massachusetts Institute of LOWELL Technology. In 1912 Mr. Lowell visited Rome and made careful studies of the architectural remains there, especially of the Coliseum. In the following year he submitted plans for the courthouse in New York City which were an adaptation of the Coliseum to modern business requirements. The plans were accepted, but construction has been delayed due to the very unsatisfactory state of the city finances during the so-called reform administration of Mitchel and the restrictions ‘on building operations while the country was energetically prosecut- ing the war. LOWELL, James Russell, American poet, critic and diplomat: b. Cambridge, Mass., 22 Feb. 1819; d. there, 12 Aug. 1891. The Lowells were descended from Percival Lowell of Bris- tol, England, who emigrated to Massachusetts in 1639. Judge John Lowell, grandfather of the poet, contributed a clause to the Bill of Rights which effected the abolition of slavery in the State. One of the poet’s uncles, Fran- cis Cabot Lowell, was a leading promoter of manufactures in New England, and is remem- bered in the name of the city of Lowell. An- other uncle, John Lowell, founded the Lowell Institute of Boston. Rev. Charles Lowell, the poet’s father, b. 1782, was graduated at Har- vard in 1800, and after some study at the Uni- versity of Edinburgh was settled over the West Church of Boston, and remained its pas- tor till his death in 1861. He married Harriet Spence, from a family of Spences in Ports- mouth, N. H., who were of Scotch origin. She was the sister of Robert Traill Spence, of naval fame, and is remembered as having the gifts of @ great memory, an extraordinary aptitude for language, and a passionate fondness for - ancient songs and ballads,» as also a lively sense of humor. There were five children, two daughters and three sons, of whom James Russell was the youngest. He was prepared for college by William Wells, an English schoolmaster, who gave him an excellent drill in the rudiments of Latin. But perhaps the best part of his early education was derived from the unrestricted use of books at home. His father had come into possession of the old Tory mansion, on the Watertown road, later called Elmwood, and its abundant library was well stocked with attractive authors. He en- tered Harvard College in his 16th year, grad- uating in the class of 1838. He was not dili- gent in the prescribed work of the course, but engaged mainly in desultory reading and in writing essays and verse for college societies and magazines. Because of cleverness thus shown, he was made class poet. But the poem, his first considered effort, was not delivered, as the author had been ordered to Concord, for a brief rustication, on account of some neglect of college rules. It was published the next year, under the title of “A: Poem Recited at Cambridge.» Lowell now entered the Harvard School of Law, took its degree in 1840 and attempted practice. But he was quickly drawn aside to literature, largely through the influence of Maria White, a young lady of Watertown, to whom he became engaged i in the latter part of the same year. The poetic gifts and moral enthusiasm of this young woman quickened Lowell’s nature, and gave his bent a purpose. In 1841 he collected some of his best poems JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL LOWELL into a volume called ‘A Year’s Life,’ and in- scribed it in covert language to his betrothed. Two years later he began, with Robert Carter, the publication of a literary monthly, called The Pioneer, with Hawthorne, Poe and Whit- tier among the contributors, but after three issues it was discontinued. In 1844 occurred his marriage with Maria White; and during the year were published an enlarged edition of the Poems, including ‘A Legend of Brittany,’ ‘Prometheus,’ ~ ‘Miscellaneous Poems,’ and ‘Sonnets, and a volume called ‘Conversations on some of the Old Poets.’ In 1848 he again published an edition of the Poems, with the addition of the Third Series, including several poems against slavery. Later in the year ‘The Vision of ‘Sir Launfal,> ‘A Fable for Critics? and ‘The Biglow Papers? came out, the last- named being a reprint of dialect poems fur- nished to the newspapers of the day. In noth- ing had Lowell been so effective as in these satires; nothing in the literature of those stir- ring times attracted more attention. In 1851 he sailed for Europe, with his wife, who was in failing health, and spent a year, mainly in Italy, in study and travel. After their return Mrs. Lowell’s health did not improve, and’in 1853 she died. A volume of her poems was printed, after her death, for private circulation.: In 1855, on the resignation of Professor Long- fellow, ‘Lowell was elected Smith professor of the French and Spanish languages, and profes- sor of belles-lettres in Harvard College. He spent two years in Europe, to prepare himself more fully, and in 1857 took up the duties of his chair. He married Miss Frances Dunlap, of Portland, Me., the same year. For the next 20 years his strength was taxed inces- santly, being devoted, outside of his service in his college, to editorial and critical rather than poetic writing. He was the first editor of The Atlantic Monthly, and continued in the posi- tion for two years. He had an editorial con- nection with the North American Review from 1862 to 1873, and contributed to it many critical essays of unusual merit. In 1864 he reprinted, in ‘Fireside Travels,’ a few papers of less sub- stantial worth. In the lighter work of this busy period falls the ‘Biglow Papers,’ Second Series, which he began in 1862. These were reissued in 1867. In the next year appeared “Under the Willows, a collection of his poems written since 1848. In 1869 he published ‘The Cathedral,’ over which he had long worked, and in 1870 ‘Among my Books,” a reprint of some of his best essays on literary themes. In 1871 followed ‘My Study Windows,’ of like contents, and in 1876 ‘Among my Books,” Sec- ond Series. In 1877 Lowell was called to take the post of Ambassador to Spain, and after three years at Madrid was transferred to the court of Saint James. Here he won the ad- miration not only of his countrymen, .but also of the more exacting English public, by his executive abilities and his social and oratoric gifts. He received public honors from Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh and Bologna, and in 1883 was chosen lord rector by the University of Saint Andrews. His residence at Saint James terminated in 1885,,and the affliction of his wife’s death came to him, the same year, before return. He resumed to some degree his literary labors, after coming back to Cam- bridge. He published ‘Democracy, and other 701 Addresses? in 1887, and ‘Heart’s-ease and Rue,’ and. ‘Political Essays,’ in 1888. He pre- par ed the public address for the celebration of the 250th anniversary of the founding of Har- vard University, in November 1886, and deliv- ered a course of lectures on the Old English dramatists before the Lowell Institute in. the spring of the following year. In the year be- fore his death he revised and edited.a defini- tive edition of his writings in 10 volumes. Sup- plemental to these, ‘American Ideas for Eng- lish Readers, ‘Latest Literary Essays and . Addresses,’ and ‘Old English Dramatists,’ were issued posthumously in 1892. Lowell was first and chiefly a man of books, yet essentially without bookishness or pedantry. The most scholarly of all the group then making a name in literature, he was incapable of rigid applica- tion or of learning for learning’s sake. He confessed himself half mystic, half humorist, and could shift from the one to the other vein in a single paragraph. Inheriting traits and principles from the Puritan age, he failed of its discipline and conscious dignity. Because of his untactful and uncompromising attitude upon questions of the day, as slavery and civil service reform, he came to be regarded as an academic thinker and the typical “scholar in politics.» But he materially helped win respect for his class from the public of a later gener- ation, which has elevated a college professor to the presidency of the country. As ambassador at the court of Saint James and at Madrid, he proved himself less a classroom doctrinaire than a man of the world, an esteemed social figure and a facile speaker. Yet he had been thought of at home as too nearly what. the Englishman looks for in the typical American. He never lost the point of view of life, never lost sympathy with people, and was perhaps as wise in affairs as in the field of letters and esthetic criticism. This concord of opposite qualities is conspicuous in the ‘Biglow Papers, his most brilliant and least considered perform- ance, which has carried most influence and bids fair to be longest remembered of all his works. As a writer of prose he was often distin- guished, yet often wilfully whimsical or sensa- tional—he could speak of a landscape as “gagged with snow. His essays show more reading — which was wide except in its liter- ature of northern Europe—than originality, though he was gifted with deeper insight than any other of the New England school save Emerson, As a critic he sometimes lost his sense of perspective, as in his estimate of Mrs. Browning’s ‘Aurora Leigh.» In his .chosen field of poetry, Lowell’s work is uneven, often savoring of bookishness and formality in his lyric pieces, as ‘To a Dandelion» and ‘Beaver Brook.? While at times informal and unnoble in his higher strains, yet here and there at his best, as in “Prometheus? and ‘The Cathedral he has left “Gmmortal phrases” which no other American poet can parallel. An elaborate in- ternational centennial commemoration of his birthday was celebrated in New York City 19- 22 Feb. 1919. See BrcLow PArers; COMMEMO- RATION ODE. Bibliography.— Lowell’s works were is- sued in a complete edition (Riverside edition, 11 vols., Boston 1899). His letters were edited in two volumes by Charles Eliot Norton (New York 1894), Consult Brownell, W. C., ‘Amer- 702 ican Prose Masters? (New York 1909) ; Cooke, G. W. (compiler), ‘Bibliography of James Rus- sell Lowell? (Boston 1906); Greenslet, Ferris, ‘James Russell Lowell: His Life and Work’ (ib. 1905); Hale, E. E.. ‘James Russell Lowell and His Friends? (ib. 1899); Howells, W. D., ‘Literary Friends? (New York 1900) ; Hudson, W. H., ‘Lowell and His Poetry? (ib. 1912) ; James, Henry, ‘Essays in London and Else- where? (ib. 1893); Livingston, L. 5S. (com- piler), ‘Bibliography of the First Editions in Book Form of the Writings of James Russell Lowell (ib. 1914); Pollok, Gustav, ‘Interna- tional Perspective in Criticism? (ib. 1914); Reilly, J. J., “Lowell as a Critic? (ib. 1915) ; Richardson, C. F., ‘American Literature, 1607- 18852 (ib. 1893-94); Scudder, H. E., ‘James Russell Lowell? (2 vols., Boston 1901); Sted- man, E. C., ‘The Poets of America? (11th ed, Boston 1892); Underwood, F. H., ‘The Poet and the Man: Recollections of James Russell Lowell? (ib. 1893) ; Wendell, Barrett, ‘Literary History of America? (4th ed, New York 1907). L. A. SHERMAN, Of the University of Nebraska. LOWELL, John, American jurist: Db. Newburyport, Mass., 17 June 1743; d. Roxbury, Mass., 6 May 1802. He was graduated from Harvard in 1760, studied law, entered practice at Newburyport in 1762, represented that town in the general court in 1777 and Boston in 1779, and was a delegate to the convention of 1780 which framed the constitution of Massa- chusetts. He obtained the insertion in this document of the clause of the preamble which declares that “all men are born free and equal,” with the belief that slavery would thus be abol- ished in Massachusetts. The Supreme Court of the State upheld his contention in 1783, and thereby slavery in the State was abolished at his initiative. In 1782-83 he was a delegate in the Continental Congress, and in 1782 was ap- pointed by the Congress one of three judges of a Court of Appeals to hear appeals from courts of admiralty. In 1784 he was a member of the New York-Massachusetts Boundary Commis- sion. He was made by Washington in 1789 judge of the United States District Court of Massachusetts, and by Adams in 1801 chief justice of the First Circuit of the United States Circuit Court. He was a founder of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1780), and one of its councillors. He published an oration on James Bowdoin the elder in Vol. IT of the ‘Memoirs? of the American Academy; and a poem in ‘Pietas et Gratulatio? (1761). LOWELL, John, American publicist: b. Newburyport, Mass., 6 Oct. 1769; d. Roxbury, Mass., 12 March 1840. He was a son of John Lowell (1743-1802) (q.v.). He was graduated from Harvard in 1786. studied law, was ad- mitted to the bar in 1789, retired from practice in 1803 and after travel in the East (1803-06) devoted his attention to literature. He wrote on agriculture and theology, but chiefly on politics. In various publications he attacked the War of 1812; and by his pen made himself a valuable aid of the Federalists. His interest in horticulture obtained for him the sobriquet of “the Columella of the New England States”: and he was the first in the United States to build extensive greenhouses on a scientific plan. LOWELL For many years he was president of the Massa- chusetts Agricultural Society. Among his pamphlets were ‘Peace Without Dishonor, War Without Hope? (1807); ‘Diplomatic Policy of Mr. Madison Unveiled» (1810); ‘Candid Com- parison of the Washington and Jefferson Ad- PESENAS, (1810), and ‘Mr. Madison’s War? (1812). . LOWELL, John, American merchant and philanthropist: b. Boston, Mass., 11 May 1799; d. Bombay, India, 4 March 1836. He was the son of F:' C. Lowell (1775-1817) (q.v.). He studied at Harvard (1813-15), became a success- ful merchant in Boston, was several times elected to the Boston common council and the State legislature of Massachusetts and collected . a large and valuable library. After 1830 he passed a large part of his time in travel in foreign lands. By the gift of about $250,000,— then the largest ever made in America ‘by an individual for the endowment of a literary in- stitution, with the exception.of Girard’s be- quest for Girard College—he established in Boston the Lowell Institute, to consist of regular annual courses of free public lectures. ° The institute was opened in the winter of 1839- 40, and thas proved exceedingly successful. Consult Everett, ‘Memoir of John Lowell, Jr. (1840), and Smith, ‘History of the Lowell In- stitute? (1898). f LOWELL, Josephine Shaw, American philanthropist: b. West Roxbury, Mass., 16 Dec. 1843; d. New. York. City, 12 Oct. 1905. She was educated in Boston, New York and in Europe, and during the Civil War she was con- nected with the work of the Sanitary Commis- sion, and subsequently with labors among the freedmen and with other causes of philanthropy and reform. In 1863 she married Col. Charles Russell Lowell, who was killed at Cedar Creek, Va., 1864. She was a founder of the Charity Organization Society of New York in 1881, in 1886-89 was commissioner of the State Board of Charities of New York; and in 1899 was ap- pointed to the board of managers of the New York State reformatory for women. Among her writings are ‘Public Relief and Private Charity? (1884); ‘Industrial Arbitration and Conciliation? (1893). Consult Stewart, W. R., ‘Philanthropic Work of Josephine Shaw Lowell> (New. York 1911). LOWELL, Maria White, American poet: b. Watertown, Mass., 8 July 1821; d. Cam- bridge, Mass., 27 Oct. 1853. She was the first wife of James Russell Lowell, whom she mar- ried in 1844. The best known of her poems are ‘The Alpine Shepherd? and ‘The Morning Glory, which appeared in the collection printed privately at Cambridge in 1855. The death of Mrs. Lowell, occurring the same night that a child was born to Mr. Longfellow, called forth the latter’s poem beginning: “Two angels, one of life and one of death, Passed o’er our village as the morning broke.” Mrs. Lowell is known for her influence on her husband in the cause of abolition and for her own writings against slavery. LOWELL, Percival, American astrono mer: b. Boston, 13 March 1855; d. Flagstaff, Ariz., 13 Nov. 1916. He was a brother of Ab- bott Lawrence Lowell, and was graduated at Harvard in 1876. He went to Japan in 1883 LOWELL — LOWER HELDERBERG and lived there and in Korea from time to time till 1893. He was counsellor and foreign secre- tary to Korean Special Mission to the United States in 1894. In 1894 he established the Lowell Observatory; undertook an eclipse ex- pedition to Tripoli in 1900 and in 1907 sent an expedition to photograpb the planet Mars. He received the Janssen medal of French Astronomical Society in 1904 for his researches on Mars. In 1908 he received a gold medal from La Sociedad Astronomica de Mexico. He made various discoveries on the planets Mer- cury, Venus, Saturn and especially Mars. In 1902 he was appointed non-resident professor of astronomy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and many other societies in America and Europe. He pub- lished ‘Chos6n? (1885); ‘The Soul of the Far East? (1886); ‘Noto? (1891); “Occult Japam (1894) ; “Mars? (1895); ‘Annals of the Lowell Observatory? (Vol. I, 1898; Vol. II, 1900; Vol. III, 1905) ; ‘The Solar System? (1903); ‘Mars and Its Canals? (1906); ‘Mars as the Abode of Life’ (1908); ‘The Evolution of Worlds? (1909) and various papers to learned societies. LOWELL, Robert Traill Spence, Amer- ican Episcopal clergyman; b. Boston, 8 Oct. 1816; d. Schenectady; N. Y.;'12:Sept. 1891. He was a son of Charles Lowell (q.v.) and a brother of James Russell Lowell (q.v.). He was graduated from Harvard in 1833, for a time studied medicine in the Harvard Medical School, and later was in mercantile life at Bos- ton. In 1839 he began the study of theology; went to Hamilton, Bermuda; was there ordained deacon in 1842 and priest in 1843; and became inspector of schools for the colony and domes- tic chaplain to the bishop. In 1843-47 he was rector at Bay Roberts, Newfoundland, and dur- ing the famine of 1846 in that district rendered valuable service as chairman of the relief com- mittee. Having returned to the United States in. 1847, he was active in mission work among tthe poorer classes at Newark, N. J.; was rector of Christ Church, Duanesburg, N. Y., in 1859- 69, head-master of Saint Mark’s School (South- boro, Mass.) in 1869-73, and professor of Latin language and literature in Union College in 1873-79. He published ‘The New Priest in Conception Bay? (1858; revised in 1889), in which Bay Roberts appears as “Peterport”; ‘Fresh Hearts That Failed Three Thousand Years Ago, and other Poems? (1860) ; ‘Anthony Brode? (1874); ‘Burgoyne’s March? (1877), written for the Saratoga County celebration at Bemis Heights, and ‘A Story or Two from an Old Dutch Town? (1878). LOWELL, Mass., city, county-seat of Mid- dlesex. County, at the junction of the Concord and Merrimac rivers, and on the New York, New Haven and Hartford and the Boston and Maine railroads, about 25 miles northwest of Boston. Lowell, formerly Chelmsford, was founded in 1822, by the “Merrimac Manufactur- ing Company,” and named in honor of Francis Cabot Lowell (q.v.). In four years it was in- corporated as a town, and in 1836 it was char- tered as a city known as the “Workshop of the World» . The city now has an area of over 14 square miles. The city is noted for its great number of manufactories and its large annual output of manufactured articles. The power is 7038 obtained from the falls of the Merrimac which here descend 32 feet and from the~ Concord River; but 80,000 horse-power steam power is used, The “Proprietors of Locks and Canals” was organized early in the 19th century, for the purpose of obtaining and supplying power for cotton factories. The canal system was nearly completed in 1825, but the first canals were more like ordinary ditches; now they are walled and fitted with locks and bridges, all of the best construction and latest improvements. They are so well built that the annual amount spent for repairs is comparatively small. By means of this canal system of seven and one-half miles water power is furnished to many fac- tories in Lowell, then returned to the Merrimac to be used lower down the stream to turn the wheels for the mills in Lawrence. Some of the manufacturing establishments are woolen and cotton factories, hosiery and knitting mills, carpet and felt factories. bleach- eries, dyeing works, machine-shops, patent- medicine works, a cartridge factory and fur- niture factories. Lowell has many points of historic and scenic interest and a number of fine public buildings. The educational institu- tions are the State Normal School, the Rogers Hall School, the Lowell Textile School, Saint Patrick’s Academy, a high school, and public and parish elementary schools. The city has the Lowell Hospital,, Lowell General Hospital, Saint John’s Hospital, Saint Peter’s Orphanage, © Theodore Edson Orphanage, Ayer Home for Young Women and Children, Saint Patrick’s Home for Working Women and the Old Ladies’ Home. The annual amount of municipal expendi- tures is about $2,206,859.30; the principal items are for schools about $463,942; for hospitals, almshouses, etc., $120,000; for police depart- ment, $167,000; for the fire department, $193,000; for municipal lighting, $121,000; for water- works, $240,000. The waterworks were built in 1873 at a cost of about $2,875,000. There are now about 130 miles of mains. The water- works are owned and operated by the city. Pop. 112,759, about 40 per cent of whom are of foreign birth. Consult Drake, ‘History of Middlesex County?; ‘Illustrated History of Lowell.’ LOWELL INSTITUTE, a Boston insti- tution founded with a bequest of $250,000 by John Lowell (1799-1836) for “the maintenance and support of public lectures, to be delivered in Boston, upon philosophy, natural history, the arts and sciences, or any of them, as the trus- tees shall, from time to time, deem expedient.” Edward Everett delivered the first lecture 31 Dec. 1839, since when the leaders in philosophy, art and science of the English-speaking world have delivered regular annual courses of lectures. The institute is managed by a single trustee, who must be a member of the Lowell family of Massachusetts. Consult Smith, H. K., ‘History of the Lowell Institute? (Boston 1898). LOWER CALIFORNIA. See Catiror- NIA, LOWER. LOWER HELDERBERG, in geology, a series of Pentamerous limestone of eastern New York, well developed in the Hudson Val- ley region and extending southward along the Appalachians to eastern Tennessee. The upper 704 part of the formation was called Scutella limestone by Vanuxem. The lower Helderberg includes also the impure limestones above the Encrinal limestone at Becrafts Mountain, near Catskill and southward. The upper Pentamer- ous is distinct at Schoharie and westward to the centre of New York State, where all the subdivisions merge together. In Tennessee, the limestones of this period abound in fossils and occur in Hardin, Henry, Denton, Decatur and Stewart counties. The maximum thickness is about 100 feet. In the Appalachian region in Pennsylvania the lower Helderberg, here of impure limestone, has a thickness of 100 feet or more in the middle belt, and 200 to 250 feet in the southeastern. Cement, lime and building stone are extracted from the series. See DE- VONIAN SYSTEM. LOWESTOFT, 10’stéft, England, munic- ipal borough, seaport, and summer resort of Suffolk, on the Great Eastern Railway, 117 miles northeast of London. It is divided by the Waveney into the old town on the north and South Lowestoft. It contains the 14th century church of Saint Margaret, town and county halls, a hospital, two foundation schools, an esplanade and Bellevue Park. The fish trade is important. The harbor is 48 acres in extent and has a depth of 16 feet at high water. Its industrial establishments comprise boat and shipyards, motor works, flouring and oil mills, rope works, etc. Cromwell took the town in 1643 and off the coast in 1665 the Dutch fleet was defeated by the Duke of York. In the 18th century there existed flourishing manu- factories of china ware. Pop. 33,770. Consult Nall, ‘History of Lowestoft? (London 1866). LOWESTOFT PORCELAIN. One of the most interesting and prolonged controver- sies that was ever entered into by connoisseurs and collectors of “china” was concerning the term “Lowestoft” as applied to certain pieces of porcelain ware. William Chaffers, a former authority on ceramics, in his “Gallery” (1872) claimed that certain pieces of porcelain (now known to be “Canton ware”) were made and decorated in the English village of Lowestoft. His argument was based on a system of forced circumstantial evidence. Sir Augustus Wolla- ston Franks (the great expert) disclosed, in 1878, the deception Chaffers had been innocently guilty of. Many pieces of this Oriental porce- lain, especially in America, are still termed “Lowestoft? ware of which there is docu- mentary evidence of their importation in Amer- ican ships from the port of Canton, some of these pieces, with the heraldic bearings of the original owners, even have the word “Canton” and date of make as well as a picture of the ship that brought the ware to this country figuring in their decoration. Excavations (in the years 1902-04) made on the site where the factory was that tradition stated made such ware finally disposed of the contention. “Wasters” (defective pieces and fragments) and some molds were unearthed which show clearly that all stages of porcelain making were carried on at this spot. Research among con- temporary literature and documents disclose the following interesting facts as to the history of this porcelain pottery: Hewlin Luson, of Gun- ton Hall, near Lowestoft, discovered in 1756 some kind of china clay and set up “a tem- LOWESTOFT — LOWIE. . porary kiln and furnace” at Gunton and put practical potters from London at work there. In fear of successful competition, London manufacturers bribed the workmen to_ spoil each batch baked in the experiment. Such dis- couragement stopped the work. The chemist Robert. Brown in association with Philip Walker, Obed Aldred (bricklayer) and John Richmond started a kiln, next year, in Lowe- stoft (at Bell Lane). The same spoiling of the output by tampering with the workmen oc- curred. But the cause of the trouble was found out and precautions permitted success to attend later ‘efforts. Gillingwater’s contem- porary ‘History of Lowestoft? says they “have now established the factory upon such a per- manent basis as promises great success” and they “employ a considerable number of work- men, and siipply with ware many of the princi- pal towns in the adjacent counties.» The pieces and molds unearthed prove the following wares were produced: “fluted cups, basins, cream jugs, sauce boats, teapots (one with a ‘raised floral design dated 1761), cabbage jugs of Worcester pattern, openwork baskets,” also “birth plates” with a name and birth date inscribed across the piece, and souvenir pieces with the words: “A Trifle from Lowestoft” on them. A character- istic ware consisted of barrel-shaped mugs hav- ing a picture of a herring yawl painted on one side and a woman smoking a spit of herrings on the other. Proof is afforded by these wasters that forged marks of the factories that originated some of these wares were used; “Allen Lowestoft” is on some pieces. Lowestoft paste has creamy appearance sometimes hidden under a colored glaze making them look like Oriental ware; the glaze is mostly of pale bluish color, sometimes bluish green, at other times colorless. Pieces show fine execution. It is a soft paste, not hard as in Oriental ware. The painting is in feeble drawing of a style like that of Saint Cloud, besides close copies of Wor- cester, Bow, Caughley, Plymouth, Bristol; Dresden, etc., decoration. Floral decoration is in conventional sprays, and diaper, trellis, scale patterns occur. Under the present nomencla- ture such ware is termed “true Lowestoft” and the Canton, long disputed pieces of hard paste are known as “Sino- Lowestoft” or “pseudo- Lowestoft Bibliography.— Crisp, F. A., ‘Catalogue of Lowestoft China in the Possession of F. A. Crisp? (London 1907) ; Spelman, W. R., ‘Lowe- stoft China? (London 1905). CLEMENT W. CouMBE. LOWICZ, 1d’vich, Poland, town 50 miles southwest of Warsaw, on the Bzura. It con- tains an Abbey church, ancient chateau, mili- tary barracks, a gymnasium, and a monastery. Candles, flour, leather and soap are manufac- tured, No mention of the town is made prior to 1136. About 1350-it became the capital of a principality.. In the Great War of 1914-18 Lowicz was occupied by the Germans, who heavily fortified it. In 1918 it became a part of the new Polish state. Pop. 14,500. LOWIE, 161, Robert Harry, American anthropologist: b. Vienna, Austria, 12 June 1883. At the 1ge of 10 he was brought to the United States and in 1901 was graduated at the College of the City of New York and in 1908 at Columbia University. In 1908-09 he was LOWNDES — LOYAL AMERICAN LIFE ASSOCIATION assistant in the department of anthropology ; in 1909-13 assistant curator, and since 1913 associate curator at the American Museum of Natural History, New York. In 1917-18 Dr. Lowie was associate professor of anthropology at the University of California. From 1906 to 1914 he conducted anthropological expeditions to the Indians of the northern plains, to Lake Athabaska in 1908, to the Plateau tribes in 1914-15, to Hopi in 1915, 1916. Since 1912 he has been associate editor of the American An- thropologist and in 1912-13 was editor of Cur- rent Anthropological Literature. He is a Fel- low of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science and of many other learned societies. He has published ‘The As- sintboine» (1909); ‘Social Life of the Crow Indians? (1912) ; CSocieties of the Crow, Hi- datsa and Mandan Indians? (1913); ‘The Sun Dance of the Crow Indians? (1915) ; “The Age-Societies of the Plains Indians? (1916); “Culture and Ethnology? (1917). LOWNDES, lownz, Marie Adelaide Belloc, English author: b. 1868. She is a sister of Hilaire Belloc (q.v.) and was married to F. S. Lowndes in 1896. She has published “Life and Letters of Charlotte Elizabeth, Prin- cess Palatine? (1889); ‘King Edward VII (1901) ; ‘The Heart of Penelope’ (1904) ; ‘The Pulse of. Life? (1907); ‘The Uttermost Far- thing’ (1908); “When No Man Pursueth? (1970). SA Child’s History of the War? (1914) ; “Good Old Anna? (1915); ‘The Red Cross Barge? (1916). LOWNDES, Rawlins, American states- man:.b. in the West Indies 1722; d. 1800. His parents removed with him to Charleston when he was very young, and his career was ever after associated with that city. Having studied law he became an associate judge of the Colo- nial Court in 1766, and in that position opposed the Stamp Act. He assisted in outlining a new constitution for South Carolina in 17/6, and in 1788 became president of the State. He was subsequently a member of the State legislature and vigorously opposed the ratification of the Federal constitutions. LOWNDES, William, American legislator: b. Saint Barthomew’s, Colleton County, S. C., 7 Feb. 1782; d. at sea, 27 Oct. 1822. He was taken to England when he was seven years of age, and sent for three years to an English grammar-school. On his return to Charles- ton he was graduated at Charleston College, studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1804, but he soon abandoned his profession to attend to his plantation. In 1806 Mr. Lowndes was elected to the lower house of the general assembly of South Carolina, retaining his seat until 1810, when he was chosen a member of Congress as a Democrat, and re-elected five times successively, serving from 4 Nov. 1811, till 8 May 1822,-when failing health compelled his resignation. He was an earnest supporter of the War of 1812, and spoke frequently on matters pertaining to the army, the navy, the finances. the national bank, the Missouri Com- promise, the Spanish treaty and the tariff. His friends regarded him as a suitable candidate for the Presidency, and he was nominated by the legislature of South Carolina. His health having been benefited by a visit to England in 1819, he decided to return to that country, and VOL, jb) =— 45 _ biblical scholar: 4 705 had embarked with his family from Philadel- phia, but did not live to complete the voyage. As a debater he occupied the front rank, in spite of a weakness of voice caused by diseased lungs, while his memory was remarkably re- tentive. It is said that Henry Clay expressed the opinion that Lowndes was “the wisest man he had ever known in Congress.” His portrait by Morse is in the Corcoran Gallery, Washing- ton. ‘Consult’ Ravenel; H.’ H. R., “Life and Times of William Lowndes? (Boston 1901). LOWRIE, low’ré, Walter, American legis- lator and philanthropist: b. Edinburgh, Scot- land, 1784; d. 1868. At the age of seven his parents brought him to America and settled in Pennsylvania. Through his own exertions he qualified himself. for the ministry. In 1811-18 he was member of the senate of Pennsylvania and from 1818 to 1824 was United States sen- ator. He organized the congressional prayer- meeting and a total abstinence society. In 1836 Mr. Lowrie became corresponding secretary of the Western Foreign Missionary Society and subsequently for over 30 years was correspond- ing secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. LOWTH, Robert, English prelate and b. Winchester, Hampshire, 27 Nov. 1710: d. ‘London, 3 Nov. 1787. Educated at Winchester School and Oxford University, he became professor of poetry in the latter in 1741, and in 1750 archdeacon of Winchester. In 1753 he published his lectures on “The Sa- cred Poetry of the Hebrews, and became fa- mous as one of the first biblical critics of his age. Ecclesiastical preferments followed; and he was made successively prebend of Durham, bishop of Saint David’s (1766), of Oxford the same year and of London in 1777. In 1783 he declined the archbishopric of Canterbury. In 1758 he published a life of William Wykeham, in 1778 he published ‘Isaiah, a New Transla- tion,’ with a preliminary dissertation and notes, which was highly commended. LOWVILLE, 1d’vil, N. Y., village, county- seat of Lewis County, on the New York Cen- tral and Hudson River railroad, about 100 miles northwest of Albany and 60 miles north by west of Utica. It is situated in an agricul- tural section, and the industries of the village are connected chiefly with hop-growing and with farm and dairy products. Its trade is principally in hay, grain, vegetables and the noted Lewis County butter and cheese. The principal buildings are the town-hail, the county buildings, a clubhouse and the Lowville Academy. The academy library has about 5,000 volumes. The waterworks are the property of the municipality. Pop. (1920) 3,127. LOYAL AMERICAN LIFE ASSO- CIATION. Incorporated in November, 1896, in Illinois as a fraternal beneficiary society. Home office in Chicago since October 1911; before that date in Springfield. Does life in- surance business, and operates actively in 25 States. On 1 Jan. 1916 had over 600 local branches.- On same date this Association had 13,000 policies outstanding with $13,500,000 of insurance in force, and has paid benefits in sum of $3,300,000. Has $400,000 in assets. Last annual valuation showed 101.24 per cent of solvency. Business in excellent condition. It 706 has a good form of representative government and ritualistic work that is patriotic, charming and instructive. As a- mascot it) uses the “Spirit of 76,..and, of. the best-known. and most-beloved. pictures in. America. -Its rates are based upon the well-known N. F. C. Table of Mortality with 4 per cent interest assump- tion. Annual valuations are made upon the same basis. It now. issues ordinary Whole Life Policies exclusively.. Its rates are from 15 per cent to 40 per cent lower than old line rates for same kind of policy. Besides a death benefit, the Association voluntarily pays nine other benefits for injuries arising from acci- dent. Its low cost, liberal benefits and privi- leges' constitute a very attractive life insurance proposition. Just recently the Association has begun a national advertising campaign for agents and policyholders. The Association is conservatively managed. LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES, Military Order of the, was the first society formed by officers in the Civil War, who were honorably discharged. are to cherish the memories and associations of the Civil War, to strengthen the ties of fellow- ship and sympathy, to relieve the widows and children of dead companions of the order and to advance the general welfare of the soldiers and sailors of the United States. On the day after the assassination of President Lincoln, Col. S. B. Wylie Mitchell, Capt. Peter D. Key- ser, M.D., and Lieut.-Col. T. Ellwood Zell met in Philadelphia to arrange for a meeting of ex- officers of the army and navy to adopt resolu- tions relative to the death of President Lin- coln. It was decided to effect a permanent or- ganization, and an adjourned meeting was held for this purpose in the hall of the Hibernia Fire Company in Philadelphia 3 May 1865. Eligibility to membership is as follows: Orig- inal companions of the first class — commis- stoned officers and honorably discharged com- missioned officers of the United States army, navy and marine corps, regular or volunteer, in- cluding officers of assimilated or corresponding rank by appointment of the Secretary of the War or Navy, who were actually engaged in the suppression of the Rebellion prior to 15 April 1865, or who served under the Presi- dent’s call of 15 April 1861; or who, having served as non-commissioned | officers, warrant officers or enlisted men, during the War of the Rebellion, have since been or may hereafter be commissioned as officers in the United States regular or volunteer army, navy or marine corps. All midshipmen in the United States navy and all cadets of the United States army, who, while pursuing their course in the United States Naval Academy or the United States Military Academy, actually rendered service. Hereditary companions of the first class. The direct male lineal descendants, who shall have attained the age of 21 years, of deceased orig- inal companions of the first class, and of de- ceased officers not members of the order, but who were eligible as such, and whose direct descent shall in every case be traced anew from the original founder of the membership in the order, or from the deceased eligible officer, and not otherwise. Any original companion having no direct lineal male descendant may, by writ- ing, filed with the recorder of his commandery, nominate a companion of the second class from Its objects ; LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES — LOYALISTS among the collateral male members of his family, descending only from his own brother or sister, and the person so nominated when he shall have attained the age of 21 years shall become eligible to membership for life in the second class. Second class—the sons, and ‘if there be no sons, the grandsons, of living com- panions of the first class, whether original, in succession, or by inheritance, who shall have attained: the age of 21 years, shall be eligible to membership. Third class.— Companions of this class are those gentlemen who in civil life during the Rebellion were specially’ distin- guished for conspicuous and consistent loyalty to the national government and were ‘active and eminent in maintaining the supremacy of the same; and who, prior to 15 April 1890; were elected members of the order pursuant to the then existing provisions of the Constitution, the power to elect such having ceased at’ that date. There are State commanderies in Penn- sylvania, New York, Maine, Massachusetts, California, Wisconsin, Illinois, District: of Co- lumbia, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Colorado, Indiana, ‘Washington, Vermont and Maryland. The total membership in 1917 was 6,914. LOYAL ORANGE INSTITUTION. See ORANGEMEN. LOYAL TEMPERANCE LEGION, organization of children founded in 1886, i the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, for the purpose of teaching children the evil effects of alcohol, tobacco and other narcotics. The graduates, who follow a systematic course of instruction, are organized into State legions, holding annual conventions. There are upward of 100,000 members in the United States. LOYALISTS, or TORIES, in American history, those persons who remained loyal to Great Britain during the Revolutionary War. The issue of independence divided the American colonies into two parties: Whig and Tory, or Patriot and Loyalist. No contempo- rary figures exist which enable the respective numbers of the two parties to be definitely stated. They varied from’ time to time and from colony to colony. The Loyalists main- tained that in the colonies as a whole they were in the majority. On the other hand, John Adams and others of the Patriot party held that the Loyalists constituted only a third of the population, and this estimate seems. to be generally accepted by historians. The propor- tion varied greatly, however; the Patriots werc clearly in the majority in New England and Virginia. In North Carolina the two parties were about evenly divided, in South Carolina the Loyalists were the more numerous, and in Georgia they were much more numerous. In New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- ware and Maryland the Loyalists were very strong, although probably in the minority. Pennsylvania seems to have had the largest absolute number of Loyalists. It is probably impossible to draw any de-- ductions from the distribution of racial ele- ments. -New England and Virginia, where the Patriots were strongest, were almost exclu- sively British in population (about 99 per cent and 94 per cent respectively), but so also was South Carolina, where the Loyalists were in the majority. New York, however, was 16 per LOYALISTS IN CANADA cent Dutch, and Pennsylvania was 26 per cent German, and in these States the Loyalists were very strong. The total free population of the colonies in 1780 is estimated at 2,453,000, and was distributed racially about as_ follows: British, 91.8 per cent; German, 5.6 per cent; Dutch, 2 per cent; all others, less than 1 per cent. The Loyalists took in all classes of the population. In New England the more sub- stantial and better educated citizens, office hold- ers and members of learned professions tended to be Loyalists; others were adventurers who adhered to England with the hope of gain or official preferment. The Loyalists probably contributed about 60,000 men to the military forces in America. In all the States severe laws were enforced against the Loyalists, and it is estimated that nearly 200,000 left the country during or at the close of the Revolution. Between 40,000 and 50,000 Loyalists were said to have fled to Can- ada and settled mainly in the Maritime Provinces prior to 1786. Confiscation of Loyalist prop- erty was resorted to in all the States. In New York alone the sales of confiscated property brought over $3,500,000. Consult Flick, A. C., ‘Loyalism in New York during the American Revolution? (New York 1901); Myers, T. B., “The Tories or Loyalists in America? (Albany 1882); Ryerson, E., ‘Loyalists of America, 1620-1816? (1880); Sabine, L., ‘Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revo- lution with an Historical Essay? (2 vols., Bos- ton 1864); Van Tyne, C. H., ‘The Loyalists in the American Revolution? (New York 1902). See AMERICAN LOYALISTS. LOYALISTS IN CANADA. In the 20th century it is easy to review without prejudice the motives and sacrifices of those Americans who chose to adhere to British allegiance when the 13 colonies declared themselves independent States. That the great majority of the Loyal- ists, or “Tories,” as they were called by their enemies, were sincerely devoted to the royal cause there can be no sensible doubt, and off- cial records recently brought to public notice present a pathetic picture of the sufferings and losses endured by the unfortunate supporters of British rule in the War of the Revolution. While as a result of that struggle the United States secured their independence, they also lost a host of valuable citizens who emigrated chiefly to Canada, where they established new homes and helped to strengthen Great Britain’s hold on that portion of her empire. The de- scendants of those emigrants compose a large and influential part of Canada’s population, and the names of men prominent in the politics, the professions and industries in the Dominion can be traced back to time-worn folios which tell the story of the plea of the poverty-stricken refugees for aid from the motherland. The migration of Loyalists to Canada began as early as 1774, before the actual clash between the colonies and British authority. This was due to the fact that families which found them- selves menaced and beset on account of their unpopular opinions saw no safe reftige nearer than Canada. The movement continued through- out the war, varying in degree with British suc- cess and defeat, until the surrender of Corn- wallis extinguished any remnant of hope in the 707 breasts of the royal adherents, who hastened in multitudes, by land and sea, to seek shelter and protection in the Canadian provinces. Many who tried to live down the past, trusting that, with hostilities over, their former attitude would be pardoned, if not forgotten, found their situation intolerable and followed in the footsteps of earlier refugees, and this went on until 1789, when the Loyalist migration ceased. The total number of Loyalists who settled in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island is estimated at not less- than 35,000, of whom about 30,000 went from New. York, although probably the homes of many of these had been elsewhere before they sought shelter in that final stronghold of the British. In 1791 the English-speaking popula- tion of Lower Canada had increased to about 20,000, owing chiefly to the Loyalist arrivals, and in Upper Canada 10,000 Loyalists settled in 1783 alone; the next year the population had doubled and in 1791 it was estimated at 25,000. The province of Ontario may be said to owe its foundation to American Loyalists. The British government and the provincial authorities extended cordial and liberal aid to the exiles. ‘Those who were transported at the expense of the government received provisions for one year on leaving New York, and were supplied with rations regularly as long as their necessities continued. They also received cloth- ing, grants of land and assistance in stocking their farms, building homes and clearing and cultivating the land. Tools and arms were also distributed. The British Crown and Parliament took steps in July 1783 to compensate the refugees from the United States for injuries suffered through their loyalty and a commission con- sisting of five members was appointed to ex- amine into and classify the losses and services. The following were held to be entitled to com- pensation: (1) Those who had rendered serv- ices to Great Britain; (2) those who had borne arms against the Revolution; (3) uni- form Loyalists; (4) Loyalists resident in Great Britain; (5) those who took oaths of allegiance to the American States, but afterward joined the British; (6) those who armed with the Americans and later joined the British army or navy. Compensation was not allowed for antici- pated professional profits, losses in trade or through depreciated paper money, or losses caused by the British army, which were ac- ‘counted as obligations of the British govern- ment outside the province of the commission. By the Treaty of Peace between the United States and Great Britain it was stipulated that Congress should earnestly recommend to the States the restoration of the rights and pos- sessions of “real British subjects,” and of Loy- alists who had not borne arms. The recom- mendation was without effect. Nevertheless the commission required evidence in support of the claim that property ‘had been confiscated and had not been restored. Notwithstanding the bitter feeling in the United States toward the Loyalists, the requisite evidence appears to have been readily supplied to claimants by American local authorities. Apart from the expenditures already noted in supporting and establishing Loyalists on 706 has a good form of representative government and ritualistic work that is patriotic, charming and instructive. As a- mascot it) uses the “Spirit of 76,..and. of. the best-known and most-beloved pictures in America. Its rates are based upon the well-known N. F. C.. Table of Mortality with 4 per cent interest assump- tion. Annual valuations are made upon the same basis. It now. issues ordinary Whole Life Policies exclusively. Its rates are from 15 per cent to 40 per cent lower than old line rates for same kind of policy. Besides a death benefit, the Association voluntarily pays nine other benefits for injuries arising from acci- dent. Its low cost, liberal benefits and privi- leges constitute a very attractive life insurance proposition. Just recently the Association has begun a national advertising campaign for agents and policyholders. The Association is conservatively managed. LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES, Military Order of the, was the first society formed by officers in the Civil War, who were honorably discharged. are to cherish the memories and associations of the Civil War, to strengthen the ties of fellow- ship and sympathy, to relieve the widows and children of dead companions of the order and to advance the general welfare of the soldiers and sailors of the United States. On the day after the assassination of President Lincoln, Col. S. B. Wylie Mitchell, Capt. Peter D. Key- ser, M.D., and Lieut.-Col. T. Ellwood Zell met in Philadelphia to arrange for a meeting of ex- officers of the army and navy to adopt resolu- tions relative to the death of President Lin- coln. It was decided to effect a permanent or- ganization, and an adjourned meeting was held for this purpose in the hall of the Hibernia Fire Company in Philadelphia 3 May 1865. Eligibility to membership is as follows: Orig- inal companions of the first class — commis- sioned officers and honorably discharged com- missioned officers of the United States army, navy and marine corps, eenlae or volunteer, in- cluding officers of assimilated or corresponding rank by appointment of the Secretary of the War or Navy, who were actually engaged in the suppression of the Rebellion prior to 15 April 1865, or who served under the Presi- dent’s call of 15 April 1861; or who, having served as non-commissioned officers, warrant officers or enlisted men, during the War of the Rebellion, have since been or may hereafter be commissioned as officers in the United States regular or volunteer army, navy .or marine corps. All midshipmen in the United States navy and all cadets of the United States army, who, while pursuing their course in the United States Naval Academy or the United States Military Academy, actually rendered service. Hereditary companions of the first class. The direct male lineal descendants, who shall have attained the age of 21 years, of deceased orig- inal companions of the first class, and of de- ceased officers not members of the order, but who were eligible as such, and whose direct descent shall in every case be traced anew from the original founder of the membership in the order, or from the deceased eligible officer, and not otherwise. Any. original companion having no direct lineal male descendant may, by writ- ing, filed with the recorder of his commandery, nominate a companion of the second class from Its objects : LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES — LOYALISTS among the collateral male members of his family, descending only from his own brother or sister, and the person so nominated when he shall have attained the age of 21 years shall become eligible to membership for life in the second class. Second class—the sons, and ‘if there be no sons, the grandsons, of living com- panions of the first class, whether original, in succession, or by inheritance, who shall have attained’ the age of 21 years, shall be eligible to membership. Third class.— Companions of this class are those gentlemen who in civil life during the Rebellion were specially’ distin- guished for conspicuous and consistent loyalty to the national government and were active and eminent in maintaining the supremacy of the same; and who, prior to 15 April 1890; were elected members of the order pursuant to the then existing provisions of the Constitution, the power to elect such having ceased at that date. There are State commanderies in Penn- sylvania, New York, Maine, Massachusetts, California, Wisconsin, Illinois, District: of Co- lumbia, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Colorado, Indiana, Washington, Vermont and Maryland. The total membership in 1917 was 6,914. LOYAL ORANGE INSTITUTION. See ORANGEMEN. LOYAL TEMPERANCE LEGION, an organization of children founded in 1886, by the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, for the purpose of teaching children the evil effects of alcohol, tobacco and other narcotics. The graduates, who follow a systematic course of instruction, are Organized into State ‘legions, holding annual conventions. There are upward of 100,000 members in the United States. LOYALISTS, or TORIES, in American history, those persons who remained loyal to Great Britain during the Revolutionary War. The issue of independence divided the American colonies into two parties: Whig and Tory, or Patriot and Loyalist. No contempo- rary figures exist which enable the respective numbers of the two parties to be definitely stated. They varied from’ time to time and from colony to colony. The Loyalists main- tained that in the colonies as a whole they were in the majority. On the other hand, John Adams and others of the Patriot party held that the Loyalists constituted only a third of the population, and this estimate seems to be generally accepted by historians. The propor. tion varied greatly, however; the Patriots werc clearly in the majority in New England and Virginia. In North Carolina the two parties were about evenly divided, in South Carolina the Loyalists were the more numerous, and in Georgia they were much more numerous. In New. York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- ware and Maryland the Loyalists were very strong, although probably in the minority. Pennsylvania seems to have had the largest absolute number of Loyalists. It is probably impossible to draw any de- ductions from the distribution of racial ele- ments. -New England and Virginia, where the Patriots were strongest, were almost exclu- sively British in population (about 99 per cent and 94 per cent respectively), but so also was South Carolina, where the Loyalists were in the majority. New York, however, was 16 per LOYALISTS IN CANADA . cent Dutch, and Pennsylvania was 26 per cent German, and in these States the Loyalists were very strong. The total free population of the colonies in 1780 is estimated at 2,453,000, and was. distributed racially about as_ follows: British, 91.8 per cent; German, 5.6 per cent; Dutch, 2 per cent; all others, less than 1 per cent. The Loyalists took in all classes of the population. In New England the more sub- stantial and better educated citizens, office hold- ers and members of learned professions tended to be Loyalists; others were adventurers who adhered to England with the hope of gain or official preferment. The Loyalists probably contributed about 60,000 men to the military forces in America. In all the States severe laws were enforced against the Loyalists, and it is estimated that nearly 200,000 left the country during or at the close of the Revolution. Between 40,000 and 50,000 Loyalists were said to have fled to Can- ada and settled mainly in the Maritime Provinces prior to 1786. Confiscation of Loyalist prop- erty was resorted to in all the States. In New York alone the sales of confiscated property brought over $3,500,000. Consult. Flick, A. C., ‘Loyalism in New York during the American Revolution? (New York 1901); Myers, T. B., ‘The Tories or Loyalists in America? (Albany 1882); Ryerson, E., ‘Loyalists of America, 1620-1816? (1880); Sabine, L., ‘Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revo- lution with an Historical Essay? (2 vols., Bos- ton 1864); Van Tyne, C. H., ‘The Loyalists in the American Revolution» (New York 1902). See AMERICAN LOYALISTS. LOYALISTS IN CANADA. In the 20th century it is easy to review without prejudice the motives and sacrifices of those Americans who chose to adhere to British allegiance when the 13 colonies declared themselves independent States. That the great majority of the Loyal- ists, or “Tories,” as they were called by their enemies, were sincerely devoted to the royal cause there can be no sensible doubt, and offi- cial records recently brought to public notice present a pathetic picture of the sufferings and losses endured by the unfortunate supporters of British rule in the War of the Revolution. While as a result of that struggle the United States secured their independence, they also lost a host of valuable citizens who emigrated chiefly to Canada, where they established new homes and helped to strengthen Great Britain’s hold on that portion of her empire. The de- scendants of those emigrants compose a large and influential part of Canada’s population, and the names of men prominent in the politics, the professions and industries in the Dominion can be traced back to time-worn folios which tell the story of the plea of the poverty-stricken refugees for aid from the motherland. The migration of Loyalists to Canada began as early as 1774, before the actual clash between the colonies and British authority. This was due to the fact that families which found them- selves menaced and beset on account of their unpopular opinions saw no safe reftige nearer than Canada. The movement continued through- out the war, varying in degree with British suc- cess and defeat, until the surrender of Corn- wallis extinguished any remnant of hope in the 707 breasts of the royal adherents, who hastened in multitudes, by land and sea, to seek shelter and protection in the Canadian provinces. Many who tried to live down the past, trusting that, with hostilities over, their former attitude would be pardoned, if not forgotten, found their situation intolerable and followed in the footsteps of earlier refugees, and this went on until 1789, when the Loyalist migration ceased. The total number of Loyalists who settled in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island is estimated at not less’ than 35,000, of whom about 30,000 went from New York, although probably the homes of many of these had been elsewhere before they sought shelter in that final stronghold of the British. In 1791 the English-speaking popula- tion of Lower Canada had increased to about 20,000, owing chiefly to the Loyalist arrivals, and in Upper Canada 10,000 Loyalists settled in 1783 alone; the next year the population had doubled and in 1791 it was estimated at 25,000. The province of. Ontario may be said to owe its foundation to American Loyalists. The British government and the provincial authorities extended cordial and liberal aid to the exiles. ‘Those who were transported at the expense of the government received provisions for one year on leaving New York, and were supplied with rations regularly as long as their necessities continued. They also received cloth- ing, grants of land and assistance in stocking their farms, building homes and clearing and cultivating the land. Tools and arms were also distributed. The British Crown and Parliament took steps in July 1783 to compensate the refugees from the United States for injuries suffered through their loyalty and a commission con- sisting of five members was appointed to ex- amine into and classify the losses and services. The following were held to be entitled to com- pensation: (1) Those who had rendered serv- ices to Great Britain; (2) those who had borne arms against the Revolution; (3) uni- form Loyalists; (4) Loyalists resident in Great Britain; (5) those who took oaths of allegiance to the American States, but afterward joined the British; (6) those who armed with the Americans and later joined the British army or navy. Compensation was not allowed for antici- pated professional profits, losses in trade or through depreciated paper money, or losses caused by the British army, which were ac- ‘counted as obligations of the British govern- ment outside the province of the commission. By the Treaty of Peace between the United States and Great Britain it was stipulated that Congress should earnestly recommend to the States the restoration of the rights and pos- sessions of “real British subjects,” and of Loy- alists who had not borne arms. The recom- mendation was without effect. Nevertheless the commission required evidence in support of the claim that property had been confiscated and had not been restored. Notwithstanding the bitter feeling in the United States toward the Loyalists, the requisite evidence appears to have been readily supplied to claimants by American local authorities. Apart from the expenditures already noted in supporting and establishing Loyalists on 708 their farms, and which amounted in Upper and Lower Canada to probably $4,000,000, the Brit- ish government paid $9,448,000 on 1,680 claims, examined and allowed by the commission ap- pointed under the Act of 1783.’ This commis- sion sat in London. In 1785 two commission- ers were sent to Canada to examine claimants who had. failed, through ignorance, inability or other causes, to present their claims in Lon- don. This commission allowed $2,745,000 on 1,401 claims. After the departure of the com- mission claims continued to be sent to Great Britain, where many more were. allowed. The claims ranged in amount from $60 to $777,000, and the sums allowed from $50 to $221,000, the latter amount having been granted to Sir John Johnson, the noted “Tory” commander. Every one of the 13 States—or 14, including Ver- mont — was represented in the number of claim- ants, aS follows: New York, 941; South Caro- lina, 321; Massachusetts, 226; New Jersey, 208; Pennsylvania, 148; Virginia, 140; .North Caro- lina, 135; Georgia, 129; Connecticut, 92; Mary- land, 78; Vermont, 61; Rhode Island, 41: New Hampshire, 31; Delaware, 9; total, 2,560. It is estimated that the British government expended in all about $30,000,000 during the Revolution and afterward in aiding Loyalists in America and Great Britain. Those who set- tled in Canada soon became self-supporting and as a rule prosperous. In 1789 it was decreed that all Loyalists should be “distinguished by the letters U. E. affixed to their names, alluding to their principle, the Unity of the Empire.» This distinction has fallen into disuse, although occasionally recalled when some eminent Ca- nadian of old Loyalist stock passes away. LOYALTY ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, 60 miles east of New Cale- donia, of which French colony they form a de- pendency. They consist of the islands Uvea (Uea), Lifu’ and Maré, with many small islands. Total area, about 800 square miles. Water is scarce, but some fruits, vegetables and grains are cultivated. Copra and rubber are the chief exports. The inhabitants are of mixed descent, Melanesian and Polynesian, and nearly all Protestants. Pop. about 15,000. . LOYOLA. Saint Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus: b. 1491, at the Castle of Loyola, Azpeitia, in Guipuscoa, Spain; d. Rome, 31 July 1556. He was the youngest son of Beltran Yafiez de Ofiez y Loyola and Marina Saenz de Licona y Balda. Ifigo, as the child was baptised, after Saint Enecus or Innicus, abbot of Ofia, adopted the name Ignatius dur- ing this life in religion. I. Early Years, 1491-1521.—The youth of Ignatius was mostly passed in the chivalry and grandeur that surrounded the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, rulers of Castile and Aragon. He became an officer of the army, and commanded the Spanish forces during the siege of Pampeluna ‘by the French. So soon as their brave leader was wounded, the garrison surrendered, 21 May 1521. A cannon ball had lacerated the left and broken the right leg of Ignatius. Surgery was then primitive; so the shattered shin caused much trouble. It was set, broken and then reset; and a protruding bone was sawed off. In the end, the healing leg had to be stretched with weights. During days of enforced convalescence, the soldier called for LOYALTY ISLANDS — LOYOLA some light reading,— the tales of chivalry that then. had a vogue. None was to hand, at Loyola Castle; so the ‘Life of Christ? by Ludolph of Saxony and the lives of the saints were brought to the sick man. At first his interest was that of a knight in the tales of deeds done by heroes. Then his own knightly deeds began to stand out in bold relief and strange contrast over against the chivalry of the knights of Jesus Christ. He mused on the possibilities of imitation and rivalry. The heroism of each saint opened out to him a new. vista of life, and aroused the thought, “Why not I?” The truth came home that there — was a Captain, worth far more than any earthly leader; the battles fought by that Cap- tain were entirely different from those that the high-spirited Spaniard had been wont to esteem. The Kingdom of Christ loomed larger and larger. He saw that the principles’ of action of his whole life would have to be re- adjusted; they were selfward, and not fully Christward. II. Preparation for the New Knighthood, 1522-34. So soon as health was _ restored Ignatius, with that singleness of purpose which was his characteristic, set out at once to be- come a knight of Jesus Christ in the King- dom whose dynamic power is Christ-love. He made a pilgrimage to Montserrat, put his soul right with God by a general confession, laid his sword and poniard at Our Lady’s ‘altar, spent the night there in a vigil at arms, received communion next morning,—the Feast of the Annunciation 1522,— gave his courtly raiment to a beggar, donned a sack-cloth tunic and started the war against self-love for ithe Reign of Christ on earth. A year of solitude, prayer and penance was then spent in a cavern, the “Santa Cueva,” just outside Manresa. The spiritual experiences of this year, its severe mortifications, scruples, extremes of consolation and desolation, wonderful graces, visions and miraculous interventions, were all formative of his character and of the system of asceticism which has become famous by the little book called “The Spiritual Exercises” Next year, 1523, he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, to suffer the poverty, contumely and oppro- brium which were emblazoned on the standard of his King. The plan was foiled by well- meaning persons of authority in the Holy Land, who deemed that the presence of the enthusi- astic pilgrim would impede their work. So Ignatius returned to Barcelona. He now re- solved to draw others to the standard of Christ; and to that end began a course of studies that lasted 11 years. At 33 (1524) the intrepid patrician, in the garb of a poor man, took up the elements of Latin together with a class of mere schoolboys. In two years, 1526, he matriculated at the University of Alcala. Here the Inquisition looked askance at the zealous student’s doctrine, imprisoned him for two months, and forced him to Sala- manca, 1527. Studies at this university town were equally impossible, because of citation and imprisonment by the Inquisition. So Ignatius betook him to the University of Paris, February 1528. At Paris many trials came round from poverty and misunderstandings; but studies were successfully pursued, and much of value was learned in the science of education and that of the care of souls. Ignatius took his LOYOLA licentiate in theology in 1534, and his M.A, in 1535. Ill health prevented him from. going up for the doctorate in theology. Meanwhile, a band of faithful followers were cathered. They were Blessed Peter Fabre and Claude Le Jay, Savoyards; Saint Francis Xavier, of Na- varre; James Laynez Alonso Salmerén and Nicholas Bobadilla, Spaniards; Simon Rodri- guez, a Portuguese; Jean Codure and Paschase Broet, Frenchmen. These 10 knights, all thor- oughly educated university men, formed, the nucleus of the Society of Jesus. . III. Founder of the Society of Jesus.— 1534-56— On 15 Aug. 1534, the companions took the vows of poverty and chastity, at Montmartre, Paris, and founded the Society of Jesus. They also bound themselves to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land after two years; or, if this were not feasible, to put themselves at the disposal of the Holy Father. Works of charity occupied them for several years. In 1537, with permission of the Holy See, all were ordained to the priesthood. About this time, on his way to Rome, Ignatius had a vision of the Eternal Father directing him to companion- ship with Jesus, and saying: “Ego vobis Rome propitius ero.” This vision fixed the knight’s determination to call his society “La Com- pafiia de Jesus,» in keeping with the military idea of recruiting a body of picked knights, priests of singular worth and noteworthy edu- cation, who should be a select corps of trained watriors, named_.after its Captain, Jesus Christ, and ever ready at the beck of the Pope to go even to the utmost ends of the earth to spread the Kingdom of the Saviour. There were delays and difficulties at Rome. The plan re- ceived pontifical viva voce approval, 3 Sept. 1539; and, on 27 Sept. 1540, the bull “Regimini militantis ecclesie” of Paul III established the Society of Jesus as a new religious order. In April 1541 Ignatius was elected the first general of the society. He and his companions made their solemn profession, the 22d of that same month, at Saint Paul’s outside the walls. Within a very short time, the new religious were sent on important missions to various parts of the world: Rodriguez to Portugal, where he founded a province; Xavier to India; Salmerén and Broét to Ireland; Fabre, Cani- sius, Bobadilla and Le Jay, to Germany. In 1546 Laynez and Salmeron were papal theolo- gians at the Council of Trent; here also Le Jay, Covillon and Canisius represented various bishops. Ignatius remained at Rome, to draw up the constitution (Cf. art. Jesuits). What pains he took in this work, and how he was guided therein by extraordinary graces,— illu- minations of the reason, inspirations of the will and visions,— may ‘be established bya journal of prayer still extant, wherein are recorded the deliberations for 40 days upon one vital issue in the matter of religious pov- erty. Ignatius founded the Roman College in 1551, and the German College at Rome in 1552, He died in 1556, the 16th year after the canoni- cal institution of the Society of Jesus. It had grown to a membership of about 1,000, divided into 12 provinces, and_ toiling in more than 100 religious houses. The saint was beatified by Paul V, 27 July 1609; and canonized by Gregory XV, 22 May 1622, His remains rest under a beautiful altar, in the church of the Gesu, Rome, 709. IV. “ The Spiritual Exercises.”—The spirit of Saint Ignatius was Pauline intrepid yet tender; motivated by two great principles,—love of Jesus Christ and zeal for the salvation of souls. These two principles were brought together in his motto: A. M. D. G, “Omnia ad Majorem Dei Gloriam” (All for ihe greater glory of God). It was this spirit, which breathed in “The Spiritual Exercises,” a method of asceticism, that is the very soul of the constitutions and activities of the Society of Jesus. This little ‘book is said to have con- . verted more souls than it contains letters. Certainly the results it has produced down the centuries cannot be exaggerated. The import- ance of its method is proved by the mere fact that 292 Jesuit writers have commented on the whole work. The purpose of the Exercises is definite and scientific upbuilding of the reason, will and emotions, by meditation and contem- plation on the fundamental principles of the spiritual life and by other exercises of the soul. First, God is rated rightly as the soul’s end and object. Reason is convinced that God is the end for which the soul is created, and all things else are only means to bring the soul to God; hence it follows that that is good which leads the soul Godward, and that is evil which leads the soul awayward from God. The soul’s awaywardness from God results in sin; so sin is studied both in itself and in its consequences to the soul. Secondly, Jesus Christ is put in His place in the soul, by medita- tions on His ideals and contemplations on His private and public life. The soul now aspires to the very height of enthusiastic and personal love to Him; and to the most self-sacrificing generosity in following the evangelical counsels. Thirdly, the high resolves of the soul are con- firmed by the imitation of Christ in His pas- sion. Lastly, the soul rises to a sublime and unselfish joy, purely because of the glory of its risen Lord; and leaps with rapturous exultation into the realms of unselfish and perfect love of God, such as Saint Paul evinced when he cried out: “To me, to live is Christ: to die were gain” (Philippians i, 21). See also article SPIRITUAL EXERCISES. Bibliography.— ‘Monumenta Historica So- cietatis Jesu’ (1894, 36 vols., especially the “Monumenta Ignatiana, 9 vols., containing the ‘Autobiography? of Saint Tenatius) ; Astrain, “Historia de la Compafiia de Jesus en la Asis- tencia de Espafia? (Vol. I, 1902); Tacchi-Ven- turi, ‘Storia della Compagnia di Gest in Italia? (1909) ; Duhr, “Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Landern deutscher Zunge? (1907). More than 130 lives of Saint Ignatius have been written; important are Ribadeneira (1572), Clair (1894): Bartoli (1650), Bouhours (1679), Stewart Rose (1891) and Thompson (1910). WALTER Drum, S.J., Late Professor of Scripture, Woodstock College, Maryland. LOYOLA, Martin Garcia Ofiez de, Span- ish cavalier, nephew- of Saint Ignatius Loyola: b. Guiptizcoa, about 1548; d. 1599. He joined the knightly order of Calatrava: came to Amer- ica, where, in 1572, he fought against the Inca, Tupac Amaru, whose niece he married and through her secured some of the Inca’s fortune. In 1592 he was made governor of Chile. The seven years of his administration were occupied with the campaign against the Arancanians, the 710 most redoubtable opponents of Spain in the New World. Loyola was slain by the Indians at Curalava. Consult Arana, Diego Barros, ‘Historia generale de Chile? (4 vols., Santiago de Chile 1884-85). LOYOLA UNIVERSITY, Chicago, IIl., Saint Ignatius College, the Arts Department of Loyola University, was founded in 1869 in Chicago by the Rev. Arnold Damen,_ S.J., and fellow-priests of the religious order of the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits. It is the oldest and largest Catholic institution of higher learn- ing in Chicago. At the time of its foundation, Saint Ignatius College was in the suburbs of the city, but owing to the unprecedented growth of Chicago the college has long since become a down-town institution. Realizing the need of providing suitably for the future growth of the college, the board of trustees found it ad- visable to purchase in 1906 20 acres of ground on the north shore. On this site two buildings have been erected —the Loyola Academy and the Michael Cudahy Science Hall — the latter the gift of the man whose name it bears. Loyola University, which is a development of Saint Ignatius College, was incorporated in 1909. A department of law was opened in 1908 under the name of the Lincoln College of Law, which was afterward changed to the Loyola Univer- sity College of Law. The university was asso- ciated with the Illinois Medical College in 1909 and since 1910 with the Bennett Medical Col- lege. In 1917 it purchased the Chicago-College of Medicine and Surgery and now conducts its medical department under that name. For several years an affiliation was maintained with the Central States College of Pharmacy, but in 1917 it was discontinued. A department of sociology was opened in 1913 and located in the Ashland Block in the loop district of Chi- cago has been unusually successful. A junior college in engineering is maintained. Two high schools. are under the control of the university authorities. Present enrolment is 1,170 in col- legiate and’ graduate studies; 850 in high schools. The institution is a member of the Federation of Illinois Colleges. LOYSON, Charles, sharl lwa-zon (known by his monastic name, PErE HyaciINTHE), French ecclesiastic: b. Orleans, 10 March 1827; d. 1912, He studied in the College of- Pau and the ecclesiastical college of Saint Sulpice, was or- dained priest in 1850, taught philosophy at the Seminary of Avignon and theology at that of Nantes, entered the Carmelite order, and be- came renowned as a preacher at Lyons, Bor- deaux, Nantes and Paris. But his unorthodox utterances soon drew the censure of ecclesi- astical authority, and his superiors prohibited him from preaching. He then left the Order, and refusing to remain silent he was excom- municated. In 1869 he visited the United States, where he was heartily welcomed. In 1872 he married an American lady in London. He protested against the dogma of papal in- fallibility, attended’ the Old Catholic Congress in Munich, fraternized with Protestants, but repeatedly declared that he had no intention of leaving the Catholic Church. In 1873 he be- came pastor of an Old Catholic church at Geneva, and the founder of the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland. In 1878 he opened in Paris an independent church, the LOYOLA UNIVERSITY — LOZNITZA Eglise Gallicane, holding communion with the Old Catholic and Anglican churches. Pére Hyacinthe traveled extensively and during a visit to the Orient in 1900-01 with his wife was welcomed by patriarchs of the Eastern churches. From 1901 he ministered again to Old Catholic and Protestant churches in Swit- zerland. Among his writings are ‘La société civile dans ses rapports avec le Christianisme? (1867); ‘La Réforme Catholique? (1872-73; extended, 1867); ‘Liturgie de l’Eglise Catho- lique- Gallicane> (4th ed., 1883); ‘Mon Testa- ment? (1893); ‘Christianisme et Islamisme? (1895) ; and he edited the iy en Catholique Francaise. Consult Houtain, ‘Vie du Pére Hyacinthe? (in Grande Ree Vols. LXXVII- LXXXII, Paris 1913). LOZADA, 1o6-sa'da, or LOSADA, Manuel; Mexican bandit and guerilla leader: b. near Tepic, about 1825; d. 1873. Lozada was a mes- tizo, with Indian, negro and white blood in his veins. He became a prominent leader among the Indians over whom his influence was very great. He resorted to banditry and with his followers forced tribute from the law- abiding citizens of the lowlands. When war broke out between the Conservative and Lib- eral factions Lozada allied himself with the former and during the French occupation of Mexico was an ardent supporter of Emperor Maximilian, by whom he was commissioned a general of ‘division. By Napoleon III Lozada was decorated with the ribbon of the Legion of Honor. While Maximilian was in power Lozada was virtual autocrat of Tepic. After _the fall of the empire he opposed Juarez and in 1872 led a force against Guadalajara. He was unsuccessful but managed to elude his pur- suers until the following year when he was taken and summarily executed. LOZANO, 16-tha’nd, Pedro, Catholic mis- sionary: b. Spain, date unknown; d. 1759, He became a member of the Society of Jesus, was sent on the South American mission and sub- sequently was. appointed professor at the Col- lege of Cordoba at Tucuman. Charlevoix’s histories owe much to the material furnished by Father Lozano, who published several works, including ‘La descripcién chorografica del ter- reno, rios, arboles y animales de las dilata- disimas provincias del Gran Chaco. Gualamba y de los ritas y costumbres de las innumer- ables naciones barbaras é infieles que la habitan? (Cordoba 1733) and ‘Historia de la Compafiia de Jests en la pers a del Paraguay? (2 vols. . Madrid 1754-55). LOZEAU, 106’z6, Albert, Canadian poet: b. Montreal, 1875. He was educated in the schools of his native city; became an invalid in his youth and has of necessity lived in retirement. His poetry is very popular in Que- bec and has been praised by several Parisian critics. It breathes the introspection caused by his detachment from active affairs. His works include ‘L’ame solitaire? (1907); ‘Billets du soir? (1911), and ‘Le miroir des jours? (1912). Consult Roy, Camille, ‘French-Canadian Litera- ture? (in “Canada and its Provinces,» Vol. VI, Toronto 1914). LOZNITZA, l6s’nit-sa, Serbia, town situ- ated on the Drina, 65 miles west-southwest of Belgrade. It was taken by the Austrians in LUALABA the War of 1914-18, the passage of the river being forced at this. point after a heavy bom- bardment. When the Serbian forces’ assumed the offensive and forced the Austrians out of Serbian territory Loznitza was the scene of the last stand of the invaders; they were finally obliged to evacuate the town but in their. re- treat set it on fire. See War, EUROPEAN — SER- BIAN CAMPAIGN. LUALABA, loo-a-la’ba, Central Africa, a head-stream of the Kongo River, which rises near Kabinda on the southern boundary of the Kongo Free State, receives several affluents such as the Lufira and Lubudi, passes through a hilly, forest and lake region, and after a course of about 650 miles, the last 250 of which are navigable, unites with the Luapula (q.v.). at Ankoro to form the Kongo. LUANG-PRABANG, loo’ang-pra’bang. (1) Native state of Indo-China under the protection of France. (See Frencu Inpo-CHINA). (2) The capital of the state of the same name, in Indo-China, situated on the Mekong at its juncture with the Nam-kan, 250 miles west- southwest of Hanoi. A pagoda on a hill is a feature in the city’s centre. There are several other pagodas, temples and a royal palace. The town is also the seat of a French resident- agent. Pop. 40,000 LUAPULA, loo-a-poo’la, Central Africa, a river, the chief of the two principal head- streams of the Kongo. It rises as the Cham- bezi south of Lake Tanganyika, near Fwamba on the Stevenson Road, flows southwest through Lake Bangweolo whence it issues as the Lua- pula, flows northward through Lake Moero, then northwestward until it unites at Ankoro with the Lualaba (q.v.) to form the Kongo. ~LUBANG, | loo-bang’, Philippines, the largest and only inhabited island of the group of the same name lying at the western entrance of the Verde Passage between Luzon and Min- doro, southwest of Manila. The island of Lu- bang is 17 miles in length from northwest to southeast; area, 51 square miles; area of group, 76 square miles, The interior of the island is mostly mountainous, but the coasts are low. The chief town is Lubang on the north coast, which has considerable native trade; the only port safe for all vessels at all seasons. of _the year in Tilig, on the northeast coast. . Civil government was established in these islands in 1901, and in June 1902 they were detached from the province of Cavite and annexed to. the province of Marindique. Pop. 3,000. LUBAO, loo-ba’6, Philippines, a pueblo of the province of Pampangas, Luzon, situated on the northwestern channel of Pampanga delta, five miles south of Bacolor. It is the trade cen- tre of an agricultural region cultivatine sugar, rice and indigo. Pop. 21,200. LUBBOCK, lib’6k, Francis Richard, American governor: b, Beaufort, S. C., 16 Oct. 1815; d. Austin, Tex., 1905. After receiving an academic education Lubbock was engaged in business in South Carolina, in New Orleans and finally in Texas. Before the Civil War he held several minor offices and clerkships. In 1857 he was elected lieutenant-governor and in 1861 governor. He refused re-election and as soon as his term expired Lubbock entered the military service as colonel on the staff of — LUBBOCK 711 President Davis.. He was captured with Davis in, May 1865 and imprisoned until. December. Lubbock then entered business, first at Houston and later at Galveston.. In 1878 he was elected State treasurer and was three times re-elected. He wrote a volume of reminiscences called: ‘Six Decades in Texas? (1900). LUBBOCK, John, lst Baron Avesury, British archeologist and man of. science: b. London, 30 April 1834; d. Kingsgaté Castle, near Ramsgate, Kent, 28 May 1913. He was educated at Eton and joined the banking business of his father, Sir John William Lub- bock (q.v.), in 1848, becoming a partner in 1856. He rose to great eminence in his profession, and was appointed to various honorable and responsible posts in connection with it. He en- tered Parliament in 1870 as’ member for Maidstone in the Liberal interest, and from 1880 till 1900 sat for London University, from 1886 as a Liberal Unionist. In 1900 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Avebury. He was a recognized authority ~on. financial and educational questions, and his name is asso- ciated with three notable measures of social reform — the Bank Holidays Act, 1881, which secured three national holidays to the workers, on Easter Monday, Whit Monday and the first weekday after Christmas Day. Each of these is often referred to as “Saint Lubbock’s Day.” He also instituted the Shop Hours Regu- lation Act, 1885, which limited the hours of young persons under 18, and the Shop Hours Act, 1904, which made it compulsory for every store to close for half-a-day once a week. He was at various times chairman or member of a number of royal commissions; the Common Com- mittee of Public Accounts; on the Advancement of Science; the Public Schools; Internatioual Coinage; the Gold and Silver Commission; and the Secondary Education Commission. _He was the first president of the Institute of Bankers and chairman of the Council of Foreign Bond- holders, He was an outstanding supporter of the principle of proportional representation. But he was still more distinguished as a man of science. His studies were chiefly directed toward the ancient remains and history of man- kind; and the habits of insects, particularly of wasps, ants and bees. Some of his books had enormous circulations and did much to promote popular interest in science, and they possessed the authority that is based on ex- haustive personal investigation. _A complete list .of his writings would make quite a for- midable catalogue. They may be divided into four classes: (1) Biology: ‘British Wild Flowers in Relation-to Insects? (1873); ‘Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects? (1873) ; ‘Fruits, Flowers and Leaves? (1886); ‘On Seedlings? (1892) ; “Buds and Stipules? (1899) ; “Notes on the Life History of British Flowering Plants? (1905); (2) Geology, Paleontology and Phys- ical Geography; ‘Prehistoric Man? (1865); ‘The Origin of Civilization? (1870); ‘The Scenery of Switzerland? (1896); ‘The Scenery of England? (1902); the two latter of import- ance as explanations of how the present-day scenery has come to be what it is. (3) Econ- omics: ‘A History of Coinage? (1902); ‘Free Trade? (1904). (4) Miscellaneous: ‘Fifty Years of Science”? (Presidential address to the British Association, 1881); ‘The Pleasures of 712 Life? (1887); ‘Peace and Happiness? (1909) ; and a number of other essays and addresses, of which a very popular one was an attempt to specify the best 100 books in the world’s litera-. ture. These have frequently been published in sets and are known as “Lubbock’s Hundred Best Books.” LUBBOCK, Sir John William, English astronomer and mathematician: b. Westminster, London, 26 March 1803; d. 20 June 1865. He was. graduated from Trinity College, Cam- bridge, in.1825;. became a banker; found an avocation in scientific studies; made particular investigations in physical astronomy and La- place’s theory of probability; and was the first vice-chancellor of London University (1837-42). Among his scientific writings are ‘An Ele- mentary -Treatise on the Computation of Eclipses and Occultations? (1835); ‘An Ele- mentary Treatise on the Tides? (1839); and Gheiys Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere? LUBBOCK, Stir Nevile, English banker: b. 31 March 1839; d. 12 Sept. 1914. A brother of the first Lord Avebury (q.v.), he was educated at Eton. He became governor of the Royal Exchange Assurance Corporation; a director of- the Colonial Bank; vice- -president of the Royal Colonial Institute; and president of the West India Committee. He was created K. C..M. G. in 1899, LUBEC, loo’bék, Me., town in Washington County, four miles south of Eastport. Fishing is the sole industry of the inhabitants. Smoked fish and sardines are exported. The water-sup- ply system is the property of the municipality. Pop. 3,371. LUBECK, Germany, one of the three free city-states (see FREE Cities) and a constituent of the German confederation, situated on a low ridge at the confluence of the Wackenitz with the Trave, 38 miles northeast of Ham- burg and 12 miles from the Gulf of Litbeck, on the Baltic. It was anciently surrounded by walls and bastions, which have been leveled and converted into pleasant walks; but it is still entered by four gates and furnishes strik- ing specimens of the architecture of the 15th and 16th centuries. Among the buildings are the cathedral, a structure of red brick, begun in 1173, surmounted by two spires 416 feet high, and containing a finely carved choir-screen; the Marienkirche (Saint Mary’s Church), a fine specimen of early Gothic, the ZEgidienkirche (Saint Giles’ Church) and the Petrikirche (Saint Peter’s Church); the town or senate house, an ancient Gothic building; the Hospital of the Holy Ghost (13th century); the Hol- stein Gate, with its two lofty towers, etc. There . is a public library of about 130,000 volumes. Scholastic establishments include technical, architectural and naval schools. The city. has fine municipal waterworks, electric lighting and a system of electric street railroads connecting the suburbs. The manufactures are compara- tively unimportant, but the trade is extensive, especially with Hamburg, the Baltic ports and the interior of Germany. The Elbe-Trave Canal connects Lubeck and Lauenburg. Lu- beck possesses a territory of 116 square miles and includes the port of Travemtinde and sev- eral isolated portions in Holstein and Lauen- burg. It has a senate of 14 members and a LUBBOCK — LUBKE council of burgesses of 120 members. ‘It be- came an imperial free city in 1226, and about 30 years later it became the head of the Han- seatic League. It is represented by one mem- ber in the Bundesrat and one in the Reichstag (q.v.). There is a court of first instance and a high court. Pop, of city about 116,599; of city and state about 130,000. The principality of Liibeck belongs to the grand duchy of Olden- burg and lies north of the state (pop: 41/300). Consult’ King, Wilson, ‘Three Free Cities: Hamburg, Bremen, Libeck? (London 1914). LUBIN, David, American agriculturist, founder of the International Institute of Agri- culture: b. Poland, of Jewish parents, 10. June 1849; d. Rome, Italy, 1 Jan. 1919. He was taken to England when he was two years old. On his father’s death, David’s mother married again and they emigrated to America. He re- ceived a scant education and at an early age was placed in a jewelry factory in Attleboro, Mass. Finding slight opportunity of advance- ment there he drifted to California. . He reached Sacramento and after working at odd jobs he amassed sufficient funds to start a dry- goods store of his own. David dealt largely in overalls and thus came in contact with the farmers of California, and as he met them in person he learned something of their prob- lems and his keen mind was soon interested. He bought a farm and became a fruit grower, retaining also his dry-goods: business which had prospered. In his new vocation of farmer there came to him the idea of an international agriculturdl congress, whereby one side of the globe might learn what the other side was pro- ducing and how and at what cost. He began collecting statistics on the subject; studied plant life and domestic animals and made in- vestigations into their diseases and sought remedies therefor. In 1904 Mr. Lubin found support in Italy for his projected international agricultural congress. King Emmanuel saw the meed for such an institution and gave it his ardent support, giving a building for the con- gress and an annual income of $60,000. At the first gathering 40 nations were represented and Mr. Lubin was appointed the delegate from the United States by President Roosevelt. Mr. Lubin lived to see 53 nations taking part in the congress. He was responsible also for the introduction of the rural credits system in the United States and he brought about the passage of a measure in Congress for increasing the parcels post service for the benefit of the farmer, promoting direct selling and buying of farm produce through the mails. He also took a keen interest in farmers’ co-operative societies and granges and was interested in oceanic shipping. He introduced the national marketing proposal on the lines of the German Landwirtschaftsrat. In 1913 on the occasion of the meeting of the congress in Rome Mr. Lubin received a silver cup as a token of ap- preciation of his efforts in originating the or- ganization. Since that year he had lived in Rome much of the time. He published. ‘Let There be Light.?. See INTERNATIONAL: INSTI- TUTE OF AGRICULTURE. LUBKE, Wilhelm, vil’hélm lib’ké, German historian of art: b. Dortmund, Westphalia, 17 Jan. 1826; d. Karlsruhe (Baden), 5 April 1893. He studied at Bonn and Berlin; held the chair LUBLIN of architecture at the Building Academy of Berlin in 1857-61; was professor of the history of art and archzxology at the polytechnic school at Ziirich 1861-66, at Stuttgart 1866-85 and at the high school in Karlsruhe 1885-93. Chief among his works are ‘Medieval Art in West- phalia? (1853), which at once gave him a high place among art critics; the ‘History of Archi- tecture? (‘Geschichte der Architektur,? 1855), the first popular manual of the subject, and a great success: ‘Outlines of the History of Art? (1860; 11th ed., 1891), translated into English by Clarence Cook, 1880; ‘History of the Renaissance in France? (1868); ‘History of the Renaissance in Germany? ( 1873) ; “Eccle- siastical Art in Germany? (Eng. trans. by Wheatley, 1876) ; “History of Sculpture? (Eng. trans. by Bunnet, 1878); “History of German Art? (1888); ‘Recollections? (1891). He was extremely versatile and previous to his work in art gave instruction in vocal and pianoforte music. LUBLIN, loo’blin, Poland, capital of the government of Lublin, on the Bistritza, about 95 miles southeast of Warsaw. Lublin was, in the 12th century, a place of importance. The union of Poland and Lithuania was decreed at a diet which met here in 1568. There are at present some manufactures, chiefly woolen goods, agricultural implements and. leather. There is a jail with which is connected a gov- ernment cloth factory. It was the headquarters of the Russian 14th Army Corps. Lublin has a number of good educational institutions and a number of ancient buildings. Pop. 65,870, one- half. of whom are Jews. LUBLINSKI, loo-blin’ski, Samuel, German literary critic: 18 Feb. 1868; 'd. Weimar, 26 Dec. 1910. He is the author of a number of dramas and a book attacking the naturalistic movement in the Ger- man literature of the last decade of the 19th century (‘Die Bilanz der Moderne,’ Dresden 1904). LUBRICANTS, substances having a low degree of cohesion applied to solid surfaces rubbing against each other; the object being to reduce the friction at the points of contact. The theory as to lubricants is that they interpose an almost frictionless film between the sur- faces to which they are applied. The require- ments of a good lubricant, therefore, are a minimum of internal cohesion and_ sufficient body to resist being squeezed out of place by the pressure to which they may be subjected —as, for example, in the bearings of a heavy shaft. Other important qualities demanded are freedom from all corrosive ingredients and also from any component which has a tend- ency to absorb oxygen and become gummy. Lubricants for use in the cylinders of gasoline engines must possess the further qualifications of having a high flash point and a relatively very high fire point. The lubricants generally in use belong to the. group of oils and greases. Outside of these but one substance ranks with them in im- portance, and that is graphite. Although nearly all of the so-called non-drying oils and most of the greases have been used at one time or another as lubricants, it is now recog- nized that animal oils and fats are liable to de- — LUCANIA b. Johannisburg, East Prussia, » 713 compose with use, developing acids which are corrosive, and thus destructive to the bearings in which they are used; and oils of vegetable origin have a tendency to become gummy within a brief period. For all fine machinery, therefore, the preferred lubricants are the min- eral oils derived from crude petroleum. For many purposes, however, sperm oil, lard oil, whale oil, neatsfoot oil and tallow oil, among the animal oils, and olive oil, rape oil and cas- tor oil among the vegetable oils are in consid- - erable use, both alone and in mixtures with one another and with the various mineral oils. Solid tallow is also used in mixtures with vari- ous oils to form lubricating greases. Castor oil has proved of special value in lubricating the high-speed engines of the aeroplane and the racing automobile. Graphite, preferably of the “flake” type, is used on the finest of ma- chinery, usually in mixture with oil or grease. e fine lubricating oils are made. from crude petroleum by first distilling off the naph- thas and the illuminating oil, and then distilling the residue with superheated steam in a vac- uum. The lower temperatures give the lighter spindle oils, and the higher give cylinder oils of greater viscosity up to a buttery paste, called cup grease. These lubricants are graded to ex- tremes of nicety for the pressures under which they must work and the temperatures they must endure, and the manufacturers offer them in almost endless variety. Consult Archbutt, L., and Deeley, R. M., ‘Lubrication and Lubri- cants? (London 1912); Battle, J. R., “Lubricat- ing Engineer's Handbook? (Philadelphia 1916); Hurst, G. H., ‘Lubricating Oils, Fats and Greases? (London 1911). LUCAN, li’kan (Marcus ANNZ&us Luca- Nus), Roman poet: b. Cordoba, Spain, 39 a.p.; d. 65. His father, a Roman knight, was the youngest brother of the philosopher Seneca. Lucan went to Rome when a child, and hav- ing early obtained celebrity, was forbidden by Nero, who himself aspired to literary honors, to recite in public. This induced Lucan to join the conspiracy of Piso. The plot was discov- ered, and Lucan, who is said to have informed against his own mother as accessory, was con- demned to death. He chose the death of Sen- eca, and had his veins opened. Of his poems, only his ‘Pharsalia? had come down to us, in which he narrates, in 10 books, the events of the civil war between Cesar and Pompey. The poem is unfinished, and as it appears to have been composed at different times, it is uncertain whether it was left unfinished by the. author or whether the latter part has been lost. In the earlier portions the liberal sentiments of the author are checked by deference to the emperor, in the latter he is inveighed against in unsparing language. The best editions are Burmann’s (Leyden 1740), Weber’s (Leipzig 1821-31) and those of Haskins (Cambridge, England, 1887), Hosius (Leipzig 1892) and Francken (Leyden 1896-97). Lucan has been translated into Eng- lish by Rowe (1718) and by Ridley (2d ed., 1905). Consult Butler, H. E., ‘Post- Augustan Poetry? (Oxford 1909). LUCANIA, 1a-ka’ni-a, Italy, a district of ancient Italy, southeast of Cambria and. bor- dering on the Gulf of Tarentum, corresponding nearly to the present province of Potenza and the eastern part of Salerno. The region was 714 almost wholly occupied by the Apennines, and covered with extensive forests. The Chones and the C£notrians were the ancient people of this section; but. before the introduction of Christianity into Italy, they had been nearly destroyed. Lucania became Roman territory about 300 B.c. LUCAS, Albert Pike, American painter _ and sculptor: b. Jersey City, N. J., 1860? He was educated at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Hébert and Boulanger 1882-88, and subsequently was a pupil of Gustave Cour- tois and Dagnan Bouveret. Since 1889 he has exhibited regularly at the Paris Salon, also at leading expositions. He was awarded a medal at the Buffalo Exposition of 1901 and received an honorable mention at the Paris Ex- position of 1900. Mr. Lucas has painted por- traits of many prominent persons and is repre- sented in the National Gallery, Washington, and by a marble bust, ‘Ecstasy? in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Among his paint- ings are ‘The Golden’ Madonna?; ‘October Breezes”; ‘Little Church on the Hil? ; ‘Walk- ing against the Wind. LUCAS, Captain Lord (AusEron THOMAS Herpert), English statesman and soldier: b. 1876; d. November 1916. He lost a leg in the South African War while acting as correspond- ent of The Times. He afterward held various official posts— Under-Secretary at the War Office, Under-Secretary for the Colonies, and parliamentary secretary to the Board of Agri- culture, entering the Cabinet as president of that board in 1914. On the formation of the coali- tion government in. 1915 he abandoned politics and, notwithstanding his physical disability and the fact that he was much over the regulation age, joined the Royal Flying Corps and quickly gained his pilot’s certificate. He first served in Egypt, flying over the Turkish lines; after instructing recruits for some months in Eng- land he was sent to the western front. On 4 November the made a flight over the German lines and failed to return. His death was re- ported in December. The barony of Lucas dates from 1663. LUCAS, Edward Verrall, English author: b. 12 June 1868. He was educated at Univer- sity College, was connected with the London Globe 1893-1900, and with the Academy -1896- 1901. He published a populer ‘Book of Verses for Children» (1897), as well as other works for young readers, and then began an association with Punch. Biographer; essayist anthologist, editor, traveler, he brings to all his work sympathy, uncommon powers of observation and description, and a. genial, kindly humor. His works include ‘The Open Road? (1899); “Highways and Byways in Sussex? (1904); ‘A Wanderer in Holland? (1905) ; “A Wanderer in London? (1906); ‘Character and Comedy? (1907); ‘Over - Bemerton’s? (1908); ‘A Wanderer in Paris? (1909); ‘Old Lamps for New? (1911); ‘A. Wanderer in Florence? (1912); ‘Loiterer’s . Harvest? (1913); ‘A Wanderer in Venice? (1914); ‘Landmarks? (1914). He has edited'a notable edition of the works of Charles and Mary Lamb. LUCAS, Frederic Augustus, American museum director: b: Plymouth, Mass., 25 March 1852. He was educated in the public schools and from 1871 to 1882 was assistant at LUCAS — LUCBAN Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, Roches- ter, N. Y. From 1882 to 1904 he was succes- sively osteologist, assistant curator of the division of comparative anatomy and curator of the United States National Museum. In 1904-11 he was curator-in-chief of the museums of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and in the latter year was made director of the American Museum of Natural History. Dr. Lucas was member of the commission appointed to investigate the condition of the fur seal herd of the Pribilof Islands. He has written various papers on the anatomy of birds, fossil verte- brates and museum methods and the volumes ‘Animals of the Past? (1901); ‘Animals be- fore Man in North America? (1902). — LUCAS, George J., American clergyman: b. Youghal, County Cork, Ireland, 22 May 1852. He was educated at Saint Francis Xavier’s Col- lege, New York City, Woodstock College, Saint Mary’s Seminary, Baltimore, the Catholic Uni- versity of America, Washington and the Ponti- ficial University, Rome. . Further. studies were made in Canada, England and Belgium: He © entered the Society of Jesus, but left it be- cause of his poor health. In 1889 he was ordained to the priesthood and from 1889 to 1896 was curate successively at Scranton, Arch- bald and Dunmore, Pa. In 1896-1908 Father Lucas was rector of Saint Andrew’s Church, Blossburg, Pa.; from 1908 to 1912 of Saint Mary’s, Pittston, and after 1912 permanent rector of Saint Patrick’s Church, Scranton. Father Lucas is synodal examiner of the diocese of Scranton. He contributed to ©The Catholic Encyclopedia? and is the author of ‘Agnosticism and Religion? (1895), which drew a commendatory letter from the Right Hon: W. E. Gladstone, one-time Prime Minister of England. The book is a refutation of the doctrines of agnosticism propounded by Herbert Spencer in his synthetic philosophy and is con- sidered the standard work on agnosticism from the Christian viewpoint in both continents. In March 1919 the Gladstone autograph letter to Dr. Lucas was placed in the collection of Vatican documents exposed for public view in the exhibition cases of the Vatican library. LUCAS, John Seymour, English artist: b. London, 21 Dec. 1849; d..8. May 1923, He studied with Gerard Robinson; and later. at the Royal Academy; first exhibited at the Academy in 1872; first made his mark by his ‘By Hook or Crook, shown at Burlington House in 1875; and obtained recognition for the high technical. excellence of his work. He became a Royal Academician in 1898. Among his later canvases are ‘Fleeced?; ‘For the King and the Cause? ; ‘Intercepted Despatches? ; “Charles Before .Gloucester?>; ‘After Cul- loden” ; ‘The Call to Arms.. . LUCBAN, look-ban’, or LUGBANG,; loog- bang’, Philippines, pueblo of the province of Tayabas, Luzon, eight miles northwest of Taya- bas, the provincial capital. It is in the heart of a mountainous region, and in the surrounding country rice is grown on Sawas or terraces on the hillsides. It is on the main road, and has a profitable trade.’ The chief industries are the weaving of fine straw hats from the fibre of the buri palmleaf, and the manufacture of pandanus mats. Pop. 10,227. LUCCA — LUCENA LUCCA, look’ka (originally Lucas), Paul- ine, Austrian opera singer: b. Vienna, 24 April 1841; d. there, 28 Feb. 1908. She was a pupil of Uschmann and Lewy, but being too poor “to pursue her studies joined the chorus of the Vienna Court Opera. She made her first ap- pearance in opera in 1859 as Elvira in Verdi’s ‘Frnani? at Olmtitz; at once attained great success on the Continent; and later sang in London (1863-65) and New York (September 1872). From 1874 to 1889 she was a member of the Vienna Opera. Illness impaired her voice and in 1889 she retired. Among her chief parts were those of Margeurite, in ‘Faust? ; Cherubino, in ‘Le Nozze di Figaro,’ and Zer- lina in ‘Fra Diavolo.» Auber was so struck. by her appearance as Zerlina that he gave her the pen with which he had written the opera. LUCCA, Italy, the capital of the province of Lucca, and former capital of the ancient Tuscan republic and duchy of Lucca at the base of the Apennines, near the left bank of the Serchio, 37 miles by rail northwest of Florence, and 26 miles from the Mediterranean. En- circled by walls flanked with bastions, it stands in a fertile plain surrounded by the Apennines, and has a striking appearance. It is entered by four gates and is well built. Lucca is an archiepiscopal see, and the seat of several im- portant courts and public offices. It contains numerous antiquities; one of the most interest- ing is the fish-market, the large oval of which is the Roman amphitheatre; while the buildings around it, though converted into modern dwell- ings, are in a great measure composed of the ruins of the amphitheatre, and exhibit huge solid arches, and masses of brick and stone, on their original sites. The principal edifices are the Duomo, or cathedral (begun 1204), with a magnificent facade, a Romanesque portico, stained glass of the richest kind and a famous life-size crucifix, carved, according to legend, by Nicodemus, and which is only exhibited four times a year; the church of San Michele (8th century), an ancient and imposing structure; the church of San Frediano, founded in 686, furnishing an interesting specimen of early Christian architecture, and adorned with fine mosaics, frescoes, and paintings; the ducal palace; academies of science; public. library with over 220,000 volumes; the Palazzo Borghi, now converted into a poor-house; and an aque- duct, carried from a distance into the city over 459 arches. The manufactures consist chiefly of silk goods; and there are numerous silk mills; near by are extensive jute mills. The trade is almost confined to the above articles of manufacture, agricultural produce and. olive- oil, particularly the latter, which bears a high name, and is largely exported. First an Etruscan, then a Ligurian, town Lucca 177 B.c., ‘became a Roman colony. It be- came a episcopal see in 347. It followed the varied fortunes of northern Italy until about 1115 it was made the seat of a republic. In 1320 it fell under the dominion of Castruccio Castracani, who became Duke of Lucca, and after his death Lucca was sold to Florence. It purchased its liberty from Charles IV in 1369, and maintained its independence until the French occupation in 1799. In 1814 the Con- gress of Vienna recreated it a duchy. In 1847 it was reunited to Tuscany, and it became part 715 of the kingdom of Italy in 1860. Pop. about 76,160. The Bagni di Lucca, situated north of the city in the valley of the Lima, a tributary of the Serchio,, is celebrated for its warm springs and baa with temperatures ranging from 98° to Consult Del Carlo, ‘Storia popolare di Lucca? (2 vols., Lucca 1877); and Ross and Erichsen, ‘The Story of Lucca?’ (in ‘Medieval Town Series,’ New York 1912). LUCCOCK, George Naphtali, American clergyman: b. Kimbolton, Guernsey County, Ohio, 31 March 1857. In 1878 he was graduated at the University of Wooster and in 1881 at the Western Theological Seminary. In the latter year he was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry and for 10 years was engaged in home missionary work in Kossuth, Emmett, Dickin- son and Greene counties, lowa, and Westminster Church, Des Moines. In 1891-94 he was pastor at Bloomington, Ind., in 1894-1903 at Wash- ington, D. C., in 1903-17 at Oak Park, [l., and at the College Church, Wooster, Ohio, since February 1917. In 1910 Dr. Lucas was a dele- gate to the World’s Missionary Conference at Edinburgh and.is member of the commission of the general assembly charged with the prepara- tion of a new Intermediate Catechism. He is the author of ‘Christianity and War? (1917). LUCE, Auguste Siméon, French historian: b. Bretteville-sur-Ay, Manche, 1833; d. 1892. He received his education at the Ecole des Chartes in 1856-58. In 1858 he was appointed archivist of the department of Deux-Sévres and eight years later was made chief of the historical division of the National Archives. In 1882 M. Luce was elected member of the Academie de Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. In the same year he was appointed to the chair of historical sources of French history at the Ecole des Chartes and in 1883 received the cross of the Legion of Honor. His publications in- clude an edition of Froissart (1866-88) and ‘Le chronique du Mont-Saint-Michel> (1879-86) ; ‘De Gaidone poemate Gallico Vetustiore Dis- quisitio Critica» (1860); ‘Chroniques des quatre premiers Valois? (1862); ‘Histoire de Bertrand Duguesclin et de son époque? (1876; 2d ed, 1883); ‘Jeanne d’Arc a Domrémy’ (1886) ; ‘La France pendant la guerre de Cent Ans? (1890). LUCE, Stephen Bleecker, American naval officer: b. Albany, N. Y., 25 March 1827; d. Newport, R. I., 28 July 1917. He was appointed. midshipman from New York in 1841; saw service in various waters and made the circuit of the globe; during the Mexican War was on the Pacific Coast; and in the Civil War was commander of the monitor Nantucket, and of the Sonoma, Canandaigua and Pontiac. He revived the naval apprentice system and later established it at Newport, R. I. He founded the Naval War College and was its first presi- dent, and in 1886-89 was in command of. the North Atlantic station. On 25 March 1889 le was retired. He was an associate editor of the ‘Standard Dictionary,» and author of ‘Sea- manship? (1863-98), ‘Naval Songs? (1889) and ‘The Patriotic and Naval Songster. LUCENA, loo-tha’na, Spain, an Andalu- sian city in the province of Cordova, 37 miles 716 southeast of that city, in a picturesque hilly situation. It is well built, has a fine parish church, schools, benevolent institutions, a town- house, a magnificent “paseo” or public promenade, and in the neighborhood are medic- inal baths of repute. It manufactures linens, shoes, earthenware, glass, iron, copper and other metallic vessels, oil, vinegar, brandy, and is in a region noted for its wines, and for horse-raising. Pop. 21,029. LUCERNE, li-sérn’, (Fr. lii-sarné), Swit- zerland, the capital of the canton of Lucerne, and one of the three seats of the Swiss Diet, on an acclivity at the northwest end of Lake Lucerne. The Reuss, which issues from the lake and flows through the town, is crossed by five bridges, two of which are covered and orna- mented with curious medieval paintings, in- cluding a Danse Macabre. The town retains its feudal walls and watch-towers, and with: the neighboring mountains, including the Pilatus and Rigi, is noted for its picturesque features and scenic beauties, making it a much-frequented tourist centre. Lucerne is well-built, has regu- lar, clean streets, electrically lighted and tra- versed by street railroads, a town-hall, with val- uable stained glass of the 14th century, Jesuit college, now the government building; a 15th century parish church, with two slender towers; a Gothic Protestant church; Ursuline convent, with handsome church; a museum and cantonal library of 90,000 volumes; large town hospital, poorhouse, deanery, arsenal, a new International Museum of War and Peace, mint, casino, etc.; and besides the college or lyceum, several. -well- conducted educational establishments. The water supply is obtained. from springs on Mount Pilatus, 14 miles off. An interesting monument is the ‘Lion of Lucerne, designed by..Thor- waldsen, in memory of the Swiss guards who fell in Paris in 1792 while defending the Tuile- ries, and hewn out of the solid rock. Lucerne has some transit trade, but the manufactures are unimportant; it depends chiefly on the im- portant tourist traffic, accommodating annually 250,000 visitors. Pop. about 41,500. Lucerne was founded in a.p. 750. It was at one time under the Austrian yoke; but it has belonged to-the Swiss Confederation since 1332, During the Ref- ormation period it was a stronghold of Catholi- cism, and such it has remained. Under the Helvetic Republic it was the seat of the central government, and it led in the Sonderbund War, but was captured by the Federals in 1847. LUCERNE, also called PURPLE ME- DICK, a leguminous forage plant (Medicago sativa); native to Europe, and extensively grown there, in the United States and other coun- tries of the temperate and semi-tropical zones. It is of the natural order Leguminose, and is often found in a wild state in Europe and western Asia. Lucerne has a. well-developed tap-root, often. three-fourths of an inch in diameter in old plants, with strong lateral roots which de- scend to a depth of several feet, where the sub- soil is open and adapted to the growth of the plant.. From the root-stock, which is perennial, many upright stems are sent up to a height of one to three feet, bearing trifoliate leaves, the leaflets of which are somewhat narrow, obovate, with dentate margins and projecting tips to the midribs. The flowers, which grow in racemes or clusters, are generally purple, though plants LUCERNE — LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR with pale yellow flowers are met with occasion- ally...The pod is a spirally coiled legume con- taining several greenish-yellow seeds about the size of those of red clover. Seed does not usually ripen well in Great Britain and in’ Europe the best comes from southern France. When fully established lucerne is one of the most valuable of all farm crops, yielding a highly nutritive green fodder. Since it rapidly deteriorates in feeding value when the flowering period commences, it should be cut just before the bloom appears. In America it is very gen- erally known by the Spanish name of alfalfa (q.v.). Hardy Siberian species are now being introduced in the Northern States and in Canada. LUCERNE, Lake of, or VIER-WALD- STATTERSEE (Lake of the Four Forest Cantons), Switzerland, the largest, and in many respects the most magnificent, Swiss lake, near the centre of the country, 1,433 feet above sea- level, surrounded by the cantons of Lucerne, Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden; area, 49 square miles. It is irregular in shape and divided into. reaches, separated by narrow straits, giving it the appearance of three distinct lakes. The ex- treme length from west to south through its centre is 2314 miles; greatest breadth a little over two miles; while the depth varies from 300 to 702 feet. It presents every variety of lake scenery. In the upper reach, lofty moun- tain masses, including Pilatus and the Rigi, tower above the lake, and descend in sheer prec-: ipices to its very edge. It never freezes over. Owing to the violent storms which suddenly burst over the lake, its navigation is dangerous. Steamers ply regularly upon it. The Reuss River enters the lake at Fliielen and flows out of it at Lucerne. Cut out of the solid rock on the eastern. shore is the Axenstrasse, one of the most beautiful of lakeshore roads. At Brunnen the league was made (1307) that achieved Swiss independence;, and there are interesting tradi- tional memorials of William Tell. Over 20 pleasure steamers ply the lake, carrying annu- ally over 2,000,000 passengers. LUCHAIRE, Achille, a-shél_ lii-shar, French historian: b. Paris, 24 Oct: 1846; d. 14 Nov. 1908. He was professor in the Bordeaux faculty of letters; was made a professor at Paris, where in 1889 he obtained the chair of mediz- val history. In addition to studies of the Basque language, such as ‘Noms de lieux du pays basque? (1872), and ‘De lingua aquitanica? (1877), he published a comprehensive work on the Gascon dialects, “Etudes sur les Idiomes pyrénéens de la Région francaise? (1879), crowned by the Academy, and a number of his- torical narratives, such as ‘Institutions mon- archiques de la Fance sous les premiers Capé- tiens? (1884), and ‘Les communes francases a lépoque des Capétiens directs? (1890) ; “L’Uni- versité de Paris sous Philippe-Auguste? (1899) ; an exhaustive history of the Papacy in the time of Innocent III. in~ six volumes (1904-08) ; Social, ‘France at the Time of Philip Augus- tus> (Eng. trans., 1912). Consult. Imbert de la Tour, ‘Achille Luchaire? -in Revue des Deux Mondes (Vol. LII, 1909). | LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR, loo-ché’a déla’mér-moor, a tragic opera by Gaétano Doni- zetti; text by Salvatore Cammerano. First per- formed in Naples on 26 Sept. 1835. Though LUCIAN — based on Walter Scott’s romance, ‘The Bride of Lammermoor, the opera differs from the book and its English characteristics have been given an Italian atmosphere. Of the 64 operas composed by Donizetti the ‘Lucia di Lammer- moor’— his masterpiece—and two others, ‘Lucrezia Borgia? and ‘The Daughter of the Regiment, are about the only ones ever per- formed nowadays. In the story Lucia, sister of Henry Ashton, Lord of Lammermoor, is in love with Sir Edgardo of Ravenswood, her broth- er’s mortal enemy. Although Lord Ashton had slain Edgardo’s father and burnt his castle, Edgardo is willing to forego his vengeance for the love of Lucia. The lovers swear eternal fidelity to each other and Edgardo departs for France on service. During his absence Lord Ashton shows his sister a forged document pur- porting to show that her lover has broken faith. Much against her will she agrees to marry Ar- thur, Lord Bucklaw, a wealthy suitor chosen by her brother. The wedding takes place, when Ed- gardo, arrives at the end of the ceremony — too late. Lucia loses her reason and kills her hus- band; Edgardo, desiring to see her once more, arrives to find her dead. He stabs himself and prays to meet his bride in heaven. LUCIAN, li’shi-an, Greek author: b. Sa- mosata, Syria, about 125 a.p.; d. Egypt toward the close of the 2d century a.p. He went to Antioch and devoted himself first to law and afterward to rhetoric, and traveled in several countries (among others, Greece, Italy, Spain and Gaul) as a professional orator. On re- turning home, probably about his 40th year, he abandoned the profession of rhetoric, which he seems partially to have resumed in his old age, and confined himself to philosophy and literature. He lived to an advanced age, and was at a late period of his life made procurator‘ of part of Egypt. The works of Lucian, of which many have come down to us, are narra- tive, rhetorical, critical, satirical, mostly in the form of dialogues.. The most popular are those specifically known as the ‘Dialogues, in which he derides the popular mythology and the philosophical secrets, particula ly his ‘Dialogues of the Gods? and ‘Of the Dead.’ These have given him the character of. the wittiest of an- ‘cient writers. He seems not to belong to any system, attacks imposture and superstition freely and boldly where he finds them, but is devoid of inspiration. The Epicureans, who in this respect agree with him, are therefore treated with more forbearance. The Christian religion, of which, however, he knew little, and that only through the medium of mysticism, was an object of his ridicule. His writings were once largely studied as textbooks, but his diction is not of the best. (See DIALOGUES OF tHE DEAD). Among editions of his works may be mentioned Lehman’s (1822-29), F. Fritsch’s (1882-85), incomplete; and Sommerbrodt’s (1886-99), and Fowler’s (4 vols., 1905). The most complete English translation is by Howard Williams (1888, in Bohn’s series), and there are also renderings by Francklin (1781) and Tooke. Consult Allinson, ‘Saint Lucian: Selected Writings» (Boston 1905); Croiset,” “Essai sur la vie et les ceuvres. de Lucien? (Paris 1882); Harmon, in ‘Loeb Classical Library» (Vol. I text and translation, New York 1913); Hine, “Lucian the Syrian Satirist? (ib. 1900). LUCIFER 717 LUCIFER. Of Vondel’s voluminous works the favorite with the Dutch is ‘Gysbrecht wan ainsrel, + but. ‘Luciter>, (1654). has a more universal interest because of its. start- ling subject matter, which combines the naiveté of the mediaeval religious play with ultramodern boldness of thought. Lucifer, the Stadholder of God, fearing the subjection of the archangels under man as a result of the Incarnation, revolts and is defeated. From revenge he tempts man and is plunged with all his hosts into eternal perdition where he | loses his original beauty to become the monster of popular tradition. The Catholic poet’s dedi- cation to Emperor Ferdinand III who “like Divine Majesty is seated in unapproachable light,” along with his political pasquinades, cause his drama to seem a political allegory rather than a religious play. In his preface to the printed work he claims he was “the more eager to bring Lucifer upon the tragic stage since he stricken at last by the thunderbolt of God is thrust down to Hell as a signal example to all thankless and ambitious persons who audaciously dare to rise up against consecrated powers and majesties and lawful authorities.” The pasquinade “To the Regicides” and “Pro- tector Werewolf” make of Cromwell the “dissembling Lucifer” who wrested the sword from his sovereign in order to raise the Hellish Host to the Engelsch-English or~ angels? throne. Vondel’s political satire, the drama “Pcelamedes,? nearly cost him his head in 1625. Since this includes Prince Moritz of Orange in its targets, it is not impossible that King Philip’s Stadholder William of Orange is also the. original of ‘Lucifer.’ The drama was produced at Amsterdam on 2 and 5 Feb. 1654, and withdrawn in answer to the vehement protests of the Calvinistic clergy. It was printed in 1654 and 1661, but not once during the 18th century, though more than 20 editions appeared in the 19th. It is written in Alexandrines in powerful and picturesque lan- guage often of Miltonic grandeur, but it lacks true’ dramatic quality, since all action of im- portance is narrated, not presented. George Edmundson has proved the indebted- ness of Milton to “Lucifer” for his ‘Paradise Lost,? the English poet stressing the fall of man, Vondel, the revolt of the angels. Edi- tion: Vondel’s ‘Werken,» J. van Lennep (Vol.) XVII, Leiden: 1894); Vondel’s. Treur- spelen,” J. van Vloten (Vol. I, Historical In- troduction, Schiedam 1875); Eng. trans., C. L. van Noppen (New York 1898); ‘Milton and Vondel,? George Edmundson (London 1885). Cart FE. Eccrrr. LUCIFER, li’si-fér, (1) in ancient as- tronomy, the morning star. A name given to the planet Venus when she appears in the morning before sunrise. When Venus follows the sun, or appears in the evening, she is called Hesperus, the evening star. (2) A name com- monly given to Satan, the prince of darkness, due to the Fathers of the Church having mis- interpreted the reference to Lucifer (the king of Babylon) in Isaiah xiv, 12 as being to Satan. (3) A term originally applied to matches tipped with a mixture of chlorate of potash and sul- phuret of antimony, which were inflamed by friction on a piece of emery paper. These have been superseded by a variety of mixtures con- taining phosphorus, 718 LUCIIDA, li-si'i-dé, or ESOCIDZA, the pike and pickerel family of bony fishes. These fishes have an elongated, somewhat compressed, powerful body, with rather small cycloid scales, an imperfect lateral line; the head and snout prolonged and depressed, the mouth large and lower jaw longest. The mouth is filled with strong teeth, and these fishes are the fiercest carnivores of the fresh waters. The family is widely distributed in northern waters, and may be traced back to the Miocene Age. See PIKE. LUCILE, li-sél’, an epic poem by Lorp Lytton. (Owen Meredith), published in 1860. The narrative was founded upon the French novel ‘Lavinia? by George Sand. LUCILIUS, li-sil'i-is, Gaius, Roman au- thor: b. Suessa, 180 B.c.; d. Naples, 103 p.c. He was grand-uncle to Pompey the Great on the maternal side. He served his first campaign against Numantia under Scipio Africanus, with whom he was very intimate. He is considered the inventor of the Roman satira, because he first gave it the form under which this kind of poetry was carried to perfection by Horace, Juvenal and Persius. His satires were superior, indeed, to the rude productions of Ennius and Pacuvius, but he in turn was surpassed by those who followed him. Horace compares him to a river which carries along precious dust mixed with useless rubbish. Of 30 books of satires which he wrote only 940 fragments have been preserved. In his lifetime these satires had an uncommon popularity. Consult the edition by Lachmann and Vahlen (1876); Miller, ‘Leben und Werke des Gaius Lucilius? (1876); Marx (2 vols., Leipzig 1904-05) ; Cichorius, ‘Untersuchungen zu Lucilius? (Ber- lin 1908); and for criticism of these two later editions Knapp, C. (in American Journal of Philology, Vol. XXIX, New York 1908). LUCIN CUT-OFF. A famous link in the Southern Pacific Railroad Overland route completed in 1903 across the centre of Great Salt Lake west of Ogden, Utah. At Lucin it joins the old line which circles far to the north around the head of the lake and climbs over several high ridges, one 680 feet high. It cuts off 44 miles and the new line is practically level for 72 miles. It consists partly of rock fill “and about 12 miles of trestles. LUCINA, lii-si’na, in Roman mythology, the goddess of light, a surname of Juno (ac- cording to some of Diana; according to others the name of a daughter. of Jupiter and Juno) derived from the root of luceo (I shine). Her festival was celebrated 1 March, on which oc- casion the matrons assembled in her temple, adorned it with flowers and implored a happy and brave posterity. LUCIUS, 1t’shi-is, popes, as follows: LUCIUS I: d. March 254. He succeeded Pope Cornelius on 23 June and by some au- thorities is said to have suffered martyrdom under Gallus, but this cannot be proved. LUCIUS II (GHERARDO CACCIANEMICI, ga- rar’do ka'’ché-a-na-mé’ché): d. 15 Feb. 1145, He was legate to Germany from Honorius II, supported Innocent II against the antipope, An- acletus II, and became chancellor of the Holy See. In 1144 he succeeded Celestine II, but the name of three LUCIIDA — LUCKNOW was unsuccessful in quelling revolts against the papal authority in Rome and while heading his troops to suppress a disturbance, was killed by a paving stone thrown from the mob. LUCIUS III (UBALDO ALLUCINGOLI, 00- bal’do al-loo-chén’g6-lé) ; d. Verona, 25 Nov. 1185. He was the cardinal- bishop of ‘Ostia and became Pope 1 Sept. 1181. He was the first Pope elected solely by the cardinals. The Em- peror Frederick Barbarossa having claimed the. estates bequeathed to the papacy by Matilda of Tuscany, Lucius demanded their surrender. Frederick refused and the quarrel ended in the expulsion of Lucius from Rome.. He died an exile in Verona. LUCK OF EDENHALL, The. EDENHALL. LUCK OF ROARING CAMP, The, a celebrated short story of California mining life written by F. Bret Harte (q.v.), which was first published in the Overland Monthiy in 1869. The story attracted attention in the East and appeared in book form the following year. It is perhaps the most notable of the many short stories of Western life written by this author. LUCKENWALDE, lik’én-val’dé, _ Prus- sia, town in the province of Brandenburg, situ- ated on the Nuthe, 30 miles south of Berlin, on the Berlin-Dresden- Leipzig Railroad. It is an important industrial centre, its establishments including cloth and woolen manufactories, cot- ton, printing and dye works, metal and bronze works, foundries, machine shops, hat factories, See paper, piano and cardboard factories, etc. Pop. 23,500. LUCKNOW, India, former capital of Oudh, 666 miles northwest of Calcutta and 885 miles from Bombay. It is situated on both banks of the Gumti, and is connected by the Oudh and Rohlkund line with the general In- dian railway system. The cantonment is in the southeast corner of the city. Lucknow has an imposing appearance at a distance which a nearer view fails to realize, but it has some beautiful open spaces, and has been called the “City of Parks”. The principal buildings are the Kaiserbagh Palace, built in 1850, now oc- cupied as government offices and forming a gorgeous pile of domes, pinnacles, terraces and fountains; the Imambara or holy palace, where Asuf ud Douelah - is buried, now an arsenal; the great mosque or Jama Masjid; and the Hoseinalad or small Imambara with the mausoleum of Mohammed Ali. -The Mar- tiniére College for half-caste children is a strik- ing building founded by Claude Martin, a French soldier who became a general in the East India Company. Other educational insti- tutions include Canning College, Colvin College and the Reid Christian College of the Ameri- can Methodist Mission, which has also estab- lished a high school for girls. Its chief manu- factures are of cotton, and chikan or em- broidery in silk or cotton on muslin; also brass and copper work, wood carving, pottery, paper making, printing, shoemaking and tobacco strip- ping, and there are extensive railway work- shops. A municipality was organized in 1864. Lucknow was founded by Lakshmana, brother of Rama Chandra. After the Moham- medan’ conquest it was occupied by Shaiks and Pathans. It rose to its highest splendor as the LUCKOCK — LUCY capital of the kingdom of Oudh, established during the decay of the Mogul Empire; but a selfish and sensual race of rulers imposed heavy burdens on the people; and the country fell under British control in 1856. Lucknow is associated with some of the most stirring in- cidents in the Indian Mutiny (q.v.), when 1,200 men held out against 10,000 mutineers until re- lief came through re-enforcements brought by Havelock and Outram. The residency, the Secunder Bagh and the Alumbagh, where Havelock is buried, are interesting memorials of the siege. Pop. about 259,798. Consult Innes, ‘Lucknow and Oudh in. the Mutiny? (1905). Lucknow also gives its name to a division of the United Provinces as well as to a district and tahsil, The division is the westernmost of Oudh, and it lies between the Ganges on the southwest and the Gogra on the northeast, and contains six. districts. Area, 12,051 square miles. Pop. about 5,911,642.. In 1901 87 per cent of the population were Hindus and 13 per cent Mohammedans. The district is the small- est in the United Provinces, and comprises three tahsils. Area, 967 square miles. Pop. about 764,411. In 1901 78 per cent were Hindus and over 20 Mohammedans. The tahsil, in which the city of. Lucknow is situated, has an area of 360 square miles. LUCKOCK, Herbert Mortimer, English clergyman: b. Great Barr, Staffordshire, - 11 July 1833; d. Lichfield, 24 March 1909. He graduated from Jesus College, Cambridge, was twice vicar of All Saints, Cambridge, and was rector of Gayhurst with Stoke-Goldington. Subsequently he was residentiary canon of Ely and principal of the Ely Theological College, and in 1892 became dean of Lichfield. Among his writings are ‘Tables of Stone?; ‘After Death”; ‘Footprints of the Apostles, and Characteristics of the Four Gospels. LUCRETIA, 1i-kré’shi-a, Roman matron of distinguished virtue, whose ill-treatment by Sextus Tarquin led to the destruction of the kingdom, and the formation of the republic of Rome. She was the wife of Collatinus, near relation of Tarquin, king of Rome. Sextus Tarquinius, who contrived to become a guest in the absence of her husband, whose kinsman he was, found means to reach her chamber in the middle of the night, and threatened, unless she gratified his desires, to stab her, kill a slave, place him by her side and then swear that he ‘had slain them both in the act of adultery. The fear of infamy succeeded. She afterward summoned her husband, father and kindred, and after acquainting them with the affair stabbed herself to the heart. The story has been variously adapted by poets and romancers. LUCRETIUS, li-kré’shi-ts, Carus Titus, Roman author: b. probably Of Br c0Gs, 35 B.C. About his life almost nothing is known. He is supposed to have studied Epicurean philosophy at Athens. He is said to have been made in- sane by.a philtre, in his lucid intervals to have produced several works, and to have committed suicide in his 44th year. We possess of his composition a didactic poem, in six books, the “De Rerum Natura,’ in which he exhibits the cosmical principles of the Epicurean philosophy with an original imagination, and in forcible language. The work is in six books, revised by 719 Cicero, and is entire but, evidently, not com- plete. The theory of corpuscles and their prop- erties; the origin of the vital and intellectual principles; of the senses; of the world and the movements of the heavenly bodies; of the rise and progress of society; and of arts and sciences, with other expositions of. natural phenomena, are successively treated. Lucretius purpose was to free his readers from the fear of death which he believed to be bound up with the superstitions of the popular religion: As a work of art his poem has received the unanimous praise of critics for the skill with- which the most unyielding materials are. re- duced to a poetic diction full of life and sus- tained majesty. It has influenced the foremost English poets. (See DE REruM Natura). Con- sult Giussani, C., ‘Note lucreziane? (Turin 1900) ; Masson, John, ‘Lucretius: Epicurean and. Poet? (2 vols., London 1907-09); Mallock, W.r Hs ‘Lucretius on Life and Death? (ib. 1900); Wallace, W., ‘Epicureanism? (ib. 1880) ; Zeller, E, ‘Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics? (ib. 1880). LUCULLUS, 1a-kul’ts, Lucius Licinius, Roman soldier of the Ist century B.c. Whena young man he served with distinction in the Marsic War, and accompanied Sulla as questor into Asia, on the breaking out of the Mithridatic War, 88 Bc. He expelled Mithridates from Chios and Colophon and defeated him off Tene- dos. After peace had been concluded with Mith- ridates he remained in Asia till 80 p.c. In 79 he was elected curule zdile, an office which he held in conjunction with his younger brother. Subsequently he held the office of pretor. On the conclusion of this magistracy he went to Africa, the administration of which province he conducted with ability and impartiality, and in 74 B.c. obtained the consulship with M. Aurelius Cotta. As consul he maintained the constitutional laws of Sulla. On the breaking out of the war with Mithridates he obtained the proconsulship of Cilicia and the command of the army. He vanquished the squadron. of Mithridates near the island of Lemnos, and this victory enabled him to drive all the other squadrons of Mithridates from the Archipelago. The generals of Lucullus subdued meanwhile all Bithynia and Paphlagonia. Lucullus, again at the head of his army, although overcome by Mithridates in a battle, soon acquired such advantages that he finally broke up the hostile army, and Mithridates himself sought protec- tion in Armenia. Lucullus now changed Pon- tus into a Roman province. Tigranes, king of Armenia, refusing to surrender Mithridates to the Romans, Lucullus marched against’ Armenia and vanquished Tigranes 69-68 B.c. Mithri- dates, however, contended with varying fortune, till Lucullus was prevented from effectively con- tinuing the war by the mutiny of his soldiers. Lucullus was deprived of the chief command, which was bestowed first on Glabrio, and after- ward on Pompey, and recalled 66 Bc. After a delay of three years he succeeded in procuring the merited recognition of his services in a public triumph. He laid out his gardens at Rome .with such splendor that they became proverbial, and Pompey called him the Roman Xerxes. LUCY, Sir Henry (William), journalist; b. Crosby, near Liverpool, a o0 English 5: Dec. 720 1845. He was for a time a member of the Shrewsbury Chronicle staff; in 1870-73 was connected with the Pall Mall Gazette (morning edition) ; and from 1873 with the Daily News, of which— with the exception of the period January 1886-July 1887, when he was editor-in- chief — he was the Parliamentary correspond- ent. He visited the United States in 1883, on his way around the world; an account of which journey appeared in the New York Tribune in the form of letters, subsequently collected as ‘East by West? (1885). On the death of Tom Taylor (q.v.) Lucy continued the former’s ‘Es- sence of Parliament? in Punch as ‘The Diary of Toby, M. P.,? and as such proved himself a racy and entertaining writer on British pub- lic men. Among his books are ‘Men and Man- ners in Parliament? (1874); ‘A Diary of Two Parliaments? (1885-86), and on the same lines the diaries of the Salisbury, Home Rule, Union- ist and Balfourian parliaments (1892, 1895, 1901, 1906); ‘Memories of Eight Parliaments? (1908); Sixty Years in the Wilderness? (1909, 1912) and ‘Nearing Jordan? (third series, 1916). He was knighted in 1909. He died Hythe, England, 21 Feb. 1924. LUCY, Sir Thomas, English landed pro- prietor: b. 1532; d. Charlecote, 7 July 1600. He was educated by John Foxe (q.v.), the martyrologist; and he foilowed the Puritan sentiments of his tutor. If*1552 he came into possession of. great estates in Warwickshire, in 1558-59 rebuilt the manor-house, which still exists, an excellent specimen of the Tudor style. He was knighted in 1565, and elected M.P. for Warwick in 1571 and 1584. His chief interest is in his alleged connection with Shakespeare (q.v.) whom he is said, in a story dating from the 17th century, to have prosecuted for deer-stealing. This story is now thought to be based on fact, though burdened with false details; and Shakespeare is believed undoubtedly to satirize him as Justice Shallow in ‘The Merry Wives of Wind- sor.» ' Consult’ Lee: Sir Sidney, ‘Life © of Shakespeare.” LUDDITES, in British history a name given to rioters in 1811-16, in Yorkshire, Lan- cashire and Nottinghamshire, in England, who attributed the prevailing distress to the intro- duction of machinery in manufactures, and did a great deal of damage in destroying it. For a time these counties were in a perpetual state of disturbance, but on the return of prosperity the riots ceased. LUDENDORFF, General Von, German soldier: b. Posen, Prussia, 1865. He. passed out of the War Academy in 1895 and was soon afterward appointed to the Great General Staff in Berlin, where his high mental attainments won him recognition and rapid advancement. A born soldier, strong-willed, endowed with an iron constitution and obsessed with but one idea — the perfection of the great fighting ma- chine of which he was a part — Ludendorff be- came by far the most dominant figure pro- duced on the German side during the war. At the end of 1912 he was chief of a depart- ment at the General Staff with the rank of colonel; in April 1914 he was promoted to major-general and placed in command of an infantry brigade at Strassburg. He was given another command shortly after the outbreak LUCY — LUDENDORFF of war, but before the war was a month old he was sent to East Prussia as chief of staff of the 8th army under Hindenburg. The impression prevailed that Ludendorff was re- sponsible for the recall of Hindenburg from his retirement to command the 8th army operating against the Russian invasion, and that Hindenburg had returned the compliment by asking for Ludendorff as his chief of staff. From this stage the two men worked together and it would be difficult to assert how much the chief of staff contributed to Hindenburg’s successes and made him for a time the idol of the German people. ‘According to some authorities, Ludendorff was the brain and Hin- denburg the arm of the German military power. The failure of Von Falkenhayn at Ver- dun in 1916 led to his being superseded by Hindenburg as virtual commander-in-chief, and Ludendorff became first quartermaster-general. It was also alleged that the shuffle of commands was a plot between the Kaiser and Falkenhayn to discredit Hindenburg and lower his enormous popularity by giving him free rein, in the cer- tainty that he would run his head against a wall. A more probable explanation was that if the bitter truth had at last to be told the German people, he alone could perform the task and carry the nation with him. Ludendorff, how- ever, was the principal power—a mysterious © personality that gradually overshadowed even the Kaiser. Silently and unobtrusively he ma- tured strategic plans, intrigues and press cam- paigns in his solitary and closed: office, making his calculations and solving his problems. As a strategist Ludendorff takes high rank among the master minds who planned the battles and troop movements on the battlefields of Europe. His task was by no means an easy one. He had, up to the middle of 1917 at least, to hold back millions of troops in the Eastern and Western Fronts. With the collapse of Russia, and the fading out of the battle line on the Eastern Front, his task was simplified somewhat although the entrance of the United States into the war was fast bringing to the Entente a preponderance in men and materiel. Well informed of the nature and extent of America’s effort, Ludendorff in the winter of 1917-18 made extensive preparations for a grand final offensive with the object of breaking the Allied lines in France before the weight of America’s effort could be brought to bear against him. This historic drive began 21 March 1918 and for days proceeded according to schedule. Up to the middle of July the. strategic plans of lLudendorff still bore fruit, but at this very moment America’s participation in the conflict turned the tide and the end of the month saw the German armies in retreat. The morale of the Ger- man civilian population had meanwhile been undermined and Ludendorff found it increas- ingly difficult to maintain discipline at the front. He was among the very first mem- bers of the German High Command to recog- nize defeat as imminent. Already in Au- gust 1918 Ludendorff had launched peace kites and endeavored to persuade the Kaiser of the hopelessness of the struggle; it was he, also, who prompted the request by Germany for an armistice. When the inner history of the war is written on the German side, the genius of Ludendorff, his rise and his fall, will stand as one of the romantic episodes in the great con- LUDENSCHEID — LUDLOW flict. Consult ‘Ludendorff’s Own Story? (New York 1919). LUDENSCHEID, 1i’dén-shid’, Prussia, town in Westphalia, 20 miles southeast of Hagen and 32 miles northeast of Cologne. It is a manufacturing town, with cutlery and hardware works, musical instrument factories, watch, umbrella, cane and wire works, iron foundries, cotton-mills, etc. Pop. 32,300. LUDINGTON, Mich., city, county-seat of Mason County, on Lake ‘Michigan and Mar- quette River. It is the terminus of the Pere Marquette Railroad, about 85 miles northeast of Milwaukee, Wis., 130 miles northwest of Lansing and 61 miles from Manitowoc on the opposite side of the lake. It has regular steamer communication with the large ports on Lake Michigan and direct freight connection, by ferry, with Manitowoc, Wis. It was settled in 1851, incorporated in 1867 and chartered as a city in 1874. The principal industries are connected with the manufacture and shipment of salt and lumber. There are large lumber mills, game-board factories, watch-case, print- ers’ supplies, furniture and clothes-pin fac- tories. Lumber, grain, flour, salt and fruit are among the articles shipped to outside markets. The city has many guests in the summer months, attracted by the cool climate and op- portunities for fishing in the several lakes nearby. The Epworth League Training As- sembly has nearby grounds and _ cottages. There are also a students’ military camp, a Carnegie library, a courthouse, a station of the United States Weather Bureau, a clubhouse and park. The waterworks are owned by the city. Pop. (1920) 8,810. LUDLOW, _liid’l6, Edmund, English leader of the Republican party in the civil wars of Charles I and regicide: b. Maiden Bradley, Wiltshire, about 1617; d. Vevay, Switzerland, 1692. He was graduated from Trinity College, Oxford, in 1636; fought at Edgehill in 1642; in 1646 was elected to Par- liament from Wiltshire; and in December 1648 was one of the chief promoters of “Pride’s purge” (q.v.). He was one of the judges who signed the death-warrant of Charles I, sat in the council of state in 1649- 50 and was lieutenant- general of the horse in Ireland and a commissioner for the civil gov- ernment of that country in 1650-55. In 1656, upon the proclamation of Cromwell as lord protector, he declined to recognize Cromwell’s authority, or to give security to keep the peace. Having been allowed to go into retirement in Essex, he was elected to Parliament for Hin- don in 1659, and upon the recall of the Long Parliament became a member of the committee of safety (7 May), of the council of state (14 May) and commander-in-chief of the Irish army, with rank of lieutenant-general (4 July). He was impeached upon the Restora- tion (1660), surrendered, was allowed his lib- erty on providing sureties and escaped to Switzerland. His ‘Memoirs? (1698-99) fur- nish a good account of the opposition to Crom- well and of the factional troubles which over- threw the republic. Of this work.a new edi- tion edited by C. H.. Firth appeared in 1894. LUDLOW, Fitzhugh, American journalist: b. Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 11 Sept. 1836; d. Ge- VOL. 17— 45 721 neva, Switzerland, 12 Sept. 1870. He was graduated from Union College in 1856, in 1858-59 studied law in New York, in 1859 was admitted to the bar, but from 1860 devoted himself exclusively to literature. In 1860-61 he was connected with the World and the Commercial Advertiser, for a time was dra- matic, art and musical critic of. the Evening Post, to which he long contributed, and held a similar post as critic on the Home Journal. He was also a frequent contributor to Har- per’s Monthly and other magazines. In 1863. he journeyed across the plains to Oregon and California, and in an article styled ‘Through Tickets to San Francisco,’ laid out a route for a Pacific railroad largely identical with that later followed. He was among the earliest con- tributors to Northern Lights of Boston, upon the establishment of that magazine. Among his works are ‘The Hasheesh Eater: Being Passages from the Life of a Pythagorean’ (1857); ‘Little Brother and Other Genre Pic- tures? (1867); ‘The Opium Habit? (1868) ; and ‘The Heart of the Continent: A Record of Travel? (1870). LUDLOW, James Meeker, American Presbyterian clergyman and author: b. Eliza- beth, N. J. 15 March 1841. He was gradu- ated from Princeton in 1861, from the Prince- ton Theological Seminary in 1864, entered the Presbyterian ministry and was pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Albany 1 and of the Collegiate Reformed Church of New York in 1868-77. His subsequent pas- torates were that of Westminster Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1877-85), and that of the First Presbyterian Church of East Orange, N. J., 1886-1909. In 1885 he declined the presidency of Marietta College (Ohio). Dr. Ludlow received honorary title of D.D. from Williams College, and that of L.H.D. from Princeton University. In 1909 he resigned his pastoral charge in East Orange, becoming by vote of the people pastor emeritus. He has since spent much time in Italy. Dr. Ludlow is a member of New York Authors’ Club; Amer- ican Historical Association; New Jersey His- torical Society; Long: Island Historical Soci- ety; Washington Society of New Jersey and many other social and scholarly organizations. For many years he has been a director-of the Union Theological. Seminary in New York. He is a frequent contributor to the periodical literature of the day. His works are ‘My Saint John? (1883) ; ‘Concentric Chart of His- tory? (1885); ‘Captain of the Janizaries,? a tale of Albania (1886); ‘A King of Tyre, ) a story of ancient Phoenicia (1891) ; ‘That P Ae gelic Woman? (1891); ‘History of the Cru- au E RS (1896) ; ‘Baritone’s Parish? (1897) ; ‘Deborah, a story of the time of Judas Mac- cabeus (1901) ; ‘Incentives for Life? (1902) ; ‘Sir Raoul,» a story of Venice and the Fourth Crusade (1905) : ‘Jesse Ben David, a story of the time of Christ (1907) ; ‘Judge West’s Opin- ion, a study in optimism (1908) ; ‘Discovery of Self, lectures to young men (1910); ‘Avanti! a story of Sicily in 1860 (1913). LUDLOW, John Malcolm Forbes, Eng- lish social reformer and author: b. Nimach, India, 8 March 1821; d. 17 Oct. 1911. He was educated at the College Bourbon, Paris, be- 722 came a barrister of Lincoln’s Inn, London, in 1843, and practised as a conveyancer till 1874. His interests, however, lay mainly outside his profession, Reforms in India and the Anti-Corn. law movement deeply interested him, and he was associated with the beginnings of the Chris- tian Socialist and industrial co-operative move- ments. He was chief registrar of Friendly So- cieties 1874-91, and. has published ‘Letters on the Criminal Code? (1847) ;. “The Master Engi- neers and Their Workmen? (1852): ‘British India: Its Races and Its History? (1852); ‘Thoughts on the Policy of the Crown To- ward India? (1859); ‘Sketch of:the History of the United States from Independence to Seces- sion? €1862); ‘President Lincoln Self-Por- trayed? (1866) : “The War of American Inde- Res dtace (1876), etc. LUDLOW, Roger, American — colonial statesman: b. Dorchester, England, 7 March 1590; d. Virginia, about 1665. He was by pro- fession a lawyer, came to Boston in 1630, was there assistant to the General Court of Massa- chusetts in 1630-34, in 1634 became deputy gov- ernor, but was defeated for the post of gov- ernor, removed with a Massachusetts colony to Windsor, Conn., and was, it is thought, the first practising lawyer in Connecticut. In 1639 he was a member of the convention for prepar- ing a constitution, and the document is believed to have been drafted by him. In Connecticut also he was made deputy governor, and here, too, John Haynes, who had defeated him for the governorship in Massachusetts, was again victorious in the gubernatorial election. In chagrin Ludlow sought to evade his “evil gen- ius,” as he styled Haynes, by founding the town of Fairfield. Here he held each public office of any importance, was a commissioner to the New England congress and revised the laws of Connecticut (published 1672). The In- dians having threatened Fairfield, the citizens declared war against the Dutch, at whose instigation the savages were believed to be acting; and Ludlow was made captain of the forces. The New Haven General Court, how- ever, quashed this proceeding and punished Ludlow’s subordinate officers. Ludlow then (1654) withdrew in high dudgeon with all the town records to Virginia, where he quite dis- appeared. LUDLOW, William, American soldier: b. Islip, Long Island, N. Y., 27 Nov. 1843; d. Con- vent, N. J.,° 30 Aug. 1901. He was graduated from West Point in 1864, entered the engineer service, was chief engineer of the 20th corns in the Georgia campaign (July-September 1864), in 1864-65 was engineer of the army in Geor- gia, was assistant_engineer on Sherman's staff in the “March to the Sea” and in the Carolinas, and 13 March 1865 was brevetted lieutenant- colonel, U. S. A., for meritorious conduct in the Carolinas campaign. After various serv- ice, he was chief engineer of the Department of Dakota in 1872-76, engineer in charge of the Delaware River and harbor improvements and defenses in 1882-83, by authority of Congress chief engineer of the Philadelphia water de- partment in 1883-86, and was at different times in charge of lighthouse districts and engineer- ing work. In 1895 he became president of the Nicaragua Canal Commission and 13 August was promoted lieutenant-colonel of engineers LUDLOW — LUDWIG in command of the lighthouse depot. In 1893 96 he was military attaché at the United States embassy in London. Commissioned. brigadier- general of volunteers 4 May 1898, he became engineer-in-chief of the American army in the field in the Spanish-American War, served in the Santiago campaign, was made major-gen- eral of volunteers 7 Sept. 1898, and from 13 Dec. 1898 to April 1900 was military governor of Havana, in the rehabilitation of which city he took an important part. On 13 April 1899, he became brigadier-general of United States volunteers, and on 21 Jan. 1900 brigadier-gen- eral United States army. As president of the board of officers appointed for the considera- tion of the establishment of an army war col- lege, he visited France, England and Germany for purposes of study. In 1901 he was ordered to the Philippines as commander of the Depart- ment of Visayas, but immediately returned on sick-leave. He wrote ‘Explorations of the Black Hills and Yellowstone Country? and “Report of the United States Nicuaeuar Canal Commission.» LUDLOW, England, market town and municipal borough of Shropshire, on the Great Western and the London and Northwestern railways, at the junction of the Corve and Teme rivers. It is picturesquely situated and has many interesting remains of antiquity, in- cluding an ancient castle, an old city gate, and an ancient church and grammar school. The town was once a royal residence. Tanning and flour milling are carried on. The fortifications were dismantled in 1689. Pop. 5,925. Consult Clive, ‘History of Ludlow? (London 1841) -and Wright, ‘History of Ludlow? (ib. 1851). LUDLOW, Ky., city of Kenton County, situated on the Ohio River opposite Cincinnati, Ohio, on the Cincinnati, New Orleans. and Texas Pacific Railroad. Its industrial estab- lishments include railway repair shops, sheet metal works, brass works, etc. The city is a residential suburb of Cincinnati. Pop. 4,160. LUDLOW, Mass., town in Hampden County, five miles northeast of Springfield, on the Boston and Albany Railroad and on the Chicopee River. It contains the Stevens Me- morial Institute, the Ludlow Hospital, Hub- bard Memorial Library and fine school build- ings. It manufactures carpet yarn, twine, web- bing, sacking, etc. Pop. (1920) 7,470. LUDWIG, loot’vik, Otto, German drama- tist and writer of short stories: b. Ejisfeld, Thtiringen, 12 Feb. 1813; d. Dresden, 25 Feb. 1857. fiis *. edauer, Ernst Friedrich Ludwig (d. 20 Jan. 1825), was a well-known Central German jurist; his mother’s maiden name was Sophie Christiane Otto (d. 21 Nov. 1831). He attended the gymnasium at Hildburghausen (1828-29), as well as that of Saalfeld (1832- LIP Ie made an unsuccessful attempt to enter business with his uncle, Christian Otto (whom he later called “der dicke Herr? —the stout eentleman), and obtained his higher education chiefly by self- instruction, laying the founda- tions for a very extensive ‘musical culture. The scene of his studies was mostly a pretty little garden and lodge, belonging to him, just out- side the city of ,Eisfeld, where his friend Karl Schaller was his constant companion. One of the results of his musical studies was the opera LUDWIG ‘Die K6hlerin> (performed privately at Eis- feld 1838), in recognition of the merits of which the Meiningen conductor, Grund, had an annual pension of 300 gulden conferred on Lud- wig for three years. In 1839 Ludwig went to Leipzig’ to pursue his musical studies, chiefly under the direction of Mendelssohn. Illness and a shifting of his mterest to literary studies prevented the successful prosecution of a musi- cal career: In 1840, Ludwig published his first short story, ‘Das Hausgesinde, which shows distinct traces of the influence of Kotzebue’s “Rehbock? and Lortzing’s ‘Wildschtutz.? After a return to Fisfeld in 1840, he was sent back to Leipzig, with a fresh supply of money, in 1842. His literary production was now increas- ing. Before moving to Dresden, in 1843, he had begun a tragedy, ‘Der Engel von Augs- burg? ; a comedy, ‘Hans Frei? ; a prelude, ‘Die Torgauer Haide’; and two short stories. He passed the summers of 1844 and 1845 very pleasantly at Niedergarsebach near Meissen (became engaged there to Emilie Winkler, 1844; married her, 1852). The winters of the succeeding years, until 1847, when, at Devrient’s wish, he settled finally at Dresden, were spent in. Leipzig. At Dresden he became one of a” literary and artistic circle that included. Karl Gutzkow, Langer, Oehme, Ludwig Richter, etc. It was here that he produced his most famous work, the tragedy ‘Der Erbforster? (first performance, Dresden, 4 March 1850). This tragedy deals with the sad fate of a simple man who believes that since he and his ancestors have always occupied a certain office, the of- fice has in a way become his property, ‘and who is disastrously disillusioned when he finds that the mere authority of his employer, who owns the forest on which he is employed, is suff- cient to throw him out of his life-position. The coloring is local, that of the Thuringian forest ; the appeal is universal, in that it reveals the economic dependence of every man on him who holds the purse-strings. In 1852 came another great play, ‘Die Maccabaer? (first perform- ance, Vienna, i Nov. 1852), of which there had been an earlier version, called ‘Die Macca- baerin,» a family tragedy in four acts, while the revised version had five. These two trage- dies are considered by German critics as plac- ing Ludwig almost on the same level with Hebbel (q.v.): they have great pith and vigor of speech and a tense, dramatic action. Lud- wig is almost equally well known, however, for his short stories: ‘Die Heiterethei und ihr Widerspiel? (written 1854, published at Frank- fort 1857), and ‘Zwischen Himmel und Erde? (written 1855, published Frankfort 1856). Un- fortunately for his own productiveness, Ludwig then turned to exhaustive studies of Shake- speare, which were so engrossing as to cripple entirely any creative impulses of his own. They were edited by Heydrich (Leipzig 1871; 2d ed., Berlin 1902). Physical illness gained upon him more and more and he finally found none of his plans capable of maturing in his hands. His friendly intercourse with Auerbach, Julian Schmidt and Lewinsky helped to soften the hardships of his declining years. Although he produced little that was great or even com- plete, there is an impressive spirituality about his sufferings as well as a grandeur in his tire- less strife to attain the highest ile sities of — LUECOCK 723 art. The ‘German Classics? (Vol. IX, New York 1914) contains translations of ‘The Hereditary Forester? and ‘Between Heaven and Earth.» Consult his ‘Ausgewahlte Werke? (2 vols., Leipzig 1896); ‘Werke? (3 vols., Leipzig 1896) ; ‘Werke? (6 vols., Leipzig 1900) ; ‘Werke, with biography by Adolf Stern (6 Vols., Leipzig, n. d.); ‘Sammtliche Werke? (10 vols., ed. by Merker, Munich 1912, unfinished). Consult also Treitschke, H. von, ‘Otto Ludwig? (Leipzig 1871); Schmidt, Julian, ‘Otto Ludwig? (in Westermanns Mo- natshafte, Vol. XX XV); essay by Bulthaupt in Dramaturgie des Schauspiels (Vol. IV, Olden- burg 1894). Jacop WITTMER HARTMANN. LUDWIG, Salvator von Toscana, lood’vik sal-va’t6r f6n tds-ka’na, ARCHDUKE oF AUS- tRIA, Austrian traveler: b. Florence, 4 Aug. 1847. He was the son of Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. His principal writings, all illustrated by himself and most of them pub- lished anonymously, are ‘Levkosia, Capital of Cyprus? (1873) ; ‘Yacht Voyage to the Syrtes? (1874) ; “Los Angeles in Southern California? (2d ed., 1885); ‘The Caravan Route from Egypt to Syria? (1878); ‘The Balearic Islands, superbly illustrated (7 vols., 1869-91) ; ‘Around the World without Intending It? (4th ed., 1886); ‘Paros and Antiparos? (1887) ; ‘The Lipari Islands? (1893); ‘Helgoland (1900); ‘Summertime in Thiaki? (1903); ‘Zante? (1904) ; Wintertime in Thiaki? (1905) ; ‘Observations on Levkas? (1909); ‘Rock- bound Majorca? (1910); ‘Summer Dreams by the Seaside’ (1912); ‘Harbour of Port Palma in Majorca? (1913). LUDWIGSBURG, loot’viks-bérg, Wiairt- temberg, town, 10 miles north of Stuttgart, dating from 1704, when it was founded by Eberhard Louis. It contains a royal residence, a monument to Schiller and beautiful garderis and public squares. It contains also a cannon foundry, arsenal and military training school. Metal and ironware, pianos, organs, cottons, woolens, linen and wire are manufactured. Pop. 25,000. LUDWIGSHAFEN, loot’viks-ha’fén, Ger- many, city on the Rhine opposite Mannheim. It is a thriving commercial and industrial centre; is connected with Mannheim by a bridge over the Rhine, and has an improved harbor: Its chief items of trade are coal, iron and timber. Its industrial establishments include the Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik, the largest chemical works in the world, fertilizer works, shoddy, flour, spirits, acids, cellulose, lumbet, bricks, pottery, textile, machinery, wagons, etc. Its commercial life dates from 1843. It became a city in 1859. In September 1921 an explosion at the Badische works cost 1,400 lives. Pop. 83,300. LUDWIGSLIED (‘The Song of Lud- . wig), an old High German poem written about 882 a.p. in Rhenish-Franconian dialect, to commemorate the victory of Louis III over the Normans at Saucourt (881). The Old High German readers of Wackernagel and Braune, as well as Miiller’s ‘German Classics? (Vol. ry New York 1900), have reprinted the poem, the author of which is unknown. LUECOCK, Naphtali, American Metho- dist bishop: b. Kimbolton, Ohio, 28 Sept. 1853; 724 LUFFT d. Lacrosse, Wis:, 1 April 1916. He was a graduate of the universities of Pittsburgh and Syracuse and a former professor at Allegheny College, Meadville, Pa. prior to his death, he was elected bishop on the 15th ballot at the quadriennial conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He published several religious works; the last of these, ‘Roy- alty of Jesus, a collection of sermons, ap- peared in 1906. LUFFT, luft, Hans, hants, German printer and publisher: b. 1495; d. 1584. He printed the first complete edition of Luther’s Bible in two quarto volumes at Wittenberg, in 1534. He also printed other works of Luther and more than 100,000 copies of the Bible were issued from his press. See Lotter FAMILy. LUFKIN, Tex., city and county-seat of Angelina County, on the Houston, East and West Texas, the Saint Louis Southwestern and other railroads, 120 miles northeast of Houston. It has wagon factories, sheet metal works, foundries, machine shops, railroad re- pair shops, bottling works, canneries, etc. There is also a fine high school building. The water-supply system is owned and operated by the municipality. Pop. (1920) 4,878 LUGANO, loo-ga’nd, Switzerland, town, in the canton of Ticino, on the north shore of Lake of Lugano, about 15 miles northwest of Lake Como. Its principal edifices are several churches; one, Santa Maria degli Angiolo, con- tains a fresco of the ‘Passion,’ by Bernardino Luini, as well as a ‘Last Supper? and ‘Ma- dona and Holy Child? by the same artist; con- vents, a hospital and a theatre. The manufac- tures are chiefly spun silk and silk goods, choc- olate and fumiture. The transit trade is considerable. Till 1881 it was, alternately with Locarno and Bellinzona, the seat of the legis- lature of the canton of Ticino. It is the seat of a bishopric. A funicular railway runs to the top of San Salvatore (3,000 feet). Pop. 13,262. LUGANO, Lake of (Latin, Ceresius La- cus), is partly in the Swiss canton Ticino and partly in Italy, between Lakes Como and Mag- giore, into the latter of which it discharges its waters. It .is of very irregular shape, a nar- row body which throws out arms in all direc- tions. Its. length is about 20 miles, its breadth about one and one-half, and its depth about 300 feet. Its scenery is very wild and beautiful. LUGANSK, loo-gansk’, Russia, town in Ekaterinoslav, on the river Lugan, 240 miles east of Ekaterinoslav. It contains a meteoro- logical station, mineralogical museum, library, foundries, engine works, gun shops, candle works, leather mills and brick yards. Its indus- trial development dates from the establishment of a foundry here in 1795. Pop. 60,300. LUGO, loo’g6, Italy, capital of the province Ravenna, on the left bank of the Senio and on the Castelbolognese-Ravenna and the Lugo- Ferrara railways. It has an ancient castle, a lyceum, gymnasium, technical school, library, etc. Its industries consist of rope- -works and a lively trade in grain, wine, cattle, hemp and silk. Its annual fair, lasting from the Ist to i al tp draws great crowds, Pop. 27,867. In 1912, four years | — LUISE LUGO, Spain, capital city of a province of the same name, on the left bank of the Mifio and on the Palencia-Corufia Railway. It was the ancient Roman city Lucus Augusti and has five churches, one of which is a Romanesque cathedral of the 12th to 18th century, a priests’ seminary, tannery, linen and hat factories and a considerable trade in cattle and pickled meat. The ancient fortified wall surrounding the town, with its towers, has been: turned into a promenade. Near the railroad station is a noted sulphur spring known since Roman days. Its population is about 35,726. LUGOS, 1u’gosh, Rumania, capital, ‘town of the county of Krass6-Szorény and junction of the Temesvar-Orsova and the Gattaja- Maros-Illye railways. The town consists of the German and the Rumanian sections divided by the Temes River. It has a Minorite mon- astery and a convent. The chief industries are wine-culture, silk mills, distilleries, linen fac- tory, etc. It is the seat. of Greco-Catholic bishop and has a cathedral, courthouse, high gymnasium, etc. It was here that the Turks (1695) were victorious over the imperial Gen- eral Veterani, and here also (1849) was the last resort of the fleeing Hungarian army and its government. LUINI, Bernardino, bér-nar-dé’'néd 1oo- é’né, Italian painter: b. Luino, on Lago Mag- giore, between 1475 and 1480; d. soon after 1533. He was perhaps the most distinguished representative of the Milanese school, and be- tween 1500 and 1533 was active as a fresco and easel painter in Milan and other places of northern Italy. He began his studies as the pupil of Ambrogio Vorgognone, whose influ- ence is plainly seen in his ‘Pieta? (1510) in the church of Santa Maria della Passione at Milan, though the blandness and delicacy of the early Milanese school is in his work somewhat ani- mated and vitalized by the spirit he derived from the study of Leonardo da Vinci, under whose name some of his riper work has fre- quently gone. But though his frescoes are full of spiritual faces, and distinguished by the ten- derest coloring and the most lifelike movement, he never quite made his own the grandeur in composition and passionate energy which dis- tinguish the paintings of Leonardo. Most of his productions are found in Upper Italy. Many of his easel pictures are to be seen in the Ambrosiana (library), Brera (palace) and in private galleries at Milan; others in the ca- thedral at Legnano. In the Uffizi at Florence is his “Beheading of John Baptist.2 His chief: work is ‘The Enthroned Madonna with Saint Anthony and Saint Barbara? (1521), a mag- nificent fresco in the Brera. Other examples of this painter are now in the Palazo Sciarra at Rome, as well as in the Louvre, the National Gallery ‘of London and the Berlin Museum. Consult the studies by James Mason in Jack’s “Masterpiece in Colour” series; and C. C. Wil- liamson in ‘Great Masters in Painting and Sculpture? (London 1899). LUISE, loo-é’zé, Auguste Wilhelmine Amalie, queen of Prussia: b. Hanover, 10 March 1776; d. Strelitz, 19 July 1810. She lost her mother in her sixth year, and was brought up in charge of her grandmother at Darm- stadt. In her 17th year she was married to the LUKE— LUKE, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO Crown Prince, afterward Frederick William III cf Prussia. On her husband’s accession to the throne she won all hearts by her beauty, grace and kindness of disposition. Her highest hap- piness was found in her husband and children, but she was also a queen who has left a deep impression on the annals of the Prussian court. In her travels with the king through the prov- inces she was constantly engaged in helping the poor and unhappy. * When the war of 1806 broke out she accompanied her husband to Raumburg and, after the disaster of Jena, to Konigsberg and Memel, setting.an example to all by her unbroken fortitude. Before Tilsit she hoped to win from Napoleon more favor- able conditions for her beloved country and in- terceded with the conqueror in vain. She is a household name to this day in Prussia: the Luise foundation for the education of girls was established in her honor, as was the Order of Luise by her husband, the king (3 Aug. 1814). It is the object of this order to honor patriotic and benevolent women of the Prus- sian nation. Consult Hudson, ‘Life and Times of Louisa, Queen of Prussia? (1874); and Adami, ‘Luise, Konigin von Preussen? (1888) ; and her correspondence with her husband, pub- lished in 1903. LUKE, author of the third Gospel and of the “Acts of the Apostles.” From the letters of Paul we learn that Luke was an honored fellow-worker, a physician by profession and a companion of. the apostle in imprisonment. In his own two historical works he furnishes. con- siderable information as to himself in addition to what Paul gives. It is plain that he was not a Jew by birth or religion, and it cannot safely .be asserted that before he became a Christian he had been one of the “devout” persons of whom he repeatedly speaks, usually meaning such Gentiles as attended the Jewish synagogues without, however, becoming fuil proselytes. The fact that he was a physician, which profession was at his time largely in the hands of Greeks, his facile grace in the use of the Greek language, and the personal character- istics revealed in his writings, taken together, render it sufficiently certain that he was of Hellenic descent. His name, however, is of Latin origin, as Lukas is to be reckoned a diminutive of Lucanus (other derivations, even if possible are less probable, especially as Lu- canus actually appears in the title of the Gospel in several Latin manuscripts), and the most plausible explanation of the situation is that he was the son of a Greek freedman of some wealthy Roman. From Eusebius we learn that he had at least a family connection with Syrian Antioch, which is confirmed by the way in which he speaks in Acts of that city. It is possible that he and Paul had earlier become acquainted at Antioch or even at Tarsus, and it is certain that they met at Troas where a per- sonal appeal from Luke to the apostle to work in Philippi may have preceded the vision which convinced Paul that it was the will of God that he should cross to Europe. It seems that Luke remained in Philippi after Paul and his company had gone on to other cities and pre- sumably for a time at least he practised his pro- fession in that city, as supposably he had done previously. Whether during the intervening years he was in any way associated with Paul ~ 725 cannot be positively asserted, but it is certain that he rejoined him at Philippi on his way from Ephesus for his last visit to Jerusalem, and Luke is known to have been with him both in Jerusalem and at Czsarea, though we cannot be sure that he was constantly with the apostle. He certainly sailed from Czsarea with Paul and shared the fortunes of the voyage of which he has given such a marvelously vivid account. It appears that after the shipwreck on the coast of Malta he used his medical skill during the following winter for the benefit of the inhabitants of that island. We hear of him as with Paul during his first imprisonment, and again during his second, when Paul says “Only Luke is with me.” It may well be believed that Paul valued and encouraged Luke’s presence, not only for companionship, but also on account of the helpfulness of the “beloved physician” in medical advice to him. Tradition has busied itself with Luke’s career in later years, but we can be sure of nothing. It has been said: that he was a painter, the first Christian artist as well as the first. medical missionary, and an old painting attributed to him is still carefully preserved in Rome, but the story seems to have no substantial founda- tion. While the tradition that he died in Greece is the most probable of all the traditions which link themselves with his later years, yet nothing can be positively asserted as to where he spent those years or as to the date, place or manner of his death. For bibliography and connection of Luke with the third Gospel see article Lukr, Gospel According to. Davip Foster EsTEs, Professor of New Testament Interpretation, Colgate University. LUKE, Gospel According to. This Gos- pel, like Matthew, conforms in general to the outline of Mark, on which consequently it is generally regarded as dependent, but Luke contains a much greater amount. of narrative material independent of Mark than does Matthew. Contents.—The following is the general out- line of the book, after a brief prologue. I. The birth, infancy and childhood. stories. (i, 5-ii, 52). II. Preparation for the ministry of Jesus, including the preaching of. John and the Bap- tism and Temptation of. Jesus (ili, I-iv, 13). III... The early Galilean ministry (iv, 14-vii, 50). IV. The later a eOTS in Galilee and its neighborhood (viii, 1-ix, 50). V. The Perean ministry (ix, 51-xix, 27). VI. The entry of Jesus into Jerusalem and His final public teaching there (xix, 28-xxi, 4). VII. The Eschatological Discourse (xxi, 5-38): VIII The closing scenes, last supper, agony in Gethsemane, trial, crucifixion, death, resurrec- tion and ascension (xxii, 1-xxiv, 53). .As com- pared with the other Synoptic Gospels are to be noted the long story of the Perean min- istry to which, except for the last few verses, there is no parallel in either Mark or Matthew, the much fuller treatment of the appearances of the risen Christ and the narrative of the ascension. Much narrative material is found in this Gospel only, as, for example, five miracles are recorded only here, and there is also much teaching of Jesus which is peculiar to Luke, e.g., of the 41 parables Luke has 28, of which 17 are found in it alone. The dis- 728 Palma 1315. After having been attached to the court of James I of Aragon and leading a dissolute life, he retired to a cell on his estate, where he lived as an ascetic. In 1272 he joined the third order of Saint Francis. Encouraged by visions, he came to believe himself appointed to refute Mohammed and convert the Moslems to Christianity, and studied Latin, Arabic and logic in preparation for this work. Three times he went to Tunis with a view to con- verting its inhabitants, was twice imprisoned and banished, and on his third attempt was stoned at Bugia, from the effects of which he died. His ‘Ars Demonstrativa Veritatis? was devised as an infallible and universal logical method to be used in making conversions, for the purpose of proving that the mysteries of faith were not contrary to reason. Lully be- lieved that his method was destined to supplant the scholastic logic of the Middle Ages. He endeavored without success to obtain aid from Pope Nicholas in establishing colleges for the study of Oriental languages. The Ars Lulliana consists mainly in categorizing ideas and com- bining them mechanically, by which means Lully thought to exhaust their possible combinations. The method was taught and commented on in some schools of little influence in Spain, France and Italy, but it is hardly necessary to say that it never took root or produced any direct effects. Lully’s works are very numerous and they were condemned as_ heretical by the Church. An incomplete edition is that begun by Galizinger (1721-42; Vols. VII and VIII never published). Consult Erdmann, ‘Grund- riss der Geschichte der Philosophie? (2d ed., 1869) ; Zweiner, S. M., ‘The First Missionary to. the Mohammedans? (New York 1902). LUMBAGO from Latin lumbus, loin), a sudden and painful affection of the muscles of the back and tendinous attachments of the lum- bar region usually following some strain in bending or lifting, which is but the final cause LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES, The. History.— The early history of lumbering i in the United States is substantially the history of the country’s settlement. Wood afforded the early settlers their building material and their fuel. Forest areas had to be cleared for cultivation and it was possible to use but a small part of the timber thus cut in the construction of pioneer homes. Trees were a hindrance to agriculture, of no value except as they afforded the bare necessities of life. Tremendous areas of tim- ber were destroyed without thought of use for the product, until the progress of colonization had reached the point’ where there was a demand for logs, heavy timber and framing for buildings in the non-agricultural commu- nities along the Atlantic Coast that later grew into towns and great cities: The early settlers had no tools more potent than the axe and the handsaw, but as the demand for building material grew the process of converting trees into a merchantable material passed through several evolutionary stages in which first water power and subsequently steam were applied. The early sawmills ranged in capacity from 1,000 to 5,000 feet a day, board measure, and were operated principally in the white pine regions of the north Atlantic coast territory and in the Carolinas and: Virginia. The prod- uct was heavy material of the sort then used in. building and involved little production of thin. lumber, which was produced with. diffi- culty in these primitive establishments. . With the development of cities along the seaboard, however, a new source of demand arose in the shipbuilding industry, for which wood was the most important raw material. The>rise of shipping and the opening of many ports created a need for material for wharves and also af- forded a means of developing a trade in timbers with the West Indies' and Europe. Thus an industry gradually took form, its earliest tangi- ble appearance in Maine and New Hampshire, with Vermont, New York and Pennsylvania following closely as producers of white pine, the one product of the forests of those States that was deemed valuable. These early lum- bering operations were invariably located where streams were available for rafting logs to the mills. Unless the mill was situated on tide- water its function was limited to supplying: local demand and the scope of the operation was necessarily small. With the gradual opening up of the Canta States, the lumbermen again assumed the réle of pioneer, but the demand for lumber grew so rapidly that within a few years after the first commercial lumbering operation was estab- lished in what was then the Far West, Michi- gan and Wisconsin were producing great quan- tities of lumber needed in the prairie country. The first lumbermen to venture into the Lake States assumed that the supply of timber was inexhaustible and proceeded on that theory. Statistics covering production in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota show that in 1873 mills in these States manufactured slightly less than 4,000,000,000 feet, practically all of which was white pine. With some slight interrup- tions the output increased steadily until 1890 . when the maximum was reached with a total of 8,597,623,000 feet, after which pine produc- tion began a steady decline. With a rapidly increasing population, and a gradual lessening supply of white pine from the Lake States, it was natural that the industry should turn to the tremendous forest resources of the Southern States, where yellow pine of several varieties, cypress and many varieties of hardwoods were obtainable. Thus, as the saw- mills of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota finished with their white pine supply, the oper- ators, seeking other fields, found opportunities in the South and, in a few instances, on the Pacific Coast. Every timbered section of the country rapidly became of interest to investors because timber values. kept . moving -steadily upward. The transcontinental railroads opened great areas of the West and acquired extensive land: grants which were rapidly thrown on the market and seized by lumbermen and_ timber speculators who subsequently sold to lumber- men. And thus the industry spread wherever timber of merchantable character was obtain- able, acquiring national scope and in a number of the States leading all other industries in capital investment, people employed and wages pai During the earlier stages of the industry’s growth, the hardwoods, products of the “broad leaf trees, such as the oaks, maples, birches, elms, basswood, hickory, gum, etc., received little consideration. In the white pine sections of Michigan and Wisconsin, later to become famous for their maple and birch, these woods were ignored by. the early white pine manufac- turers, in most instances, but the development of innumerable uses for hardwoods resulted in the rapid growth of what has become prac- tically a separate branch of the lumber manu- facturing industry, producing hardwood lumber. This branch of the industry is even more widely scattered than the soft wood branch and has developed methods, practices and a trade termi- nology of its own. The most outstanding point of difference between the softwood and hardwood branches of the industry is to be found in the fact that the. most important use of the softwoods and the use on which the softwood branch is really based is as a structural material. For struc- tural uses, softwood lumber is ordinarily mar- keted, either rough or dressed, through lumber dealers who retail the commodity to building contractors and other consumers in substantially the same form in which it comes, from the manufacturer. Hardwoods, on the other hand, are marketed chiefly to woodworking industries, such as door and millwork establishments, im- plement and vehicle manufacturers, the furni- ture and musical instrument trades, etc. Thus, with hardwoods, there is usually a process of further manufacture after the lumber leaves the sawmill and before it is ready for use by the consumer. It seldom reaches its consumer des- tination through the medium of the retail lum- ber dealer. Timber Supply of the United States.— Foresters have disagreed sharply in their esti- mates of the actual amount of standing timber in the United. States, it having been demon- strated that the early estimates were far under the ‘mark and that the predictions of an im- pending timber famine which were given great prominence a few years ago were, for the time being, without foundation. In his book, ‘Lum- ber and Its Uses,» Royal S. Kellogg, lately of the United States Forest Service, gives the fol- lowing estimates as representing the minimum acreage and stand of timber: Area Stumpage ForrEsTtT REGIONS Million acres Billion feet MNottiterm .AsIOV.... SFA 90 270 SMubhertis adnsrabo Es GLAS w= Saeco 2,800 LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 729 These estimates include all forest resources, publicly and privately owned. Of the publicly owned forests, largely embraced in the National Forest Lands held by the United States gov- ernment, accurate estimates of area are obtain- able. On 30 June 1922; the Forest Service, which is.a bureau of the Department of Agri- culture, estimated the aggregate area of the national forests at 156,837,282 acres. Aside from the national forests, practically all of the forest area in which lumbering operations are proceeding is being managed ~ without regard to reforestation, so that it might be assumed. that the life of the country’s pri- vately-owned forests may be determined by dividing the total timber supply by the rate of normal.timber cut and making proper al- lowance for the growth of the immature timber now standing. This method, however, fails to yield accurate results because it fails to. take into account a large amount of natural re- forestation which is bound to occur in cut-over areas that are not suitable for agriculture or stock-raising and that therefore afford an op- portunity for regrowth, and also, because it ignores the fact that many substitutes are being found for lumber and are tending to reduce the per capita rate of consumption more rapidly in proportion than the population fs increas- ing. If no precautionary measures should be taken during the next 25 years, it is not im- probable that the people of the United States would find themselves without an adequate tim- ber supply in 75 years and that by the end of a century all of the privately-held timber would have been cut. Private enterprise cannot be depended upon to engage in timber growth because the process of growing trees is too slow to appear attractive to investors and also because the various States have levied unrea- sonably heavy and unscientific taxation on. standing timber to such an extent that owners have been driven to rapid cutting rather than to conservation. It is probable, however, that the development of wider public knowledge of the problem.of timber supply which may. be expected as the result of the opening of schools» of forestry in many of the leading universities and the consequent increase in the influence of the professional forester will result in a de- mand for a forestry policy, put into operation through the Federal government, the purpose of which will be to insure against the ultimate timber famine which otherwise might be ex- pected. Such a policy necessarily will involve the co-operation of the States in arriving at an equitable and scientific method of taxing timber as a crop when cut, rather than on the present annual basis and will also necessitate more complete control over the protection from fire of those varieties of timber that are readily susceptible to fire damage and in which heavy fire losses occur practically every year. The Forest Service has demonstrated that timber can be protected against fire by two principal means: Education of the public to avoid care- lessness in the woods which each year results disastrously, and the installation of efficient pa- trol systems that discover fires in the incipient stages and control them before they become conflagrations. The extension of such methods to private holdings as well as to reforestation projects operating under subsidy or some other Lo is + 730 form of governmental will eventually be necessary. Manufacturing Processes and Methods.— encouragement The processes involved in converting timber. into lumber fall into two principal divisions, Logging and Sawmilling. ‘In all sections ‘of the United States except the North Pacific coast these processes are commonly found as departments of a complete lumber manufactur- ing enterprise. In the States of Washington and Oregon, logging is frequently a separate business, and the sawmill buys its logs from logging contractors. The first essential of a lumbering enterprise is a supply of timber within reasonable distance of the manufacturing point. On account ‘of the bulky character of the taw material it can- not be hauled long distances for manufacture. The timber supply must be sufficient to amortize the plant investment in a reasonable term of years and the size of the plant. will depend, usually, on the amount of tributary timber. The average life of a sawmill ranges from 15 to 30 years, depending on the locality and the character of the timber and plant. In the early stages of the industry the raw material was usually conveyed to the mill by floating the logs down a stream or by hauling over snow and ice-covered roads during the winter season. These methods are still prac- tised in.some places, but in the majority of lumbering operations a railroad for handling the log supply is part of the enterprise. This railroad consists of a. “main-line” which is of permanent character, and logging “spurs” which are projected into the timber and moved from time to time as the timber is taken out. Trees are felled by hand labor and are cut into log lengths by hand labor or by power drag saws.. They are then hauled to the rail- road or “tram” either by the use of oxen or mules’ or by the steam “skidder, a. machine operating on the railroad. track which by means of wire cables and grapples pulls the logs to the railroad right-of-way... There they are picked up by a. steam loader, which is a crane with swinging boom, and loaded. on.cars that are especially designed and equipped. to. handle logs. When a train of, these loaded cars. is made up, they are hauled to the mill and there dumped into the log pond or, if heavy hard- woods, “banked” or piled to await their entry to the mill,. Where a pond is employed, it facilitates handling and: sorting the logs, and also tends to clean them and keep them wet and in good condition for the saw. The sawmill itself is apt to vary in equip- ment from a‘ single circular saw, the simplest type, to one or more band saws with gang saws, resaws, edgers, trimmers and a variety of other high speed machines, and may range in capacity from a few thousand feet a day to» 1,200,000 feet daily, board measure, which is the capacity of the largest mill in operation. The product of the sawmill is rough lumber and the manufacturing operation may stop at this point; on the other. hand, a planing mill may be operated as an accessory, its function being to surface or “dress” ‘that portion of the sawmill product that requires such treat- ment, the equipment of the planing mill con- sisting of high-speed power machines of vari- LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES ous types for turning out smooth- surfaced i fum- ber, moldings and like prodticts. The lumber as it comes from the saw is “green” or wet and must be dried before it is shipped to market. This is accomplished by piling it on the yard in such manner that every piece has adequate ventilation, allowing it to stay in pile until it is “air-dried, » or by putting it through the steam dry kiln, which by. sub- jecting it. to degrees’ of heat and moisture that are scientifically determined according to the wood and its thickness dries it rapidly. The process of kiln drying is a delicate one, because too rapid drying may cause “checking” or cracking of the lumber and may result in many defects and blemishes that greatly reduce the market value of the product. Particularly in the case of thick material, if the moisture is suddenly entirely dried out of the surface of the piece while its centre is still moist, the uneven shrinkage that results is bound to show and greatly to impair the value of the piece. Other equipment of the sawmill plant. may include shingle and lath mills that utilize mate- rial especially suited for such purposes and also short pieces and other waste from the sawmill in the manufacture of these minor products. In addition to ample storage yard space in which the lumber of the lower grades is piled and also the stock that is to -be air-dried, the plant will usually include storage sheds for the accommodation of a stock of dressed lumber and perhaps moldings, flooring and other prod- ucts of the planing mill. Because plants of this character are usually located in rather remote places, the larger estab- lishments usually include housing facilities for employees, fire protection equipment, a com- missary store doing a general merchandise busi- ness and often an electric-light plant. In many instances, also, schools, churches and other pub- lic buildings are provided and maintained by the operators. Where a_ mill is located on tidewater, it usually has dock and loading facilities for shipping its product to market by water, and thereby enjoys the advantage of low water freights. The great majority of the mills, how- ever, are dependent on the railroads for their shipping facilities and their markets are usually restricted to some extent by freight rates which make unduly long hauls prohibitive. Thus, the Douglas fir producers of the North Pacific coast are able to ship the large structural tim- bers which can be turned out of giant fir logs to all parts of the United States because they - have no competition for this trade, but. the common building lumber made by these same mills cannot be shipped by rail to the eastern part of the United States because the freight is so high that yellow pine from the Southern States can be sold at lower. prices. Grading and Inspection of Lumber.— Lumber is graded according to its strength, durability and, in the case of material Tomeecers tain uses, its external blemishes. Thus, in the case of a piece that will be used as a beam or joist, the appearance of the piece is of little consequence, but its strength is highly important and if it is to be used in a position. where it will be exposed to moisture and heat the ques- tion of durability under such exposure becomes persone, LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES equally important. But in the case of a piece of oak that is to be used for a drawer front or a table top, strength is of less consequence than a clear surface. The commonest of all the defects found in lumber is the knot, and it is apt to impair the grade and value of the piece in which it is found regardless of the use to which the mate- rial is to be put, since it affects both strength and appearance. A large knot in a_ partly rotten pocket may reduce the strength of the piece to the minimum, while a small tight knot may have little effect, as far as strength is concerned, but will deface the surface of the piece to such an extent that it cannot be used for an exposed part in a piece of fine furniture. Other important and common defects that affect the grading and value of lumber are checks, splits, pockets of foreign material, such as pitch in pine or sand in some hardwoods; various kinds of stain or discoloration; wind shake, which is a product of strains set up in the fibre of the wood when the tree is bent by heavy winds and takes the form of splits; - sapwood in a piece that is intended to be used where heartwood is specified; various kinds of rot and fungus decay, such as “red heart” in yellow pine and “peck” in cypress; “waney” or bark edges; warpage and twisting that affect the usefulness of the material; wormholes and like products of insect blights; discoloration from age and exposure, etc. - Each of the principal commercial woods is graded by fixed rules that establish certain grades and define the limits of each grade. These rules are made and maintained by asso- ciations of lumber manufacturers—also in- cluding in a few cases the wholesale distributors —and are usually enforced by means of an inspection force whose function is to settle dis- putes regarding grades and to make certain that the lumber inspectors employed at each mill are accurately and fairly interpreting the grades, as the lumber is sorted and marked when it comes from the mill. The associations maintaining grading rules and inspection serv- ice include Northern Pine Manufacturers’ Association, Minneapolis, Minn. (white and Norway pine) ; Southern Pine Association, New Orleans, La. (southern yellow pine); North Carolina Pine Association, Norfolk, Va. (short- leaf and loblolly pine from Virginia and North and South Carolina sold under the trade name “North Carolina pine”); West Coast Lumber- men’s Association, Seattle, Wash. (Douglas fir, western spruce, cedar and hemlock); Western Pine Manufacturers’ Association, Spokane, Wash. (western white and yellow pine, larch) ; Southern Cypress Manufacturers’ Association, New Orleans, La. (southern cypress) ; National Hardwood Lumbermen’s Association, Chicago, Ill. (all hardwoods). Each of these organiza- tions has established its grading and inspection service as standard for the particular wood or woods covered. Volume of Production.— The statistics of. the timber cut for the years 1915-1922 show a tremendous increase because of the great quan- tity of timber required for shipbuilding during the war and also the special woods required for airplane construction and also the quantity re- quired in the post-war period for house con- struction, The following table, compiled by the 731 United States Forest Service, gives statistics of the country’s lumber production 1899-1922: Quantity of lumber Baniber YEAR of active sawmills | Estimated reporting | Reported, ental €i$ Muth D. Mes oe gece nm! LOO St teckeneeeen,. 31,833 |° 35,084,166 [03s . 22565 Rs; LOGS So. » Same tae S 11,666 | 30,502,961 43,500,000 TOOS Sot Sete enact: 31,231 | 33,224,369 42 ,000 , 000 E9108) tence nies 231,934 | 40,018,282 44,500 , 000 nA |S) a tet bed al w 5» 229,005 | 39,158,414 45,000,000 LOTS ooh ata 221,668 | 38,387,009 44,000 , 000 BO a Ta a theta AA a 2 227,506 | 37,346,023 40,500 , 000 OT Sie ci Poy ton tns ah 216,815 | 31,241,734 38 ,000 , 000 LO UO s. kan at terete 217,269 | 34,791,385 39,807,251 LOTS. PMencsate eaete (euro t teaeee f! apeeataeew zeae 33,193,000 LOTR NEKO Raat An BOT EPR ere: [ee hae arate: avalehe 29,362,000 i 8 lame bad De a QO AVEO > Gaict Hi'ed fists 34,552,000 1 AL7A 0 Range rh lp abtia Se BES oa cll ole all I Be of (Pree a 29 ,873 ,000 FS BPA is Sy pee Sochdiwds, Suri sntgnel EA. a indbniamhi ce Coc (Ps aura i 26,992,000 WS DAP AR ARES th Boba MRS Bedi ekSaS gal Rs Sb pene ere 34,800,000 1 Custom mills excluded. 2 Mills cutting under 50 M feet excluded. 8 Including mills which manufacture lath and shingles exclusively (1,500 estimated). 4 Includes 4,543 mills cutting less than 50 M feet, and all cooperage, veneer, millwork, box, furniture, and other fac- tories cutting any lumber at all in 1909. The table on following page compiled by the Forest Service lists the principal woods in the - order of their commerical importance by reason of volume of production and affords a basis for comparison of production over a period of 17 years. Characteristics of the Principal Commer- cial Woods.— For purposes of botanical class- ification, and also in commercial practice in the lumber trade, trees are divided into two principal classes, the Conifers or Softwoods, and the Broadleaf trees or hardwoods. The hard- woods are often referred to, also, as “Decidu- ous” but this term is unfortunate, since in fact some of the broadleaf woods are not deciduous. The terms “Hardwood” and “Softwood” have little relation to the actual hardness or soft character of the wood of any given variety. In fact some of the hardwoods are considerably less hard than the average of the softwoods. The woods whose characteristics are dis- cussed in the following paragraphs are those of chief importance from the standpoint of lumber production and commercial utility. No attempt is made to cover the tremendous range of minor woods. Softwoods or Conifers—Yellow pine, which leads all other woods in volume of prodtction, includes three important species, longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (Pinus echi- nata) and loblolly pine (Pinus teda) and sev- eral of less commercial importance. Longleaf pine is characterized by its greater average strength, is usually very resinous, shows a high percentage of heartwood and typical pieces are very durable, even under exposure to moisture and other adverse conditions without preserva- tive treatment. It is a slow-growing timber and its strength and durability are practically proportionate to its density. It is particularly well adapted to the production of high grade structural timbers and construction lumber for use where strength and durability are required, or where hard wear is inyolved, as in the case 732 LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES Quantity oF Eacu Kinp or LuMBER REPORTED KIND OF WOOD 1920 1915 1914 1913 1912 1911 | 1910 1899 —- | SS | | | SS | | he M feet b. m.| M feet b. m.|M feet b. m.|M feet b. m.|M feet b. m.|M feet b. m.|M feet b. m. |\M feet b. m Totalinses Brie sony 33, 798,800}! 37 ,011, 656/37, 346 , 023/38, 387, 009|39, 158, 414)37 ,003, 207|40,018 , 282/2 35,084, 166 Yellow pine......5..0.. 1,091,000} 14,700, 000/14,472,804]/14,839, 3631/14, 737 ,052|12 ,896,706|14, 143,471 0,657,676 Dougias:firg. |i. 2.4%. 6,960,000] 4,431,249] 4,763,693] 5,556,096} 5,175,123] 5,054,243) 5,203,644) 1,736,507 GARR AR es RT ee 2,500,000} 2,970,000] 3,278,908] 3,211,718] 3,318,952| 3,098,444) 3,522,098! 4,438,027 Wihitesnine s.r eee 1,500,000} 2,700,000) 2,632,587| 2,568,636] 3,138,227| 3,230,584! 3,352,183] 7,742,391 Hemlock: 2h. sae cath: 1,850,000} 2,275,000} 2,165,728] 2,319,982] 2,426,554) 2,555,308] 2,836,129] 3,420,673 Spruces .bA..2) fae eaye 4 825,000; 1,400,000) 1,245,614] 1,046,816] 1,238,600] 1,261,728) 1,449,912) 1,448,091 Western yellow pine 2,290,000} 1,293,985] 1,327,365; 1,258,528] 1,219,444) 1,330,700 1,562,106 945 ,432 Gypress..t2" i cen Bie 625,000} 1,100,000} 1,013,013] 1,097,247 997,227 981,527 935,659 495 , 836 aple RAR WER 875, 000 900, 000 909,763 901,487] 1,020,864 951,667] 1,006,637 633,466 Red wumy.&.: 5 Ak Pee 850, 000 655,000 675,380 772,514 694,260 582 ,967 610, 208 285,417 @hestautn ...4 des aynte- 475,,000 490, 000 540,591 505,802 554,230 529,022 535,049 206 , 688 Yellow poplar.......... 350, 000 464,000 S19 e221 620,176 623,289 659,475 734,926] 1,115,242 edwoodes .. hehen far. 476,500 420,294 535,199 510,271 496,796 489,768 543 , 493 360 0,167 SICH ae A ERE Soe meee 260, 000 420,000 499 ,903 358 ,444 329,000 374,925 415 ,039 232, ‘078 IB MICH AG AIC ee oe nn Be 405 , 000 415,000 430, 667 378,739 388 , 272 432,571 420,769 132,601 GVAT CHAS OR Rod sk asks ute eiatee 390,000 375 ,000 358,561 395 , 273 407 ,064 368 , 216 382,514 50,619 BECCHIR iG ides esede a were 325, 000 360,000 376,464 365,501 435,250 403 ,881 437,325 (3) Basswood 195,000 260,000 264,656 257,102 296,717 304,621 344,704 308 ,069 HEN OP ERAT 2, Re ye 225,000 210,000 214,294 214,532 262,141 236,108 265,107 456,731 ASHT dis )-boed. sine cele 170,000 190, 000 189 , 499 207 ,816 234,548 214,398 246 , 035 269,120 Cottonwoodsernstiesienas 155,000 180,000 195,198 208 , 938 227,477 198 ,629 220,305 415,124 Tupelo. cnet ak inks 180, 000 170,000 124,480 120,420 122,545} 98,142 92,071 3 White fr 8s524..% Ronater 280, 000 125,048 112,627 88,109 122,613 124,307 1325327, @ Stigatipities « staass wastes 146,000 117,701 136,159 149 ,926 132,416 117 ,987 103,165 53,558 HGKOr vise cient anes nb ean 150,000 100,000 116,113 162 ,980 278,757 240,217 2h2 202 96,635 (Ralsam tin [Sr aes 85,000 100 , 000 125,212 93,752 84,261 83,375 74,580 3 Wealnirtiso:tenen 6 ae vac cas 35,000 90,000 25,013 40,565 43 ,083 38 , 293 36,449 38,681 Lodgepole pine......... 31,000 26,486 18,374 20,106 22,039 33,014 26,634 3 DVCamore.. .. Sst. Nene 31,000 25,000 22,773 30,804 49 , 468 42 ,836 45 ,063 29,715 Adirother kindspeiet ase osiecarme 47 , 893 55,624 85 , 366 82,145 69,548 68 , 428 2514,721 1 Computed total 1915 production by kinds of wood. 2 Includes lumber cut in Alaska. 3 Not separately reported. of flooring. Longleaf pine is sometimes known as “Georgia pine,” “hard pine, etc., and. in the export trade as “pitch pine.” Shortleaf pine is a lighter wood, softer than typical longleaf, and typical specimens show a larger percentage of sapwood, which is always less durable than heartwood. It is more easily worked than longleaf and because it usually contains less resinous material is more suitable for finishing lumber, taking stains, paints and varnishes satisfactorily. It makes good flooring and the low grades are extensively used in the box. trade. Loblolly pine is the least valuable of the three principal varieties of yellow pine, being a variety of rapid growth seldom suited to uses requiring great strength, but yielding a good quality of interior finish. .It is extensively used for boxes and crates. It is characterized by coarse annular rings and small heart. The trade name “North Carolina pine” is used to describe a mixture of shortleaf and loblolly pines marketed. from the States of North and South Carolina and Virginia. The term “Arkansas Soft pine” covers a peculiarly soft variety of shortleaf pine manufactured in Arkansas and sold largely for finish. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is the most important product of the northwestern part of the United States, particularly Oregon and Washington, and also of British Columbia. In. respect: to supply it is the most important timber of the United States and in_ utility covers practically the same range as the yellow pines. Its most important use is in building construction, and eventually it will be the most important wood used in building. White pine, by virtue of its light weight and soft texture, is the most favored of all soft woods for uses where strength is not the chief factor, being used extensively in building con- struction and also in the manufacture of many articles requiring a wood that is soft, easily workable and free from pronounced grain, such as musical instrument parts, foundry patterns, etc. In addition to the common white pine of the Eastern and Lake States (Pinus strobus), Western white pine (Pinus monticola), which is frequently marketed as Idaho white pine, and the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) of Califor- nia and Oregon are legitimate members of the white pine family. Cypress (Taxodium distichum), which is produced chiefly in the South Atlantic and Gulf Coast States, is one of the most valuable of American woods for those uses requiring great durability under exposure to moisture. Heart cypress is practically immune from decay and is therefore favored for the construction of water tanks, greenhouses, in the manufacture of cross-ties, shingles, siding and for many other uses: involving a degree of durability found in no other American wood. Hemlock is of two species. Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) is produced chiefly in New York, New England, Pennsylvania, West Vir- ginia, Michigan and Wisconsin. Western hem- lock (Tsuga heterophylla) is found chiefly in the North Pacific coast section. The chief uses of hemlock are as a general utility building lumber and for boxes and crating. The wood of the eastern hemlock is light, not particularly durable under exposure without the protection -of paint or preservatives, but strong and serv- iceable. The western variety is more dense and possesses many characteristics similar to those of Douglas fir. Spruce as a trade term covers several species which are found widely scattered from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. The most im- LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES portant are Picea rubens, found chiefly in New England, New York and Pennsylvania and sold as “Eastern spruce”; Picea canadensis, native to the Great Lakes region, and usually termed “white spruce,” and the Sitka spruce (Picea sttchensis) found in the North Pacific coast territory. Spruce is one of the lightest, softest and most readily workable of American woods and therefore a rival of white pine for many uses. It also furnishes a large part of the domestic supply of pulp for paper manu- facture. Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is a Cali- fornia product noted for the great sizes to which it grows. It is a light, durable wood, used extensively in building, particularly for siding and shingles. It possesses the charac- teristic of resisting fire to an unusual extent. The various cedars, including many species, furnish the principal raw material of the shingle industry and the most satisfactory wood for the manufacture of pencils. The name “cedar” as it is understood in the lumber trade includes such species as the junipers and the arborvites, the Libocedrus, or incense cedar, and Chame- cyparis thyoudes, commonly known as white cedar. The junipers are more widely distrib- uted than any other American species. Hardwoods or Broadleaf Timbers.— Oak is the most important of the hardwoods in volume of production. Botanically there are more than 50 oaks, the most important of which are the white oak (Quercus alba) and red oak (Quer- cus rubra). The oaks yield a wood that is very useful in building construction because of its varied and beautiful texture or “figure.” It is very hard and will withstand extreme wear, qualities that make it valuable in the manufacture of flooring, interior finish, furni- ture and cabinet work of many _ varieties, vehicles and agricultural implements, and in ship and boat building. The greater part of the production of oak centres in the Southern States, although the timber is found in practi- cally all parts of the country. Maple includes several species, the most im- portant commercially being the hard maple (Acer saccharum), also known as the “sugar maple.» This wood is found scattered widely through the Northern and Eastern States, but attains its greatest importance in Michigan. It is a strong, dense hardwood, the most important uses of which are for flooring, finish and furni- ture. Birch of several species is found chiefly in the Northeastern and Great Lakes States, the most important variety being the yellow birch (Betula lutea), produced in largest quantity in Wisconsin and Michigan. The wood is heavy and tough and is particularly suited to the manufacture of finish and furniture. It is ex- tensively used stained in imitation of mahogany, although it possesses characteristics that makes it very attractive when finished in the natural. Red gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is sec- ond to oak as a hardwood product of the South- ern States. It is moderately soft, possesses an attractive figure and is extensively used for finish and furniture. Properly stained it af- fords a good imitation of mahogany. Other important uses are for boxes, cooperage and vehicles. Chestnut (Castanea dentata) is produced in largest quantities in the Eastern States. It is 733 used chiefly in the production of interior finish, furniture, musical instruments and coffins. Yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) is found chiefly in West Virginia, Tennessee, Ken- tucky and scatteringly through the Southern States. It is one of the softest of the hard- woods, readily worked and finds its most im- portant outlets to market in the production of millwork, boxes and crating, furniture and vehicles. It was at one time the most important material used in the production of automobile bodies but was largely displaced by the de- velopment of satisfactory metal bodies. Among the other hardwoods of chief im- portance are included the elms, the chief species of which are the white elm (Ulmus americana) and the rock elm (Ulmus racemosa) which is also known as cork elm. The most important uses of elm lumber are in the manufacture of boxes and crating and in furniture of the cheaper varieties. Basswood (Tilia amen- cana), which has a very wide range of growth, produces a very soft lumber of straight grain that is used in the production of boxes, crating, millwork, wood novelties, trunks, etc. Tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica) is found in the same localities as cypress and is used largely for boxes and crates. Cottonwood (Populus del- toides) is another southern product that is used chiefly for box and crating purposes. Black walnut (Juglans nigra), once the most. favored of American woods for furniture manufacture, has become comparatively scarce and is now manufactured chiefly from scattered woodlots. It is used in the production of fine furniture and in the making of gunstocks, for which it is preferred over all other woods. Manufacture of Imported Woods.— The manufacture of woods imported in the log has become an important annex to the hardwood branch of the lumber industry, the products of chief importance being mahogany and Circas- sian walnut. Mahogany as it is known in the trade includes Swietenia mahogani, from Cen- tral America and southern Mexico, and Khaya senegalensis, from Africa. Though the latter is not a true mahogany botanically, it pos- sesses characteristics that place it commercially ona par with the product from the American tropics. The chief uses of mahogany are for furniture and interior finish. Importers of ma- hogany also bring into the United States a considerable quantity of Spanish cedar, the principal use of which is for cigar boxes. Cir- cassian walnut is a wood of very pronounced figure used principally for interior finish and furniture. Re The Veneer Industry.— The manufacture of wood veneers is an important subsidiary factor of the lumber industry. Veneers range from the extremely thin material used in the production of fine furniture, piano cases, etc., to the thick veneers used in producing baskets and light boxes. Thin veneers are produced by “cooking” the log until it is very soft and slicing it. The heavier veneer stock is produced by sawing the log with a high-speed circular saw. Mahogany, Circassian and American wal- nut are the most important of the woods used in making thin veneers of fine furniture and finely figured mahogany logs suitable for the production of veneers bring extremely high prices. Since furniture veneers are apt to be but one-thirty-second of an inch in thickness 734 or even less and are usually soid by the square foot, a. single log. will produce enough, stock to cover a very large amount of surface. In some cases veneer mills are operated in connection with .sawmill plants, but generally veneer manufacture is a separate enterprise. Preservative Treatment of Wood.— In the early period of the lumber industry’s. develop- ment only those woods of most serviceable character were marketed, but with the expan- sion-of demand that has come in recent years, bringing with it the rapid extermination of the varieties that had first preference for’ com- mercial purposes, it has become necessary to develop means of utilizing practically all woods that grow to commercial-size. One of the prin- cipal difficulties with some of the timbers that have appeared in the markets in recent years is their lack of durability. On this account, the development of processes of wood preserva- tion by chemical treatment has become an im- portant adjunct to the lumber industry, deriv- ing a large part of its impetus from the desire of American railroads to get away from the expense of frequent renewal of cross-ties, poles and posts. It has been estimated that the average life of an untreated cross-tie is about seven years and that the same tie, properly preserved, will last 17 years. The most important agents used in preserv- ing wood are coal tar creosote, zinc chloride and mercuric chloride. Various methods. of applying the preservative include brush treat- ment, dipping in an open tank, application of the solution under pressure and the combina- tion of a vacuum to open the pores of. the wood and pressure to force the solution into them. Preservative salts that are soluble in water are of no value in the treatment of wood that is to be exposed to the elements and for this reason the creosoting processes have made most headway. Creosoting plants are in opera- tion in all parts of the United States and are the most influential factors in the practical conservation of America’s timber supply thus far developed. Before the European War a large part of the supply of creosote oil came from Germany. According to data gathered by the-American Wood Preservers’ Associa- tion, the consumption of creosote oil, domestic and foreign, and zinc chloride, 1910 to 1914, inclusive, was: ‘Zinc chloride, Domestic Foreign made in creosote creosote 1D YEAR (gallons) (gallons) (gallons) p th 6 ania ae Bes 8 2 18,184,000 45,082,000 16,803,000 LOU ee aie eee 21,511,000 51,517,000 16,360,000 ADI ZEAE ae 31,136,000 52,531,000 20,752,000 L913}, Secdeas hie s 41,700,167 66,673,192 26,466,803 gS) eee 28,026,870 51,307,736 27,212,259 Exports and Imports of Forest Products. —The export business is an important factor in the lumber trade of the United States. The growth of exports of sawed lumber from the United States is indicated by the following figures: 1870, $2,817,906; 1880, $5,086,880; 1890, $9,974,888: 1900, $17,731,696; 1910, $36,774,219; 1913, $61,975,919; 1923, $119,772,940. The principal export markets for American lumber are western Europe, South and Central America, Mexico and the Orient. Extensive studies of these markets have been made by the Department of Commerce to encourage the de- LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES velopment of a greater foreign business, made possible by the devastation of Europe’s forest resources during the great war. . As the result of this activity of the govern- ment and the enactment of the Webb bill, legitimating combinations for the development of foreign trade, a number of substantial ex- port corporations were formed after the close of the European War to develop this class of business. - Aside from a small quantity of valuable hardwoods, the greater part of the lumber im- ported into the United States comes from Can- ada. The volume of the import business has been variously affected by changes in import tariffs and by war conditions during the years 1914-18. The following table indicates the value of wood and manufactures thereof im- ported from all sources during typical years from 1900 to 1923, inclusive: YEAR Value LODO ee Re. care ore at escsehccoststtne ee re ee $11,711,446 190SFLOA Sad OVP EE he ORC Er an ee 16,707,735 1910-2989 i. Bi? as 8 PS ee 27,489,155 1 Sf ANSE ita Ree Recta SAT CMM reid De GEES See 24,414,943 US eel ieee iis canner naniee dem Fig 27,851,295 WOELG . PECG USES EL, ee 12,181,772 1915tccty, eels sd Bae. Se 2a ae 4,456,846 L91G <3. 2h faces snl eco, eee ee ee 4,583,269 LOL Oe ee ees nosso ee eee 5,207,265 1923 5.2 00. RAE) Pe. eee 116,360,417 Tendency of Lumber Prices.— The manu- facture of lumber in the United States, prac- tically from the beginning of the industry, has been characterized by extreme fluctuations in prices. No other industry is more sensitive to conditions affecting general business, a fact that is accounted for, to some extent, by the im- mediate association between lumber and the building business. When building is active the demand for lumber is proportionately active, but building is subject to extraordinarily diver- sified influences that induce violent fluctuations in volume. This fact, coupled with the inten- ive competition that has long existed within the lumber industry, is responsible for frequent periods of depression, in the course of which lumber prices at the mills have actually gone below the costs of production. In a general way the tendency of lumber prices is always upward, forced thus by eco- nomic influences. The lumber manufacturer is converting into a merchantable commodity a natural raw material representing a large in- vestment on which interest charges begin ac- cumulating as soon as the property passes into the hands of a private owner. In addition to interest on the investment, also, taxes paid on the property from the time the government — State or Federal — granted title up to the time of actual cutting are a charge that must be included in the cost of the product. The in- terest item is cumulative and the tax rate has shown steady increase in most sections of the United States. Consequently it becomes neces- sary for the producer to exercise care in com- puting the cost of logs entering the mill and this cost is ever increasing. Another factor that tends toward higher prices at the mills is the necessity of logging less accessible timber. When timber was more plentiful and the manufacturer was able to se- lect his supply at practically his own price, the operation could be conducted without regard to LUMBER STATE—LUMBRICOID conservation and the timber which presented serious logging difficulties could be passed. by. To-day, however, the less accessible timber is too valuable to be ignored and is taken, even though it cannot be delivered to the mill at the low cost possible with better located stumpage. Small logs, also, are handled at considerable higher cost in the woods and through the mill, but have become too valuable to be left in the woods as they once were. Still another potent factor in bringing about higher prices is the change that has come in labor conditions. Before the beginning of the European War wages paid in the lumber indus- try were low, as compared with wage scales in other large industries, and the hours of labor were long. In some sections 11 hours and in others 10 hours constituted a day’s work. One of the effects of the war was to reduce the working day throughout the Pacific Northwest to an 8-hour basis, and another was a general increase in wages, in many cases exceeding 100 per cent, with little prospect of eventual return to former wage schedules. As the cost of lumber at the mills is com- posed chiefly of raw material cost, which shows constant increase, plus labor cost, which before the war was abnormally low, plus amortization of plant which proceeds more rapidly as the timber supply diminishes, it is an economic cer- tainty that, disregarding extraordinary fluctua- tions such as occurred during the war period, the price must show gradual increase until it reaches the point at which timber can be grown, converted into lumber and marketed ata profit. That point marks the limit of rise of lumber prices, from the standpoint of the lumber in- dustry, but in fact is arrived at by ignoring one particularly important factor — the competition of other materials that can be used in place of lumber. The economic forces that tend to force the price of lumber upward are absent or in- consequential-in the cases of most of the com- peting materials, but it is evident that lumber cannot find a market at prices materially in ex- cess of those applying on such competing ma- terials. Consequently the lumber industry is rapidly approaching the point at which it will be compelled to meet the problem of constantly increasing raw material and manufacturing costs on the one hand and a price limit fixed by competition on the other. The solution will have to be found in the more complete utiliza- tion of the raw material and in the manufacture and marketing of by-products of many varie- ties, It is estimated that waste through the leaving of potentially valuable raw material in the woods ranges from 20 to 40 per cent, but this waste is largely unavoidable and will con- tinue so until, by the development of mechanical and chemical processes, material now left in the woods can be profitably converted and marketed. What has been said about price tendencies relates to the prices prevailing at the mills. The cost of lumber to the consuming public, how- ever, is not subject to such extreme fluctuations as the mill price, for the reason that on the average it includes a large item of freighting cost, in which abrupt changes are not apt to occur. In the case of lumber hauled. a long dis- tance by rail, the freight charges may exceed the mill price of the material. The opening up of water transportation facilities, therefore, be- 735 comes an important influence tending to lower the cost of lumber to the consumer.’ On ac- count of its bulky character it can be shipped by water at a fractional part of the cost of rail transportation. The opening of the Panama Canal made possible the shipment of Pacific coast lumber to the Atlantic seaboard at freight rates that compare favorably with rail rates on pine from the Southeastern States, thereby cre- ating competition in Eastern markets that tends to hold prices down, to. the benefit of the con- sumer. The actual effects of the canal’s opera- - tion were greatly delayed because: of the scarcity of tonnage during and immediately after the close of the European War, but the begin- ning of 1919 brought Douglas fir. from the North Pacific coast into active competition in the Eastern markets. By-products of the Lumber Industry.—The most important of the by-products made from wood waste include paper of several varieties, fibre board, methyl (wood) alcohol, ethyl (grain) alcohol, charcoal, acetate of lime, pyroligneous acid and numerous tars and oils. Paper and fibre board are manufactured by mechanical and chemical manipulation of slabs, edgings and other saw-mill waste. Wood alcohol, acetate of lime, pyroligneous. acid and charcoal are products of destructive distillation. Grain alcohol is produced by a process involv- ing the extraction of the starch content from wood waste, its conversion into sugar and dis- tillation. In addition to these processes methods have been developed for recovering the turpen- tine and resinous contents from longleaf pine stumps, and for the manufacture of various fabrics from wood waste, including an imitation silk sold as “fibre silk The production. of tanning extracts from the bark of oak, chestnut, hemlock and other woods is an important means of utilizing what otherwise would be a waste product, but is carried on as a separate business, the lumber business furnishing the raw material. Careful surveys made by competent chem- ists have demonstrated that in connection with almost any large lumbering operating the com- plete utilization of the raw material through the development of suitable lines of by-products may be made to increase the profits of opera- tion to such a degree that the lumber price can be lowered materially, the by-products opera- tion thus carrying its proportionate share of the overhead cost of the business. It is not possible, however, for the individual operator of a small saw mill to undertake enterprises of such character, since they invariably. involve large investments in plant facilities, and the de- velopment of the by-products business is tend- ing in the direction of centralized plants that can utilize waste products from all mills in contiguous territory. _» Witrarp C: Howe, Editorial Director of “Lumber LUMBER STATE, a popular designation for the State of Maine, because of the large forests and the great number of its people en- gaged in lumbering. LUMBRICOID, ltim-bri’koid, from Latin lumbricus, intestinal worm, and the Greek exdo! form. One of the nematodes or round: worms, which are classed in four families: (1) as- carides, (2) strongylides, (3) trichotrachelides 736 and (4) filariz. In the first is the ascaris lum- bricoides, known at least 2,000 years; Aristotle naming them, but the Linnzan name being used at this day. Their appearance resembles an ordinary earth worm, the males being from four to six inches long and the females from 10 to 14, even reaching 18 inches.. The mouth is three-lobed and both ends are pointed, the tail of the male having a double spiculum or penis. The female may contain 60,000,000 eggs according to some estimates. Development, it is believed, takes place after leaving the feces, and they endure adverse temperatures and con- ditions well. The mode of development is as yet not clear, nor its manner of entering the human system. Drinking water is generally supposed to be the source whence it finds its way to the intestine. It develops rapidly in the human intestine, but whether from embryo or after its escape from the egg is unknown. The middie part of the small intestine is where it locates, several together; sometimes in great numbers, even up to 1,000. It infests also the pig and beef; it is found in every country, but thrives best in warm climates, dryness not affecting its destruction. A year is supposed to be the limit of the existence of the Ascaris lumbricoides. Cobbold developed the egg to embryo stage in fresh water and sustained life three months, Eggs fed to animals had nega- tive effect. The presence of a few ground worms in the intestines probably create no symptoms, but when numerous they bring about itching of the nose, colic of the umbilicus, dis- tention of the epigastrium, lack of appetite, mucous or bloody evacuations and other symp- toms. Round worms find their way at times into the nose, larynx or eustachian tubes, and in subcutaneous tissue are discoverable in “worm abscesses.” Santonin and its compounds are the most successful remedy. LUMINIFEROUS ETHER. See eater LUMINOSITY OF ANIMALS is most familiar to us in the fire-fly and glow-worm, on land, and in what is called phosphorescence, at sea; with regard to the latter popular term, arising naturally from the resemblance to the wavering light of phosphorus, it may be said that the phenomenon has nothing to do with phosphorus. It appears in plants, especially in the mycelium of fungi and certain agarics, often causing rotten wood, decaying vegetables, etc., to glow in the dark. Bacteria on such objects are another source of “phosphorescence,” caus- ing the shining appearance of putrid fish. There appears to be no essential difference between the luminosity of plants and of animals, and it is believed by some that the power to produce it belongs to all creatures, although visible in only a few, mostly living in the sea. On land some myriapods and worms, and various in- sects or their larve and in the ocean a great number and variety of invertebrates, including mollusks (cephalopods), crustaceans and many fishes, manifest luminosity. “On a dark night,» says a writer, “the crest of every wave often seems to break in a pale glow, the wake of the vessel is a trail of light, and an oar dipped in the water seems on fire” The narratives of voyagers abound in descriptions of such phe- nomena seen at their best in the tropics, but observable even in Arctic waters. The origin ’ chloride. LUMINIFEROUS ETHER — LUMINOSITY OF ANIMALS and nature of this light are not clearly known, although it has been extensively studied. It appears to be dependent on the presence of oxygen in an alkaline medium. This lumi- nescence is never manifested by fresh water, al- though so common among marine fishes, which are in contact with sodium chloride or calcium It is thought by some to be the prod- uct of the chemical action of oxygen on fatty constitutions in the cells, by others .of two special, substances, one an enzyme, the other an element of the blood that betrays itself as light when it flows into a luminous organ. Watasé considers the light-giving material a cell-secre- tion, not a product of a gland. Still another view is that the light is the effect of chemical action resulting in an electrical manifestation. The spectrum of the fire-fly shows greatest in- tensity in the central (green) part, and disap- pears before reaching either end of the solar spectrum — that is, it exhibits neither heat nor chemical energy. ‘Langley and Very, who. de- voted much effort to‘its investigation, called it the “most economical light known, and very near to the ideal of light without heat. The manifestation of such light may occur in three ways. In the minute protozoans (Noctiluca, etc.), which sometimes are met with in warm seas in such dense masses that the water is like a glowing broth, the light issues from a myriad of points, a diffuse illumination. along the muscle fibres. In a class that includes such mollusks as the pholads, and also the copepod crustaceans, the photogenic material is ejected as a liquid (slime) from the body, according to Watasé, and becomes luminous only by contact with the water, or, more strictly, with the oxygen mixed with it; and the same is true of luminous ter- restrial worms and annelids, but here the ‘ma- terial emanates as fine granules that glow when they encounter the air. A third class includes the more highly organized insects, squids, fishes, etc., which possess definite light-producing organs. The luminous insects with few exceptions are beetles of the pentamerous families Lampy- ride and Elateride. The former family is well represented in North America, and furnishes us with several species of fire-flies. The females of some species in this group are wingless, or nearly so, creep about among the herbage, and are called glow-worms; in other species it is the larve that are glow-worms. Their luminous organs are situated on the head or the ab- dominal segments or both, in positions varying with the species, and consist of cells just be- neath the cuticle, reached by nerves and sur- rounded by a wrapping of tracheal filaments, supplying air— the necessary oxidizing agent. Their light is usually given out in intermittent flashes, but in some species continuously, and in all, apparently, it is under nervous control. The most-famous of the fire-flies is the cucuyo of the American tropics (Pyrophorus noctilucus), one of the Elateride; but several other species equal its powers. This beetle is an inch and a half or more long, dull in color, and has on each side of its thorax an oval, whitish “lantern,” from which at will streams a bright light. Gosse (‘Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica,’ 1851) says that when this beetle was handled these spots would ignite gradually, “the centre LUMINOUS PAINT — LUMPSUCKER ot each tubercle first showing a point of light which in a moment spreads to the circumfer- ence and increases in intensity until it blazes with a luster almost dazzling” The color of the thoracic light is a rich yellow-green. Ina pitch-dark room this insect gives so much illu- mination as to cast a definite shadow of any object on the opposite wall, and when held two inches from a book the whole line may be read.” Gosse and the many others acquainted with these phosphoric beetles describe another light on -their abdomen, just behind the legs. “When fully illuminated, » the Beebes (‘Search ‘for a Wilderness,’ 1910) tell us, “this area was brilliant and of a figure-of- eight shape. The light, however, was radically different from that of the thorax, being yellowish and candle-like, giving an illusive impression of an opening from the incandescent interior of the insect. In flight the abdominal searchlight comes into play, burning brightly with a strong yellowish glare.” In other species the glare is orange or reddish, and the insect races along like a rail- road train, with two green head-lights and a red tail-light. Beebe found that two or three ina glass tube answered the purpose of an electric flash-light. These and similar insects are worn in the hair, and otherwise adapted to the pur- pose of ornament by the Mexicans and Bra- zilians. One of the surprises of the early explorers of the depths of the ocean was that many of the tropical pelagic fishes had luminous organs; and for a long time it was believed that all of these came from the abysses where no particle of sunlight penetrated, and that thus the sty- gian depths were illuminated. Later investiga- tions have modified this view. The luminous fishes belong mainly to the families Stomiatide, Sternoptychide, Scopelide and Ceratide. All these are pelagic families and have species ranging from the surface to the deepest bot- toms (see DEEP SEA EXPLORATION). The exten- sive explorations of the ocean depths carried on in the Valdivia, the Michael Sars and other vessels in recent times show that light-organs are “specially characteristic of fishes belonging to the upper 500 meters in warm oceanic waters.” This is true of the crustaceans and cephalopods, in the latter case squids, living at intermediate depths. The light-organs in these animals are distributed in various parts of the body, and are highly complicated, eye- -like glands, each having not only a lens to increase its power, but a layer of black pigment in the rear, to act as a reflector. There is no doubt that this structure enables the fishes and squids to project the light in definite directions. The function and importance of these organs have been much discussed; and the purpose is still in question. “Is it in order to illuminate the surrounding water, to avoid foes, or to recog- nize their own kind?” asks Hjort (‘Depths of the Ocean,’ 1912). “The answers,” he replies, “would probably tend to show that the many different kinds of light-organs serve different purposes.» Brauer finds that their position is precisely the same in all individuals of any one species, and concludes that they replace, in the darkness of the depths, the specific color-marks or “recognition-marks” of surface or terrestrial animals. As it seems certain that this emission of light is intended to be seen, the relation be- VOL. 17 — 47 he 737 tween them and the eyes of these fishes and other oceanic animals must be studied; but the data for this are defective and confusing. It appears that a remarkable coincidence exists between the development of light-organs and eyes in pelagic fishes. The Scopelidz, Sternop- tychide and Stomiatide, which live above 500 meters, possess well- developed light-organs and eyes, while from 500 meters downward light- organs and eyes both decrease in size. Along the sea-bottom, however, the fishes have only eyes and no light-organs.» The eyes of the - bottom fishes (Macrurus) are large, as if to admit as much as possible of a scanty supply of light. In those depths all the invertebrate animals are aglow, clothed in a copious mucus that emits light; and it is believed that this il- lumination is sufficient to enable the big large- eyed bottom fishes to see what is about them. The situation is, nevertheless, full of puzzling contradictions. Consult books mentioned under Deer SEA EXPLORATION ; and fot the most recent discussion of the matter consult Murray and Hjort’s ‘Depths of the Ocean? (London 1912). ERNEST INGERSOLL. LUMINOUS PAINT, a paint containing phosphorus, which after exposure to strong light becomes luminous in the dark for a time. It is used for street signs, buoys, clock dials, etc. See also PAINT, PHOSPHORESCENCE. LUMMIS, Charles Fletcher, American au- thor: b. Lynn, Mass., 1 March 1859. He was graduated from Harvard in 1881, went to Los Angeles, Cal., there was an editor of the Daily Times (1885-87), and later became editor of the monthly Out West. He spent five years among the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, studying their speech and customs. Among his writings are ‘A Tramp across the Continent? (1892); ‘The Land of Tiempo? (1893); ‘The King of the Broncos? (1897) ; ‘The Enchanted Burro? (1897); ‘The Awakening of a Nation? (1898), and the collection, ‘The Man who Mar- ried the Moon, and other Pueblo Indian Folk- Stories? (1894). LUMPKIN, Joseph Henry, American jurist: b. Oglethorpe County, Ga., 23 Dec. 1799; d. Athens, Ga., 4 June 1867. He was a brother of Wilson Lumpkin. He was graduated from the College of New. Jersey (now Prince- ton) in 1819, studied law in the office of Judge Cobb at Athens, was admitted to practice in October 1820, and practised at Lexington, Ga., until 1844. In 1824 and 1825 he represented Oglethorpe County in the State legislature of Georgia, and ‘in 1845 became associate. justice and soon after was appo‘nted chief justice of the Georgia Supreme Court. He was one of the chief organizers of the Lumpkin Law School of the University of Georgia, and occupied the chair of law in the school in 1859-61. He re- sumed the professorship in 1865, and retained it until his death. In 1833 he assisted in the com- pilation of the Penal Code of Georgia. Both as an advocate in criminal cases and as a judge he is described as exceedingly able. For many years he was prominent in the temperance movement. LUMPSUCKER, an extraordinary marine fish (Cyclopterus lumpus), of oval, ugly form and allied to the sea-snails (Liparis) and gobies. It is remarkable for the brilliant red d 73E LUMPY JAW and purple colors which the male puts on in the breeding season in the spring, when it ap- proaches rocky shores on both sides of the northern Atlantic to deposit its spawn. This fish has the short ventral fins so united as to form a sucking disc by which it attaches itself to the bottom and holds on against waves and currents, while it preys upon small fishes, crus- taceans, etc. It is well known and eaten in Scotland under the name “cockpaidle.” LUMPY JAW. See Acrinomycosis. LUNA, loo’na, Alvaro de, Spanish poet, constable and leading spirit of the reign of John II: b. 1388; executed Valladolid, 22 June 1453. A natural son of Alvaro de Luna, a rich Spanish noble, he was nephew of the famous “anti-pope” Benedict XIII and near relative of the Count of Morala and the Marquis of Vilu- efia.. He was sent to the court, while still a boy, by his uncle, the bishop of Toledo (1408). There he soon -became page to John II, who conceived a great affection for him; and he became a general favorite at court, especially among the ladies. While scarcely of age he began to exercise a strong influence at court partially through the liking of the king for him, and partially through the royal high majordomo, Juan Hurtado de Mendoza, son- in-law of the king. Luna followed the progress of John II from place to place and to his standard flocked young men of the highest rank to bask in the sun of the favorite of the sover- eign. The infante, Don Enrique, rose against the king and seized him and Luna; but the latter, with the help of friends, succeeded in freeing himself and the king (1420), whom he afterwards strove to make independent of the infante and the nobles who supported him. To ‘this end he gathered about him a strong party which stood for the maintenance of royal power and fidelity to the ruling sovereign. The infante, Enrique, and his party. were driven from the court. The property of the most conspicuous of the followers of the infante - was confiscated, among these being the powerful hidalgo Ruy Lépez Dtvalos. This confiscated property was divided among the followers of the king; and, as the leader of these, Luna ob- tained. great wealth, including several castles and the title of Count San Esteban, to which was added that of high constable,.a position which gave him control of the royal forces and empowered him to look after the security of the sovereign’s person. Next to the king, he was, therefore, all powerful; so powerful indeed that he dared to imprison the infante.. In 1425, through the influence of his enemies, the king was forced to exile Luna from the court. But, during his absence of a year and a half, the unsettled condition of the country grew rapidly and steadily worse; and finally Luna was re- called, with great rejoicing. But civil war broke out between the different independent principalities of Spain. In the attempt to re- store order and to defend the interests of the king Luna took a very prominent. part. He made severai successful campaigns and captured a number of strongly fortified towns. In 1430 a truce for five years was concluded. Luna at once set out on a war expedition against Granada, then a Moorish stronghold, and, de- feating the enemy several times, he reached the outskirts of the capital (Granada). When vic- — LUNA MOTH tory was in sight he was forced to retire owing to trouble in his own forces, and personal ill- ness. Again in 1431, with additional forces, he invaded Granada, conquered numerous towns and laid waste the land in the name of his sovereign, John II of Castile. Notwithstanding these brilliant military successes, Luna’s enemies at home constantly conspired against him for the next 20 years. After a while their hands were strengthened by the support of the second wife of John II, who finally succeeded in poi- soning the mind of the king against his favorite, who was finally arrested at Burgos, tried and condemned to be beheaded at Valladolid. Among his other great talents, Alvaro de Luna was a poet of no mean order and a great friend of the troubadours. His songs are graceful and harmonious and often beautiful. He has a good command of language and the quick and sensitive imagination of the poet. He was one of the most finished musicians of his age; and the touch of the musician is seen in his poetry. But his prose, which possesses the harmony of the poet, is stronger than his~ poetry. His ‘Librode las claras € virtuosas mujeres? is a stout defense of the fair sex. The work is divided into three books. These treat, respec- tively, of the women of the Bible, the pagan women and the Christian women. The style of this work is simple; and the great number of references which it contains from sacred and profane history credit the author with a wide historical knowledge for his age. Consult Ticknor, ‘History of Spanish Literature? (New York 1854); ‘The Chronicle of Alvaro. de Luna? (Madrid 1784) ; ‘Chronicle of John ID; Quintana, José, ‘Vidas de espafioles célebres? (Vol. XIX, Biblioteca de Autores Espafioles). LUNA, Pedro de, pa’dr& da, anti-pope: b. Spain, 1334; d. Pefiiscola; Valencia, 1424. He was sprung from a noble family of Aragon, and, after entering the priesthood, became distin- guished as a canonist, and was appointed pro- fessor in the University of Montpellier. He re- ceived a cardinal’s hat in 1375 and was elected to Avignon as anti-pope in 1394) The conclave of cardinals annexed as a condition to his elec- tion, that he should resign if ever an opportu- nity occurred when, by so doing, he could put a stop to the schism. This he refused to do although he was deposed by the Council of Pisa (1409), and by that of Constance (1417). Ban- ished from Avignon, he retired to the fortress of Pefiiscola, near Valencia, where he spent the rest of his life in excommunication. LUNA, li’na (the moon), among the Greeks Seléné. Her worship is said to have been introduced among the Romans in the time of Romulus. She had a temple on the Aven- tine, one on the Capitol, a third on the Palatine. LUNA MOTH, one of the largest and most beautiful of the great American silkworm moths, Tropea luna. Its general color is deli- cate green, there is a purple brown band along the front edge of the fore wings and a pair of | richly colored ocelli upon each of both pairs of wings, the hinder pair of which terminate in long curving “tails.” The caterpillar grows to a length of about three inches and is pale blu- ish green with a pearl-colored head; it has a pale yellow stripe along each side of "the body, and a transverse yellow line on the back be- LUNACY — LUNDY’S LANE tween each two abdominal segments. It feeds upon leaves of forest trees, as the hickory, walnut, etc. The cocoon is formed of a very thin, leaf-like material with little silk, and is usually found upon the ground. LUNACY, LUNATIC, etc. ITY. LUNALILO, loo-na-lé’l6, William ee king of the Hawaiian Islands (1873-74) : 1835: d. 3 Feb. 1874. He received a good fan cation and was liberal in his political views. His health failed soon after his ascending the throne and he paid inadequate attention to administra- tive business. LUNAR CAUSTIC. See Nitrate or Sr- VER. LUNAR TABLES, in astronomy, ponder- ous volumes of solid figures which are the nu- merical development and tabulation of the ana- lytical theory of the moon’s motions and per- turbations. See Moon. LUNAR THEORY, The, in astronomy, the deduction of the moon’s motion from the law of gravitation. See Moon. LUNAR YEAR. See YEar. LUND, Sweden, town, in the lan of Mal- mohus, on an extensive plain, about eight miles from the Sound and 24 miles east of Copen- hagen. It is a very ancient place, and was once surrounded with wooden fortifications, and had its warehouses filled with the merchandise and treasures. In the Middle Ages it was the lar- gest city in Scandinavia; the monarchs were elected kings of Scania on a hill in the imme- diate vicinity. The present town occupies a large extent of space, and is very irregularly See INSAN- built. It has an ancient Romanesque cathedral, one of the finest churches in Sweden, erected in 1145. and. recently restored; a _ university, founded in 1688, attended by over 1,000 stu- dents, and occupying buildings erected. in 1878- 82, while the old building contains the library (180,000 volumes), historical museum, etc. With the university are connected a zoological museum and a botanic garden. ‘The town boasts of a statue of Tegnér, and the house in which he lived, Sugar refining, glovemaking and iron-founding are among the industries, and there is a trade in agricultural produce. It was ceded by Denmark to Sweden in 1658. Pop. 20,423. LUNDY, Benjamin, American abolition- 1st 2yb. Hardwick, Warren County, N. J., 4 Jan. 1789; d. Lowell, La Salle County, IIl., 22 Aug. 1839. His parents were members of the Soci- ety of Friends. At'19 he removed to Wheel- ing, then in Virginia, where he labored as an apprentice to a saddier. At this place, which was a centre of the slave trade in those days, his attention was first directed to the subject of slavery. He subsequently settled in business in Saint Clairsville, Va., where in 1815 he orig- inated an anti-slavery association, called the “Union Humane Society” and had a member- ship of nearly 500. Soon after a journal enti- tled The Philanthropist was commenced at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, to which Lundy con- tributed. He then visited Saint Louis, where he remained nearly two years engaged in a newspaper exposition of the slavery question. At Mount Pleasant, he commenced, in 1821, the 739 publication of the Genius of Universal Emanct- pation, the office of which was removed to Bal- timore in 1824. In 1825 he visited Haiti to make arrangements for the settlement of eman- cipated slaves and a few years later he made a second voyage there for the same purpose. His efforts for abolition aroused the bitter hos- tility of the slave-holding class and the slave dealers, one of whom assaulted Lundy in Balti- more in 1827. In 1828 he visited the Eastern States, where he formed the acquaintance of a _ number of prominent abolitionists, one of whom, William Lloyd Garrison, afterward be- came associated with him in editing his journal. Garrison and Lundy differed in their policies for bringing about abolition. Lundy favored colon- ization abroad while Garrison advocated imme- diate emancipation on the soil. In 1830-31 he traveled in Canada and Texas to obtain sub- scribers to his paper and to continue his obser- vation on the condition of the slaves. He con- tinued his literary connection with the Genius of Universal Emancipation as long as it was’ published, and was the first to establish anti- slavery periodicals and the delivery of anti- slavery lectures, and probably the first to into- duce the formation of societies for the encour- agement of the produce of free labor. Consult Armstrong, W. C., ‘The Lundy Family and Their Descendants. of Whatsoever Name’ (Nutley, N. J., 1902); Earle, ‘The Life, Trav- els and Opinions of Benj amin Lundy’ (Phila- delphia 1847). LUNDY’S LANE, Battle of, also called the Battle of Niagara, or Battle of Bridgewater, a severe engagement fought on Canadian soil near Niagara Falls, 23 July 1814, between Brit- ish and American forces. Two days after the defeat of the British under General Riall at Chippawa by Brigadier-General Scott 5 July 1814, the American forces wunder General Brown, numbering about 3,000 men, crossed the Chippawa River and took post at Queenstown; Riall, after throwing a portion of his force into Fort George, retreated to a strong position near the head of Lake Ontario. Occasional skir- mishes took place between the outposts of both armies; but Brown, finding that he had no bat- tering cannon to besiege Fort George, and being unwilling to leave that fortress in his rear, fell back after a few days to the Chippawa. Here on the 25th he received intelligence that General Drummond, who had reached Fort George with British reinforcements, had crossed the Niagara River at Queenstown to attack Fort Schlosser, where the American supplies were deposited. Scott was at once detached with 1,200 men to make a demonstration at Queenstown, and about sunset unexpectedly came up with Riall and his whole force at the head of Lundy’s Lane. ‘The small American force received the full fire of the British infantry, and held their ground until the arrival of the main body of the American army. Fighting continued during the night. Scarcely an officer remained un- wounded in-the American ranks, and the men, faint with their exertions and tormented by thirst, were ready to sink with exhaustion. Un- willing, however, to relinquish the field, they re- plenished their ammunition from the cartridge boxes of their fallen comrades and foes, who covered the ground around the battery, and then calmly awaited the assault of the British, 740 After an hour’s pause the latter, reinforced by fresh troops from Fort George, advanced under General Drummond to the last assault. The conflict which ensued was more deadly than ever. At length the enemy, broken and foiled at all points, retired. Brown and Scott being now disabled by wounds, the command devolved upon Colonel Ripley, who, finding the enemy indisposed to renew the attack, drew off his troops to the camp. In this battle, the most obstinately contested perhaps ever fought upon the American continent, the British. force. of 4,500 beside greatly. outnumbering their oppo- nents, had the advantages of position and prep- aration. Against these odds the troops. of Brown fought with an unparalleled valor and ob- stinacy which did much to disabuse the country of the idea, then prevalent, that American troops could not cope with the trained veterans of Europe. According to the official accounts, the American casualties amounted. to 571 wounded, 171 killed and 110 missing; and the British to 559 wounded, 86 killed and 42 prison- ers. Ripley, finding his forces reduced to less than 2,000 effective men, retired to the neigh- borhood of Fort Erie, having first destroyed the bridge over the Chippewa and a portion of his stores. See CHIPPAWA, BATTLE OF. LUNEBURG, lu’né-boork, Germany, capi- ital city of the government district of the same name in the province of Hanover, on the navi- gable Ilmenau River. It contains many ancient dwellings but the well-laid-out gardens of the suburbs give the place a modern aspect. There are four churches including the Catholic, and a synagogue besides. The Michaelis Church dates from the 15th century, and the Johannis Church, with its five naves, belongs to the pur- est 14th century Gothic period. The Nikolai Church and its colossal central nave dates from the 15th century. Among its other notable buildings are the ancient courthouse in the market place, full of art treasures, the great structures of the Michaeli monastery (now a seminary), the old Kaufhaus, etc. Its indus- tries consist of lime-kilns, iron, cement, carpet, stoneware and dye works, a horsehair weaving factory, wax bleachery, etc. The trade is ably assisted by its Chamber of Commerce and con- sists of exports in wine, grain, lumber, hay, straw, wool, wax, etc. It is the junction of several railways. Among its other public build- ings figure the gymnasium and realgymnasium, the Evangelical teachers’ seminary trade school, museum, public library, etc. Documentary evi- dence of this town dates from 1228.and munic- ipal rights were conferred in 1247, As a mem- ber of the Hansa League in the Middle Ages the city had considerable prominence and great wealth. In the Thirty Years’ War the city was taken by Duke George of Brunswick-Ltneburg and fell to a relatively low estate and has since gone through the vicissitudes of Brunswick and Hanover. Its population, in 1910, was. 27,790. Consult Volger, (Urkundenbuch der Stadt Liine- burg? (Limeburg 1872-77); Bodemann, ‘Die alteren Zunfturkunden der Stadt Liineburg> (Hanover 1883). LUNENBURG, _ loo’nén-bérg, Canada, town, seaport, capital of Lunenburg County, in the province of Nova Scotia, and about 40 . miles west-southwest of Halifax. The first settlement was made by Germans, in 1753, and LUNEBURG — LUNGS it, still bears interesting marks of its origin. It has a large, safe harbor. The chief indus- tries are ship-building and fishing. Lunenburg is the chief seat of the deep-sea fisheries of Canada and it exports considerable fish and lumber to the West Indies. It is the seat of a United States consular agent. The settlement was raided by American privateers in 1782. Pop. about 2,681. . LUNEVILLE, 1i’na-vél’, France, city, in the department Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the river Meurthe, where it is joined by the Vezofize, and junction of lines of the East Rail- way. It has a beautiful 18th century church (Saint Jacques), a great palace formerly’ be- longing to the dukes of Lorraine but now used as barracks and a lovely park. There are also a town-hall; war memorial erected 1870, statue of Bishop Gregory, a college library, museum, chamber of agriculture, etc. The chief in- dustries are glove, stocking, lace, yarn and textile factories, also potteries and brewery. Considerable trade is done in grain, wine and tobacco. It was the capital of a county im the 10th century and fell into the possession of the duchy of Lorraine in 1344. When Stanislas Lesczynski, former king of Poland, came into the possession (1735) of Lorraine he made this city his residence. In history the city is noted for the Peace of Lunéville (1801) between Germany and the French Republic, by which Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine was apportioned to France, while Milan and Man- tua fell to the Cisalpine Republic, Venice and its district as far as the Etsch (Adige), Istria and Dalmatia with Cattaro were given over to Austria. As compensation for the loss of their territory on the left bank of the Rhine to the Imperial princes the ecclesiastical foundations were secularized and the free cities were an- nexed to such principalities. The city suffered greatly during the German invasion 1914-18. Pop. about 25,587. Consult Baumont, ‘Histoire de Lunéville? (Lunéville 1900) ; Sloane, W. M., ai) of Napoleon Bonaparte? (New York LUNGCHOW, or LUNGCHOWFU, China, walled city in the province of Kwangsi, located on the Tsokiang, at the confluence of the Sungchi-kiang and the Kaoping-ho, near the border of Tonkin with which much trading is done. It is on the trade route between Yiinnan and Tonkin and much import trading is done through its open port, amounting in 1912 to 76,532 taels, with an export trade of 7,303 taels. It has a population of about 20,000. LUNGFISH, a fish of the group Dipnot (q.v.), few existing species of which remain. These are mostly sluggish fishes of tropical fresh waters, whose respiratory organs are lung-like. See BarrRAMUNDA; CERATODUS; LEPIDOSIREN ; and ICHTHYOLOGY. LUNGS, the principal organs of respi- ration in air-breathing vertebrates. They are enclosed in the chest, an air-tight chamber which, mainly by means of the diaphragm.(q.v.), acts as a bellows and moves the air in and out of them. The purpose of the inhalation of air is to supply oxygen to the blood and to re- move carbon dioxide. There are two lungs, one on the left, the other on the right side of the chest, and between them and almost com- pletely covered by them are situated the heart LUNG-FISHES 1 Australian Lung-fish or Barramunda 2 Amazonian Mud-fish or Lepidosiren 3 African Mud-fish or Protopterus | ihn Mn aly Bese id) +e ee “an 4a ; ‘ n “> ’ 7 i} j 5 At ' Ce | hee a | . a ’ i : e . ys \ Hi ving | i — Wh + . t ' ‘ 7 ‘ ~ ‘ Ps 5 ~ Ey Pee 2 tle ! ” a ‘ Mr t = 9 at se A -¥% x i" “A ~ 2 Ff , 7 gt ; ag Me New A os . pat ; eo ‘ted ~ <4 . i ” . vo oe be ae i F 3) mgs i a | 2 Pa ~ 4 7 1S - "2 inf ‘ ‘ “er , 3 = ~~ ia ‘onthe LUNGS and the great blood-vessels springing from it, the cesophagus, the thoracic duct, etc. The left lung is the smaller of. the two, and both consist of a mass of ramified tubes, branches of the trachea, which unite them. The color of the lungs is pinkish white at birth, which changes to the mottled slate color of the adult lungs, and the still darker hue of the lungs of the aged. Through the walls of the lungs all the blood of the body passes, receiving oxygen and throwing off carbonic acid. The simplest lung imaginable would be an elastic membranous bag, well supplied with blood-vessels, and with -a pipe connecting it with the air; the most com- plicated lungs that exist are essentially of that construction, the purpose of the complications being merely the enlarging of the surface ex- posed to the air. In all air-breathing vertebrates, the atmos- pheric air reaches the larynx through the nasal and the buccal cavities, then passes into the trachea, and into its ramifications which are called bronchi or bronchial tubes, and from these tubes into membranous pouches named alveoli. The terminal twig of a bronchial tube is a small canal, in which are found many open- ings or orifices of very short tubes, which are the ultimate ramifications of the tube. The lung-substance is composed of the alveoli, the air-sacs, the small bronchi, blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves; the whole enclosed in a membrane that surrounds each of the lungs and is known as the pleura. The trachea or windpipe extends from the lower part of the larynx, of which it is the continuation, to the middle of the thorax, where it divides into the two large bronchi. It is situated in the middle line of the body, in front of the last cervical and the first five or six dorsal vertebre. In the back part of the trachea there are transversal muscular fibres of the unstriped variety. The fibrous tissue found in the trachea belongs to the two varieties of yellow elastic and white fibres. The mucous membrane is thin and in perfect continuity with that of the larynx and that of the bronchi. Its most remarkable fea- ture is that its epithelial covering is composed of ciliated cells having in high degree the vibra- tile movement. All along the trachea there are many mucous glands, and these are espe- cially numerous upon its back part. The cilia lash upward, and thus keep the passages free from mucus and remove foreign particles. As the passages become smaller they lose their cartilages, and the muscles form a continuous circular layer. The length of the trachea is from four to five inches. The average trans- versal diameter of this tube is between 9 and 12 lines in adults. The anterior two-thirds of the trachea is cylindrical, the posterior third is a flattened wall. In the neck the trachea is covered by the skin and a few flat muscles; in the chest it is placed between the two lungs’ and covered by muscles, lymphatic glands and the bony and cutaneous walls of the thorax. The structure of the trachea is complicated. This tube is essentially composed of an internal layer which is a mucous membrane and an external one which is fibrous. Imbedded in these mem- branes are from 16 to 20 cartilaginous pieces, with the shape of a horseshoe, or of a ring one- third of which is missing. These incomplete rings are placed transversely at nearly equal distances one from the other; they give to the 741 anterior two-thirds of the trachea the cylindri- cal form. The essential parts of the lungs are the air- cells or air-sacs, in which the function of respi- ration is performed. They are estimated to be about 600,000,000, in number and to be about one-two hundred and fiftieths of an inch in diameter. They consist of somewhat elongated cavities, which communicate with a bronchial ramification by a circular opening, usually smaller than the cavity of the cell. The air- cells are arranged in groups and separated from each other by thin walls. Many small, shallow, cup-like depressions, separated from each other by portions of membrane, are found at the bot- tom and on the lateral walls of the air-sacs. These, the alveoli, have no communication with = BRONCHI each other except by their opening in the cavity of the air-sac. An epithelial layer exists in the air-cells and the alveoli. The walls of the air- cells are formed: of a thin membrane in which the blood and lymph-capillaries ramify. Minute openings lead from the air-cells into the lymph- spaces of the membrane. The membranous walls are partly formed of elastic tissue. It is this that gives. to the lungs their elasticity. At the root of the lungs the membrane known as the vis- ceral pleura is continuous with a membrane which lines the chest-cavity (the parietal pleura). The space between the two is the pleural cavity; it is in reality a large lymph- space, and communicates with the lymphatics of the pleura. Owing to the air-pressure within the lungs, the two pleure are closely pressed together, the lungs entirely filling the chest- cavity. The lungs are united with the heart and with the trachea by a part called the root, which, in each side, is composed of the large bronchus, a branch of the pulmonary artery, two pulmonary veins, and smaller vessels and nerves, the whole being almost completely covered by the pleura. Each lung is divided into lobes, two in number in the left one and three in the other. Each lobe is divided into lobules, which are arranged on the bronchial tubes like grapes on a bunch. Each lobule is surrounded by condensed areolar 742 tissue mixed up with yellow elastic tissue. Each lobule is a fair representation, on a small scale, of a whole lung, as it hangs upon a bron- chial tube, a branch of the pulmonary artery, branches of bronchial vessels and nerves. In the roots of the lungs the two large bronchi divide, the right into three, and the left into two bronchial tubes, one for each of the pulmo- nary lobes. The primary bronchial tubes are very short, and divide into two or three smaller tubes, each of which gives off two or three divi- sions. Before reaching their termination, the tubes branch off four or five times more. The weight of the lungs varies much accord- ing to age and sex. In adult men the two lungs weigh from 40 to 50 ounces, and in women from 28 to 35 ounces, thus, being the lightest of the organs of the body. The ratio of the weight of the lungs to that of the body is as 1 to 30 or 40. The specific gravity of the lungs is very slight, and, unless the air has been expelled from the cavities of the bronchial tubes and of the alveoli, any part of the lungs dipped into water will rise and float. - As respiratory organs the lungs bear a cer- tain average relation to the physical proportions and condition of the individual. The average amount of air in the case of an individual five feet eight inches in height that goes in and out of the lungs at each inspiration and expiration is about 20 cubic inches; this is called the tidal air. This is only about one-seventh of the total capacity of the lungs, and as the ordinary adult takes about 18 breaths a minute, the air of the lungs would be renewed only about twice a minute if it were not for the diffusion of gases. By means of forced inspiratory movements the ingoing tide may be increased by 120 cubic inches; by means of a forced expiration the outgoing tidal air may be increased by 90 cubic inches. After the most forced expiration pos- sible there. always remain within the lungs about 90 to 100 cubic inches of air. So that if a person takes as deep a breath as possible, and then makes as forced an expiration as he can, he will drive out 120+20+90=230 cubic inches of air.. This is termed the respiratory capacity. Since the tidal air is only 20 cubic inches, and 180 cubic inches remain in the chest after an ordinary expiration, it follows that the air di- rectly changed during the respiration is not that really within the lungs themselves, but is that within the nose, windpipe and larger bronchi, the pipes that result from the branching of the windpipe. Therefore the changes of the air within the essential parts of the lungs are the result of diffusion between it and the purer air of the bronchi, aided by the rush with which the tidal air flows in. The total amount of air inhaled daily by an average person at rest is estimated to be nearly 700,000 cubic inches, while if he is working the amount is of course much larger. This is a basis for the planning of the size and ventilation of schoolrooms and other public: places. The ordinary respiratory movements differ in the two sexes and at different periods of life. In young children the chest is altered in size . chiefly by the movements of the diaphragm, and the protrusion of the abdominal wall during inspiration is therefore very marked. In men also it is the diaphragm which is chiefly opera- tive, but the ribs are also moved. In women it is the movement of the ribs, especially the LUNGS, DISEASES OF upper ones, which is the most extensive. The respiratory rhythm is the relation of the acts of inspiration and expiration to each other as regards time. See ANATOMY; BREATHING AND HEALTH ; CIRCULATION; Lunes, DISEASES OF; RESPIRATION, SmitH Ey Jevrirre, M.D. LUNGS, Diseases of. The disorders to to which the lungs of man are subject form a long list of maladies, involving numerous com- plications. Of these the more important will be considered here. Congestion of the Lungs.—Pulmonary con- gestion (hyperemia) may be active or passive. In the majority of cases active congestion is a symptom or a condition associated with bron- chitis, pleurisy, pneumonia or tuberculosis, It may also be caused by the inhalation of irri- tating vapors. In rather rare instances it may result from violent exertion, or from, drunken- ness and exposure to great cold or heat, fol- lowed by cedema, possibly by death. As symp- toms this primary congestion presents an initial chill, a cough, rapid breathing, frothy, blood- tinged expectoration, harsh respiration with fine moist rales, and absence of fever unless there is coexisting inflammation. The disease may last only a few days and is almost impossible to distinguish from an abortive pneumonia. Pas- sive hyperemia may be mechanical or hypo- static. Mechanical congestion is due to the pres- ence of some obstruction to the return of the blood to the left side of the heart, such as emphysema or affections of the left ventricle, especially mitral narrowing or incompetency. Rarely it arises from pressure by tumors. The symptoms are cough, shortness of breath, blood- stained, frothy expectoration and possibly Spit- ting of blood (hemoptysis). Cases where there are intense dyspepsia, orthopneea, coughing and cyanosis are known as cardiac asthma. Hypo- static congestion (settling of blood to the low.. est parts.of the lungs) occurs in conditions of great debility attended by feebleness of the heart, and is favored by prolonged lying upon the back. There is, however, an uncomplicated passive congestion ‘which is ‘hard to recognize as it produces no physical signs. It is, how- ever, most common in long-continued typhoid fever, paralysis, prolonged unconsciousness, abdominal dropsy or tumors, and wasting dis- eases, especially tuberculosis and cancer. The physical signs are slight dullness over the bases of the lungs posteriorly, with weak or harsh and perhaps broncho-vesicular respiration, and moist rales. CEdema of the Lungs.— This condition — an effusion of watery fluid (serum) from the capillaries into the air-cells and their walls — is almost invariably a sequel of congestion or inflammation of the lungs and is so frequently a concomitant of congestion that it is hard to tell them apart. It may be local, surrounding a cir- cumscribed and usually inflammatory lesion; or general, due to causes in all respects similar to those which produce congestion, Pulmonary oedema occurs most commonly in connection with pneumonia, cancer, grave anemias, Bright’s disease, acute specific fevers with weak heart, valvular disease of the heart and apoplexy. The cedema may occur suddenly, especially in Bright’s disease, for the reason that toxic mat- ter which should have been excreted by the LUNGS, DISEASES OF kidneys is thrown back upon the lungs which thus have to do a double duty. Usually its on- set is gradual. The symptoms are increasing shortness of breath (dyspncea), blueness (cya- nosis) of fingers, lips and skin, cough and abundant watery, frothy, perhaps blood- stained, expectoration, without fever except from a causative inflammatory or febrile dis- ease. The physical signs are slight dullness over the bases, and weak, perhaps broncho- vesicular, breath-sounds, with many unusually liquid large and small rales. Embolism of the Lungs.— Foreign bodies (emboli) carried by the blood and lodging in the smaller arteries or capillaries of the lungs usually consist of disintegrated blood-clots (thrombi) ; less commonly of vegetations from diseased heart-valves, or masses of pathogenic germs. As a result of the cutting-off of the blood-supply to the lungs, circumscribed dark- red wedge-shaped areas of necrosis (hemor- rhagic infarctions) occur, this is practically equivalent to saying that certain portions of the lungs are already dead. Emboli may be non- septic (not containing disease-germs), originat- ing most commonly from chronic disease of the heart where the growths from the dis- eased heart break loose from it and are finally lodged in the lungs; or septic, arising from a gangrenous or suppurating focus in some part of the body. A non-septic infarct may in time be replaced by scar-tissue; if sep- tic, abscess of gangrene of the lung may re- sult. If the embolus is so large as to obstruct a main branch of the pulmonary artery, sudden death may take place. A complete stopping-up of a large blood-vessel always causes death, In occlusion of medium-sized branches there will be cough, spitting of blood, intense breathless- ness, fainting, perhaps coma and convulsions. When the smallest branches are involved there may be slight cough, hemoptysis and dyspneea. The spitting of dark frothy blood during the course of chronic disease of the heart is par- ticularly suggestive. If the infarction is very large the physical signs of a limited consolida- tion are present, followed, if the embolus is septic, by the evidences of pulmonary abscess Or gangrene. Pneumonia.— Two main varieties are rec- ognized, lobar pneumonia and broncho-pneu- | monia. Lobar Pneumonia.— This disease (called variously croupous pneumonia, pneumonitis, lung fever, inflammation of the lungs) is caused directly in the large majority of cases by the pneumococcus or Diplococcus pneu- mome@e (or lanceolatus) of Fraenkel. Expo- sure to cold and wet, alcoholism and debility from pre-existing disease predispose, but it is an important fact that half or three-quarters of all normal people’s mouths or throats contain the germ all the time. One attack renders a second more likely. Three stages are recog- nized in the pathological anatomy — congestion, red hepatization and gray hepatization. In. the first stage the lung is deep-red, rather firm,” does not collapse and the cut surface exudes a frothy, blood-stained, watery fluid. In the sec- ond stage the affected portion is dark-red, firm and sinks in water. It tears easily, the torn surface is granular and dry and the air-cells (alveoli) are filled with coagulated fibrin con- taining many red and some white blood-cells. 743 In the third stage the color becomes a mottled gray and the cut surfaces are moist. The exu- date in the alveoli undergoes softening and liquefaction and is either expectorated or car- ried away by the lymphatics. The symptoms of a typical case begin abruptly with a severe shaking chill and a sharp stabbing pain in the side, followed by a quick rise of temperature to 105° F. or above. The breathing is rapid because the patient feels that deep breathing will excite the cough, vary- ing from 40 to 60 or over, with an expiratory grunt and a dry, restrained and painful cough. — The cough is generally present though not al- ways and is one of the most painful symptoms, because it prevents sleep and accelerates ex- haustion. The face is flushed, there is often a circumscribed redness on the cheek of the af- fected side and the nostrils dilate with each in- spiration. A thick, tenacious, rusty or blood- stained expectoration appears. The pulse is rapid (100 to 120) and bounding. The tongue is coated, the bowels constipated, the urine scanty, high-colored, often slightly albuminous and as a rule strikingly deficient in chlorides.) The lips are often bluish and present herpetic eruptions (cold-sores). Delirium is frequently manifest. In the majority of cases there is an increased number of white cells in the blood (leucocytosis), the count ranging from 12,000 to 50,000. The fever, having risen to its high- est point (as a rule within 24 hours), remains high, with remissions, for from 5 to 10 days, when typically it falls (by crisis) within a few hours (5 to 12) to or below the normal. Death may take place at any time during the disease. It is a very fatal malady in drunkards and in persons of 60 years or over (60 to 80 per cent); so also in infants under one year. Otherwise the younger the patient the better the outlook for recovery. The most common cause of a fatal result is the toxemia (blood-poisoning) due to the products formed by the causative germ, and to the heart-weak- ness arising therefrom. Meningitis as a com- plication is always fatal. Unfavorable symp- toms are the supervention of the “typhoid status,” very..high, fever, (105°. F.. or. over), marked cyanosis, severe dyspnea, rapid exten- sion of the disease to other lobes or to the opposite lung and increasing weakness of the heart with pulmonary cedema. In some instances of recovery the consolida- {ion may persist for from 8 to 10 weeks (de- layed resolution), during which there is fever of a remittent type. In rare cases lobar pneu- monia may terminate in abscess, gangrene or chronic fibrosis. Recurrences are frequent; third or fourth attacks are common and 8 to 10 have been reported. Relapses are rare. Like other infections due to specific micro- organisms, lobar pneumonia may present strik- ing variations both in symptoms and character. Thus the fever may be slight or entirely absent in old persons and chronic alcoholics. The crisis may be as early as the third day. The fever may terminate by a gradual fall instead of by a sudden fall, especially in children. There may be a false crisis two or three days pre- vious to the final fall. The sputum may be of a red, rusty, yellow or dark-brown (“prune- juice”) color. Very seldom there is spitting of blood early in the disease. Pain is absent in deep-seated pneumonias when the pleura is not “ 744 involved. In children the pain is usually re- ferred to the abdomen; and abdominal pain, often severe, and generally due to involvement of the diaphragmatic pleura, is not uncommon in adults. An excessive amount of gas in in- testines is by no means rare. The pulse may be small and rapid, or full but soft and fol- lowed by serious weakness of the heart. A per- sistent absence of leucocytosis is, except in mild cases, a symptom of bad omen. Convulsions often initiate the disease in children, and in them the symptoms may closely resemble those of meningitis. Deafness not depending upon inflammation of the middle ear is not infre- quent. The delirium of lobar pneumonia, es- pecially in drunkards, may be active or mania- cal. The variations in the character of the dis- ease depend partly upon the site and extent of the local lesions, but matnly upon differences in the resisting power of the patient and the viru- lence of the pneumococcus. Among the atyp- ical cases are those occurring in old persons. In them the disease is often latent, there is no chill and but slight cough or expectoration. The general prostration is marked, while the physical signs are indefinite or obscure. In in- fants and young children the disease frequently begins at the apex (top) of the lungs, the tem- perature is high and convulsions, delirium, stu- bop and coma are often prominent symptoms. Not infrequently vomiting and diarrhcea are so severe and persistent that the pneumonia may be overlooked. Typhoid pneumonia is charac- terized by muttering delirium, dry brown tongue, teeth covered with sordes, twitching of the tendons (subsultus tendinum), and perhaps picking at the bed-clothes or grasping at im- agined objects in the air (carphologia)— symp- toms resembling those which may appear in a severe attack of typhoid fever. In drunkards the disease may begin gradually, the fever may not be high, the delirium is commonly of the violent type and the typhoid status often de- velops, ending in death by exhaustion. The lo- calization of pneumonia 1s variable. Most fre- quently the right lower lobe is attacked, and in double pneumonia both lower lobes are usually involved. When the consolidation steadily ad- vances from lobe to lobe it is called wandering or migratory penumonia. Cases presenting de- layed physical signs are very perplexing unless rusty sputum is present. The evidences of con- solidation may not appear until the fifth or even the eighth day of the disease, a fact doubtless to be explained by the consolidation beginning in the centre of the lung and extending slowly to the surface. Among the complications of lobar pneumo- nia, the most frequent is pleurisy, either serous or purulent (empyema). The ordinary dry pleurisy which covers the consolidated area, and which is responsible for the stabbing pain i pneumonia, cannot be considered a compli- cation. When the pleurisy, however, is so se- vere and extensive that it rivals or surpasses the pneumonia element it constitutes pleuro- pneumonia. When a pleurisy follows pneumo- nia an irregular, perhaps slight, rise of tem- perature persists, the physical signs of fluid in the pleura become manifest and leucocytosis continues. Endocarditis, usually affecting the left side of the heart, is the next most frequent complication, and it may be of the ulcerative LUNGS, DISEASES OF type. From 15 to 25 per cent of cases of the malignant form of the disease originate from pneumococcic infection. Symptoms are uncer- tain and sometimes absent. .A prolonged irregu- lar fever, with chills and sweating, is suspi- cious ; if evidences of embolism occur and men- ingitis is present, together with the develop- ment of a loud diastolic murmur not previously found, the diagnosis of ulcerative endocarditis is assured. Pericarditis, usually fibrinous or ser- ous, rarely purulent, occurs particularly in the double or left-side pneumonia of childhood... It is often latent or overlooked, Increased dysp- ncea, weak pulse and precordial pain may de- clare its presence. Meningitis, a very serious and fatal complication, is fortunately rare, and when occurring often coexists with malignant endocarditis. Marked cervical retraction, in- tense headache, delirium and coma indicate a basilar inflammation. Meningitis of the con- vexity is usually not recognized. Jaundice orig- inating in the poisoning of the blood by the pnuemonia germ is very common in some epi- demics of pneumonia. Middle-ear catarrh is not infrequent in children, parotitis is of occa- sional occurrence, so also are colitis and ven- ous thrombosis. Pneumonia and malarial fever may either precede or occur during an attack of pneumonia. Redness, swelling and pain in one or more joints may become manifest during or after the crisis of a pneumonia and the inflam- mation proceed to suppuration. The pneumo- coccus is found in the diseased joints (pneu- mococcic arthritis). The diagnosis of lobar pneumonia is as a rule readily made, most cases presenting dis- tinctive and unmistakable symptoms. The dis- ease may be overlooked in the very old or the very young, or in those already seriously ill. Hypostatic congestion can usually be distin- guished from pneumonia by the absence of rusty sputum, or of fever, and is commonly bilateral. In pulmonary cedema, cardiac dis- ease or nephritis usually coexist, and although dyspnea, cough and expectoration are present, there is no fever, the breath sounds are weak, there are numerous fine and coarse liquid rales on both sides of the chest and marked dullness and bronchial respiration are absent. In edema the sputum is fluid, frothy and not rusty. Acute bronchitis in children may simulate pneu- monia, but there is no chill, convulsions, dullness or bronchial breathing, the fever is not so high as in pneumonia and there are dry and moist rales over both sides of the chest. Broncho- pneumonia generally follows a bronchitis or an acute infection like measles. The fever is ir- regular, lasts for weeks and does not terminate by crisis. The sputum is streaked with blood rather than rusty. They physical signs con- sist mainly of dry and moist rales over both chests. If evidences of consolidation are found they lie in a vertical strip on both sides of the _ spine, while, on the other hand, in lobar pneu- monia they are quite as well and often better perceived on the sides of the chest. Pleurisy with effusion is very rarely mistaken for pneu- monia, except in children. In pleurisy there is seldom a chill, the fever is not so high and de- clines gradually, the cough is dry and there is no rusty sputum. . The affected side is dis- tended, vocal fremitus is absent, the line of dullness may shift as the patient ts moved, the voice-sounds are absent or diminished, or there LUNGS, DISEASES OF ; 745 is egophony (a quavering quality of sound), and the respiratory murmur is absent or de- creased. Bronchial breathing, if heard, is dis- tant. The apex-beat may be displaced. Fi- nally puncture affords proof positive of the pres- ence of fluid. Acute pneumonic phthisis may exactly resemble lobar pneumonia until the 8th or 10th day, when the fever continues with pro- fuse sweats and the signs of softening (gurgling rales, amphoric or cavernous breathing) gradu- ally appear. The sputum becomes green and tu- bercle bacilli and elastic fibres are discovered in it. It may be impossible to distinguish between pneumonia presenting the typhoid status and typhoid fever complicated by pneumonia unless the case is seen from the outset, or rose-spots appear and a positive Widal reaction is present. ™ The treatment of lobar pneumonia involves careful attention to the details of nursing. The room should be especially well ventilated in order that the air of the chamber should con- tain the maximum natural pércentage of oxy- gen. The freshest cold air that can be secured will aid the injured lung in doing its work as perfectly as possible. The patient is best kept cn a roof or balcony except when it is neces- sary to expose some part of the body. Too much bed-clothing and the swathing of the trunk in cotton, both-too often seen, tend to keep the fever higher than it would otherwise be, and add to the discomfort of the patient. If it is not possible to keep the patient in the open air, it may be necessary to administer oxy- gen, which is sometimes given for 20 minutes at'a time, by means of a needle placed under the skin. Absolute rest in the recumbent posi- tion together with the use of the urinal and bed-pan is, with rare exceptions, to be insisted upon. The regular free giving of water is of great importance, although in some cases a glassful of water, where circulation is irregu- lar, has been found too great a load upon it. The diet should be that usually given in fever, comprising milk, clear or diluted, flavored or snot, perhaps peptonized, plain ice cream and junket: broths ot beef, mutton, chicken, oysters or clams; tea, coffee or weak cocoa; grape or orange juice, lemonade, ginger-ale and fruit- ices; albumin water, egg lemonade; and if nec- essary one of the proprietary liquid foods, It is, however, very important that the patient should not be overfed, but that he should be given a diet as high in protein'as he can stand. It has been found that milk, unless easily digested, may form curds which become quite dangerous. ~The medicinal treatment depends so much on the character of the individual case and the in- tensity of the. special symptoms that it is not practicable to describe it here in detail. There is aS yet no specific ——a remedy which cures or tends to cure a particular disease — for lobar pneumonia. While; some physicians have ex- perimented with a serum in the treatment, of this disease, it cannot yet be said that alto- gether satisfactory results have been obtained, possibly because of the fact that the pneumo- coccus contains no true toxin, as does the bacil- lus of, for example, diphtheria. Sodium sali- cylate and carbonate of creosote, the latter es- pecially, have given apparent good results. One or two initial doses of quinine, say seven or eight grains of the sulphate, are highly recom- mended. An initial dose of calomel does good ie 4 we service. Side-pain is to be relieved, preferably by mustard poultices, or the ice-bag; if nec- essary by the smallest efficient doses of mor- phine or Dover’s powder. The use of oxygen is desirable except in the milder cases. Deli- rium and restlessness may need the use of tri- onal, veronal, bromides, chloral, camphor, hyo- scine hydrobromate or morphine. For very high fever frictions with cold water are desir- able. The cold tub may or may not be advis- able, but its use is as a rule not to be com- mended. For weakness of the heart — the main channel through which life runs away in this disease — strychnine, caffeine, ammonia and wine or spirits are most useful. In addition may be required digitalis, nitroglycerine, spar- teine, strophanthus, camphor and musk. Treat- ment and prophylaxis by vaccination have also been tried, but with unsatisfactory results. Broncho-pneumona.— This (called also capillary bronchitis, lobular pneumonia, catar- rhal pneumonia) is arf inflammation of the ter- minal bronchi. and their communicating air- cells, due to the presence of two or more varie- ties of micro-organisms. Those most com- monly found are the Pneumococcus lanceola- ius, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus et albus, and the germs of diphtheria and influenza (la grippe). It is noteworthy that the high mortality of the epidemic of Span- ish influenza in the winter of 1918-19 was due largely to the secondary pneumonia which su-_ pervened in most of the cases. The disease may come suddenly during good health, or may be secondary to some pre-existent disease. It attacks especially the very young (under five), the very old or the debilitated of any age. It is most common among those who live in un- sanitary surroundings. The primary cases are usually due to cold and exposure. The second- ary cases follow acute bronchitis, measles, whooping-cough, diphtheria, scarlet fever, ery-) sipelas and small-pox. They may succeed the inhalation of food or drink while the patient is unconscious; or operations on the mouth or nose; or any accident or disease which permits germ-containing particles _ to enter the bron- chial tubes. The pathology of the disease involves the presence of small areas of consolidation around the bronchioles and small patches of collapsed lung (which can. be inflated) due to occlusion of the bronchi. The terminal bronchioles and the air-cells are filled with an exudate com- posed of leucocytes and degenerating epithe- lium. The bronchial walls also contain num- bers of leucocytes. In the majority of instances both lungs are involved. The symptoms, if the disease is primary, be- gin abruptly with a chill and a rapid rise of temperature, thus resembling lobar pneumonia. A low temperature, that is, not above 100° is an indication of low vitality in the patient. Of such patients about 75 per cent die. The best temperature indication is one which rises grad- ually to 103° or 104° and as gradually subsides, If on the other hand there are sharp rises and falls, pus is indicated and the prognosis is less favorable. If there is a pre-existing bronchi- tis of the larger tubes the onset is less abrupt and there is rarely a distinct chill. The char- acteristic symptoms are cough, dyspneea, rapid respiration (40 to 80) with an expiratory moan, 746 rapid pulse and perhaps cyanosis. A fatal re- sult is to be expected if the cyanosis continues for more than a day or so. As the disease af- fects both lungs, the physical signs are bilat- | eral. There are numerous sibilant and sonor- ous rales, at first and perhaps all through the disease, without evidences of consolidation. If areas of consolidation sufficiently numerous and confluent exist, there will be slight or even decided dullness, broncho-vesicular or bron- chial respiration, and increased vocal fremitus and bronchophony. These signs are commonly found at the bases posteriorly and on either side of the spine. The type of the disease varies. In certain cases (suffocative catarrh) the dyspnoea and cy- anosis steadily increase, the cough lessens, the respirations become rapid and shallow, and the rales larger and moister. The patient is drowsy but restless, and death ensues from weakness and overdistention of the right ven- tricle. The fever in some instances, especially in children, may be of a remittent type and lead. to a mistaken diagnosis of malaria. The primary form in infants and young children sets in abruptly with chill and high fever and bears a close resemblance to lobar pneumonia; in adults it may begin like a severe acute bron- chitis, but the fever, cough and dyspncea are more marked than in a bronchitis and the spu- tum is tenacious and rusty. The secondary form begins as a bronchitis, often of slow de- velopment, with increase in the fever of the primary disease (for example, measles), cough, dyspncea and rapid breathing. The duration is variable. Cases of great severity, especially in children, may prove fatal in from three to six days; the common type ending in recovery endures from one to three weeks; exceptionally the disease may be pro- tracted to six or eight weeks, rarely even to 10 or 12 weeks. Death may occur at any time. The fever gradually declines. In the diagnosis of the disease the cardinal symptoms are fever, cough, dyspneea, rapid res- piration and bilateral physical signs. Its differ- ential diagnosis from lobar pneumonia has been stated in the description of the latter disease. From the broncho-pneumonic form of pulmo- nary tuberculosis the distinction may be ex- tremely difficult. A tuberculosis family history, progressive emanciation, the finding of tubercle bacilli in the sputum and the occurrence of the signs of softening, will declare for tuberculosis. With regard to the prognosis, it is to be remembered that broncha-pneumonia is always a grave disease. The primary cases usually re- cover; the fatality is greatest in the secondary forms. In children among the well-to-do the mortality varies from 10 to 30 per cent; in hos- pitals and among the very poor, from 30 to 70 per cent. Inhalation’ broncho-pneumonia is usually fatal because of its frequent termina- tion in abscess or gangrene. Concerning treatment, the utmost importance should be attached to prophylaxis, for instance, the prevention of the spread of an ordinary bronchitis of the larger tubes to the terminal bronchi, especially in children. Perhaps the most important measure of prevention is to keep the patient in an even temperature of 68° to 70° F. during the day and about 10 degrees colder at night and to avoid all depressing agencies, as overfatigue, improper food, etc. LUNGS, DISEASES OF The disease, having declared itself, requires in the main the same management as a lobar pneu-) monia. Opiates, however, should rarely be em— ployed. Local counter-irritation of the chest, poultices, wet compresses and_ frictions with stimulating liniments constitute a much more important element of the treatment than in lo- bar pneumonia; so also perhaps do the so- called expectorants, such as the ammonium preparations. If the child is unable to expel accumulated mucus the use of an emetic (ipe- cac, alum) may be desirable. Pneumonoconiosis.— This is a chronic pneumonia due to the inhalation of dusts inci- dent to various employments, and giving rise to anthracosis, or coal-miner’s disease; chalicosis, stone-cutter’s phthisis, or grinder’s rot; -sidero- sis, caused by the inhalation of: metallic par- ticles by metal-workers; and there is a fourth form of dust associated with disease, viz., the organic dust caused in flour milling, in the manufacture of tobacco and of various textiles. There is much evidence of late, however, that the particles of dust never reach the lungs, and that the dust diseases of the lungs are caused by pathogenic germs which are swallowed. The symptoms and signs are those of chronic bron- chitis with emphysema and fibroid changes. In the later stages the lungs may become tuber- culous. The prognosis is favorable in the aris stages upon quitting the obnoxious work; advanced cases grave, although the disease = essentially chronic. -Dust diseases are best con- trolled by prophylactic measures, among which appropriate legislation is of the utmost im- portance. Atelectasis.— Collapse of the lungs — par- tial or entire disappearance of air from the air- cells — may be congenital, occurring in the new- born as a result of weakness or some form of obstruction in the air passages. The acquired variety is due variously to obstruction of the smaller bronchi by mucus; to compression of the lung by large effusions or tumors in the chest; to respiratory paralysis; or to great ab- dominal distention. It is sometimes a result of whooping cough. Emphysema.— The lungs in this disease contain an abnormal amount of air. The com- mon form—hypertrophic emphysema — is characterized pathologically by distention of the air-cells and thinning of their walls. The lungs are large, pale and do not collapse, Many of the pulmonary capillaries are obliterated, thereby causing obstruction in the pulmonary circulation with compensatory hypertrophy of the right ventricle. The predisposing cause is a congenital weak- ness of the lung structure; the exciting cause is increased intrapulmonary tension due variously to chronic or severe cough, heavy lifting, glass- blowing or using wind-instruments. The symptoms come on insidiously, often in early life. These are dyspncea, perhaps only on exertion; cough, ultimately becoming chronic; frequent attacks of bronchitis or spasmodic asthma, and cyanosis, with subnormal temper- ature and cool skin. When the right ventricle: fails there are swellings of the feet and other evidences of general venous congestion. The physical signs are usually distinctive. Inspection shows the short broad barrel-shaped chest of emphysema, with its vertical movement, poor expansion and LUNGWORT — LUNT prolonged expiratory motion. a marked epigastric pulsation. The apex-beat is not seen. The percussion note is hyper- resonant, even slightly tympanitic. The normal limits of pulmonary resonance are extended in every direction. The characteristic ausculta- tory finding is that of a low-pitched, often wheezy, greatly prolonged expiratory sound. The inspiration is short and weak. Bronchitic rales, at times in great frequency, are often heard. The course of the disease is essentially pro- gressive and chronic. It is incurable, although the patient may live to old age. Death may occur from intercurrent pneumonia or phthisis, or from heart failure. The treatment is that of chronic bronchitis (q.v.). When practicable, the subject should live in a warm equable climate in order to avoid recurrent acute bronchitis. The bowels should be kept regular, and the diet carefully super- vised to avoid abdominal distention. Inhala- tions of oxygens and appropriate treatment by compressed and rarified air may be helpful. Strychnine, iron and digitalis are of much serv- ice when judiciously employed; so also are the arsenic and iodine compounds. Abscess of the Lung.—An acute sup- purative inflammation caused by pus-producing organisms. ‘The pus collections may be single or multiple. The organisms may reach the lung by way of the bronchi, as in an inhalation pneumonia, or by infective emboli (see EMBOL- ISM), or by direct extension, as from a puru- lent pleurisy. Very rarely it is a sequel of an ordinary broncho-pneumonia or lobar pneu- monia. The symptoms are chills, high and irregular fever, sweats and leucocytosis. In time the physical signs of cavity are manifest. ‘The sputum is yellow or green, of an offensive, but not putrid, odor, and contains particles of lung tissue and elastic fibres. The prognosis is usually hopeless. There are occasional recoveries in the cases following pneumonia (except of the inhalation type), or the penetration of external abscesses into the lung. If the abscess is single and accessible, operation may be successful. Gangrene of the Lung.—A result of in- fection of a necrotic portion of lung by the bactenia of putrefaction, conjoined with an ab- normal vulnerability of the tissues. Diabetes and long continued fevers predispose; pneu- monia (particularly inhalation-pneumonia), tu- berculous cavities, new growths, embolism and abscess are the most frequent antecedent con- ditions. The symptoms are irregular, generally mod- erate, fever, with rapid pulse, cough, dyspncea and prostration. The physical. signs, when present, are those of cavity. The characteristic symptom is the excessively fetid odor of the breath and sputum. The latter contains frag- ments of lung tissue, elastic tissue, blood pig- ment and numerous bacteria. If allowed to stand the sputum separates into three layers — the uppermost frothy, the middle watery, the lower with a heavy greenish-brown sediment. The prognosis in the majority of cases is bad. Small, strictly circumscribed areas may become encapsulated, the broken down tissue discharging by way of the bronchi. In accessi- ble cavities surgical interference may succeed. Usually there is 747 New Growths in the Lung.— The most common forms are carcinoma and sarcoma, usually bilateral and secondary to cancer else- where. Associated lesions are pleurisy, enlarge- ment of the tracheal, bronchial and cervical glands; perhaps also pulmonary gangrene. The symptoms may be latent. Ultimately cough, pain and dyspnoea appear. The physical signs are variable, depending largely upon the pres- ence or absence of pleural effusion. According to the size and location of the growth, pressure symptoms will be present, for example, hoarse- ness from pressure on the recurrent laryngeal nerve; or distention of the veins and swelling of the face, neck and arms from the pressure of the growth on the venous trunks in the chest. The diagnosis depends largely upon the presence of malignant growths elsewhere, or upon the history of the previous removal of such growths. The disease ends fatally with a duration varying from six weeks to two years. It has been found that 9 per cent of cancers, whether in the lung or in the pleura, may be operated upon, and while the successful opera- tions have not been many, some progress has been made along a path only recently traversed in surgery. See also CONSUMPTION; CONSUMP- TION, PREVENTION OF. GLENTWORTH REEVE Butter, M.D., Author of ‘Diagnostics of Internal Medicine. LUNGWORT. ‘The name of several plants supposed to have medicinal value in re- spect to diseases of the lungs. One is a lichen (Sticta pulmonacea) growing on the trunks of trees in moist subalpine regions. In Siberia it is used as a substitute for hops. Other such plants belong to a genus of borages (Pulmon- aria). The narrow-leaved lungwort is P. angustifolia, and the common lungwort P. officinalis ; the former is wild. . These are Euro- pean; but an American borage, the blue-blos- somed Virginia cow-slip (Mertensia virginica), is called lungwort in the Southern States and used by compounders of simples. A near rela- tive is the sea-lungwort (Mertensia maritima). Another lungwort is one of the hawkweeds (Hieraciun pulmonarium). Bullock’s or cow’s lungwort is the common mullein (Verbascum thapsus). LUNN, George Richard, American legis- lator: b. Lenox, Iowa, 23 June 1873. He was graduated at Bellevue College 1897 and in 1901 at the Union Theological Seminary, in 1901 he was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry and from 1901 to 1904 was associate pastor of the Lafayette Avenue Church, Brooklyn, from 1904 to 1909 of the First Dutch Reformed Church of Schenectady, N. Y., and since 1909 of the United People’s Church of the same city. In 1912-14 Mr. Lunn was mayor of Schenectady, the first Socialist mayor elected in New York State. He was re-elected for the term 1 Jan. 1916 to 31 Dec. 1917 and in 1917-19 was Member of Congress from the 30th New York district. His administration in Schenectady was marked by great efficiency and by many much-needed reforms. As Member of Congress Mr. Lunn was one of the foremost and most progressive members of the Hous-. LUNN HEMP. See Firre. LUNT, Orrington, American merchant and philanthropist: b. Bowdoinham, Me., 24 Dec. 748 1815; d. Chicago, 6 April 1897. After working in his father’s store he was made partner at 21, but removed (1842) to Chicago, where he carried on a general commission business, start- ing in the grain trade in 1844 to become wealthy by 1862, when he retired and traveled, to re- gain his lost health, through Europe and Asia for two years. For some years then he was president and treasurer of the board of water- works at Chicago and was elected (1855) di- rector of the Galena and Chicago Union Rail- road. He founded the Northwestern Univer- sity and established the Orrington Hunt Li- brary Fund. From the organization of the university he was its secretary and treasurer and for many years acting president of the executive board, being made its president in 1895. Among the numerous other philanthropic works in which he became deeply and actively interested was the Garrett Biblical Institute, which he founded; the Chicago Orphan Asylum, the Relief and Aid Society of Chicago, etc. LUPERCALIA, 1li-pér-ka'li-a, an ancient Roman festival celebrated annually in honor of Lupercus, an ancient pastoral god of the Ital- ians, afterward identified with the Arcadian Pan, who protected the flocks against wolves and gave them fertility. The festival dates from the earliest period of the history of Rome; it was held on the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were supposed to have been nurtured by a she-wolf. The day of cele- bration was 15 February, which was originally the last month of the Roman year. LUPINE, a genus of annual and perennial herbs and a few shrubs’ (Lupinus) of the family Fabacee. The species, of which there are about 100, are sparsely represented in the Mediterranean region and in the eastern United States, but very numerous in the Western and Pacific Coast States. They have usually digitate leaves; pea-like showy blue, yellow or white flowers in terminal racemes, and flattened pods containing several large seeds. Several of the species have been long used for forage, for human food and for green manuring. Many others are grown for ornament. They thrive especially well upon light, dry soils deficient in lime, and are said to fail upon wet and limy soils. They are readily propagated by means of seed, or the perennials by -division, but these cannot be satisfactorily transplanted when once established. The most important species .are the blue lupine (L. hirsutus), the white lupine (L. albus) and the yellow lupine (L.. luteus), all of Old World origin. The plants are rich in nitrogenous. matter and are thus especially useful for stock-food as well as green manure. Like clover, peas and beans they can obtain free nitrogen from the air by means of their root tubercles. The ripe seeds are rich in proteid substances and but for their bitter prin- ciple would probably be more popular as human food than they are even"in Europe, where their consumption is enormous. The bitterness may be removed by long soaking in water. In America, though gaining in popularity as soil improvers and forage crops, the plants are sel- dom grown except for ornament. LUPOT, 1t’pd, Nicolas, most famous of French violin makers: b. Stuttgart, 1758; d. Paris, 1824. He was one of the third genera- tion of a family of well-known violin makers and has been called the “French Stradivarius.» LUPERCALIA — LURAY He produced fine instruments quite early in his career, as those made by him at Orléans (Rue d’Illiers) before his 20th year are considered bargains now in'Paris at 500 francs. He moved to Paris in 1794, setting up shop (1798-1803) at Rue de Grammont, next removing to Rue Croix des Petits Champs, at which place he produced the famous Italian copies. He favored the Stradivarius form for his copies, but made some instruments on Guarnerius lines. His au- tograph was placed on many of his creations or copies. One of his tours-de-force was the making of several quintets of two violins, two tenors and a bass, aiming at giving them true unity of tone and appearance. They are highly prized and priced by connoisseurs. From 1,000 to 1,200 francs is considered a low price for any of his instruments dated between 1805 and 1824, ’cellos fetching as high as 2,000 francs. Experts claim his weakest point to’ have been his varnish, which is usually thick, semi- opaque and lumpy. LUPUS, a generic term used to describe several varieties of chronic localized infiltrations of the skin. The most common of these are Lupus erythematosus and Lupus vulgaris. The former occurs in slightly elevated, scaly, red patches, varying in size, which show a strong tendency to the production of atrophic scars. It is most common on the face, ears and scalp, more rarely occurring on the hands and feet. It begins in several isolated or grouped red spots little larger than a pin-head and having a thin scale. These spots increase in size by peripheral extension, while the surface is partly covered by the grayish scales or thin scar tis- sue. The color is characteristic and is viola- ceous. They may remain small, or may grow large enough to cover the side of the face. Practically nothing is known of the etiology. The comparatively small patches have little effect on health, but the disseminated variety may cause death. Lupus vulgaris is a chronic disease of the skin, due to its invasion by the tubercle-bacillus ; characterized by one or more brownish- red lumps or patches that tend to- absorption, ulcer- ation and scar formation. The disease usually begins in childhood, the most frequent site be- ing the face, particularly the cheek and nose. There may be one or more such spots, but they show no tendency to symmetrical development. After a time slightly scaly patches will form by the coalescence of the tiny red spots. Some- times the disease has a slow course, for years remaining quiescent; in other cases it suddenly takes on a rapid growth. The erythematous form is treated by superficial caustics. Lupus vulgaris being a tubercular disease, hygiene is of great importance, and the X-rays and other powerful rays seem to exert a curative in- fluence on the growths. LURAY, 1li-ra’, Va., town, county-seat of Page County, on the Norfolk and “Western Railroad, about 100 miles north by west of Richmond and the same distance west by south of Washington. . It is situated in a beautiful valley almost surrounded by mountains; nearby are a number of mineral springs and the cele- brated Luray Cave (q.v.). A spring which flows through the town furnishes water power. It manufactures flour, lumber, wagons, car- riages and some agricultural implements. It has flour mills and a large tannery, also can- LURAY CAVE— LUSIADS neries and woodworking plants. The Luray College for Young Ladies is located here. The waterworks are the property of the municipality. Pop. 1,381 LURAY CAVE, in Page County, Va., is near the town of Luray, and on the Norfolk and Western Raitroad. This cave was discov- ered by Andrew J. Campbell and companions in August 1878. It is in the limestone belt of the Shenandoah Valley, on the western side of the Blue Ridge, and extends under the low spurs of some of the mountains. The area explored underlies about 100 acres. Electric lights have been installed, and they enable one to see the numerous stalactites, the tiers of galleries, nearly 300 feet in height, the various rooms or cavities, the colors from white to yellow, brown and red, and the marks which indicate the action of water for.ages. Many of the columns are over 50 feet in height and are hollow; when struck they give out bell-like notes. Many peo- ple visit this cave each. year. LURGAN, litr’gan, Ireland, town in the county of Armagh, 15 miles by rail to Armagh. It has a handsome parish church, Roman Catho- lic chapel, college, courthouse, bridewell, work- house, three banks, etc. Here are located great manufactures of linen cambrics, muslins, damasks, lawns, etc., and its weekly market has an important trade in agricultural products. Pop. about 12,553. LURIA, ioe ré-a, Isaac Ben Solomon, Jewish mystic: Jerusalem, 1534; d. Safed, 1572. He was Poiaa “Ashkenazi” (the Ger- man) on account of his descent. He received a thorough education and in 1559 became a spice merchant in Cairo, trading under the name of Isaac Luria. He contracted an early marriage the while continuing his studies. After two years of married life he went into seclusion to study the ‘Zohar, the Kabbalistic Bible. Luria claimed to have received visits from Elijah during his meditations, in the course of which he built up a mystic system of great beauty. In 1566 he went to Safed where he became the centre of a group of disciples of his mystic cult and where he was held in great esteem by the populace, being commonly re- puted a miracle worker. Luria wrote nothing but Hayyim Vital collected much oral material from his disciples from which he produced sev- eral works including the famous ‘Ez Hayyim’ (6 vols., 1784). See JEws AND JUDAISM — THE CABALA. LURTON, Horace Harmon, American jurist: b. Newport, Ky., 26 Feb. 1844; d. 12 July 1914. He entered (1859) Douglas Uni- versity, Chicago, but on the outbreak of the Civil War enlisted in a Tennessee regiment. Ill health caused his discharge (1862) when he had been serving as sergeant-major. Later he took part in the battle of Fort Donelson where he was taken prisoner but escaped and served during the “Morgan raid” to be again captured in Ohio, remaining a prisoner till the end of the war. He next studied law at Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn., where he was grad- uated in 1867. Practising law at Clarksville under different auspices and partners he became (1875) chancellor of the sixth chancery . divi- sion of Tennessee. In 1886 he was elected justice of the Supreme Court of Tennessee and, in 1893, was made chief justice, Two months 749 later President Cleveland appointed him circuit judge of the sixth United States Judicial Cir- cuit. In these later offices he had shown re- markable juridical talent, acting on the lines of human justice backed by courage. In 1898 he accepted from Vanderbilt University the chair of professor of constitutional law, re- taining it till 1910, when President Taft ap- pointed him associate justice of the Supreme Court. LUSHAIS, loo-shiz, a people native to the eastern border of Bengal, in Assam and Upper Burma, living in the little explored, wooded hills. They are divided into several clans under chieftains and have an organized military system. Those who have become more or less subjected to English rule are often called Kuki (“hill-men”). The men are tall, strong and well-built; the women, aided by wooden or ivory discs, draw their upper lips to won- derful size. All work is done by the women but they are held in some respect. These na- tives are brave hunters, herd cattle, sheep and swine and make cotton textiles, weave baskets, etc. They were continually making looting raids on British settlements but were subjected to influence at last in 1872. Their religion appears to extend to devotional exercises in time of trouble, to immediately fall into disuse when prospering. They are nature worship- pers. Consult Lewin, ‘Wild Races of South Eastern India». (London 1870); Soppit, C. A., ‘Short Account of the Kuki Lushai Tribes on the Northeast Frontier? (1887). LUSIADS, The. ‘The Lusiads) (Os Lusiadas”?) by Camoens (Luis de CamGes, 1524 or 1525-1580), published in 1572, is the great Portuguese national epic and is by far the out- standing masterpiece of Portuguese literature, as also one of the great epics of the modern world. More than possibly any other epic it may be called national in that the poet’s at- tempt is to picture the great glory of his people, the pleasantness and beauty of his na- tive land and the generous deeds of her princes on land and sea. It is an epic in 10. cantos containing altogether 1,102 eight-line stanzas of the same verse form as Ariosto’s ‘Orlando Furioso.». Even more striking than the Italian model is the influence of Virgil in the celestial machinery of the poem and the frequent refer- ence to classical mythology. The poem is, how- ever, by no means imitative; for the funda- mental conception and its working out are vigorous and original. Unlike the ‘/Eneid, it deals not with the exploits of one hero, but with the Portuguese nation. The story is told, however, iirough the per- son of an immediate hero, Vasco da Gama, and it deals with his great voyage of 1497-98 to India. After a spirited and serious invocation of 18 stanzas, the expedition is described as well on its way. Meanwhile the gods and god- desses of Olympus are holding conclave to determine the fate of the adventurers. The chief disputants are Venus, who was much af- fected toward the Portuguese, and Bacchus, who feared that, should the Portuguese succeed in reaching India, his renowned name would be “buried in the dark vase of the water of oblivion” Venus prevails, and the Portuguese are hospitably. received at Mozambique and Mombasa and other towns on the east coast of Africa. At Melinde, Vasco da Gama, in the 750 LUSITANIA third and fourth cantos of the epic, relates the story of the Portuguese nation from the time of the hero, Viriatus, and the Lusitanian shep- herds, who fought against the power of Rome, through the stirring days of Aljubarotta, down to the voyage to India. Most of the deeds are martial, as the account of the heroism of Alfonso Henriques, the sacrifice of Egas Moniz and the chastising of the Saracens by Sancho. The loveliest and best-known episode is the tale of Inez de Castro. The famous story shows the gentle, more pathetic side of the poem, the tenderness of the poet for his na- tive land. The stanzas in which da Gama relates the leavetaking at Lisbon show with impressive dignity the sadness of such a scene, and the old man who addresses his warning from the sea-shore typifies the spirit of the Portuguese people who, like other unambitious folk, are unable to see good of such lust for fame and glory. In the fifth canto, da Gama continues his narrative, confining himself to the story of the voyage. Escaping from various snares of the natives, they double the Cape of Storms (now the ‘Cape of Good Hope). The tem- pestuousness of the sea and the savage aspect of the land is personified to the mariners by the giant Adamastor. This derelict Titan, in- corporated forever in the rocky headland, rails at them as they pass and foretells the unending series of disasters which shall follow them and other mariners from their audacious voyage. The sultan of Melinde, pleased with the story and the martial aspect of the Portuguese, dis- misses them with pilots to show the way to India. Bacchus, however, has not done with them. He succeeded in persuading A©olus and Neptune to harry them between Melinde and Calicut. Their journey is beguiled by half- legendary tales of Portuguese honor or of Portuguese adventure, and they reach Calicut in safety. The seventh and eighth cantos tell what hap- pened in India. The ruler of Calicut gives them leave to trade and visit, and his wonder at the armament of the Portuguese, and his curiosity with regard to their banners and en- signs, gives Paulo da Gama an opportunity to recount the warlike deeds of his countrymen. This he does in spirited language and with no repetitions of the story told by his brother at Melinde. The nabob, however, is corrupted by Bacchus, with the result that the Portuguese have a narrow escape from treachery. Then the fleet, well laden with merchandise, explores the coast further to the east and finally turns back toward Lisbon. In the last cantos Venus, well pleased with the success of her beloved race, places in their path the Isle of Love, where the ships anchor and where the crews receive joyous welcome. The song of a siren foretells the future of a glorious nation, and the goddess Tethys, leading Vasco da Gama to the top of a high moun- tain, points out the lands of the earth and prophesies the share that the Portuguese shall have in them, naming to him the great men who shall follow and make worthy his dis- covery. There follows the closing address to the unfortunate king, Dom Sebastian, in a pas- sage of great dignity, earnestness and patriot- ism, a fitting close of a great poem. The management of the poem evidently rests on an anachronism: the constant use of pagan and classical gods furnishes the movement of the epic, while at the same time the facts are those which the poet has observed for himself or taken from history, and the morality and religion are contemporary. The episodes, how- ever, are combined with unusual skill, and serve to show a complete and general picture of the spirit which animated the nation. Alto- gether the poem is, as Hallam said, the first successful attempt in modern Europe to con- struct an epic poem on the ancient model and it is also the work of a man in whom the love of the fatherland was unfailing. In style, the epic is regarded by native critics as the best model in the language. At its best, it is direct, reserved, swinging, sometimes brilliantly emphatic: at its worst, prolix and without humor. Like the Portuguese style, it is accumulative,— that is, it works by massings and repetitions, rather. than by swift epigram, terseness, spontaneity and the single phrase. The. influence of ‘The Lusiads? has been great in Portugal and elsewhere. In Portugal it was followed by many epics dealing with the deeds of the Portuguese, of which the ‘Lisboa Edificada> of Gabriel Pereira de Castro and the ‘Naufragio da Sepulveda? by Jeronymo de Cortereal are good examples. The epic period lasted for 30 or 40 years in Portugal, and the form has had several recur- rences both in Portugal and Brazil in the 18th and the 19th centuries. Outside of Portugal, ‘The Lusiads» has been translated over 80 times into as many as 15 different languages. There are at least nine published versions in English, ranging from that of Sir Richard Fanshaw in 1665, to that of Sir Richard Bur- ton in 1880, the most ambitious and sympa- thetic of all. The most accurate translation in almost all respects, the best for the reader who wishes to follow the Portuguese with an almost line for line English version, is that of J. J. Aubertin. The reader should refer to the Vis- conde de Juromenha’s ‘Vida de Luis de Camoes? (in Vol. I of the authorized edition of the ‘Obras?); to Theophilo Braga’s ‘His- toria de CamGes’; to Oliveira Martin’s ‘Ca- moes, Os Lusiadas e a Renascenca em Portu- gal>; and, in English, to Sir R. F. Burton’s “Camoens: his Life and his Lusiads. WILLIAM T. BREWSTER. LUSITANIA, | lii-si-ta’ni-a, Spain, the name of an ancient region of Hispania, the boundaries of which appear to have varied at different times: (1) on south by the Tagus and the ocean on the north and _ west; (2) bounded on the north by the Douro; (3) one of the three provinces in which Augustus divided the Iberian Peninsula, and lying south of the Tagus. The inhabitants were warlike and brave, lived upon plunder and were rude and unpolished in their manners. The Romans had great difficulty in conquering them, being frequently defeated by Viriathus, chief of the Lusitanians, who was captured by treachery and put to death, about 140 B.c., Lusi- tania shortly afterward coming under Roman control. LUSITANIA, British Cunard liner, tor-~ pedoed and sunk by a German submarine 10 miles off Old Head of Kinsale, on the south- i i Pte LUSK — LUTHER western coast of Ireland, at 2.05 p.m. on Friday, 7 May 1915. The Lusitania was built by the firm of John Brown and Company and launched on 7 June 1906, at Clydebank. The length of the vessel was 785 feet; breadth, 88 feet; depth to the boat-deck, 80 feet; maximum draught, 37 feet, and a height to the mast-head of 216 feet; gross tonnage, 40,000. She was fitted to carry 2,800 passengers, besides the crew. The Lusitania and her sister ship the Mauretania were built by the Cunard Steamship Company under special agreement with — and subsidized by—the British government. The funda- mental condition of that agreement was that the vessel should be “capable of maintaining a minimum average ocean speed of from 24 to 25 knots in moderate weather.” Fulfilment of that condition restored to the British that supremacy of speed on the Transatlantic serv- ice (“the blue ribbon”) which had passed to the Germans some years before. Fitted with tur- bine engines, at her speed test the vessel averaged 25.35 knots over a 24-hour run. The maiden voyage, from Liverpool to New York, was made in September 1907, and in November the vessel established a record by making the journey from Fastnet to New York in 4 days, 18 hours, 40 minutes. The cost of the Luisi- tanide was about $9,000,000; depreciation, main- tenance and other charges were estimated at about $150,000 a month, and the expenses of each voyage to’. New York and back was ap- proximately $150,000. During the first nine months of the war the vessel crossed the ocean with almost her accustomed regularity. On 6 Feb. 1915 the Lusitania arrived at Liverpool flying the American flag and with a number of American passengers aboard. The German submarine “blockade» of .the British Isles opened on 18 Feb. 1915. (On 1 May, the day the Lusitania was scheduled to sail from New York, an advertisement appeared in the leading journals of the United States emanating from the German embassy at Washington warning Americans against traveling on British ships. The Lusitania left New York on that day, com- manded by Captain W. H. Turner, with a crew of over 600 and 1,250 passengers, among them 188 Americans. Her cargo was valued at $740,000, and consisted of copper articles, brass, furs and small-arms cartridges, but no guns, high explosives nor loaded shells. The vessel was not armed. She sank in about 21 minutes after being struck by the first torpedo. The total death roll amounted to 1,154 (755 of them being passengers, of whom 114 were Americans, and in addition there were 35 infants). The German claim that the Lusitania carried guns was disproved by American officials of the port of New York who inspected the ship before her departure. The Federal District Court of New York, in a decision written by Judge J. M. Mayer and filed 24 Aug. 1918, held that the vessel was unarmed and carried no explosives of any kind (Current History, New York, Octo- ber 1918). As a result of the tragedy, a diplo- matic controversy developed between the United States and Germany. See War, Euro- PEAN. LUSK, Graham, American physiologist: b. Bridgeport, Conn., 15 Feb. 1866. He was graduated (1887) at Columbia | University, studied at Munich and was appointed (1891) 751 instructor of physiology at Yale University, then successively assistant professor (1892-95), and professor (1895-98). He was (1898-1909) pro- fessor of physiology at the University and Bellevue Hospital College, and. professor of physiology at Cornell University Medical Col- lege, New York, from 1909. He has acted as scientific director to Russell Sage Institute of Pathology and has written ‘Elements of the Science of Nutrition» (1906); ‘The Funda- mental Basis of Nutrition» (1914), besides con- tributing to numerous scientific journals. LUSK, William Thompson, American physician: b. Norwich, Conn., 23 May 1838; d. New York, 12 June 1897. He entered Yale in 1855 but failing sight caused him to leave in a year for treatment of the eyes in Europe. He next (1858) took up the study of medicine at Heidelberg and after two years studied at Berlin for one year. On his return to America he served (1861-63) in the army, going to the front on the staff of Gen. I. I. Stevens, and (1863) resigned at request to take command of a regiment recruiting in New York City, but accepting instead the appointment of adjutant- general, with rank of captain, under Gen. Dan- iel Tyler. He was cited for conspicuous gal- lantry on several occasions. Resigning in 1863 he entered Bellevue Medical College, New York City, where he was graduated. After studying in Europe he settled at Bridgeport, Conn., and practised medicine (1865-66), then removed to New York City. From 1869-71 he was profes- sor of physiology and microscopic anatomy at Long Island Medical College, delivering lec- tures at Harvard Medical School. In 1871 he accepted the chair of obstetrics and diseases of women at Bellevue Hospital Medical College which he held till his death. In his latter years he was coeditor with Dr. James B. Hun- ter of the New York Medical Journal. Among his many works he wrote ‘Science and Art of Midwifery? (5th ed. 1897), which has been translated into many languages. LUSKA, Sidney. See Hartanp, HENRY. LUSTRATION, in ancient Rome, a cere- mony of solemn purification or consecration of the Roman people,.by means of an expiatory sacrifice, which was performed after every census. The sacrifice consisted of a bull, a sow anda sheep or ram. The ram was ded- icated to Jupiter, the swine to Ceres and the bull to Mars. As this lustration took place at the end of every five years, lustrum came to signify a period of five years. LUTE, a stringed musical instrument for- merly much in use. It originally contained six strings, but the number was gradually increased till it reached 24. The lute consists of four parts, namely, the table; the body, constructed of nine convex ribs; the neck, which has as many frets or divisions; and the head or cross, in which the screws for tuning it are inserted. In playing this instrument the performer strikes the strings with the fingers of the right hand, and regulates the sounds with those of the left. The notes of the lute are generally written on six lines, and not on five. There were formerly various kinds in use. LUTETIA. See Parts. LUTHER, Martin, German religious re- former; b. Eisleben, Saxony, 10 Nov. 1483; 752 d. there, 18 Feb. 1546. Hans Luther, his father, a miner in very humble circumstances, removed with his family to Mansfeld in 1484, and in the course of time was appointed to a seat in the council. Martin. was educated in the deepest respect for religion, and under the severest discipline, his parents practising the most aus- tere lives of virtue and piety. At 14 he was sent to the school at Magdeburg, whence he removed in 1499 to Eisenach. At first he ob- tained his support by singing songs at the door like many other poor scholars; but was soon taken under the care of a benevolent lady named Ursula Cotta. At school he made rapid progress in Latin and in other studies; in 1501 he entered the University of Erfurt, where his mental ability soon won him distinction among his fellows. In 1505 he received the degree of master. He was orginally destined by his father for the law, but circumstances at this time turned his attention to religious truth, and he began the study of divinity. Then to the surprise and regret of his father came the young man’s “great renunciation” and his de- termination -to enter the monastery of the Augustines at Erfurt in 1505. Luther regarded himself as an unprofitable servant, tortured himself with bitter reproaches and was attacked by a severe fit of sickness, during which one of the elder brothers consoled him and promised him the forgiveness of his sins through faith in Jesus Christ, a doctrine which Luther after- ward declared brought a new light into his soul. He was also much encouraged by Stau- pitz, the provincial of the Order, who perceived his great talents and encouraged him to con- tinue this theological studies. Staupitz himself had a singularly clear gospel conception of the cardinal doctrines of faith, repentance, the love and holiness of God, and it is no doubt true that Luther owed much of his “insight” into truth and the opportunity to give it expression to the kindly vicar-general. It is also well to remember in considering the life and work of Luther that some of his best and most cherished works — the Epistles to the Romans and the Galatians, his edition of Tauler’s ‘Theologia Germanica,? and the exposition of the Seven Penitential Psalms were conceived while he was a member of his Order; as late as 1516 even, the year before his renunciation, he emphasized in a sermon the cardinal principle, “The Church cannot err in proclaiming the faith, only the individual within ther is liable to error In 1507 he was ordained priest, and in 1508, by the influence of Staupitz, Luther was called by Frederick of Saxony to the chair of philcso- phy at the newly-founded University of Wit- tenberg. He lectured on the Aristotelian phi- losophy at the university as well as in the mon- astery, and at the same time began his activity as a preacher. In 1510 he made a journey to Rome on business of his order. In 1512 he took the degree of doctor of theology. It was shortly after this, in 1514, that Leo X issued a bull, granting an indulgence to all who should _ contribute to the rebuilding of Saint Peter’s Church at Rome. Tetzel, a Dominican friar, was chosen by the cardinal archbishop of Mainz, who, iointly with the guardian of the Fran- ciscan friars, was named commissary of the indulgence for Saxony and the north of Ger- many, to preach the indulgence through this district. It was the preaching of Tetzel which LUTHER was the occasion of the beginning of the Ref- ormation. Tetzel was preaching at Juterbogk, a few miles from Wittenberg, when, on the eve of All Saints’ day, 31 Oct. 1517, Luther affixed his 95 theses to the door of the Scholss- kirche, challenging the Dominican friar. Though carefully guarded in their wording, Luther’s propositions were clearly contrary, in some respects, to the current doctrine. The sixth thesis denied the power of the keys, and maintained that the Pope can only declare a sin to be forgiven by God; the 36th, that through true contrition a Christian is freed from all guilt and punishment; the 66th spoke not of abuses, but said of indulgences in gen- eral that they were nets to catch money with; but the 7lst declared anathema to him who would reject indulgences altogether. It is clear that Luther at this time had no concep- tion of the Reformation as a movement in op- position to the Catholic Church, nor any idea of denying the supremacy of the chair of Saint Peter, but was worked into a fury by abuses which he thought the ecclesiastical authorities were not sufficiently active in regulating, and his zeal carried him to the breaking point with the ancient Church. His propositions were condemned as heretical as soon as they ap- peared. Hoogstraaten, a Dominican of Co- logne, Eck at Ingolstadt, and Prierias, an officer of the Roman court, immediately made replies to his theses; but neither argument, invectivé, the summons to Rome, which he did not obey, nor the mild counsels of Cardinal Cajetan at Augsburg in 1518, and of the nuncio Militz at Altenburg in 1519, were sufficient to induce him to recant. His replies were made with great boldness and determination, and even after his dispute with Eck at Leipzig in 1519, he still maintained the invalidity of indulgences and of the supremacy of the Pope. He appealed from the decision of Cardinal Cajetan to the Pope, and from the Pope to a general council. In the year 1519, at Leipzig, occurred the famous public disputation between Luther and Carlstadt on the one side and Eck on the other, upon the questions at issue. The result was barren. Both sides claimed the victory and the contestants parted unchanged in their respec- tive attitudes. The Leipzig disputation only precipitated a long and bitter controversy, and Luther remained as determined in his opposi- tion as ever. Militz tried once more to make. peace, and met Luther for a second time at Liebenwerde. But the conference was again without fruit. Luther’s position had now grown more and more radical, though as yet there was no formal, complete and definite rup- ture with Rome. The controversy by this time had spread throughout all Germany, and princes and people were arrayed in bitter fac- tions over the issue. Early in 1520 Luther ap- pealed to Charles V, who had succeeded the Emperor Maximilian. He also addressed let- ters to the bishops of Mainz and Merseburg to enlist them in his cause. The bishop of Mainz, in his reply, treated the questions at issue as of a trivial and frivolous character, and the bishop of Merseburg repudiates Luther’s posi- tion and exhorts him to submit. Among his friends at this time were Willibad Pirkheimer and Albrecht Dirrer, though they did not follow him when the formal break with Rome came. Ulrich Von Hutten encouraged and urged him ween 68 Ke acee. a4 2) eo a = = iS S ~% gut \ i : f , ; ’ j . . P | ! : y * e te TS \ ae | ' f ra j it * r c i : a ~ a ae Ws - pM . 4 Le 4 on ; 4 **% ; Sy Ih. ' a3 wd a = s rednany st os ies tei 14 LUTHER forward. Franz von Sickingen and Sylvester von Schaumberg declared their readiness to put a number of armed knights in the field for him, should it be necessary. Two notable books now appeared from Luther’s pen defining his attitude: ‘To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation,» and the ‘Babylonian Captiv- ity. In the former he proclaims the universal priesthood and declares against any especially instituted priestly order. He also contests the right of the Pope to interpret the Bible, which he declares to be free to everybody. He like- wise inveighs against the Pope’s exclusive right to summon a general council. In the ‘Baby- lonian Captivity» he altogether repudiates the doctrine of indulgences, holds that the papacy is nothing but Babylon, and reduces the sacra- ments to three only — “Baptism, Penance, and Bread» The latter work was in preparation when the bull of excommunication against Luther arrived in Germany. The attitude of Luther was more and more one of outspoken opposition to the Pope and to the doctrines of the Church itself, and so far had his opposition now advanced that the Ro- man authorities decided to proceed to extreme measures to crush it. In October 1520, there- fore, the memorable bull excommunicating Luther and his friends was published at Leip- zig. His writings were burned at Rome, Co- logne and Louvain. The answer to the papal bull was characteristic of Luther. At Witten- berg, 10 Dec. 1520, he burned the bull of ex- communication and the decretals of the papal canon. By this act he dissolved all connection with the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. Frederick, the elector of Saxony, doubted whether he should protect him. But the Ger- man noblemen, Hutten, Sickingen, Schaum- burg, whom he called upon to defend the new opinions, hailed him as the champion of reli- gious liberty and offered him the protection of their fortresses and their arms. On 28 January Charles V opened the Diet of Worms and com- manded Frederick to bring Luther with him to appear before that body to answer for his con- duct. Frederick demurred, on the plea of his fear for the safety of his protégé. When, how- ever, Luther’s opinion was asked, he declared that he was ready to appear, and that not even illness would hold him back. In the meantime Charles had revoked his command in order to allow the 60 days to pass granted by the bull of excommunication. Another papal bull was issued, however, after the burning of the first, in which Luther was definitely declared a here- tic, and an interdict put upon all places har- boring him. Summoned a second time, before the Diet, he expressed his willingness, if he were granted a safe conduct, which was ac- corded him by the emperor. He was met by about 2,000 persons on foot and on horseback at the distance of a league from Worms. When the palatine sent a messenger to warn him of his danger he answered, “If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses I would go on. Before the emperor, the Archduke Ferdinand, 6 elec- tors, 24 dukes, 7 margraves, 30 bishops and prelates and many princes, counts, lords and ambassadors, Luther appeared, 17 ‘April, in the Imperial Diet, acknowledged all his writings, and on the following day made his defense be- fore the assembly. The conclusion of his VOL. 17— 48 753 speech has been transmitted from generation to generation as follows: “Let me then be re- futed and convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by the clearest arguments, other- wise I cannot and will not recant, for it is neither safe nor expedient to act against con- science. Here I take my stand; I can do no otherwise, so help me God! Amen.” Whether or not this is historically correct (and its form is certainly very doubtful) makes little differ- ence: the fact is beyond question that he did stand firm and refuse to yield or recant. Fred- erick the Wise conveyed him privately to the Wartburg to save his life. Luther took advan- tage of this retirement to translate the New Testament into German. But this seclusion con- tinued only 10 months. When informed of the disturbances excited by Carlstadt on the sub- ject of images he could no longer endure re- straint, notwithstanding the new outlawry which the emperor had issued against him at Nuremberg; and at the risk of provoking the displeasure of the elector he hastened to Wit- tenberg through the territory of George, Duke of Saxony, who was one of his most bitter enemies. The sermons which he delivered for eight successive days after his return (in March 1522) to quell the violence of the en- raged insurgents in Wittenberg are patterns of vigorous and popular eloquence. Amidst these disputes and attacks his plans for a total reformation of the Church were matured. In 1523 at Wittenberg he began to revise the liturgy, and in 1524 laid aside his cowl. In 1525 Luther married Katharina von Bora, who some years previously had left the cloister and joined the reformed religion. He prepared, from 1526 to 1529, a new church serv- ice, corresponding to his ideas of the doctrines of the gospel, under the patronage of the elec- tor and with the aid of Melanchthon (q.v.) and other members of the Saxony Church. His larger and smaller catechisms, to be used in schools, were also of great service. An unsuc- cessful effort was made in 1529 at Marburg, in a conference between Luther and Zwingli, the Swiss reformer, to bring the German and Swiss movements into harmony. But Luther’s per- emptory refusal to accept Zwingli’s views upon the question of the Lord’s Supper precluded any possibility of agreement. The Reforma- tion (q.v.) spread rapidly, and the Augsburg Confession, the earliest symbol of Lutheran Protestantism, was drafted by Melanchthon from articles prepared by Luther. During all these years he waged a ceaseless polemic against Rome, and made strenuous efforts to’ establish harmony among German Protestants. The in- tolerance which he manifested toward the Swiss reformers, because their views differed from his own in regard to the Lord’s Supper, shows that he was not yet ready to grant that liberty to others which he demanded for him- self. He was in this matter the chief cause of the separation which took place between the Calvinists and the Lutherans. The rapidity with which the Reformation advanced after the Confession of Augsburg in 1530 rendered the papal bulls and the imperial edicts against Luther ineffectual. In 1537 Luther wrote the Schmalkaldic articles; he gave no heed to the ambassadors of Brandenburg and Anhalt, who were sent in 1541 by the Diet of Ratisbon. to make him more submissive to the Church, and 54 LUTHER in 1545 he refused to participate in the Coun- cil of Trent. In his controversies with his foes and op- ponents Luther’s spirit was oftentimes savage, biting, coarse, displaying almost uncontrollable anger and sometimes unjustifiable hatred. The occasional asperity which he showed in: the defense of his faith, however, by no means diminished the merit of his constancy; and an apology may easily be found for the frequent rudeness and coarseness of his expressions in the prevailing mode of thinking and speaking; in the nature of his undertaking which required continual conflict; in the provocations by which he was perpetually assailed; in his frequent sickness; and in his excitable imagination, evi- dent from the days of his novitiate. The same excitability of temperament will serve to ex- plain those dreadful temptations of the devil which disquieted him. That age regarded the devil with horror as a personage ever active; and those devoted to the cause of God felt themselves constantly obliged to resist attacks of the evil one. Luther himself says, “I was born to fight with devils and factions. This is the reason that my books are so boisterous and stormy. It is my business to remove ob- structions, to cut down thorns, to fill up quag- mires, and to open and make straight the paths; but if I must necessarily have some failing let me rather speak the truth with too great severity than once act the hypocrite and con- ceal the truth” No one can behold without astonishment his unwearied activity and zeal. The work of translating the Bible, which might well occupy a whole life, he completed, with some assistance from Melanchthon and other friends, between 1521 and 1534. This transla- tion takes the same place in Germany as the King James version does in England and the United States with regard to the religious life and literature of the people. Luther equaled the most prolific authors in the number of his treatises on the most important doctrines of his creed. After the year 1512 he preached several times every week, and at certain pcriods every day; he officiated at the confess‘onal and at the altar; he carried on an extensive corre- spondence in Latin and German on various subjects with men of rank and of distingu’ shed literary attainments and with his private friends. He gave advice and assistance wherever it) was needed and interested himself on behalf of every indigent person who applied to him. In company he was lively, and abounded in sallies of wit and humor preserved in his ‘Tischreden? (‘Table-Talk? ). Luther was no stranger to the elegant arts. His excellent hymns such as ‘Ein’ feste Burg, SAus tiefer Noth, are well known. His fondness of music, too, was such that he would often relax his mind with composition, with singing and playing on the flute and lute. Luther kept up his tremendous activities until the close of his life. Just before his last tour- ney to Eisleben, where he was summoned hv the Count of Mansfeld to settle a disntute, he wrote in a letter to a friend’ the following description of his condition: “Aged, worn out, weary, spiritless, and now blind of one eye, TY long for a little rest and quietness; yet I have as much to do in writing and preaching and acting as if I had never written or preache or acted. I am weary of the world, and the world is weary of me: the parting will be - easy, like that of a guest leaving the inn; I pray only that God will be gracious to me in my last hour, and I shall quit the world without reluctance.» His wife died in 1552. The 400th anniversary of the birth of Luther was commemorated with special observances throughout Protestant countries in the year 1883. The Tercentennial Commemoration of the Reformation ‘begun by Luther at Wittenberg, on All Saints’ Eve, 31 Oct. 1517; had been cele- brated in 1817, and the Protestant world had been looking forward with increasing anticipa- tion to the Quadricentennial Commemoration in 1917. The event, however, was overshadowed by the Great World War which had been raging for three years from August 1914. Neverthe- less the event had wide, if subdued, recog- nition in many countries. As expressed by a prominent New York Lutheran divine, “With- out any spirit of hostility to the Roman Catho- lic Church, but with a cheerful recognition of its conscientious devotion and labor of love and sacrifice for the cause of Christ. . . . the idea of the observance is to study the causes, the necessity and the generic truths of that epochal event, so as to emphasize anew -their vital significance. It is done out of fealty to the word of God and with the conviction that the principles enunciated by the reformers are essential to a true church, and to a scrip- tural Christianity». From Wittenberg, on the anniversary day, 31 Oct. 1917, rejecting peace proposals, the German Evangelical League, howe ever, launched a manifesto in which militant sayings of Luther were forcibly applied to the current events of the war. It read in part as follows, “We especially warn against the heresy promulgated from America that Chris- tianity enjoins democratic institutions, and that they are an essential condition for the estab- lishment of the kingdom of God on earth. As_ Luther said, ‘The freedom of a Christian does not depend on forms of government; these are shaped by historical developments and the ac- cumulated experience of nations.» The Quad- ricentennial Commemoration gave rise to a great quantity of magazine literature, Protestant and Catholic, on the influence of Luther on modern history, which may be studied with advantage as throwing greater light on the civi- lizing trend of the four centuries since Luther's inception of the Reformation, and the remark- able Catholic: revival known as the Counter- Reformation. Consult Butler, N. M., in ‘Cele- brating 400 years of Protestantism? from New York Times, 23 Sept. 1917; and for further articles ‘Luther, Martin,» and ‘Reformation’? (in Cumulative Index of Periodical Literature, New York 1917), and New York Times Index (New York 1917); also bibliography attached to this article. No great historic character has been more of a “problem” to friend and foe alike than Luther. Historians without number have utterly failed. rightly to understand or satisfactorily to interpret the reformer and his strenuous and eventful life. No man has-been more violently assailed, and none has had warmer defenders. He has been pictured as an inspired personality, an extraordinary genius, a national hero, the “prophet: of a new religious point of view and the creator of a new ethical ideal”; the chosen of God; the deliverer of the Church; the champion of conscience and individual free- - LUTHER COLLEGE —LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA dom; the creator of a national literature; and again he has been bitterly assailed as a raving monk; a barbarous writer and demagogue; a child of the devil; the insane monk; a cor- rupt and shameless sensualist; false to his vows and hypocritical and deceitful in his life. For this reason. the writer has endeavored to limit this sketch simply to a faithful and suggestive outline of the history of Luther’s life, believ- ing that a fuller understandine must be sought in the larger study afforded by extended sources relating to the man, and the time and nature of his activities. See CHristIAN Doc- TRINE, DEVELOPMENT OF; REFORMATION; COUN- TER-REFORMATION; and related references. Bibliography.— Luther’s works are partly in German, partly in Latin. Of earlier editions the most complete is that by Walch (1740-53) ; and of later, the Erlangen-Frankfort editions (German writings 1826-57; Latin writings 1829- 86); and that published at Weimar (1883 et seq.). There are separate collections of his letters and his table-talk. Of accounts of his life may be mentioned those by Meurer (3d ed., 1870); Kostlin, J. (4th ed., 1889), Eng- lish translation (1883); and Peter Bayne (1887). Consult also Beard, ‘Martin Luther and His Reformation in Germany; Tulloch, ‘Leaders of the Reformation? ; Lindsay, ‘Lu- ther and the German Reformation? (1900) ; McGiffert, A. C., ‘Martin Luther: The Man and His Work? (New York 1911); Bohmer, H.,.. ‘Luther. in. Light. of ..Recent.. Research? (New York 1916). For Roman Catholic view of. .Luther, .consult ,Evers,:.M., ‘M. Luther, Lebens und Charakterbild? (1883-91) ; Verres, ‘Luther? (1884) ; Janssen, ‘History of the Ger- man People? (1900), ‘Luther and His Protest- ant Biographers? (in American Catholic Quar- terly Review, pp. 582-601, New York 1901). GEORGE Epwin RINEs. LUTHER COLLEGE, situated at De- corah, Iowa. It was founded in 1861 under the auspices of the Synod of the Norwegian Lutheran Church in America. There is a _ preparatory department, besides the regular col- legiate department. The degree of A.B. is con- ferred. In 1916 the value of the productive funds was $279,000; the annual income amounted to $35,000; the library contained 26,000 volumes. The students numbered 207 and the faculty 17. For boys only. President, Rev. Christian Key- sér Preus. Total number of graduates up to and including 1916, 697. LUTHER LEAGUE OF AMERICA, The, a society organized in 1895 at Pittsburgh, Pa., with the object of linking together the Lutheran young people who are laboring for the good of the Church by means of many individual societies of various names and styles of organization, each within its own immediate church. The constitution declares that its ob- jects shall be “to encourage the formation of the young people’s societies in all Lutheran congregations in America, to urge their affilia- tion with their respective State or Territorial leagues, and with this league to stimulate the various young people’s societies to greater Christian activity and to foster the spirit of loyalty to the Church.” The fundamental prin- ciples are federation and co-operation, and it is non-synodical in character. The total mem- bership is over 100,000. These are comprised in 755 25 States, 14 of which already have permanent State organizations, and five foreign countries. A monthly journal, The Lutheran League Re- view, is published in New York. Consult the ‘Luther League Handbook? (New York) and Bacon and Northrop, ‘Young People’s So- cieties? (ib. 1900). . LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA. Early History.— The first Lutherans in Amer- ica came from Holland during the Thirty Years’ War on account of religious oppression, and settled in the colony of New Netherlands. The exact year of their arrival is not known; some seem to have come with the very first settlers in 1623, but they are mentioned in 1643 as living in Manhattan (New Amsterdam—New York). A congregation was established in 1648. The recognized religion of the colony being strict Calvinism, the Lutherans were treated very harshly, especially by the governor, Peter Stuyvesant. Their children had to be brought to Calvinistic preachers for baptism, and they were fined and imprisoned even for holding informal services for the reading of the Bible. They applied to their home church for a pastor of their own faith and John Ernest Gutwasser (Goetwater) was sent them in 1657, but was sent back by the authorities in 1659. They ob- tained religious freedom only with the capture of the city by the English in 1664. In the fol- lowing years ministers were sent to them from Amsterdam, Holland, but sometimes long va- cancies occurred, and they were obliged to apply to the Lutheran Swedes on the Delaware for spiritual ministration. Prominent among their ministers in the 18th century was the German, Justus Falckner (1703-23), the first Lutheran minister ordained in America, who also served the Lutherans on both sides of the Hudson as far up as Albany; W. C. Berkenmeyer, also a German, and M. Knoll. Gradually the con- gregations turned from the Dutch to the Ger- man and English languages. Distinctively Lutheran settlements were made by the Swedes alone the Delaware, where Wilmington is now situated, beginning with 1638. Reorus Torkillus was their first pastor. He was succeeded by John Campanius, who was the first to begin mission work among the North American Indians, and who translated Luther’s Catechism into the Delaware language. His labors enabled William Penn, in after years, to carry out his pacific policy toward the Indians. Campanius also dedicated the first Lutheran church in the new world on the island of Tinicum, near Philadelphia. As. most of the Swedish pastors returned to Sweden after some years, and as the Swedish was replaced by the English language, the congregations gradu- ally fell away from their mother church and entered into communion with those of the Protestant Episcopal Church. The great influx of German Lutherans took place in the first half of the 18th century, after the first German colony, under the leadership of Pastorius, had arrived in 1683 and founded Germantown, now a part of Philadelphia. In Germantown. the first German Lutheran service was conducted in 1694 by Rev. H. B. Koester, and in Falckner’s Swamp (New Hanover, Pa.), near Philadelphia, the first German Lutheran church was in existence in 1704. This first German Lutheran congregation was 756 served by Daniel Falckner, the older brother of Justus Falckner. In New York the leader of the immigrants was Joshua Kocherthal, a Lutheran minister from the Palatinate, arriving on New Year’s day 1701. The Palatinate had been ravaged with fire and sword under Louis XIV of France, the inhabitants were obliged to flee in order to save their lives and many of these fugitives found a temporary refuge in England, where Queen Anne arranged for their emigration to America. In 1710 not less than 11 ships came to New York carrying some 3,000 immigrants. They settled in the.Catskill Hills on the banks of the Hudson; later on many of them went westward and moved into the Schoharie Valley. All were served by the inde- fatigable and faithful Kocherthal. In 1734 the Lutheran Salzburgers, driven from their homes in Austria through persecution, settled in Georgia not far from Savannah.. Their settle- ment was named Ebenezer, and their pastors were Bolzius and Gronau. Gradually groups of German Lutherans were found along the whole Atlantic Coast. In Pennsylvania alone some 60,000 Lutherans were settled about the year 1750, for whose spiritual wants there was, at first, no adequate provision. Several of these Pennsylvania congregations joined in sending a delegation to London (Court-chaplain Ziegen- hagen), and to Halle in Germany (Prof. A. H. Francke), representing the needs of the immi- grants and asking for able clergymen. These negotiations finally resulted in the coming to America of Henry Melchior Muehlenberg, the pious and indefatigable so-called “patriarch of the Lutheran Church in America” He arrived in 1742, served the congregations that had called him, organized new congregations far and wide, built churches (Saint Michael’s, Philadel- phia) and in every possible way was active for the Church. He was followed by a number of educated and faithful men from Germany (Kurtz, Kunze and others), and thus an era of great activity began among the scattered Lutheran churches, their number being con- tinually increased through the coming of more immigrants, and the Lutheran Church attain- ing considerable influence. Synodical Organizations One of the most important things done by Muehlenberg was the founding of the first Lutheran synod in America, the still existing “Evangelical Lutheran Ministerium of Pennsylvania and adjacent States.” It took place 26 Aug. 1748, and Ger- man and Swedish pastors participated in the organization. Before Muehlenberg’s death (1787) the second Lutheran synod was organ- ized through the efforts of his son, Rev. F. A. C. Muehlenberg, and his son-in-law, Rev. J. C. Kunze (1786), and in the following decades other bodies were formed: the North Carolina Synod (the mother of all the southern synods), in 1803; the synod of Ohio in 1818; the Ten- nessee Synod in 1820. Throughout the 19th century such synodical organization took place, partly in consequence of branching off from the older synods, sometimes also in opposition to them, but chiefly on account of the rapid and remarkable expansion of the Church through the coming of immigrants from Europe, especially to the Western States. The entire number of synods now in existence is 62. The internal condition of the Church, however, , pole: LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA in the closing years of the 18th and in the first decades of the 19th century, was not a good The ravages of two wars left their marks; the problem of transition from German to English worship was not always solved in the right way; but above all the rationalistic and unionistic tendencies in the European churches bore their fruits also in America and left the Lutheran Church in a deplorable state of desolation. The founding of the Missouri Synod (Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Mis- souri, Ohio and other States) in Chicago, 26 April 1847, had a most significant influence on the external and internal development of the Lutheran Church in the United States. In 1839 a colony of Saxon Lutherans numbering about 700 souls had come to America, having left their native land on account of the bad condition of their home church, showing itself in the opposition to the Lutheran Confessions and the prevalence of rationalism, and had settled in Saint Louis and in Perry County, Mo. Their leader was Martin Stephen and with him came a number of earnest and devout pastors and candidates. When their leader was found to be a deceiver he was excommunicated, and C. F. W. Walther, one of those younger pas- tors, a man of remarkable ability as theologian, preacher, author and church organizer, came to the front. In 1844 he began to edit the semi- monthly church paper Der Lutheraner, which rapidly became the organ for confessional Lutheranism. About the same time Pastor F. Wyneken had come to America and had spent some years in serving the scattered Lutherans in Indiana and Michigan. Not being able to take care of the great number of them he returned to Germany and interested the home churches in the work. Especially Pastor W. Loehe of Neuendettelsau, Bavaria, took a very active part in preparing an 1 sending ministers to America; and these three parties, the Saxon immigrants ’ (Walther, Loeber, Keyl, Fuerbrin- ger and others), the Loehian pastors (Sihler, Craemer and others) and Wyneken, combined and organized the Missouri Synod, which has ever stood for strict confessionalism and through its testimony has had decided influence for good upon the whole Lutheran Church, also in foreign countries, although it severed . all connection with the German state churches and upholds and emphasizes the principle of absolute separation of church and_ state. Through the untiring labors of its pastors in home mission work, and through the attention given to the training of the young in parish schools, it has become by far the largest Lutheran synod in America, consisting at present of 23 district synods and extending over practically every State of the Union, to Canada and even to Brazil and Argentina. About the same time (1839) another band of German Lutherans had left Prussia on account of the Prussian Church Union between the Lutheran and Reformed churches (1817) and under the leadership of J. A. Grabau organized the Buffalo Synod in 1845. Some years later (1854) the Iowa Synod was founded, also by German missionaries sent by Loehe, after the Missourians and Loehe had parted on account of doctrinal differences. Finally, the Scandi- navian Lutherans must be mentioned. Even before the middle of the 19th century a tide of LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA Scandinavian immigration had set in, leading in the course of time to synodical organization. The most prominent was the Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Synod of North America, founded in 1853 by H. A. Preus, J. A. Ottesen and others. A controversy on the doctrine of predestination led*to a separation and to the forming of the United Norwegian Lutheran Church in America, in 1890. Prior to this the Norwegian Hauge Synod had been or- ganized through the influence of E. Eielsen, originally a lay preacher and adherent of Hauge, a theologian of pietistic tendency. The largest Swedish Lutheran body, the Augustana Synod, was founded in 1860. Besides these, the Danes, Finns and Icelanders have their own synods. The Slovak Evangelical Augsburg Confession Synod, organized in 1902, is in sympathy with the Missouri Synod. General Bodies.— Most of the 62 Lutheran synods in the United States are combined in larger “general organizations.» The oldest of these is the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States of America, formed in 1820 through the efforts of the Pennsylvania ministerium, at that time the largest Lutheran synod in America. The Gen- eral Synod aimed at a union of all Lutherans, but, when the Pennsylvania Synod withdrew in 1823, it comprised for some years only a number of smaller English synods. Gradually it grew, the Pennsylvania Synod again united with it and in 1860 it embraced 26 synods. However, during the Civil War the synods south of the Potomac withdrew, and in 1866 the Pennsyl- vania Synod again severed its connection on account of the liberal and unionistic standpoint of the general body. The General Synod had formally declared that it stood on common ground with the Union Church of Germany and did not consider the distinctive doctrines separating the Lutheran and Reformed churches essential. It was more intent on fraternal re- lations with other denominations than on union with Lutherans of strict confessional princi- ples. (S..S. Schmucker and the “Definite Plat- form”). The withdrawal of the Pennsylvania Synod soon led to the organization of the General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America in Fort Wayne, Ind., 20 Nov. 1867, under the leadership of C. P. Krauth, C. F. Schaeffer, G. F. Krotel, W. J. Mann and others. The confessional basis was stated to be the doctrines of tle Unaltered Augsburg Confession in its original sense. A number of Lutheran synods, English and Ger- man, joined this General Council, .also the Swedish Augustana Synod, not, however, the Missouri Synod, nor the Ohio Synod, because the General Council, though more confessional than the General Synod, did not take a definite standpoint on the so-called “four points”: chiliasm, altar and pulpit fellowship, and Shee societies. The Iowa Synod _ maintained ~ friendly attitude toward the General Counsell but did not join it. In 1872 the Evangelical Synodical Conference of North America was formed by the Missouri Synod, the Ohio Synod, the Wisconsin Synod (founded in 1849 by Muehlhaeuser and others, joined the General Council, but withdrew in 1869). the Minnesota Synod ‘(founded in 1860, joined the General Council, but withdrew in 1871), the Illinois 157 Synod and the Norwegian Synod. It was founded on a strict confessional basis as laid down in the Lutheran Confessions, and became at once the largest general organization in America; and although the Ohio Synod left this general body in 1881 on account of a con- troversy over the doctrines of election and con- version, and also the Norwegian Synod severed its connection in 1883 on account of internal troubles, the Synodical Conference is still the lar- gest general body. In 1886 the Southern synods which had withdrawn from the General Synod at the time of the Civil War formed a new general body, The United Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the South, com- prising eight smaller synods. The jubilee year of the Lutheran Reformation (1917) developed | two important combinations, The three Norweg- ian synods mentioned above joined and formed the Norwegian Lutheran Church of America; and the General Synod, now more confessional than formerly, the General Council, and the United Synod in the South took action and formed a union called The United Lutheran Church in America, which action was formally ratified 15 Nov. 1918. The synods of Wiscon- sin, Minnesota and Michigan, which had formed what may be called a general organiza- tion in 1892, have rearranged their organiza- tion into a general body consisting of six, dis- trict synods, but retaining their membership in the Synodical Conference. Church Polity.—According to Lutheran principles the congregation is the unit of church organization, the source of all authority exer- cised by the Church and the final court of ‘ap- peal. Congregations combine and _ organize themselves into synods for conducting the Church work on a larger scale and for the sake of mutual assistance and oversight; but the synods have no power except that which the congregations confer upon them; they are purely advisory bodies. It must be said, how- ever, that while these principles are conceded by most Lutheran organizations, not all bodies conform to them in practice, some of them out- side of the Synodical Conference allowing synods a greater power and placing greater weight upon their decisions. Church Worship.— Because the Lutheran churches in Europe always had great diversity in their forms of public worship the Lutheran Church of America shows no uniformity in this respect, the different bodies having at first followed the usages of their mother churches to }; aye greaterjsors less |,.degree../ ,However;: a greater uniformity has been brought about since the so-called “Common Service,» based upon the consensus of the Lutheran liturgies of the 16th century, was prepared by a com- mittee representing the General Synod, the General Council, and the United Synod in the South. This form of service is used also by a number of congregations in other Lutheran bodies, especially after they had introduced the English language in their services. Church Work.—All the church bodies named are very active in various forms of educational, missionary and benevolent work. They maintain a high standard of ministerial education and have founded a large number of theological seminaries. They have their own colleges and academies preparing their men for 758+ the theological courses and giving a general education. They prosecute intensively home mission work, conducting such work also among the Indians and negroes in the United States, and maintain foreign mission fields in the dif- ferent parts of the globe. The American Lutheran Church is indeed a polyglot church proclaiming the gospel in no less than 20 lan- guages. All of the larger bodies have their own publishing houses for the printing of their church papers and the dissemination of Lutheran literature. The statistics of 1917 report 27 theological seminaries, the largest-among them being Concordia Seminary at Saint Louis, Mo. (Missouri Synod, 344 students); Concordia Seminary at Springfield, Ill. (Missouri Synod, 127 students); Augustana Seminary at Rock Island, Ill. (Augustana Synod, 101 students) ; Norwegian Seminaries, combined in 1917, at Saint Paul, Minn. (88 students); Lutheran Seminary at Mount Airy, Philadelphia (Gen- eral Council, 58 students) ; Lutheran Seminary at Maywood, Chicago (General Council, 52 students); Wartburg Seminary at Dubuque, Iowa (lowa Synod, 48 students); Lutheran Seminary at Wauwatosa, Milwaukee, Wis. (Wisconsin Synod, 42 students); Wittenberg Seminary at Springfield, Ohio (General Synod, 38 students) ; Lutheran Seminary at Columbus, Ohio (Ohio Synod, 38: students) ; Theological Seminary at Gettysburg, Pa. (General Synod, 34 students); Luther Seminary at Saint Paul, Minn. (Ohio Synod, 30 students). The num- ber of Lutheran colleges in 1917 was 41; of academies 58, a number of them coeducational; of ladies’ colleges 7. The General Synod con- ducts foreign mission work in India and Liberia; the General Council in India, Burma, Japan; the Missouri Synod in India and China; the different Scandinavian bodies in India, China, Natal, Madagascar; the Ohio Synod in India. Missions among the American Indians are conducted by the Scandinavians, the Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Synod; among the negroes by the Synodical Confer- ence and by the Ohio Synod. The statistics for 1917 enumerate 66 orphanages, 46 homes for the aged, 7 homes for defectives, 9 dea- coness mother-houses, 50 hospitals, 18 immigrant and seamen’s missions, 12 miscellaneous insti- tutions, 13 home finding and children’s friend societies. There are 13 official Lutheran pub- lishing houses, the more important ones being located in Philadelphia (General Synod and General Council); Saint Louis (Missouri Synod); Rock Island (Augustana Synod) ; Minneapolis (Norwegian Synod); Chicago (lowa Synod) ; Columbus, Ohio (Ohio Synod) ; Milwaukee (Wisconsin Synod); Columbia, S. C. (United Synod in the South). The number of Lutheran periodicals goes well into the hundreds. General Statistica’ The Lutheran Church is the fourth largest denomination in the United States coming after the Roman Catholics, Methodists and Baptists. The statistics here- with given are obtained from official sources and are published in the ‘Lutheran Church Year Book? for 1918. The several bodies are ar- ranged according to the year of their organiza- tion. The latest developments in the organi- zation of general bodies mentioned above must not be overlooked in the following tables. LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA n 3 2 Z| 2 3 GENERAL SyNoD—1820 RS 8 oy gfe bo Bp | 8 Ori) a oO Synod of Maryland. . .n0:.. 1820 115 131 Synod of West Pennsylvania. }1825 93 158 Bast OhiosSynods. . tin. 1836 53 72 Allegheny Synod... :....... 1842 72 153 Synod of East Pennsylvania. .|1842 145 150 OyVNOC OL Wiiainiee: = ees 1844 44 54 Pittsburgh Synoden).. 372k 1845 90 125 Wittenberg Synod.......... 1847 59 78 Olive Branch Synod.. .|1848 34 48 Synod of Northern Illinois. . . 1850 55 61 Synod of Central Pennsylvania 1853 50 92 Synod of Jowa .iuaileass ys cigs 1855 36 32 Synod of Northern Indiana. .|1855 46 Wie. Synod of Central Illinois..... 1867 25 31 Susquehanna Synod......... 1867 52 81 Synod df Kansas 2h. 4. wht o hES68 44 46 Synod of Nebraska......... 1871 49 54 Wartburg Synod... 22. 2.4: 4/1876 48 52 Synod2of:Califomnia. J avatt 1891 42 30 Rocky. Mountain Synod..... 11891 24 23 German Synod of ak. hy 11891 90 il ba 8 Synod of Southern Illinois. . .|1900 11 17 Synod of New York......... 1908 146 143 Synod of West Virginia......|1912 15 38} Total—24 Synods........].3... 1,438 1,857 GENERAL COUNCIL—1867 Ministerium of Pennsylvania. |1748 408 580 Ministerium of New York... |1773 157 155 Pittsburgh Synods. 22e4% 6 1843 157 192 Téxas-Ov fod Fiwaslok see 1851 9 14 District Synod of Ohio...... 1857 55 92 Augustana Synod...!....... 1860 720} 1,225 Lutheran Synod of Canada. . |1861 42 74 Chicago: Synodis.c hee ae 1871 50 64 English Synod of the North- west ye aks SAE FEE 1891 45 53 Manitoba Synod............|1897 31 58 Paciic, Synod ots, sedans a ort 1901 20 24 Synod of New York and New! Bnglands< © i849 ae ae 1902 65 56 Nova: Scotia Synod....:4. 015 1903 8 26 Synod of Central Canada... .|1909 Ts ah 16 Total—14 Synods... 1,779| 2,631 SYNODICAL Gonage ate 1872 Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other: States eth. ona Kays 1847| 2,743) 3,094 Synod.of Wisconsin... ..... + 1850 315 362 Minnesota.........{/1860 48 75 Michigan . 22 UR 1860 43 58 Nebraskas x . 2h. 0% 1904 22 wht Slovak: Symodinnt ou <.tiegees aeae 1902 3Q))- 2.79 Total—6 Synods........].... 3,201] 3,689 UNITED SYNOD—1886 Synod of North Carolina... .]1803 51 76 Tennessee Synod........... 1820 56 135 Synod of South Carolina..... 1824 53 75 Synod. of Virewdas encore as 1829 30 58 Synod of Southwestern Vir- CIA . Are OES BOn 1842 29 70 Mississippi Synod. . be uA bSSS, 6 10 Synod of Georgia... .A¥ «anf «,. 1860 22 31 Holston ynOte aot te 1861 10 29 Total—8 Synods........]. 257 484 - INDEPENDENT SYNODS Joint Synod of Ohio and other States: dares t ereper Me 1818 685 916 Buffalo, Synod 685s) onda $ thee 1845 36 49 Eielsen’s Synod (Norwegian) .|1846 6 26 Synod of Iowa and other States|1854 576] 1,056 Danish Lutheran Church... /|1871 74 112 Icelandic Synod...;..%,....)48 1885 16 55 Suomi Synod (Finnish). .... 1890 40 151 United Danish Lutheran Ghureh put vedt JASE.) 143 185 Lutheran Free Church (Nor- WEGISU cetacean. erates 1897 198 420 Norwegian Lutheran. Church of Americar. bobprio?): 1917) 1,247] 3,378 Other bodies and independent ftoneregationss 44 pe cma. I ee rire! 2st Total—10 Synods.. “3,113 3,113 “6,605 _6,605 Summary total—62 Synods..|.... Members Communicant 36,335 38, 783 12,909 25,730 43,266 10, 686 26,711 17,318 7,342 12,496 12,598 5,465 9,679 4,955 20,320 6,362 8,544 10,030 5,346 2,139 10, 439 2,172 30,142 4,305 364,072 161, 486 56,795 37,631 1,171 153151 191,390 14,410 8,753 12,372 4,760 1,849 21,367 . 3,029 1,813 531,978 20,536 300,000 33,925 692,119 “9,788 15, 266|2,448, 412 _— = — = LUTHERANISM Bibliography.— Of the large literature only a small selection is given. The sources are, as a rule, mentioned in the general works, Histories of the Lutheran Church in Amer- ica: Grebner, A. L., ‘History of the Lutherans in America? (German, Vol. I, up to 1820; Saint Louis 1892); Hazelius, E. L., ‘History of the American Lutheran Church 1685-1842? (Zanes- ville 1846); Jacobs, H. E, ‘History of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States» (Vol. IV of the American Church Series,” New York 1893; trans. into German by Fritschel, G. J., with additions, Guetersloh 1896); Neve, J. L., ‘Brief History of the Iutheran Church in Arerica? (Burlington 1916; German ed., Burlington 1915). Histories of Individual Bodies: Bergh, J. A., ‘The Norwegian Lutheran Church in North America? (Norwegian; Minneapolis 1914); Bernheim, G. D., ‘History of the German Set- tlements and of the Lutheran Church in North and South Carolina» (Philadelphia 1872); Deindoerfer, J. D., ‘History of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Iowa and other States? (German; Chicago 1897); Finck, W. J., ‘Lutheran Landmarks and Pioneers in America? (Philadelphia 1913); Henkel, S., ‘History of the Evangelical Lutheran ‘Tennessee Synod? (New Market 1890); Hochstetter, C., ‘History of the Evangelical Lutheran Missouri Synod? (German; Dresden 1883); Nicum, J., ‘History of the Evangelical Lutheran Ministerium of New York and Adjacent States? (German; New York 1888); Ochsenford, S. E., ‘Docu- mentary History of the General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America? (Philadelphia 1912); Peter, P. A., and Schmidt, W., ‘History of the Joint Synod of Ohio and other States? (Columbus 1900); Schmauk, T. E., ‘History of the Lutheran Church in Penn- sylvania 1638-1820? (Philadelphia 1903); Spaeth, A., Jacobs, H. E., and Spieker, G. F,, ‘Documentary History of the Evangelical Lutheran Ministerium of Pennsylvania and Adjacent States 1748-1821> (Philadelphia Haass Biographies: Guenther, M., ‘Walther, C. W., A Biography? (German; Saint Louis 1850) : Mann, Weg .je “ite and Times °of .H: M. Muehlenberg? (Philadelphia 1877); Spaeth, A., ‘Charles Porterfield Krauth? (2 vols., New York 1898; Philadelphia 1909). General: Bente, F., ‘What hinders’ the Union of the Lutheran Synods in America?? (German; Saint Louis 1917): Jacobs, H. E., and Haas, J. A. OW; ‘Lutheran Cyclopedia’ (New York 1899) ; Lenker, > Ne All Lands? (Milwaukee 1894; German ed., Sunbury 1901); Morris, J. ca ‘Bibliotheca Lutherana” (Philadelphia 1876) ; ‘The Distinc- tive, Doctrines and Usages of the General Bodies of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States? (Philadelphia 1893; new ed., 1914). See LuTHERANISM. Lupwic E. FUERBRINGER, Professor of Theology, Concordia Theological Seminary, Saint Louis, Mo. LUTHERANISM. The first of the 95 theses which Martin Luther affixed to the door of the castle-church of Wittenberg on 31 Oct. 1517, read as follows: “Our Lord and Master, Jesus Christ, saying, Repent ye, would have the whole life of believers to be repentance.” This academic act has been generally looked upon as . from the beginning, of “Lutherans in’ 759 the inaugural act of the Lutheran Reformation, so much so, that 31 October is to this day cele- brated by Lutherans in all lands as the Festival of the Reformation. And the thesis quoted above is perhaps the most concise exhibition of Lutheranism extant. The thesis is, as a whole and in all its parts, a positive doctrinal state- ment. Doctrine, positive doctrine, is, and was first importance, the groundwork, the very life, of Lutheranism.. The first and foremost task of the Lutheran Church is the promulgation and maintenance of sound doctrine. Preaching, in the Lutheran Church, is not primarily exhortation but teach- ing, and doctrinal preaching is considered the chief element of Lutheran public worship. Even the better part of Lutheran hymnology is preponderatingly doctrinal. The great bulk of Luther’s voluminous writings is doctrinal, and no other church has so extensive a doctrinal literature as the Lutheran Church. Even its controversial theology partakes of this char- acter. It is trie, the Lutheran Church in all its best periods was eminently an ecclesia militans (a militant church); but the subjects at issue were again doctrinal. Perhaps the most mas- terful polemical work in Lutheran, if not in all Protestant theology, Chemnitz’ ‘Criticism of the Decrees of the Council of Trent? (Examen Concilu Tridentini), is also one of the richest storehouses of doctrinal theology. But doctrine is knowledge communicated. Teaching presupposes or implies a master and a disciple or a number of disciples. And of the Master Luther says in his thesis: “Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ No councils nor synods, no traditions of the Church, no Fathers, early or late, not Luther himself, not any of these, nor all of these together, must be ac- knowledged as empowered to establish articles of doctrine which every disciple is bound to accept. For the Master is also the Lorp. He comes with authority: His teaching is not human but divine. Christian doctrine is not a product of evolution, nor of human specu- lation, nor of self-consciousness of the Church, but the truth of God set forth by the Foun- tain of divine truth, who has said, “I am the Truth” He is the one and only au- thoritative teacher in the Church. There is no such thing as an evolution or perfectibility of Christian doctrine. Here the ancient avto¢ én “He hath said it,» is in its place. Here man has no alternative but either to accept or to reject. Here to add or to modify is to adulter- ate, and to take away or to yield is to deny. Such is the Lutheran concept of the primary source of Christian doctrine. But the means also whereby such communi- cation of divine knowledge to man is effected is indicated in Luther’s thesis when he says: “Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, saying, Repent ye.” Here he refers to an express dictum of Holy Scripture. Christ and the Spirit of Christ taught man in the 16th century and teaches man in the 20th century in and through the written Word. Not by awaiting direct revela- tions, not by following the traditions of the Church or the definitions or decrees of its rep- resentatives, are we disciples of Christ, but by searching the Scriptures which were written aforetime for our learning. What is clearly taught in Scripture, that and that only is Chris- 760 tian doctrine. That the Bible is the only and sufficient source of Christian doctrine is the formal principle of Lutheranism. The material principle of Lutheranism, the cardinal doctrine, around which all other doc- trines radiate, because it is the central doctrine of Scripture, is also indicated in the thesis. Luther there describes the subjects and disciples of their Lord and Master Christ as believers. According to the Lutheran concept of Christian- ity and the Christian Church it is faith that constitutes a Christian and a member of the Church of Christ, which is simply the whole number of all believers. Christianity, as. dis- tinguished from all other religions, is that re- ligion according to which salvation is not,by works of righteousness which we have done, but by what God has done in Christ, reconciling the world unto Himself. And faith is simply the acceptance of this reconciliation. Not as a work of obedience, with any merit of its own, but only as the acceptance of the merits of Christ, faith is saving faith. It is justifying faith inasmuch as, in view and consideration of the merits of Christ accepted by faith, God in His judgment pronounces the believer righteous. And this doctrine, that God justifies the sinner by His grace, for Christ’s sake, through faith, is the material principle of Lutheranism, the cardinal doctrine of Lutheran theology. This doctrine is looked upon by the Lutheran Church as doctrina stantis et cadentis ecclesie, the doc- trine with which the Church stands and falls. On the other hand, the doctrine of justifica- tion, while the central and ruling doctrine, is not the only doctrine of Lutheranism. Accord- ing to our thesis, Christ would have the whole life of believers to be repentance. This, too, is a doctrinal statement. Repentance, petavoca, is a change of heart and mind in man. In his natural fallen state man is wholly evil, spiritu- ally dead in sin, unable to will or to do that which is spiritually good. He cannot, there- fore, work his own restoration, nor contribute thereto. But God, prompted by His universal grace, and because of the merits of Christ, the redeemer of all mankind, through the gospel, the ever efficacious and ever irresistible means of grace, quickens the sinner into spiritual life, translating him, by the bestowal of faith, from a state of wrath and enmity against God into a state of grace and communion with God. This is the Lutheran doctrine of conversion or re- generation in the stricter sense of the terms. In a wider sense, in which repentance also stands in our thesis, it includes the preservation and growth of spiritual life and its activity in works of the spirit, or sanctification. For while the Lutheran Church maintains that man’s salva- tion is in no sense, manner or measure, his own work, but wholly and solely the work of God, and hence denies the necessity of good works unto salvation, it strenuously asserts that good mere are necessary fruits and evidence of faith. There have been Syncretists (Unionists) within the pale of the Lutheran Church, who held that the real obstacles to mutual recognition between the Lutheran Church and others were only two—the doctrines of predestination and of the Lord’s. Sup- per. But by these assertions Syncretism exhibits itself as thoroughly un-Lutheran in letter and spirit. These differences are in- LUTHERANISM deed, while they stand, insurmountable barriers between the conflicting theologies. But the chasm which separates them is far deeper and wider, a difference of the very fundamental principles which affects a multitude of particu- lar doctrines. The formal principle of Luther- anism is, as we have seen, that of the exclusive authority and absolute sufficiency of the canon- ical Scriptures in matters of faith. The mate- rial principle of Lutheranism is the scriptural doctrine of justification. Lutheranism holds that Christ, the only head and foundation of the Church, vested all the rights and powers of the Church, the keys of heaven, the power of re- mitting and retaining sins in His name as His agent, the government and discipline of the Church, in the local congregation of believers. . Lutheranism maintains that Christ, the only mediator between God and man, has instituted an office in the Church, the ministry of the word, for the public administration of the means of grace, that this office is conferred on its incumbent by Christ’s authority through the call of the congregation, and has no power but the power of the word as set forth in the Scrip- tures, all ministers being equal in rank among themselves. Lutheranism looks upon the Lord’s Supper as a means of grace, whereby Christ, by virtue of His words of institution pronounced in the night in which He was betrayed, gives to all communicants His body and blood, really pres- ent, not by transubstantiation or the change into another substance, nor by consubstantiation or the formation of a new substance, but by sacramental union, to be eaten and drunk’ in, with and under the consecrated bread and wine, for an assurance of the forgiveness of our sins, procured by His sacrifice on Calvary. Lutheranism also holds and teaches a doc- trine of predestination, not, however, a decree of damnation, but only an election and predes- tination of the children of God to eternal sal-_ vation by faith in Christ Jesus, who is the re- deemer not only of the elect, but of all man- kind, and by whom the decree of election is determined as by its meritorious cause, and not as an accessory means of execution. Thus, likewise, the gospel and the sacraments, accord- ing to the Lutheran concept, are the ordained means, whereby the same universal grace, ac- cording to which God earnestly desires the sal- vation of all men, and, by the power of His Spirit in all cases efficaciously, but in no case irresistibly, exerted through such means of grace, calls, converts or regenerates, sanctifies and preserves to eternal life all those who do not wilfully and obstinately resist the saving grace of God. Having thus. briefly portrayed the nature and principles of Lutheranism, we proceed to a sum- mary sketch of its rise and progress and its spread in the era of. the Reformation». The cradle of Lutheranism was Saxony. in Germany. Here, at Wittenberg, the great Re- former taught and preached and wrote under the protection of the Elector Frederick the Wise, and hand in hand with his successors John and John Frederick. The effects of his 95 theses far exceeded the expectations of their author. When Luther published this manifesto, he had no thought of the establishment of a new church. The very name of Lutherans was not adopted by the free choice of those who bore it, but was solemnly inflicted upon them LUTHERANISM in a bull published by Pope Leo X 3 Jan. 1521. By this ‘bull Luther and his adherents were ex- communicated from the Roman _ Catholic Church, and when Luther had refused to recant at the Diet at Worms, April 1521, he and the Lutherans were also politically outlawed by an imperial edict, which exposed them to persecu- tion and the death of confirmed heretics. The execution of this edict was suspended in Ger- many because of the great headway which the Lutheran movement had by this time made, and for various political reasons, which bound the emperor’s hands, and at the Diet at Spires, in 1526, the German princes and representatives formally agreed that everyone should so conduct himself toward the Edict of Worms as he would deem himself able to answer before God and His Imperial Majesty. Luther, who had for a time been concealed by the Elector in Wartburg castle, had made good use of his enforced rest by translating the New Testament into German and issuing the first instalments of his Church Postil, a collec- tion of sermons, from which hundreds of min- isters learned how to preach to the people. After his return and during the subsequent years the Lutheran Church in Saxony was or- ganized along conservative lines. Luther pro- vided the congregations with forms of worship and collections of hymns for public service, catechisms for the instruction of young and old and an extensive religious literature. of schools of various grades was established throughout the land and an able ministry was educated at the university. The translation of the whole Bible was completed in the course of years. At a second Diet of Spires, in 1529, a majority made an effort to stay the progress of Lutheranism in Germany, and in spite of the protest of the Lutheran members, from which they were called Protestants, these efforts were continued at the Diet at Augsburg, in 1530. Here, however, the Lutheran princes and cities succeeded in presenting to the emperor and Diet and thus publishing to the world a statement of their faith and doctrine, the Augsburg Con- fession, which, in the course of time, was adopted as its fundamental creed by the Lu- theran Church the world over. In the same year an apology of the Augsburg Confession ‘was framed and published, which also gained sym- bolical standing. // } the transactions of the Diet of Augsburg resulted in another pro- scription of Lutheranism and the inauguration of measures for its extermination, the political conditions of the empire continued to be such that the emperor and his party could not ven- ture to proceed against the dissenters, and while Luther lived the progress and spread ‘of Luther- anism continued, not only in Germany, but throughout Europe. Even when, after Luther’s death, Charles V marched his ‘armies against his Lutheran subjects and by fraud and force led away into captivity the two foremost of the German Lutheran princes and began the work of stamping out Lutheranism, these reverses, though causing considerable disturbance also within the Lutheran Church, lasted a few years only. The political conditions having once more turned in favor of the suppressed party, the Lutherans, in 1552, by the Treaty of Passau, secured temporary recognition as a church of lawful standing in Germany. This recognition A system - 761 was made permanent by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. This settlement included the Lutherans only of all those who dissented from the Roman Catholic Church, Zwinglians, Calvinists, Ana- baptists and others being excluded. It was thus menacing the religious as well as the political status of Lutheranism, when men of influence in Saxony, the Cryptocalvinists, by clandestine operations endeavored to change the Lutheran Church of Saxony into a Calvinistic establish- ment. At the same time a number of doctrinal controversies threatened to vitiate the orthodox character of the Church of the Augsburg Con- fession, until, by the united labors of Lutheran theologians and princes, sound in doctrine and deeply concerned about the peace of the Church and the purity of its doctrine, the last of the great Lutheran Confessions, the Formula of Concord, closed the series of Lutheran stand- ards, all of which, the Augsburg Confession, its Apology, the Smalcald Articles, Luther’s Larger Catechism, Luther’s Smaller Catechism, the Formula of Concord, together with the three ancient Ecumenical Creeds of all Christendom, constitute the body of ‘Lutheran Symbols, known as the Book of Concord of 1580. While Germany was the home of the Luther- an Church, Lutheranism obtained a permanent foothold and became the church of the realm ina number of extra-German countries during the period of the Reformation. In Sweden Luther’s doctrine was dissem- inated as early as 1519 by two brothers, Lars and Olav Petersen, who had studied at Witten- berg. Under Gustavus Vasa, Lars Petersen was made professor of theology at the University of Upsala, and Olav Petersen was the leading preacher at Stockholm. The Bible was trans- lated into Swedish and at the Diets of Westeras, 1527, at Orebro, 1529, and at Westeras, 1544, the organization of the Swedish Lutheran Church as a national church with an episcopal form of government was effected. The first Lutheran preachers in Denmark were Peter Lille and Hans Tausen. The or- ganizer of the Danish Lutheran Church was John Bugenhagen, pastor of Wittenberg, who came to Denmark in 1537 and prepared the new constitution, which was adopted at Odense in 1539. Soon after Norway and Iceland were also Lutheranized, and thus the Lutheran Church was permanently established without bloodshed throughout all the Scandinavian countries. In Prussia the Lutheran Church was planted and made the church of this ancient territory of the German knights under John George of Polenz, bishop of Samland. The new Agenda and Church-Order was introduced in 1525 and 1526, and the new Lutheran University of Konigsberg was a colony of Wittenberg, of which Sabinus, Melanchthon’s son-in-law, was the first rector. In Silesia Luther’s doctrine was preached as early as 1518. John Hess was called as a Lutheran minister by the city council of Bres- lau. In Poland Luther’s writings were prohibited. But in 1521 the Bible was translated into Polish. Jacob Knade preached at Danzig. From_Dan- zig Lutheranism spread to Elbing and Thorn, and by 1548 the Polish Church was preponder- atingly Lutheran, 762 In the Baltic territories, Riga, Dorpat and Reval were Lutheran in 1523, and within two decades the Reformation spread throughout these whole regions, In Hungary the doctrines of the Reforma- tion were promulgated by men who had been Luther’s students at Wittenberg. In 1549 five free cities adopted, the Augsburg Confession, and under the influence of. the Reformation numerous elementary and advanced. schools were opened in cities and villages throughout all Hungary. . Merchants who returned -home from the fair at Leipzig brought.Luther’s doc- trine to Transylvania, and others, who had been students at Wittenberg, promoted its spread. A Lutheran school was opened at Hermannstadt. From 1533 John Honter labored as “Evangelist of the Lord at Kronstadt,” and the Reforma- tion took its course from town to town. In cities and villages and in the open country schools were established, and even in the village schools Latin and Greek were taught. With the schools libraries for the people were connected, and endowments were provided for the support of young men who were willing to study at German universities. In Bohemia and Moravia a large part of the population embraced the Lutheran faith during Luther’s lifetime, and when, after the re- former’s death, the emperor made war against the Lutherans in Germany, the Bohemian. Lu- therans refused to take up arms against their brethren in the faith. In the Netherlands, also, the Church of the Reformation gained headway, © principally through the reading of Luther’s works. In Antwerp a_ great Lutheran movement took place, brought on by the preaching of Flacius and Cyriacus Spangenberg, in 1565 and 1566. But it was not long before Lutheran services were prohibited. The Dutch Reformed Church was organized in 1568 and 1571 and proclaimed the church of. the realm in 1583... With. the Spaniards in possession of Antwerp, in 1585, the Lutherans scattered and founded congre- gations in Frankfort, Hamburg, Amsterdam, Leyden and other cities. Even there they had no rest. In Amsterdam they were antagonized and Lutheran services were again prohibited. Still the Lutheran congregations continued to enjoy a rapid and steady growth; so much so that'a scarcity of ministers began to make itself painfully felt. The Lutherans in Holland had made the great mistake of neglecting the estab- lishing of schools and colleges for the education of. ministers, and this eventually brought about their decadence; for the importation of preach- ers from foreign countries was accompanied by the introduction of unionistic, syncretistic doc- trines. and practices. France is another country in which Luther’s writings were widely circulated and had great influence in the Church. A Lutheran congrega- tion was organized. at Maux. Faber Stapulen- sis, Brigonnier, Jean and Pierre Leclerc were some of the most noted preachers. Lefévre translated the Bible into French. A _ sound Lutheran movement promised a bright future for Lutheranism, but the influence of Geneva, the stronghold of the Reformed, Church, was very strong in France, and through this influ- ence the Lutheran movement in France was directed into other channels, _where they were of vast influence. LUTHER’S HYMNN —LUTON In England Luther’s books were read as early as 1519, especially at the universities, Great ef- forts were made to suppress these books, and they were proscribed very early, but this only had the effect that they were now read more than ever. Thomas Cranmer. embraced the. Lutheran faith, and, though in many ways in- consistent, he remained a Lutheran in doctrine until the year 1548, when he was won to Cal- vinism. He became a martyr in 1556, A ‘col- lection of Lutheran hymns was published being translations of German hymns, most of them Luther’s. In 1536 the Augsburg Confession was printed in an exquisite translation by Taverner. In Sarcerius’ ‘Commonplaces,> a Lutheran handbook of dogmatic theology was given the English people... ‘Cranmer, in the same year, at the close of which he abandoned Lutheranism, wrote an extensive explanation of Luther’s Smaller Catechism, in which-the first English translation of this catechism, also by Cranmer’s hand, was embodied. The death of Henry VIII, whose political ambition had been to make himself the head of the Lutheran League of the continent, the personal acquaint- ance of many English and Scotch refugees with Calvin at Geneva and the imposing work there being reared, and other reasons contrib- uted to the ascendency of Calvinism in England and Scotland, and the Lutheran movement be- came virtually extinct about the middle of the _ century. For Lutheranism in America see LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA. Aucustus LAWRENCE GRAEBNER, Late Professor of Theology, Concordia Sem- inary, Saint Lowis, Mo. — Revised by Lupwic E. FUERBRINGER, Professor. of Theology, Concordia Seminary, Saint Louis, Mo. LUTHER’S HYMN, a name given to the celebrated German hymn composed by Luther about 1521, entitled ‘Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott,? well known in the English version, ‘A mighty fortress is our God. LUTKE, lut’ké, Feodor Petrovitch, Coun’, Russian world circumnavigator: b. Saint Petersburg, 29 Sept. 1797: d. there, 30 Aug. 1882. He entered (1813) the English service, taking part in the siege of Danzig and made the first journey round the world (1817. 18) under Golovnin. He explored (1821-25) the Arctic for a passage, was raised (1823) to lieutenant-captain and commanded (1826-28) the fourth voyage round the world, exploring the coasts of Russia and America and discov- ered several islands. In 1842 he was raised to the rank of adjutant-general and, in 1845, to vice-admiral. In 1864 he became president of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences and was raised to the nobility in 1866. He wrote several works tn the Russian language, chief of which is ‘Four Voyages into the Arc- tic Seas? (Saint Petersburg 1829) and ‘Jour- ney Round the World in the corvette Senjar- vin? (ib. 1835-36). His biography in Russian was written by Besobrasov (1889)... LUTON, loo’tén, England, town in Bed- fordshire, 30 miles northwest by north of Lon- don by rati, situated on the river Lea. It has an old Gothic church (Saint Mary’s), contain- LUTTRINGHAUSEN — LUTZOW ing highly interesting brasses and monuments and an Early English font. Here are also a fine town-hall in Italian style, corn exchange and municipal park. It is the chief centre of Englands’ great straw-plait industry, which originated when James I planted a Lorraine colony of straw-plaiters here. There are also brass and iron foundries and motor car works. The population in 1911 was 49,978. Consult Davis, ‘History of Luton? (Luton 1855). LUTTRINGHAUSEN, _ lit’ring-hou’zén, Germany, town in the government district Diis- seldorf, on the Barmen-Rittershausen-Marien- heide State Railway and five miles from Elber- feld. It is really a group of settlements number- ing no less than 110, having municipal rights since 1856. There are large gas and water meter, gas oven, bathing apparatus, boiler, hardware factories, etc. Its population in 1910 was 13,560, mostly Evangelical. LUTZ, loots’, Frank Eugene, American biologist: b. Bloomsburg, Pa., 15 Sept. 1879. He was graduated (1900) at Haverford College, Pennsylvania, studied (1902) at University of Chicago, then entered University College, Lon- don, England. He was (1904-09) resident-inves- tigator at the station for experimental evolu- tion, Cold Spring Harbor, then (1909-16) assistant curator of invertebrate zoology at American Museum of Natural History, New York City, to become associate curator in the latter year. He has written ‘Field Book of Insects» (1917) and numerous contributions to the scientific journals on the subjects variation, heredity, assortive mating, entomology, etc. LUTZEN, liit’sén, Germany, small town of Prussian Saxony, nine miles southwest of Leipzig. It derives all its interest from the two battles fought in its neighborhood. The first belongs to the Thirty Years’ War, being fought on 16 Nov. 1632, between the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus, and the Imperialists under Wallenstein. The Swedish monarch, having joined his forces with those of Bernard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, attacked the enemy in a strongly intrenched position. The issue was long doubtful, but the Swedes finally triumphed, though Gustavus fell in the action. The place of his death is marked by a square block of granite, called the Schwedenstein (the Swedes’ stone). The second battle was fought 2 May 1813, somewhat farther south, at Gross-Gor- schen. It was the first important conflict be- tween the allied Russian and Prussian armies - and the French under Napoleon in that de- cisive campaign. The French numbered 115,- 000, while the allies had only 70,000. Napoleon maintained his position though at a loss of 18,000 men, against 10,000 of the allies killed and wounded. Napoleon being unable to press his advantage owing to lack of cavalry, the allies retreated in Sie order. Pop. about 4,086. LUTZK, lutsk, Polish LUCK, Poland, town in the government Volhynia, on the river Styr and a branch of the South-West Railway. It has a 16th century castle, three Greco- Catholic and two Roman Catholic churches, two convents, two synagogues, Catholic seminary, etc. This is the centre of a great German colony. In the 11th century it was the capital 763 of an independent principality but fell (1791) into the possession of Germany. Its population is about 31,806. LUTZOW,, liit’ so, Franz Heinrich Valen- tin, CouNT, Austrian author. He was born at Hamburg, ‘educated at Vienna and Innsbruck and followed a diplomatic career.. He was appointed chamberlain of the emperor of Aus- tria from 1881. He was IIchester lecturer at Oxford (1904), and in 1912 lectured at Amer- ican universities. He has published ‘History of Bohemian Literature? (1899); ‘Prague, in ‘Medieval Town series (1901); ‘Historians of Bohemia? (1905); ‘Life and Times of Master John Hus? (1909): and ‘The Hussite Wars? (1914). LUTZOW, Karl von, German historian of art: b. Gottingen, 25 Dec. 1832; d. 1897. He assisted Lubke (q.v.) in editing ‘Denkmaler der Kunst, and in 1867 became professor of the Polytechnicum, Munich. He _ published “Munich Antiques? (7 vols., 1861-69) ; ‘Master- pieces of Ecclesiastical Architecture? (1862) ; “Monuments of Art,? with Lubke (6th ed., 1892) ; ‘History of German Copperplate and Wood Engraving (1891). He was the founder, in 1866, of the ‘Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst,” and edited it till his death. LUTZOW, Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm, Baron of, Prussian general: b. Berlin, 18 May 1782; d. Berlin, 6 Dec. 1834. He is renowned as the leader of the noted Freischar (volunteer cavalry). He entered the ranks (1795) of the Prussian Guards, fought in the Reizenstein regiment (1806) at Auerstadt, and joined the Schill corps at Kolberg when his regiment was disbanded. He organized the cavalry, fighting and being wounded at Stargard and, receiving (1808) his discharge with the rank of major, he rejoined Schill, to be again wounded at Dadendorf. He re-entered (1811) the cavalry and was empowered (1813) to organize a corps of volunteers in Silesia and Jahn, Friesen, Korner, etc., joined him. The Liitzow Volun- teers were generally called the “Black Troopers” after their uniform, and were engaged in at- tacking flanks or in guerilla fighting and in Thutringen, Hessen and Westphalia raising in- surrections. The plan proved a failure on account of apathy of the inhabitants and the raids on the rear of the French were followed by the battle of Grossgorschen. On the 17th June in spite of the armistice of Poischwitz being in operation Generals Fournier and von Normann (the latter a Wurtemberger) am- buscaded him near Leipzig and neatly wiped out the small body of troopers. They re- organized and added to their fame as intrepid raiders in the engagement at Gohrde (16 Sept. 1813) when they helped beat the French divi- sion, he again being severely wounded. He next is found with his troopers fighting the Danes. In March 1814, he was taken prisoner by the French militia while carrying dispatches from the Silesian army corps under Blticher at Chalons. Gaining his freedom when peace was made he was advanced to lieutenant-colonel and (1814) was given command of the 6th Uhlan regiment, to be taken prisoner in the battle of Ligny, to be again freed by the peace gained through the victory of Belle-Alliance. He was raised to a colonelcy in 1815, to major- 764 general in 1822, retiring tn 1830 as a lieutenant- general. Theodore Korner the poet, one of his volunteers, has made the Black Troopers eter- nally noted by his gripping poem ‘Lutzows wilde Jaged.» Consult Ciselen, ‘Geschichte des Liitzowschen Freikorps? (2d ed., Halle 1841). LUVERNE, li-vérn’, Minn. _ village, county-seat of Rock County, on the Rock River, and on the Chicago, Saint Paul, Minne- apolis and Omaha and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific railroads, about 220 miles southwest of ‘Saint Paul and 30 miles northeast of Sioux Falls, S. Dak. Luverne is situated in an agri- cultural region in which are granite quarries and fire-clay deposits. The chief industrial es- tablishments are flour-mills, grain elevators, brick and lumber yards, automobile factories, tile works, concrete-block plant and creameries. Large nurseries are in the vicinity. The trade is principally in flour, granite, grain, live-stock, nursery products and dairy products. The waterworks and electric-light plants are the property of the city. Pop. about 2,782. LUXEMBOURG, Francois Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, fran-swa On-ré dé mon-m6-ron-sé boo-té-vél luk-s6n-boor, DUKE oF, marshal of France: b. Paris, 8 Jan. 1628; d. Versailles, 4 Jan. 1695. He served when young under the Prince of Condé; in 1662 was made a duke and peer of France, and in 1667 lieutenant- general. In 1672 he commanded during the in- vasion of Holland; in 1673 made a masterly ‘retreat from Utricht to Maestricht, although outnumbered by three to one; and having gained the battle of Senef in 1674, was created a mar- shal of France (1675). Louvois attempted to compass his ruin by involving him in ‘The Af- fair of the Poisons? ; he was imprisoned in the Bastile, but acquitted; and in the war of France against England, Holland, Spain and Germany he won the three great battles of Fleurus: (1690), Steenkirk (1692) and Neer- winden (1693). Consult Segur, R. de, ‘La Jeu- nesse de Maréchal de Luxembourg? (Paris 1900); ‘Le Maréchal de Luxembourg et le prince d’Orange 1668-78 (ib. 1902). LUXEMBOURG (lutk’sém-bérg, Fr. lik- son-boor) PALACE, a structure famous for its architecture, art gallery and gardens; situated in Paris, in the Rue de Vaugirard. It was be- gun in 1616 and completed in 1620. THe art gallery was opened in 1780 and closed during the Terror, was altered in 1790 and was much enlarged in 1830. Here Ney was condemned to death after the Restoration in 1815. At this latter date a magnificent semi-circular hall was built for the session of the House of Peers, and later for the Senate... The. Senate hall was burned in 1859, but was soon after rebuilt. The name of the palace is derived from the Duke of Piney-Luxembourg, whose mansion once stood on the same site. From 1870 to 1879 the palace was occupied by the Prefecture of the Seine and the Paris municipal council. Since 1879 it has been again occupied by the Senate. LUXEMBURG, Rosa, German Socialist agitator: d. Berlin, 15 Jan. 1919. A Russian- Polish Jewess of obscure origin, she was be- tween 50 and 60 years of age. According to some accounts she married a German in order to obtain German nationality, and left him LUVERNE — LUXEMBURG immediately. A remarkably eloquent speaker, she always expounded the most extreme views, which gained her the nickname of “Red Rosa.” She was a cripple, barely five feet high. In 1906 she was already working in alliance with Lieb- knecht (q.v.), arguing the doctrine of the gen- eral strike against Bebel (q.v.) at the Jena Con- gress of the German Socialist party, which occa- sion led to her first imprisonment for incitement to violence.- She invariably advocated direct action for the seizure of power, a principle anal- ogous to that exemplified by the Russian Bol- sheviki. Early in 1914 she made accusations of brutality against German army officers, for which she was sentenced to imprisonment. Re- leased in 1916, she was soon put under preven- tive arrest and severely treated. During the revolution that followed the German military collapse in November 1918 Rosa Luxemburg was the fiercest firebrand of the Spartacide group. ‘Conflicting reports stated that she was shot while being removed under arrest, or was felled by the butt-end of a rifle and thrown into the canal during a riot in Berlin. Liebknecht was killed about the same hour. LUXEMBURG, William Alexander, Granp DuKE oF: b. April 1852; d. 25 Feb. 1912. His branch of the family (Walram) suc- ceeded to the dukedom on the extinction of the male line of the Otho branch on the death of the king of Holland in 1890. He became inca- pacitated by cancer in 1908, when his consort — a Portuguese princess —was appointed to act as regent. He left six daughters, the eldest of whom, Marie, came of age (18) in 1911 and assumed the sovereignty of the grand duchy. LUXEMBURG (Fr. lik-s6én-boor, Ger. look’sem-boorg), Grand-duchy of, northwest- ern Europe, an independent. state,. bounded north, east and south by Germany, southwest by France and west by Belgium; greatest length, north to south, 55 miles; greatest breadth, 34 miles; area, 998 square miles. It forms part of the plateau of the Ardennes, and has a rugged and mountainous surface, covered in many parts with heaths and morasses, though in general well wooded. Its drainage belongs almost en- tirely to the basin of the Moselle. Agriculture is limited in extent by the nature of the surface, but the pastures rear great numbers of cattle, sheep and horses, the last long in high repute for light cavalry. Considerable quantities of iron are smelted from the ore of the duchy. The inhabitants are mostly of German origin, but French is the language of the educated classes and of business. Pop. about 259,891 (4,007 Protestants, 1,270 Jews). Luxemburg in early times formed a part of Germany. In 1354 it was erected into a duchy by Charles IV. In 1814 it was converted into a grand-duchy under the king of Holland. Though governed by the Dutch kings as grand- dukes it was distinct from the kingdom of Hol- land; and on the death of Wilhelm III in 1890 it passed over to Adolf, Duke of Nassau. It is included in the German Customs Union and formerly was a member of the German Confed- eration, 1815-66. By the terms of the Treaty of London of 1867 it became an independent state, and its integrity was guaranteed by the great European powers. The ruler is assisted in the government by a chamber of deputies of 53 LUXEMBURG—LUZAN members, elected directly by the cantons for six years, half of whom retire and submit them- selves for re-election every three years. The revenue for 1917-18 was estimated at 43,761,428 francs, and the expenditure 48,845,794 francs. There are 325 miles of railway in the grand- duchy, and 439 of telegraphs. On the outbreak of the Great War in August 1914, its neutrality was violated by Germany, despite the protests of the reigning grand-duchess, Marie Adelaide, who had succeeded 12 Feb. 1912, on the death of her father, the Grand Duke Wilhelm. The territory was occupied by the German army. Under the terms of the Peace Treaty of 7 May 1919 (Section III) it was stipulated that Ger- many renounce her various treaties and con- ventions with the Grand Duchy and recognize that it ceased to be a part of the German Zollverein as from 1 Jan. 1919; to renounce all right of exploitation of the railroads; to adhere to the abrogation of its neutrality and to accept in advance any international agreement concern- - ing Luxemburg arrived at by the Allied Powers. (See War, European). Capital, Luxemburg (q.v.). Consult Passmore, T. H, ‘In further Ardenne? (London 1905); and Renwick, G., ‘The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg and Its People? (ib. 1913) ; Putnam, Ruth, ‘Luxemburg and Her Neighbors’? (New York 1919). LUXEMBURG, the capital of the grand- duchy of the same name, situated 117 miles southeast of Brussels and 42 miles by rail north of Metz. Its natural position is so strong, and the different powers into whose hands it suc- cessively fell did so much to extend and im- prove its means of defense, that it was called “he northern Gibraltar” From 1839 till 1866 it. was garrisoned for the Germanic Con- federation by Prussian troops, but in accordance with the Treaty of London (1867) the fortifica- tions were dismantled, the Prussians withdrew their troops and the neutrality of the duchy was guaranteed by the great European powers. During the Great War which began in 1914 it was in German occupation. It is divided into a low and a high town. The former lies along the banks of the Alsette. The latter stands 200 feet higner, on a plateau with precipices on three sides, the surrounding ravine being crossed by great viaducts. The town is well built; con- tains a town-house, government-house, house of deputies, cathedral of Notre Dame dating from 1613, Atheneum, Roman Catholic seminary for priests, grand-ducal palace dating from 1580 but rebuilt 1893-94, library, a handsome public park, etc. It has manufactures of machinery, leather gloves, breweries, dye-works, etc.; and a con- siderable trade. Luxemburg is the see of a bishop; and during part of the year is the residence of the leading families of the duchy. Its neighborhood abounds with fine promenades and picturesque features of various kinds. Pop. LUXOR, lik’sor or look’sér, Upper Egypt, a village on the right bank of the Nile, occupy- ing the site of ancient Thebes and containing splendid ruins of that historic metropolis. See THEBES. LUZAC, Jean, Dutch editor and champion of American independence: b. Leyden; 2 Aug. 1746; d. 12 Jan. 1807. Editor of the Leyden Gazette which, from 1722 to 1783, published in Dutch and French, circulated all over Europe 765 as a standard authority, giving authentic and correct news from the United States of the Continental. Congress and armies. He served grandly the American cause, for which he was thanked by Washington, who sent him a souve- nir of his campaigns. Of Walloon descent and well educated, he became one of the ablest news gatherers and newspaper men in Europe. After 1785, he was professor of Greek in Leyden University, and in 1794-95 was Rector Magnifi- cus. He was active during his life as a publicist and among his many writings in Dutch and Latin was a eulogy on Washington. His tomb is in Saint Peter’s Church, Leyden, and there are portraits of him. On 8 Sept. 1909 a tablet was placed by grateful Americans on his former dwelling, at No. 112 Rapenburg, Leyden, which was unveiled by one of his descendants, to the singing of “The Star Spangled Banner.» . Con- sult address by Gulian G. Verplanck, 1818, be- fore the New York Historical Society; Griffis, ‘Brave Little Holland? (1894) ; “Nieuw Neder- land Biografisch Woordenboek? (Vol. I, 1911). LUZAN, loo-than, Ignacio de, Spanish writer: b. Zuragoza, 1702; d. Madrid, 19 May 1754. He was son of ‘Antonio de Luzan, Lord of Castillazuelo and governor of Aragon, while his mother belonged to the family of the counts of Villar. He was graduated with the degree of doctor of theology from the University of Catana (Sicily). in 1727. with an excellent knowledge of ancient and modern languages, mathematics, philosophy, literature, history and theology. In 1747 he was appointed secretary to the Spanish embassy at Paris. On his re- turn to Spain, two years later,, he occupied several. important public offices, among them head of the mint and treasurer of the Real Biblioteca. He became a great favorite with the king who liberally pensioned his widow. He was a voluminous writer and he left at the time of his premature death over 60 works, the most important of which are ‘Chronologia para uso del estudio? ; ‘Compendio de las cuatro. prin- cipales partes de la Filosofia?; ‘Tratados de Dote,? etc.; ‘Ri sumen de las Instituciones, con notas en auxilio de los textos del Cddigo? ; ‘Relorica de las conversaciones?; ‘Tratado de Ortografia espafiola? ; ‘Método para ensefiar y aprender las lenguas?; ‘La Poética? ; ‘Discurso apologetico?; ‘La Geganteina?; ‘Perspectiva politica?; ‘La vitud coronada? (comedy) ; “Origen y Patria de los godos?; ‘Doctrina politica sacada de proverbios y palabras de la Sagrada -Escritura>; ‘La razon contra la moda? (comedy, translated work of Nivelle de la Chaussée); ‘La Gatomiomaquia” (satire). His literary work also includes many and varied translations, among them being odes of Sapho, Anachreon, Metastasio, Ovid, Horace and Biblical poetry, especially the Psalms. He also composed poems in Latin and Italian. The range of his literary work was very wide, cover- ing poetry, philosophy, politics, grammar and languages, criticism and translation. Spanish critics place him among the foremost writers of Spain; Spanish reviewers who have paid much attention to his work are inclined to rank his poems and his criticism as superior to his other productions. Of the latter his ‘Poética? is his best. Luzan is distinguished by imagination, beauty of style and clearness of thought. All these qualities are present in the ‘Poética," 766 which is a notable work for the age in which it was written. It has, therefore, had a powerful influence on the development of Spanish litera- ture. Consult Ticknor, ‘History of Spanish Literature? ; White, Blanco, ‘Life of Thom? ; any good history of Spanish literature. LUZENBERG, loo’zén’bérg, Charles Alo- ysius, American physician: b. Verona, Italy, 1805; d. 1848. He was educated at London and at Weissenburg College, Alsace. Leaving Italy for the United States in his 14th year, he sub- sequently received a medical education at the Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia. ° He removed to New Orleans in 1829, where he made a reputation for brilliant surgery and was enabled to establish the famous New Orleans Medical School. He visited Paris in 1832, where his reputation had preceded him, and he was elected corresponding member of the Paris Academy. His most important work in Louis- iana (where he took up his residence again in 1834) was the founding of the Society of Natural History (1839), and the Louisiana Medico-Chirurgical Society (1843), by which science has been much fostered and promoted in the South. It is believed that he was the first physician in the United States, who prevented pitting in cases of smallpox, by excluding light from the sick chamber. LUZERNE, li-zérn, N. Y., town, includ- ing a village of the same name, in Warren County, on the Hudson River, at the mouth of the Sacandaga River, about 20 miles north of Saratoga and 10 miles southwest of Lake George. Lake Luzerne is in the vicinity. The village is situated in an agricultural and lum- bering region, and its chief industries are con- nected with the manufacture of paper, shirts, lumber and with farm products. A_ bridge crossing the Hudson connects Luzerne with Hadley, a station on a branch of the Delaware and Hudson Railroad. The cool climate in this region in summer, the beautiful scenery and the opportunities for fishing make it a favorite summer resort. Pop. 1,185. LUZERNE, Pa., post borough of a county of the same name eight miles by rail. from Lackawanna Junction. It has two drill fac- tories, four flour and feed mills, etc., besides coal mines. Pop. 5,998. LUZON, loo-z6n’ (Sp. loo-thén’), Philip- pines, the largest, most populous and wealthy and with the exception of the Batanes and Babuyanes groups, the northernmost island of the Philippine Archipelago, lying south-south- west of Japan and south-southeast of China. It lies between lat. 12° 32’ and 18° 39’ N. and between long. 119° 42’ and 124° 8’ E. On the north is the Bashi Channel, connecting the Pacific Ocean and the China Sea; on the south are the San Bernardino Strait, separating it from Samar, the channels of the Visayas Sea and Tayabas Bay. Topography.— The island is very irregular in shape, elongated from north to south and southeast, and much wider at the north than at the south. It narrows at lat. 14° 30’, and much more at lat. 14° between Lamén Bay and Tay- abas Bay, where an isthmus unites the larger and northwestern part of the island with the smaller southeastern part; it is thus divided into three territorial divisions, Northern Luzén, LUZENBERG — LUZON Central Luzén and Southern Luzon. The length of Luzon is 283 miles from the north coast to Manila, and from there 225 miles south- east to Babulgum Point; at its widest point near the centre of Northern Luzon it is 138 miles wide; at its narrowest point, the isthmus in lat. 14° , eight miles wide; area, 40,969 square miles, with dependent islands, 42,196 square miles. The mountain system of Luzon consists of three large ranges, the nucleus of which is Caraballo de Baler in the province of Neuva Ecija. The Caraballos Occidentales form the water- shed of Northern Luzon, and extend about 150 miles near the western coast and parallel with it; the Sierra Madre range, starting at Cara- ballo de Baler, extends .northeast to Cape Engafio; the Caraballos Sur, starting at the same point, extends south to Banahao, then turns to the southeast and terminates near the straits of San. Bernardino. This range has several important branches, one ending on the south side of the bay of Baler. Among the. more important single mountains the following may be mentioned: Data (7,364 feet), and Bur- nay (6,376 feet), of the Caraballos Occidentales; Cana (3,830 feet) of Sierra Madre; and Bulusan and Mayon (7,916 feet) of the southern range. The three last mentioned are volcanoes, of which Mayon is the most active. Luzon is well watered; the longest river is the Rio Grande e Cagayan, running nearly the whole length of Northern Luz6n; three other large rivers traverse this part of the island, and there are numerous smaller streams. The Pasig River, although the shortest of all, is from a human standpoint by far the most important of all. Its length is 15 miles, and it affords communica- tion between the Laguna de Bay, the largest of the island’s lakes, and Manila Bay. Its importance is mainly due to the great volume of commerce which travels along it and to the fact that the capital of the archipelago is situated at its mouth. This river is tidal in its lower section, and very deep up to Fort Mc- Kinley; from that point to the lake it is much narrower and quite shallow in places, and has a very treacherous current. The coastal plains about the island are, as a rule, very narrow, the maximum width being about 10 miles. The mountains are nearly everywhere close to the sea. The dominant features of Luzon, as of other portions of the archipelago, are the enormous coast line and the mountainous char- acter of much of its interior. © Roads and Industries— There are a number of fine roads in Luzén, which centre at Manila, connecting it with remote points. In 1917 there were 616 miles of railways in operation. All the staple crops of the archi- pelago grow in abundance, and the chief in- dustries of the island are agriculture, and the development of the products into the advanced forms of manufacture; the mechanical indus- tries are very largely confined to Manila. Luz6én is also rich in forests, having all the woods used in building, as well as the gum- producing, medicinal and dye-trees. Mineral and Agricultural Products.— Gold © is found in Nueva Ecija; copper (in the form of arsenates and sulphides) in the Mancayan- Suyoc district of the Mountain province; iron occurs in a fairly well-defined belt which follows the east coast for a short distance, LUZZATTI — LYALL beginning in the Camarines and then turning toward the interior, where it reaches, so far as our knowledge now goes, its greatest develop- ment near the town of Angat in Bulacan province. One of the principal localities in which coal is found is Batan Island, Albay province, where it is of a sub-bituminous variety, with volatile combustible, 39.98 per cent; fixed carbon, 48.80 per cent; ash, 5.70 per cent; moisture, 5.74 per cent and sulphur, 0.66 per cent. Salt springs occur in the Mountain province. Agricultural products are those of the buri and nipa palms (buri and tuba), cocoa, coffee, cotton, tobacco, hemp, pineapples, bananas, betel nuts, copra, mangoes, corn, rice, sugar, sweet potatoes, etc. The live-stock raised on this island is. given as two-thirds of the total (including domestic animals and poultry) for the entire archipelago. : Salient Facts— A writer in the Journal of Geology (Vol. XXI, pp. 29-61, Chicago 1913) observes that “because of its great strategic importance and because it is the home of the only Christianized people of Malay origin, Luzon is of more than passing interest. Geo- logically, it is worthy of constant study as. it is a link in that great Circle of Fire which girds the Pacific. As a mining field, evidence is already abundant that Luzén will before many years have a place in the very first rank.” He adds that its geographical position is also noteworthy, this being a region of tremendous rainfall (45. inches in 24 hours, Baguio Ob- servatory record, July 1911) and in the track of the most frequent and violent typhoons; and that as it extends to lat. 21°. N. and has much high level country, which is at the same time fertile, it should be colonized by white men. Historically interesting are the following facts: It was the first. of the Philippine Islands to come under the control of the United States; it was the scene of the earliest military opera- tions. against the insurgents, and the base of operations for campaigns of occupation of the other islands. See articles on individual provinces and general article PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. According to the official post route maps, showing post-offices, etc., in operation on 1 Oct. 1914, Apayao, Kalinga, Lepanto, Bontoc, Ifugao and Benguet are all included in Moun- tain province. The total number of Luz6én’s inhabitants (including about 220,000 uncivilized) is, in 1917, somewhat more than 3,800,000. Con- sult ‘Census of the Philippine Islands, taken under the Direction of the Philippine Commis- sion? (Washington 1905); Philippine Journal of Science (Vol. V, Manila 1910); Wilcox, M., ‘Harper’s History of the War in the Philip- pines? (New York 1900): Worcester, D. C., ‘The Philippines Past and Present? (New York 1914). Provinces and Population.— The provinces into which Luzon is divided are as follows: Albay. Kalinga. Apayao. Laguna. Ambos Camarines (Norte La Unién. and Sur). Lepanto-Bontoc. Bataan. Nueva Ecija. Batangas. Nueva Vizcaya. Benguet. Pampanga. Bulacan. Pangasinan. Cagayan. Rizal. Cavite. Sorsogon. Ifugao. Tarlac. Ilocos (Norte and Sur). Tayabas. Isabela. Zambales. 767 LUZZATTI, loo-tsat’té, Luigi, Italian statesman and financier: b, Venice, 1841. Ofa wealthy Jewish family, he studied law in the Instituto Tecnico at Milan and was appointed (1867) professor of political economy at the Padua University. In 1870 he was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies but the election was declared illegal because he had not yet become of the necessary legal age and he was not admitted till 1871, after a third elec- tion had been held. He quickly gained fame on questions of finance and was several times mem- ber of the Budget Committee. He was Minis- ter of the Treasury (1891-92) in the Rudini- Nicotera Cabinet and filled that office also 1896- 98, when he went to Perugia as professor. In 1903 he was given a portfolio for the third time as Minister of the Treasury under Giolitti, con- tinuing in‘ofice under Sonnino (1906). In 1910 he became president of the ministry with port- folio of Minister of the Interior. He wrote ‘Lo Stato e la Chiesa nel Belgio? (1866); ‘Il socialismo e le questioni sociali dinanzi ai par- lamenti d’Europa? (1883); “Le classi dirigenti e gli operai in Ingkilterra? (1893); ‘La liberté de conscienze et de science? (1910). LUZZATTO, loo-tsat’ts, Samuel David, Jewish theologian and Hebraist: b. Triest, 22 Aug. 1800; d. Padua, 29 Sept. 1865. He greatly ‘advanced the study of Jewish science independ- ently through such work as translating the He- brew prayers and biblical works such as the Pentateuch with the Hastarot, Isaiah, Job, etc., into the Italian, through commentaries, disserta- tions on the Hebrew and Chaldaic languages, Targum Onkelos, Kabbala, etc. He issued treasures in manuscript from his library and sent many monographs to the _ periodicals. Among the most prominent of his other works are ‘Elementi grammaticali del caldeo biblico e del dialetto talmudico babilonese? (1865); ‘Grammatica. della lingua ebraica? (1853); “Introduzione critica ed ermeneutica al Penta- teuco? (1870). LVOFF, l’vof, Alexei Fedorowitch, Rus- sian violinist and composer: b. Reval, 6 June 1799; d. Kovno, 7 Jan. 1871. He obtained a thorough training on the violin early in life but continued his studies after entering the army. His zealous work brought him the rank of major-general and adjutant of the Emperor Nicholas as well as director of the choir at the court (1837-61), during the same time acting as inspector of musical education at the schools. Toward the last he lived a retired life on ac- count of his loss of hearing. He composed (1833) the music for the Russian national an- them, ‘God protect the Tsar? for the ceremony of unveiling the monument of Shukovski, who wrote the words. Among his operas are ‘Un- dine? (1848), his only one that was a success; ‘Bianca e Gualterio (1845); © “Starosta? (1854). He wrote from his great knowledge of Russian Church songs ‘Concerning the free and unsymmetrical rhythm of the true old-Rus- sian songs.? Numerous violin compositions for concert, duet, quartette, etc., were written by this clever composer. ‘Consult his autobiog- raphy (2d ed., Saint Petersburg 1896); Lvoff, E. N., “Memoirs? (ib. 1880). LYALL, li’al, Srr Alfred Comyn, English author and civil servant: b. 1835; d. 10 April 1911. He was educated at Eton and Hailey- 768 bury, entered. the Bengal civil service and served with distinction in the volunteer cavalry during the Indian Mutiny. He was appointed home secretary to the Indian government in 1873, and foreign secretary in 1874, and was governor of the Northwest Provinces of India 1882-87. He was afterward a member of the Council of India, 1888-1903. He was the founder of the new university of Allahabad. He was created K.C.B. in 1881, and G.C.LE. in 1896. He was the author of ‘Verses Written in India? (1889); ‘British Dominion in India? (1893); ‘Asiatic Studies» (1882, 1899); ‘Life of Warren Hastings? (1889); ‘Tennyson? in the English Men of Letters series (1902) ; ‘Life of Lord Dufferin? (2 vols., 1905) ; and ‘Studies in Literature and History? (1915). His ‘Life,? by H. M. Durand, was published in 1913. LYALL, Edna. See Bayty, Apa ELLEN. LYALL, James, American inventor: b. Auchterarder, Scotland, 13 Sept. 1836; d. New York, 23 Aug. 1901. He was brought to this country as a child; when old enough worked at loommaking in his father’s shop; was a soldier of the 12th New York Infantry during the early part of the Civil War; and afterward became a manufacturer of jute and cotton goods and of machines. He designed corset-making machin- ery.and produced the first machine-made corsets ever manufactured. He also invented a water- proof varnish, and in the latter part of the war knapsacks and haversacks waterproofed by his process were largely used in the Union army. The Lyall positive-motion loom, -for weaving wide fabrics, was invented by him in 1863, Va- rious other inventions of his are much em- ployed in cotton manufacture. He received many medals and decorations, including the gold medal of honor from the American Insti- tute, bestowed on him in 1869. LYCANTHROPY. See WErReE-WOLF. LYCAON, li-ka’6n, a mythical king of Ar- cadia, generally represented as a son of Pelas- gus by Melibcea, daughter of Oceanus, and de- scribed by some as the first civilizer of Arcadia, by others as a barbarian who defied the gods. He became by several wives the father of a great number of sons, so notorious for arro- gance and impiety that Jupiter resolved to pun- ish them. Appearing to them at their dwelling in Arcadia disguised as a poor man, they invited him to a repast, at which was served up the flesh of a boy whom they had murdered. The god, rejecting the food, transformed Lycaon and all his sons save one into wolves, or according to other accounts destroyed them by a flash of lightning. The flood of Deucalion was said by some to have been a consequence of the crimes of the Lycaonidz. LYCAONIA, lik-a-é’ni-a, Asia Minor, the name of an ancient division which was bounded north, east, south, southwest and west by Gala- tia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Isauria and Phrygia, and is now included in the Turkish province of Caramania. It is a somewhat bleak region; sheep and wild asses were bred here in ancient times, Lycaonia is first mentioned in Xeno- phon’s history of the expedition of the younger Cyrus as belonging to the Persian Empire. After its conquest by Alexander and his death, it was attached to the kingdom of Syria, and subsequently came into ‘the possession of LYALL — LYCEUM Eumenes, king of Pergamus, while the other part was ruled by native chieftains. In the lat- ter half of the lst century B.c. it was conquered by Amyntas, king of Galatia, with which coun- try it passed on his death to the Romans under Augustus, being annexed to the province of Cappadocia. The inhabitants, according to the Acts of the Apostles, spoke a peculiar dialect. They were warlike and skilled in archery. The principal town was Iconium, now Konieh, which stood close by the great highroad from Sardis and Ephesus to the Sicilian gates. Consult Ramsay, ‘Historical Geography of Asia? (Lon- don 1890); and ‘Cities of ‘Saint Paul? (New York 1907). _ LYCEE (French for lyceum), the designa- tion in France for state schools for secondary or intermediate education providing a three years’ classical course preparatory to the higher and final courses of instruction given by uni- versities, with their faculties of letters, law and medicine. The number of lycées for boys is 112, with an average attendance of 63,000, maintained at an annual expenditure of nearly 45,000,000 of francs; the number of lycées for girls is 52, maintained at an expenditure of about five and one-half millions of francs. Nearly 5,000,000 of francs are devoted annu- ally to scholarships and prizes in lycées for boys and girls. There are also communal col- leges for secondary education, comparable to the American high school. The. course of studies in the lycée, however, is of a much more extended character than that of the communal college, the lycées of the larger towns prepar- ing students for positions in the different ad- ministrative departments of the national gov- ernment. The lycées originated under the first republic, and their courses of instruction, ad- ministration and discipline occupy an import- ant position in the decree of 17 March 1808, on the reorganization of the university system. From 1815 to 1848, during the restoration of the monarchy, the lycées were called royal col- leges (colléges royaux). . LYCEUM (Latin, from the Greek Lykeion the great gymnasium of ancient Athens), a school of higher education preparatory to the work of the university; and in a secondary sense, a public building or hall in which lectures of a scientific and informative nature are given. A later meaning of the word, which has, in the United States and Canada pretty nearly sup- planted its more primitive significations, is that of an association for literary and educational improvement. The American Scientific Lyceum was the idea of Josiah Holbrook of Derby, Conn., who, in 1826, organized the “Millbury Branch No. 1 of the American Lyceum.” Hol- brook was one of the first advocates in the United States of the necessity of teaching the natural sciences in American schools. Previous to 1826 he had spent some years lecturing from town to town throughout Massachusetts and Connecticut on geology and mineralogy and incidentally on others of the natural sciences ; and he organized, in the various villages and towns where he lectured, societies for the pur- pose of collecting specimens and the extension of mutual aid on the part of the members in their study of science. His efforts. long per- sisted in, did much to introduce into the public LYCEUM schools of the United States the systematic and practical study of the natural sciences. MHol- brook dreamed of seeing established in every town and village of the United States a branch of what is called “The American Lyceum,” with library and natural history, minerological, geo- logical and other specimens, catalogued, grouped and arranged in the best manner for study on the part of the members of the lyceum, who were expected to mutually aid one another. According to his plan there were to be country, town, State and national lyceums, the national lyceums being composed of delegates from the State lyceums, and the latter of delegates from the country and town institutions. Some 15 neighboring villages. responded to Holbrook’s call within a few months of the organization of the Millbury branch. By the end of 1827 these had increased to over 100; and a year later there _ were lyceums in nearly every State. in the Union; and by 1834 some 3,000 lyceums had been established in towns throughout the United States. Some States, like Massachusetts, ap- pointed State boards to promote lyceum work. The States ran races with one another in their efforts to organize State lyceum associations. New York was the first in this race, but was followed closely by Massachusetts and several other New England States. Florida, too, was up near the top of the list. In May 1831 a convention for the organization of an American Lyceum met in New York City representing, through its delegates, over 1,000 town lyceums. The new organization took its stand for “the advancement of education, especially in the com- mon schools, and the general diffusion of knowl- edge.” A national. convention was held in 1839, constituting itself the American Lyceum Union; and its enthusiastic meeting, which was extensively reported in the press, had very con- siderable influence upon the improvement of the public school system of the United States. It and the State and town lyceums bequeathed to the American people educational, literary and other associations, lecture bureaus, scientific societies and a nation-wide interest in the study of science.’ From one end of the land to the other men prominent in educational, literary, ecclesiastical and political life took an active part in the lyceum movement, and the larger cities were as active and enthusiastic in the work as the towns and country villages.) There was scarcely a New England town that did not have its lyceum organization. In this; work . Boston led the way, and its lyceum was pre- sided over for several years by no less a per- sonage than Daniel Webster. Down into the closing years of the 19th century the activity of the lyceum continued to hold aloft the banner of self-instruction through lectures, debates, classes for study and mutual help, essays, con- versation and public readings and recitations. Weekly meetings were generally held and home talent, for the most part, supplied the program free of charge during the first 15 or more years of the life of the lyceum. About. this time some of the more flourishing of the town and city lyceums began to pay the traveling ex- penses and even to occasionally offer a small fee for the services of some bright particular star of some other lyceum. Concord paid Daniel Webster $100 for a lecture and Ralph Waldo Emerson and Thoreau were in demand VOL. 17 — 49 769 as attractions for special lyceum events. The custom of paying lecturers once established, a galaxy of lyceum stars soon appeared in the horizon. Among these were Starr King, Theo- dore Parker, Horace’'Greely, Edward Everett Hale, Henry Ward Beecher, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Agassiz, Lowell, James T.. Fields, George W. Curtis, Edwin Whipple, Wendell Phillips and Charles A. Dana. It was about this time that the professional lecturer made his appearance. Emerson led the way, being immensely popular and ‘may be said to have created ‘the profession. He was soon followed by John B. Gough, Willits, Curtis, Whipple, O. W. Holmes, Bayard Taylor, W. L. Garrison and Fred Douglas. The most’ brilliant names in the history of American oratory began to appear on lyceum programs; among them being those of women lecturers who were later on the road to ‘achieve national reputations. Lucy Stone, Anna Dickinson, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Mary Livermore were among the “burning brands» of these early days of lyceum activity and enthusiasm. ° Lyceum Reconstruction.— The heat of po- litical opinion occasioned by the agitators pre- ceding’ the outbreak of the Civil War’ and the years of the war itself destroyed fully 90 per cent of the lyceums throughout the land; and when the war was over'there was little left of them ‘but the material with which to begin building anew. Although the lyceums had fared’ badly they had left behind them a won- derful abundance of high class talent which was to he found, for the most part, in the East.::In 1867 the “Associated” Western Literary Soci- eties” was organized for the purpose of bring- ine west, through the mutual efforts of the Western lyceums, the best Eastern lecturers: The first’ year the organization, which’ con- sisted of 110 lyceums, ‘brought west 35 lecturers and gave them consecutive dates at much better pay than they had- ever’before received. The association was a sticcess from the first, and after three years it joined hands with the Amer- ican Literary Bureau of New York. The Boston Lyceum Bureau was already in the field in 1868, and the Williams Lecture and Musical Bureau began business the following year. The East had begun to outbid the West for the best lyceum’ talent and got it. The greatest names of the day appeared on the lyceum bureaus’ bill of:fare. The thorough organization: of the lec- ture field followed and the popular lyceum stars soon found themselves in clover. Early in his career as a lecturer, Mark Twain received $300 a night and Beecher $500. Among those who received $200 and upward for a single lecture were Barnum, Robert.Collyer, Anna Dickinson and Gough. The Pond Bureau suddenly raised these high prices in order to secure the best talent in the. field, paying Beecher $1,000 per lecture and Henry M. Stanley, just back from Africa, $100,000 for 100 lectures. Stanley’s first lecture brought in. almost $18,000. So great was the demand for good lecturers that there were not enough to fill the bill, and readers and mus- ical entertainers were pressed into service. Some of the former, like Helen Potter, Mrs. Scott Siddons and. Charlotte Cushman became immensely popular and were eventually as highly paid as the lecturers. Musical clubs, lyceum opera companies, concert companies and dra- 770 matic readers became a fixed part of the lyceum program; and the expenses of the bureaus arose to such high proportions that more organization was necessary to meet them. Then the advance agent, the seller of lyceum talent, was put upon the road and scores of new bureaus for the handling of lyceum talent came into the field. By the end of the 19th century these numbered over 100 and five years later they had reached 150, with thousands of entertainers of all kinds on their lists. Chautauqua Societies came to intensify the life of the lyceum movement. By this. time these societies had already neared the 500 mark, and they went on increasing rapidly and in so doing made further demands upon the efforts of the bureaus. The organization of talent into bands which gave their time, throughout the summer season, to the summer Chautauqua fol- lowed, and the selling of bureau talent became the business of trained agents who completely covered the country. Out of these Chautauqua courses sprang Uni- versity Extension work with its many ramifica- tions; and the free lecture courses furnished by schools, colleges, other institutions, cities and towns. Of these the most noted are the free lecture courses of the New York City board of education. Boston, Chicago, Milwaukee, Philadelphia and other large American cities have been active along this line. The natural result of all this activity was the organiza- tion, in 1903, of the International Lyceum Association in Chicago, which has yearly, since that date,- held meetings of several days’ duration in some prearranged city, such as Philadelphia, Elkhart, Ind., Valparaiso, Ind., and Chautauqua. The lyceum movement early extended to Canada where it became very active, established talent-selling bureaus and perfected its own organizations. (See UNIVER- sity EXTENSION; CHAUTAUQUA SocieETIEs; Lit- ERARY SOCIETIES; NEw York City Free Lec- TURES; INTERNATIONAL LycEUM ASSOCIATION). Consult the biographies of Beecher, Gough, Emerson and other noted lecturers mentioned in this article, Lyceum. Magdzine, Lyceum World, and Wright, A. A., ‘A Brief History of the Lyceum? (in “Who’s Who in the Lyceum,” Philadelphia 1906). Joun Husert Cornyn, Editorial Staff of The Americana. LYCEUM MOVEMENT, an educational project launched by Josiah Holbrook at Mill- bury, Mass., in 1826. Its primary object was to establish lyceums in various cities to stimulate educational institutions .and ventures along three lines: (1) the improvement of the public schools; (2) the organization of libraries and museums; (3) the formation of lecture courses and the establishment of classes for the educa- tion of adults. The movement became exceed- ingly popular, especially in regard to the second and third purposes. Noteworthy monuments testifying to the work accomplished are the Lowell Institute and the Mercantile Library Association in Boston, and the Brooklyn Insti- tute. The American Lyceum Association was organized to further the plans of the movement. It was active in stimulating a live interest in the public school question; in introducing new subjects and equipment into the school curricula; furthering education of girls and women and LYCEUM MOVEMENT — LYCIDAS correlating the work of the secondary schools ‘with that of higher institutions of learning. A number of lyceum bureaus were established to serve as central offices for making ‘arrange- ments for speakers, exhibits, etc., and for the gathering of information for lyceum centres. The school work of the lyceum movement is carried on largely to-day by the various educa- tion and teachers’ associations; its program for the education of adults has been absorbed and enlarged by the Chautauqua and University Ex- tension (qq.v.) movements and various women’s and civic clubs; and the American Library As- sociation has taken over the work of -establish- ing libraries. LYCH-GATE. See Liew GATE. LYCHNIS, lik’nis, a genus of plants of the pink family (Silenacee) comprising many species well known both as weeds in waste places throughout the northern hemisphere, and as garden ornaments, They have a five-toothed naked calyx, five clawed petals, 10 stamens, and five styles, with flowers generally in, termi- nal corymbs. Ragged Robin, or cuckoo- flower (L. flos-cuculi), a native of Europe, is often cultivated and sometimes runs wild in isi United States; white campion (L. alba) , another species naturalized from Europe; ie also are the red campion (EZ, dioica), and some others. Many foreign species are cultivated in gardens, among which are the scarlet lychnis (L.. chalcedonica) and the mullein-pink (ZL. coronaria). Several. species are indigenous” to Arctic North America. LYCIA, lis‘i-a, . Asia Minor, an ~ancient maritime province, bounded -by Caria on the west, Pamphylia on the east and Pisidia-on the north. Its fertility and populousness are. at- tested by the 27 cities mentioned. by. Pliny, which formed.a confederated republic, with a congress which regulated the public concerns, and a presi- dent. called the Lyciarch. sLycia was. colonized by the Greeks at a very early period, and its his- torical inhabitants were Greeks, though with a mixture of aboriginal blood. They and the Cili- cians were the only people west of the Halys whom ‘Creesus did not conquer, and they were the last who held out against the Persians. Con- sult Fellows, ‘Account of Discoveries in saat (1841). LYCIDAS, lis’i-das. A pastoral elegy con- tributed by John Milton to a memorial vol- ume published at Cambridge in: 1638 in* honor of Edward King, a prospective parish «priest, who, while on a voyage to Ireland, perished in a shipwreck off the Welsh coast in August 1637. Little is known of Milton’s relations with King or of the circumstances attending the writing and publishing of ‘Lycidas,? but there ‘is > evi- dence that the poet bestowed much pains upon his elegy which has come to be regarded as a masterpiece in its kind, ‘being practically un- surpassed in English poetry in rich beauty and noble harmony. Tennyson told Edward Fitz- Gerald, who seems’ to have shared the opinion, that Lycidas? “was a touchstone of poetic taste.» In kind ‘the poem holds by the: pastoral elegies of the ancients, _Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, Virgil and of their Renaissance imi- tators, but it dispenses with some typical features, e.g., the refrain, and it swells, Partic- LYCIUM—LYCURGUS ularly in the passage that introduces Saint Peter denouncing the corruption of the English clergy, to an ode-like intensity of lyric utterance that might warrant the claim that in ‘Lycidas> Mil- ton created a new form of elegy, one blending the primary poem of lamentation with the pastoral and the ode. The exceptional features to be observed in the verse-lengths and the thymes, which show Italian influence, give color to this view. Few poems better repay the student who is interested in the sources from which a great poet. draws his materials, but such study of ‘Lycidas> only efftances respect for Milton’s art and leaves his right to be re- garded as essentially original unimpaired. Admirers of ‘Lycidas? have found difficulty in keeping their praise within bounds, but it has. not lacked detractors, the most conspicuous of whom is Dr. Johnson. Hostile criticism is generally based on the artificial elements of the poem, which it shares with other pastorals, on the alleged lack of a deep personal interest on the part of the elegist in the ‘subject of. his elegy, and on the assumed incompatibility of the denunciatory passage on the clergy with the soft, pensive tone of regret which should char- acterize an elegy. The first objection applies, however, to poems like ‘Adonais> and ‘Thyrsis,” for example, and opens up the large topic of the place of the conventional in art; the second overlooks the possibility that Milton sincerely lamented, the loss of King in his public capacity as a man who might have done. service as a reformer of the Church; the third may perhaps be parried by asking whether, if Milton did thus lament King, the much-censured Saint Peter passage ‘is not the natural culmination ‘of a blended ode’and pastoral elegy, of a fusion of kinds of poetry which has successfully borne the best of all tests, that of the experience of lovers of poetry throughout nearly three cen- turies. ‘Lycidas? in the judgment of so many readers stands so supreme among English poems of moderate length that depreciation of it will probably,.as time. goes. by, become negligibly sporadic. WILLIAM P.. TRENT. ~ LYCIUM, a genus of shrubby and thorny, erect or climbing plants of the Solanacee family, about. 75 species of which are. scat- tered throughout the temperate and warm parts of the world: Of the American species none is noteworthy except one naturalized from Europe called box-thorn or matrimony-vine (L. halimi- . folium), which bears funnel-form flowers, pur- plish changing to greenish, and red berries. LYCOMEDES, lik-6-mé'déz, legendary king of the island of Scyros. He was the son of Apollo and Parthenope, and Thetis gave to him the charge of her son, Achilles, disguised in woman’s apparel, to prevent his going to the Trojan War. LYCOPERDACEA!,, 1i’k6-pér-da’sé-é. See Funct. LYCOPHRON, 1i’k6f-ron, Greek poet and grammarian: b. Chalcis, Eubcea, 3d century B.c. He lived at Alexandria, under Ptolemy Phila- delphus (283-247), whose favor he won by the invention of anagrams. Of all his writings there remains but one tragedy, ‘Cassandra? (Alexandra), written in iambics. It has no pretensions to poetical merit. and is but a cum- brous store of learning and obscure allusions. 771 It is, properly speaking, a continued soliloquy, in which Cassandra predicts the fall of Troy, and the fate of all the heroes and heroines who shared its ruin. It affords some informa- tion of value respecting antiquities and mythol- ogy. LYCOPODIALES. See Ferns anp FERN- ALLIES. LYCOPODIUM, the principal genus of club-mosses (q.v.), containing many species of the northern hemisphere, of which several be- long to the United States. They are low creep- ing evergreen plants. A common example is the ground-pine (L. clavatum), which creeps upon the ground in heathy tracts with long, branch- ing stems. L. rubrum is a violent cathartic, and has been used successfully in Spanish America in cases of elephantiasis. L. clavatum and. L. selago excite vomiting. The yellow powder contained in the spore-cases of all the species is very inflammable, and is employed in the manu- facture of fireworks and in the flashing of torches or production of mimic lightning on the theatrical stage. It is also employed to cover pills, so as to prevent them being acted upon by. moisture, and-is known in England’ under the name of lycopode or vegetable brimstone, and in Germany as Blitzmehl or Hexenmehl (light- ning meal or switches’ meal). Many of. the species are prized for their beauty, and are cultivated in -hothouses or fern-cases, where they thrive well. LYCURGUS, 'li-kér’giis, Spartan lawgiver ; flourished in the 9th century B.c., according to the commonly received traditions. He was the youngest son of .the Spartan king Eunomus. | His eldest brother, Polydectos, succeeded his father in the government, but died soon after. His: wife proposed to Lycurgus to destroy her unborn child by her late husband, if he would share the throne with her. When:she gave birth to.a son, Charilaus, Lycurgus proclaimed him king, and became his guardian. Being desirous of examining the political constitutions of other lands, Lycurgus left Sparta. On his return the entire community requested him to draw up a constitution for them, and he undertook the task. The old constitution was completely remodeled; the. highest position in the state was to be shared by two kings, whose powers were coun- terbalanced by a senate (gerousia). The peo- ple obtained a voice in public affairs. The native race or Lacedemonians were confined to the pursuits of trade, commerce and agricul- ture; the Helots or slaves to all those menial employments which a freeman would consider as a disgrace; while the Spartans.became the warriors of the state. Lycurgus also intro- duced a redistribution of property. Obtaining from the god at Delphi an approving oracle for his institutions, he exacted a promise from his countrymen not to make any alterations in the laws before his return from a journey he was about to make. He then left Sparta, de- termined to finish his life in voluntary exile in order that the Spartans might be bound. by their oath to preserve his constitution inviolate forever. The time and place of his death are unknown. LYCURGUS, one of the 10 Attic orators: b. Athens, 396 s.c.; d. there, 325 3.c. He was a pupil of Plato and of Isocrates. In 343 he was sent with Demosthenes on an embassy to coun- 772 teract the intrigues of Philip. He won his chief glory as guardian of the public revenue 338-326 B.c. The decree of the Athenians commending his administration of this trust (307 B.c.) is still extant. He was also appointed superin- tendent of the city, and censor, and in the latter capacity caused his own wife to be fined, for violating one of his sumptuary enactments. Of the prosecutions which he conducted, the most celebrated was that against Lysicles, who had commanded the army of Athens at Cheronea; Lysicles was condemned to death. There were 15 orations of his extant in the ages of Plutarch and Photius, but all have since perished except that against Leocrates, and some fragments. Consult Jebb, R. C., ‘The Attic Orators? (3d ed., Oxford 1907). LYDDA, Palestine, town mentioned under the name Lod several times in the Old Testa- ment; later known as Diospolis. It is about nine miles east of Joppa and appears to have been. built mostly by the Benjaminites, though considerably outside of their territory, being within the confines of Ephraim and on the road to Jerusalem. The place gained importance under Vespasian and finds a description as a village equalling a city in size by Josephus. Here Peter healed A*neas and a church was erected to commemorate the event. Cestus Gallus (65 a.D.) burned down the town but it was soon rebuilt. Ecclesiastical annals tells us this place became the seat of a bishop, being especially distinguished as the probable birth- place of the celebrated Saint George and . assuredly his burial-place, a handsome church at some uncertain date being erected there to his honor. At present this town, spelled gen- erally Ludd, is a village only of considerable size and is surrounded by fine gardens and orchards. LYDDITE, a high explosive which was adopted by the English government in 1888 for charging its torpedo-shells. Its composition has been varied from time to time, but a typical formula is picric acid 88 per cent, dinitrobenzene 8 per cent and vaseline 4 per cent. These mate- rials are melted and mixed together in a water- bath, and while in the fused condition they are poured into the shells, where, on cooling, they solidify to a stone-like mass, bright yellow and bitter to the taste. A central canal is left in the explosive charge in which is placed a detonator containing ammonium picrate by which the charge is exploded. Its fumes are suffocating and it is supposed to kill by shock, or suffocate. It is stable under varying tem- peratures. This explosive was practically tested in the Boer War and the results were very disappointing, mainly because the positions selected by the Boers were such as minimized its destructiveness. It is, however, still believed to be an efficient explosive for use against armor. The explosive owes its name to the fact that the first experiments made with it were carried on in the environs: of the village of Lydd in England. LYDEKKER, Richard, English naturalist: b. 1849; d. 16 April 1915. He was educated at Cambridge University and was a member of the staff of the Geological Survey of India 1874-82. He. prepared for the British Museum in 1884, a catalogue in 10 volumes of the fossil mam- LYDDA —LYDIA malia, reptilia and birds therein, and was in Argentina, 1893-94, to examine the mammals in the La Plata Museum. Among his numerous publications are ‘Phases of Animal Life?- ~ “Geographical History of Mammals: ’ ‘The Deer of All Lands? (1898); ‘Wild Oxen, Sheep and Goats of All Lands, Living and Extinct? (1898); ‘Descriptions of South American Fossil Animals” ; ‘The Game Animals of India, Burma and Tibet?; ‘The Game Animals of Africa? ; ‘The Sportsman’s British Book? (1908); ‘Mostly Mammals: Zoological Essays? (1903); ‘The Ox and Its Kindred and the Sheep and Its Cousins? (1912). LYDGATE, lid’gat, John, English monk and poet: b. Lydgate, Suffolk, about 1370; d. Bury Saint Edmunds, about 1450. After study- ing at Oxford, and visiting France and Italy, he entered the monastery of Bury Saint’ Ed- munds, and established a school for instructing the sons of the aristocracy in versification and composition. He began to write about 1400. His chief works are his ‘The Falls of Princes” (1430; first printed 1494); ‘Story of Thebes? (1420); and ‘Histoire, Siege, and Destruction of Troye’ (1412-20). . His minor poems were published by the Percy Society in 1840. Ritson, in his ‘Bibliographia Poetica,? gives a complete catalogue of his works. Lydgate was an ad- mirer of Chaucer, whom he imitated in ‘The Story of Thebes,» a Canterbury tale in 10 syllabled couplets. An edition of his ‘Troy aa ht edited by Berg was published at Oxford in 1906. LYDIA, lid’i-a, Asia Minor, the name of an ancient large and fertile country, inhabited along the coast of the Jonian Sea by the Tonians. ‘Toward the south it was separated from Caria by the Meander (now Meinder) ; toward the east it was bounded by Phrygia and on the north by Mysia. It was in early times a kingdom, divided from: Persia by the river Halys (now Kizil Irmak). Its original inhabit- ants were a people called Mzonians, either of Semitic or of Indo-Pelasgic origin. This race was subdued by the Lydians, a Carian tribe. It attained its highest prosperity under the Merm- nade dynasty, beginning with the semi-mytho- logical Gyges (716 B.c.), and ending with Creesus (546 B.c), who was conquered by the Persiatis under Cyrus. The people were the richest and perhaps the most effeminate in all Asia. They delighted in luxurious garments, costly carpets, precious ointments and exquisite viands, and a kind of Grecian music called the Lydian. They also laid out beautiful gardens. Their example corrupted the JIonians. The wealth of the Lydians, however, was probably, in a great measure, confined to the kings and chief men. These could fill their coffers with the gold washed down by the Hermus (now Sarabat) and the Pactolus, and that obtained from the mines; and they procured. all the necessaries of life by the labor of their slaves. The Lydians are said. to have been the first to coin money and to establish inns; they are cred- ited with the invention of certain musical in-~ struments, the art of dyeing wool (which was afterward carried to such. perfection in Miletus), also the art of melting and working ore. At Sardis, the capital of the country, the LYE — LYMAN Grecians, Phrygians and .even the nomadic tribes bartered their goods. There was here a great market for the slave-trade, which fur- nished the harems’ of Persia with eunuchs. The great tumuli graves of the ancient Lydian kings are still to be seen near the Gygzean Lake. Interesting Lydian inscriptions have been un- earthed by American and other excavators. Consult Ramsay, Sir W. M., ‘Historical Geog- raphy of Asia? (London 1890). LYE, li, a solution of an alkali; water im- pregnated with alkaline salt imbibed from the ashes of wood. It is largely used in soap- making. LYELL, li-él, Str Charles, English geolo- gist: b. Kinnordy, near Kirriemuiér, Forfar- shire, Scotland, 14 Nov. 1797; d. London, 22 Feb. 1875. He was educated at Oxford, and on leaving Oxford he studied and passed for the bar. His life was almost wholly given, how- ever, to geology. His first writings on the sub- ject ‘consisted of contributions to the ‘Transac- tions? of the Geological Society, of which he was secretary, 1823-26, and president in 1835-36 and 1849-50, and to which he continued to fur- nish papers throughout his life. His first im- portant work, and the one on which his fame Tests, ne Principles of Geology,’ appeared in three volumes in 1830-33. A portion of it subsequently formed the basis of a separate work, ‘The Elements of Geology? (1838). In the prosecution of his geological studies Lyell made four visits to North America, in 1841-42, 1845-46, 1852 and 1853. His ‘Travels in North America) (1845) and ‘Second Visit to the United States) (1849), although mainly devoted to geological topics, contain many entertaining sketches of political and social life and institu- tions. On the occasion of his first American visit he lectured before the Lowell Institute in Boston, and again 1845-46. In 1863 appeared Lyell’s last important and most popular work, ‘The Antiquity of Man, containing’ a sum- mary of all the facts and arguments that could be obtained from geology, archeology, etc., to prove that man had existed upon the earth at a period vastly more remote than usually believed. His student’s ‘Elements of Geology? appeared in 1871. In 1864 he was president of the British Association. In 1848 he was knighted, and in 1864 was created a baronet. Lyell was a strong supporter of the “uniformitarian” theory of geology—the steady and long-con- _tinued action of forces still at work around us — as opposed to those who believe in great. cata- clysms or convulsions having taken place in the past; and he assisted materially in preparing the ground for the acceptance by scientists of Darwin’s theory of evolution. Consult ‘Life, Letters and Journals of (Sir Charles Lyell? (1881); Geikie, ‘The Founders of Geology” (1897). LYGODIUM. See Ferns AND FERN-ALLIES. LYKENS, li’kéns, Pa., postal village in Dauphin ‘County, at the foot of Bear Moun- tain, about 35 miles north-northeast of Harris- burg. Its rich anthracite coal mines are its chief source of income, but it has hosiery mills and a paper-box factory, foundry, etc. A bank and two newspaper offices are located here and no less than seven churches. The population in 1920 was 2,880. 773 LYLY, lili, John, English author: b. about 1554; d. London, 30 Nov. 1606. He was grad- uated from Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1573; studied also at Cambridge; wrote plays for the children’s companies of the Chapel Royal and Saint Paul’s, London; took side with the bishops in the Mar-Prelate controversy; and sat in Parliament for Hindon in 1589, for Ayles- bury in 1593 and 1601 and for Appleby in 1597. It is, however, for his ‘Euphues? (Part I, “Euphues, the Anatomy of Wit, 1579; Part II, ‘Euphues and his England, 1580) that Lyly is best known. This work is a tedious narrative of the fortunes and interests of a young Athenian, and is remarkable for a prose style that exhibits a uniform and continuous affecta- tion of epigram and antithesis. This fashion of writing, styled ‘Euphuism,? was much in favor at the court of Elizabeth, influenced numerous writers and may fairly be assumed to have been ridiculed by ‘Shakespeare, and it has excited the derision of successive genera- tions of authors. Lyly’s plays, ‘Alexander and Campaspe? (1584), ‘Endymion»? (1591) and “Midas? (1592), contain some worthy lyrics. Consult Bond’s edition of his works (3 vols., London 1902); ‘Child, C. G., ‘John Lyly and Euphuism? (ib. 1894); Feuillerat, A., ‘John Lyly: Contribution a la histoire de la Renais- sance ou Angleterre? (Paris 1910); Wilson, J. D., ‘John Lyly» (Cambridge, Eng., 1905). LYMAN, li’‘man, Benjamin Smith, Amer- ican geologist and mining engineer: b. North- ampton, Mass., 11 Dec. 1835. He was educated in the common schools, followed by one year of private tuition, then by one year at Phillips Exeter Academy and three years at Harvard College, receiving the degree of A.B in 1855. Taught school a few months, as principal of Deerfield (Mass.) Academy, and as assistant in Short’s Classical School at Philadelphia, and in Sanborn’s school at Concord, Mass. In 1856 he went to live at Philadelphia. In 1857 traveled extensively in the Middle and Southern States, collecting statistics of the iron manufacture for the American Iron Association. In 1858 he took up geology for life work and became assistant geologist of the State of Iowa. In 1859-61 he studied at the Paris Ecole des Mines, and then spent a year at the Freiberg Mining Academy. Returning to Philadelphia, he resumed _work at geological surveys in Pennsylvania, Virginia, eastern Nova Scotia, California, Alabama and Lower Canada, often in collaboration with J fe 3a Lesley, his original preceptor in such work, and, like him, based his work on instrumental topo- graphical surveying. About 1866 Lyman de- vised the method of indicating the geological structure, the direction and steepness. of the dip and the height of rock beds above sea- level, or other given level, at every point, by means of curves equidistant in level upon the surface of the rock beds. About four years later he devised a method of most compactly marking on maps the observed direction and steepness of dips at different points, so that any number of them could be clearly marked without confusion. In 1870 he was employed by the government of India in surveying oil fields. In 1871 he patented a solar transit sur- veying instrument, and in 1872 resumed geolog- ical surveys in West Virginia. From 1873 to 1879 he was employed by the Japanese govern- 774 ment as chief geologist and mining engineer, first ina geological survey of Yesso (ascertain- ing an extensive coal field); then in a survey of the oil lands on the main island and exam- | ining many mines, and finally in beginning the geological survey of Japan. The surveys were economical in character, and ‘moreover resulted in training a dozen young students to become capable practical geologists. The survey re- quired traveling in every -considerable part of Japan, but the winter headquarters were at Tokio. Returning in 1881 to America, he went to live at his native town, and resumed the practice of private geological surveys in Penn- sylvania, Ohio, New Mexico and Colorado. In 1885 and 1886 he served as common councilman of the city of Northampton. In 1887 he re- turned to Philadelphia and began, for the Penn- sylvania State Geological Survey, a geological survey of the New Red of Bucks and Mont- gomery counties, of which the results were finally published in 1895. He determined the thickness of the New Red to be about 27,000 feet, over five times as much as it had pre- viously, after 75 years’ discussion, been gen- erally conjectured to be; and he demonstrated the fact by a map with a couple of thousand dips marked, and the structure of the rock beds fully indicated in conformity with them by equidistant curves, and with the outcrop of im- portant building stone beds marked for many miles through the country. In 1906 he went for a six months’ trip to the Philippines to in- vestigate coal lands on the island of Cebu. - Since that other private geological work in Pennsylvania has claimed his attention. He has published over 150 reports and papers on geological’surveying and other subjects. He is an honorary member of the Engineers’ Club of Philadelphia and of the Japan Mining Institute and member of many other societies. LYMAN, Chester Smith, American as- tronomer: b. Manchester, Conn., 13 Jan. 1814; d. New Haven, 29 Jan. 1890. In youth he was self-taught in-astronomy and other branches of science, making for himself serviceable appa- ratus. He calculated’ eclipses 15 years ahead and computed almanacs for 1830-31. He was graduated at Yale in 1837 and studied theology there after a previous course at Union Theo- logical Seminary. After a short pastorate (1843-45) at New Britain, Conn., he went to the Hawaiian Islands, where he became in- structor at the Royal School. Two years later he was surveying in California. In 1850 he re- turned to the East and resumed his early study of sciences; in 1858 accepted the professorship of industrial mechanics and physics at Yale; from 1871 to 1884 was professor of astronomy and physics in the Sheffield Scientific School, which he had assisted in organizing, and con- tinued to teach astronomy alone until 1889 when he became professor emeritus. He made a number of useful scientific inventions, including a combination zenith telescope and transit for latitude, longitude and time, and was a con- tributor of papers to the New Englander and the American Journal of Science. LYMAN, Phineas, American soldier: b. Durham, Conn., about 1716; d: West Florida, now Mississippi, near Natchez, 10. Sept. 1774. He was graduated at Yale in 1738, was tutor LYMAN there until 1741 and subsequently practised law in Suffield. He acquired a great legal reputa- tion and succeeded in having Suffield annexed to Connecticut. He was’ a member of the upper house of the Connecticut legislature from 1749 to 1755. In the latter year he was ap- pointed major-general and the same year, being commander-in-chief of the Connecticut militia, he served with Sir William Johnson at: the battle of Lake George, and, after his com- mander had been disabled, conducted the en- gagement to a prosperous conclusion. He con- structed Fort Edward, which at first was known as Fort Lyman, but the name was changed by Johnson, who was jealous of Lyman’s. popu- larity. He was present at the attack upon Ticonderoga by Abercrombie and at the cap- ture of Crown Point and the surrender of Montreal, and in 1762 commanded the provin- cial troops in the expedition against Havana. Subsequently he passed many years in England in efforts to procure a grant of land on the Mississippi for the purpose of establishing a colony, and in 1774 embarked with his eldest son and some others for the country in ques- tion. The emigrants who followed him en- countered many misfortunes, and after the sub- jugation of the country by the Spaniards in Ha Ss were obliged to take refuge in Savan- nah. LYMAN, Theodore, Amercan philanthro- pist: b. Boston, 20 Feb. 1792; d. Brookline, Mass., 18 July 1849. He was graduated from Harvard in 1810, studied at the University of Edinburgh in 1812-14, was for a time aide-de- camp to the governor of Massachusetts, in 1823- 27 commanded the Boston brigade of the State militia with rank of brigadier-general, was a representative in the State legislature in 1821- 24, and became State senator in 1824. In 1834-35 he was mayor of Boston. He opposed the radical Abolitionists, and in August 1835 presided over a pro-slavery meeting in Boston, but on 21 Oct. 1835, at the risk of his own life, rescued William Lloyd Garrison from the “gentlemanly mob» that had vowed to bring the Abolitionist to the tar-kettle before dark. In order to save him he had him confined to jail. From 1835 he devoted himself to philanthropic work, and in 1844 removed to Brookline, Mass. In 1840-46 he was president of the Boston Farm School. To this institution he gave $10,000; to the Massachusetts Horticultural So- ciety, of which he was a life-member, $10,000, and to the State Reform School, now the Lyman School, at Westboro, $72,500. He wrote ‘Three Weeks in Paris? (1814); ‘The Political State of Italy» (1820); “The Hartford Convention? (1823), a defense of the ‘Conventionists; ‘The Diplomacy of the United States with Foreign Nations? (1828), a work still of use for the period covered. LYMAN, Theodore, American naturalist: b. Waltham, Mass., 23 Aug. 1833; d.. Nahant, Mass., 9 Sept. 1897. He was a son of Theodore Lyman (1792-1849) (q.v.). He was graduated from Harvard in 1855, from the Lawrence Sci- entific ‘School in 1858, and was assistant in zoology at the Museum of Comparative Zool- ogy. In 1863-65 was volunteer aide on the staff of General Meade, with rank of lieuten- ant-colonel. Having been mustered out on 20 LYME REGIS — LYMPH April 1865, he was fish commissioner for Massa- chusetts in 1865-82, and in that capacity made the first experiments undertaken by any State of the Union for the cultivation and protection of food-fishes. In 1883-85 he served in Con- gress as an independent representative. He was also president of the Boston Farm School, a member of the National Academy of Sciences (from 1872), and a trustee of the Peabody education fund. He donated $10,000 to Har- vard and his library of scientific works to the Museum of Comparative Zoology. His most important researches were connected with the Radiata. Among. his publications are ‘Illus- trated Catalogue of the Ophiuride and Astro- phytidee in the Museum of Comparative Zool- ogy’ (1865), with a “Supplement? (1871) ; ‘Old and New Ophiuride and Astrophytide? (1869) : ; “Papers Relating to the Garrison Mob? (1870) ; ‘Prodrome of the Ophiuride and Astrophy- tide of the Challenger Expedition” (1878-79), and ‘Report on the Ophiuride Dredged by fies S. Challenger during the Years 1873-76? LYME REGIS, lim ré’jis, England, sea- port town in Dorsetshire, at the mouth of the Lyme at its entry to the English Channel, and 22 miles west of Dorchester. It is a favorite summer bathing resort and its record goes back at least to the 13th century as a town. There is a Gothic (‘Saint Michael’s) church, old town- hall, assembly rooms, custom house, etc. The harbor has two piers which form it into a basin useful for small craft in stormy weather. Its population in 1911 was 2,772. In 1664 the town was besieged by Prince Moritz of the Palatinate, and it was here that the Duke of Monmouth landed in 1685. An ichthyosaurus and a plesiosaurus were discovered in this sec- tion buried in the Lias rock. Consult Roberts, “History of Lyme Regis? (London 1834). LYMPH, the fluid contained in the lym- phatic glands and in the lacteals (q.v.). It is elaborated primarily by the assimilation of food, and is also obtained from the blood and tissues, the system of vessels in which it is contained ramifying throughout the bodies of vertebrates. The clearest and simplest view of the nature and functions of the lymphatic vessels is that ‘which considers them as forming a connecting- link between the digestive and circulatory sys- tems. It is to be understood that the largest portion of all the cells in the body never comes in direct contact with the blood, which itself touches only the linings of the veins and arteries and the cells of the pulp of the spleen. What builds up the tissues of the body is not therefore the blood, but the lymph. Also the waste matters which are formed in the tissues are collected by the lymph, which turns it over to the blood, from which it is carried to the lungs, kidneys, skin, etc., from which it is excreted. The matters absorbed from the alimentary canal and from the blood and tissues are converted in. the lymphatic glands into lymph, which supplies initial and essential ele- ments of the blood. The lymphatic system, con- cerned in absorption, is also called. the ab- sorbent system. None of the invertebrates have such a defined sect of vessels; in the lower ani- mals matters pass from the digestive system into the blood-system directly and without the 715 intervention of any absorbent vessels. The lymphatic vessels constitute a distinctive char- acter of the highest sub-kingdom of animals. Fresh supplies of nutritive matter are poured from the lymphatic system into the current of circulation, but it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine where the’ function of circulation ends and that of absorption begins. Hall, ex- perimenting upon a patient from whom an acci- dent permitted the chyle to be taken, found that the fat contained in it varied according to the diet, while the protein and sugar varied very little. The lymph as it exists in the lymphatic vessels of a fasting animal is a colorless, trans- parent fluid, odorless, with a slightly saline taste and an alkaline reaction. Four kinds of lymph are recognized: (1) the tissue lymph which fills the spaces between the cells in all parts of the body; (2) circulating lymph which flows along the lymph vessels and returns to the blood system; (3) chyle, which is a circu- lating lymph .in the intestines, and (4) the serous lymph which the serous cavities con- tain. When microscopically examined it is seen to be a clear plasma containing corpuscles. It resembles blood in being an alkaline fluid, and in that it coagulates or clots by the separation of the fibrinous part of the plasma; but it differs from blood in that its corpuscles are nearly all colorless, and because its solid mat- ters are present in very small proportions. Ex-. cepting chyle, all lymph is about 95 per cent water, the rest being made up of about 3.75 per cent of proteins, 0.1 per cent of extractives and a very small proportion of inorganic mat- ter. In chyle the water is about 90 per cent. The lymph-corpuscles, when passed into the current of the blood, by a simple change of medium become the white blood-corpuscles, and when partially altered they give origin to red corpuscles. The lacteals absorb the chyle di- . rectly from the alimentary canal, and pour it, as rudimental blood, into the current of the circulation. Then from the body generally the ordinary lymphatic vessels bring the lymph, which is further elaborated in the lymphatic glands, and pour it into the current of the blood. The actual termination of the lymphatic vessels is in the large veins in the neighbor- hood of the heart. The lymphatic circulation may thus be regarded as corresponding in its general direction to the course of the venous blood. The lymphatic vessels resemble small veins in their general structure. They are provided with valves permitting the flow of the lymph only toward the large veins near the heart and into which the lymph is poured. The only structures in which lymphatic vessels do not exist are the non-vascular parts, such as the hair, nails, outer skin and cartilaginous tissues. The flow of lymph toward the heart is induced partly by the general pressure and action of the muscles of the body, the valvular structure aid- ing its propulsion as in the veins; and to this, as well as to the absorptive power, must be added the action of the contractile muscular fibres of the lymph-vessels themselves. It is not known to what extent the flow of lymph may be under the direct control of the nerves. The fluid employed in vaccination (q.v.) is also called lymph, of which two varieties are \ “76 distinguished, human and bovine. The term has likewise been applied to various serums made from bacterial cultures for preventive or cura- tive use in certain diseases, especially to those serums known as antitoxins (q.v.). /See IM- MUNITY; KocH, Ropert; SERUM, ‘THERAPY; TUBERCULOSIS. LYMPHATIC GLANDS, small organs, round and smooth and. comparatively. solid, which form part of the lymphatic system in vertebrates. (See Lacreats; LympH). Into these, sooner or later in their course, the other lymphatic vessels run, and from them emerge again.: The lymphatic glands are highly im- portant structures, since only after passing through them does the lymph contain, in any abundance, lymph-corpuscles. In size the glands may be compared to small alfmonds, and they are generally arranged in groups. Each gland is entered by a number of afferent vessels which bring lymph to it, while those (efferent vessels) which leave the gland carry lymph away from it. Externally a lymphatic gland presents an envelope of connective tissue, from which the stroma, consisting of a fibrous frame- work of processes, is prolonged into the in- terior of the gland. Within the stroma the essential gland-structure is contained. Within the stroma also, as well as within the softer portions or pulp contained in the meshes of the fibrous network, minute blood-vessels are distributed. Corpuscles are added to the lymph in the glands, while in the composition of. its fluid it undergoes further. elaboration. The lymphatic glands are regarded as factories. of leucocytes or white blood cells. The lymphatic trunks of the greater part of the body finally pour their contents into the thoracic duct, a small tube which opens into the current of the blood at the point of junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins of the left side of the body. On the right side of the body is a still smaller duct which receives the contents of the lymphatics of the right half of the chest, the right arm and the right side of the head and neck; and this smaller lymphatic channel or right lymphatic duct opens into the angle formed by the junction of the right jugular and subclavian veins, similarly to its larger neighbor of the left side. The thoracic duct begins in the upper part of the abdomen and runs up in front of the spine to the root of the neck, where it opens into the great veins. The re- ceptaculum chyli, or cistern of the chyle, is the -dilation at the commencement of the thoracic duct in the abdomen, which receives the con- tents of the lacteals or intestinal lymphatics. The orifices by which the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct open into their respective great veins are guarded by valves which permit the lymph to flow from the ducts into the veins, but prevent the flow of blood into the. ducts. ; . The spleen has been considered by physiolo- gists to be merely a ductless lymphatic gland of large size, since it appears to be concerned in the elaboration of the blood, and also to be a place of disintegration of the red corpuscles and a manufactory of the white corpuscles of the blood. And the thymus, another ductless gland, has also been supposed to be ‘connected with the function of blood-elaboration, and thus to be associated with the lymphatic system. LYMPHATIC GLANDS — LYNCH LYNCH, Anne Charlotte. ANNE CHARLOTTE, LYNCH, Arthur, Irish journalist and au- thor: b. Smythesdale, Ballarat, Victoria, Aus- tralia, 1861. He was educated at Melbourne University and the University of Berlin; prac- tised as an engineer, lectured on engineering and scientific subjects at Melbourne; was for a time a journalist in London; was a war cor- respondent in Ashanti, and twice visited America. During the second Boer War he was colonel in the Irish Brigade No. 2 of the Transvaal forces, and upon his landing in Great Britain subsequent to the war was brought to trial for high treason.. He was sentenced to death; but this sentence was afterward com- muted to life imprisonment. Lynch was elected member of .Parliament for Galway in 1901. See Botta, Among his books are ‘Modern Authors? (1891); ‘Approaches? (1892); ‘Our Poets? (1895); ‘Religio Athlete? (1895).; ‘Human Documents? (1896); ‘Prince Azreel? (1911); “Sonnets of the Banner and the Star? (1914), and ‘Ireland: Vital Hour? (1915). LYNCH, Charles, American planter and soldier: b. Chestnut Hill, Va., 1736; d. 1796. He was one of the pioneers of Bedford County at 19. In 1767 he was elected to the House of Burgesses. His influence was thrown in favor of the Revolution and it is in great part due to him that the Virginia delegation was sent to Congress with instructions that culmi- nated in the Declaration of Independence. He became justice of the peace in 1774 and colonel of militia in 1778. He lived on the Staunton River in Virginia, and in support of the Rev- olutionary government in that region during the early part of the war with Great Britain, joined Robert Adams and Thomas Calloway in the punishment and exile of Tories. As justice of the peace, he sentenced them to various terms of imprisonment in order to prevent their acting against the Revolutionary movement. A frequent punishment, so says tradition, was to suspend the disaffected by their thumbs until they were willing to exclaim “Liberty forever The summary acts of this self-appointed court are generally accepted as the origin of the term lynch-law (from “Lynch’s Law”). But whereas the expression is now used almost ex- clusively of punishment by death without legal authority, it does not appear that Lynch ever exacted the death penalty. After the surrender of Yorktown, Lynch returned to Bedford County, and the Tories threatened to prosecute him for his activities against them which were in excess of his powers. On Lynch’s appealing to the legislature, the latter branded his actions as illegal, but exonerated him in view of the circumstances. LYNCH, Frederick (Henry), American clergyman and educator: b. Peace Dale, R. I. 21 July 1867. He was graduated (1894) a Yale University, taking the B.D. degree in 1897. In 1899 he was ordained to the Congregational ministry, becoming assistant pastor of the United Church, New Haven, Conn., 1896-98, and pastor of the Pilgrim Church, New York, 1904-10.. He has been editor of Christian Work and Evangelist since 1908; executor and direc- tor of the New York Peace Society; founder of the Peace Arbitration Society of New York, and delegate to the International peace con- LYNCH —LYNCH LAW gresses at Munich (1897) and London (1908) ; also secretary of the Church Peace Union of America. He has written ‘The Enlargement of Life (1903); ‘Is Life Worth ‘Living ?? (1905); ‘The Gospel for To-Day> (1905); “The Peace Problem? (1911); ‘New Oppor- tunities of the Ministry (1912); ‘What Makes a Nation Great??? (1913); ‘The Last War? (1915); ‘The Challenge? (1917); ‘The Chris- tian in War Time? (1917). Numerous maga- zines have published short stories and articles from his pen. LYNCH, James Mathew, union labor leader: b. Manlius, N: Y., 11 Jan. 1867. He was educated at his native town (1874-81), then entering the printing trade. He has been active as a leader in union labor circles, serv- ing for seven terms as president of the Syra- cuse Trade Assembly, and filling the positions, successively, of first vice-president (1899- 1900), and president (1900-14) of the Inter- national Typographical Union. At present he is a member of the New York State Indus- trial Commission, member of the National Civic Federation and of the American Asso- ciation for Labor Legislation. LYNCH, John Joseph, Canadian Roman Catholic prelate: b. Ireland, 1816; d. 1888. He was educated at Dublin and Paris, was. ordained to the priesthood in 1843 and three years later came to the United States. He next went to Canada, where he became coadjutor bishop of Toronto in 1859, bishop in 1860 and arch- bishop in 1870. LYNCH, Patricio, Chilean naval and mili- tary officer: b. Santiago, Chile, 1824; d. at sea, May 1886. He was educated at the Chilean Naval Academy; entered the English navy in 1840 and took part in the Anglo-Chinese War; in 1847 he re-entered the Chilean navy and served during the war against Spain and be- came governor of Valparaiso. In 1879-80 he commanded a military and naval expedition against Peru, and ravaged the northern part of that state, destroying a large amount of prop- erty. He also took part in the battle of Chor- rillos, the battle of Miraflores and the attack against Lima, and was made commander-in- chief of the Chilean army; in the city of Lima he strictly observed martial law, suppressed the Peruvian government and took Calderon, the provisional President, prisoner, though this act called forth a protest from the United . States Minister. In 1883 he evacuated the city, having placed Iglesias at the head of affairs. He was made vice-admiral of the navy, and in 1884 sent as Minister to Spain. He died on his homeward voyage two years» later. LYNCH, Thomas, Jr., American patriot, one of the signers of the Declaration of Inde- pendence: b. Prince George’s parish, S. C., 5 Aug. 1749; perished at sea in the latter part of 1779. He was educated at Eton and the Univer- sity of Cambridge, and was subsequently ad- mitted as a student in the Temple, London. In 1772 he returned to South Carolina, and at the outbreak of hostilities in 1775 was appointed a captain in the first regiment of provincial regu- lars raised by South Carolina. Being unani- mously chosen by the provincial assembly to succeed his father as a member of Congress, he took his seat in that body in 1776, but in a few months was compelled by ill health to retire 777 from active political life. One of his last public acts was to affix his signature to the Declaration of Independence. In the latter part of 1779, as the only means of saving his life, he sailed for Saint Eustatius, West Indies, intending to find there a neutral vessel which would convey him to France. The ship in which he sailed was never heard from and is supposed to have been lost in a storm. LYNCH, William Francis, American na- val officer: b. Norfolk, Va., 9 April 1801; d. Baltimore, 17 Oct. 1865. He entered (1819) the United States navy, becoming lieutenant in 1828. A Palestine expedition was placed in his command (1848) and he explored the Dead Sea and the Jordan, publishing (1849) an ac- count of the survey under the title of ‘Narra- tive of the United States Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea,’ which has gone. through several editions. He was pro- moted (1849) commander and (1856) captain, in which latter rank he joined the Confederate forces in 1861, in which he rose to commodore. He wrote also ‘Naval Life: The Midshipman, or Observation Afloat and Ashore? (1851). LYNCH LAW, or JUDGE LYNCH, a name for irregular punishment, especially capi- tal, inflicted by private individuals independ- ently of the legal authorities. Extra judicial punishments in states which are in a condition of loose organizatian haye been common in all ages, as the Vehmgerichte in Germany, the Lydford law in England,- “Jeddart Justice” in Scotland and the Spanish Hermanadad. The origin of the term “Lynch law” is doubtful; by some it is said to be from James Lynch Fitz-Stephen, warden of Galway, Ireland, who, about 1526, sentenced his son to death for mur- der, and to. prevent a rescue by a mob executed him with his own hands without due process of law. By others the term is said to have had its origin in the State of Virginia, where a farmer of the name of Charles Lynch (q.v.) took his own way of obtaining redress for a theft by catching the culprit, tying him to a tree and flogging him. This mode of admin- istering justice has always prevailed more or less in every country in times of great popular excitement, and is necessarily resorted to in newly-settled territories, where the power of the civil government is not fully established. As early as 1768, in the United States the terms “regulating,” “regulation” and “regulator” were in use in the Carolinas; illegal whippings were at that time inflicted by the Regulators, and it is claimed that a meeting of the Regu- lators took place at Lynch’s Creek. Whether there is any historical connection between the Regulators of the Carolinas and the Regulators who flourished along the Western frontiers where lynch law was well known, in and after 1819, is one of the many obscure points in the early history of lynch law which await elucida- tion. At first in the United States, “lynch law” was not mob law, as it is now understood. It was almost necessary under the conditions then obtaining, when territory extended faster than effective government organization for the punishment of offenders. “t was orderly, methodical and fair in its practices, and was strongly opposed to violence or mob rule. Its distinctive feature was simply that its decrees and findings were executed sternly and swiftly 778 on the spot where they had been decided upon. This was true of the conditions in California in 1849 when Judge Lynch held frequent court, and hundreds of culprits were executed be- tween 1849 and 1860, in an orderly manner, with nothing of the mob violence or excite- ment common in recent years. During the Civil War and afterward, lynching was prac- tised in the Southern States at the instigation of the Ku Klux Klan (q.v.). From 1870 it became an unwritten law in the South to lynch by mob rule every negro charged with rape or assault, or with the murder of a white per- son; and it is still the Southern. States that bear the unenviable record for lynchings. Grad- ually this practice spread to Northern States, and negroes were not only “lynched,” or hung, but were burned at the stake in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio and other States. According to figures prepared by the Chicago Tribune, there were 3,539 lynchings in the United States be- tween 1885 and 1912. About one-third of these were for violence to women, another third for murder, but none were for the killing of one negro by another. The number of lynchings vary considerably from year to year, as the following totals show: in 1906, 68; 1907, 71; 1912, 64; 1913, 79; 1914, 50; 1915, 96; 1916, 54. In the last-named year 50 negroes were lynched and four whites; less than a quarter of the punishments being inflicted for rape. Georgia headed the list of lynchings for 1916 with 14, Florida had 8 and Oklahoma 4. Rarely is there conviction or punishment -of persons who participated in lynchings, owing largely to the sympathy of jurors for the accused. In Kansas and Indiana laws have been passed providing for the suspension from office of sheriffs who fail to protect prisoners from the violence of the mob, and in South Carolina and Ohio the counties are held liable for compensation to the relatives of persons who suffer death by lynching. As the adminis- tration of the criminal law is in the hands of the several States, the Federal government is unable to mitigate or stamp out the practice. The best remedy for lynch law is prompt ac- tion by the courts and the prompt execution of sentence after a culprit has been convicted. Consult Calter, J. E., “Lynch Law> (New York 1905); Hart, A. B. ‘The Southern South (ib. 1910); ‘Cyclopedia of American Govern- ment, ed. by McLaughlin and Hart (Ngw York 1914) ; and the volumes of the ‘American Year Book. LYNCHBURG, Va., city Campbell County, on the James River and on the Norfolk and Western, the Southern and the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad 174 miles south-southwest of Washington. The city is situated in a river valley which forms a pass through the moun- tains. The irregularity of the surface upon which stands the city, the hills, the numerous terraces, the many trees along the streets, the well-built, handsome houses with neatly kept grounds, all make the place most attractive. History.— Lynchburg was founded in 1786 by John Lynch, but it was not incorporated until 1823. It was early in the 19th century, as now, a distributing centre for places above on the river and for many settlements and towns south of the James. The Confederates used it as a supply depot during the Civil War, LYNCHBURG — LYNDHURST . On 18 June 1864 General Hunter, of the Fed- eral army, attacked the city, but was defeated. Manufactures, etc.— The chief manufac- tures are iron products, tobacco, cotton goods, plows, wagons, shoes, bark extract, candy, fertilizers, overalls, hardware, flour and lum- ber. It has extensive tobacco interests, as a manufacturing and jobbing centre being among the seven leading shoe jobbing cen- tres of the Union. The trade is principally in tobacco, raw and manufactured; coal, granite and its own manufactures. Lynchburg is the seat of Randolph-Macon Woman’s. Col- lege, Virginia Christian College (coeduca- tional) and. Episcopal School for Boys, and it has four hospitals, the Miller Female Orphan Asylum, a Presbyterian orphanage, an Odd- Fellows’ orphanage, Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A. and Chamber of Commerce. Granite quarries are near by, and large coal fields and iron ore are in the neighboring counties. The river fur- nishes extensive water power, which aids in the development of: the manufacturing interests of the city. Government, etc.— The government of the city is vested in a mayor, who holds office four years, and a council.and board of aldermen (biennial). The city treasurer, clerk of the courts and commissioner of revenue are chosen by popular election, and the other officers are appointed. . The waterworks plant is owned and operated by the city. Pop. (1920) 29,956.. Con- sult Cabell, ‘Sketches and Recollections of Lynchburg.” LYNDE, lind, Francis, American novelist: b. Lewiston, N. Y., 12 Nov, 1856. After many years in the ‘railway service in various capacities he turned to literature in 1893, beginning as a contributor to magazines; work which he still Hays bet and which now comprises over 200 short stories and novelettes. His published books are ‘A Romance in Transit? (1898); | ‘The Helpers? (1899); ‘A Private Chivalry? (1900) ; ‘The Master of Appleby (1902) ; ‘The Grafters? (1904); A Fool for Love? (1905); ‘The Quickening? (1906); ‘Empire Builders? (1907); ‘The King of Arcadia? (1909); ‘The Taming of Red Butte Western? (1910); ‘The Price? (1911); ‘Scientific Sprague? (1912): ‘The Honorable’ Senator Sage-brush? (1913); “The City of Numbered Days? (1914); ‘The Real Man? (1915). With a single exception, Mr. Lynde’s books deal with modern condi- tions of American life, industrial, social and political, with a strong emphasis laid upon character development. LYNDHURST, lind’hérst, John Singleton Copley, Baron, English lawyer and statesman: b. Boston, 21 May 1772; d. London, 12 Oct. 1863. His father was the well-known painter of the same name. He was taken to Eng- land in early infancy, his parents having gone to reside in London. He was educated at the University of Cambridge, became a Fel- low of Trinity College, traveled in the United States, was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1804 and soon gained a high position. In 1817 he ably defended Watson and Thistlewood for high treason, and obtained their acquittal. — He was first known as a Liberal, but early be- came Conservative. In 1818 he entered Parlia- ment for Yarmouth, Isle of Wight, which he scon exchanged for Ashburton. In 1819 he be- LYNDON — LYNX came solicitor-general and was knighted. He conducted the prosecution in the trial of Queen Caroline. In 1824 he succeeded to the post of Attorney-General, in 1826 was elected for Cam- bridge, and became Master of the Rolls. He succeeded Lord Eldon as Chancellor in 1827, which post he retained until 1830, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Lyndhurst. In March 1829, he delivered a great speech against Catholic emancipation. He was chief baron of the exchequer from 1831-34. He was a formidable opponent of the Reform Bill, and in 1834 became a second time Chancellor, but in 1835 retired with the Peel Ministry. Lynd- hurst’s speeches and annual reviews of the session contributed greatly to the return to power of the Conservatives in 1841, on which occasion he was a third time raised to the woolsack. He retired in 1846, from which time he took little part in home ‘politics, confining his attention more to matters of foreign policy. For a long time he was virtually the Tory leader in the upper house. Brougham said: “Lyndhurst was so immeasurably superior to his contemporaries . . . that he might well be pardoned for looking -down rather than prais- ing.» He was distinguished alike as a debater, advocate and judge; his decisions were models in arrangement and clearness of exposition. Consult Sir Theodore Martin’s ‘Life? (1883); Atlay’s ‘The Victorian Chancellors» (London 1906) ; and, for a spiteful portrayal, Campbell’s ‘Lives of the Chancellors. LYNDON, Vt., post-village of Caledonia County, located on the Passumpsic River, about 36 miles east by northeast of Montpelier. It has two churches, an academy, graded school, national bank, two marble works, pulp-mill, an institute, school of agriculture, public li- brary, etc. Pop. about 3,204. LYNE, lin, Joseph Leycester, commonly known as “FATHER IGNATIUS,» or “IGNATIUS OF Jesus,” English clergyman: b. London, 23 Nov. 1837; d. 16 Oct. 1908. After taking deacon’s orders in the Church of England and doing mission work in London, he conceived the idea of reviving the Benedictine rule in a modern monastic foundation. With this view he first formed a community at Claydon, near Ipswich, in 1862 and finally built Llanthony Abbey in Wales, where he was joined by a few enthusi- asts, though his movement made no progress at all commensurate with his program. He visited Canada and the United States (1890- 91) asa missioner. He was a striking preacher, and his warmly evangelical discourses were in curious contrast to his medieval ideas. But he was always in conflict with the authorities of the Church of England, was finally prohibited from preaching and was forced to preach in hired halls. Among his published works are ‘The Catholic Church of England’ (1864); ‘Brother Placidus? (1870); ‘Leonard Morris, or the Benedictine Monk? (1871); ‘Mission Sermons and Orations? (1886) ; (1889). LYNN, lin, Samuel H., American physi- cian: b. Phijadelphia, 1843; d. Rochester, N. Y., 27 Feb. 1917. He was a graduate of the School of Dentistry of the University of Pennsylvania and of the School of Medicine there. He re- moved to Rochester in 1888. He spent much of his time abroad, and for 18 years lived in ‘Jesus Only? 779 Russia. He studied at the clinics in Vienna, Saint Petersburg and other European cities and obtained a world-wide knowledge of medicine. He was a veteran of the Civil War, having served under Admiral Farragut at the battle of Mobile Bay and participated in the Cushing expedition. He was one of the men who planted a bomb on the deck of the Albemarle, ‘He was a member of several medical societies. LYNN, -lin, Mass., city tn Essex County, on Massachusetts Bay, and on the Boston and Maine, the Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn railroads, about 10 miles northeast of Boston and five miles southwest of Salem. Area, nearly 12 square miles. Lynn was first settled in 1629 by Edmund and Francis Ingalls and for a time was called Saugus. It receives its present name in 1637 from. King’s Lynn, Eng- land, the home of Samuel Whiting, then pastor at Saugus (Lynn). It was incorporated in 1630 and chartered as a city in 1850. The city in- cludes what were several independent villages: Glenmere, Highlands, East Lynn, West Lynn, Linwood, Lynmere and Wyoma. The Lynn Harbor is shallow, but it is considered safe. The three-mile shore- line adds to its attrac- tions. The city is noted for its shoe factories. The annual amount of shoe business is in the neighborhood of $50,000,000; and the number of persons employed, about 25,000. The chief ‘manufactures are shoes, cut leather, shoe ma- chinery, electrical supplies, meters, arc lamps, morocco and patent medicines. The city has several churches of the various denominations. Some of the principal buildings are Lynn Public Library, which has about 115,947 volumes; two hospitals, the city hall, Lynn Home for Aged Women and an orphanage. There are two high schools, over 100 grammar schools and an equal number of primary schools, together with several large parish schools, containing primary, grammar and high school departments. The annual expenditure for municipal main- tenance and operation is about $1,348,000; the chief items are, schools about $385,000; for poor, sick, homeless and other charities, $63,- 000; for police department, $112,000; for fire department, $112,000; for waterworks, $185,000; for sanitation, $104,000. The waterworks plant opened in 1870, and costing about $2,500,000, is owned and operated by the city. The government of Lynn is conducted by a single council. Pop. (1920) 99,148. Consult Newhall, F. H., ‘History of i nn, Mass. (Lynn 1883), and Sandergon, H. “Lynn in the Revolution (2 vols., Boston 1909). LYNN EPISCOPI (“Bishop’s -Lynn”), a seaport town in the county of Norfolk, Eng- land, situated on the Great Ouse near its mouth; and generally known as King’s Lynn (q.v.). LYNN REGIS, KING’S LYNN, a port town in Norfolk, England, situated on the Great Ouse, not far from its mouth. See Kine’s Lynn. LYNX, a wildcat, distinguished from the larger members iof the family Felide chiefly by the shortness of the tail and the presence of a pencil-like arrangement of hairs at the tips of the ears. It was long customary to regard these cats as constituting a separate genus Lyn, to which the North American wildcats, the caracal and some. others, were assigned, \but 780 modern zoologists include them with the gen- eral genus Felis. (See Wiipcat). The fur known to trade as “lynx” is furnished by the Canadian lynx, and is described as of a light- brown color, with a light silvery top on the back, that on the under part long, soft and spotted; about 30,000 to 80,000 are exported yearly from the Dominion of Canada, Califor- nia and Alaska to Liverpool, besides what is consumed in domestic trade. LYON, David Gordon, American Assyri- ologist: b. Benton, Ala., 24 May 1852. He was graduated from Howard College, Alabama in 1875, and at Leipzig in 1882. From 1882 to 1910 he was Hollis professor of divinity at- Harvard, and since the latter year has been Hancock pro- fessor of Hebrew and other Oriental languages. Since 1891 he has served as curator of the Har- vard Semitic Museum. He was recording sec- retary of the American Oriental Society 1886— 95; corresponding secretary of the Society of Biblical Literature 1894-99, and director of the American School for Oriental Study and Re- search 1906-07. He is a Fellow of the Amer- ican Academy of Arts and Sciences. He has published ‘Heilschrifttexte Sargons K6nigs von Assyrien? (1883); ‘An Assyrian Manual? (1886), and articles in the Journal of the Amer- ican Oriental Society. LYON, George Francis, English naval captain and. traveler: b. Chichester, 1795; sea, 1832. He entered (1808) the navy and was commissioned (1818-20) to travel in Africa for the government. From 1821-23 he was a mem- ber of Captain Parry’s Arctic expedition, and (1824) he attempted with the Griper to reach Repulse Bay, but was unsuccessful. In 1826 he went to Mexico and South America. He wrote ‘A Narrative of Travels in North Africa? (1821); ‘Journal of a Residence and Tour in the Republic of Mexico? (1829). LYON, Mary, American educator: b. Buckland, Mass., 28 Feb. 1797; d. South Had- ley, Mass., 5 March 1849. She began teaching at 18, and later studied at the Sanderson Acad- emy, Ashfield, and at the Byfield Academy, near Newburyport, continuing to teach at intervals. In 1821 she began teaching at the Sanderson Academy, and in 1824 became associate prin- cipal of the Adams Female Academy at Lon- donderry, N. H. In 1828, with the principal of this school she moved to Ipswich, Mass., where they were followed by a number of their pupils, and established a seminary of which Miss Lyon had practically the entire charge for several years. The establishment of a seminary for girls, embodying the same principles of educa- tion as the Ipswich school, and at the same time offering its advantages at a low price, became the main purpose of her life; and in 1834 she resigned her position at Ipswich, and, amid great discouragements, undertook the work of founding such a seminary. Aided to some ex- tent by clergymen and others, she succeeded in obtaining contributions, and on 8 Noy. 1837, a part of the buildings having been completed, the school was opened in South Hadley with about 80 pupils, under the name of the Mount Hol- yoke Female Seminary. She was president of this school for 12 years, during which time it was enlarged and gained a national reputation for its high intellectual and moral standard. {See Mount Hotyoxe CoLiece). She wrote -mained a number of years. Gat LYON ‘Tendencies of the Principles embraced and the System adopted in the Mount Holyoke Fe- male Seminary? (1840) and the ‘Missionary Offering? (1843). Consult Hitchcock, Edward, ‘Life and Labors of Mary Lyon’? (New York 1860) ; Gilchrist, B. B., ‘Life of Mary Lyon? (Boston 1910); Foster and Adams, ‘Heroines of Modern Progress? (New York 1913); Nut- ting, M. O., ‘Historical Sketch of Mount Hol- yoke Seminary? (Washington 1876). LYON, Matthew, American politician: b. Wicklow County, Ireland, 1746; d. Spadra Bluff, Ark., 1 Aug. 1822. He went to New York in 1755, and, being too poor to pay for his passage, was bound out by the captain of the ship to a farmer in Connecticut, in whose service he re- Subsequently he be- came a citizen of Vermont, and in July 1776 was commissioned as lieutenant in one of the companies of “Green Mountain boys.» He served later as commissary-general, and even- tually rose to the rank of colonel of militia. He was one of the founders of Fairhaven (1783), where he engaged in paper-making, iron casting and other occupations, and at one time edited a newspaper of an ultra-democratic character, en- titled The Scourge of Aristocracy and Repos- itory of Important Poltical Truth, of which the types and paper were manufactured by him- self. Becoming an active political leader, he was elected in 1797 to Congress by the Anti- Federal party. In October 1798 he was con- victed of a libel on President Adams, and im- prisoned for four months, a fine of $1, 000 which had also been imposed upon him being paid by his friends. An attempt to expel him from Congress as a convicted felon failed for want of a two-thirds vote. During this Congressional term he had a violent altercation on the floor of the House with Roswell Griswold of Connecti- cut, ending in blows; but the motion to expel them was defeated. In 1799, while a prisoner, he was re-elected to Congress from Vermont. After the expiration of his term he removed to Kentucky, where at the next Congressional election (1803) he was returned to the House, of which he continued a member until 1811. Subsequently he held the office of United States factor for the Cherokee Indians by the appoint- ment of President Monroe and removed to Ar- kansas, of which he was the territorial delegate- elect to Congress at the time of his death. Though rough and impetuous in manner, he was an able debater, and to the end of his life continued a man of active business habits. He built gunboats on speculation during the War of 1812 and lost his fortune in the venture. Consult Bassett, J. S., ‘The Federalist System? (New York 1906) ; Channing, Edward, ‘The Jeffersonian System? (ib. 1906) ; McLaughlin, “Matthew Lyon, the Hampden of Congress: A Biography (ib. 1900). LYON, Nathaniel, American soldier: b. Ashford, Conn., 14 July .1818; d. Wilson’s Creek, Mo., 7 Aug. 1861. He was graduated from West Point in 1841; served in the Mexi- can War 1846-47, being present at the siege of Vera Cruz and the assault on the City of Mex- ico; and was on duty in Kansas during the Free State agitation. In February 1861 he was as- signed to Saint Louis, Mo., where he had charge of the arsenal; he was most active and efficient ° in the Union cause, organized the Home Guard LYNXES 1 Canada Lynx 2 European Lynx 3 Chaus itn es (eae a PATS ee I Ge . a 7) 5 U 7) oO iar. : ro rls my bie aes ; i. t Na eal - o-™) va 2 73a ’ 6 i , « cs | ‘ . ; : * ; ’ * 7 # { eu 4 : . ‘ CR ee Ae » a i : F ul Me im! fy bes ah a LYONNESSE — LYONS and on 10 June 1861 captured Camp Jackson, a rendezvous of the seccessionists. Soon after- ward he was made brigadier-general of volun- teers and given command of the department. He refused all compromise* with Governor Jackson, who sympathized with the secession- ists, and in June occupied Jefferson City, the capital of the State, and defeated the gov- ernor’s troops at Boonville on the 17th. He then went to Springfield, whence he advanced on 1 August to meet a part of the Confederate army, which was advancing into Missouri under McCulloch; he defeated them at Dug Spring and returned to Springfield. But the Confederate forces were soon increased by the arrival of the troops under Price and General Lyon was opposed by an army considerably greater than his own. Unwilling to surrender southwestern Missouri without a struggle, he decided to risk a battle and accordingly advanced from Spring- field to Wilson’s Creek, where his troops were defeated and he himself killed after a gallant fight. He bequeathed nearly all his property, about $30,000, to the government to aid in the preservation of the Union. In 1862 a collection of his letters in favor of the Republican party and the election of Lincoln (1860) was pub- lished under the title ‘The Last Political Writ- ings of General Nathaniel Lyon.» Consult Carr, Lucien, ‘Missouri: A Bone of. Conten- tion? (New York 1888); Hosmer, J. K., ‘The Appeal to Arms> (ib. 1907); Rhodes, J. F., “Histor# of the United States from the Com- promise of 1850? (ib. 1907) ; ‘Life’ (Hartford 1862) by Woodward; Peckham, ‘General Na- thaniel Lyon and Missouri in 1861> (New York 1866) ; and Churchill’s novel, “The Crisis.» LYONNESSE, . lio-nés, LYONESSE, LEONAIS, LEOMOYS, England, the land from seichy King Arthur came and now sub- merged “forty fathoms under water” or, as in Tennyson’s ‘Morte. dArthur?: “Until King Arthur’s table, man by man, had fallen in Lyon- nesse about their lord,” we find it the “last bat- tle field of the West,” scene of the final con- flict between Arthur and Sir Modred, west of Camelot, sometimes located near Cornwall, be- tween Land’s End and the Scilly Islands. LYONS, Richard Bickerton Pemell, Eng- lish diplomat: b. Lymington, Hampshire, 26 April 1817; d. 5 Dec. 1887. He studied at Win- chester College and Christ Church, Oxford, tak- ing (1843) the degree M.A. He had been ap- pointed (1839) attaché at Athens without pay, but in 1844 he was in government’s pay at that city, to be transferred to Dresden in 1852. The following year he was transferred to Florence, becoming secretary of that legation in 1856. From 1858-65 he was British Minister at Wash- ington, and then (1865-67) Ambassador at Con- stantinople.. He was Ambassador at Paris from 1867-87. He was created Viscount Lyons. of Christchurch in 1881, and Earl Lyons in 1837. His wonderful tact and broadness of vision were oftentimes. displayed while he repre- sented the Court of Saint James in Washing- ton. This was the trying period of the Civil War, calling for much tact, especially during such an episode as the Mason and Slidell re- lease controversy. LYONS, li’onz, or LYON, 5 on, France, the former capital of Lyonnais and now of the department of the Rhone, 320 miles by rail 781 southeast of Paris, and 170 miles north of Mar- seilles, is the second city of industrial and mili- tary importance and the third in point of popu- lation in the country. It is strikingly situated at the confluence of the Saéne and Rhone, the cen- tral business section being on the tongue of land that projects between the rivers to their junction, and extends northward to the hill of La Croix Rousse; while the ancient medizval town is on the steep slopes of the Fourviéres hill, rising from the west bank of the Sadne, and the modern industrial suburb of La Guil- lotiére, with its numerous factories, is on the east bank of the Rhone. Thirteen bridges span the Sadne at this point, varying from 250 to 450 feet wide, and 11 bridges the Rhone, over 600 feet wide. A series of detached forts crown different heights within a circuit of 43 miles, making Lyons, with its extensive bar- tracks and considerable garrison, a defensive position of great strategic importance. It is the centre for the 14th Army Corps. The older quarters of the town are crowded, dirty and un- healthful, with narrow, irregular streets, lined by tall, ungainly buildings. The best parts are the 13 miles of magnificent quays, built since the 18th century as a protection against the pe- riodical river floods, and now laid out with finely planted walks, stately mansions, munici- pal buildings, railroad depots, capacious ware- houses, etc. Among the notable squares and open places are the Place des Terreaux, facing which stands the Hétel de Ville and the large and handsome Place Bellecour, the fashionable promenade. The chief public edifices are more remarkable for their antiquity than for the beauty of their architecture. The cathedral of Saint John on the slope of the Fourviéres, on the right bank of the Saone, is in the Gothic style of the 12th century, and has four towers, two of which flank the west front, while the other two, shorter but more massive, form the transepts. Higher up the slope is the modern church of Notre Dame, an imposing composite edifice occupy- ing the site of the Forum Vetus byilt by Trajan. Beside it is a tower or Belvedere 680 feet above the Sadne from which on a clear day Mont Blanc, 100 miles off, may be seen. On the other side of the Fourviéres is the church of Saint Irenzus, the second bishop of Lyons. The church itself is an uninteresting modern struc- ture, but it stands on the grave of the martyred bishop, and has beneath it the reputed crypt in which Polycarp preached, and 19,000 Christians at a later period were massacred by orders of Septimius Severus, 202 a.p. A little above the cathedral is the Palais de Justice, and lower down on the opposite bank of the Saone is the church of the Abbey of Ainay, dating from the 6th century, beneath whose sacristy, and pene- trating below the bed of the river, are dungeons without light or air, in which many of the early. Christians were immured previous to martyr- dom. Other noteworthy churches are the church of Saint Nizier, of the 14th century, one of the largest in the town; that of Saint Bona- venture, the patron saint of Lyons; and the church of the Chartreux, surmounted by a superb dome seen from all quarters of the city. The archepiscopal palace (15th century), situated near the cathedral, is a large edifice of no architectural merit. The Hotel de Ville is considered one of the finest edifices of the kind 782 in France. It is an isolated saware, and is sur- mounted by a dome 164 feet high. The public library, occupying part of the buildings of the college on the Quai de Retz, is the best provin- cial collection in France, containing 450,000 volumes and over 1,000 incunabula. The Palais des Arts, facing the Place des Terreaux, isa fine majestic edifice. It contains a picture-gal- lery (with works by Pugin, Rubens, Paul Veronese and Teniers), a museum of natural history, a cabinet of medals, a gallery for statutes, and another for ancient stuccoes; a depot of mechanical inventions for the fabrica- tion of silks, with a library attached, a free school of design and a large hall used as the exchange. Among the city’s monuments are those to President Carnot, a memorial of the Franco-German War and a fountain’ by Bartholdi. The chief educational establishments are the college, or university, founded 1808, occupying a fine modern building and attended by over 3,000 students in the different faculties; the Mar- tiniére, a great school of science and the .indus- trial arts with 500 students: a free Catholic university; various institutions of a. special character, such as schools. of chemistry .and chemical industry, schools of design, of com- merce, of weaving; a celebrated veterinary school, the botanic garden, etc. Charitable es- tablishments are large and, numerous. The most important are the Hotel-Dieu, the Maison de la Charité, the Mont de Piété, occupying the Manécanterie or deanery attached. to the cathe- dral; and the Hospice de l’Antiquaille, on the site of the ancient Roman palace or pretorium now used partly .as a Iunatic-and partly asa Magdalen asylum, and general penitentiary. There are several prisons—the New. Prison, an extensive building, well. arranged; . the Maison des Récluses, now employed as a mili- tary prison; and the prison of Roanne, regarded as a model of its kind. As a manufacturing town Lyons, early. ac- quired and ‘has long maintained a first, place. It. is'a great financial. centre; with very large foreign investments: One of. its~great insti- tutions, the Crédit. Lyonnais,. has branches. in 100, cities. of France. It. is the most.important centre of silk manufacture in the world, employ- ing directly and indirectly over 200,000 persons. Other manufactures are hats, boots, :jewelry and: liqueurs; besides. dye-works,' foundries, glass-houses, potteries, “tanneries, breweries, chemical works. and. printeries. Lyons,. albeit the climate is foggy and rainy, is admirably situated for trade,.on two navigable. rivers, which make it a great entrepot both: forthe north and the south:. It forms the common centre where the highways and railroads: from Paris, Marseilles; Bordeaux, from Switzerland and Italy, all meet; it. communicates ‘with’ the Rhine by the Rhone and Rhine Canal, while several other canals, branching. off from: its rivers, give it ample means of transport over a great part of the interior of the country. The chief, imports are raw silk; wine,sbrandy,) oil, soap, flax; hemp, rice, salt, cotton, wool, coffee, dyes, earthenware and timber ; and the exports, spun-silk and silk-goods ribbons, ‘hats, straw- bonnets, woolens, flannels, ‘linens, corn, flour, chestnuts, liqueurs, paper, hemp, ironware; etc. The United States is represented by a consulate. LYONS As Lugdunum, Lyons was an early Gallic town, and when Cesar invaded Gaul: was a place of some importance; it figures more or less in the subsequent history of the Roman Empire, several emperors in succession making it their occasional residence and vying with each other»in adorning it.. It early received Christianity, and toward the end of the 2d cen- tury numbered thousands of Christians, among its inhabitants. Its first bishop, Pothinus, died a martyr in 197, and his successor, Irenzeus, died also a martyr in 202. Lyons was afterward sacked by the Huns and Visigoths, who destroyed many of its noblest Roman structures. In the 8th century it fell for a time into the hands of an army of Saracens from Spain, and suffered severely; ‘but’ recovered its pros- perity under Charlemagne, on the dissolution of whose empire it became the capital of the king- dom of Provence. Subsequently it fell under ecclesiastical domination, and was long gov- erned by a succession of ‘archbishops.’ Two Ecumenical Church Councils were held in the city (1245—74). In 1312 Lyons was annexed to the crown of France, It received its first munic- ipal charter in 1320. It owes its new quays and several of its finest edifices to Louis XIV, of whom there is a fine equestrian statue. The Revolution of 1793 occasioned fearful reverses. The inhabitants, finding their industry paralyzed and their trade destroyed, rebelled against revo- lutionary violence, and the convention Jet loose its forces upon them; wholesale butcheries for many days deluged the town with blood. Since that, period questions of an. economical, or rather socialist nature, culminated in the san- guinary revolts of 1831, 1834, 1849 and 1871. Several important’ figures in history were natives of Lyons, among them the Roman emperors Marcus Aurelius, Claudius and Car- acalla; and the celebrated general Germanicus, Saints Irenzeus and Ambrose, and Meissonier the artist. Pop. about 523,796. LYONS, Kan., city, county-seat of Rice County, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé, the Missouri Pacific, the .Saint. Louis and San Francisco, railroads; about 180 miles west by south of-Topeka and 25 miles north by west of Hutchinson. It is situated in a fertile agri- cultural region, in which stock-raising is a prominent industry.. Nearby are salt deposits, like that at. Hutchinson in Reno County, a re- markably fine salt, obtained from a considerable depth below the surface. Some of its indus- trial establishments are salt works, grain ele- vators, gas-engine works and flour-mills, Its trade is chiefly in grain, salt; livestock,. flour and corn. The. city owns and operates the water- works. .Pop. (1920) 2,516, LYONS, N. Y., village, county-seat of Wayne Cotnty, on the Erie and new Barge Canal system. Is 49 miles west of Syracuse and 36 miles east by south'of Rochest@r. On the main line of the New York Central, West Shore and Rochester, Syracuse and Eastern railway systems, -being the terminal of the Pennsylvania division of the New York Cen- tral, tapping the Pennsylvania ~ coal fields. Lyons was founded in 1795 and incorporated as a village in 1854. It is situated in a fertile agri- cultural region and centre of the fruit belt. The Niagara, Lockport and Ontario Power Com- LYONS — LYRE-BIRD pany maintains a large power plant here, fur- nishing the Empire United Railways with power and surrounding villages with current for all purposes. The Empire Gas and Electric Com- pany maintains its power plant here, utilizing an extensive water power. The Barge Canal will have warehouses and. terminals here cost- ing $125,000. It is estimated that 15,000 horse power can be realized from the Barge Canal at this point. State officials estimate that one- third of the local tonnage on the Barge Canal will be received at this point, being coal to be transferred here from the Pennsylvania coal fields. The New York Central has exten- sive car shops here with a payroll of. over $800 per day. Lyons has the cheapest elec- tric power in the State of New. York out- side of Niagara Falls. This is an important coal transfer point, the New York Central transferring here, while the Philadelphia and Reading Coal. and Iron Company has a mammoth coal transferring trestle in the Penn- sylvania division yards. Its chief industries are two of the largest canning plants in the State; a large cider vine- gar plant, cement pipe and block factory; tile yards, machine shops, planing mill, distilleries of peppermint and other essential oils. Mail bags, sacks, ‘carriers’ bags, satchels and straps for the United States postal system are made here with a factory for making fanning-mills and slipper soles. The Lyons Cold Storage Company, Incor- porated, recently erected a 75,000-barrel cold- storage plant here, the only plant of its kind between Syracuse and Rochester on the main line of the New York Central. There are ex- tensive warehouses for the handling of fruit and produce of various kinds. Lyons has been made a grading station for handling hay from the Western States and grading it for ship- ment. A warehouse has just been completed for receiving, grading and picking beans, giv- ing employment to 60 hands, using power ma- chinery. A new municipal waterworks plant costing $100,000 and a sewer system with dis- posal plant costing $140,000 has been installed the past year. Tax rate and fire insurance rates are low. The mortgage indebtedness of Lyons is the smallest of any village in the Empire State, while the fact that its mortality rate is the lowest of any New York village and 78 per cent of its residences are occupied by owners speaks well for the frugality of its residents. The Hough Shade Corporation of Janesville, Wis., maintains storage warehouses here, sup- plying the New England, Middle and Eastern States to and including Washington, D. C. Lyons has an aggressive Business Men’s Asso- ciation and Civic Club. The union school li- brary with over 7,000 and the Civic Club library with over 3,000 books are maintained. Its school system is of the best. Pop. (1920) 4,253. LYONS, Councils of, two synods held at the city in France from which they derive their name and which are received as ecumenical by ~the Roman Catholic Church. When the quar- rel between the Emperor Frederick II and In- nocent IV had resulted in the banishment of the latter from Rome, the Pope summoned a council in 1245 at which the patriarchs of Aqui- leia, Antioch and Constantinople, as well as the Emperor Baldwin II, were present, with sev- eral royal delegates. Thaddeus of Susa repre- 783 sented Frederick II, who was, in spite of that delegate’s emphatic: protests, solemnly deposed and his subjects released from their allegiance. When Gregory X took the tiara, his first step was to attempt a reunion of Christendom, as represented by the Greek and Latin churches, which had been parted by schism mainly on the question of the filioque (q.v.), and Latin accre- tions to the doctrine of purgatory. Accordingly the second Council of Lyons met 1274 under his presidency and the desired union was ap- parently effected, for both Greek and Latin prel- ates. sang the Creed including the clause assert- ing the double procession. The tie that bound them, however, proved a rope of sand and the schism has continued to this day. The synod also made regulations concerning papal _elec- tions. See GREEK CHURCH. LYONS, Gulf of, a large bay of the Medi- terranean on the south of France, extending from the Spanish frontier eastward to the Hyéres Islands. LYRE, the most ancient of stringed instru- ments, which originally had but three strings. The Egyptian and Grecian lyres were at first strung with the sinews of animals. The number of the strings was at last increased to 16. It was played with a stick of ivory or polished wood, also with the fingers. The body of the lyre was hollow, to increase the sound. Few objects are so graceful in form and susceptible of such various application in the fine arts. As a musical instrument it has now gone out of use among the civilized nations, though a rude form of it is still to be met with in the hands of the shepherds of Greece and among the negro tribes of Africa. It is the symbol of Apollo. LYRE-BAT (Megadernia lyra), a small bat of the family Nycteride, common in India and Ceylon, where it is known as the “Vam- pire’ bat. It haunts old buildings, ruins and cave-temples. The name vampire is given to it from its blood-sucking habits, for it first sucks the blood of its prey before consuming the body. It eats insects, smaller bats and fish. Enormous ears are characteristic of the lyre- bat. Consult Blyth, E., ‘Notice of the Preda- tory and Sanguivorous habits of the bats of the genus Megaderme? (in the Journal of the Asiastic Society. of Bengal, Vol. XI, pt. I, p. 255-262, Calcutta 1842). LYRE-BIRD, a remarkable Australian bird which derives its name from the form of the tail in the male, which much resembles that of the conventional Apollo’s lyre; thé tail of the - female is rather long, but simply wedge-shaped. There are two species, about the size of chickens, both reddish brown and called “native pheasants» by the colonists, constituting the genus Menura and family Menuride, and re- garded as the lowliest of the Passeres, and of very ancient origin. They dwell in the “scrub” or open woods, and rarely leave the ground, avoiding their enemies by swift running. Their nests are placed upon the ground, are well woven of sticks and plant-stems and are -covered by a dome-like roof, leaving an en- trance only at the sides. In the mating season the males scrape tp mounds of leaves and rub- bish upon which they strut about. sing and do their best to display their long and handsome 784. tails to the hens. The better known species is the long-tailed one (JM. superba) but both are now rare. LYRIC POETRY. The origins of lyric poetry are merged with those of narrative, be- cause of the primitive conditions under which the distinction between these types did not ex- ist,— that is, when there was no clearly felt difference between the relating of an incident and the expression of the emotions associated with it. With the development of art there seems to have been a gradual differentiation of lyric and narrative expression, as there was a differentiation of the originally united arts of poetry and music. The progress of poetry was, in general, marked by an increased emphasis on the individuality of the artist and on the per- sonat—or stibjective elements in lyric poetry; further, by the diminished importance of its association sae music, and 5 oust penansiti rowth of the reflective or intellectual elements, eS that modern Tenner ee is but slightly asso- ciated with actual song, though it is still cen- tred on the expression of subjective emotion. The surviving sense of the original connection between this utterance of personal feeling and Song is well illustrated by Wordsworth’s ob- servation that his lyric poems, though none of them songs, could not have their full force without a supposed musical accompaniment. For the various types of lyric developed from primitive song to late reflective lyric, see under LITERARY FOorRMS. : ; Song Lyric.—In Greek poetry this type is commonly called “melic,» and is distinguished according as a poem was intended to be sung by an individual or a chorus; the former class was associated especially with the AZolian race and its music, the latter with the Dorian. The principal names representative of Greek lyric are those of Terpander and Alcman, in the 7th century B.c., Anacreon, Alczeus and Sappho in the 6th century, and Pindar and Bacchylides in the 5th. It should also be remembered that the Greek ‘drama was in large degree a lyric form, containing choral odes made for musical rendi- tion; so that in this sense Atschylus, Sophocles and Euripides are authors of some of the greatest of ancient lyrics. From the standpoint of its later influence, the most important feature of Greek lyric was its elaborate strophic structure, adapted to corresponding musical form. Thus the threefold structure of. the choral odes, divided into “strophes,” “anti- strophes” and “epodes,” became the model for the few formal odes in modern poetry. The music of the Greeks ‘and the corresponding types of lyrics were imitated by the Romans; but since the art. of song held a much less im- portant place at Rome, these types passed over into the literary lyric, and practically no ex- amples of pure song-lyric are preserved from the period of classical Latin. In the 4th cen- tury of the Christian era occurred an important development of the hymn, especially under the influence of Saint Ambrose of Milan; and that form of lyric remains important to this day in connection with ecclesiastical music. From the medieval period a great body of popular song- lyric survives, usually without association with any known author; it was also cultivated with elegant formality at the courts of princes, espe- cially by, the troubadours of Provence and the -man of life upright.» _ LYRIC POETRY minnesingers of Swabia. In the Renaissance period this development of the art by courtly poets was continued, and in western Europe received a new stimulus under Italian influence. At the court of Henry VIII of England vocal music, both sacred and secular, was diligently cultivated, and from this period date several collections of songs; the Bassus, for example, printed in 1530 by Wynkyn de Worde, is one of the earliest English printed books. In Elizabethan England the connection between music and lyric poetry was maintained with enthusiasm, and musicians — courtly and other- wise — vied with each other in producing col- lections like William Byrd’s ‘Psalms, ‘Son- nets, and ‘Songs of Sadness and~ Piety? (1588), and “Songs of Sundrie Natures? (1589) ; John Dowland’s three ‘Books of Songs or Airs? (1597-1603), and Thomas Campion’s four ‘Books of Airs» (1601-18). A special form called the madrigal, introduced at this period from Italy, exerted an influence on Elizabethan music and poetry alike, as is ex- emplified in Yonge’s ‘Musica Transalpina, a collection of madrigals from the Italian (1588), and Wilbye’s ‘First Set of Madrigals? (1598). The greater number of these Eliza- bethan songs are of comparatively slight in- terest as poetry, but to this Thomas Campion is an exception, a number of his lyrics remain- ing classics — such as “Cherry Ripe” and “The 1 In the modern period the increasing development of the reflective and literary elements of poetry has diminished the importance of the song lyric and few import- ant names are associated with it. Of these the greatest is Robert Burns, whose poems (pub- lished 1786 and 1793) were written for the most part as songs set to traditional Scottish airs and represent more nearly the primitive conditions of union of music and verse than any other work of modern times. Other groups of song lyrics of some importance are the ‘Irish Melodies? of Thomas Moore (1807-34) and the ‘Hebrew Melodies? of Lord Byron (1815). In Germany the chief representatives of this type are Wilhelm Miiller (died 1827), Uhland (died 1862), Heine (died 1856) and Morike (died 1875). : Ri ‘g Reflective Lyric.— The line between this group and the preceding is often a slight or arbitrary one; but in general the reflective lyric may be distinguished as arising from meditation on a personal experience rather than from the spontaneous impulse to express it musically. In modern practice it is read rather than sung. But in ancient times, when the lyric art was more largely musical, the same distinction can- not be observed; thus many of the Greek lyrics are reflective, though intended for song. The forms of Greek poetry called “elegiac” (repre- sented by Tyrteus and Mimnermus) | and. “ambic” (represented by Archilochus), may be distinguished in this way from the “melic,” as less closely associated with song. Among the Romans the chief masters of the lyric were Catullus, in the first half of the Ist century B.c., and, in the second half of the cen- tury, Horace, Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid. Horace’s most familiar poems, the “odes,»: were originally called carmina, or songs, but appear to have been much more commonly read than - sung; in the “epodes” he was less lyrical. and 4 RAEN 4 LYRE BIRD oe) Ban VR oO 1 Ne a» LYRIC POETRY more reflective. Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid are classed as the “elegiac” lyrists, but in Latin literature even more than in Greek the term has reference to traditional form rather than to distinctive subject-matter. In the medieval pe- riod the formal lyric was less important than narrative poetry, but with notable exceptions among the courtly poets, particularly in France; to these are traced the lyrics in “fixed forms,” like the rondeau, the ballade and the villanelle. The Renaissance brought about an immense revival of literary lyric, especially in Italy under the influence of Petrarch (died 1374), and in France under the leadership of the “Pléiade poets”— Ronsard, du Bellay, etc.— of the 16th century. The most important re- sulting type was the sonnet, the vogue of which in France and Italy was carried into England, reaching its height toward the close of the 16th century. This, with other forms of lyric of the Italian school, was introduced to Eng- lish readers by the posthumous publication, in 1557, of the poems of Sir Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey (see under Torret’s Mis- CELLANY). In the Elizabethan period there ap- peared not only many collections of son- nets, but a number of poetical miscellanies in- dicating the growing interest in lyric poetry of a cultivated character. Of the sonneteers, the chief are Sidney, Daniel, Drayton, Shakespeare and Spenser. Spenser also contributed to the Elizabethan lyric the pastoral poems of his “Shepherd’s Calendar,’ 1579, and Drayton a brilliant collection called ‘Poems Lyric and Pastoral, 1606. Ben Jonson, though himsel a minor lyrist, exerte important influence on the more correct or classical school of post-Elizabethan lyric; of his followers, some- times called the “sons of Ben,” the chief repre- sentative is Robert Herrick, who in 1648 pub- lished the collections of lyrics called ‘Hes- perides» and ‘Noble Numbers.” John Donne, a contemporary of Jonson’s, exerted an influenge ‘of a different character, and is sometimes viewed as the founder of the so-called “meta- physical lyric poetry of the 17th century— that is, poetry characterized by the use of in- tricate and ingenious imagery drawn from the field of learning rather than art. In this cen- tury the most characteristic development of the English lyric was in the religious type; besides Herrick, already mentioned, its leading repre- sentatives are George Herbert and Richard Crashaw. The Restoration saw a brief revival of secular lyric poetry, especially of the courtly type, in the region of occasional verse and vers de société, but the lyric spirit was ebbing rapidly in the interest of poetry of satiric and didactic modes. In the 18th century the most characteristic English lyrics are odes like those of Collins and Gray, in which the form of the ancient classical ode, now divorced from its association with music, is made the means of elaborate poetic thinking, and equally formal and reflective elegies, of which Gray’s, again, is the chief. The ode form was cultivated in France in the same period by Jean Baptiste Rousseau (died 1741) and Ecouchard Lebrun (died 1807) ; and in both France and Germany there was also.a vogue of “anacreontics,” rep- resenting another revival of classical fashion; but in general the age was one in which the lyric languished on the Continent as well as in YOL. 17-—— 50 785 England. With the “romantic revival,” at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, there came a great renewal of the lyrical impulse. The emphasis placed by the romantic spirit upon individual emotion leads to the characteristic expression of such emotion in lyric form and the whole 19th century presents a new development of the effort to unite with this expression the processes of re- flection. In England the finest representatives of this tendency are Wordsworth, Keats and Shelley, in the opening years of the century; Wordsworth’s ode on “Intimations of Immor- tality,» Shelley's “Odes to Naples” and Keats’ ode “On a Grecian Urn” are masterpieces ex- emplifying the lyric development of thought on the subjects of immortality, liberty and art. In the mid-19th century~the~reffective Tyric finds equally notable representation in the poems of Tennyson’s ‘In Memoriam? (1850). Tenny- son also wrote a number of “dramatic lyrics,” —that is, lyrical utterances of imagined per- sonalities —and the same type was developed even more brilliantly by Robert Browning. The personal sonnet-sequence was revived by Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett Browning in her ‘Sonnets from the Portuguese? (1850), and by Dante Rossetti in the collection called ‘The House of Life? (1881); and the pastoral elegy, in the manner of the classic tradition, reappeared in Matthew Arnold’s ‘Thyrsis» (1866). Of the later Victorian lyrists Algernon Charles Swin- burne may be counted the chief. Meantime the: romantic movement had developed the reflec- tive lyric with equal importance on the Con- tinent. In the earlier years of the century Goethe represented it in Germany, followed later by such lyrists as Ferdinand Freiligrath (died 1876), Emanuel ‘Geibel (died 1884), Detlev von Liliencron (died 1909), Friedrich Nietzsche (better known as philosopher, died 1900), and Richard Dehmel (born 1863). In France the chief lyrists of the century are Béranger (died 1857), Lamartine (died 1869), Alfred de Vigny (died 1863), Alfred de Musset (died 1857), Théophile Gautier (died 1872), and Victor Hugo (died 1885). Some will have it that the lyric poetry of Hugo, in its combina- tion of personal fervor, range of intellectual interest and sensuous beauty, is unsurpassed in the verse of any modern tongue. In Italy among the more important representatives of the lyric are Leopardi (died 1837), Manzoni (died 1872), and Carducci (born 1836). Amer- ican literature has not been distinguished pri- marily for lyric poetry, though in Edgar Allan Poe (died 1849) it has an important represen- tative of the type which is close to song. Ex- emplars of the more reflective type aré found in the poetry of Bryant, Longfellow, Lowell, Whittier, Emerson, Whitman, Aldrich, Sidney Lanier, Emily Dickinson, William Vaughn Moody and John B. Tabb.. Perhaps the high- water marks of American lyric might be meas- ured from three or four occasional poems which are expressive of national as well as personal feeling,— Emerson’s “Concord Hymn,” Lowell’s “Commemoration Ode,” Whitman’s “Captain, my Captain,» and Moody’s “Ode in Time of Hesitation.” It is clear that the vogue and the value of lyric poetry remain wholly undimin- ished; indeed it remains the characteristic type of the present era, In the early 20th century, 786 however, there has beenva\tendency among the younger poets\to relax the emphasis.on the re- flective or intellecttial element, and to make the lyric a more momentaty or fugitive representa- tion of a personal:mood. See POETRY. Bibliography.— On lyric poetry in general, consult Gummere’s ‘The Beginnings of Poetry’ (New York 1901), especially chapter IV. For Greece, consult Farnell’s “Greek Lyric: Poetry? (London 1891); Smyth’s “Greek Melic Poets? (London 1900); Fairclough’s article on “Tyr- taeus, Archilochus, and their Successors” (in the Warner Library of Universal Literature, Vol. XXXVII, 1897); and ‘Ancient Gems in Modern Settings? (versions of the Greek Anthology), edited by Grundy (Oxford 1913). For Rome, consult Sellar’s ‘Roman Poets. of the Augustan Age? (Oxford 1892), and Mac- kail’s ‘Hundred Best Poems (Lyrical) in the Latin Language? (London 1906). For the Eng- lish lyric, consult Reed’s ‘English Lyrical Poetry? (New Haven 1912); Rhys’ ‘Lyric Poetry? (London 1913); Schelling’s ‘The Eng- lish Lyric? (Boston 1913); Wright’s ‘Old Christmas Carols? (London 1841) and ‘Songs and Carols? (1847); Schelling’s ‘Elizabethan Lyrics and Seventeenth Century Lyrics? (Bos- ton 1895, 1899); Lee’s ‘The French Renais- sance in England? (London 1910); Bullen’s ‘Shorter Elizabethan Poems? and Lee’s ‘Elizabethan Sonnets? (‘New: English Garner? 1904); Erskine’s ‘The Elizabethan Lyric? (New York 1903); Bullen’s ‘Lyrics from Elizabethan Dramatists? (1889); ‘Lyrics from Elizabethan Song-Books? (1889) ; and. ‘Lyrics from Elizabethan Romances? (1890) ; Padel- ford’s ‘Early Sixteenth Century Lyrics? _(Bos- ton 1907); Cox’s ‘English Madrigals in the Time of Shakespeare? (London 1899);. Pal- grave’s ‘Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics? (many editions). For America, . consult Knowles’ ‘Golden Treasury of American Songs and Lyrics? (Boston 1897), and Rickert. and Paton’s ‘American Lyrics? (New. York 1912). For France, consult Jeanroy’s ‘Origines: de la Poésie Lyrique en France au. Moyen Age? (Paris 1889); Fonsny and Van Dooren’s “Anthologie des Poétes Lyriques Francais? (Verviers 1902) ; Wyndham’s ‘Ronsard and La Pléiade? (London 1906) ; Brunetiére’s ‘Evolu- tion de la Poésie Lyrique au XIXe Siécle? (Paris 1889); Lang’s ‘Ballads and Lyrics of Old France? (London 1872). For Germany, consult Lee’s ‘The German Lyric? (London 1914), and Miinsterberg’s ‘Harvest of German Verse (New York 1916). RAyMonpD M. ALDEN, Professor of English, Leland Stanford Junior University. LYS, lés, or LEYE, li-é, Belgium, an af- fluent of the Scheldt, which rises near Lysbourg, Pas-de-Calais, France, and after a northeasterly course of 130 miles unites with the Scheldt at Ghent, Belgium. Some of the most stubbornly contested engagements in the early months of the Great War were fought i in its valley. LYSANDER, li-sin’dér, Spartan general : d. 395. His fat er was Aristocritus, a Lace- demonian of the purest blood, being of Hera- cleidan descent, his mother a Helot who brought him up in poverty. His fine: qualities, however, procured him. the command of: the LYS —LYSANIAS Spartan fleet off the coasts of Asia Minor (408).. He established his’ headquarters at Ephesus, which he raised to prosperity. Next year, he was succeeded by Callicratidas..In a short time, his reputation had so increased that the Asiatic allies of Sparta requested the Lace- demonians to invest him a second time with the command. Accordingly, Lysander, with the title of vice-admiral (405 z.c.), defeated and captured the Athenian fleet off JE gospo- tamos. This decisive victory put an end to the Peloponnesian War. ‘Shortly afterward he set sail for Athens, which he blockaded. The city was starved into capitulation (404); the long walls and the fortifications of the Pirzeus were demolished; and the oligarchy of the Thirty Tyrants was established, which gov- erned with terrible cruelty. Lysander then re- turned to Lacedemon, where his ambitious and unscrupulous character made itself. more pal- pable than ever. He was excessively fond of praise, and was the first of their own country- men to whom the Greeks erected altars, offered sacrifices as to a god and celebrated festivals. On his return to Sparta Lysander, stung by the ingratitude of Agesilaus, whose succession to the throne he had secured, resolved to de- stroy the constitution of his country by abolish- ing hereditary monarchy,. making the throne elective, but the Delphic and other oracles were unfavorable, in spite even of his bribes. On the outbreak of the Beeotian War (395 B.c.) he marched against Haliartus and was killed: in battle under its walls. LYSANIAS, (1) an Athenian of the deme _Sphettus, who according to some accounts was the father of Aschines, the disciple of Socrates. Consult Plato, ‘Apol?; Socrates, c. 22; Diog- enes’ ‘Laértius, > 11,60. (2) The father of Ceph- alus, one of the interlocutors in the republic of Plato. Consult Plato, ‘Polit. p. 330b. (3) A friend: of Alexander the Great, who. was sent with Philotas to the coast in charge of the booty taken after the victory over the Thra- cians (355 B.c.). Consult Arrian, 1, 2. (4) A Greek grammarian, native of Cyrene, mentioned by Athenzus as the author of a work on the Iambic poets (vil, p. 304 b.; xiv, p. 620 c.). Suidas speaks of him as the instructor of Era- tosthenes. _He may be the same person men- tioned by Diogenes (‘Laértius? vi, 23) as the son of A¢schrion. LYSANIAS, tetrarch of Abilene ais the eastern slope of the Lebanon Mountains near Damascus), mentioned by Saint Luke (chap- ter iii, 1) at the time when John the Baptist began his ministry (25 a.p.). He is supposed to have died about the time that the Emperor Claudius ascended the throne for in the first year of Claudius’ reign the tetrarchy of Abilene was given to Herod Agrippa. It is probable that Lysanias was the son of Lysanias, spoken of by Josephus as a prince named Lysanias who ruled over a territory in the neighborhood of Lebanon in the time of Antony and Cleopatra and who was put to death by Antony to gratify Cleopatra’ (26 3.c.).: This ambitious queen seems to have received a good part of the territory (Joseph, Ant. Jud. xv, 4; Dion. Cass.. xlix, 32). The obscurity surrounding the name of Lysanias has attracted the attention of scholars, many of whom confused the two Ly- sanias supposing there was but one. Consult LYSENIAS —LYSTRA McClintock and Strong (Vol. V, p. 589, New York: 1891). LYSENIAS, a piece of statuary found in the island of Scio and bearing this name on the base and an inscription showing that the sculptor’s father was named Dionysus and that the statue represented the god Dionysus. LYSIAS, lis’i-as, Athenian orator: b. about 458 ~B.c.; d. about 380. He was a son of Cepha- lus, an orator, of whom Plato makes honorable mention in his ‘Republic.»> Lysias at 14 went to Thurium, in Magna Grecia, to study philos- ophy and eloquence under Tisias and Nicias of Syracuse. Having settled in Thurium, he was employed in the government; but on the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily was banished with many of his countrymen. After Athens had re- covered its freedom he exerted himself for the advantage of the city and sacrificed much of his property for the public welfare. At first he gave instruction in eloquence; but finding him- self surpassed by Theodorus, another teacher of oratory, he devoted his time to writing ora- tions for others. He wrote more than 200, some say 400 orations, but only 223, however, were regarded as genuine. His style is applauded as a perfect example of the simple Attic eloquence. Only 34 of his orations have come down to our times. They thave been published in various collections of the Attic orators; among the best separate editions of them are ‘those by Baiter and Sauppe (1850); Cobet (1863); Thalheim (1901). Consult Jebb, ‘Attic Orators? (Vol I, 1880). LYSICRATES, li-sik’ra-téz, Monument of, located in Athens; one of the earliest examples of Corinthian architecture. It was dedicated 334 B.c. to Dionysus, by Lysicrates, as a trophy for winning the Dionysian games. The monu- ment, which was built in the form of a round temple, was surmounted by a bronze tripod and stood on a cubical base 13 feet high. The build- ing on account of its shape was popularly known as the “Lantern of Demosthenes.” LYSIMACHIA. See Loosestrire. LYSIMACHUS, li-sim’a-kis, general and one of the diadochoi of Alexander the Great: b. Pella, Thessaly, 361 B.c.; d. near Corus, 281 z.c. He was a low-born Macedonian of great physical strength and courage. On the death of Alexander, 323 B.c., Thrace fell to the share of Lysimachus, who became also satrap of Mace- donia in 286.. The murder of his son Agatho- cles, a great favorite of the people, at the insti- gation of his Egyptian wife, Arsinoe, provoked a revolt in Asia; Séleucus, satrap of Syria, took up the cause of the widow of Agathocles, Ly- sandra, and Lysimachus was killed in the battle near Corus which ensued. He founded a city on the Hellespont, named after him Lysimachi. LYSIMETER (a rain gauge) from two Greek words, lysis, dissolving, and metron, measure, an invention for collecting and meas- uring the rain that percolates through the soil; and also for the study of the composition of drainage water. The lysimeter is a water- tight box (or cylinder), enclosing a definite area to a given depth and provided with a bot- tom arranged so that the percolating water that has drained through the soil may be drawn off and measured. This box is sunk into the soil to a level with its top. Sometimes the lysimeter 787 is placed in a pit dug for the purpose and filled with the soil removed from the pit, Usually the conditions of the soil in the lysimeter are like those of the soil outside. Lysimeters are variously made. In some cases a trench has been dug fn the soil and perforated iron plates are inserted to support the mass, with a zinc funnel to collect the drainage water and con- duct it to a receptacle. Although lysimeters cannot represent accurately the conditions of the natural soil, they are valuable for compara- tive scientific studies on percolation, drainage and the processes of vitrification in soils. The best work with lysimeters has been done by Stockbridge at the Agricultural College, Am- herst, Mass.; Sturtevant, Babcock and Goff at the Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.; and Lyon at Cornell University. In other countries the leading experimenters are: England, by Lawes, Gilbert and Warrington at Rothamsted ; France, by Dehérain at Grignon; Germany, by Gerlash at Bromberg; in Hawaii, by Eckert; and. Moscow, by Klucharoy. Con- sult Stockbridge, ‘Investigations in Rainfall, Percolation and Evaporation? (Boston 1879) ; Gilbert, ‘Observations on Rainfall, Percolation and Evaporation? (in ‘Rothamsted Memoirs,’ Vol. VII, London 1890); Dehérain, ‘Les coux de drainage des terres cultives» (Paris 1893) ; Cameron, F. K., ‘The Role of the Lysimeter in Soil Solution Studies’? (in Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry Proceedings, Vol. XV, 1912); and New York State Experi- ment Station Reports, 1882, 1887, 1888 and 1890. LYSIPPUS, li-sip’tis, Greek sculptor who flourished in Sicyon between 360 and 316 B.c. Alexander the Great would permit no one but Apelles. to paint his portrait, and no one but Lysippus_ to make his statue. Lysippus was first a smith and afterward devoted himself to sculpture, adopting the-canon of Polycletes, as exemplified in that artist’s “Doryphorus.? This canon, or standard of beauty, presents the hu- man form with the head smaller and the limbs longer and slenderer than in life. His statues were wrought with much greater ideal beauty than those of his predecessors. They were al- most all, if not all, in bronze, and he is said to have left behind him some 1,500 works. Sev- eral of his more celebrated statues were those of Alexander, the most noted of which repre- sented the Macedonian hero bearing a lance. This was considered as a sort of companion to the picture of Apelles, in which Alexander was seen, like a second Zeus, launching a thunder- bolt. -Among his principal ideal works are the colossal ‘Zeus» at Tarentum; ‘Phcebus Apollo in his four horse Chariot? at Rhodes; the bronze statue of ‘Opportunity at the entrance of a temple in Sicyon, of which several copies are extant; the colossal bronze statue of ‘Her- cules? at Tarentum and the famous ‘Athlete, of which the ‘Apoxyomenus? of the Vatican is a copy. LYSOL, a brown, oily liquid, having an odor resembling creosote. It is prepared from tar oil by saponification; is a useful antiseptic for the hands in a 1 or 2 per cent solution, and is chiefly used in obstetrical operations. LYSTRA, lis’tra, Asia Minor, a village of importance in ancient Lycaonia between Cap- padocia and Phrygia. Lystra was a Roman col- ony and the place where Saint Paul healed the 788 impotent man and was, ith Saint Barnabas, worshipped as a god(‘Acts,? xiv). The ac- tual site is a, low stone-strewn mound, a little beyond the village of Khatin Serai. Near it are the ruins of a Small church with a spring issu- ing underneath. Little remains in situ, but in the village are many inscriptions, several of which are in Latin. An inscription found be- side the mound enabled Prof. John Robert Sitlington Sterrett (1851-1914), who visited the place in 1884, to identify it with Lystra. The first bishop of Lystra is said to have been Ar- temas, one of the Seventy Disciples. In the graveyard of Kavak, an hour’s journey from Khatin Serai, a miléstone bears the inscription “Colonia Lystrensium.” Consult Ramsay, Wil- liam M., ‘The Historical Geography of Asia Minor? (London 1890); id., ‘Saint Paul the Traveller? (1895); id., ‘The Cities of Saint Paul? (New York 1907); Sterrett, J. R. S., “Wolf Expedition to Asia Minor? (1885); id., ‘Epigraphical Journey in Asia Minor? (1888) ; id., ‘Leaflets from the Notebook of a Travelling Archeologist? (1889). LYTE, Henry Francis, English Anglican clergyman and hymn writer: b. Ednam,: near Kelso, Scotland, 1 June 1793; d.. Nice, France, 20 Nov. 1847. He was graduated from Trinity College, Dublin, and took orders in the Angli- can Church, 1815. He was curate of Lower Brixham, Devonshire, 1823-47.. He published ‘Tales Illustrative of the lLord’s Prayer? (1826) ; ‘Poems, Chiefly Religious? (1833) ; “Miscellaneous Poems? (1868); ‘Memoir of Henry Vaughan? ; ‘Abide With Me? ; ‘Pleasant Are Thy Courts?; ‘Jesus, I My Cross Have Taken; and other hymns of his have become widely popular both in America and England. His ‘Miscellaneous Poems? were issued with a memoir by his daughter (London 1868). LYTLE, lit'l, William Haines, American general and poet: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 2 Nov. 1826; d. Chickamauga, Tenn., 20 Sept. 1863. He was graduated at Cincinnati College, studied law and practised for a short time. He served as a captain in the Mexican War, and later was a member of the Ohio legislature. During the Civil War he was colonel of the 10th Ohio Regiment and was brigadier-general of volun- teers, having been promoted to that rank for gallant conduct. He was killed at the battle of Chickamauga. His best-known poem is the famous ‘Address of Antony to Cleopatra, the opening line of which is “I am dying, Egypt, dying» Consult ‘Poems? with ‘Memoir by Venable (1884). No complete collection of his works was published. . LYTTELTON, New Zealand, a seaport town on the east coast of South Island, on an inlet on the northwestern side of Banks Penin- sula. It is the port of Christchurch, seven miles northwest, with which it is connected by a tunnel over a mile long. Lyttelton steamers connect the railway system of South Island with Wellington in the North Island. The LYTE— LYTTON abrupt hills (the walls of an extinct volcano), surrounding it, rise to 1,600 feet. The harbor, protected by great artificial breakwaters, has an area of 110 acres, and is about 10 miles long. A graving dock permits vessels of 6,000 tons to land. Lyttelton is the port for the commerce of the region of the rich agricultural district of Canterbury. The town was settled in 1850 and was called Port Cooper, Port Victoria and, finally, Lyttelton. Pop. 4,392. LYTTON, lit’on, Edward Robert Bulwer- Lytton, Eart or, English poet and diploma- tist: b. London, 8 Nov. 1831; d. Paris, 24 Nov. 1891. He was the only son of the well-known novelist, Bulwer-Lytton (q.v.). He was edu- cated at Harrow and Bonn, and entered the diplomatic service in 1849, being appointed at- taché at Washington, where his uncle, Henry Bueller, afterward Lord Dalling, was Minister. Subsequently he held diplomatic posts at Flor- ence (1852) and other European capitals, and was secretary of legation successively at Copenhagen, Athens, Lisbon and Madrid. In 1874 he was appointed Minister at Lisbon, and was made viceroy of India by Disraeli in 1876. At a great durbar held at Delhi in 1877, he pro- claimed Queen Victoria empress of India. In the great famine of 1877-78 he conducted admi- rably the work of relief. He adopted an agegres- sive policy in Afghanistan, which brought about the second Afghan War (1879). His adminis- tration was marked by notable internal reforms, such as the abolition of the inland customs, the repeal of duties on cottons and the promulga- tion of new civil service rules. In 1880 he was created earl of Lytton, and on the accession of the Liberals to power in that year, who were strongly opposed to his policy in Afghanistan, he sent in his resignation as viceroy. In 1887 he was appointed British Ambassador at Paris. For many years Lytton was better known as a poet than as a diplomatist, under the pseudonym of “Owen Meredith” His published works in- clude ‘Clytemnestra, and Other Poems? (1855); ‘The Wanderer? (1859); ‘Lucile? (1860), a story in rimed anapzstic couplets, which met with a very great popular success; ‘The Ring of Amasis> (1863); ‘Orval, or the Fool of Time,? which is the solitary representa- tive in English of the great Polish school of mystic verse (1869) ; ‘Fables, in Song? (1874) ; “Speeches of Edward Lord Lytton,’ with a memoir (1874); ‘The Life and Letters of Ed- ward Bulwer, Lord Lytton) (1883, the narrative comes down only to 1832); ‘Glenaveril? (1885); ‘After Paradise? (1887); ‘King Poppy,’ his best poetical work, abounding in lofty poetry and gay irony, appeared posthu- mously (1892). As a prose writer Lytton takes high rank. Consult the works by his daughter, Lady Betty Balfour, ‘History of Lord Lytton’s Administration, 1876-1880 (London 1899) ; and “Personal and Literary Letters? (New York 1906): - * LYTTON, Lord. EDWARD GEORGE EARLE. 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