Ae ee i ee d ei Co aah * : + RE cal RINE Aids NG GLOE RO, PBS. SIAC [RDP meant yao ape renee: err teens | “HISTORY | By f MAMIE ¢ TEX ; Te Ne < FOR EIGHTH YEAR. To Barnenias with the Uilinols ‘State Course of foe Seventh pore al: . , Rev Ne a : ; { <== = See cAN TREATS. ALL SHE: work ON | : EIGHTH YEAR HISTORY ee: Oo ee "PRICE 75 CENTS + ene oe Bape (me oe ann a Savanth ear Civics - at same price. hig © .*Eighth Year Civics at same price, — Seventh Year Agriculture: at same price, _ © Eighth Year. Agricultire ai same orice. - - °* Seventh, Year Geegraphy at same price.) ' Eighth Year Geograp/y at same. price, "i Seventh Yar Histor at same price.” Seventh Year Grammar: iat: same Pr xf Eighth Year Grammar at same puke c Seventh Year Physiology hes anc Year cpbenbleay ere <2 9 BY MAMIE C. TEX FOR “HISTORY. EIGHTH YEAR To Harmonize with the Illinois State Course of Study, Seventh General Revision. TREATS ALL THE WORK EIGHTH YEAR HISTORY PRICE 75 CENTS Seventh Year Civics at same Eighth Year Civics at same Seventh Year Agriculture at same Eighth Year Agriculture at same Seventh Year Geography at same Eighth Year Geography at same Seventh Year History at same Seventh Year Grammar at same Eighth Year Grammar at same Seventh Year Physiology at same Eighth Year Physiology at same Seventh Year Question Book, same Eighth Year Question Book, same Seventh Year Arithmetic at same . Eighth Year Arithmetic at same fp ON price. price. price. price. price. price. price. price. price. price. price. Send all Orders to: | ye! MAMIE C. TEX, Taylorville, nl. ve FOREWORD An experience of several years in teaching this subject has proved that no one text book now in use is adapted to the de- mands of our present Seventh Revision Illinois State Course of Study, and in order to meet these requirements I present this booklet. It has been prepared expressly for my own classes, but it has also been the aim to adapt it to the use of any class in the Eighth year following the Illinois State Course of Study. No pains have been spared to make it as accurate and complete as possible. It is not to be presumed that this booklet contains all that might be _said on-each topic, but such material. is given as the average Eighth year pupil can understand and assimilate. ~ In conclusion, this volume is submitted to you, my dear pupils and co-wogkers, with the hope that it will perform its mission as designed. ie MAMIE C, TEX. Taylorville, Illinois, August, 18, 1925. | UNITED STATES HISTORY EIGHTH YEAR FIRST QUARTER PERIOD OF EXPANSION—IN FOREIGN RELATIONS AND IN INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 235. The ‘‘Era of Good Feeling.’’ At the close of Madison’s administration, James Monroe was elected president by a majority of 149 electoral votes. He was well known as a legislator and diplomatist, having served as Secretary of State and later as Secretary of War under President Madison. He, therefore, began with the confidence of the people. It must be remembered that the second war with Eng- land was not favored by the New England states, for it ruined their commerce and many merchants. Soon after President / Monroe was elected, he made a journey through New Eng- & land, and northern New York. His object seemed to be to. heal the feelings of these states. He went as a peacemaker, and was everywhere joyfully received. Party differences seemed to vanish, therefore, the period of his presidency is sometimes called “the era of good feeling.” His first term “was from 1817 to 1821, and when he-was chosen for President - the second time he received every electoral vote but one, and that delegate said he voted against Monroe for he wanted Washington to ve the only President who was unanimously elected. The states were now coming to be united into a real nation. 236. The Plantation System in the South. Living conditions were much different in the Northern and Southern States. South of the Ohio River, much of the land and wealth were held by slave owners. Not every white man in the South was a slave owner; indeed at the middle of the 19th Century but one man in every five or six owned slaves, yet be- cause they were the wealthy and influential men, they were =the leaders in Southern affairs. 4 a a FIRST QUARTER Naturally they were bitterly opposed to the abolition of slav- ery. They insisted the management of their vast acres demanded slave labor. They also insisted that they be allowed to import slaves, for the deaths in the rice fields were so numerous, it was necessary in some way to keep the number up to their needs. In many cases the slaves were well treated. In the main, they | lived in little cabins grouped to the back of the white owner’s home. Some of the old time plantations are the show places in the South today, and on many of them, darkies were born, lived, ~ and died. The treatment received depended much upon the ~ owner, just as the treatment animals receive today depends upon ~ their owners. The slave was fed, clothed, and cared for, but was paid no wages, and if the master so wished could be sold as we sell a horse or cow. 237. Home Building in the West. During the hard times that accompanied and followed the War of 1812-15, a great emigration from the more easterly states had poured into the Mississippi valley, and rapidly filled up: the fertile regions west of the Appalachian Mountains. From 1810 to 1819, the population had increased from i 7,240,000 to 9,000,000. The West had grown faster than the © ~.. country as a whole had done, and new states had been rapidly created in that quarter—Eggleston, p. 240. The western settler was of necessity a strong, self- reliant man. When he arrived at some point—a place far to the West — at that time, he faced the necessity of providing a home for his family. Trees had to be cut down and hewn into logs to make Hy houses. Land had to be cleared for planting, and as there were — . 4 no stores or other means of procuring even the barest neces ei Ty ties, the pioneer had to make his own furniture, spin his ow / »\cloth for garments and even make his own shoes. : Usually several families traveled together and would settle on a m.. banks of some stream or lake. In time a flour mill, a general store, a blacksmith shop, and a church would form the nucleus for a little village. This is the way that most of the towns along the Mississippi came into being, for to those living along the banks of this river, access to New Orleans was much easier, since they could reach it by ship. 238. Routes and Methods of Travel Westward. | When settlers from the East turned westward, they found the Alleghany Mountains real barriers in their way. But there were three main gateways or passes by means of which travelers could start on their long journey. Those starting from New ‘ - 4 i “York State found an opening up the Hudson and Mohawk * / f f agit Oy, a ae FIRST QUARTER 6. Valleys and so out upon the great Central Plain. Those going from Pennsylvania found the Ohio River an easy means of reach- ing the longed for land. From the little village of Pittsburgh many overland pioneers from the East gathered to start in their river trip down the Ohio. In the South, the break in the mountains. known as Cumber- land Gap gave an opening through which thousands of settlers from the South poured into Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois. Historians have attempted to divide this western immigration into periods, and even a brief study will show how readily it falls into the four divisions: 1. The forest and road trails—which were followed from the earliest times down to about the time of the Revolutionary War. 2. The second period has often been termed the “flat_boat era,’ because during this period much of the*travel was by water in the old flat boat. This period was from about 1776 to 1810. 3. The third period was the era of the steamboat. This like- wise followed the river course, and reached its gréatest develop- > ment about 1850. Its decline came about 1870. 4 4. The fourth period is that of the steam railway. It began about 1835. Prominent among the pioneers during the first era was Daniel Boone. To him 3 is due the early settlement of Kentucky. In 1788 North Carolina encouraged the immigrant by offering — 640 acres of land free to each head of a family, one hundred acres to his wife, and one hundred acres for each child. By the close of the 18th century, Kentucky had a greater population than New Hampshire, Delaware, Georgia or Rhode Island, and Kentucky and Tennessee were admitted as states while Washing- ton was President. _ In Ohio, they met settlers from the South and settlers from the North. Jhe former had come often down the Ohio River, while those from the North were sturdy men from Massachusetts and Connecticut. These settlers were of the best type, and soon had formed communities, founded churches, and built their school houses. But now their chief difficulty was in securing machinery, tools, and manufactured goods from the East. It took twenty days for a wagon to go from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, and the cost of hauling freight this distance was $125 per ton. Before the War of 1812, there had been. considerable migration to the country west of the Alleghany Mountains. The difficulty of moving troops to the West demonstrated further need for roads and improvements, and Congress soon set about supplying the need. \, \, 6 FIRST QUARTER At first the western land had a few so-called “back- woodsmen,” who made very little improvement on their — places, and as people migrated to their territory and began settlements, they moved farther west. Their successors also sold the land to later comers at a higher price and moved on. Settlers were known to have moved farther west at four or five different times. People from the New England states moved.down the Mohawk Valley to Lake Erie or down the Hudson and across to Pittsburgh. The region north of the Ohio was Settled principally, however, by people from the states of Kentucky and Tennessee. People from Georgia and South Carolina went in rather large numbers to Alabama and Mississippi. At this time roads of any kind were few, although a few states had begun to construct them to some extent. Both passengers and freight were carried in large wagons; but on account of bad roads, often people carried their goods on horses or they walked and carried what they could. It is almost impossible for us to properly appreciate the difficulties which the pioneer settler had to face. The year 1806 saw the beginning of our first national road. In that year Congress set aside $30,000 to build a road ‘from Cumberland, Maryland, to the Ohio. The work of con- struction began in 1811 and the road extended to Wheeling by 1820. Later the road was extended to Columbus, Indian- apolis, and Vandalia, Illinois. Just before the Civil War, this great road was turned over to the states through which it ran, after the government had spent nearly $7,000,000 on it. This work of internal improvement made travel easier, increased the sale of public lands, and drew immigrants to the West. In the meantime the Ohio and Mississippi were being used as highways of travel. Many keelboats and flatboats were used on the Ohio. Men took freight to New Orleans where they sold it at a good price. The journey down took a full week, and the return trip about three times as long. After Fulton’s invention of the steamboat, river traffic in- creased greatly. In 1811, steamboats were employed on the Chio. River towns were, of course, the most prosperous in the West. Among them we may mention Wheeling, Cincinnati, — Louisville, Evansville, St. Louis, Memphis, and New Orleans. There were a number on the smaller streams, such as Vin- cennes. . With the advent of railroads and canals, the settlement of the West was finally assured. FIRST QUARTER q THe MeEtTHopsS OF TRAVEL. The earliest settlers moved to the West in large wagons, where there were roads or on packhorses. In some cases, too, they were known to have trudged along on foot, carrying as much as they could. On the rivers, the steamboat was used and proved an effective means of transportation. These methods of travel, however, were not sufficient to meet the demand produced by the increase in westward migration. The Cumberland or National Road, was therefore begun and extended to the Ohio River by 1820. Over much of its course it was macadamized. Some private “turnpikes” also were constructed by the states. These made the West more attrac- tive and increased the price of land. Tue Erte CANAL. During Monroe’s administration in 1825 the state of New York built the Erie Canal. The success, or much of it as least, is’ said to have been due to the energy and foresight of Governor Clinton. It was an immense task, costing $7,000,000, but has paid for itself many times and has had much to do with the development of the West. The length of the canal is 363 miles, and it connects Albany and Troy with Buffalo, on the eastern shore of Lake Erie. Tue NaTIONAL RoAD oR CUMBERLAND Roap. The building of the National Road, which we have already mentioned, grew out of the demand for better roads to the West. Its construction was also encouraged by those who believed it would increase the sale of public lands. Ac- cordingly, Congress made an appropriation for the work, and it was begun in 1811. It extended from Cumberland, Mary- land, to Wheeling, and from there was continued to Colum- us, Indianapolis, and Vandalia. When the states began to build more roads and when railroads and canals increased, the national government gave over the road to the states through which it runs. 239. Growth of Manufactures. - The War of 1812 taught the United States one thing, and that, was—she must look to her manufacturing industries. During this war, we found we could not buy $6,000 worth of blankets for our soldiers—and the result was that illegal trading had to be carried on with the British to get blankets for our soldiers, who “were at that time fighting those self-same Englishmen. After the war cloud had blown over artisans were brought from Eng- land, and these together with our own shrewd Yankees laid the basis for our present industrial system. 8 FIRST QUARTER Samuel_Slater, an Englishman, was brought to Providence, Rhode Island, by Moses Brown in 1789 and drew plans and erected the first spinning mill in the United States. By 1810, steam was being used to run these mills, but our mills were crude, — and we could not manufacture as cheaply as could the: English. But about this time England and France began a war in Europe | which forced the United States to look to its own mills and by 1809, there were eighty-seven cotton mills in operation in the United States. This was further aided by the perfecting of Eli™ Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin. But it was not till 1814 that a mill was opened where the cotton yarn was woven into cloth. Up to this time all the weaving had been done on hand looms. The growth of the wool industry paralleled that of the ° cotton, but it was not till 1828 that a complete woolen factory was operated. The advent of the sewing machine was the next step made in ~ the manufacture of our clothing. In 1846 Elias Howe brought out our first successful sewing machine. By 1860 the number of Howe and Singer machines in use was more than 40,000. Along with the growth of textile industries must be men- tioned the manufacturing of farm machinery. This like the spinning mill, owes its rise to the War of 1812. Forced to depend on local supplies for coal, manufacturers found the coal underlying Pennsylvania well suited to their needs, and hence there grew up the foundries in Pennsylvania that are it chief source of wealth today. For iron ore was discovered in that state also, and the boast that Pennsylvania’s iron masters made to supply the needs of the whole United States with metal ware has been more than made good—for they now SHEE many of the demands of Europe today as well. With metals being worked now extensively in the United © States it was not to be wondered at that new inventions should be made. Some of the most important of these had to do with farm machinery. In 1846, Cyrus. McCormick opened a factory at Cincinnati where he made reapers. In 1849, he opened another one in Chicago. Step by step this was developed until today we have the combined harvester which cuts and thrashes the grain at one operation. Though American manufactured goods in 1810 reached the value of $200,000,000, most of it was made in the East—Pennsyl- vania, Virginia, Maryland, New York and Massachusetts. But factories had also begun to spring up in the West—where there was water power. By 1821, at Beaver Creek, Kentucky, there was a forge, and an iron furnace, several saw mills, gist mills, and at least one carding mill. At Maysville, there were glass — works and a rope factory. Records show that in.1820 at Cin- \ FIRST QUARTER 9 cinnati there were glass works, a tannery, a foundry, together with woolen and cotton factories, and a shipyard for the con- struction of river steamers. Cincinnati had now become the point where the farmer could exchange his grain for American manu- factured articles. al 240. Jackson Restores Order in the South. But while the rise of manufacturing in the United States ®had its advantages, it also had its disadvantages. Among the latter was the tariff question. American manufacturers said their goods must be protected by a tariff from the more cheaply made products of Europe if our industry were to prosper. The first tariff was in 1789. It was very low. In 1791, Congress enacted the law that put an excise duty on distilled _liguor. In 1816 another. tariff act was passed. This was to protect the home manufacturers against foreign competition. In 1824, a new tariff act was passed. It was considerably higher than the tariff of 1816. The South greatly opposed this, as they said it made goods which they wanted to buy from Europe much higher. In 1828, another tariff act was passed. The people engaged in manufacturing demanded higher pro- tection. Congress protected them. This raised the South to intense anger. They declared they would buy no goods from the North. They called the tariff of 1828 the tariff of abom- . inations, and declared the North was growing rich while the South was gaining nothing. In 1832 another tariff law was passed. South Carolina said she could endure it no longer, and openly stated that if the federal government should at- | tempt to enferce the tariff acts she would withdraw from the Union. She declared the tariff law of 1832 null and void in her territory. This was called nullification. The people of the South felt themselves wronged about _the tariff. They thought they ought to have the privilege of _ buying goods wherever they could get them the cheapest, and South Carolina declared that after February 1, 1833, she would pay no tariff, and that she would leave the Union if she was forced to do so. South Carolina declared the tariff null and void, and said she believed in “State Rights,” that meant that any State had the right to disobey a law if the state thought the law was injurious to its welfare. It was indeed a serious situation. John C. Calhoun was a strong supporter of “Nulli- fication.” Jackson sent a naval force under Farragut to Charleston harbor, and gave South Carolina to, understand that he intended to have the federal laws obeyed. Henry Clay, the peacemaker, settled the trouble by compromise, by getting a bill passed by 10 FIRST QUARTER Congress in 1833 which provided for the gradual reduction of the tariff until 1842, when it would be as low as it was in 1816. South Carolina succeeded in loweri ing the tariff but she could not force the principles of nullification to be recognized. ig Ve @ 241. The Acquisition of Florida. & _ It will be remembered that Florida belonged to the Span- ish government. The territory was poorly governed and be- came a refuge for runaway negroes and dishonest white men. These people frequently made “raids upon our southern states and stole property and murdered men, women, and children. This was bad enough, but the Seminole Indians now (1819) began hostilities against the people of Georgia. As one would naturally suppose, they were encouraged by the Spaniards. - General Jackson, therefore, was sent down to restore order and made short work of them. Soon Spain was ready to sell Florida and we bought the territory in 1819 for $5,000,000. 242. Eleven Free States—Eleven. Slave States. Negro slaves were excellent laborers in the cotton fields, therefore, slavery came to be a valuable labor system there. The older states in that region retained it, and their people . rapidly settled the Southern Territories west of them, opening cotton plantations there, to be cultivated by their negroes. Every new state formed out of the territory south of the Ohio River came into the Union with slavery established, while under the ordinance of 178% every state formed out of the territory northwest of the Ohio prohibited slavery. e In 1819, there were eleven free states and clever in which slavery existed. The people of the two sections had come to have different interests, and to wish for different national laws. , lhe free states were: Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecti- — cut, Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. The slave states were: Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Kentucky, Georgia, Tennessee, Ala- ._ bama, Mississippi and Lotisiana. 243. Missouri Seeks Admission into the Union. Missouri wanted to come into the Union. A bitter dis- pute arose in Congress as to whether it should come in as a free or slave state. Maine also wanted to come into the Union. Up to this time the states had been admitted in pairs. Missouri wanted to come in as a slave state, but many people of the North were unwilling to have a state so far north as Missouri was, with slaves. —_ ore. Ps \ FIRST QUARTER 11 The Southern members of Congress would not admit Maine as a free state unless Missouri would be allowed to have slaves. After much debating, it was settled by compromise: 244, The Missouri Compromise. » The Missouri Compromise was made in 1820, and was warmly supported by Henry Clay. This compromise pro- vided that Missouri should come in as a slave state, but that slavery should be forever prohibited in all the rest of the Louisiana purchase north of parallel 36° 30’. This was the southern boundary of Missouri. This was giving a great terri- tory from which free states might be made, but very little for slave states. We shall see what trouble this caused later, for it really made matters worse. Maine was admitted as a free state. There were now twelve free and twelve slave states. FOREIGN RELATIONS. _ 245. The Spanish-American Countries. After the sale of Florida, Spain still retained possessions in the West Indies and Mexico. She also still claimed most of -South America, but most of these countries had declared their independence after Napoleon conquered Spain in 1808. When the King was restored in 1815, however, he reconquered these -countries. They were not to remain long in Spain’s power, for about the year 1817 they began to-rise one by one and throw off the yoke. Mexico also succeeded in winning her in- dependence in 1821. -In 1808, Napoleon invaded Spain, drove out the king, and placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte,.on the throne. Thereupon many of the Spanish colonies in America rebelled and organized themseives as republics. When Napoleon was sent to St. Helena, the Spanish king (who was restored in 1814) brought back most of the colonies to their allegiance. La Plata, however, rebelled, and was quickly followed by the others. In 1822, President Monroe recognized the independ- ence of La Plata (Argentina), Chile, Peru, Colombia, Mexico, and Central America. 246. The Holy Alliance. The King of Spain, unable to conquer the revolted colonies, applied for aid to the Holy Alliance which was formed by Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France, for the purpose of monarchial government in Europe. For a time it seemed 12 FIRST QUARTER that these powers might aid her, but England asked the United States to join with her against the action of Euro- pean powers in trying to subjugate the American colonies. It was not through love for America that England offered to do this, but because she feared Spain might again inter- fere with her commerce. The offer was refused, and in®its place the Monroe Doctrine was asserted. 947, The Encroachment of Russia. bel Very early the Russians had taken an interest in explorations in North America. Peter the Great first sent out expeditions, and in 1728 Vitus Bering, a Dane, who had been sent out by Peter, gave his name to the Strait that divides North America and Asia. The Russians were interested in this part of the country because of its rich furs. It was not till 1867 that we purchased Alaska from Russia. At the time of the Holy Alliance, — Russia began to press her claims further inland, and showed clearly that she coveted the whole western coast of North America.’ It was in the hopes of making good these claims, that Russia joined with Spain in forming the Alliance. | 248. England’s Proposal. England became greatly alarmed because of the action cf Spain in calling on the Holy Alliance for help. She was — not a member of this alliance, which had been formed to pro- mote Christian government, but had taken on the new aim of preserving monarchies, and feared that these nations might injure her commerce. She, therefore, called on us to join her in a protest. However, the President thought we should handle the matter ourselves and declined -the offer of the British government. 249. The Monroe Doctrine. The time was now ripe for a statement of the American point of view. Accordingly in December, 1823, Monroe issued a warning that the countries of the American continents were not to be considered as “subjects for future colonization by any European power.” He further stated that we should consider any ~ attempt of an European power to extend its political systems — “to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety.” This utterance has long been known as the “Monroe Doctrine,” and it has been in force practically from that day to this. | 250. Presidential Campaign of 1824. hs President Monroe’s term of office has been well called the “Era of Good Feeling” and when he stood for re-election in 1820, FIRST QUARTER 13 he was almost unanimously elected for his second term. He re- ceived the vote of all but one elector, who said he voted against him because he wanted Washington to be the only President (-/e elected unanimously. But the election of 1824 was different:, Seventeen different men sought the office of President and this! # 2 campaign has often been called the “scrub race for the Presi- dency.” Six of the candidates showed strength, and four came | up before the Electoral College. 251. Four Prominent Candidates. in the election of 1824, there were four leading candi- dates, namely: Adams, Clay, Crawford, and Jackson. These men were all Republicans, but Clay and Adams were more in | agreement than the others. Jackson was doubtless the most popular, especially in the West. 252. Electoral College Fails to Make a Choice. As these men all belonged to the same party, the contest Was a personal, rather than a party contest. In the count of the electotal votes Jackson received the greatest number, but did not obtain a majority of all. According to the Constitu- tion, the election had to go to,the House of eset EE ey where Jackson lost his lead over the others. ) When the vote was taken in the House of Bent cnt: tives, only the three receiving the greatest number of votes could be candidates. Clay, therefore, dropped out of the con- test. His friends now urged representatives to vote for Adams. This combination of votes was sufficient to elect Adams. Jackson felt very bitter and declared the election unfair; but he may have been in error in this judgment, for had Clay not been a candidate, Adams might have been elected in the first place. As we have said, Jackson and his friends were very bitter. At once they started a story that the election of Adams was the result of a corrupt bargain. The*story charged that Adams had offered Clay the position of Secretary of State, and it helped to make the administration unpopular. We are assured on good authority, however, that no such corrupt bargain had been made. Many bitter personal attacks were made on both sides during the whole of the campaign. 253. Jackson Begins His Campaign for 1828. With the election of Adams, the era of good feeling very definitely ended, and hardly fad the new President taken his oath of office, till Jackson and his disgruntled followers began to lay plans to defeat him should he run for a second term., They de- 14 FIRST QUARTER clared Jackson had been really the people’s choice but by trickery had been defeated. With such opposition brewing, it is hardly to be wondered at that the administration of Adams was not without unpleasant happenings. A PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 254. Adams Well Qualified for the Presidency. Adams was well qualified to be president, having served as Secretary of State under Monroe. Besides he had held many important public offices and everywhere had won great respect. His administration, however, was destined to be somewhat unfortunate. The Senate was opposed to lim, and he refused to organize his majority in the House. He permitted his enemies to continue in office greatly to his inconvenience. All this shows that he was not a shrewd politician. Adams had many sturdy personal qualities. He was an eloquent speaker, and a writer of ability—both prose and verse. He stood for the right, and was a staunch champion of his be- liefs. He had been a foreign minister who had served his country with ability and dignity, a Senator and a Cabinet Member. He was broad minded, almost to a fault. Perhaps no other man in the United States at this time—1825—possessed so many outstanding points which fitted him as an ideal President. es 255. The Erie Canal Completed. The Erie Canal was completed during the term of Adams. It extended from Troy, on the Hudson River, to Buffalo, on the eastern shore of Lake Erie. The canal greatly aided in the settlement of the West and also facilitated trade and in- ternal commerce. It helped to make New York our largest and most important city and port. Before the canal was built, it cost ten dollars to ship a barrel of flour from Buffalo . to Albany. After this, it cost only thirty cents. Products from the West were sent to eastern or eee markets by way of the canal. The canal extended three hundred pus -three miles, and was a great factor in the colonization of the West. It was completed in 1825 after eight years of strenuous labor. It is still a most important water highway, and the State of New York has in recent years made many costly improvements in addition to it. 256. Congress Opposes Adams’ Policies. Adams’ administration was a period of strife between him and his enemies, who were in the main Jackson’s supporters. FIRST QUARTER 15 They lost no opportunity of thwarting and humilating the Presi- dent, refusing to support him in measures that were eminently just ‘and right. The contest over the Creek and Cherokee Indians in Georgia is the outstanding example of this spirit of retaliation. The Creek and Cherokee Indians had been given lands for a reservation in Georgia but now the people of this state were trying to remove them in order to secure this rich acreage. Adams objected to this as an injustice and refused to sanction any such move, but Congress in spite of the injustice of the affair, refused to back up the President in his stand. This left an open fight between the Governor of Georgia and the President of the United States. ‘Troup was then Governor of Georgia and when Congress failed to support Adams, the Governor was in a position whereby he could—and did successfully defy the authority of the National Government, with the result that the Indians were forced to leave, and the President stood powerless to assert his rights. This incident, while trivial in itself may have had far-reaching effects, in that a few years later, the leaders again in the Southern States __ asserted their power, with the Civil War as the outcome. , 257. The High Tariff of 1828—The ‘‘Tariff of Abominations.’’ President Adams, though a National Republican, held views much like the old Federalist party. Especially did he favor their policy of the protective tariff and internal im- provements. Toward the close of his administration, he signed a high tariff bill which tended to make him more un- popular. The manufacturers, particularly of New England, demanded very high protective rates, as this was their chief industry. Therefore a tariff providing unusually high duties was 4 drawn up. It was not well planned and was consequently unjust. It laid high duties on everything without regard to the effect on the people’s welfare. For example, the tax on wool was fixed at seventy per cent, a rate so high that it made the cost of woolen cloth very high to the consumer. It was, of course, obvious that a tariff with so many weak- nesses would become very unpopular. In the South, where there was little manufacturing, the discontent was most pro- nounced. John C. Calhoun, their leader, even-went so far as to advise South Carolina to disregard the law. The followers of Jackson joined in the opposition to the tariff and helped to add to its disfavor. So unpopular did the measure become that it was called the “tariff-of abominations.” _ 258. The South Objects to a Protective Tariff. It was unavoidable that the new tariff law should cause trouble. Why Adams ever signed the bill is one of the mysteries 16 FIRST QUARTER of his term of office. From the Northern standpoint it was good, for the North was the manufacturing part of the United States but it was exceedingly unjust to the South. This region was forced to buy the most of its manufactured articles, and to have the tariff raised from thirty to seventy per cent on woolens, and almost equally high on iron was sure to bring a vigorous protest from this region. In general, the tariff amounted to a raise of fully thirty-seven per cent. John C. Calhoun became spokesman for the South, and backed by the threats of five states, he advised South Garolina to refuse to obey the law as injurious to the welfare of the state. Here again came the notion of defiance of the National Govern- ment. With things in this state, the nation faced another presi- dential election. The South contended she had a right to buy — her goods when, where, and at what price she pleased and she _ certainly did not please to fill the Northern manufacturers pockets ~ at the expense of impoverishing herself. It is only fair to say © that later historians have backed the South in this protest. 259. Jackson Nominated for President by Legislatures. Since 1800, the so-called congressional caucus had nomi- nated candidates for the presidency. The leaders of each party in Congress, met and chose their man. Such a method naturally took no regard for the people’s right. The new Jacksonian democracy set about overthrowing the caucus and succeeded. For a time state conventions or state legis- latures nominated the candidates, but very soon (1832) the National Convention came into existence and became very popular. Among Jackson’s followers were Martin Van Buren, his Secretary of State, and the only strong man in Jackson’s cabinet, Thomas H. Benton, and others who formed the new Democrat- Republican Party. The followers of Adams were called the Na- tional Republicans. They were the descendants of the old Fed- eralist Party, and are the Republican Party of today. The Demo- crat-Republican Party of Jackson’s day became later the Demo- crat Party of today. They represented the Republican Party as founded by Jefferson. Anti-Jackson men were Henry Clay and © Daniel Webster.“ James Russel Lowell, the well known poet, and others who made up the new National Republican Party. 260. Result of the Election. The Tariff of Abominations, together with the persistent efforts of the Jackson men made the re- -election of Adams impossible. This-and the great popularity of Jackson in the West caused a landslide for the Democratic Republicans, or FIRST QUARTER deg 17 the Democrats, as they came to be called. Jackson received one hundred seventy-eight electoral votes and Adams eighty- three. The popular vote, however, was more nearly ¢ evenly divided, Jackson holding the lead, however. The election of Andrew Jackson marked the beginning of a new democratic era. The West for the first time now began to show its influence. The struggle of the people in this section gave them confidence and from this time onward they came to have a larger share in national affairs. During Jackson’s administration, the nation showed great progress in almost every phase of development. In industrial and social development, great strides forward were made. Railroads, canals, and factories, in ever increasing numbers were built; and in education also much progress was made. In all this, however, Jackson showed himself as the dominant spirit and leader. It is a small wonder that his term is designated the es Andrew Jackson.” . poet ee NON-POLITICAL. 261. Population Moving Westward. After the building of roads, canals,,and railways began, the population moved rapidly westward. The fertile lands — of the Mississippi Valley attracted thousands from the states © farther east. At first settlements sprang up on the banks of rivers, lakes, and canals, but as soon as railroads were con- structed, the interior some distance from the rivers began to be settled. With the exception of a very destructive fire in New York City (1835), Jackson’s presidency was a period of rapid . growth for the entire country, but especially for the West. New canals had been opened, lines of steamboats had been established on the principal western rivers and on all the Great Lakes, and the whistle of the locomotive was beginning to be heard beyond the Alleghanies. Arkansas and the . rapidly growing Territory of Michigan were admitted to the Union (1836-1837), making twenty-six states in all. Already the West, and especially the Northwest, was growing more rapidly than any other section. This was due to the improved means of travel, to the absence of slavery, the open prairie land, and the proximity of the large free population of the East. Cities also were beginning to develop, due to the in- crease of manufacturing. There were thirty-two cities with |. more than 8,000, and New York had more than 200,000.— Montgomery's Leading Facts of American History, Ginn and Company, Publishers. p. 234. 18 FIRST QUARTER Iowa was settled largely by farmers from New England, New York and Ohio. There were two reasons why this was so— | the people from these states preferred a climate and living condi- . tions similar to those they had left, and they wanted to settle where all men were free. Farms sprang up over night. So much of the land was prairie that no clearing was necessary, hence less work was required to get out crops. Dubuque, Burlington and - Davenport had been established along the Mississippi River by 1836, and were flourishing as trading towns. In 1846, lowa was admitted into the Union as a state. Owing to its further location, Wisconsin was not settled till later, and it was not till 1848, that it could claim the necessary 300,000 which entitled it to seek admission as a state. Minnesota at this time had but 5,000 inhabitants and was not admitted for ten years. : But the movement westward was not confined to the North- west by any means. But they were blocked by the borders. of Texas which was at that time under Mexican control. By the provisions of the Louisiana boundary it had been delivered up to Spain in 1819, who later gave it up to Mexico. But when the Mexicans revolted from Spain, and Texas passed into her hands, she did not have settlers enough to fill up the lands. Therefore she opened them up to the settlers from the United States. One of the largest colonies was led by Moses Austin who settled near Bexar in 1820 with three hundred Americans. He founded the city which now bears his name and is the capital of the state. In twenty years, more than 20,000 Americans had settled in Texas, and it was not long till trouble started between the native Mexi-_ cans and the newcomers. This ended in the Mexican War, which will be discussed later. While trouble was brewing in Texas, it also was arising further west. Oregon had been claimed by the United States by virtue of Grey’s discovery in 1792 of the Columbia River, but no definite northern limit had been set to the country. The United States claimed the west coast up to Alaska, but Great Britain flatly refused to allow it. In 1811, John Jacob Astor’s fur traders had established a - fur trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River, and named it Astoria. During the ten years following 183N, many mission- | aries came to this country to establish missions for the Indians. In 1842, Dr. Elijah White led a band of one hundred twenty men into Oregon as settlers, and in the next year, Dr. Marcus Whit- man brought in a still larger settlement. This was but the begin- ning of a regular influx of immigrants. In 1843, at least eight hundred seventy-five settlers entered, while the following year FIRST QUARTER 19 the total was at least 1,800. The following year there were 3,000, and now definite steps were taken to settle the boundary line for once and all. In the early history of our country, the states we now call California, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona were known as New. Spain. When after the war with Mexico, we gained posses- sion of California, it was not an entirely new region to us. Ever since the war of 1812, our ships had sailed around South America and visited California. But the overland route was also known, and Zebulon Pike had made the trip and wrote about it in his - book published in 1808. He also showed the possibility of using the Arkansas River, and then going across the desert to Santa Fe. The dangers of these cross country trips were great, but the profits to traders were so enormous, that there were always many willing to undertake the journey. ~—— ‘The western movement has been divided by some writers into six distinct groups. The first were the fur_traders, who dealt largely with the Indians, and brought back skins and furs to Eastern markets. St. Louis was long the chief center of this trade. The second group were the miners. The discovery of gold . in California had much to do with their western movement. The third were the cattle men, who found the virgin grasses of the prairies rich grazing for their herds. These cowboys, as » they were called, gave a picturesqueness to the West from Mon- tana to Texas that it still retains in places. Farmers make up the fourth group; women the fifth and teachers and preachers the sixth. 262. The West, an Agricultural Region. It was perhaps the third group of settlers, the cattlemen— who discovered the agricultural possibilities of the West. Here, mile after mile of virgin sod awaited the farmer’s efforts. But it was left to the fourth group, the farmers themselves, to fence the land, settle down, and become permanent home makers. The farmer differed from the cattleman in two ways—he nearly always brought his wife and children with him and he usually was a more settled, steady worker. With the coming of the women, settlements took on an air of stability, of order and thrift unknown in the earlier times. Nature had intended the great stretches of the Middle West as an agriculture country. Not even a tree sometimes for miles interferred with his work. In the main, the land was rich fine loam, land that today has placed the United States at the head of the agriculture world. 20 FIRST QUARTER 263. Canals, Pikes, Roads, and Steamboats. The colonization of the West called for better transportation facilities. Especially was this true of transportation for manu- factured articles from the East. In response to this natural de- mand, roads were opened both by public and private concerns. The opening of the Cumberland Road to the West was directly ~ responsible for the opening of the Erie Canal. For this road alarmed the New York merchants and led them to plan a road that would be a western avenue for their wares. The logical way seemed to be a canal connecting the Hudson River with the Great Lakes. This was begun in 1817 while Clinton was Gover- nor of New York. It was to connect directly with Lake Erie and would be three hundred sixty-three miles long. Some were doubtful of the undertaking and nicknamed it Clinton’s Folly or Clinton’s Big Ditch. But in 1825 it was finished and in No- vember, Governor Clinton and a party went from Albany to New — York City on a fleet of canal boats carrying with them kegs of water which they emptied into New York harbor in com- memoration of the great event. Other canals were built in Illinois and will be discussed later. In Pennsylvania the merchants faced the loss of trade to the © North so they persuaded their state to build a system of canals | and portages to connect the Ohio Valley and the Eastern coasts. This was an expensive undertaking but was more than justified in the trade carried over it between Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis. Along with the building of canals went the task of building ~ | turnpikes and roads. In many instances, the State bore the greater part of the expense. This was especially true with the National Road connecting Cumberland near the Potomac, with the Mississippi Valley. The need for this road had been seen even in the last part of the 18th Century, and in 1806 Congress . authorized the plan for a great National Highway which was to bind the East and the West. But it was not till 1811 that the first contracts were let. This road started from Cumberland on the Potomac, went to Washington, Pennsylvania, then west to Zanesville, Ohio, then straight across to Richmond, Indiana, then across Indiana to Terre Haute, then southwest to Vandalia, Illi- nois. The stretch from V andalia to St. Louis was never finished by the Government for the rapid increase in railroads made it unnecessary. The first freight and passenger railroad in the United States. extended westward from Baltimore thirteen miles and formed - a part of what is now known as the Baltimore & Ohio rail- road, This railroad was begun by Charles Carroll, of Carroll- . pie Ts ee al FIRST QUARTER 21 ton. Striking his spade into the ground he said, “I consider this among the most important acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence, if second = tortiats, At first the cars were drawn by horses. In 1830 Peter Cooper built the first locomotive in our country. This loco- motive was put on the new railroad. About the year 1850 railroads were built westward. New lands for the emigrant were now opened and the railroad did more for the development of the West than anything else, for wherever railroads went, towns and cities sprung up and products could be taken from one place to another. It formed a unity of our country and made it easier to govern. We now have more than two hundred and twenty-five thousand miles in the United States. We have more than any other country. . Cornelius Vanderbilt in 1869 consolidated about sixteen different fragments of railroads into one great road called the New York Central. To these he joined the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern. Thus it might be said that the ~ New York Central embraces the entire route from New York .- to Chicago. This Vanderbilt system now has a total of some ee twenty thousand miles. In New York, there was a chain of little roads reaching across the state. The first was the “Mohawk and Hudson,” ‘extending from Albany to Schenectady, where it connected with the Erie Canal. This was opened in 1831, but it was not until twelve years later that they extended it all the way to Buffalo. Finally they were gathered together into the power- ful “New York Central,” and soon after the close of the war Commodore Vanderbilt merged all these with his own the “New York and Harlem,” into the “New York Central” and “Hudson River Railroad.” This system rapidly spread and absorbed and consolidated with other railroads until it ex- tended to every part of New York. Similarly in Pennsylvania, there were many short lines extending from the anthracite coal region to the coast. These were bought up by the “Pennsylvania Railroad,” which was the first road west through the Alleghanies to Pittsburgh. The “Pennsylvania” thus gained a monopoly of all the trans- portation routes from Pittsburgh to the coast. Its lines are carrying one-fourth of the freight of the United States, largely coke, coal and iron and steel manufactures. This road and the “New. York Central” illustrate well one of the most im- portant chapters in the history of railroading—how nearly 22 FIRST QUARTER all the small lines of the United States have been gathered . together by capitalists into a few powerful systems. The first road through Northern Illinois was the “Galena — and Chicago Union,” which was the cornerstone of the “Chi- cago and N orthwestern.” It was not untjl 1847 that the first ten miles from the Chicago River to the Des Plaines were started. The first locomotive was second hand as were also the rails, which were of the strap variety—thin strips of iron on wooden rails. This road was the first to reach the Mississippi (1855). As has been said before, the steamboat period of travel began about 1810, reached its greatest popularity about 1850, and de- clined after 1870. It was not till 1807 that the first steamboat was launched on the Hudson by its inventor, Robert Fulton. He called it the Clermont, and in it made the distance from New York to Albany, a journey of one hundred fifty miles in thirty- two hours, and the return trip in thirty hours. In 1811, there was a steamboat on the Ohio, and in 1812, there was regular service between Pittsburgh and New Orleans. | 264. Social Progress. Social conditions were much different in the West than in the South or East. Most of the pioneers were poor, and brought with them into the wilderness all their worldly goods. Because . of the cheapness of the land, every man could soon be a home owner, and if his log hut was poor, and without any but the necessary furnishings, it at least was as good as his neighbors. The huge fireplace built of rough stones served as means of heat for cooking. A loom and spinning wheel were part of the equip- , ment of every pioneer home. Yet it was not a dull existence; log rolling, husking bees, and quiltings furnished quite as much social intercourse as there was time for in those days. The youth of the pioneers married while still in their teens and usually raised large families. But in the winter life in the wilderness often meant days of isolation. The winters were long and cold. Sometimes the nearest neighbor was ten miles away, and the nearest doctor twenty. Compared to the cultured East and the aristocratic South, the West had few refinements of: life, yet churches and schools were not neglected. Yet it was not till the Industrial Revolution that the manner of life of the Western settlers changed to any radical extent. With the. invention of the steam engine and labor saving machinery, the change was great and far-reaching. When man no longer was forced by necessity to spend the greater part of his time and strength supplying his physical needs, he had more time to give to social and intellectual pursuits. » r FIRST QUARTER 23 265. Growth in Population. Between the years 1830 and 1840 there was a growth of 4,000,000 in population in the United States. By far the greater part of this increase was in the West and the new states of the Southwest. The population of the older Southern states changed but little during this period. But in the new states of the South ~and in the North the growth had been rapid. But the growth of the West had been enormous. The increase of population in Ohio had been sixty per cent. The population of Indiana had doubled, while that of Michigan reached the astounding figures of five hundred seventy per cent. Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio were at this time receiving a great flood of settlers from North Caro- lina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. These » settlers were seeking new homes in states free of slavery. 266. Education—Schools—Colleges. One of the first things the settlers in America had done was . to establish free schools. The Boston Latin School was founded 1635, and-in 1636, the Massachusetts Legislature had voted £400 to establish a school at Cambridge, near “Boston. This was later called Harvard. In 1693, Virginia established Williams and ‘Mary College, and in 1701, Connecticut founded Yale. In 1787 when Congress passed the Ordinance Government for the North- was Territory, four very important clauses were incorporated into it. One of them concerned education, and encouraged “schools and the means of education.” _ From the beginning, the settlers set aside lands to be used to furnish money for schools. The teacher was paid partly in money, and boarded among the patrons in the district. Of course, teachers of the best training were not available—and the three R’s were the chief subjects taught. The older students could attend only during. those months they could not work in the fields— usually three months at the most. The school houses were built of logs, with oil paper for windows. The floors were “puncheons”’ that is logs smoothed off and laid side by side. There were no desks, and only rude benches made from hewn logs. Heat was furnished by the fire place, as in the home. In colonial times, the chief interest in the establishment of schools, was for training the youth in religious matters. The college was almost wholly to train clergymen. But by 1800, schools had begun to take on a secular tone, and to the old curriculum, had been added geog- raphy, history, and arithmetic. Perhaps the one thing that freed the schools from religious authority more than any other, was the use of public funds to support them. Naturally Protestants objected to paying taxes to support a school supervised by Cath- 24 FIRST QUARTER olics, and vice versa. There seemed but one solution, and that was to give over to the schools wholly to secular subjects, and leave religious instruction to the church and home. The need of teaching foreigners the English language, American history, and local geography, also had much to do with the change in curriculum. It took strenuous efforts to convince people that education is a public necessity, and therefore must be supported by public funds. But in the end the idea carried and by 1850, schools sup- ported by public money, were common throughout the West and the Middle West. Among those who fought and won the fight ' for publicly supported schools in the East are Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, DeWitt Clinton, Emma Willard and Mary Lyon. The development of education in the Northwest was much slower than might have been expected. While generous grants of land had been made for school purposes, the land had been poorly managed, sold at a pittance, or sometimes not used for educational purposes at all. Hence, it was necessary to make the fight for tax supported schools just as it had been in the East. But in the West there was not as high a regard for the educated man as there was in the East. Brawn counted for more than — brains in the hard lives of the western settlers. For thirty years after the state constitution of Indiana was adopted in 1816, there was little done in an educational way, although the Constitution provided for a well organized system of public free schools ancy colleges. The constitution drawn up for Illinois in 1818 there was NO mention made of education and it was not until about 1850 that. an educational reform began which lifted the schools from:-their . wretched condition. No great progress was made. in the grade school: of Missouri till after the Civil War. About 1820, there arose a need for a secondary school that was free and that offered a more practical course than that offered by the Academies. at In 1821, in Boston there was opened a school of this nature. - It was supported by the school funds, was free, and aimed to prepare a student for life rather than for college. In: 18253 ane similar institution was opened in New York, and there was laid ~ the beginning of our system.of United States high schools. But the growth of the public high school was very slow. As late as 1860, there were perhaps less than one hundred in all the United States. Most people f-lt if a person wanted schooling above the grades he should pay frr it himself, and not expect the public to do it for him. Therefor, the private academy was still the usual type of secondary school. FIRST QUARTER 25 As in the lower schools, the first colleges founded were for the purpose of training ministers. But soon others were attracted by a desire for wider learning. Leaders in education were also now advocating state sup- ported colleges. This was supported by the provisions of the Northwest Territory Land Ordinance, which provided for a state university for each state formed from that territory. The South was the leader in opening State Universities. In 1795, North Carolina opened hers; Georgia followed suit in 1801, South Carolina in 1804. In the West, Ohio led the way in 1802, and Indiana followed suit in 1824. The University of Michigan began on a small scale in 1841. Education as discussed really applied to boys. Girls with few exceptions gained more than the rudiments of reading and writing. They were not admitted to the grammar school, acad- - emies or high schools; so to provide for the few who were de- ' manding something more, various young ladies’ seminaries were opened. By 1860, only five colleges admitted women, and even then not to all courses. Public high schools were still shut against them. Today in our high schools and colleges, young women average fully fifty per cent of the student body. 267. Literary Progress, In 1639, a printing press was set up at Cambridge, Massa- chusetts and in 1640, published the first book printed in the United States. It was the “Bay Psalm Book.” In 1704, the first newspaper was published—The Boston News Letter, a minature paper of four small sheets. But it was the first regular newspaper in America. They were all weeklies. The first daily was established in Philadelphia in 1784, and was called the American Daily Advertiser. | These papers contained little news, and were bitterly opposed by the Royal Governors. They feared their influence and during the Revolutionary War, the power the papers wielded fully justi- ' fied the old tyrants’ forebodings. | ! Magazines did not have the early development of the news- paper, but before the end of the 18th Century there were about forty so-called magazines printing poetr y literature, org on music, and political matters. In 1815, the North American Review was seratlished: In 1827, appeared the first woman’s magazine. Among the early novelists in the United States was Charles Brockden “Brown (1771-1810), but he never became popular be- cause he failed to see that life in America was as thrilling and romantic as that in England. But during the decade between 1830- 26 FIRST QUARTER 1840, a decided new tone came into American literature. Ameri- can authors began to deal with American people in American settings and so well did they do it that they won hosts of readers not only in the United States; but in Europe as well. Washington Irving made immortal the Catskill Mountains and Sleepy Hollow. ~ James Fenimore Cooper retold stories of the Revolution in “The Spy,” while New England folk and their quaint customs were handed down to posterity in the stories of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Among the poets were Longfellow, Lowell, and Poe, while Harriet Beecher Stowe utilized the slavery issue in Uncle Tom’s Cabin. John Greenleaf Whittier was another writer who esposed ~ the cause of freedom for the slave. William Cullen Bryant wrote Thanatopsis, a poem ‘which attracted wide attention, but it was after.old classical models. In the South, Paul Hamilton Hayne and Sidney Lanier wrote poetry that ranks them high among American writers. | 268. Visit of General Lafayette. During Monroe’s administration, Marquis de Lafayette was invited by Congress to visit America. After Lafayette had helped - us in the Revolution, he had returned to France, and helped in the Revolution there. For so doing, he had been kept a prisoner . in Austria for five years. But after his release, he returned to France, and at the invitation of Congress came to visit America in 1824. Everywhere he was given a welcome that a king might have envied. He visited the chief cities in our country and laid the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill Monument. Our nation had a population of 3,000,000 when Lafayette had first seen it, now it numbered 10,000,000, while in extent it stretched to the Rocky Mountains. Congress, in recognition of Lafayette’s aid to the United States gave him $200,000 and a fine tract of land. When he returned to France, he was taken in a new man-of-war called the Brandywine, in honor of Lafayette, who had been wounded in the Battle of Brandywine while fighting in our war. i 269. Death of Adams and Jefferson, July 4,1826. © —# While the nation was celebrating the fiftieth year of inde- ~ pendence July 4, 1826, two noted men died. They were Thomas | Jefferson and John Adams. Adams had always celebrated July 4, and just before he passed away he mentioned the day, and said softly “Thomas Jefferson still survives,” but he was wrong, for a few minutes before, Jefferson had passed away at his beautiful home at Monticello in Virginia, saying with his last conscious breath, “This is the 4th day of July.” a FIRST QUARTER 27 JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY. 270. Jackson, a Man of the People. In personal appearance, Jackson was a rather striking figure, tall, gaunt, and somewhat uncouth. Some claim that his manners and deportment were those of the backwoods- man. He was honest, generous, and sympathetic. Above all he was courageous and a leader of men, especially in the army. His greatest faults were his exhibitions of temper and headstrong actions. We may say that he was a bitter enemy to those whom he disliked, but a close friend to those whom he loved. The election of Andrew Jackson to the presidency marked the close of the second great epoch in the history of the United States. He was in some respects a typical man of the people. Born in the Carolina backwoods, he passed his boyhood amid the alarms and hostile encounters of the Revolutionary War. He then made his way over the mountains to the newer Carolina, which rapidly developed and was admitted to the Union as the State of Tennessee. Picking up a few scraps of legal knowledge, he became a lawyer; but it was as a military man that he made his mark. Without fear, with boundless energy, and with a faith in his own judgment and good intentions scarcely ever surpassed, Jackson proved him- self to be a born leader of men in times of stress. In the Indian wars of that time andin the War of 1812, he led his men to victory. In every way, Jackson was a fitting repre- sentative of frontier life, which now for the first time took a leading position in national affairs in combination with east- ern political leaders who saw no other way to the possession of power.—Channing’s History, Copyright ao by the Mac- millan Company, New York, pp. 377, 378. 271. The ‘‘Spoils System.’’ When Jackson became president, he immediately began te turn out of office those who did not agree with him in politics and to fill the offices thus vacated with his friends. He was the first president to undertake such a thing. During nine months of his term, he removed more than a thousand officials, while all the other presidents together had not re- moved more than one hundred sixty. Jackson’s proceedings ‘ caused great excitement among the people. { 272. The Webster-Hayne Debate. Hayne, senator from South Carolina, declared whenever the national government passed a law which was contrary to 28 FIRST QUARTER the Constitution of a state, that state had a right to step in and prevent the law from going into effect. He declared nullification was constitutional. Hayne spoke for two days, and made a powerful speech. » Daniel Webster, senator from Massachusetts, replied - to Hayne’s speech. He declared that the Constitution was the people’s Constitution, the people’s government, made by the people and answerable to the people. He declared no state could declare a law unconstitutional and that the Supreme Court alone could do that. He said that nullification would > break up the Union and that, if any state should leave the Union, it was the duty of the National Government to com- | pel it to come back. He closed his speech with the well known words: “Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable.” From that time on he was known as the greatest orator of America. Webster’s speech strengthened the Union, but of course the trouble was not settled until the Civil War, when Webster’s views were adopted. . 273. The Threat of Nullification. The people of the South felt themselves wronged about the tariff. They thought they ought to have the privilege of buying goods wherever they could get them the cheapest, and South Carolina declared that after February 1, 1833, she would pay no tariff, and that she would leave the Union if she was forced to do so. South Carolina declared the tariff null and void, and said she ~ believed in “State Rights,” that meant that any State had the right to disobey a law if the state thought the law was injurious to its welfare. It was indeed a serious situation. John C. Calhoun was, - a strong supporter of “Nullification.” 274, Jackson Opposed to Nullification. Jackson sent a naval force under Farragut to Charleston harbor and gave South Carolina to understand that he intended to have the federal laws obeyed. Then Henry Clay, the peace- maker, settled the trouble by compromise, by securing the passage of a bill, which provided for the gradual reduction of*the tariff -until 1842, when it would be as low as it was in 1816. © Jackson saw the injustice of the tariff law as well as any Southerner, but with Webster, he saw the great need of preserving _ the Union. He resolved therefore that as long as it was a law, that he would enforce it at all costs. He saw clearly that the right of any one state to defy the National Government could lead but to the final destruction of the Federal Government. Jackson boldly announced his stand on the question at a- banquet given on Jefferson’s birthday April 13, 1830. When it FIRST QUARTER 29 came time for Jackson to speak, he boldly gave as his toast : “Our Federal Union; it must be preserved.” This frank utterance of his stand staggered the sympathizers of nullification. About this same time he told a man from South Carolina, that if any blood was shed there in opposition to the laws of the United States he would hang the guilty ones upon the first tree he came to. ~ Such decisive utterances did much for the Union at this time. It must be remembered that the Union spirit was a thing of growth and was by no means as strong in Jackson’s time as it is today. . 275. Jackson Vetoes the Recharter of the United States Banks. President Jackson disliked the United States bank; he had doubts as to whether the government had power to establish such a bank. The charter of the United States bank was to expire in 1836. Jackson was determined to destroy this bank, for its managers were his political enemies. He declared the bank was a monopoly, and that its stock was owned by a few hundred wealthy men, and a number of for- eign.capitalists abroad. When the friends of the bank wanted a new charter and the bill went to Jackson, he vetoed it. Con- gress was not able to pass the bill over his veto, and the bank ceased to exist. Jackson ordered the government money to be taken out and put in State banks, nicknamed “pet banks,” _ for these State banks were managed by his political friends. 276. Reelected in 1832. In the election of 1832, the United States Bank was the chief political issue, but the personality of Jackson himself was in reality the main issue. He*was the Democratic candidate, Henry Clay, the Republican, and William Wirt of Virginia the candidate for the Anti-Masonic Party. Jackson received two hundred nine- teen votes to forty-nine for Clay, thus giving him an overwhelm- ing majority. ° | 277. Compromise Tariff of 1833, In 1832, a law was passed abolishing the tariff of abomina- tions, and caused the schedule to return to much the same as it was in 1824. It was to become effective March 3, 1833. But the “ passage of this law but further incensed the South. They saw the Government ‘had no idea of abolishing the tariff entirely, so led on by Calhoun, a convention met at Columbia, South Carolina, and declared the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void within the state. In the event that the Government tried to enforce the law, the State would withdraw from the Union. 30 FIRST QUARTER When the President saw that South Carolina meant to use force to resist the laws, he sent orders.to the collector of customs at Charleston, South Carolina, to collect all duties, by force if necessary. In January, 1833, Congress passed a law giving him the use of the Army and Navy to protect the collectors of revenue. This was known as the Force Bill and became a law March 1, 1833. South Carolina also made ready for the conflict. Hayne was elected Governor and the state was made ready for war.. At this — point, Henry Clay stepped in and succeeded in having the tariffs reduced, such reduction to take place March 2, one day before the tariff law of 1832 was to go into effect. This compromise - seemed satisfactory to both sides. The South had gained a re- duction in tariffs and Jackson had “executed the laws of the United States.” It at least had kept the rights of nullification from being recognized. FINANCIAL MATTERS. 278. Surplus Removed from the United States Banks. Jackson was from the beginning unfriendly to the United States Bank. In the campaign of 1832, it threw its influence to his opponent, and after his re-election he drew out the surplus and distributed it among various small banks, and ordered that no further deposits should be made in the United States Bank. 279. The ‘‘Pet’’ Banks or State Banks. The ‘“Pet” Banks or state banks were the ones selected by Jackson as the ones where the funds from the United States Bank should be deposited. Jackson removed nearly $10,000,000 from. the United States Bank, and this, together with about $30,000,000 more was deposited in a number of small banks, owned by his friends. In 1836, the charter of the United States Bank came to an end, and it was later reorganized as a State Bank under the laws of Pennsylvania. 280. United States out of Debt. At the time that the question of nullification was settled in South Carolina in 1833, we were a very prosperous nation and . did not owe one cent of public debt. - 281. Government’s Surplus Deposited with the Several States. Altogether about $40,000,000 were deposited in the various state banks, when Jackson decided to end the United States Bank. It was put in banks owned or managed by Jackson’s friends and proved very profitable to them because they could lend it in small — sums for enormous rates of interest. < w FIRST QUARTER ; 31 282. The ‘‘Specie Circular.’’ Jackson’s policy led to bad banking. Many.banks started up with scarcely no capital; the ease with which people could borrow money led to great speculation; in fact, almost every- body was borrowing paper money from the banks and specu- lating. Great sims of irredeemable paper money were issued. Jackson, seing how the country was flooded with “cheap paper money,” issued his “specie circular,” which demanded that public lands should be paid for in gold and silver. The gold and silver was soon gathered into the United States Treasury, and in order to get the gold and silver with which to buy lands, the speculators called upon the banks to redeem their notes. Many banks were unable to do so, and the money became scarce, merchants failed, the price of cotton fell, and a panic swept over the country. It was one of the most painful crisis in our financial history. _The majority of the people were not Satisfied that the government should keep its money in State banks, but just what should be done with it was a question to be settled. President Van Buren pro- posed the Sub-Treasury system, which called for the estab- lishment of a Treasury at Washington, with subordinate Treasuries in other large cities. This plan became a law in 1840. It was repealed in 1841, again adopted in 1846, and is still in force. The government built the chief Treasury at Washington, and the smaller Treasuries at New York, Boston, Charleston, Chicago, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, San Francisco, New Orleans, and Baltimore. All the money that was received by the government collectors was to be paid over to the officers of these Treasuries, who were to pay it out whenever ordered to do so by the Treasury Department at Washington. This excellent system is still in force. 283. Slavery Petitions. The Missouri Compromise was supposed to have settled the issue of slavery. Later anti-slavery agitators were aroused. Anti-slavery newspapers grew more numerous and aggressive. Now anti-slavery societies were formed. The anti-slavery people flooded the South with newspapers, pam- phlets, pictures, and handbills intending to stir up sympathy for the slaves. The southern people protested against this, saying it would cause slaves to run away or rise in insur- rection. The North continued their work and the South seeing that they could not stop this by legal means, tried illegal means to do so. In many places mobs broke up the anti-slavery meetings, and destroyed anti-slavery newspapers 32 | FIRST QUARTER and printing presses. At Alton, Illinois, a newspaper office ~ owned by Elijah Lovejoy was four times attacked, and its © owner killed by a mob while he was protecting it. The Pro- slavery people were not content yet and tried to get Congress to pass a bill excluding anti-slavery documents from the mails. The bill to close the mail to anti-slavery documents failed.—McMaster's Brief History, pp. 293, 294, 295. One of the most bitter opponents of slavery in the North was William Lloyd Garrison. He was most outspoken in his condem- nation of the Constitution of the United States and said he would gladly help to destroy the Union rather than to remain a citizen of a slave mation. He held meetings and wrote innumerable- articles and pamphlets against slavery. He also had many fol- lowers, who also wrote. These writings were sent all over the United States both. north and south, while they circulated numer- ous petitions aimed at abolishing slavery wherever it existed in the United States. Not all Northern people were in sympathy with Garrison and his followers. While they did not believe in slavery, they were not willing to create a turmoil that interefered with the routine of business in general. Hence, whenever the abolitionists, as Garrisons followers were called, held a meeting, they were apt to be set upon and mobbed. However, they did not give up the fight. Their circulars and pamphlets clogged the mails and their petitions almost swamped, Congress. Clearly something had to be done. In Congress, the Southern members succeeded in having a law passed in 1836 which said no more slavery petitions might be read. in its meetings. This was known as “the gag resolution” and against it John Quincy Adams fought with all his strength. He declared it unconstitutional to refuse the right of petition to any one on any question and so bitter was his opposition that in 1844 it was discontinued. 7 284. Presidential Election in 1836. | Due largely to Jackson’s influence, at the close of his second term as President, Martin Van Buren, a close friend of Jackson, was elected President. | In 1831; Jackson’s opponents had formed a new party known as the National Republicans, of which Henry Clay was the leader. They were the outgrowth of the old Whig Party/ but be- cause of the enemies Clay had incurred, failed in the election. Van Buren was elected in 1836, by the Democrats. No candidate received a majority of the votes for Vice-President; therefore the Senate chose Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky. Van Buren served from 1837-1841. FIRST QUARTER 33 285. Democratic Republicans and National Republicans. During Monroe’s administration, party lines were almost lost, but during Adams’ tenure of office, they were renewed. Clay and Adams’ followers called themselves National Republicans, while Jackson’s followers were called Democratic Republicans, and later as merely Democrats. The National Republicans were the outgrowth of the old Federalist Party while the Democratic Republicans represent Jefferson’s followers. 286. Van Buren Carries Out Jackson’s Policies. Van Buren had been a most ardent supporter of Jackson, and when in 1837 he became president, he began his term pledged to carry out Jackson’s policies. His administration can therefore be considered little more than a continuation of the former. When Van Buren began his term, the country was facing a grave finan- cial crisis and in 1837 the crash came. 287. _ The Panic of 1837, The panic of 1837 \ was the worst the country has ever known. paper money, and Jackson’s financial schemes. ~ Every day banks and business houses were forced to close, and the prices of neces- sities became quite out of reach of the poor. Flour rose from four dollars to eleven dollars per barrel, and corn from fifty-three cents per bushel t6"Ohe dollar fifteen. Bread riots broke otit in the East, and the President calted a special session of Congress. But the leaders could do nothing. Nearly all trade ended when banks closed and mills ceased operations. Thousands of people were without employment while the prices of even the necessities of life were exhoribtant. In two months the total business failures in New York City reached $100,000,000. One unfortunate phase of the situation was that huge sums had been borrowed by the different states from Europe, and now they were unable to meet either principal or interest. This debt amounted to about $200,000,000. Mississippi repudiated her whole debt, while seven states—Illinois, Indiana, Arkansas, Louisana, Maryland, Michigan, Pennsylvania and Florida, which was yet a territory, suspended payment of all interest. This money had been borrowed for the purpose of building roads, canals and railroads. 288. The Independent Treasury. The panic of 1837 had been caused largely by, the failure of the government’s financial schemes. When the money lent to the Pet Banks during Jackson’s administration was called in, 34 FIRST QUARTER many were unable to meet the demand. /But once that confidence ’ returned, business was resumed as usual and the Government set about taking steps to regulate banking. New York passed a law requiring all her banks to have security for all notes issued. On July 4, 1840, Congress passed the Independent Treasury Act. It provided that vaults should be provided for United States funds so that the Government would be independent of all banks. It required all the officers of the Government should give bond, and that after June 30, 1843, all payments by or to the United States should be in gold or silver. The measure was soon re- pealed, later again became a law, and is in force today. A NEW PARTY. 289. Democrats and Whigs. In 1834, when opposition to Jackson was organized into a party the National Republican Party was merged into the Whig Party. The Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison, and the Democrats nominated Van Buren, who was elected by a vote of one hundred seventy to seventy-three. But in the popular vote his majority was but 25,000. In 1840, the Whigs again nominated Harrison and the Democrats Van Buren. ; 290. Slavery Advocates Desire to Annex Texas. The present state of Texas was at one time included in the Republic of Mexico. Mexico had once been a province of Spain, but in 1821, she won her independence. Soon after Mexico became independent she gave a large grant of land to Stephen Austin, who with a number of im- migrants from the Southern states, began to make settle- ments on it. Some of these people owned slaves and took them with them. In 1829, Mexico abolished slavery, but Austin’s settlers refused to give up their slaves. Mexico, there- fore, refused to allow American immigration to Texas. Some years earlier we had settled the boundary question. The line between Louisiana and Mexico was fixed as the Sabine River (1819). President John ©. Adams in 182%, offered Mexico $1,000,000 for Texas, but Mexico refused to sell. Later, in 1829, Jackson offered Mexico $5,000,000, but Mexico again re- fused to sell. By the year 1830 there were in Texas 30,000 colonists, mostly Americans, scattered along the coast between the Sabine and Neuces rivers. This was the strip from which under the leadership of Houston, Bowie, and Crockett, they succeeded in repelling the Mexicans. They claimed all west FIRST QUARTER 35 to the Rio Grande and its sources, and north to parallel 42°, or at least five times as much as they had conquered. The Mexicans held that the land between the Neuces and Rio Grande had never been part of Texas; but later President Polk insisted that when we annexed Texas we annexed all that Texas claimed. The Mexican government and the people of Texas could not get along with each other; finally Texas being dissatisfied with the oppressive Mexican government, revolted in 1833, and in 1835 the Texans rose in a mass and drove out the Mexicans after hard fighting and proclaimed a republic in 1836, and modeled it after United States. In 1837, United States, England, France, and Belgium acknowledged her in- dependence. Soon after gaining her independence, Texas asked to be admitted into our Union, for many of her in- habitants thought the Texas government inefficient, and besides many were Americans and it was natural that they should want to be annexed to the United States. The constitu- tion of Texas allowed slavery, and of course this admission would bring about an angry discussion between the North ~ and South. The fertile lands of Texas soon attracted many people, and it is said that within seven years twelve thousand Ameri- cans were living in Texas. In the campaign of 1844, the annexation of Texas became an issue. The Democrats nominated Polk, and declared that we should annex Texas. They believed that we had bought Texas from Napoleon in 1803, and so used the term “reannexation of Texas.” Henry Clay, who was nominated by the Whigs, would probably have been elected had he kept still about Texas; but he also professed to believe in the annexation and lost many North- erm votes. When the election was over, it was found that Polk was elected. | In the election of Pope, the Expansionists won a victory. The question of annexing Texas now came before the Con- gress. Two questions now arose. The North at once saw that - if Texas was annexed that it would add a large Territory to slavery. The South wanted it annexed for they wanted as much slavé area as was possible to get. The United States was well aware that Mexico would never willingly part with it, and that its annexation would bring on a war with Mexico. President Tyler wanted it annexed and pushed it with all his might. The question now came up again just a few days before the expiration of Tyler’s term. It was left to a vote. A majority of each house must vote for it before it could be 36 FIRST QUARTER annexed. The vote carried and Texas was annexed March 1, 1845. It was the last slave state to enter the Union. Fe etl \ 291. Development of the West. i aes On account of the struggle between the free states and the slave states for power in Congress, both sides tried to se- cure all the new territories for their cause. ) The Oregon Territory included the country west of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and between parallel 42° and 54° 40’ north. The United States laid claims to Oregon territory on the ground that Captain Gray had dis- covered the Columbia River 1792; that Lewis and Clark had explored it 1805-1806; that Astor had begun settlements there as early as 1811; that Spain had ceded it to the United States esa) England based her claims on Drake’s exploration, the third voyage of Captain Cook, and the trading posts that the. Hudson Bay Company had established: The two countries agreed in 1818 to hold it jointly for ten years. When the ten years had expired, their agreement was renewed; this time it was to continue until either country would give a year’s notice before termination. A stream of emigrants began to pour into Oregon, and it soon became evident that the people could not live in a country under two governments. At last a dispute arose, and ~ notice was served on Great Britain that joint occupancy must end within a year. Finally the controversy was settled by the treaty of 1846. The United States took all the territory north of California, including the Columbia River, to parallel 49° north. The English took all north to Alaska. The following states have been carved out of the territory - which we obtained: Oregon, Washington, and Idaho and parts of Wyoming and Montana. | In this way war was wisely averted. 292. The Log Cabin Campaign of 1840, The campaign of 1840 was destined to be a very spec- tacular one. Van Buren, of course, was renominated by the Democrats. On the Whig side, Clay was set aside and General William Henry Harrison was nominated. Although Harrison was better fitted to be a military than a civil leader, yet he swept his way into office with little difficulty. He was the popular hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe, and his followers readily adopted the slogan of “Tippecanoe and Tyler too.” A democratic leader had referred to the Whig candidate as one who would be satisfied with a log cabin, coons, and a nn FIRST QUARTER 37 barrel of cider. At once monster mass meetings and parades were held, in which were carried log cabins with coon skins and cider. Popular campaign songs, speeches, and torchlight processions were frequently held. As a result, Harrison re- - ceived two hundred sixty- -four electoral votes and Van Buren thirty. 293. The Doctrines of the Whig Party. Then, as now, the political parties bid for the votes of the people. The National Republicans, among whom were Webster and Clay, took the name of Whigs. This name was borrowed from England, where it stood for opposition to the rulers, The Whigs in the campaign of 1840 ran on the following platform: 1. Internal improvements, such as ae roads, etc., should be carried on by the Government. 2. To re-establish a United States oa 3. To protect the manufacturers of the United States by a _ high tariff. 4. Most of the Whigs wished to restrict the extension of slave territory. The Democrats declared each state should stand the expense of its own improvements, that there should be an independent treasury instead of a United States bank, that there should be ree trade—no tariff, and that each individual state should settle the slavery question within its own boundaries. 294. Death of President Harrison. Within a month from the time of his inaguration, Presi- dent Harrison died. He had reached the age of sixty-nine. John Tyler who was vice-President now took the oath of office and became President. People were very anxious to find out how _ the new leader would get along with the Whigs. 295. Tyler a Virginia Democrat. While Tyler was elected as a Whig, he was at heart a Democrat. It is not strange, therefore, that trouble arose. Clay was still the leader of the Whigs and through his advice the party now advocated the repeal of the Independent Treas- ury law, the creation of a National bank, and a new tariff. Tyler did not oppose the first two, but did oppose a high tariff. After the President had vetoed two successive bills, Clay resigned, having decided that harmony with Tyler was impossible. A tariff which the President approved was adopt- ed in 1842. Tyler was nominated for the vice-presidency by the Whigs in order to secure Southern votes and therefore make certain the election of Harrison. 38 FIRST QUARTER 296. Webster-Ashburton Treaty. For many years the boundary of the United States be- tween Maine and Canada had been in dispute. It was settled in 1842, by Daniel Webster of the United States, and Lord Ashburton of England, who fixed the boundary as it is at present. This settlement was a good thing for both countries for feeling over the matter had been very bitter with war—not an impossibility. Our northern boundary was fixed between the Lake of the Woods, Minnesota, and the Rocky Mountains, at the 49th parallel. Webster also took occasion to insist in this treaty that our flag protected our vessels against the right of search. 297. Tyler Favors Annexation of Texas. In April, 1844, the Senate rejected the petition of Texas to be admitted to the Union. Tyler and those favoring the admis- sion of the state waited until after the election of Polk, which seemed to indicate that the people in general favored the annexa- tion. March 1, 1845, a joint resolution was passed by Congress which provided for its admission. 298. Presidential Campaign of 1844. The annexation of Texas was the chief campaign issue in the election of 1844. VanBuren’ was passed by in favor of James K. Polk of Tennessee by the Democratic party, because Van Buren opposed annexation. Polk has been referred to as” “the first dark horse” in American politics. Polk was openly for — annexation. Clay was nominated by the Whigs, but made the mistake in the midst of the campaign of writing to some Southern Whigs and telling them he was not personally opposed to annexation. The radical anti-slavery men saw in Clay’s stand an attempt to. dodge the issue. They saw that if Texas was admitted, it meant ~ the extension of slavery, so they withdrew and voted for James G. Birney, who was the candidate of the Abolitionists on a ticket known as the “Liberty Party.” Their withdrawal gave the State of New York to Polk, and therefore elected him. ILLINOIS HISTORY. (1) Mlinois Admitted as a Free State. Slavery was introduced in Illinois by Phillipe Renault. When the Ordinance of 178% was passed, Article Six of - that ordinance provided: FIRST QUARTER 39 “That there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punish- ment of crimes, whereof the party shall have been duly con- victed.” Four attempts were made to get Congress to annul this sixth article. The first petition was sent to Congress in ~ January, 1796, the second in 1799, a third in 1800, and a fourth in 1802. All petitions sent to Congress to annul this sixth article came to nothing. The Ordinance of 1787 prohibited slavery in the North- west Territory and in states that were to be formed from this great body of land. According to the Ordinance of 1787, a government was organized for the Northwest Territory, and President Wash- ington appointed Gen. Arthur St. Clair as the first governor and Marietta on the Ohio River was chosen as the seat of government. In 1791, St. Clair, at the request of the Presi- dent, went to Kaskaskia, where he organized the County of St. Clair and made Cahokia its county seat. The new county included the country as far north as the Little Mackinaw Creek on the Illinois River. A sheriff, recorder of deeds, and three judges were appointed to look after the needs. of the people. Later on, in 1809, the Territory of Illinois was separated from Indiana. A territorial government was formed, with Ninian Edwards in charge as Governor. Settlers from the older states—Kentucky, Tennessee, and others—now began to come into the territory very rapidly, and by 1818 the. population had reached about 40,000. There were fifteen coun-. ties also, in 1818, and the people began to insist on being taken into the Union as a state. According to the Ordinance of 1787, a territory needed 60,000 to be eligible for statehood. It will be well to remember, however, that Congress could alter the provisions of the ordinance. This they did, and soon steps were taken to admit Illinois, with 40,000 people. Nathanial Pope, the territorial delegate in Congress, succeeded in having the northern boundary moved as far north as 42° 9’, so that Chicago and the new state might embrace a part of Lake Michigan. In the summer of 1818, a constiutional convention, con- sisting of thirty-three delegates, met at Kaskaskia, and drew up a brief constitution, resembling that of ‘Kentucky and Tennessee. It provided for the following elective officers only: Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Sheriff, Coroner, and County Commissioners. Of course members of the General 40 FIRST QUARTER \ Assembly were to be elected by the people. Since that time the state has had several new constitutions. Having fulfilled all the requirements, Illinois was ad- mitted to the Union, December 3, 1818. Most people did not approve of slavery, but some of the set- tlers had come from the South, and brought their negroes with them. Naturally they wished to continue the practice. It was per- haps due to James Madison that this element did not secure the repeal of the clause in the ordinance of 1787 that prohibited slay- ery. In 1818 the state was admitted as a free state but with bitter opposition from the slave owners. The feeling had not died out in 1822, when Edward Coles, a strong anti-slavery man, though a native of Virginia was elected governor. He urged the General Assembly to repeal the stringent black laws, and to free the slaves of the French settlers, who still held their blacks in bondage. The fight to make Illinois a slave state still continued, and an attempt was made to amend the constitution, by submitting it to a vote of the people. During the eighteen months before the election everyone joined in the strife. Families were divided, even per- sonal altercations were not uncommon. “Friends of freedom” organized themselves into anti-slavery societies, wnile Governor Cole gave his entire year’s salary, $4,000, to ‘aid in the fight. When voting day came, every elegible voter in the state went to the polls, but slavery was defeated by 1,800 majority. Many consider this the most important election ever held in Illinois. At least it settled for all time the question of slavery in the state, and feeling in the matter now died out so rapidly that within a year’s time, few would admit that they had formerly belonged to the | losing side. (a) Some Territorial Laws. ~ When in 1809 the territory of Illinois was [cone from that of Indiana, Ninian Edwards of Kentucky was made Gov- ernor of the new territory. Two things now led to the rapid settlement of this country. The first was the peace with the Indians that came after the war of 1812, and the second was an act of Congress in 1813, which gave the new settler a right to hold any piece of land upon which he had made improvements. - That is, he had first right to purchase the land from the govern- ment. This was called the “right of preemption”. No other would be purchaser had the right to buy this particular tract, until the first settler had been given the right to do so. In the purchase of this land, often skins of various animals, was ac- cepted in lieu of money. oe FIRST QUARTER 41 (b) Territorial Banks. In 1816 the first territorial bank was established at Shawnee- town and was known as the “Bank of Illinois.” The next year, * similar ones were opened at Edwardsville and Kaskaskia. (c) Services of Nathaniel Pope. Among the names of men, who did much for the new state of Illinois must be mentioned Nathaniel Pope. Pope was a man who thoroughly understood the needs of the territory, and it was a wise choice which sent him to Congress as the territorial dele- gate. It is due Judge Pope, that certain very wise amendments _ were made to the bill which admitted Illinois to the Union as a — state. ene have aes Se to thank for many of the school advantages they have today. This amendment specified that three-fifths of the five per cent fund from the sale of public lands should be given for use in “the encouragement af education” and of this sum one- sixth should be used for the founding of a university or state col- lege. Another amendment which gave us the location of Chicago, provided that the northern boundary should be extended to the parallel of 42 degrees and 9 minutes north latitude. This included about fifty miles more northern land than that given by the Ordi- nance of 1787. Judge Pope urged this because he said it was most necessary for the commercial development of the state that we have a part of Lake Michigan. But a glance at Chicago and the surrounding land, shows the great wisdom of Judge Pope. . Had this land not been included, Chicago would have been in Wisconsin. It also gave us Galena, the home of Grant, and the votes of the fourteen counties formed by this strip gave the Re publican party control in Illinois in’ 1856, and made certain th candidacy of Abraham Lincoln for President. (d) Making the State’s First Constitution. In all, Illinois had three constitutions. The first was made in 1818—the second in 1848, and the third in 1870. The first constitution was drafted in Kaskaskia in July, 1818, by thirty-three delegates who met for that purpose. Most of the men were farmers, but shrewd and withmore or less experience in public business. It was a short affair, consisting of but eight articles, these based largely on the state constitutions of Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky. No salaries were fixed but a limit of $1,000 per year was put on that for the Governor, and $600 for the Secretary of State. 42 FIRST QUARTER J Most of the state officers were to be appointed by the Governor or the General Assembly. The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Sheriff, Coroner, and County Commissioners were the only ones elected by popular vote. After finishing their work the commission disbanded Augie 26, 1818. (e) The Status of Slavery in Illinois. In 1619, the first slaves were brought to America by a Dutch trader. These were sold to Virginia planters and proved very profitable. In 1721, Philip Renault, a Frenchman, bought 500 negroes in San Domingo and brought them to Ft. Chartres. south of Cahokia. A commercial company at this point, expected to open up gold and silver mines, and expected to use the slaves to work them. But, no gold or silver mines were located, so the negroes were sold to the French settlers already there. All the French held slaves of later date were descendants from these first brought from San Domingo. But slavery never gained any great foothold in Illinois and as late as 1820, there were less than a thousand in the whole state. (f) The State Admitted. The state constitution was completed August 26, 1818 and on December 3, 1818, the territory of Illinois was admitted as a new state of the Union. It came in as a free state, but under bitter protest from the slave-owning members. (g) Organization of the State Government. The first constitution provided for the election of the Gov- ernor, Lieutenant Governor, Sheriff, Coronor,.and County Com- missioners by popular vote. Other ‘officers were selected by the Governor or the General Assembly. The veto power was given to a “Council of Revision” which consisted of the Governor and the judges of the Supreme Court. This constitution though poorly suited to the needs of the new state was in force till 1848. SECOND QUARTER 43 SECOND QUARTER {rn _ 299. Slavery Problem Not Settled by the Missouri Compromise. Most people believed that when the Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820, that the question of slavery was settled for- ever, but that forever was but a short time—twenty-five, years in this case, for in 1845, there came the question of the annexation of Texas, in 1846-8, the question of the Wilmot Proviso, then the compromise of 1850, and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. Each will be discussed later. 300. Benjamin Lundy, the Pioneer Abolitionist. In 1829, when Jackson became President the question of slavery had reached a stage when it was attracting the attention - of many more or less seriously. But few had made a personal issue of the question. Among these was Benjamin Lundy, a New Jersey Quaker, who had begun to travel all over the country ‘foot or horseback to talk against the institution of human servi- tude. He published a journal “The Genuis of Universal Eman- ‘cipation” which he edited at his own expense and distributed as he went from place to place. To his efforts is due largely the fact _ that William Lloyd Garrison, a young editor, became interested in the cause. 301. William Lloyd Garrison Founds the Liberator. Sentiment against slavery became very pronounced in tthe North. Some of the states passed laws freeing their slaves. ‘Of the original thirteen states the following took this action: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, and New York. Anti-slavery societies began to be formed here and there. William Lloyd Garrison, who advocated the abolition of slavery, began the publication of an anti-slavery paper, called the “Liberator,” in which he contended for enfranchisement of our negro population. In 1832, he also organized the New England Anti-Slavery Society and later the American Anti-Slavery Society. There was, however, much opposition to his theories, even in the North, and he was dragged through the streets of Boston and almost killed by a mob. &. ; ‘ 4 ew i é sj 8 Be A HOUSE DIVIDED AGAINST ITSELF CANNOT STAND. * on 44 SECOND QUARTER ! 302. Nat Turner’s Insurrection. " In 1831, Nat Turner, a negro, raised a band of blacks who rose in Virginia against their masters, and killed sixty white men, women and children. This really alarmed the Southern slave owners who felt that the agitators up North were really instigat- ing wholesale killing of the Southern whites. This caused them to protest even more vigorously against permitting abolition papers being carried by the mails. . 303. The Assassination of Lovejoy. Rev. E. P. Lovejoy was a young school teacher who later learned to preach the Gospel, and afterwards edited and pub- lished a religious paper which finally became an anti-slavery paper. He moved from’St. Louis to Alton. As soon as his printing press landed at Alton, it was seized by a mob of pro-slavery people and destroyed. He obtained another and after using it about a year it was destroyed. Not to be dis-. couraged so easily, he obtained a third, but it, too, was de- stroyed. Not yet to be outdone, he obtained a fourth and stored it in a warehouse, where it was guarded by some of his friends. A mob attacked the warehouse, fired several shots, and finally set fire to the building. Lovejoy tried to defend himself, but at last was pierced by five bullets and fell dead. . This shows how strong slavery sentiment was in Illinois at one time. The City of Alton and the State of Illinois later contrib- al. uted money, and a monument was erected at Alton to his memory. 304. Organization of Anti-Slavery Societies. | In 1833, at Philadelphia, was formed the American Parties :? Slavery Society. Its leaders were Garrison and Whittier. Their beliefs as butlined in their declaration of principles, marks an important movement in United States history for they were the beliefs that finally led to the dissolution of the Union and the Civil War. This was but one of many similar societies formed each demanding that Congress should abolish slavery in the territories and the District of Columbia, should stop inter- slave trade, and that no more slave states should be admitted to the Union. They planned to organize other societies, talk scene slavery through the press, and from the pulpit, and use any awful means - to put an end to the human traffic. a 305. Great Men Who Opposed Slavery. Among the great men who opposed slavery were Garrison, John G. Whittier, James Russell Lowell, Wendell Phillips, James ee cena pert SECOND QUARTER 45 G. Birney, William Ellery Channing, Horace Greeley, Daniel Webster. st Hi, ss WO TS Be ye 806. The Gag Rule and the Old Man Eloquent. ber After retiring from the Presidency, John Quincy Adams was elected in 1831 to the lower House of Congress. Here he ~ remained working deligently till his death in 1848. During this time he devoted practically all his energies to a defense of the people’s right to petition Congress, and to have the petition read and acted upon. Adams was not really an abolitionist, but in the case of these petitions, he of necessity espoused this side. He referred to the efforts of the pro-slavery people to refuse the right of petition as mere “gag rules’. Feeling among the pro-slavery followers became very strong against Adams, and an unsuccess- ful effort was made to rid the House of him, Adams even went so far as to make the assertion that Congress could abolish slavery on the ground that it was a military necessity. Trying as was Adams’ position, he continued the fight until the “gag policy” was _ abandoned in 1844. 307. The Admission of Texas. Texas was annexed by the United States, March 1, 1845, a few days before Tyler’s term of office expired, but was not ad- mitted to the union until December 29, of the same year, 1845. 308. The Oregon Question Settled. - The controversy with Great Britain over the joint occu- pation of Oregon was settled by treaty in 1846. The United | States took all the territory north of California, including the Vc Columbia River to parallel 49° north. The English took all 7 north of 49° to Alaska. The following states have been carved out of the territory which we obtained: Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of Wyoming and Montana. We Were for- tunate in the peaceful settlement of the matter. a WAR WITH MEXICO. 309. The Dispute About the Boundary of Texas. Mexico insisted that thé western boundary of Texas should be at the Rio Nueces River. Texas insisted it was at the Rio Grande. Polk sent General Zachery Taylor to the northern bank of the Rio Grande to defend our possessions. Thereupon the Mexicans declared their land had been invaded and fired upon our troops. or ait | 310. The ‘‘Army of Occupation.’’ : _ The settlement of the boundary of Texas was not the \e chief reason for war with Mexico. Many Americans were 4 3 46 SECOND QUARTER determined to have no other western boundary for the United States than the Pacific- Ocean. Early in the war, General Kearney was sent to conquer New Mexico and California, a thinly settled part of the Mexican republic. Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, was taken without a struggle, and New Mexico was declared a part of the United States. Gen- eral Kearney at once pushed on into California. The Americans living there had set up a government for themselves as soon as they heard of the war with Mexico. They called this the “Bear Flag Republic.” The United States had placed warships off the coast ready to take ad- vantage of any excuse for seizing California.. It was thought that Great Britain and France both meant to seize that region if they could, so when the war with Mexico began Commo- dore Stockton, commander of the Pacific squadron, demanded the surrender of Monterey, San Francisco, and other ports. All were given up without opposition.—Eggleston, pp. 276, 277. In 1845 General John C. Fremont had led an exploring expedition to California. Fortunately, he had a band of men under his command, and he gave effective assistance to” ~ Kearney and Stockton. 311. General Taylor on the Rio Grande. General Taylor started on his campaign from Palo Alto, here he defeated the Mexicans. They moved to Resaca dé la Palma; at this place, Taylor .overtook them and they were ~ defeated again. ‘They then crossed the Rio Grande River, and was again met by Taylor at Matamoras and defeated. All this happened before war had been declared. After war had been declared, Taylor moved on to Monte- rey, where he met a force much larger than his.own and after fighting four days the Mexicans surrendered. The next year February 27, 1847, Santa Anna led a force against Taylor at Buena Vista; after an all day’s fight Santa Anna was defeated. Note.—Have pupils draw a map of Mexico and show Taylor's campaign. 312. Generai Scott’s March to Mexico City. General Scott’s object was to take Mexico City, which was the Mexican capital. He landed at Vera Cruz and after fighting nine days the stronghold was taken. He then marched toward the city of Mexico, all went well until he reached the mountain pass of Cerro ‘Gordo, where Santa Anna with about fifteen thousand men was waiting for him. A terrible battle was fought in which the Americans were victorious. Small SECOND QUARTER 47 battles were fought at Contreras, Churubusco, and San An- tonio, the Americans winning ‘them all. They were now close to Mexico City; around the city were small forts and these were held by about thirty thousand Mexicans. General Scott’s # army numbered about ten thousand. After terrific fighting the Mexicans were driven from the forts and the Mexican capital was taken. This ended the war. % - $13. The Treaty of Peace. bee February 2, 1848, the Treaty of Peace was signed at Guada- loupe Hidalgo. By it, we obtained nearly a million of square miles, the territory of California and New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming, also “undisputed possession of Texas. We paid Mexico $15, 000,000 for the terri- tory, besides assuming about $3,000,000 in claims held against her by the people of Texas. The war had cost about $100,000,000 and 13,000 lives. 314. Importance of the Territory Acquired. By the treaty with Mexico, we acquired over 800,000 square miles. It was our fifth national expansion and many at the time complained that Texas simply meant “taxes.’”’ However, today _ the assessed value of Texas alone is fifty times greater than the cost of the whole Mexican land payment. Perhaps greatest good resulting from the transaction was that it gave us California, _ therefore a nation that stretched from ocean to ocean. In 1853, asp we gained control of another tract of land just south of the Gila River for $10,000,000 by an agreement known as the Gadsden Purchase. — 315. The Wilmot Proviso. David Wilmot was a Pennsylvania Democrat, and a rep- resentative in Congress from that State. He offered a bill in Congress prohibiting slavery in any of the territory which we acquired from Mexico. The bill passed the House of Repre- sentatives but failed to pass the Senate, hence it did not be- come a law, but brought up an angry discussion of the slavery question. ' DEBATES AND COMPROMISES. 316. The Presidential Campaign of 1848. Gen. Taylor was elected President by the Whigs over the Democrat candidate Louis Cass, and Martin Van Buren, the F. ree Soil candidate. e : 48 SECOND QUARTER In the compaign of 1848, slavery in the territories, was the principal question. ‘The Democrats nominated Lewis Cass of Michigan for President and William Butler of Kentucky for Vice- President. But the party was divided on the slavery question, for those who were anti-slavery men wished to adopt the Wilmot Proviso as one of its principles, but were opposed in this by the slave owing Democrats of the South. Nothing was mentioned in the final party platform about slavery. The Whigs were equally as‘seriously divided. General Tay- lor had been nominated as their candidate for President and Mil- © lard Fillmore of New York as Vice-President. Many doubted that Taylor was a Whig at heart. He was also a slave owner. Like the Democrats, the Northern Whigs wanted to adopt the Wilmot Proviso, the Southern Whigs refused to do so. There- fore, the radical slavery men among the Whigs revolted and with the radical Democrats formed the Free Soil Party. They nomin- ated Van Buren as their candidate for President and Chas. Fran- ces Adams, son of John Quincy Adams, for Vice-President. ag John P. Hale had been nominated by the Liberty Party for — President but he later withdrew and turned his support to Van- Buren and Adams. They polled 293,000 votes in the election over 100,000 of which were from New York. This gave New York to Taylor, and thus won him the election. ine eh 317. Discovery of Gold in California. Gold was discovered in California in February, 1848, by James Marshall. The news of this aroused the civilized world, and people flocked to California from all quarters of the globe. They left their work and rushed to California, expecting to get immensely rich. So many people settled there that in 1849 it demanded admission as a free state. California, never was a territory. _ All classes of people rushed to the gold fields. Farmers, - soldiers, sailors, preachers, doctors, and lawyers. Bad men as well as good rushed to California, and many times the miners were robbed by these desperadoes. At last the citi- zens organized themselves into “Vigilance Committees” for the purpose of keeping down crime. 318. California Seeks Admission into the Union. _ A few days before peace was declared in Mexico, gold was discovered in California, January 19, 1848. Immediately hords flocked from all quarters of the earth to hunt for the precious ore. By the summer of 1849, so great had been the invasion, that Cali- fornia had a population of over 100,000, while San Francisco had 20,000. As might be expected, many of the newcomers were - SECOND QUARTER 49 men of the worst type and at first lynch law was the only law recognized. However, soon concerted efforts were made to organize a state and in September, 1849, with General Riley as military governor, a convention of delegates met, and drew up the plans for a new state. In their constitution, they opposed slavery, and prohibited it within the boundary of the state, and in the fall of the same year, 1849, applied for admission to the Union. a Naturally their petition was opposed by the South. They ‘ argued that California should be first formed into a territory, then the people should decide about the slavery question before it was admitted. They realized that if California was admitted as a free state, it would break the balance in the Senate, for there was no Southern state ready to come into the Union as a slave state. Iowa had been admitted in 1846 as a free state to offset the admission of Texas in 1845; while Wisconsin in 1848 had evened up the score of Florida, admitted 1845. But there was no pros- pect of any slave state being ready for admission any ways soon, so the South opposed the admission of California bitterly. Of course, the anti-slavery men of the North as warmly favored it. 319, Serious Problems Before Congress. A number of very serious problems now came up in Con- gress. We may state them as follows: 1. Should slave-holders be permitted to take their slaves into any and all parts of the new territory acquired from ‘Mexico? } 2. Should California come in as a free state? 8. Should slavery be abolished in the District of Co- lumbia? 4. Should Congress adopt a new law demanding the re- turn of fugitive slaves? 5. Interstate slave trade. ’ : 6. Boundary of Texas. Texas was putting forth her claims to a large share of New Mexico and Congress was puzzled to know whether to allow her claims or not. . By far the most difficult of these problems was the question of slavery in the territories. The Mexican War had been largely responsible for the recurrence of this question for by the treaty of peace we acquired 800,000 square miles of new territory. Had | the Wilmot Proviso passed, it would have excluded slavery from this region. Many felt that the Missouri boundary 36° 30’ should _ be extended to the Pacific, making all north of the line free and 4ll south of the line slave states. This plan was favored by Polk and would have satisfied the majority of the slave owners of the South. The more radical element of the South, led by Calhoun, , . * 50 SECOND QUARTER however, insisted that Congress should protect the slave interests in all territories, for the territories till they became states, were the property of the Government, hence owned by the South as well as the North. 320. The Great Debates. This was the situation when Taylor in 1849 was ingneuree President. He was a Southerner and a slave owner, but he did 7 not wish to see slave territory extended unless the people so wished. Henry Clay, the Great Pacificator, now urged his com- promise. This he believed the only safe thing to do, for he saw the Union was in danger. He spoke time and again, urging mod- eration and compromise from both sides. Calhoun, long an ardent defender of slavery, spoke for the South. The hand of death was even them upon him, and his. . speech was read by Senator Mason of Virginia. Like Clay, he - forsaw the time when the Union would be imperiled by the slavery question.. He argued that the South must have equal rights in the territories with the North. He demanded that fugi- tive slaves be returned to their owners, and that the North cease to agitate the slavery question. He saw that the South was no | longer equal to the North either in population or wealth, but that she must remain equal in political power if she remained in the Union. This speech of Calhoun was followed by Webster’s famous “Seventh of March Speech.” He said little about slavery, but. blamed the Abolitionists of the North more than he blamed the’ planters of the South for the sectional strife that had arisen. Webster’s speech was bitterly condemned by his anti-slavery friends. But as Webster saw the need, it was to save the Union, not to destroy slavery. Not till a decade later did people recog- nize his wisdom. His influence helped to secure the passage of © the Corhpromise of 1850, and thus postpone the war for more than ten years. * Seward spoke for the anti-slavery element of the North. He opposed the Fugitive Slave Law, and insisted on arg in the District of Columbia. 321. Death of President Taylor. At the time of the discussion of the Compromise of 1850, the great leaders—Webster, Clay, and Calhoun—were prac- tically ending their brilliant careers. When Clay offered the terms of the compromise and delivered his great speech, he was seventy-three years of age and physically weak. He, however, showed great mental power still. Calhoun spoke for the South in what proved to be his last speech. He was so if t} — SECOND QUARTER 61 feeble that his speech had to be read by Senator Mason, of Virginia. He thought, in order to save the Union, it would be necessary to amend the Constitution, and have two presi- dents—one for the Free states and one for the Slave states. Before any bill could become a law, it would have to be signed by both Presidents. This speech was delivered March 4, 1850. He died a short time afterwards. On the seventh of March, Webster followed with a speech in the Senate. He spoke for the Union, but denounced the Abolitionists, saying that they did nothing but harm. He apologized for slavery and said that the South had more room to complain than the North. The speech was probably the outgrowth of his fear of secession, but the North regarded him as a traitor. This was practically the end of his career. Both Webster and Clay died in 1852. New leaders, however, were at hand—Sumner, Seward, Davis, Douglas, and Lincoln. July 9, 1850 President Taylor died. His death came in the midst of the debate on the Fugitive Slave Law. He was suc- ceeded by Vice-President Fillmore. oP, ee a ne Iv AD 322. The Compromise Measure Passed. <——- The question of the admission of California into the Union was growing warmer and warmer. Finally, Henry Clay de- vised a plan, which has ever since been known as the “Com- promise of 1850.” Five bills were passed by Congress which was believed would settle the trouble over slavery. They were: 1. California was admitted as a free state. 2. New Mexico and Utah were given territorial govern- -ments without restriction as to slavery. 3. A law was passed to provide for the arrest and return of fugitive slaves. 4, The slave trade in the District of Columbia was abolished. , 5. A Fugitive Slave Law, stringent enough to satisfy the South was passed. i 323.. The Fugitive Slave Law. The Compromise of 1850 failed to bring about hoped for harmony. Neither side was really satisfied. Especially was this true of the North. It was at the Fugitive Slave Law that the real balk came. Under the old law, owners had had to search out and return their own runaway slaves. Now, by the law of 1850, United States officers were compelled to give their aid. They resented seeing federal officers come into their free towns, seize, handcuff, and drag away some negro who was given no bs aN * ~~ 52 SECOND QUARTER chance to prove whether he was or was not the person sought. _ Many people who before had no strong convictions on the ques- tion of slavery, now became bitter opponents of the institution. 324, The Underground Railway. One of the most difficult things to do is to force people by a, law to do something they do not wish to do. It will very often cause people who were in the beginning but mildly opposed to a measure to become bitter partisans against it. This was just what happened to the case of the Fugitive Slave Law. Many who before had been passive in their opposition now became active, and aided in helping negroes escape from their masters and get to Canada. Agents were sent to the South, who brought slaves up North where they were passed from family to family, hidden during the day time and carried at night toward Canada. This was known as the Underground Railway, and the pfaces where the fugitives were hidden during the day were bailed : stations. 325. Uncle Tom’s Cabin. In 1852, there was published a novel by Harriet Beater Stowe, called “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” which many historians give as one of the causes which brought on the Civil War. This may be overstating the case, but it is true that no other one thing so aroused the-North at this time as did this book. It was read, quoted, and dramatized in every city, town and village in the North. The South was also aroused by the book. They declared it a silly misrepresentation of facts, but it served its purpose and aroused both sections to a point where a clash was eminent. 326. Presidential Campaign of 1852. Pag By the time of the 1852 campaign, many of the anti-slavery men who had left the old parties—the Whigs and Democrats, returned. In 1840, there had been formed a party called the Cesty Paten.” James C. Birney was their candidate and polled 7,000 votes. In 1844, he again was their candidate and polled 62 000. In 1848, the Free Soil Party was formed and nominated Martin Van Buren for President. Their vote this time was almost 300,000. But in the campaign of 1852 the Free Soil Party nomi- . nated John P. Hale of New York, and the vote fell to about Bele of the 1848 vote. Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire and William R. King oe Alabama were the Democratic candidates, while General Win- field S. Scott of Virginia and William A. Graham of North / SECOND QUARTER 53 Carolina were the Whig candidates. John P. Hale of New _ Hampshire and George W. Julian of Indiana were the Free Soil candidates. Pierce was elected. The Whigs were so thoroughly beaten that they never again appeared as a party. ~ \ THE IRREPRESSIBLE CONFLICT. 327. Attempts to Acquire Cuba by Purchase. The Southern states wanted Cuba, which equals in area Pennsylvania. It is just off our coast at Key West, Florida. In ‘1845, the United States offered Spain $100,000,000 for the island, but it was refused. Later, armed forces tried to sieze the island for the South. In 1854, the American ministers then stationed in Great Britain, France and Spain, met at Ostend, in Belgium, to discuss the Cuban situation. They declared that the situation in Cuba was a menace to the United States and if Spain persisted in refusing to sell the island to us, we would have good ground for taking it by force. 328, Personal Liberty Laws, Personal Liberty Laws were passed as early as 1840 in many Northern states. These laws insisted that negroes should not be kidnapped and carried into slavery without due trial. They were . intended to frustrate the Fugitive Slave Law>~™ IGS ¢ be of 329. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. - Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, offered a bill in Conve organizing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Slavery at this time was uppermost in the people’s mind. In regard to slavery in these territories, Stephen A. Douglas advocated _ the doctrine of “Squatter Sovereignty.” This meant that the _ people in these territories could decide for themselves whether they wanted slavery or not. This greatly surprised and an- gered the Northern people. They argued that it would repeal the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The Missouri Compro- _ mise had shut slavery out of all territory north of 36° 30’, and Kansas and Nebraska were both north. In spite of all the opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska bill, it became a law in 1854. It repealed the Missouri Compromise. Douglas claimed _ that the Compromise of 1850 said the territories of Utah and New Mexico were to decide the question of slavery them- selves, then Kansas and Nebraska should have the same privi- lege. It is not known why Douglas took this course, probably he believed his measure would take the slavery question out of the hands of Congress, and give it to the people to settle. 64 SECOND QUARTER 330. The New Party—The Anti-Nebraska Party. A meeting of Anti-Nebraska editors took place at Decatur, Illinois. Eleven editors took part in the meeting, and before they adjourned they appointed a State Central Committee, which was to meet at Bloomington, Illinois, in May, 1856. At this meeting Lincoln made his famous speech which brought him before the public as a possible candidate for the Presi- dency. It might be said from these eleven editors sprang the Republican Party. This Republican Party was made up of anti-slavery they called themselves “Anti-Nebraska” men, but later when their party was organized they took the name “Republicans.” Very few men will change over from one political party to another that has been in existence for some time; conse- quently it would have been folly to attempt to unite under one of the old names; they all carried with them associations more » or less distasteful to members of the other parties. So a new name was necessary, and in the name “Republican,” they made a most fortunate choice. This was the name of the party of Jefferson that had been so popular in its day. By taking its name they proclaimed that they were returning to the prin- _ ciples of Jefferson and true democracy, and no other name that they could have chosen would have appealed so strongly to the masses of the people. If ever there was magic in a name, there was in this. In the first year of its existence, it had majorities in fifteen of the States, and one hundred and seventeen members in Congress. ne | In their platform, they opposed the repeal of the Missouri - Compromise, the extension of slavery, favored the admission of Kansas as a free state, also favored the Pacific railroad and other internal improvements. In 1856’ the Republicans nominated John C. Fremont for President, the Whigs nominated Millard Fillmore, and the Democrats nominated James Buchanan. At the election Fre- mont received 114 electoral votes, Fillmore 8, Buchanan 174. 331. Bleeding Kansas. As any one might suppose the Kansas-Nebraska Bill gave .. the Sotithern people an opportunity to try to win Kansas and Nebraska for slave states. The Northern people would try just as hard to win them for free states. As soon as President Pierce had signed the bill making . it a law, the people began to pour into the new territory. The slavery people made the start and came from Missouri, and SECOND QUARTER 55 had their headquarters at Lecompton and Leavenworth. In a short time the Northern people from Boston sent out emi- grants. They had their headquarters at Lawrence and To- peka. The pro-slavery people of Lecompton formed a State Constitution and established slavery. The anti-slavery people of Topeka formed a Free State Constitution, which was easily ratified because the pro-salvery people would not vote on it. The people of Kansas were to decide whether it was to be a slave or free state. The election of members of the territorial legislature took place in March, 1854. If the legislature should have a majority of the free state men, Kansas would be a free state; if it had a majority of slave state men it would then be a slave state. The pro-slavery men were So anxious to win Kansas for a slave state that unfair means were used. At the election, men from Missouri came into Kansas and voted, and it is said that when the votes were counted there were more ballots than voters. After several years of hard struggle, the free settlers had increased in Kansas, and after asking Congress several times to be admitted as a free state, it was not until 1861 that its request was granted, and Kansas came into our Union as 7 free state. ut during the years 1854 to 1861 Kansas was really a battle ground for the contending forces. It really amounted to Civil War in the territory, and soon fully deserved the name by which it was known for years—Bleeding Kansas. The “border ruffians,”’ as the pro-slavery element was called, contended for supremacy with the anti-slave element known as the New England Emigrant Aid Society. By the beginning of 1856 there were two rival governments in Kansas—each claiming to be the legal representatives of the people. Though the free-state government had the majority of the Kansas people backing it, President Pierce and the Territorial Governor recognized the slave-state government. When in March, 1856, the free state legislature met, elected two senators to the United States Senate and asked to be admitted to the Union, it brought up before Congress again the whole question of slavery. asc veer? 332. The Dred Scott Decision. Dred Scott was a negro slave, and the son of slave par- ents. His master had taken him from Missouri, which was a slave state, into Illinois, which was a free state. Dred Scott and his master then moved to Minnesota. This was a free territory, being made free by the Missouri Compromise. Then 56 SECOND QUARTER they moved back to Missouri. There he was sold to a new master. Dred Scott thought he had lived long enough in free territory to be a free man. He sued for his freedom. The case was tried-in the lower courts, and finally carried to the United States Supreme Court. Here Chief Justice Taney gave his decision. He announced that Scott, because he was the son of slave parents, was not an American citizen, there- fore he had no right to sue for his liberty. He also declared Congress had no right or power to prohibit slavery in_any territory; this in other words meant the Missouri Compro- mise did'not amount to anything. The decision pleased the South, but greatly angered the North. The North felt as though all the territories were now thrown open to slavery; before Taney’s decision they thought they had slavery shut cut of all the territory north of 36° 30’. 333, Presidential Campaign of 1856. February 22, 1856, the new Republican Party was formally organized at Pittsburgh. On June 17, 1856, it held its first nomi- _ nating convention at Philadelphia. and nominated John C.F re- mont for President and William L. Dayton of New Jersey for Vice President. The party did not wish to meddle with slavery in states where it already was established, but it declared Congress should pro- hibit slavery and polygamy i in the territories. It also demanded the immediate admission of Kansas as a free state. | The Know-Nothings was a party that had resulted from the split in parties in 1854. The Know-Nothings were a dan- -gerous sort of crowd, who kept their meetings secret, bound them- selves to vote only for Americans. They opposed foreigners having any voice in the government, declaring they were too much under the control of the Catholic Church. They said the church was attempting to gain control of affairs in the United States. In 1856, the Know-Nothings and the “Silver Gray” or “Old Tine” Whigs united under the name of “Americans.” They chose Ex-President Fillmore for President and Andrew J. Donelson of Tennessee for Vice President. Though they polled 874,000 votes, they carried but one state, Maryland. The Democrats chose James Buchanan of Pennsylvania for President and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky for Vice Presi- dent. Buchanan from the first stood an excellent chance-of election. Because of the stand the Republicans had taken, he - was sure to receive the undivided support of the solid South. He also would receive a good deal of support from the North, where a strong Union sentiment existed. Both the Democrats and “Americans” blamed the Republicans for selecting Northern | men for both of their candidates. SECOND QUARTER 57 Southerners opened declared that the election of Freemont would be the end of the Union. Many in the North agreed with them. Though the new Republican Party made a good cam- paign and polled 1,300,000 votes, with one hundred fourteen votes in the electoral college Buchanan won with 1,800,000 popu- lar vote, and an electoral vote of one hundred seventy-four. Fremont received only about 1,000 votes in all the South. 334, The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. Lincoln was candidate for United States Senator from Illinois on the Republican ticket. Douglas was candidate for re-election for the same office on the Democratic ticket. “ Lincoln, in a speech at Springfield, Illinois, said: “AX house divided against itself can not stand.” He also said: _ “The nation must become all one thing or all the other’; ea this, he meant that the United States could not stand with one section holding slaves, and the other section free from slaves, and that it had to be all free territory Or all slave territory. ——-~ Douglas replied to this and said: “I see that Lincoln means to fight until either the North or South is conquered. Douglas declared he was in favor of the people deciding for themselves whether they wanted slaves or not. Lincoln challenged Douglas to debate with him. Douglas accepted. These debates were to be held in seven different ,, towns: Ottawa, Freeport, Jonesboro, Charleston, Galesburg, Quincy, and Alton. The questions to be discussed were: Popular Sovereignty, Dred Scott Decision, and Extension of Slavery in the Territories. The people of Illinois became greatly excited over the debates and turned out by the thou- sands to hear them. When the votes were counted, Douglas was elected Senator, but Lincoln had won for himself a na- tional reputation. During one of the Lincoln-Douglas denne at Freeport, Il1,, Lincoln adroitly asked Douglas whether the people of a terri- tory “in any lawful way” could exclude slaves from its bor- ders before its admission to the Union. Douglas, not realizing the importance of his answer, declared that “the legislature of a territory might, by unfriendly legislation, prevent the introduction of slavery.” This has been known as the Free- port doctrine and virtually repudiated the Dred Scott De- cision. This caused Douglas to lose the support of the South in the coming Presidential election. 7 335. John Brown’s Raid. About this time occurred an event which showed quite plainly that the question of slavery could never be settled by peaceable ae casero OO 58 SECOND QUARTER means. This was a raid which John Brown made in Virginia on the 16th of October, 1859, with a following of twenty men, he seized the United States Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry in Virginia. He planned to seize the arsenal, arm the slaves, and lead them in their fight for freedom. It was a mad, rash plan—and came to naught. The slaves did not follow as he thought they would do, and Brown was captured and ten of his followers—among them his own son—were killed, and Brown was tried and convicted of treason under the laws of Virginia~and executed. Some of the » Abolitionists in the North regarded Brown as a martyr to the | cause of freedom, while his act had aroused the South to righteous indignation at this attempt to cause an insurrection among their slaves. The South now demanded that Congress pass a sedition act to prevent a recurrance of similar outrages. Many moderate men in the North condemned Brown and in 1860 the Republican Party condemned his uprising as “the gravest of crimes.” 336. The National Convention of 1860. , In the National Convention at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1860, the Democratic Party divided into a Northern and a South- ern wing, or sometimes called the Douglas and the Buchanan Wing. Lincoln, while making the race in Illinois for United . States Senator, attracted not only the attention of Illinois, but the attention of the whole nation. Although beaten for Sena- tor, by his eminent debates he made himself famous all over. the land, and was quite sure to walk on the path that led to the White House. The political parties that took part in the campaign of 1860. were: The Republican Party, whose pitti declared slavery — was wrong, and-it should not be permitted to spread into the territories, nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, for Presi- dent, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice President. The Democratic Party had split and one wing of it was called the Douglas wing, and the other was called the Bu- chanan wing. The Douglas wing in their platform declared the people of a territory were free to decide for themselves whether they wanted slavery or not. Their candidates were: Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, for President, and Herschel | Johnson, of Georgia, for Vice President. The Buchanan wing in their platform declared slavery ~ was right and a benefit to the country, and that it should ex- * tend and more slave states should be created. Their candi- dates were John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, for President, and Joseph Lane, of Oregon, for Vice President. SECOND QUARTER 59 The Constitutional Union Party was made up of rem- nants of the old Whig Party, and the Know-Nothing Party. In their platform they declared for the union of the states, the Constitution, and the enforcement of the law. Their candi- dates were John Bell, of Tennessee, for President, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts, for Vice President. 337. Campaign and Election of President. pet The division in the Democratic Party made Lincoln’s election almost certain. The South declared openly that if Lincoln were elected they would secede. Every Northern state went for Lincoln, and thus secured his election. Bell and Everett carried Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. Douglas carried Missouri. and part of New Jersey. The rest of the slave states voted for Breckenridge. In the election which took place in November, 1860, Lin- coln received 180 electoral votes and 1,866,352 of the popular votes. Douglas received 12 electoral votes and 1,375,156 of the popular votes. Breckenridge received 72 electoral votes and 847,763 of the popular votes. Bell received 39 electoral votes and 589,581 of the popular votes. PROGRESS. 338. Industrial Life of North and South Compared. - The industrial development of the North far excelled that of the South. This was due to the great number of labor saving machines that had been invented. Most of the great inventions favored the development of industries in the North. Of course the cotton-gin is an exception to the rule. Some of the inventions were useful in both sections, such as the tele- graph. In general, however, we may say that the South re- ‘mained materially unchanged. The new inventions of labor-saving machinery and the natural advantage of water power caused manufacturing to increase, particularly in the New England States. In spite of the low duties on cotton and woolen goods, manufacturers of these products greatly increased. One authority states that the number of spindles had increased from one million in 1831 to five million at the time of the election of Pierce. Iron manufacturers also greatly increased, and Pittsburg became the center of this industrv. By this time much ore was ob- tained from Michigan. Leather goods and silks were also * manufactured in our eastern mills. The North and East were fast becoming independent in respect to manufactured goods. 60 SECOND QUARTER The South sent most of her raw cotton to the mills of New England and drew her manufactured goods from there or from her commerce with England and other countries. The South had failed to keep’ pace with the rapid development of the North in other ways. By 1840, the population of New York City alone was greater than all the im- portant towns of the South,—New Orleans, Savannah, Charles- ton, Richmond and Petersburg. The South paid no attention to developing her natural resources. Her water power was almost wholly unutilized. Her mineral resources could have rivaled those of Pennsylvania, while in cotton weaving and spinning she could have surpassed thé New England states. The reasons for all this are directly traceable to slavery. While slavery existed emigrants would not go there, nor did Northern capital care to invest in enterprises which had to depend on slave labor. The negro was not mentally capable of using machinery, therefore as long as the institution existed the South was destined to remain an agriculture region, and one with a more stationary number in population than the North. 339. Transportation by Railroads and Steamboats. When we see the miles and miles of railroad in operation in the United States today, we can scarcely believe that the first request made to build a line in the United States was refused. In 1811, John Stevens applied to the New Jersey Legislature for permission to build a line. He was laughed at as a visionary and his request refused. Next he applied to the Legislature of New York, asking to build a road to Buffalo, to be used instead of the proposed canal. Again he met with refusal, and he returned to New Jersey. Here he finally secured permission to build a road connecting the Delaware and Raritan rivers, the first railroad charter in the United States. However, no one was willing to back the scheme financially. The idea of traveling twenty miles an hour was an idle pipe dream—no one was willing to risk good | hard money on such a wild notion. Others tried out the idea and here and there short lines were put in operation. In 1826, a New York charter was obtained for the Mohawk and Hudson, and Massachusetts chartered a short line known as the Granite Rail- — way from the Quincy granite quarries. In 1828, the first steam locomotive was driven over the Carbondale Road, near Hones- © dale, Pennsylvania. It connected Honesdale with coal mines, sixteen miles away. In 1828, the first great railway system in the United States. was begun. This was the Baltimore and Ohio. At first horse cars were used, but soon steam was adopted. a SECOND QUARTER 61 In the South in 1830, there was opened a line from Charleston to Hamburg, over which a steam engine drew a train of five cars at the rate of sixteen to twenty-one miles per hour. | Once it was demonstrated that the railroad was a success, a perfect fever of railroad building swept the country. In thirty years, the Atlantic coast had connections with the West by five different lines—the Boston and Albany, the New York Central, the Erie, the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore and Ohio. There were also short lines along the coast connecting Portland, Maine, to Wilmington, South Carolina, a distance of more than 1,000 miles. In the West in 1838, the Michigan Central was built. This connected Ann Arbor and Detroit. By 1852, it was possible to go: from Boston to Chicago by rail. Five years later, Chicago and St. Louis were joined by the. Chicago and Alton Railroad and later the B. & O. began sending trains in that city. Railroad building was slower in the South, but by 1855 there - were lines connecting Savannah and points in Georgia and Mont- gomery, Alabama, and Pensacola, Florida. There were also lines: from Fredericksburg, Virginia with Wilmington, North Carolina, and Norfolk with Raleigh, while a line ran from Charleston through eastern Tennessee to the coast. Illinois from the first, encouraged railroads and in 1850 made huge grants of land to aid them. The first line was from Chicago to Cairo. In ten years other roads were built, the Illinois Central, the Mississippi Central and other smaller lines which connected Chicago with the Gulf of Mexico. After the invention of the steamboat by Fulton, the trans- portation on the western rivers was greatly increased. The steamboat was almost immediately used on the Ohio and the Mississippi. Loads of grain and various products were car- ried down to river ports and to New Orleans. It was a great factor in the settlement of the West. It was a great improvement over the earlier methods of travel, and gave a handy means of carrying freight from one point to another, but it had two disadvantages, it was a slow means of travel, and in winter many waterways were ice choked. It was to meet the demand for a better means of travel that rail- roads were built throughout the United States. 340. Labor Saving Machinery—Sewing Machine, Reaper and Telegraph. _ The sewing machine was invented in 1846, by Elias Howe. The new invention was at once received with great enthusiasm and soon came into general use. - One of the greatest inventions of the time was that of the reaper by Cyrus McCormick in 1831. Up to the time of this 62 : SECOND QUARTER invention, the farmer used the scythe to cut his grain. The new machine made possible larger crops and so reduced the price of flour and bread. It was, however, almost ten years before one of the machines could be sold, because at first people had little confidence in it. Many ‘people now ‘con- sider the reaper the greatest of inventions. It has made pos- sible the great wheat fields of the Middle West and the Far West. The telegraph was invented by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1832. At first it was not a success for it would carry a message only a short distance, finally after many trials he invented a relay magnet that would catch the sound and send it on. Morse received an appropriation of $30,000 from Congress to build a line between Baltimore and Washington. In 1844 with this money from Congress and with what he had, the line was built; it was about forty miles long, and the first mes- sage sent over it was, “What hath God wrought.” The telegraph is very important to us especially in war times, for commands can be sent so rapidly to armies. Long lines of railroads can also be operated from one office. It does much to unite the people of the different sections opthe -- country. 341. Social Progress. Perhaps no other one factor has had more to do with social progress in the United States than the development of the steam ~ engine. New machinery, steam driven, worked rapid changes in the old social order. Every act of life was altered. Travel was by train or steamboat, buying, selling and manufacturing was taken out-of the home and centered in stores and factories. Huge cities sprang up, mills with their teeming thousands of workers added new industrial problems. Women became wage earners as well as men, and even children went to work in factories and mills. All the work so long done by the pioneer woman was now done by machinery in huge factories. From this sprang the fac- tory system with all its attendant laws and regulations, and cul-_ minating today in the numerous labor troubles that have ip our industrial life. 342. Money and Banking. In 1857, a heavy business failure occurred in Cincinnati. This started a general panic, and soon the panic of 1837 was being re- peated. Railroads could not meet the interest on their bonds; banks and factories closed. ‘The root of the whole trouble lay in the discovery of gold in California. The gold coming in from the new region had caused everyone to overestimate the country’s SECOND QUARTER 63 needs, hence more railroad was built than needed, more goods were manufactured than could be sold, and more money bors, rowed than could be repaid. The South declared it was the fault*of the North because she refused to use slave labor, while the North pointed out that the South was as bad off as the North. A period of waiting and rest followed, and when once more the demand equalled the supply, business was resumed. 343, Immigration. In 1846-47; a terrible famine occurred in Ireland. This led thousands of her people to come to America, where they could have a chance to improve their condition. _ About this time also large numbers of Germans came over. They belonged to the Liberal party in-Germany. In 1848, they had made an effort to put through certain demo- cratic reforms, including a united Germany and a parliament to be elected by direct popular vote. The movement failed and to escape punishment many of them emigrated from their country. The United States gained many valuable citizens through this movement. The number of emmigrants rose from 1,000,000 per year to nearly 4,000,000. Of course this rate was not maintained every year. In 1850 there were about 100,000 German born inhabitants in Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Iowa. 344, Building Farms in the West. The West was largely an agricultural section. The fer- tile lands of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and other states early drew people westward. The invention of the reaper made possible the raising of wheat on a large scale and the excellent transportation facilities of the river, canals, and rail- roads led to the raising of large crops of corn, wheat, and cattle. Illinois soon became known as a great corn producing state, and this name it has since held. In 1789, the Mississippi River had been our western boun- dary. By 1840, we had reached the Pacific Ocean, with an in- crease in our holdings from 800,000 square miles to over 3,000,000 besides to the thirteen states had been added twenty more together with immense territories. Throughout the Central West and Far West, vast tracts of land were coming under culti- vation, until before-long, the United States was to take her place as one of the chief graneries of the world. 345, The Iron Industry. One of the greatest aids to the new industrial era were the immense deposits of coal and iron in Pennsylvania. In Revolu- 64 SECOND QUARTER tionary times, nearly every little colony had had its iron forge, w@yhere charcoal was used to melt the metal. Later, soft coal was Ooch: from England for this purpose, but during the War of 1812 when we were forced to depend on our own resources, the hard coal of Pennsylvania was tried out successfully. With this . proven successful, Pennsylvania immediately became the center of the iron and steel industry in the United States. In 1790, a smelting furnace was erected at Youghiogheny, Pennsylvania , where iron ore had been discovered. Within five years Fayette County boasted of five furnaces and six forges, while rolling mills and steel mills soon followed. Pittsburgh, which had been a town of four hundred when the Declaration of Independence was made, became one of our large cities, while the valleys of the Monongahela and Allegheny were pitted and dotted with mines and ‘mills. 346. Education. The University of Michigan was opened very modestly in 1841. The greatest step made in education during this period was © the opening of several schools of standing to women students. In 1833, Oberlin College opened its doors to women. In 1853, Horace Mann was made President of Antioch College in Ohio, and opened its courses to women students. By 1860 there were four or five colleges of reputable standing which admitted women, » but the state colleges, supported by taxation, were still oo to women. SECESSION BRINGS WAR, 347. A State’s Right to Secede Questioned. The South held that a state had a right to secede because: — 1. Each colony by the Declaration of Independence had become a separate free state. 2. That each state under the Articles on Confederation retained its “sovereignty, freedom, and independence.” | Bde VP rGary, Ole. oay/nad acknowledged the freedom ‘and sovereignty of the separate states. 4, When the Constitution had been adopted, a compact | had been formed, with the General Government merely as the common agent of the sovereign states. 5. That when a compact is formed, if one of the parties fails to fulfill their part of the agreement, the other is released . from obligation. In reply to these, Lincoln representing the Northern view, held that the Union was older than the Constitution and that the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Con- SECOND QUARTER 65 federation had merely strengthened it. He also held that while perpetuity was not expressed, it was certainly implied by the Constitution. He declared that if the Constitution was a mere compact, to be ended it must be broken by all the parties making it, and for this reason, no state could lawfully withdraw from the Union. 348. Secession Threatened on Previous Occasions. Strangely enough, one of the first threats heard of secession from the Union was made by a Northern state—Massachusetts, when Louisiana was admitted to the Union in 1812. It declared . to admit Louisiana would virtually dissolve the Union. Josiah Quincy was one of the most bitter against the admission. The New England states wished to preserve their political power intact and they saw if all the Louisiana Territory was to come in there would be a gradual but certain shifting of political power to the South and West. ' At that time most people looked upon the Constitution as a compact and the Union as a partnership which could be dissolved at any time its members saw fit. This notion persisted and even when Clay helped pass the Compromise of 1820, there was a de- cided note in favor of secession from various quarters. Again the Wilmot Proviso caused a threat of secession, and again the break was averted. During the campaign of 1856 again rose the cry of secession. Southerners declared if Fremont was elected, the Union would be dissolved. The desire to perpetuate the Union led many to vote for Buchanan and he was elected. Once _ more the threatened break was prevented. In the campaign of 1860 .the threat of secession was again made. The cotton states said if Lincolri was elected they would secede. But they had made the threat so often it no longer carried its accustomed weight. The North declared the South made the threat each time to get its way and the Republican Party resolved to stand on its principles and by its candidates, and let the South ce as it saw fit about seceding. Be South Carolina Secedes from the Union. The treat made by the South to secede if Lincoln were elected was no idle one as the North soon saw. Lincoln’s election took place in November, 1860, by the Republican party—a party pledged to shut out slavery from the territories.. The whole South rose as a state and declared it would never be ruled by a “black Republican” president. The leader in this movement was South Carolina. This state believed that the election of Lincoln meant the ultimate liberation of all the slaves. This was a rash mistake for the North at that time had no such radical plans, but 66 SECOND QUARTER South Carolina could not be persuaded otherwise. Perhaps the real reason for their uneasiness was not so much the freeing of their slaves, as the loss of prestige and power which they forsaw. The free states now had six more senators and fifty-seven more representatives than the slave states had in Congress, ‘and they knew they would be outvoted on every question that might arise. Therefore, in December, 1860, a meeting was called and met in Charleston, where it voted that the Union which had heretofore existed between the state of South Carolina and the other states known as the United States of America was now dissolved. The leaders of the movement declared such action had not been taken hastily or unadvisedly but was the result of many years considera- tion. Such an action could not but lead to serious results—how serious was then little dreamed of, but it was welcomed in the streets of Charleston by-loud aclaim, by the firing of salutes, and expressions of joy and approval on all sides. The Governor of South Carolina now declared his satisfaction in that South Caro- lina had at last become a free and independent state. 350. Secession Spreads, The alleged causes for secession were two. The first was the passage of the “Personal Liberty Bills’ by many of the Northern states during the twenty years preceding. They were intended to interefere with the operation ofthe fugitive slave laws passed by Congress. Over twenty States had passed such laws, and the South looked upon them as attempts to nullify the acts of Congress. The South, with its doctrine of state rights, looked upon the Constitution as a compact or agreement between the different states, and claimed that the North were by these acts violating their compact. 3 The other reason given by the South was the exclusion of slavery from the territories, but they had no grounds what- ever to justify this assertion; for the Supreme Court had, in the Dred Scott case, given an opinion which sustained all the claims of the South and would overrule any tendency of Con- gress to pass laws restricting slavery in the territories. For. this opinion held that slaves are not persons, but property, and that any owner had the same right to take them into the territories as he had with regard to other property. The Supreme Court, because of changes in its personnel, was now stronger for that principle than it was in 185%. Then even if Congress had had the power to keep slavery from the terri- tories, it did not have the necessary majority for both Houses were Democratic. The real cause for secession was the ever-widening breach between the North and South over the slavery question. The SECOND QUARTER | 67 people of the South had grown up with slavery; it was pro- fitable; the present generation felt little responsibility ‘for its existence; and most of them thought it was right, or at least the only suitable condition of the negro. In the Northern states where slavery was unprofitable, people had more and more become convinced that it was wrong, a blot upon the nation, and wholly out of place in a democracy. With every renewal of the agitation these feelings became more intense on both sides, especially at the South. Before March 4, 1861, the day of the inauguration of Lin- coln, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Texas and Louisiana had followed the example of South Carolina. Each gave the same reason for their action—slavery. South Carolina had set up her state government under the name of an independent Common- wealth, and on the day following her act of secession, the Charles- ton papers gave news items from the other states under the head of “Foreign News.” 351. A Confederacy Formed—Its Constitution! However much faith the leaders might have in the justice of - their cause, they felt some doubt as to how their act might be re- ceived by the United States. They did not know whether it would attempt to force them to stay in the Union, would permit them to form an independent government, or whether their action would be completely ignored. Therefore, they decided that it would be better to take steps to form some sort of union among the seced- ing states, and thus be prepared to meet whatever emergency night arise. Therefore, a meeting was held in Montgomery, Alabama in February, 1861, to form a Union. The convention met, and a constitution like in many ways that of the United States was drafted. On two questions however, it was most specific—these were slavery and state rights. Each state was declared free, sovereign, and independent. Nor did it like the constitution of 1787, dodge the issue of slavery. It mentioned the institution of slavery and made provisions for it and its per- petuation in the states and territories of the confederacy. The name Confederate States of America had been adopted as the name for the new league, and instead of the stars and stripes its flag was the the stars and bars. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected President. He was a man of great courage and ability of high order. He had served throughout the Mexican war and had held various civil offices. He was a Southerner of the rankest sort, and stood for all the beliefs and principles for which the South was contending at this time. He was a born leader and the South with confidence 68 SECOND QUARTER and trust looked to him as a guide in the troublesome times which might lie before them. Their confidence was by no means mis- placed. The United States Constitution was the model used for the Confederate Constitution with the following differences: 1. Expressed the sovereignty of the individual state. 2. Prohibited protective tariffs. 3. Confirmed slaves as property. 4. Provided for means to protect slave property in all new territory. 5. The President was elected for one term of six years, but was ineligible for second term. 6. Cabinet members could not vote, but might debate in Congress. 7. The President was given power to veto individual items of appropriation bills. Alexander H. Stevens was elected Vice President of the Confederacy, and steps were taken to sever all connection between the United States and the seceding states. Southern congressmen resigned their seats in the United States Congress. All federal employees, revenue collectors, judges and other employees re- signed. Forts and arsenals were seized by the Confederates, and the stars and stripes were hauled down throughout the whole seven seceding states. 352. The Winter of 1860-61 in Washington. Such prompt action of the South was most surprising to the North. The Southern threat to secede had not been taken seri- ously by many in the North. Many now regretted voting for Lincoln, feeling as many do who have been carried away on some. wave of rash enthusiasm that they would gladly undo the harm they had helped bring about. This element was the first to make overtures to the South, to offer concessions, and to do all in their power to still preserve the Union. The more radical element openly expressed their joy and relief to be free from the taint of union with slave owning states. At first President Buchanan did nothing. He seemed unable or unwilling to cope with the situa- tion. Perhaps, he felt that his had not been the responsibility of bringing on the castrophe, therefore, it was not his problem to settle. However, he did maintain that South Carolina‘had been justified in seceding. He declared the anti-slavery men of the © North had been to blame for all the trouble. He held however, that South Carolina had no constitutional right to secede, but if she did, the general government had no power to force her back. As Northern men came into his cabinet to fill the places resigned by Southerners, Buchanan began to take a firmer stand. If back SECOND QUARTER 69 bone was lacking in the Presidential chair, it wasn’t in that of: the Secretary of Treasury, then occupied by General Dix. The message he sent to New Orleans was this, “If any man attempts to haul down the United States flag, shoot him on the spot.” In January 9, 1861, Buchanan tried to send provisions through to Fort Sumter by the steamer, “Star of the West.” But at Charleston Harbor, the vessel was fired upon, and forced to turn back. This was the first real attack on Federal authority and is usually considered as the first act of war on the part of the Confederacy. All kinds and sorts of schemes were now advocated to bring the rebellious states back into the Union. The most feasible one, and perhaps the best known was the Crittenden Compro- mise proposed by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky. This pro- vided that the old division of 36° 30’ should be restored with slavery prohibited north, and protected south of this line. There were plans made in the compromise whereby fugitive slaves not returned to their masters should be paid for by the national government. Slavery was to be retained in the District of Columbia, and that the Constitution of the United States be so amended that Congress could never interfere with Slavery in the Slave states. It also agreed that all new states admitted to the Union should say as to whether they were to be free of slave. But the Crittenden plan was rejected by the Republicans. At Washington, a Peace Congress proposed a similar plan _ which met with a like fate. Lincoln and the Republicans balked at the notion of any further extension of Slavery. *» Then the 13th Amendment to the Constitution was agreed ; upon, and approved by Lincoln. It declared that Congress should never have the right to abolish or interfere with slavery in any state in the Union. It had been passed by the necessary two-thirds vote when the first clash of the war came. e % Had the South been but a bit more patient how different would have been the 13th Amendment to our Constitution. As voted, it would have secured ‘slavery in the southern states free from ‘congressional interference. As it was when the 13th amend-" ment was finally added; it abolished BSS from every state in . the United States. Kat Rta: . 853. The President’s Attitude Toward Bi asion, At first, Buchanan did not seem to know what stand to take. He perhaps felt that action in the matter should be left to Lincoln, whose election had. precipitated the trouble. Buchanan openly denounced the North as the cause of the whole affair. He declared South Carolina had room to feel aggrieved and that while he did not believe she had the constitutional right to RE pA P TI ty, 70 SECOND QUARTER secede, if she did he did not see how the Union could force her back into the United States. One can readily see how Buchanan felt. He did not choose to step in and clean up dirty work he | had been in no way responsible for. Some felt it was merely lack of courage, others lack of conviction. However, when cer- tain of his cabinet resigned, and returned to the South, he filled the vacancies with Northerners who succeeded into infusing into the wavering President a measure of determination and he took steps to protect Federal property in the South, as well as Federal employees there at that time. His attempt to send provisions to Fort Sumter led to the bombarding of the vessel, an act which many hold to be the first hostile move of the Con- federacy against the United States. 354. Compromise Measures. The Crittenden Compromise was the only measure intro- duced that offered any hope of conciliating the South, yet it failed. Today, looking back over the situation as it existed at that time, we cannot but be surprised that the North was willing to make overtures of any sort to the seceding South. Yet it did, and no doubt the majority of the Northern votes would have been for the compromise as proposed by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky. The followers of the Douglas bill, and Edward Everett who led the Constitutional Union Party and who wished to disregard. the slavery question entirely, would surely have voted for it, while many who had supported Lincoln were now frightened at the result of the election. The vast majority were ready for any measure that would preserve the Union. Yet many leaders of the North did not deny the South’s right to secede if it so wished. Wendell Phillips said the South had the right to form a separate government if it saw fit to do so, while Horace Greeley urged that the “erring sisters,” as he called the seceding states, be allowed to go in peace. Many people believed that the Union should not be preserved by force; others now realized compromise was useless, and urged that every means should be used to prevent the South from destroying the Union. They argued that Lincoln had been elected fairly, therefore, should be supported. Under his calm leadership, the people began to recover from their panic and to demand that the au- thority of the Federal government be recognized, and steps be slag to force the ae either to recognize it or to openly ely it. 355, Activity of the Secessionists. While all the compromise activity was going on in the North the South was far from idle. Three days after it was known SECOND QUARTER 71 that Lincoln was elected, a convention was called of the people of South Carolina. December 17, 1860 it met, and after three days debate passed an ordinance declaring that a Union no longer existed between South Carolina and the states known as the United States. South Carolina was declared a common- wealth. Within six weeks, other states had followed the example and Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas had joined South Carolina in secession. In February, 1861, dele- gates from these states met in Montgomery, Alabama, established a Provisional Government which they called the Confederate ' States of America. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected President and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice Presi- dent of the new confederacy. Hundreds of Southerners resigned from the employ of the Federal government and returned to the South to take their place in the activities of the seceding states. All the mints, forts, arsenals, and other government property in the seceding states were seized by the Confederacy. By March 1, 1861, there were but two forts—Fort Sumter at Charleston, and Fort Pickens at Pensacola—left in possession of the United States in all the South. The Stars and Stripes were hauled down, and ‘the Stans and Bars run up in their place throughout the seven states. While the South was busy organizing into a more or less definite union, she committed no overt act which could be con- strued as open warfare. The Confederate government sent am- _bassadors to Washington asking Lincoln to give them peaceable possession. of the two forts not yet in their possession. Of course, Lincoln could not receive these men, for by doing so he would have recognized the existence of the Confederacy. By the first of April, Major Anderson who was ‘in com- mand of Fort Sumter was so short of food he sent an appeal to Lincoln for help. The President responded by sending a mes- sage to South Carolina that he was going to send aid to Anderson. When Jefferson Davis heard the report, he called a council to decide what action should be taken. Some argued for, some against, allowing the supplies to be sent. Some warned Davis that to refuse to all the supplies, was stirring up a hornet’s nest, but he finally agreed that Fort Sumter should be taken by force. Anderson steadily refused to acceed to General Beauregard’s demand to give up the garrison, and on April 12, 1861 the bom- bardment of Ft. Sumter began. This was the opening gun of the Civil War, and the beginning of a strife that dragged out its length four weary years. = 72 SECOND QUARTER 356, From Springfield to Washington. In November, 1860, Lincoln had been elected President a the United States by the votes of the Republican Party. The time between that and February, 1861, when Lincoln left Spring- field, Illinois, his home town, for the capital was filled with stirring events and epoch making deeds. In February, when Lincoln bid goodby to the people of Springfield, he voiced his sorrow at parting. Perhaps his clear outlook into the future showed him some of the difficulties and dangers that lay before him. In his farewell speech, he spoke of the burdens he was about to assume, and asked their prayers for aid and guidance in the years before him. When his train drew from the depot, the heart prayers and good wishes of the people of Illinois went with him. His eastward trip was interrupted here and there by stops at towns where he spoke to the people, assuring them of his devotion to. the Union and the determination to protect and maintain it with- out force of arms if possible. But grim warnings of danger had been heard. Threats were made, that Lincoln would never live to take the oath of office, hence the last lap of the journey ‘was taken secretly at night by a special train. His entry into Washington seemed prophetic of his de- parture from there some five years later when laid low by an assassin’s bullet, he was-carried by reverent hands back to his old home town and his final resting place. — 357. The Inauguration of Mr. Lincoln. On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln standing on the capitol steps at Washington was sworn in as President of the United States. The Chief Justice administering the oath was the one who handed down the famous Dred Scott Decision, while Douglas, Lincoln’s old time political rival, stood near by holding the President’s hat; Lincoln’s inaugural speech was a plea for peace. He insisted the North and South must not be enemies. He declared he had just taken the oath to preserve and defend the constitution and this oath he intended to keep at any cost, but he had no intention to meddle with slavery, or to interfer ‘with it in any state where it then existed. He said it was his opinion that no state could leave the Union, but declared he would hold — forts, arsenals, and other Union property that might be seized by the seceding Southern States. : He declared he believed he had no lawful right to tnteffere with slavery and he certainly had no wish to. do so, in any state where it already was in force. His principle was—no further extension of slavery, and on this belief he was not willing to _ SECOND QUARTER 78 ‘ trespass by compromises of any sort. He refused to recognize that the Union had been broken. He declared if the South was willing to fight rather than to see the Union remain unbroken and without slavery, he was willing to accept war rather than see the Union perish. At the time of Lincoln’s nomination, much seemed to depend upon the character of the two men—Jefferson Davis, the _ President of the Confederacy and Lincoln, President of the - United States. Had it only been possible for those two men to adjust their belief to the other’s satisfaction, each might have led their followers to their way of thinking and thus the long exhausting struggle been averted. Davis was not unwilling to compromise. His only demand that Lincoln could and would not meet was for the extension of slavery in the territories. Failing in this, then Davis asked for a peaceful parting of the ways. Again Lincoln could see no way but refusal; Jefferson replied that then there was no way for the South but to trust in God and vindicate the right as they saw best. Lincoln replied that the North no more wished war than the South, but that the latter would make war rather than let the nation survive, while the North would make it rather than let the Nation perish. Lincoln made four points very plain in his inaugural ad- dress, They were :— 1. The Union antedated the Constitution and Independence. 2. The signers of the Declaration of Independence intended - the Union to be perpetual. 3. That the individual states had pledged themselves to preserve it. : 4. That no individual state had any right to break the Union by withdrawing from it. While Lincoln was firm in his stand in his inaugural ad- dress, he adopted no provocative measures, and leaders in both sides began to hope for some peaceable solution of the difficulty. The battle of words and wills might have gone on and in the end came to naught, had not the need arisen to aid the Union commander of the fort. at Fort Sumter, an island fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. 358. Firing on Ft. Sumter, April 14, 1861. Major Anderson with a garrison of about eighty-five men held Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. President Lincoln thought that he was in need of more men and supplies. When the Confederate force under P. G. T. Beauregard heard that the supplies were to be sent, they opened fire on Fort Sumter. Major Anderson with his eighty-five men held the fort against aineiinmmenammmane ee 74 SECOND QUARTER the Confederates with seven thousand until his ammunition was nearly gone, and after fighting thirty-six hours he was compelled to surrender. No person was killed on either side. A war spirit spread over the country. The Confederates had opened the war by firing on the United States flag. When the question had come up in the Confederate cabinet as to whether Fort Sumter should be fired upon, the Secretary of State had urged delay. He argued that to fire upon the fort would bring on a civil war, the like of which the world had never seen. He said the South would be striking a hornets nest, and legions then quiet would swarm out and sting the South to death. Later events showed how true were his words. In spite of all warnings, Davis ordered Beauregard not to ~ allow any supplies or reinforcements to enter the fort, and to order the surrender and if it refused to bombard it till it did. For thirty-four hours Major Anderson persisted in his refusal to surrender, until the fort was but a mass of battered ruins. There was no food but some pork left, and Anderson was com- pelled to take down his flag and hand over the position. Four years later the same battle-torn flag was again hoisted over the fort. There was no blood shed on either side—at least no one was killed. This battle has been sometimes referred to as the ‘battle of seventy against.seven thousand. . The North needed but this act’on the part of the South to be united as one. The flag had been fired upon, and while be- fore many had advised delay, caution, and compromise, now the people arose as one to defend the flag and the Union it represented. 359. A Great Blunder. The firing on Fort Sumter was one of the most stupid blunders in history. Had this overt act been delayed even a short while, there is no doubt the whole period of Civil War might have been averted. The South could have kept her slaves undisturbed, and property and life would have been spared to thousands for Congress had already passed by the necessary two-thirds vote, a 13th Amendment to the Constitu- tion. This amendment said that Congress should never be given the right to interfere with slavery in any of the states of the Union, where it then existed. The amendment was awaiting the — ratification of the States when the Confederates fired upon Fort Sumter. We can judge how great a blunder this rash act was when we compare the 13th amendment as passed by Congress at this - time and the 13th amendment which was finally adopted. The amendment made first, guaranteed that slavery should never be SECOND QUARTER 3 1b interfered with by Congress. The final 13th amendment which was finally adopted four years later, liberated every slave in the United States. ~ 360. The War Governors. Among the name of famous war governors of this period that of Richard Yates, Governor. of Illinois, stands out most prominently. January 14, 1861, Richard Yates was s inaugurated as Gover- nor of Illinois. His ‘inaugural address dwelt largely upon the question of the right to secession, and insisted upon the in- dissolubility of the government. All his energy and _ ability during his four years in office was directed to the one effort— that of saving the Union. He was one of the few Northern men who realized from the first, the enormity of the coming conflict. - He early advised President Lincoln to free the slaves and put them to work to help in the struggle for their freedom. When he retired from his arduous office, it was with the respect and honor of those whom he had served, When in April, 1861, Lincoln issued a call for volune Governor Yates immediately called a special session of the Legislature, “which convened April 23. The quota of Illinois was six regiments of militia, for so the Secretary of War had notified the Governor and for the organization and equipment of these regiments, immediate steps were taken. A war fund of’ $2,000,000 was created and other necessary steps taken. - During the four years of Yates’ term, time after time, he _ faced hostile majorities in both houses, but filled with a lofty patriotism, he never swerved from what he held his duty. Per- haps none called for a greater courage than that which called him to avail himself of his constitutional prerogative and pro- rogue the legislature on June 10, 1863. There had been some who had declared Lincoln an usurper and the was barbarous, and were attempting to block the President’s war plan in his own home state. But Yates, courageous as he was patriotic, ended the attempt almost as soon as it began. Later Yates became United States Senator and after the expiration of his term, retired to private life. November 27, 1873, he died very suddenly in St. Louis as he was returning to his home from Arkansas. He had been sent to this state by President Grant to inspect a land subsidy railroad, as a United States Commissioner, From the time South Carolina seceded, the Southern element began scheming to get Missouri pledged to the Southern states. However, a majority of the state legislature were in favor of the Union and opposed to secession. 76 SECOND QUARTER But Governor Claiborne F. Jackson was in full accord with the schemes of the South and secession. In the beginning he was. recognized as a leader who would attempt to take his state from the Union, but as the conflict became more certain he talked neutrality. Perhaps he realized how disastrous to his state any active part in the contest would be. But since he had in the beginning taken his stand for secession, the Union element placed little or no confidence in his later stand. As the majority of his legislature was against secession he could do little for it, yet as commander of the militia, he began to organize it, and clearly in the interest of the secession movement. He declared it was organized merely for home protection and was called the Home Guard. But when stores and arsenals began to be seized throughout the South, the secessionists in Missouri urged the taking of the stores at Liberty and at St. Louis. But Union men, among them Frank P. Blair, were on watch-at St. Louis and kept the government advised of all that was happening. Governor Jackson now began receiving supplies from Southern points to equip his militia; the oath they took was one of obedience to him alone, hence action on the part of the United States was necessary. General Lyon was put in command of the Union forces. Finally, the open break came and open fight- ing took place at various places in Missouri. The contest was carried into Kansas and late into Arkansas, all of which will be discussed in later topics. | Lincoln was especially anxious that Missouri should be saved to the Union for several reasons. It gave the North a much greater open stretch of the Mississippi River and saved Illinois from attack from the River. 3 Another state Lincoln was anxious to save was Kentucky. Jefferson Davis did all in his power to secure Kentucky for the Confederacy, for the first defensive line would have been formed by the Ohio River. But there was a strong Union sentiment in this state, especially the eastern part. Yet so evenly was senti- ment divided in many cases that Kentucky families divided; part | of the sons going to the Union and part to the Confederate ~ army. | Beriah Magoffin was governor and was a rabid secession-— ist, and openly defied Lincoln by refusing to send Kentucky’s first quota of troops when called for. But the legislature took a neutral stand and resolved ‘that this state and the citizens thereof should take no part in the Civil War now being waged except as mediators and friends of the belligent parties; and that Ken- tucky should during the contest, occupy the position of strict neutrality.” SECOND QUARTER | 77 ~ For a short time the state made a sincere attempt to keep her word, but events that came up daily, soon showed her how im- possible this was going to become. The State Guard, about. 15,000 men, was largely in command of secessionist officers. Some left for Tennessee, some for Ohio —one to join the Confederate army, the other to join the Union. But a stronger feeling against secession began to develope. This was due largely to the tone taken by Confederate leaders who laughed to scorn the notion of Kentucky’s neutrality. On Sep- tember 3, they invaded the state and took up a strong position at Columbus, about twenty miles below Cairo, Illinois. Another force under General Zollicoffer came from Eastern Tennessee and threatened the eastern part of the state. These two move- ments showed that the Confederates had determined to sieze the state by force, and now all thoughts of neutrality ended. The Stars and Strips were hoisted over the capitol at Frankfort, and the legislature told Governor Magoffin that he must order the confederate troops to withdraw immediately. The Governor vetoed this resolution, and it was passed over his veto. Thus Kentucky definitely lined up with the Union cause, Maryland was another state that Lincoln was determined if possible to save for the Union cause. Had the border states gone to the Confederacy, the result might have been otherwise than it was. In April, 1861, the attitude of Maryland was threat- ening. But thanks to the unfailing loyalty of Governor Hicks, it was saved to the Union. Had Maryland gone to the South, perhaps the first task of the North would have been to regain the Federal Capitol. April 19, Baltimore was in the hands of.a secessionist mob, even the Governor though loyal to the Union had to give way before it. Late at night the Mayor, Mr. Brown, the Police Marshall, Mr. Kane, and the police commissioners held a meeting and decided on the destruction of all bridges between Baltimore and the North. By daylight three bridges on the Philadelphia line and three on the Harrisburg line had been burned by their orders. This was an open act of treason against the Government. The police commissioners tried to say Gover- nor Hicks had ordered it, but this he denied. The following day Hicks telegraphed to Washington that since the secessionists held sway, it seemed best for the time being to refuse the troops Lincoin had asked for. On the 20th, a committee of men from Baltimore appeared in Washington asking Lincoln not to send any more troops through Baltimore. This was signed by Mayor Brown and Governor Hicks. But a way was found out of the dilema when Felton and Thompson, presi- dents of the Philadelphia and Wilmington and the Pennsylvania Central Railroads, rerouted the trains to Perryville thence by _ struggle. Pago 78 SECOND QUARTER water to Annapolis, and then by rail to Washington. When the committee arrived in Washington asking that troops not be sent through Baltimore, Lincoln said he’d agree to this if no obstacles were placed in their way of going by Perryville. If there were, he’d order the troops to come by whatever way they wished, and to come prepared to fight their way through if necessary. About this time secessionists seized and cut the tele- graphic communication to the North from Washington, This act so incensed Lincoln that he ordered the troops to come _through Maryland by force if necessary. The Union movement. - was so rapid that by the 4th day of May, Baltimore was sur- © rounded by a Union army and cut off from the rest of the’ world. Governor Hicks now again declared his attachment to the Union cause, and dismissed the militia gathered in Baltimore. . The burnt bridges were rebuilt, telegraph communication re- sumed, and the legislature gave up its attempts at secession. On the 13th, General Butler took possession of the city and _on the 14th the Governor issued the call for troops: he had "previously refused. In Indiana, Oliver Morton was Governor, while oe Johnson was “made Military Governor of Tennessee during the war. Morton was a sturdy supported of Lincoln during all the Governor Harris was the elected Governor of Tennessee at J the outbreak of the war. Mr. Dennison was Governor of Ohio, and early in the struggle placed Geo. B. McClellan as commMander-in-chief of the Ohio militia. Ellis was Governor of North Carolina and a strong secessionist. On April 20, he seized the United States mint at Charlotte and on the 22nd the United States arsenal at Fayette- ville. On the 26th he called a session of the Legislature to pass a secession ordinance. Governor Sam Houston was the War Governor of Texas: He from the first refused to permit a convention to be called to consider the question of secession, hence no blame can be at- tached to him for the disgraceful way Texas acted during the first few months of the trouble. The secessionists, when Houston refused to do so, called a meeting of the Legislature, and voted_ to join the C onfederacy, yet their representatives were not re- called from Washington and for over a month, Texas had representatives both to the Union in Washington and to the Confederacy at Montgomery. Those at Washington were as ardent secessionists as those in Montgomery, and through them, . the Confederate government was kept informed of all that was taking place in the Northern capitol. SECOND QUARTER . 79 Mr. Gist was Governor of South Carolina when it seceded, but when it was reorganized as a separate commonwealth, Francis W. Pickens was elected Governor. It was Governor Pickens who later demanded of Major Anderson that he sur- render Fort Sumter, and when he refused, the Governor sent his Attorney Geaneral, I. W. Hayne, to go to Washington and demand its surrender from President Lincoln. ae 361. A Call to the National Defense. The day after the surrender of Fort Sumter, President Lin- coln called for 75,000 volunteers for ninety days service. In the ‘light of our knowledge of the Civil War period, there is an element of pathos in “this call. Before the war was over more than five times that number of Northern men alone would lie dead on the field of battle. But the whole country at the call of the President responded, and within thirty-six hours, several Pennsylvania companies were marching through the streets of Washington. The 6th Massachusetts Regiment was the first full regiment to march. Most of the volunteers were lads under twenty, many away from home for the first time. Many never returned; others came back war weary broken men. Action in the South was just as prompt, and soon the tramp of the boys in blue was echoed in the South by the march of the boys in grey. It now became necessary for the other slave states to decide whether they would remain in the Union or go with the South, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina went to the South, while Virginia became divided, the West voting against secession’ and becoming a separate state in 1863, and the east going to the Confederate cause. Maryland, Missouri, Kentucky and Delaware did not secede. The Confederacy now consisted of eleven states, while the Union had twenty-two. No more states left the Union. In Illinois though her quota in the first call had been but six regiments, ten thousand men responded to the call. There | were no state funds available in the emergency, and private in- dividuals offered nearly a million dollars. The churches took up the contest and preached against secession, and urged loyalty to the cause of the Union. To quote Douglas, there was no longer Democrats and Republicans, only patriots or traitors. Douglas. did much for the cause of the Union in his last speech before the Illinois Legislature. His death in June was a most serious loss to the Northern cause. Though no more than the quota could be accepted, Gover- nor Yates of Illinois anticipated later calls, and began forming 80 SECOND QUARTER and drilling mew companies. He authorized ten additional regi- ments and when men for twenty responded; all were put in training. When the second call came for six regiments, they were ready and waiting. 362. The Border States. As we have ‘seen. before, when South Carolina seceded, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and Texas soon followed. Later, when President Lincoln called for volun- teers, and the rest of the Southern states had to stay in the Union and aid against the other slave states or definitely cast their lot with the Confederacy, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina and , Virginia left the Union. This: left the slave states of Missouri. Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, slaves states that were loyal {to the Union. Because of their seographical position between the | Northern and Southern states, they are often referred to as “border states.” ““““» Virginia’s secession was one of the greatest aids the South could have received. There were two reasons for this—it per- mitted of a campaign in the East, and it brought the Southern _ forces very near to the National “Capital. Richmond became the ™ capital of the South, while two of the greatest soldiers of the Confederate army were from .Virginia, General Robert E. Lee, and General “Stonewall” Jackson. However, the western part of the state withdrew, voted against secession, and was ad- mitted into the Union as West Virginia. A separate state in 1863. The Union spirit was also very strong in Eastern _ Tennessee and many volunteers from this section volunteered ‘in the Union army. Kentucky also gave many volunteers. Washington because of its position required almost immediate — protection. The Southern capital was protected by the Chicka- hominy River and dangerous marsh land. Maryland and Penn- sylvania were open to attack through the valley of the Shenan- doah. Throughout the war, this was the chief line of invasion into the North, from the valley to Harper’s ate and then into Maryland. In Kentucky, Union sentiment was very syne in the east- ern part among the mountains, as it also was in Eastern Tennessee and West Virginia. During the early months of the war, it was Lincoln’s chief concern to keep these four border states in the Union. That Maryland chose to stay was a great relief in that it gave added protection to Washington. Then his chief anxiety was in regard to Kentucky and Missouri. The reason for this was he wished the North to retain possession of the rivers in so far as possible. The Ohio, the Cumberland, the : * SECOND QUARTER 81 Tennessee, and the Mississippi rivers were a certain means of invading the South, their loss would leave the result doubtful. They meant unbroken communication for supply transportation, and if the Union army went into hostile territory, its lines of communication must be kept open. A railroad might suffer in- - numerable accidents that could not happen to a river. There were also good reasons why the Mississippi~ River should be kept open to maintain the trade of the Northwest. It also gave an easy means of transporting troops to attack the enemy in the rear. Also possession of this river far enough South, could cut the Confederacy in two and thus prevent communication between the two sections. Thus the Union could prevent sup- plies being sent to the Confederate army from the West. These reasons made it of the greatest importance that Kentucky and _ Missouri be saved for the Union. ILLINOIS HISTORY—INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. (a) The Example of Other States. When Illinois was admitted as a state in 1818, the only means of transportation were by horseback, ox wagon, stage coach, or the canoe or flat boat on the rivers. Once immigration began, Illinois grew by leaps and bounds, and soon a ceneral demand arose for better means of travel. Internal improvements in neighboring states had been under way for some time, but no definite move was made by Illinois unti! 1836. The bill was recommended by Governor Duncan, and became a law in Febru- ary, 1837. It provided for. a system of internal improvements looking mainly to the bettering of transportation facilies. Through Indiana and Ohio, the National Highway was being built besides, in Maryland in 1828, the first railroad had been begun and in 1832, there had been seventy-three miles of the road completed. Pikes and canals had also been built in other states, and it was not strange therefore: that Illinois followed the example others were setting. (b) Early Improvement Agitation in Illinois. In February, 1837, the bill backed by Governor Duncan, providing for a system of internal improvements, became a law. It provided for over $10,000,000 worth of bonds to be issued. The money was to be used largely in improving water ways and building railroads. The rapid growth of the farming industry in the state had been responsible in great measure for the demand for transporta- tion facilities. Not “only did the new settlers need many things from Eastern markets; but the farmers of the state mceiicd a means of getting their crops to markets. 82 SECOND QUARTER (c) Adaptability of the State to Railroad and Canal Building. Nature had adapted the state well both for railroad and canal construction. There were no mountains to cross, no stone _ to blast, and no forests to cut down. The river to the West and South and the lakes to the North, together with the network of smaller rivers within the state made canal building a thoroughly possible undertaking. (d) Value of Canal from Lake Michigan to Illinois River. Among the states that had early built canals were Ohio, Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York. In Illinois, it was Albert ‘Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, that early pointed out the importance of a canal connecting Lake Michigan and the Illinois River. Such a canal would make a complete water- way between the Great Lakes and New Orleans. Later it formed by the building of other canals, a means whereby boats loaded at Buffalo might go to either New Orleans or St. Paul without relanding of their cargo. (e) Importance of Railroads. When one considers the result to the state of building the Illinois Central Railroad, he can readily see the importance of railroads in developing the country. In fact the building of this road made possible the settlement of much of the state. Everywhere along the Illinois Central, towns sprang up and communities developed. The road made possible not only the transportation of the settler and his necessities, but it also gave him access to markets for the products from his land. (f) Influence of Gov. Duncan. Among the men who did much for the early improvement of the state one should not fail to mention Governor Duncan. To him is due largely the success of the first bill introduced into the Legislature which provided for a system of internal i improve- ment. This bill became a law in February, 1837. ~~ (g) Improvement Schemes of 1837. The law which provided for a system of internal improve- ment authorized the issue of over $10,000,000 worth of bonds to be used in improving rivers and building railroads. The Wabash, Illinois, Kaskaskia, and Rock rivers were the rivers to be improved. The railroads to be constructed would connect Alton and Mount Carmel, Cairo and Galena, Peoria and Warsaw, and Alton to the Central Railroad. The latter was the name for _ the road connecting Cairo and Galena. SECOND QUARTER 83 In May, 1838, the first railroad called the Great Northern Cross was begun at Meredosia. When but eight miles of track had been completed the people with childlike curiosity to see a train run, shipped a locomotive from Pittsburg by water. In November, 1838, the engine—the first ever in the Mississippi Valley—made its first trip. Joseph Field was the engineer, while Governor Duncan and a party of friends were the pass- engers. This event took place just ten years after the Baltimore and Ohio road was built. The Baltimore and Ohio was the as road built in the United States, =< ~ ——— (h) The Collapse of a Great Undertaking. But the undertaking so auspiciously begun, was doomed to failure. This failure was due to several causes. The most serious cause perhaps was the lack of business experience of its backers. The railroad was a new undertaking and there was little or no guidance to be had from earlier attempts; another cause was the dishonesty of the contractors employed. The greed of almost all connected with the enterprise soon involved it so heavily in debt there was no carrying it on under State supervision. Now came a more serious failure. The railroad property was sold for merely a song. In the case of the Meredosia Railroad which had been completed as far as Springfield at a cost of $1,000,000 was sold to a Mr. Ridgley of Springfield for $21,100. But railroads were a necessity for the state and what had failed as a state undertaking was completed by private indi- viduals later, backed by state aid. (i) The State in Debt Nearly $20,000,000. Failure of the first railroad undertaking threw the state heavily in debt with no means of ever meeting the interest upon its bonds. The indebtedness amounted to almost $20,000,000 and when in 1850, Congress passed an act granting to the States of Illinois, Alabama, and Mississippi grants of land for the con- struction of a railroad from Chicago to Mobile, it was forced by the State constitution to hand over the undertaking to a com- pany. This company was chartered by the state and known as the Illinois Central Railroad Company. It agreed to pay the state instead of taxes seven per cent of the gross earnings of the road. Between that date and 1910 almost $30,000,000 had been paid* by the Illinois Central to the State.. This money has done much toward keeping the state out of debt, and lightening its taxes on personal and real estate property. oe 84 7 THIRD QUARTER THIRD QUARTER OUR FEDERAL UNION MUST BE PRESERVED. FROM FORT SUMPTER TO THE GRAND REVIEW. 363. The War in the East. The general plan of the whole war as made by Union com- manders looked toward four things. These were: 1. To save the border states of Missouri, Maryland, Ken- tucky and Delaware through early occupation by Union troops. 2. To blockade~all Southern ports and thus cut off the. South both from sending out cotton or receiving supplies from abroad. 3. To capture the Cuatedeate Capital, Richmond. 4. To cut the Confederate states in two by a drive down the Mississippi Valley. The campaigns of 1861-2 may for convenience Be divided into the general movements. 1. Efforts made to save the border states. 2. Engagements in the East. 3. Engagements in the West. By the middle of the summer of 1861, the North had about - 180,000 men under arms, while the South had perhaps 150,000. The position of the Union Army was in Eastern Virginia and Maryland. From Harper’s Ferry, it extended along the banks of the Potomac to the mouth, thence south to Fort Monroe, just above Norfolk. The Confederates held the countr y south of the Potomac, with the capital, Richmond, as the center of operations. Thus, we see that the operations ‘in the East in the early part of the war were two-fold. They were aimed to secure the border state of Maryland for the Union, and if possible to speedily capture Richmond. In the former, they were successful, but in the second they failed for the time ‘being. 364, Bull Run—The First Great Battle; 365. General McClellan in Command. One of the objects in the campaigns of the North and Ne South was the capture of the other’s capital. The Union | army, 100,000 in number, with this im view made the advance THIRD QUARTER 85 on Richmond under General McClellan. This attempt in 1862 was unsuccessful. One of the early battles along the coast was that of Bull Run. The battle of Bull Run was fought July 21, 1861. In July, 1861, McClellan was given command of the military department of Washington and in Eastern Virginia. Bull Run is about thirty-five miles southwest of Washington. The soldiers of the Union Army, under McDowell, moved out of Washington and were in a hurry to make a dash on Rich- mond, the Confederate capital. The soldiers of the Southern army ‘under Beauregard were at Manassas Junction. Johnson had been ordered by the Confederate government to join Beauregard. The Southern army was anxious to make an attack on Washington. The two armies met at Bull Run. The Union army under McDowell did the first firing. For. a.time it seemed as. ‘though the Union army would be successful, but finally the Southern army received reinforcements and the Union army was compelled to retreat back to Washington. Beauregard was not able to follow the Union army into Washington | or the result would have been disastrous. It was a bad defeat for the poor cnyeinee Union army. The North bowed their heads in shame for they thought our soldiers acted like cowards. President Lincoln kcnicw Bester: he saw at once that they must be better drilled and organized. It taught the North that the war was not to end in three months as many had expected, the defeat also encouraged them to become more determined to overcome the Confed- erates. Although it was a victory for the South, it did them more parm than good for it filled them with an exaggerated hope- ulness. ~~ About 2,000 were killed and wounded on each side, but not many prisoners were taken. Most of these were wounded Northern men, about 1,500 according to Beauregard’s figures. The results of the Battle of Bull Run were far- -reaching. It resulted in McClellan’s Army being called from Western Virginia to Washington. The North began systematic preparations for a long war, while the South was utterly blinded to their opportuni- ties which lay on one hand and the dangers on the other. 366. The Government Without Ships of War. When the Civil War broke out, Lincoln had but about thir- teen ships in American waters—eight “steamships and five sailing - ships. Had he been able to muster the full strength of our ves- _ sels, the struggle might have been shortened by months. Once ae 86 THIRD QUARTER the ships were in action, they did very effective work in cutting off supplies for the South. Many of the ships of the United States at the beginning of 1861 were in foreign waters; while those in Southern ports had been seized by the Confederacy. Over two hundred officers of the Navy left the service of the North to gain that of the South. President Davis had issued an order permitting privateering, and whatever ships the South could seize were soon employed in preying upon Union commerce. But by the beginning of 1862, the Federal Navy had captured most of the ships from the Con- federates, and reduced the danger from that quarter to a mini- mum.» Except for ships purchased from Great Britain, the South got but few more ships. By December, 1861, the naval force had grown to two hundred sixty-four war ships, with 2557 guns, and 20,000 seamen. 367. Blockade of the Southern Ports. . One of the first things Lincoln did after declaring war was to declare the South in a state of blockade. This semmed at the time, an idle threat, but ships and men were soon collected in sufficient numbers to make it effective. As we have said before, the South was largely dependent upon the North or foreign - countries for almost all the necessities of life, and once the block- — ade was enforced the South was greatly crippled. When we learn that Lincoln had in American waters but thirteen ships and some of these small when the war began, one can understand how idle his threat to blockade the Southern ports must have seemed. His blockade order was issued in 1861 and declared all the coast from Virginia to the southern point of Texas in a state of blockade. He placed warships to patrol the coast especially near seaports. These he ordered to stop and capture all ships that attempted to go into or to leave any South- ern harbor. This measure, once it became really effective, was one of the greatest blows that fell to the South. The sea patrol was divided into four divisions. The North Atlantic Squadron patrolled the coast from Virginia to the South © Carolina line and was under the command of Capt. L. M. Golds- borough. From this point south to Florida, by the South Atlanti¢ Squadron, commanded by Capt. S. F. DuPont. From Key West north to Pensacola, the East Gulf Squadron kept watch while from Pensacola to South Texas the West Gulf Squadron was on guard. The last two were under the command of Capt. W. W. McKean. 368. The Moniter and the Merrimac. When the Confederates were about to get possession of | the Portsmouth navy yard by the secession of Virginia, the THIRD QUARTER @ 87 Union forces sank or burned all the vessels that they thought would be of any use to the Confederates. Among the vessels that had been sunk and partly burned was the ‘Merrimac.” ‘Vhe Confederates raised it, covered it with iron, and called it the “Virginia.” They now sent the “Virginia” under the com- mand of Captain Buchanan to Hampton Roads to destroy the Union fleet of wooden vessels in Hampton Roads. The first attack was on the “Cumberland,”-Which in a short time was destroyed, and one hundred and twenty-one of her crew killed. The next attack was on the “Congress,” which in a short time was forced to surrender, with the loss of one hundred men. She then retired to Norfolk, for the night. The next day she was ready for the ‘ ‘Minnesota” when suddenly behind her, appeared a curious looking craft. It was the “Monitor,” also an iron clad vessel, which had come from New York. The “Monitor” opened fire on the “Merrimac,” and the two vessels fought for four hours, finally, the “Merrimac” was forced to give up and steam back to the navy yard. Had it not been for the “Monitor” probably the “Merrimac” would have de- | stroyed every Northern vessel besides she might have sailed up the Potomac and threatened our capital. This was the first time that two iron clad vessels ever met in battle. It ended the days of wooden vessels, and marked a new era in naval warfare. Neither of the boats ever r took part in another encounter. The “Monitor” and most of her crew went down in December, 1862 in a storm off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and the “Merrimac” was destroyed when McClellan pu the Con- federates to withdraw from Norfolk. The naval fleet of that time, while now it seems insig- nificant to us, played an important part in the Civil War. They carried out the blockade of the eastern ports, and aided much in the campaign along the Mississippi River. Here under Captain Farragut, a fleet of nearly fifty wooden vessels was gathered—the largest that had ever sailed under the Stars and Stripes. His work was to destroy the forts, conquer the Confederate fleet, and take the city. One of the men who took part in this successful enterprise was Lieutenant George Dewey, who later became Admiral Dewey, the “Hero of Manila.” 4 The Monitor had been built at New York by John Ericsson. It had a small iron hull. On the top of the deck there was built a round turret carrying two guns. This turret revolved, hence the guns could fire in any direction. The Southerners laughed at the queer craft and called it a Yankee cheese box on a raft. 88 THIRD QUARTER The battle between these first two iron clad warships took place March 9. Neither ship could really claim the victory in the encounter, though both did so. 369. Peninsular Campaign; 370. Washington rhidedenet tc In July, 1861, General McClellan was given command of the military department of Washington and in Eastern Virginia. August and September were spent in organizing and drilling the new army, and in fortifying Washington in every possible way. By the middle of October, McClellan’s Army totaled over 150,000 men, and two hundred pieces of artillery. The soldiers were in readiness and the demand came from the North that he should make some decisive move. Still he hestitated. After the battle of Bull Run there was little activity along the coast until in 1862. McClellan was in charge of the army there and the North was growing impatient because he did not make an advance upon Richmond, the Confederate capital. Finally in March 1862, McClellan was ready to move. This was the first advance of McClellan. His plan was to take his troops from Washington by water to the peninsula be- tween the James and York rivers. By choosing this route, he thought he could reach Richmond without having to dispute with the enemy over any of the great rivers. Johnston would be forced to leave Bull Run and go to the defense of Rich- mond. The great objections to this plan were that Johnston might not try to defend Richmond, but might march against Washington ; besides, General “Stonewall” Jackson was close at hand in the Shenandoah Valley, and might march down the valley and make a dash on Washington, therefore, Stanton, Secretary of War, and Lincoln ordered McClellan to leave about 75,000 men under McDowell, Banks, and Fremont to protect Washington and keep the Confederates from coming down the Shenandoah. McClellan took the remainder of his army from Washington to Fortress Monroe, and after he had drilled his army for about a month in order to attack York- town, the Confederates quietly moved away to Richmond. McClellan started after them, intending to have a battle with them at Williamsburg, but they got away again. McClellan followed them until within seven miles of Richmond. In fol- lowing the enemy, the Union army got into a dangerous position. Heavy rains had caused the Chickahominy river to rise, and this cut the army in two. Johnston knew this was his opportunity, and struck the southern half of the Union army at Fair Oaks. On the first day of the battle the Con- pedrtatcs were sucecssful, but were defeated the second day. -—- THIRD QUARTER 89 The Confederate commander, Joseph E. Johnston, was wound- ed and the command was given to Robert E. Lee. Lee sum- moned Johnston from the Shenandoah Valley, and attacked McClellan from the 26th of June to the 2d of July, 1862. This / is known as the Seven Days’ Battles. McClellan was forced to: leave on account of provisions, afid took up his position at the east of the James River, but later moved back to the neighborhood of Washington. The Confederates had boldly defended their capital, and McClellan’s advance on Richmond had ended in a failure. The last battle of the “Seven Day’s Fight” in the Peninsular Campaign was known as the battle of Malvern Hill. This en- gagement took place July 1, 1862. The Peninsular Campaign had cost the North thousands in killed and wounded. In the fighting of the last seven days, McClellan lost 16,000 men, and Richmond was as far out of reach as ever. 371. The Battle of Antietam. . When Joseph E. Johnston was wounded at Fair Oaks, the command of the Confederate army was given to Robert E. Lee. The Confederates had already made one advance against Washington in the first battle of Bull Run. Lee’s route was north from Fair Oaks toward Washington, where he was determined to attack Pope, who held command of the Union forces near Washington. Pope met the armies of Lee and Jackson on the old Bull Run battlefield. They fought for two days, August 29th and 30th. Pope’s army,was defeated, and he was forced to fall back to Washington. He then resigned his command, and his army was united with that of McClellan. _Lee made an advance into Maryland, and was determined to win that state for the Confederacy. But when he arrived there he was treated so coldly that he soon knew that Mary- land had no desire to become a part of the “Confederate States of America.” Shortly after entering the state, Lee and Jack- son took Frederick, and then intended to move on Baltimore or Philadelphia. The poem, “Barbara Frietchie,” written by John G. Whit- tier, tells the story of how Barbara Frietchie, of Frederick, a woman ninety years of age, raised the flag from her attic window, and how Jackson ordered his men to shoot it down. Scarcely had it been shot down and the staff broken, when she waved it again, saying: | . “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, oD, ® But spare your country’s flag.” = 90 | THIRD QUARTER When Jackson, who had once fought under the American flag in the Revolutionary War, saw how loyal Barbara Frietchie was to her country, he gave the command to his soldiers: “Who touches a hair of yon gray head, Dies like a dog! March on! he said.” General McClellan followed the Confederates after they left Frederick, and forced Lee to turn westward. The two armies met at Antietam, and here one of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought, September_17, 1862. Lee was forced to retreat after a heavy loss. The Confederates lost eleven thousand men, and the Union army lost twelve thousand. “Lee recrossed the Potomac into Virginia. Lincoln ordered Mc- Clellan to follow him, but because he moved so slowly, he was removed from command, and Burnside became his suc- cessor. It has been said that there were more killed and wounded during the battle of Antietam September 17, 1862, than on any other one day of the whole war. The Union Army lost 12,000 men and the Confederates 9,000, some authorities say 11 000. At least though it was not a decisive victory for either side, his losses were so heavy that he was compelled to cross the Potomac, and thus lessen the danger to Washington. 372. Severe Battles in Northern Virginia. General Burnside began a third, advance on Richmond. He crossed the Rappahannock, and met the Confederates under Lee, who were protected by the fortified heights around Fredericksburg. The Union army made the attack, December 13, 1862, and was defeated with a loss of 13,000 men. The — Confederates lost 4,000. Burnside was dismissed from com- mand, and Hooker took his place. Hooker now thought he would reach Richmond from the Rappahannock River. The two armies met at a small place called Chancellorsville. The battle was fought May 1 to 4, 1863. The Confederates were under Lee and Jackson. Hooker | was defeated and lost 17,000 men. Even though victorious, it was a sad battle for the Confederates, for in this battle “Stone- wall” Jackson, through a mistake, was shot by one of his own men, and died a few days later. It is probable that the Union army would not have been defeated had it not been that Gen- eral Hooker was stunned by a cannon ball, and was not able to give commands for several hours. This was the fifth campaign again Richmond, and it ended in another failure. THIRD QUARTER 9] General Lee felt greatly encouraged by his great victory at Chancellorsville, and resolved to move northward, through Maryland into Pennsylvania, where he intended to capture Philadelphia and New York, and then move on Washington. He thought if he was successful, England and France would then help the Confederacy. This was the third time the Con- federates advanced into the Northern states. Lee had a fine army of 70,000 men. Hooker, who had 100,000, started after his as fast as he could, to prevent him from making an attack on Philadelphia. Just in the midst of the campaign, Hooker wanted to withdraw the Union force which was at Harper’s Ferry. This the War Department would not permit, whereupon Hooker asked to be removed from command, and, being refused, he resigned and was succeeded by General George G. Meade. -The new Union commander pushed on to Gettysburg, where he ~ met the Confederates under Lee. 373. The Deciding Battle—Gettysburg. Gettysburg was one of the most important and decisive battles of the war. Both sides fought with the most desperate courage. The Confederates held Seminary Ridge; the Union men, Cemetery Ridge, nearly opposite. The battle lasted three days, July 1 to 4, 1863. On the first day the Confederates having far greater numbers, gained the advantage. On the second day Lee’s men made a rush to get Little Round Top, but were beaten back with heavy loss. Later they got a foot- hold on Culp’s Hill, but were soon driven out. Longstreet advised Lee not to make a final attack, but Lee was determined to risk it, and the third day Lee sent Pickett with a force of 15,000 Confederates to attack General Hancock on Cemetery Ridge. To reach the ridge they had to cross a mile of open ground. They came forward steadily, silently, under a terrible fire from the Union guns. Their ranks were ploughed through and through with shot and shell, “but the men did not falter. They charged up the slight rise of ground and broke a part’ of the Union line; but they could go no further, and- Pickett, with the fragments of his division— for only fragments were left—fell back defeated. It was the end of the most stubbornly fought battle of the war: nearly fifty thousand brave men had fallen in the contest. Lee had failed; he retreated across the Potomac, and never made an- other attempt to invade the North.—From “Montgomery's Lead- ing Facts of American History. Ginn & Company, Publishers, bp. 316, 317. 92 THIRD a ge Lee had 70,000 men and Meade 90,000 for use in the battle. Gettysburg was the first and last battle fought on Northern soil. No later attempt was made at Washington and hereafter the-South fought only on the defensive. It was less than two years since the first real battle of the war had been fought, but during this time both sides had shown a loyalty to their cause that must excite the admiration of all future generations. It seemed now that the North would. surely be victorious, provided ie she was not divided by dissensions at home. But it was equally certain that the South would never give up till men, money, and provisions were completely exhausted. It was a test of mere en- durance, and the South was sure to make the North pay, and pay dear ly for any- victories gained. WAR IN THE WEST. 374. Plans for War West of the Alleghanies. The war in the West had three objectives:—Ist, to hold the border states; 2nd, to control the principal rivers, Mississippi, Ohio, Cumberland and the Tennessee; 3rd, to invade the South, divide the Confederacy and capture its army. Lincoln’s first aim was to save the border states. These were the slaves states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. In Eastern Kentucky, Tennessee, and in Western Virginia, which later became the separate state of West Virginia there was a strong Union sentiment. Indeed, the first victories the Union cause won, were gained in Western Virginia. Lincoln realized how much it would mean to the North. to keep these states in the Union. It would not only give their resources to the Union cause but would help discourage the South for them not to have all the slave states in the Confederacy. Owing to the stand her Governor took, Maryland soon decided _ for the Union. But then Kentucky and Missouri were yet to win. — In the contest for Missouri, two important battles were ~ . fought. These were the battles of Wilson’s Creek, August, 1861,, « and Pea Ridge, March, 1862. ! In the contest for Kentucky the struggle settled around the two forts—Fort Donelson and Fort Henry. These were forts on the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers about twelve miles apart and were held by the Confederate. When they were captured by Grant, Kentucky was definitely saved for the Union. The second plan of the North in carrying the war into the West had to do with winning the principal rivers. The capture of the two forts—Fort Donelson and Fort Henry, broke the Confederate line of defense on the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers. Grant then moved his army south to Pittsburg Landing THIRD QUARTER 93 on the Tennessee River and at Shiloh gained a most decisive victory. This gave a clear passage down the Tennessee River and also forced the Confederates to abandon Fort Pillow on the Mississippi River. This now gave the Union side the Mississippi River as far south as Memphis, Tennessee. Later New Orleans, Vicksburg, and Port Hudson were taken and the whole length of the Mississippi opened. The third plan of the Union side was to divide the Confed- erate forces and then capture them. This plan was aided by the opening of the Mississippi River, for it cut the Confederacy off from aid that Texas and the states to the west might otherwise have given and decided that the battle ground of the war would be in the states east of the Mississippi and for the most part south of the Ohio River. . The full-discussion of these battles will be ee up in later topics. The chief battles of this period of the war were:— Murfreesboro (sometimes called Stone’s River), Chickamauga, Chattanooga, Lookout Mountaim, Resaca, Dallas and Kenesaw M ountain. 375. Grant’s Task to Open the Mississippi. The Confederate line of defense extended from Columbus, Kentucky, on the Mississippi. River west to Cumberland Gap in the Alleghanies. In January, 1862, Grant occupied Paducah, Kentucky, at the mouth at the Tennessee River. Polk was in - command of the Confederate forces at Columbus, Kentucky. He had seen what an advantage Paducah would be to the South for it would give him access to both the Cumberland and - Tennessee rivers, but Grant got possession of it first. Polk im- mediately began to strengthen the bluff at Columbus with earth- | works on which he mounted one hundred forty-two heavy guns. At New Madrid at Island No. 10 and at Fort Pillow—all places on the Mississippi River south of Columbus fortifications were also begun or strengthened. Grant’s task now was to get possession of the forts not only along the Mississippi but also along the Cumberland and Tennessee. -Among the encounters ‘before he gained his objective which was the battle of Belmont. In this battle the Union side lost be- tween five and six hundred killed, captured, and wounded, while the Confederates lost six hundred forty-one. Both sides dained 2) victory, but the odds were perhaps with the Confederate forces. Grant now turned his attention to FortHenry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland. After these were captured, he held undisputed possession of the river 94 THIRD QUARTER to Memphis for Fort Pillow and Island No. 10 could no longer be held by the Confederates. The little town of Corinth in northern Mississippi was a very strategic point for it was the junction of the two railroads connecting the Mississippi River, the Gulf of Mexico with Virginia and the Carolinas. If this could be taken, the river would be open to Vicksburg. : Beauregard was in command of the Confederate troops at Corinth. Halleck was at the head of the advancing Union forces. Grant had been placed second in command over the whole of the three armies of Pope, Grant, and Buell, a position of greater honor than usefulness, as later appeared. The combined forces num- bered more than 100,000 men. Later, in March, 1864, he was made commander-in-chief of all the Union forces. Beauregard knew he could not hold Corinth against such numbers, so with- drew to Tupelo, a station sixty miles south on the road to Mobile. ~ Later Vicksburg was captured, and with New Orleans already _ in the hands of the Union forces, the Mississippi was open to the Gulf. 376. Cairo and Mound City, Strategic Points. Early in the war, both sides saw the strategic value of Cairo. It was situated at the junction of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers; . this being the key to both rivers. Polk tried to gain it for the Confederates, and with this in view entrenched himself at Columbus, Kentucky. Not only was Cairo important from the river side, but with it in possession of the Confederates, all western Kentucky would be lost to the Union cause. But Grant saw its value to the Union, and seized it. At the same time Polk took possession of Columbus. Mound City was a point just north of Cairo. It was aber ten miles north and on the Ohio River. With Cairo in his possession, Grant could control this part of the Mississippi River and with Mound City, he held the key to the Ohio River. His next move was to gain possession of Paducah, Kentucky. With this in his control, he blockaded the lower Ohio and commanded the mouths of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers. Later General C. F. Smith was sent to hold the mouth of the Cumberland Riyer for the Union cause. f 377, From Cairo to Ft. Donelson. Grant saw the strategic importance about the time Polk saw it, but while the Confederate general was entrenching himself at Columbus, Grant seized Cairo, He next gained- possession of _ Paducah. Grant now asked permission to move against Polk at | Columbus, but his request was unheeded. In the meantime the THIRD QUARTER 95 Confederates were strengthening their positions at Columbus, at New Madrid, and at Island No. 10, and still further south at Fort Pillow. November 7, Grant sailed down the Mississippi under convoy of two gunboats, with 3,000 men and landed on the Missouri shore about three miles from Columbus. This place was called Belmont and consisted of but three wooden shanties, built at the level of the water, and entirely screened by a high woods from view of the enemy at Columbus. Polk had sent General Pillow with 2,500 men to this point. After a fight lasting for hours, Pillow’s forces retreated in disorder and the Union men took possession of the camp. But Grant’s troops were raw and un- trained, and were so elated over the success of the undertaking that they persisted in pillaging the camp, instead of making a safe getaway. Grant saw the danger and ordered the camp to be set on fire. When the batteries at Columbus saw it in possession of the enemy, they opened a heavy fire upon it, and the Union troops _ at last realizing their danger, started for their boats. But Grant had reorganized his scattered forces, and with three fresh regi- ments cut off the line of retreat of the Union forces from their boats. Grant had to charge the enemy, which again retreated, this time to be reinforced by General Polk himself. However, the Federal troops at last gained their boats, taking with them two captured cannon and some prisoners. Grant narrowly missed _ being captured, since he persisted in staying on the field till his troops were on board. Both sides claimed a victory at Belmont. Grant had gained his purpose, which was to so engage Polk’s attention that he would keep his forces at Columbus.and not send any of them as aid to Missouri. Polk had been successful in blocking the Mississippi River _ by his fortress at Columbus, so now Fort Henry was built on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland with the same end in view. Both were in Tennessee about twelve miles apart. About ninety miles northeast of Fort Donelson was Bowling Green, held by General Buckner. East of Bowling Green about the same distance was Mill Spring where General Zollicoffer guarded the approaches to the Cumberland Mountains. The next move made by the Union forces was upon Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. The Confederates wanted to protect Tennessee from invasion, therefore they built two forts, one at Fort ‘Henry, on the Tennessee River, and the other at Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland River. If these two places could be taken, the Union forces could gain control of the two rivers, be- sides break the Confederate line of defense in the center. Com- modore Foote, with his fleet, made an attack upon Fort 96 THIRD QUARTER Henry. He was to have been assisted by General Grant, but Grant did not get there in time to take part in the capture of it. Foote was successful, and Fort Henry surrendered Febru- ary 6, 1862. He next moved against Fort Donelson, but his ships were damaged so badly that he was compelled to with- — draw. Grant surrounded the fort with 30,000 men, and com- pelled the Confederates under General Buckner to surrender February 16, 1862. This broke the Confederate line of de- fense, and opened the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers for a long distance. The Confederates abandoned Bowling Green and Columbus, and evacuated Nashville. All of Kentucky and most of Tennessee were now held by the Union forces. 378. Capture of New Orleans. Captain Farragut, with a large fleet, and General Butler, with a land force, undertook to capture New Orleans. The Confederates protected the city by building two forts, one on each side of the river. Below these forts two heavy iron chains were stretched from the hulks of sunken ships. Yet before they could get to New Orleans it was necessary to run through a fleet of Confederate gunboats. Several days were spent in trying to reduce the forts. Finally Commodore Far- ragut cut the chains and ran past the forts with his ships, but exposed his men to a terrible cannonade from the forts. At last he reached New Orleans above the forts, and captured the city April 25, 1862. This great victory gave the Union government the control of the lower Mississippi. General Butler (Union) held the city after it had been captured. 379. Mississippi River in Control of Union Forces Above and Below Vicksburg. : After the Confederates withdrew from northwestern* Iennes- see,they centered at Corinth, a little town in northern Mississippi. The united forces of Grant and Buell under the command of Halleck were to attack this place. The Confederates were doing all in their power to hold this, so that they might make it the base for their offensive campaign. Grant took up his position at Shilch, near Pittsburgh Landing. Here he was attacked, and the first day driven back by the Confederates. The Confederate General, Albert Sidney Johnston, tried hard to drive Grant into the Tennessee river, but the next day General Buell arrived with reinforcements for Grant, and after fighting all day, the Confederates under Beauregard were forced to retreat. This was one of the most stubbornly fought battles of the war, and both sides lost heavily. The Union loss was about 15,000; the Confederate THIRD QUARTER 97 about 10,700. After the Confederates had been defeated at Shiloh, they took up their position at Corinth. This was an important point near the Confederate railroad. Soldiers and supplies which came off the steamers could be landed there, and then could be hauled to the railroad. If the Union army could get possession of this railroad, which extended from Memphis to Chattanooga, they thought they could starve the Confederates until they would give up the war. This was Grant’s object when he was attacked at Pittsburgh Landing. In May, the Confederates surrendered Corinth, and it was occupied by Union troops. Island Number Ten, on the Mississippi River, was taken by General Pope and Commodore Foote, April 8, 1862. The two armies fought for over a month. At last the Confederates surrendered. This opened the Mississippi down to Vicksburg. The capture of New Orleans by General Butler and General Farragut gave the Union Army control of the lower part of the Mississippi River as far north as Vicksburg. The capture of New Orleans had been important for several reasons. It was by far the largest of the Southern cities, having a population of about 170,000. It had many machine shops and many trained workmen _——both badly needed by the Confederacy. It also closed the lower Mississippi to Union boats. If the Union could gain New Orleans, it could cut off Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana from aiding the Confederacy. These states could furnish at least 100,000 more men, and could raise enough food to feed all the South. These reasons made it very necessary for the North to seize New Orleans as soon as possible. 380, Seige and Capture of Vicksburg. After the battles of ‘Iuka and Corinth, Grant was put in command of the Army of the West, and allowed to work out his own plans. He decided that the capture of Vicksburg should be the next important event. General Sherman, aided by the gunboats, was to go down the Mississippi from Mem- phis, land on the Yazoo and attack the city from the north side. /Grant was to advance from Holly Springs directly toward Vicksburg, and occupy the attention of General Pem- | berton, who commanded a Confederate army in northern Mississippi, and prevent him from sending aid to Vicksburg. General Rosecrans was to advance against General Bragg, who, with another Confederate force, was near Murphysboro, and ‘keep him from sending troops into Mississippi. It was’ / expected that Sherman would thus be able to capture Vicks- burg, or that Grant’s and Sherman’s armies could unite and ' capture it. ! 98 : THIRD QUARTER The armies started according to the plan, but a Confed- erate force of cavalry raided Holly Springs and destroyed Grant’s depot of supplies, so he was unable to advance, Sher- man, not knowing of Grant’s misfortune, went ahead with his _ attack, but was badly defeated. The whole plan had failed because Grant could not protect his line of supplies for such a long advance into the country as a start from the north in- volved. Besides, the plan was bad. It involved the co-oper- ation of armies too distant from each other, and each liable to defeat before the other could aid it. Some plan would have to be worked out that would permit of all the forces being used in one large army. : In the Spring of 1863 Grant, after trying to cut a_canal past Vicksburg, decided to march his army down the west side of the river to a point some’twenty-five miles below Vicksburg, have his gunboats and transports run past the batteries, and then, with the aid of his boats, transfer his entire army to the east bank of the river, and then attack Vicksburg from the east, or rear side. General Pemberton, with a strong army, was in Vicks- ; burg watching Grant, and General Johnston was collecting another army near Jackson. Grant planned to get between ~ these two armies and prevent them from uniting. So long as they were divided, his army was stronger than either, but united they were possibly more than a match for him. The success of the plans turned upon the energy and speed with which it was executed. A delay might easily mean failure and a defensive struggle with the combined Confederate armies. If the attack was made with sufficient energy, both Vicksburg and Pemberton’s army would be captured. He succeeded in getting his army across the river without much opposition, captured Port Gibson, pushed on raipdly and defeated General Johnston’s army at Jackson, seized the railroad over which Pemberton got his supplies, turned west, and defeated General Pemberton’s army at Champion’s Hill, and again at Big Black River, and so drove him back into Vicksburg. Grant intended to capture Pemberton’s whole army as well as Vicksburg. Failing to capture the place by direct assault, he had to settle ~ down and take the place by regular siege operations. In the meantime, Johnston had reorganized his army, recaptured Jackson, and was trying to force Grant to give up the siege. Pemberton was inside, Grant was just outside, and Johnston was on the outside of Grant’s army. As Grant’s army re- ceived its provisions from the boats in the Mississippi River, it was in no danger of being cut off from its supplies, and sufficient reinforcements soon reached him to enable him to THIRD QUARTER 99 fortify the ground east of him, so as to prevent Johnston from interfering. General Pemberton and his army of 35,000 men were entirely cut off from supplies by the boats in the river, and Grant’s army on the east, and as their provisions were soon exhausted, they were forced to surrender, July 4, 1863. The prisoners were paroled and thus the Union was spared the time and cost of feeding this great number of men. Before the evening of the 4th, Sherman had gone with 50,000 men in pursuit of Johnston. The number. captured at Vicksburg was the greatest up to that day in modern warfare. Grant took 37,000 men and one hundred seventy-two cannon, while the North went mad with joy. The capture of Vicksburg marks the turning point of the war. It together with the Battle of Gettysburg, showed definitely the real superiority of the North over the South, in men, supplies, and generalship. COLLAPSE OF THE REBELLION. 381. Operations Around Chattanooga. After the fall of Vicksburg, the next most strategic point _ held by the Confederates, aside from their capital at Richmond, was Chattanooga and its mountainous surroundings. This was true largely because of its position. It has often been called the gateway to the North, and such it really was located at the lower end of the mountain defile known as East Tennessee; it is the center of many railroads leading in every direction, both North and South. If the Union forces could capture it, the Confederacy would indeed be divided and North Carolina and Virginia would be shut off to the east. Georgia would lie open to invasion from the north, while Mississippi and Alabama would be isolated to the southwest. Each great army had its objective. Vicksburg had been the objective of the Army of the Tennessee; Richmond, of the Army of the Potomac; so now Chattanooga was the ob- jective of the Army of the Cumberland. Rosecrans was in charge of the army in this region, and on June 24, he led his army from Murfreesboro, Tennessee. He hoped to maneuver Bragg, the Confederate general, out of Chattanooga if he could without a battle. By skillful maneuvering in nine days, he had cleared central Tennessee of Confederate forces, and had caused them to take up their stand at Chattanooga. Rosecrans had 70,000 men, and Bragg but 40,000, so Bragg had to call Buckner’s forces from eastern Tennessee, thus abandoning Knoxville to the Federal forces. Now, Rosecrans was faced with the problem of dis- lodging Bragg from Chattanooga. Because of its location, it was 100 THIRD QUARTER very difficult to approach it from the north. The most direct route was the road over Waldron’s Ridge, but Rosecrans knew Bragg was expecting him over this road so decided to come up from the south instead. This road kept him in touch with his base of supplies at Stevenson, and would keep him near a railway, but it took him over very rough country and poor roads. A series of parallel ranges lay along the banks of the Tennessee River. They were Raccoon Mountain, Lookout Mountain, Missionary Ridge, Pigeon Mountain, Chickamauga Hill, Taylor’s Ridge and Chattanooga Mountain, while the city of Chattanooga lay between ~- the Tennessee River, and the northern ends of these ridges. Dalton and Resaca, Georgia, lay to the south and east. _ Now Rosecrans plan was to keep his base at Stevenson, Alabama cov- ered, while he moved south across these mountain ridges and at- tacked the city from the south. In order to keep Bragg from seeing what he was doing, he began to shell the town on the twentieth of August from across the river, to keep Bragg from noticing what was going on elsewhere.- During the last days of August and the first four of September, Rosecrans began march-" ing his army over Raccoon Mountain. By the eighth of Septem- ber his movements were completed, and Bragg perceiving too late what had taken place evacuated Chattanooga and moved to Lafayette, twenty-five miles south of Chattanooga and at the southern point of Chickamauga Hill. On the 9th of September the Federal troops moved into Chattanooga. But Bragg had re- treated for a-purpose. He was by no means beaten, nor did he intend to withdraw permanently. He had left Chattanooga to cover his line of communications and to find his enemy. But Rosecrans here made his great mistake. He thought Bragg’s forces were disorganized, and divided up his army to hold various points. In all the Union forces were scattered over about fiity- seven miles with no more than 20,000 in any one place. Under these conditions Rosecrans woke the twelfth of September to find himself facing Bragg’s whole army, with reinforcements till it numbered at least 55,000. As rapidly as possible Rosecrans- began to assemble his army but the delay of General McCook’s forces prevented his gaining a position of advantage. Hence, when the battle was begun by Bragg, Rosecrans was at a dis- advantage both as to forces and location. The resulting battle was one of the worst of the war—the Battle of Chickamagua. It was in this battle that General Thomas gained his nickname “Rock of Chickamauga.” “For six ‘long hours, he with 25,000 men bore the brtint of the battle. Sixty thousand rebels attacked his position again and again, only to fall back. But Thomas rode among his men, cool but determined, defending his position, the Rossville Road. When evening came on, the defenders found THIRD QUARTER ~— 101 their ammunition exhausted, and tfe forces had te .zsort to their bayonets. But when night put an end to the fight, Thomas still held the Rossville Road; and the Union Army was saved from destruction. On the 22nd of September it retired to Chattanooga. The Indian meaning of Chickamauga is ‘Valley of Death,” and the place had now surely earned its title. In all the Civil War, it was the largest except Gettysburg and the Wilderness. There were about 130,000 men engaged with about 37,000 killed, wounded or missing. Rosecrans had about 62,000 men, Bragg about 70,000. The Union lost about 17,000 while the Confederates about 20,000, most of them in the attacks on Thomas’ forces at Horseshoe Ridge. 382. Grant Made Commander-in-Chief,, After the Battle of Chickamauga: Roseérans sith ety to Chattanooga, where he was beseiged by Bragg. On the 19th day of October, Rosecrans was removed from command of the Army of the Cumberland and Grant was called from Mississippi and placed in command of all the forces between the Mississippi River and the Alleghenies. Thomas was given Rosecrans’ place as commander of the Army of the Cumberland. Sherman was given Grant’s place as commander of the Army of thé Tennessee, while Rosecrans was sent to Missouri. There were now but two large Confederate armies—one at Richmond under Lee, and one in northern Georgia under General Joseph E. Johnston, who had taken Bragg’s forces. Early in 1864, Grant was made lieutenant general of all the armies of the United States. His orders were to capture Richmond and destroy Lee’s forces in Virginia ; General Sherman in the West was ordered to move upon General Johnston and capture Georgia. 383, From the Rapidan to Petersburg. After the Battle of Gettysburg, which was fought just north _ of the Maryland line in Pennsylvania, Lee’s Army was forced to retreat south. In this retreat they were followed by the Union Army, now under the command of Grant. To understand the fighting which followed, we must knew something of the nature of the location. The Rapidan is a small river, which is the southern one of the two forks of the Rappahanock River, which roughly parallels the James River to the South, both empty- ing into the Chesapeake Bay. Crossing the Rapidan River, Grant’s army entered the Wilderness, which was a stretch of country covered wtih a low growth of oak, pine and other brush. Here Lee attacked 102 THIRD QUARTER Grant, but was unable to*check him, and he moved on to Spottsylvania, where the two armies fought for several days, and Grant lost thousands of his men, but could not defeat the enemy. He moved on to Cold: Harbor, where a terrible battle was fought, and Grant was beaten back. Lee took up his posi- tion in Richmond which was strongly ‘fortified, and Grant moved on and took up his position opposite Petersburg, which. formed part of the defense of Richmond on the south. Grant made a dash on Petersburg, but was repulsed. A few days later he tried it again, and was repulsed a second time. He now knew that if he ever hoped to take the place, he would have to lay siege to it as he had done at Vicksburg. General Lee sent General Early to threaten Washington, and if pos- sible to take it. He did this in order to draw Grant from the siege of Richmond. When Early reached Washington, he found the fortifications stronger than he had expected. He then had to retreat up the Shenandoah Valley. The Confed- erates seized all the horses and cattle they could find, robbed banks and secured a great deal of booty. This of course would be of great value to the Confederates, for they were running short of all sorts of supplies. Early felt perfectly safe, for no troops had been sent against him. He then ordered a body of troops to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. When the troops arrived, they demanded that the citizens of Chambers- burg should give them $100,000 in gold. They refused, and the troops burned Chambersburg. General Grant now sent General Sheridan to deal with Early. The two generals met at Winchester, September 19th. A sharp battle was fought, in which Early was defeated. Three days later they met again, and a battle was fought at Fisher’s Hill, and Early was de- feated a second time. Early received reinforcements, and while Sheridan was away, he made an attack on Sheridan’s army at Cedar Creek, and was driving it in confusion, when Sheri- dan unexpectedly arrived, gathered his men together, turned on the Confederates and routed them with great slaughter. In fact, he completely destroyed Early’s army. This was the last time the Confederates made an attempt to threaten Wash- » ington. When Grant saw there was nothing else to do, he decided to lay seige to Petersburg. This campaign had cost Grant dearly in time and men. He with 50,000 men had entered the Wilder- ness in May, 1864. It was almost a year later that saw Lee’s surrender, April 2, 1865. Here was seen some of the bloodiest battles of the war. In twenty minutes the Union lost 8,000 men at Cold Harbor, yet Grant saw it as the only means to the end, and telegraphed Lincoln, “I propose to fight it out on this line THIRD QUARTER 103 if it takes all summer.” And fight it out he did, not only through the summer, and fall, but even through the next winter. The first six weeks cost Grant nearly 40,000 men and Lee not half so ‘. many, yet Grant knew the North could-—afford the sacrifice of men and provisions, while the South could not. It was merely wearing down their resistance by the weight of overwhelming numbers. The South was becoming drained of men and supplies, while every day the blockade of Southern ports was becoming more effective. 384, From Chattanooga to Atlanta, Sherman marched from Cattanooga to take Atlanta, which was an important railway center for the Confederates. They had only two places of power left; one, was at Rich- mond, Virginia, under Lee, the other, at Dalton, Georgia, under Johnston. Sherman on May 4, 1864, marched direct from Chatta- nooga against Johnston at Dalton, Georgia. Johnston was defeated, and retreated step by step toward Atlanta. Shortly before reaching Atlanta, the Confederate government re- moved Johnston, and put Hood in command. Hood made several attacks on Sherman’s army, but was repulsed every . time with great loss. At last Hood could not hold Atlanta any longer and Sherman took the place September 2, 1864, and Hood started northward. Sherman fired Atlanta, spared nothing, but the dwellings and churches. The loss of Atlanta was a great blow to the Confederates. Sherman now left At- lanta, and set out for the sea coast throught the heart of the Confederacy. When Sherman marched on Atlanta, he had about 100,000 seasoned men, while Johnston opposed him with 65,000. The three most severe battles were at Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain in May and June of 1864. The farther Sherman ad- vanced, the smaller grew his forces, for he had to leave some each time to guard the places taken. President Davis had a per- sonal dislike for Johnston, so removed him and put Hood in his place. Hood rashly made three furious attacks on Sherman’s Army and was repulsed with heavy losses each time. Finally, he was forced to withdraw his forces and give over Atlanta. Note—Locate each place mentioned. 385. From Atlanta to the Sea. After burning Atlanta, Sherman started in November, 1864, on his march to the sea. He had an army of 60,000 men. The troops went in four columns, covering a belt sixty miles wide. . They lived on the country through which they trav- 104 THIRD QUARTER eled and so strong was his army that the Confederates could not check him. He marched directly through the granary of the South, burnt bridges, tore up railroads, and destroyed every thing that came in his way. Fort McAllister defended Savannah, but it was soon taken and Sherman entered Sa- vannah December 21, 1864. When Hood left Atlanta, he marched into Tennessee with 50,000 hoping that Sherman would follow him and thus get him (Sherman) out of Georgia. But Sherman had no idea of giving up Georgia. Instead he sent Thomas, the Rock of Chickamauga, with part of his army to take“€are of Hood’s activities around Nashville. Thomas delayed so long in attacking Hood that: he was very nearly removed and his men given to Logan. Fortun- ately this was not done, for Thomas knew what he was doing, and December 15 and 16 he fought a battle at Nashville, com- pletely overpowering Hood’s forces. This was one of the most decisive victories of the war, for the Confederate Army in the West was completely broken up, and Sherman could now start on his march to the sea, unhampered by attacking Confederate forces. Sherman’s plans were to march to the sea, thereby cutting the Confederacy in two, then to march north, and join Grant for the attack on Richmond. ‘This covered more than 1,000 miles of march, through hostile country. As Sherman’s men - advanced, they not only tore up the railroads but heated the rails red hot and twisted them around trees, to keep the Confederates from rebuilding the road. Sherman’s march to the sea was one of the grim necessities of war. Through the very richest districts of the South, he laid waste an area of sixty miles from Atlanta to Savannah. Factories were burned, cotton and all munitions of war were destroyed, machine shops dismantled, railroads de- stroyed; even the crops and farm animals were consumed or carried off. Sherman knew the South would never give up as long as men and supplies lasted. He deemed it less brutal to destroy the supplies than to mow down the men in battle. But the mark of this raid still lasts in the South today. Plantations abandoned and destroyed at that time, still lie desolate. Looking back at it now we may feel much of it was needless, for it struck not only at the Army, but at the home life, the women and chil- dren of the Confederacy. Sherman was thorough—it is said a crow flying over the devastated area would have to carry its own provisions. One writer in speaking of depredations in Belgium said that no greed, no lust, no cruelty equalled that of a victorious, — conquering army. That was as true in 1864 as in 1916. The army foraged the country—the inhabitants were sure to suffer. December 12th, 1864, Sherman reached Savannah. December 24, 1864, the city surrendered. Sherman sent Lincoln a telegram ‘ THIRD QUARTER 105 presenting Savannah as a Christmas gift with one hundred fifty guns, about 25,000 bales of cotton, and plenty of ammunition. Note—Have pupils draw a map of Sherman’s march. 386. From Petersburg to Appomattox. Grant laid siege to Petersburg. It lasted for ten months. The. Union army thought they could gain entrance into Peters- burg if they could blow up one of the forts in front of the place. They, therefore, dug a mine, and placed eight thousand pounds of powder in it, and July 30, 1864, just at dawn, the powder was fired. Three. hundred men, several cannons and great_masses of earth were thrown high into the air. The Union soldiers thought they could rush through this gap and enter Petersburg, but they were repulsed with ‘terrible slaugh- ter. The Petersburg mine was a failure. When the year 1864 closed, the siege of Petersburg was still in progress, but Grant finally took it April 2, 1865, after a great many battles had been fought, and on the 3d of April, 1865, the Union soldiers entered Richmond. When Lee left Richmond, he intended to retreat and unite his forces, now reduced to 28,000, with Johnston. But at Appomattox Court House, it was hemmed in by the Union forces. 387. Lee Surrenders at Appomattox. On April 2d, Lee evacuated Richmond, and Grant entered the place and hoisted the old flag over the city. Lee and his army tried to escape to the mountains, but the Union cavalry hotly pursued them, and Sheridan placed his army across their path at Appomattox Court House. Lee knew he was sur- rounded and surrendered to Grant, April 9, 1865, at Appo- mattox Court House. aire Jefferson Davis, the president of the Conradceey was _ captured and put in prison at Fort Monroe, but was released in 1867. After Lee had surrendered, the remainder of the Con- federacy rapidly went to pieces.. As soon as Johnston heard of Lee’s surrender, he knew it was useless for him to try to hold out any longer, therefore he surrendered to Sherman near Raleigh, North Carolina, April 26, 1865. (Grant treated the Confederate soldiers very generously. He ordered twen- ty-five thousand rations of food to be given to Lee’s men, who were almost starved. He allowed each soldier to keep his” horse. All he asked of the-Confederates was to obey the Fed- eral laws, to lay down their arms, and return to their homes. Grant undoubtedly showed great nobleness of soul. 106 THIRD QUARTER 388. The Confederate Troops Go to Their Homes, The parting of Lee with his troops was one of the touching incidents of the war. When he bade his men good-bye, he said, “We have fought through the war together, and I have done the best I could for you.” Hardened veterans of many campaigns as they were, many wept audibly. Lee, himself with tears on his cheeks, advised the men to return home quietly, to resume their old life in so far as was possible, and to do their part in helping restore the Union. He argued that the question had been decided by war—that overwhelming numbers had won, and as men they must abide by the decision. He himself followed his advice to his men. He later became President of Washington and Lee . University at Lexington, Virginia. He died here in 1870. Grant gave the Confederates their horses, telling them they would need them in the spring plowing. But the men when they | returned in many cases found their families scattered, their homes in ruins, and courage and confidence gone. 389. The Grand Review at Washington. When the war closed, the Union Army numbered more than 1,000,000 soldiers. The plan at first was to disband the army at once, but it was later decided to have a Grand Review in Washington first. May 23-4, 1865, Grant and Sherman’s troops met in Washington, the first time since the beginning of the war that the armies of the East and West had come together. For two days the avenue from the Capitol to the White House was filled by a column over thirty miles long. No such sight had ever been seen in America before. As one officer put it, it was worth ten years of life to be able to say, “I was there.” Within a few weeks the great army was scattered to their homes—all except about 50,000 kept as a standing army. SOME NON-MILITARY MATTERS. 390. The Trent Affair. James M. Mason and John Slidell had been sent by Presi- dent Davis as diplomatic representatives of the Confederacy to Great Britain and France. These two men with their families and assistant$ managed to get out of Charleston Harbor Novem- ber 12th, 1861 on the steamer, Theodora, which landed them safely in Cuba. November 7, 1861 they left Cuba for St. Thomas, and from here they expected to proceed to England. For this trip, they boarded the British mail steamer “Trent.” It so happened that at this time Captain Charles Wilkes of the United States warship, Sam Jacinto, was in Cuban waters look- — THIRD QUARTER 107 ing for the Sumter, a Confederate vessel. When Wilkes heard that Mason and Slidell were in Havana, Cuba, he decided he had the right to board any neutral ship to look for contrabands of war, and to sieze the persons or papers hostile to his govern- ment. Therefore, he waited for the “Trent” in the Bahama Channel the day after she left Havana. When the commander of the Trent refused to stop, Wilkes fired across her bow. The vessel then stopped. Lieutenant Fairfax of the San Jacinto with some marines went aboard the Trent and forcibly removed Mason and Slidell and their secretaries. They were brought by the San Jacinto to Fortress Monroe, then to Boston Harbor, and confined in Fort Warren. But Wilkes failed to secure any papers which the men might have carried, and their families proceeded to England. News of the capture reached Washington the 16th, and London on the 30th. At first the North loudly approved of the action and the House of Representatives passed a vote of thanks. But in London it was denounced as an insult to the British flag, and the government demanded in no uncertain terms instant release of the prisoners with a suitable apology. War between the United States and England seemed imminent, but Lincoln, and his Secretary of State, Seward, had cool heads, while our envoy in London, Mr. Charles Francis Adams was a very tactful man, ‘Then, too, the London representative in Washington, Lord Lyons, was a just man, friendly to the United States. Mr. Seward as soon as he heard the news, assured Mr. Adams that Wilkes had acted without any authority from Washington and that our government was ready to discuss the occurrance at the pleasure of the British Government. The British insisted that the act of Wilkes was illegal because he* had taken envoys out of a British vessel without the authority of the United States. This left a way clear for the United States to settle the matter without loss of dignity, so the prisoners were promptly released and sent on their way to Great Britain. The South was much disappointed over the outcome for they had hoped to involve the North in a war with England thus making more certain victory for the Confederate armies. 391. The Draft. When.the war first began boys and men rushed to volunteer but as the calls came for more and still more men, volunteers were not so numerous. At last it reached the stage where it was necessary to draft men. Under the Federal draft law of 1863 each state was compelled to furnish a certain number of men. Then it was decided by lot who should go. One bad feature of the law was that for $300 you could hire someone to go in 108 THIRD QUARTER your place if you did not wish to go yourself. This really ex- empted the wealthy and forced the poor into going. Riots broke out in New York, and many lives lost. 45 Drafting had been going on in the South for some time, till by 1863 almost every able-bodied man was in the army service. . 392. The Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on New Year’s Day, 1863. This proclamation set forever free all slaves, held in the states then fighting against the Union. The slaves had been a great help to the Confederates, for they could stay on the plantations and work, while their mas- ters were at the front fighting. This proclamation could only be enforced where the Union army gained control, and did not apply to the slave states that remained in the Union. Lin- coln’s object in issuing the proclamation was to weaken the Confederacy. By this proclamation over three millions of negroes received their freedom. Abroad, it had the effect of making it possible for the masses of people to give the Confederacy their moral support. The South had fought so long, and with such great brav- ery that the European nations began to think she might suc- ceed, and there was danger that they might go so far as to recognize her. But after the emancipation proclamation was issued it practically destroyed the possibility of any nation recognizing the Confederacy. The ruling classes in England had favored the South from the beginning, because there was much in common between the type of life led by the Southern planter and that led by the British country lord or squire. They denied that the war was a war to destroy slavery ; and, so long as Lincoln and his advisers maintained the same position, it was easy for the - middle and laboring classes to be deceived. The appearance of the Emancipation Proclamation compelled all to realize that the war had become one to wipe out slavery. The ruling classes still sympathized with the Southern cause, but the attitude of the middle and laboring classes was openly and . demonstratively in favor of the cause of freedom. Politicians always try to court the popular favor and so now the ruling eee were forced to frown upon any open support of the outh. Probably other nations were less influenced by the Eman- cipation Proclamation than was England. But Russia was friendly, and France dared not act without the support of England, consequently the attitude of England was all im-. se " ui at THIRD QUARTER 109 portant. From 1863 the British government began to give the United States less and less cause for complaint. This changed attitude is largely traceable to the profound anti- slavery sympathy of the majority of the English nation. This influence could only make itself felt after Lincoln had spoken. 393. Sanitary and Christian Commissions. The women of New York formed the first sanitary com- mission a few days after Fort Sumter was fired upon. They met at Coopers Union under the leadership of Miss Louisa Lee Schuyler, to form a relief society. This was the foundation for the United States Sanitary Commission which did in the Civil War much the same that the Red Cross did in the World War. From fairs held all over the North more than $3,000,000 were raised for the relief of soldiers. Many women went to the front as nurses; others worked at home, in the fields, in aid societies, or in every other possible way in which they might be of aid. The various societies were known as Christian or Sanitary Commission Auxiliaries, The South showed the same devotion to their soldiers; their ' sacrifice was even greater for their means were more limited. 394. A National Banking Law. In December, 1862, one of the most far-reaching financial measures of the war was enacted. This was the National Banking Act.. Two objects were obtained. A uniform and safe currency was Bcvied for the government and it Secured a market for the National Bonds. It arranged so that banks could buy National Bonds, and on depositing them in the Treasury at Washington, receive in return “National Bank Notes” to the extent of 90 per cent of their par value. These notes were not to be in excess of 90 per cent of their market value. Thus the banks were induced to buy government bonds, for they received interest not only upon the bonds, but also upon the National Bank notes which they loaned to others. 395. Presidential Campaign of 1864. ~The levies for new troops which Lincoln had been forced to make caused bitter feeling against him and in the cam- paign of 1864, the “Peace Democrats” denounced openly the war both at political gatherings and in Congress. The Demo- cratic party was controlled by men who were opposed to con- tinuing the war. The main things charged against Lincoln by them were: 110 THIRD QUARTER The draft. Violating the Constiution. Removing McClellan. Continuing the war. Imprisoning men without trial. Refusal to exchange prisoners. Freeing slaves. . Accepting negro soldiers. The Democrats nominated Geo. B. McClellan for Presi- dent and George H. Pendleton for Vice President. The Union National Party as the Republicans were called during this election, named Lincoln for President and Andrew Johnson for Vice President. Some of the more radi- cal slavery men did not want Lincoln. They thought he was too slow or that he would let the war end on terms unfavor- able to the North. So they nominated Fremont, but he with- drew before the election to keep from splitting up the Republi- can vote. The canvass was short and the result never in serious . doubt. The states generally had passed laws permitting the soldiers to vote and they voted overwhelmingly for Lincoln. Their vote was not needed, however, for without their vote Lincoln carried all the states but New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky, receiving a total of 214 electoral votes, while Mc- Clellan received only 21. (Of course the seceded states took no part in the election.) Lincoln’s popular vote was much larger than it was in 1860. In that year he had received only 1,866,452 votes out of a total of 4,682,066; while in 1864 he received 2,213,665 out of a total vote of 4,166,537. In 1860, Lincoln received only a minority of the votes, but in 1864 he had a clear majority over all. , The election showed also that in spite of the heavy loss of life during four years of Civil War, the total male popu- lation of voting age had increased very noticeably. The total vote of the Northern states alone in 1864 was nearly as large as the vote of the entire United States in 1860. The Republicans had regained the seats in Congress which they had lost in 1862 and added so many more that they commanded more than two-thirds vote in each house. With this majority they could pass the proposed amendment to the Constitution prohibiting slavery throughout the United States. As it turned out, they also had a majority sufficient to pass laws over a president’s veto. ee Sear oe THIRD QUARTER 111 396. England’s Attitude Toward the Southern Confederacy. England in May, 1861, issued a “proclamation of neutrality,” wherein she recognized the South as belligerents. This. does not mean that England recognized the Confederacy as a separate government, but that the rights of a waring nation could be claimed by her. Her soldiers, if captured, were to have all the rights of prisoners of war; this was also true of her sailors, The ' North felt that:Great Britain.had been too hasty in taking this — attitude, but events in a way forced it upon England. While . the Government outwardly tried to maintain an attitude of neutrality, there was no doubt that the ruling class in England and for that matter in all Europe were unfriendly to the Northern cause. One writer has estimated that four-fifths of the House of Lords and the majority of the House of Commons would: have been glad to see the Union broken up and our Republican government proved a failure. John Bright was one of the few great Englishmen of his day who ardently sympathized with Lincoln and his struggle for the North. But if the North lacked the:support of the upper class in England the lower class were strongly for the North and the. Union. When the exportation of cotton stopped, it meant many cotton mills in England were closed and many poor were thrown out of work, but their sympathies remained. wholly with the North. When Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation they were very much pleased, and their attitude kept the English government from taking. any steps in aiding the South. Napoleon IIT of France urged England to aid the Confederacy, but Queen Victoria urged delay, knowing how the great ma- jority of her laboring class felt about the war in the States. Napoleon tried to act as mediator between the North and South, but his offer met with cold reception. 397. ‘‘Cotton is King.’’ In 1784, eight bags of cotton was shipped to England from Charleston, South Carolina. It was the first cotton shipment ever made from the United States. But in time our nation came to supply the raw product that kept busy the looms and factories of all England and Europe. It was cotton that made slave labor so profitable in the South: Soon the exports reached such pro- portions that the South could proudly declare that “cotton is King.” in 1884, at new Orleans an exhibition was held to mark the one hundredth anniversary of the first exportation. of cotton. By 1880, the cotton crop amounted to 5,000,000 bales, or a little more than in 1860, the year before the outbreak of the war. 2 112 THIRD QUARTER In 1904, the output reached 13,700,000 bales. In 1914, it was” over 20,000,000 bales. In 1920, production fell back to about that of 1904, or 13,700,000 bales. ' 398. The Alabama. The Alabama was a vessel commanded by Captain Semmes: in the Civil War. It was built in England for the Confederates, and used by them to destroy Northern commerce on the seas. Our minister to England at this time was Charles Frances Adams, | and he complained that in thus building ships for the Con- - federates, England was violating the International War Code. England knew for what purpose the ship was to be used when it was sold to the Confederates. After the war was over, we insisted that England pay us for the damages this ship did to our ships. When she refused, it looked as though we might /, face another war with England, but by the Geneva Conference, the United States was awarded $15,000,000 damages. This was paid, and trouble averted. The Alabama preyed upon Northern commerce for two years, and was finally caught in the English Channel by the Kearsarge and sunk June 19, 1864. 399. Assassination of President Lincoln. President Lincoln was sitting in a box at Ford’s Theater, in Washington, when he was shet on the night of April 14, 1865, by John Wilkes Booth. Booth quickly mounted a horse and rode away, but was hunted by soldiers, and at last found in a barn in Virginia. He was shot in his hiding place April 26, while resisting arrest. ) Booth, with a number of conspirators, intended to murder Lincoln, Grant, and the Members of the Cabinet. The con- Spirators were soon discovered, and either hanged or shot. Lincoln lived until the next morning April 15, 1865. An- drew Johnson acted as President during the remainder of the term. ; SERIOUS PROBLEMS. 400. Disbanding the.Union Army. One of the first problems confronting the Union was the disbanding of the army, now numbering more than 1,000,000 men. Late in May, a grand review of Grant’s and Sherman’s troops took place in Washington. In a few weeks, these men had all scattered and gone peaceably to their homes to take up the duties they had dropped at the call of their country. About THIRD QUARTER 113 50,000 were kept as a standing army, while all the rest were disbanded. About 175,000 Confederate troops were disbanded after Lee’s surrender, 401. The Great National Debt. 1. The war cost nearly a million able bodied men. 2. During the war the national government had spent over $3,000,000; besides, a great amount of property such as houses, barns, railroads, ships, and entire cities had been de- stroyed ; to say nothing about the great sums of money, that has been paid in pensions ever since. During the close of Buchanan’s administration, the credit of the Government was on the decline. The Treasury was empty, custom receipts small, and the national debt increas- ing. Bonds sold for as low as $85 on the $100. In July, 1861, when Congress met, it at once took steps to remedy the financial situation. $250,000,000 was borrowed - on bonds, tariff rates were raised, a direct tax of $20,000,000 was levied, while a tax of 3 per cent on incomes over $800 was levied. In the meantime, the national debt increased and the credit decreased. When war broke out, most of the United States money was gold. There was also paper money which ‘ had been issued by over 1500 state banks. ~The situation was made worse by Congress allowing paper currency to be issued, which the government promised - to redeem in gold on demand. During the last of 1861, the demand for gold came so heavy that the gold was exhausted and “suspension of specie payments” followed. It was never resumed till in 1879. In 1862, the government was in such need of money that “United States Notes” were issued with- out any promises as to time or form of payment. To make people accept them they were made legal tender. $300,000,000 of these were issued in 1862 and $152,000,000 in 1863. The results were disastrous. Silver currency almost disappeared from circulation and paper money for fifty and twenty-five _ cents and even smaller sums were issued. There was almost — daily change in the value of the notes, and no one knew what he was worth. In 1862, bonds to the Pale of $500,000,000 at 6 per cent interest, payable in from five to twenty years, were issued. In July, 1862, a wide reaching internal revenue law was passed, taxes were laid upon many manufactured articles, and fees were charged people in many occupations. Corpora- tions were taxed upon their gross receipts, and a stamp tax which must be placed upon all legal documents. At the begin- 114 THIRD QUARTER ning of 1863, the revenue from taxation was still very inade- quate, bond sales were few and legal tenders were much below their face value. The government expenses were about $2,500,000 per day, while its income was about $600,000. But one of the greatest good that came from the necessity to raise money came through the tariff which was levied. In 1860, the rate was 20 per cent, in 1862, 37 per cent, and in 1864, 47 per cent. These new rates were placed temporarily but they stimu- lated home production, and when later it was found unneces- sary to levy them, manufacturers protested so that they have remained at the same level since 1875, until the present ad- ministration, which has almost done away with them entirely. 402. Amendments to the Constitution. THE THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT. The provisions of the Thirteenth Amendment are: | Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- propriate legislation. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was de- clared in force in December, 1865. By the Emancipation Proc- lamation the slaves were set free in the states that were at war against the Union, but by the Thirteenth Amendment slavery was abolished in every state in the Union. The Thirteenth Amendment had been proposed early in January, 1864, and after much careful consideration ‘was passed by the necessary two-thirds majority in the Senate. but on June 15 it failed to pass the House—receiving only ninetv-five votes with sixty-six votes against it. As this was less than two-thirds. no further action was taken until after the election. As the final ending of slavery had been made a prominent issue in the campaign that year. and as the Re- publicans had carried the elections so overwhelmingly, Con- gress soon after it convened in December. 1864, reopened the matter. This time the opposition was silenced and on Janu- ary 21, 1865, it passed the House by 121 for to 24 against. ; The people throurhout the country were ready for the complete destruction of slavery. The various state legisla- tures nromptlv ratified the proposed amendment. Before the end of the year two-thirds of all the states had: ratified the amendment, and on December 18, 1865, it was proclaimed as 2 THIRD QUARTER 116 part of the federal Constitution. It was the first amendment in more than sixty years. Several had been proposed, but all had failed. The federal Constitution is not easily amended, and the ease and rapidity with which this amendment was adopted shows how ready the nation was for the step. “= Tue FourTEenTtTH AMENDMENTA 2." ECL Tn June, 1866, Congress passed the Fourteenth Amend- ment to the Constitution. A law passed by one Congress can be repealed by another and, for fear a succeeding Congress might take away the rights granted to the negroes under the “Civil Rights” Bill, Congress was anxious for the Fourteenth Amendment. This amendment guaranteed equal civil rights to all re- gardless of race or color. It based representation on the number of voters; if a state refused to allow its negroes to vote, its representation would be lessened. The President disapproved these measures, but the -amendment was sent to, the states for ratification and it was not until 1868 that a sufficient number ratified it, and it be- came a part of the Constitution and a law that Congress could not repeal. No Southern states ratified this amendment, except Ten- nessee. PLAN FINALLY ADOPTED By CONGRESS. In the spring of 186%, Congress passed another bill over the President's veto. This new law divided the South into districts, each of which was to be governed by a military gov- ernor. The “freedmen” were given the right to vote, but that right was denied to all those white inhabitants who had taken a prominent part in the war against the Union. Each state was to continue under this form of government until the people of the states—black as well as white—should form a government accepting the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution —From Montgomery’s Leading Facts of American History. Ginn and Company, Publishers. p. 339. FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT. The Fifteenth Amendment was declared in force, in March, 1870. It gave the negroes the right to vote. The provisions of this amendment are: The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or | abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 116 THIRD QUARTER Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- propriate legislation. It was proposed by Congress in 1869, and was passed by - Congress by a vote of thirty-nine to thirteen in the Senate and by one hundred and forty-four to forty in the House. It was ratified by twenty-nine of the thirty-seven states and’ was ACee clared in force March 30, 1870. 403. Enforcing the Monroe Doctrine. Napoleon III, of France, and the Emperor of Austria took advantage of our Civil War and tried to establish an em- pire in Mexico, in place of the republic. Maximilian, a brother of the ruler of Austria, was made emperor. This was a vio- lation of the Monroe Doctrine. The President, Johnson in 1863: sent troops to the Rio Grande, and ordered France to take her troops from Mexico.. France obeyed, and the Mexicans captured . Maximilian, shot him, and restored the Mexican Republic. 404. The Problem of Reconstruction. Reconstruction was begun by President Lincoln late in 1863, and was continued by President Johnson. This means restoring the seceded states to their former places in the Union. The great problem before the government just at that time, was how to reconstruct the state governments of the seceded states, also how to re-admit them to their share in the nation’s government. The President, Johnson, issued a proclamation of pardon May 29, 1865, to the greater part of the people of the seceded states on condition that they would swear to “faithfully support, protect and defend the Constitution and the Union.” A ma- jority of the inhabitants of those states took the oath. They furthermore bound themselves to accept the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constiution, which prohibited slavery, and they agreed never to demand payment of any part of the Southern war debt. Now came the question whether these States should be at once permitted to send Representatives to Congress. The President said, Yes; but a majority in Congress said, No. The reason for this denial was that the greater part of Congress believed that it would not be safe to restore the Southern states to their full political rights until more was done to pro- tect the negroes or “freedmen,” as they were now called, in the enjoyment of their new liberty. From this time forward the President and Congress were engaged in a bitter strife with each other. Congress refused to re-admit the Southern states, and passed a number of bills THIRD QUARTER 117 in favor of the “freedmen,” one of which made them citizens, another gave them military protection, while a third granted them power to vote in the District of Columbia. The Presi- dent believed that the South would deal fairly by the “freed- men,” and therefore vetoed these bills; Congress then passed them over the veto.— Montgomery's Leading Facts of American History. Ginn and Company, Publishers. p. 338. 405. Great Disorder in the Southern States. The actual government of the South now fell into the hands of four classes: 1. Southern people who had sympathized with the Union, and who had been banished during the war, and a few who had been Confederates, but now gave in to the Union. These were called “scalawags.” 2. Carpet baggers, or Northerners who went South after the war. 3. Negroes. 4, Some few Southerners who had never been active heretofore in politics. The Republican was the dominent politica] party in each state. NEGRO LEGISLATORS AND “CARPET-BAGGERS.” In some of the restored states, especially in South Caro- lina, there were more negroes than white men. The negroes now got control of these states. They had been slaves all their lives, and were so ignorant that they did not even know the letters of the alphabet. Yet they now sat in the state legislatures, and made the laws. After the war many in- dustrious Northern men settled in the South; but, besides these, certain greedy adventurers went there eager to get political office and political spoils. These_‘‘Carpet-Baggers,” as they were called, used the ignorant “freedmen” as tools . to carry out their own selfish purposes. The result was that the negro legislators, under the direction of the “Carpet- Baggers,” plundered. and, for the time, well nigh ruined the states, that had the misfortune to be subject to their rule. After a time the white population throughout the South resolved that they would no longer endure this state of things. Partly by peaceable and partly by violent means, they succeeded in getting the political power in their own hands, and the reign of the “Carpet-Bagger” and the negro came to an end.—Montgomery’s Leading Facts of American His- tory. Ginn and Campany, Publishers. pp. 339, 340. 118 THIRD QUARTER 406. Purchase of Alaska. In 1867, Alaska was bought from Russia for $7,200,000. In derision it was called ‘“Seward’s Icebox,” and people could not understand why Secretary Seward wished the United States to purchase it. It was at that time valued for its seal fisheries, but later, the gold mined there has many times over- paid for the land. Because of its northern location, 55° to 71° north latitude, its climate is very cold. Its southern shores are made warmer by the warm current from the. Pacific Ocean which washes them. Its area is 591,000 square miles. Its main products are: seals, fish, lumber, and gold. 407. Reseaihene s Bureau. In March 1865, Congress established a. Freedmen’s Bureau which was intended to provide for the needs of the blacks. It took care that the negro should receive just compensation for his labor, and ordered the government to sell land to the negroes on cheap terms so that they could get a start in the world. When the bill establishing the Freedmen’s Bureau went to President Johnson, he vetoed it, but it was passed over his veto before Congress adjourned. 408. Impeachment and Trial of President Johnson. Johnson made his own plans of reconstruction while Con- gress was not in session in the summer and fall of 1865. But when Congress met in December, 1865, it refused to recog- nize Johnson’s plans. When the Southern: states sent their members of Congress they were refused their seats; this greatly angered Johnson, for he declared he had the power to decide when the state should be fully reconstructed. Johnson was elected to the Senate in 1857. When the Southern states seceded, he, of all the Southern Senators, did not go with his state, but remained loyal to the Union. From the time that the talk of secession began, he became very popular at the North because of his bold, vigorous speeches in favor of the Union, but was detested at the South. In one of these speeches he said that if he were President he would have the Southern leaders arrested and tried for treason,: and, if convicted, hanged. He declared repeatedly that the “traitors” should be “impoverished,” by which he meant their estates should be confiscated. We have already seen how, after the death of Lincoln, Johnson had so much to say both in public and private utter- ances about “traitors” and inflicting the death penalty that even the most radical of radical Republicans feared that he THIRD QUARTER 119 would be entirely too severe in his treatment of the South. His utterances had so inflamed the North as to make such a magnanimous policy as Lincoln’s very difficult. Johnson retained Lincoln’s cabinet, among. whom was Seward, Secretary of State. Seward had been heartily in sympathy with Lincoln’s jolicy of leniency toward the South, and in the first three months of Johnson’s presidency suc- ceeded in winning him over to a most liberal plan of re- construction—one essentially the same as Lincoln’s. Thus we find that when Johnson actually got to the work of reconstruction, he tried to make it as easy as possibe for the seceded states to reorganize and resume constitutional relations with the Union. His amnesty proclamation was so liberal that all the seceded states were glad to avail themselves of its provisions, and reorganized their new governments im- mediately. President Johnson and Congress were in continual con- flict. Congress would not admit the Southern members to Congress; this gave the Republicans a two-thirds majority in both Houses and they were able to pass any bill over the President’s veto. In March, 1866, a “Civil Rights” Bill was passed over the President’s veto. This ‘Civil Rights” Bill gave the negro all the rights of citizenship, with privilege to sue in the national courts for any of these right if they were denied to him. “+ The House of Representatives has the sole power of aa The Senate. has the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they are on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice presides: and no person can be convicted without the con- At aman ve currence of two-thirds of the members present. ther than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of trust, honor, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. Ft oe To prevent Johnson from removing from office men who did not favor his plans Congress passed the Tenure of Office Bill, This bill stated that the President could not remove them until the Senate had given permission. It wasn’t long until President Johnson denied this power of Congress, and removed Edwin Stanton, Secretary of War. Stanton had been appointed by Fae Lincoln. The Tenure of Office Act was repealed in 1887. j : 120 THIRD QUARTER —" — ", ARTICLES OF IMPEACHMENT; TRIAL AND Outcome. [ul Act, and was ordered to trial. The House of Representa had made the charge against him, and the Senators, with tl Chief Justice presiding, were to try the case. If two-thir of them would vote “guilty,” he would be removed from tI necessary for conviction ; he was therefore acquitted. 409. Presidential Campaign of 1868. aia The Republicans nominated Gen. Grant for President, an Schuyler Colfax of Indiana for Vice Pfesident. These m supported the acts of Congress but denounced Johnson. Rak Horatio Seymour of New York was the Democrat nominee for President and Francis P. Blair of Missouri for V Vice Presi- dent. These men denounced the Acts of Congress in its recon- struction work, and blamed the Republicans for setting up ane negro rule in the South. Winky The Republican candidates were elected by a large majority, for most of the Southern votes were those of negroes, who naturally voted the Republican ticket. Grant received 214 electoral votes and Seymour S80. at Nebraska had been admitted in 1867, therefore the oleae j 37 states were counted, Texas, Virginia and Mississippi being ruled out. : 410. Laying the Atlantic Cable. A still more wonderful invention was to come. This Ww the Atlantic Cable which carried telegraph messages under th ocean between England and the United States. he lines £ reality were laid between Ireland and Newfoundland. | Experimenting along this line of telegraphing had carried on since 1857 by Cyrus W. Field. But even before F of Trenton New Jersey, and alsel by a noted scientist from 7 ginia, Matthew Maurey. ue backed by Congress and well tars, he ee isi ere in 1866 the cable was laid successfully, and permanent communi- cation established between the United States and the Old World. A CRITCIAL PERIOD, 411, Completion of the Union Pacific. Along with the rapid increase of food stuffs came thé demand for better transportation facilities. Both farmers EIGHTH YEAR AGRICULTURE 1. Give four reasons why farmers should raise poultry. Explain your reasons. 4 2. Name four classes of chickens. Name three breeds of each class. 3. Write a eel paragraph on “Caring For and Feeding Young Chicks.” 4. Why should birds be protected. Name 10 common birds that are use- ful. Make a list of bird en | 5. Name four common dis seaSeS of poultry and tell how these diseases may be controlled. : ty . ‘ r Se ee Poa eee ne yi, tt Lh ne Ses mits SAS Po hoa . Wee oS RES Sent 82 Be Sh m Gey ohare Saat. pay ’ ae -s xe - + at ; . eh * me sibs . THIRD QUARTER 121 and manufactures were looking for a quicker and cheaper transportation for his products. The western settlers also wished better connections with the East. Great improve- ments began to be made on the roads. Steel rails replaced iron ones, engines were made heavier and speedier, and larger freight cars were built. Sleeping and dining cars were added _ to the service and wooden bridges were replaced by steel and iron ones. Up ’till the Civil War, railroads had been slow to push beyond the Mississippi River because the travel did not _ warrant the increase in expenditure. The Union Pacific was the first line to connect the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It was finished in 1869. Since, many other trans-continental lines have been built. This increased activity in railroad building was at first in the Upper Mississippi Valley, but since the development of the South has taken place, the lines in the Lower Mississippi Valley have greatly increased in number. The first lines ran through the wheat regions of the North. Congress was anxious to build up the country and in 1862 charters were granted to several companies to build railroads, and immense tracts of land lying along the rail- roads were given to these companies. Fifty millions of dol- lars was granted by Congress to the Union Pacific Railway Company who were to build west from Omaha, and to the _ Central Pacific who were to build east from Sacramento. At last in 1869 the two lines came together at Ogden, Utah. The - entire distance from the East to the West was over three thousand miles. A traveler can leave the Atlantic coast and reach the Pacific in about five days. Before the railroad was completed teas, spices, and silks from Asia had to reach us by sailing around Cape Horn, and would be received by us : almost six months after they had been loaded, but now they ean leave China, be landed in San Francisco, sent over the railroad to New York, all in about a month’s time. The _ Pacific Railroad led to the settlement of the country west of Wee Be pel it also developed fresh sources of industry. 419, The Alabama Claims. It will be remembered that England built several ships for the Confederates. The “Alabama” was among the num- ber built. These ships would prey upon the American commerce. The United States demanded that England should pay for the damage done by these ships during the Civil War. The dispute was referred to a Board of Arbitration, com- posed of five members appointed one each by the United 122 THIRD QUARTER States, Great Britain, Italy, Switzerland, and Brazil. They met at Geneva, Switzerland, and in 1872 awarded the United States $15,500,000 in gold for damages done by ships, which ~ were built in England for the Confederates. Great Britain paid the award within a year, and the money was ‘given to the ship owners who had had the loss. 413, Carpet Baggers and Klu Klux Klan. In some of the restored states, especially in South Carolina, there were more negroes than white men. The negroes now got control of these states. They had been slaves all their lives, and were so ignorant that they did not even know the letters of the alphabet. Yet they now sat in the state legislatures, and made the laws. After the war many industrious Northern men settled in the South, but, besides these, certain greedy adventurers went there eager to get political office and political spoils. These “Carpet-Baggers,” as they were called, used the ignorant “freed-— men” as tools to carry out their own selfish purposes. The result was that the negro legislators, under the direction of the “Carpet- Baggers,” plundered and, for the time, well nigh ruined the states, that had the misfortune to be subject to their rule. After a time the white population throughout the South re- solved that they would no longer endure this state of things. Partly by peaceable and partly by violent means, they succeeded in getting the political power in their own hands, and the reign of the “Carpet-Bagger” and the negro came to an end— Montgomery's Leading Facts of American History. Ginn and Company, Publishers. pp. 339, 340. The Ku Klux Klan was a secret organization, which arose in Tennessee and spread over the South, to prevent the negroes from yoting. The members of the Ku Klux Klan would mask themselves and dress like ghosts, ride through the night, knock at the doors of the blacks, and threaten to whip them if they did not give up voting. The whites organ- ized this society to protect themselves against the rule of the negroes who were sitting in the legislature chairs making the laws when they could not read or write. The proceedings of the Ku Klux Klan went on until President Grant introduced the Force Bill which was prompt- ly passed. It provided for the punishment, by fine or impris- onment, of any one who would attempt to interfere with the right of any citizen to vote. 414, Corruption in Public Officials. 1. A “ring” of politicians, under the leadership of “Boss Tweed,” managed to get possession of the government of New THIRD QUARTER 123 York City and, 1865-1871, robbed the tax payers of many millions. Tweed and his gang were finally overthrown in 1871, through the efforts of Samuel J. Tilden and other prom- inent citizens. The Tweed ring had robbed New York of $100,000,000. The Erie Ring got possession of the Erie railroad and the Whiskey Ring defrauded the government out of millions in taxes. Belknap, Secretary of War, was found guilty of taking bribes from Indian agents and escaped impeachment by resigning his office. It was also charged that men who owned land in San Domingo were the ones who were backing the scheme to annex that island. While no one charged Grant with wrong doing, these scandals caused many to become dissatisfied with his administration. 415. Liberal Republicans 1872. - When the Presidential election of 1872 came, there was much dissatisfaction felt with the existing order of things. Grant had made many unwise appointments to office and scandals had broken out. The policy of reconstruction advo- cated by the Republican party had proven a failure, while the Carpet-bag regime and the Ku Klux Klan had aroused many to the needs of a radical change in policy. A meeting was called in Cincinnati of those opposed to the government. Here was organized the “Liberal Republi- — can Party.” Their platform demanded that the spoils system be abol- ished and the immediate and absolute removal of all disa- bilities imposed on account of the Rebellion. Since the con- vention was divided upon the question of tariff reform, they left this to the discretion of Congress. Horace Greeley ° was _ -nominated as a candidate for President. In July, the Demo- _ cratic convention met, and adopted the platform of the Liberal Republicans and accepted the nomination of Greeley. The Republicans renominated Grant for a second term. He was elected, carrying all but six states. 416. The Centennial Exposition. _ In 1876, in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, was held an ex- hibition known as the Centennial to commemorate the one hun- dredth anniversary of our independence. The grounds covered over eighty acres and exhibits were shown from all hations. In useful inventions the United States took the lead as it did at the World’s Fair of 1853, held at the Crystal Palace in New York City. The three most remarkable new inventions shown 124 THIRD QUARTER at the Centennial in Philadelphia were the electric light, the tele- phone, invented by Professor A. G. Bell of Boston, and the first practical typewriter. Today, these have become. so common, they are really considered household necessities. Perhaps the most wonderful result of the exhibition was the place it gave the United States among the other nations as the home of useful in- ventions. It was just the beginning of the electrical age, and what man had heretofore done in a slow plodding way with his hands, now began to be done by electrically operated machines . which required only a man to guide and oversee. —— 417. The Presidential Election 1876. The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for President. The Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President. This was a disputed elec- tion; both the Democrats and Republicans claimed to have elected their candidates and each party charged the other with fraud. The dispute grew so hot that it was left for Congress to settle. Congress, therefore, appointed an Electoral com- mission. : 418 The Electoral Commission. The Electoral Commission consisted of five senators, three Republicans and two Democrats, five members of the Supreme Court, three of whom were former Republicans ; and five repre- sentatives, of whom three were Democrats and two were Repub- licans. Thus the Commission consisted of eight Republicans and seven Democrats. It decided in favor of the Republican candi- date and Tilden accepted the result without demur, although the Democrats were bitterly disappointed. The need for the Commission arose when there was a dispute over the electoral votes of Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, and over one vote in Oregon. Thus, there were twenty electoral votes disputed. Hayes had 165, and Tilden 184. It certainly looked’ as though the Democrats had some reason to question — the fairness of the Commission’s decision. It required but 185 electoral votes to elect, and Tilden in the beginning had 184 un- disputed votes. Two sets of electoral votes were returned from > Florida, South Carolina and Louisiana, which were still under “Carpet-bag’”’ government. As the Senate was Republican and the House Democratic, no agreement could be reached as to which of the disputed votes should be accepted, hence the Elec- . toral Commission was appointed. The decision was announced but two days before the inauguration, which took place March - Og 1524. yoy THIRD QUARTER 125 POLITICS. 419, Federal Troops Withdrawn from the South. Soon after Hayes took his seat as President of the United States, he stated that he believed the time had come, when the people of the reconstructed states should manage their own affairs, and that the Federal troops, which had sustained the Republican state government in South Carolina and Louis- -iana should be withdrawn. This was done and the Southern people were now free to establish local self government and to work out their new life as best they could. Democratic efficials soon took control of local affairs. Perhaps no single act since the Civil War did more to placate the South than this one. The confidence Hayes reposed in the South when he said-he was withdrawing the troops because he felt sure there would be no further trouble was not misplaced. He also appointed David M. Key, a former Confederate soldier, to a place in his Cabinet. This also caused the South to have a more friendly feeling to the North and the National Governmeni. Throughout his term, Hayes was broad-minded and just and did much to heal over the wounds of war by his treatment of the - Southern states. 420. The Silver Question of 1873 and 1878. Congress passed a bill early in 1862, authorizing the issue of bills and because they had green tinted backs they were called “green backs.” To make them a success they were made legal tender for all debts except duties on imports, and in- terest on the public debt. Whenever the Union army was successful these greenbacks rose in value; when the Union army met defeats they depreciated in value. This was be- cause the people had more faith in the government at certain times than others. At one time in 1864, it took almost three dollars in green backs to purchase what one dollar in gold would buy. But after the war in 1879 the government re- sumed specie payment, and offered to give gold to any one in exchange for “green backs.” After the Civil War was over the government began to _ pay off its debts, and the people began to have more confidence in the power of the government to do as it agreed. In 1864, gold was worth three times as much as silver, but in 1879, when the financial condition of the government improved, gold reached par, and specie payments were resumed, and it has been the policy of our government to continue the same ever since, so that the gold, silver, and paper money are “on a parity.” 126 THIRD QUARTER The silver question of 1873 had to do with the actual coinage of the money. In 1792 the Government had begun the coinage of gold and silver money in the ratio of 15 to 1, acting on the notion that one ounce of gold was worth fifteen of silver. Later, the ratio became 16 to 1. But later silver became scarce and therefore higher, and silversmiths found there was more than a dollar’s worth of silver in a silver dollar, hence would melt it down for the metal it contained. In 1873, ‘Congress ordered the making of silver dollars suspended, and ‘therefore demonetized silver. About this time silver began to be cheaper for rich deposits of the ore had been found in Nevada and the mines of the West. Now it required twenty-two ounces of silver to buy one ounce of gold, and the mining interests began to demand that Congress remonitize silver, that is begin using it to make silver dollars, in the old ratio of 16 to 1. The question assumed big proportions as a politcal issue when the farmers began demanding the free coinage of silver at the old ratio. They even went so far as to organize a political party known as the Greenback Party. Later they established the Populist Party, which declared for Free Silver in 1892. The silver question of 1878 had to do with the resumption of specie payments. They were resumed January 1, 1879. John Sherman was Secretary of the Treasury, and had collected a great deal of silver and gold to redeem any paper money pre- sented. But few asked for it, when they were sure they could get it if they wanted to do so. Since that time, there has been no difference between the amount that a gold, silver or paper dollar would buy. In fact, most people when offered silver at a bank will state their preference for the paper money since it is so much easier handled and lighter to carry. 421. Resumption of Specie Payment, 1879. Specie payment was resumed January 1, 1879, when John Sherman was Secretary of the Treasury. But few asked for the metal coins instead of the paper, when they found the Government was prepared to make the exchange. This has been in force ever since 1879, but most people prefer the paper money since it is lighter and less bulky to handle. 422. The Eads’ Jetties. For a most interesting account of this topic see Scribner’s Magazine, Vol. XIX, for an article entitled ‘The Mississippi Jetties.”’ It was during Hayes’ administration that the condition of the mouths of the Mississippi River began to be a matter of serious consideration. The Mississippi River carries enormous THIRD QUARTER 127 quantities of sand, mud, and debris from its northern sources, _and deposits these at the point where it empties into the ocean below New Orleans. This mass finally reached the point where it was choking the harbor and ships could neither get in or out unless towed, or floated at high tide. Sometimes as many as fifty vessels were waiting to cross the obstruction. Now, there are really five mouths to the river as it meets the Gulf. One of the is known as the South Pass, another one as in Southwest Pass. In 1875, Captain Eads, the man who built the Eads Bridge at St. Louis across the Mississippi undertook to see what he could do to clear out one of these passes or mouths. By studying the current, he noted that if the banks were high and the current strong, the sand was carried out into the Gulf and the passage was kept clear. This was by no means a new idea to river men, but Eads decided he was going to see if he could utilize it in clearing out the channel. Therefore he went to work to build new banks on either side, so he could narrow the channel, and thereby increase the force of the flow. In four years he proved his idea to be correct, and now the Mississippi sweeps out her own channel, and ocean going steamers pass in and out at will. When one considers the enormous amount of import and export trade carried on by New Orleans, one can form an idea how valuable Eads’ idea was. Later, about 1908, the Southwest Pass was deepened also. 423. The Assassination of President Garfield, 1881. Garfield had been President but four months when he was shot in a railroad depot in Washington, D. C., by a dis- appointed office-seeker, named Guiteau (Gé toe’). After suf- fering eighty days from the wound, he died September 19, 1881. He is buried in Cleveland, Ohio. Chester A. Arthur, the Vice President, now became President and -served the remainder of the term. Guiteau was convicted of murder and hanged. 424, Civil Service 1868-1896, From the time that Jackson had been President, it had been the custom of the Presidents to put men into office who were of the same political party as the Presidents were, or simply as a reward to them for working for them or spending money to get them elected. Later the Presidents were tormented with office-seekers, and sometimes more demanded offices than there were places to be filled. This was indeed a great burden to the Presi- dents. _ way. 128 _ THIRD QUARTER Grant, knowing how Lincoln was besieged with office- seekers, made an unsuccessful effort to break up this “spoils system.” President Hayes also tried it but nothing practical was done, for many men in and out of Congress naturally fought against it with all their might. From 1789-1827 the Presidents had removed but seventy- four: Washington, nine, John Adams, ten, Jefferson, thirty- nine, Madison, five, Monroe, nine, J. Q. Adams, two. This was on an average less than two a year. It can be easily understood then how radical Jackson’s methods were when he turned out over 2,000 in a few months. The “Spoils System” held sway till 1883 and did much to demoralize the political life of that time. The system was denounced by such men as Webster, Clay, Benton, and Calhoun. | When Garfield became President in 1881, he faced trouble from the beginning. It had long been the custom for the President to consult the Senators of a state before he made appointments to offices in the state. Roscoe Conkling, Sena- tor from New York attempted to dictate to Garfield in the matter and an open break resulted. This petty squabbling over offices was given a tragic turn on July 2, 1881 when Gar-- field was shot by a disappointed office- seeker. This served as nothing else could have done to show people the folly and danger of the “Spoils System.” The new President, Arthur, strongly recommended a change and steps were taken to pro- ~ vide a Civil Service Commission. The plan has grown till now most of the Civil Service appointments are made in this The “Spoils System” had been introduced into politics in 1829, and though some efforts had been made to correct the evil, little progress was made. In 1841, President Harrison died from worry over making appointments, while the tragic death of Garfield in 1881 was due to the same cause. In January, 1883, the Pendleton Civil — Service Act was passed by the united efforts of both parties. - Under the following President, the “Merit System” grew. In 1871 George William Curtis had just agitated such a law, and Grant appointed him chairman of a commission to administer the new law. In 1875, Congress refused further funds, and the movement died out. The practice of holding — competitive examinations had been tried in some depart- ments during Hayes’ administration. When the law was passed in 1883, about 14,000 Federal employees were affected, by 1892 the number had reached 43,000, and during Cleve- land’s administration it rose to 87,000. THIRD QUARTER 129 The Civil Service Reform had been begun during Presi- dent Arthur’s administration. President Cleveland gave spe- cial attention to it, and a great many offices had been filled by those taking examinations for the positions, instead of being appointed to the office by the President. In this way when any one had passed the Civil Service examination, he need not fear that he would lose his position if a President of oppo- site political party was elected. Anyone obtaining a position by passing a Civil Service examination holds the same, as long as he renders good service, and does not use his office for political purposes. From the beginning of his career, Cleveland took a great interest in the workings of the Civil Service. Even when he came to the White House, the system was not yet perfected and it was only after many firm stands that the President was able to rid himself of the incubus that had been such a burden to former Presidents. Cleveland Fatey or never ap- pointed personal friends to office. 425. A Democratic President 1885. Grover Cleveland was the first President to be elected by the Democrats since the beginning of the Civil War. The Vice President was Thomas Hendricks, of Indiana. They were elected in the fall of 1884. The Republicans had nomi- nated James G. Baine, of Maine, and John A. Logan, of IIli- nois, for President and Vice President, but in the election they were defeated. Cleveland and Hendricks served from 1885-1889. 426. The Presidential Succession Law, 1886. In 1886, a very important law was passed known as the Presidential Succession Law. It provided for a President in case of the death or disability of both the President and Vice- President. It provided that the Secretary of State, and the other cabinet members in order should succeed to the office of President. The cabinet consisted of nine officers: Secretary of State. Secretary of the Treasury. Secretary of War. Attorney General. Post Master General. Secretary of the Navy. Secretary of the Interior. Secretary of Agficulture. Secretary of Commerce and Labor. ; SER ee a Se Se tS 130 THIRD QUARTER Before the Presidential Succession Law, 1f the President was killed the Vice President took his place. Later, this Sucééssion Law placed more protection around the life of the President. ILLINOIS HISTORY—THE LIN COLN-DOUGLAS DEBATES. (a) The Absorbing Problem Prior to 1960. In the campaign of 1856 there was but one question—the issue as to the permanent restriction of slavery to the states in which it already existed. It was not only a national issue—it i Families became divided over it, churches were separated one from another, and and the whole force of state and national politics was centered around this one question. Lincoln urged such restriction, while Douglas admitted he had no interest in the moral side of the question and argued each state as it came into the union should decide the question itself. Various attempts had been made to decide the question since the first introduction of slavery into the United States and each new measure passed was hailed as the one which should settle the question for all! fumes igre te - was a question that refused to remain settled for more than a few years at a time. The first discussion of free and slave territory arose about the time of the Ordinance of 1787. This ordinance guaranteed freedom of worship, trial by jury, the encouragement of schools, and no slavery. The far reaching effects of this law could not be forseen at that time. Indeed, Congress on the day that the law was passed was made up of eight states—seven of which were slave. But at that date, slavery had not become a political issue, and one old Southerner who voted for the measure said he did it to keep tobacco, indigo, and cotton being raised north of the Ohio river. Up till 1820, the balance was maintained between free and slave states—in that year there were eleven of each. Such was the status when Missouri asked to be allowed to form itself into a state. This territory settled by slave owners from the South, who did not doubt for a moment that the territory would be admitted as a slave state. But there were men in Congress now who felt the time had come to curb the growing power of slavery. The result was a dead lock until the famous Com- promise of 1820, or sometimes called the Missouri Compromise. This permitted Missouri to enter as a slave state but forever prohibited slavery above the parallel 36° 30’. Moderate thinking men on both sides were satisfied and again felt the slavery question had been settled. It was for a few years. | THIRD QUARTER 131 In 1850, after the Mexican War had added new territory to the United States the question again arose as to whether all land so gained should be free or slave. David Wilmot, a member of the House of Representatives, proposed that such territory should be free, but this measure known as the Wilmot Proviso was rejected. The admission of California again reopened the discussion. The result was the compromise. arranged by Henry Clay, and known as the Compromise of 1850. By this time serious thinking people realized that the slavery question was not settled and not likely to be until some far- reaching readjustment should take place. (b) Attempted Solution by the Kansas, Nebraska Act. In 1854, the Democrats under.Stephen A. Douglas passed a bill so much in favor of the South that the North was startled into activity. This was the famous Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The new bill divided the territory known as Nebraska into two parts—the northern one known as Nebraska and the Southern one as Kansas. It gave the settlers of these two territories the right to say whether they would come into the Union as free or slave states. The North aroused over this bill led to the formation of a new party, called the Republican, which nominated John C. Fremont in 1856 for President. He was defeated by Buchanan. (c) Attempt Solution by Dred Scott Decision. In 1857, the slave interests gained a great victory by a de- cision of the Supreme court handed down in March of that year. Dred Scott was a negro slave, whose master, a surgeon, had taken him first to Illinois in 1838, then to Minnesota. By the Compromise of 1820, Minnesota was a free state. Here Scott had married a woman by the name of Harriet, with the consent of his master. Later, the surgeon took Scott and his family back to Missouri. There he sold them to a new master, but Scott held he was free since he had lived in a free state so long. At last the case after being tried several times was taken to the Supreme court, where Chief Justice Taney announced three facts of great importance. 1. The Declaration of Independence did not include negroes, therefore no negro whose parents had been brought to the United States as slaves could be a citizen of the United States. 2. Congress was powerless to prohibit slavery in the territories. 3. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was unconstitutional, hence void. 132 | THIRD QUARTER Instead of settling slavery, the Dred Scott Decision renewed the struggle with greater bitterness. It declared that the principle upon which the Republican Party had been founded—no ex- tension of slavery—was unconstitutional. (d) Formation of the Anti-Nebraska Party. - The formation of the Anti-Nebraska Party was ‘the direct outcome of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. The anti-slavery party decided something must be done, and at once. In each party it made fatal charges. The Whig party was only a name. The American Party, the Freel Soilers, with many ex-Democrats and disgruntled Whigs united to form a new party called first the Anti-Nebraska, and later the Republican Party. It was a queer crowd gotten together and held together but by one interest— opposition to the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. This was the thing they held in common, and out of this hodge-podge of parties, Lincoln smoldered the present Republican Party. (e) Senator Douglas Between Two Fires. Senator Douglas held a peculiar position during this time. He had been the father of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, his belief being that the individual state should decide the question for itself. But when the struggle for possession of the state of Kansas had come, and the free element had moved in making their headquarters at Lawrence and Topeka, and the Slave state ~ men made theirs at Lecompton and Leavenworth, events took a turn that Douglas had not anticipated. Each side drew up a constitution and though outnumbered clearly, the slave men suc- ceeded in getting Buchanan.to recognize theirs, known as the Lecompton Constitution. They sought to have the state now brought in as a slave state even over the majority of the voter’s wishes. Senator Douglas lent his energies to defeating this measure. He said the people should decide the question and if the majority was opposed to slavery it shouldn’t be permitted. But in taking this stand, he ran counter to President Buchanan’s _ wishes and the wishes of the most influential men of his party. This led to a split in the party which now became known as the Douglas Democrats and the Buchanan Democrats, It was clearly the case of a man taking a stand for what he believed was right and staying with it, for by the Kansas- Nebraska Act, he gained the enmity of the free-state men and by opposing the Lecompton Constitution he incurred the ill will — of the President and the leaders of his own political party. He — found himself between two fires, and in the end was burnt by both. THIRD QUARTER 133 (f) Lincoln’s Ambitions to Succeed Douglas as United States Senator. The political rivalry of Lincoln and Douglas stand as one of the three great political rivalries in the history of the United States. The campaign took place in the summer and fall of 1858. Douglas was by far the better known of the two; Lincoln at that time being known chiefly in his own state: The Democratic party was at this time divided into the Douglas Democrats and the Buchanan Democrats. Douglas had incurred the displeasure of a large number of his party by the stand he _ had taken on the Lecompton Constitution. He had opposed this measure with real courage, and on his record in this fight, he was making his campaign for Congress as United States Senator. The office holders of his party were opposed to him, but the independent members of his party were back of him solidly. : Lincoln had been chosen by a state convention of the Re- publican party as their candidate. His. platform was an un- qualified avowal of his opposition to the extension of slavery. (g) The Challenge to a Public Discussion. July 24, 1858, Lincoln challenged Douglas to a series of joint debates on the issues between the two parties. After some hesitation on Douglas’ part, the challenge was accepted and the seven meeting places chosen. These were:— Ottawa, Freeport, Jonesboro, Charleston, Galesburg, Quincy, and Alton. (h) The Seven Joint Debates. | The debates opened at Ottawa August 21, 1858, and closed at Alton October 21, 1858, occupying a fifty-six day period. The second speech was at Freeport, Stephenson Co., August 27; the third at Jonesboro, Union Co., Sept. 15; the Fourth at Charleston, Coles Co., Sept. 18; the fifth at Galesburg, Knox Co., Oct. 7; the sixth at Quincy, Adams Co., Act. 13; and the seventh at Alton, Madison Co., Oct. 15. _ The debates were attended by thousands and thousands of people. Indeed, the eyes of the whole nation were upon the two contestants. The second debate held at Freeport was perhaps the most important of the whole seven for it was during this one that Lincoln asked Douglas—‘‘Can the people of a United States territory, in any lawful way, against the wish of any citizen of the United States exclude slavery from its limits prior to the forma- tion of a state constitution ?” Douglas’ reply was his political death warrant, and time proved the truth of Lincoln’s prophecy that Douglas could not answer that question in such a way as to be elected both senator and President. | 134 THIRD QUARTER Douglas dared not break with the party leaders in Illinois but his answer which was really in conflict with the Dred Scott decision caused the feeling to grow in the South that he had been guilty of duplicity in the matter, since in the beginning he had defended the decision of the Supreme Court in the case. (i) Immediate and Later Results of the Debates. Douglas’ answer to Lincoln’s questions at the Freeport debate gained him the Senatorship but lost him the “Presidency in 1860. This Lincoln forsaw when he asked the questions. His friends advised him not to ask them, telling Lincoln it gave Douglas too good an opening. But Lincoln replied that he was — not concerned about the senatorship especially. “I am killing larger game. The great battle of 1860 is worth a thousand of this senatorial race.” Lincoln was looking into the future pre- paring for the struggle he saw to be inevitable between the free and slave states. When the ballot was taken in the fall of 1858, Lincoln received forty-six votes, and Douglas fifty-four, and was therefore elected senator. Two years later. Lincoln was elected President, receiving a little more than one-third of the total vote. FOURTH QUARTER 135 FOURTH QUARTER THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER—WAR AND EXPANSION, 9.2, 7-4 427. Benjamin Harrison President, 1889. Harrison was our twenty-third President, and served 1889- 1893. He was the grandson of President W. H. Harrison. He served in the Union Army, and in 1880 was elected United States Senator. In 1888, he was elected President on the Republican Ticket, with Levi P. Morton of New York as Vice-President. Grover Cleveland of New York and Allen G. Thurman of Ohio were the Democratic candidates. The tariff issue was the main question of this campaign. 428. The McKinley Protective Tariff Bill. The McKinley Tariff Bill was passed in 1890. This law raised the protective duties. Its object was to protect Ameri- can products and American manufacturers against competi- tion. It allowed the President to establish with other nations “reciprocity agreements,” i. e., articles to be admitted free from countries admitting United States goods free, and if other countries put duties on our products we were to charge duties on their products. The McKinley Tariff was repealed in 1894, but later the “reciprocity agreements” were re-en- acted. {\ A + MLA } 429, Six New States Admitted. In November, 1889, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Washington were admitted to the Union. In 1890, Wyoming and Idaho came in, making a total at that time of forty-four. 430. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1890. Our silver mines were producing so much silver that the price was growing lower and lower, until at last the silver dollar was worth about fifty cents. Many persons thought if the government would coin more of it into money the price would raise. Senator John Sherman offered a bill in Congress directing the Secretary of the Treasury to buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver each month at full value, if that amount were offered for sale. The bill became a law in 1890. After the 136 FOURTH QUARTER people had tried this “Silver Purchase” they came to the con- clusion that it was doing harm to the country, and, in 1893, it was repealed. Senator Sherman himself wanted the law repealed. | During the year 1893, the country was in the midst of a great panic. Banks failed, factories were closed, a great many © people were thrown out of work, and prices of all ‘products were very low. Many people blamed the government and ~ severely criticised Cleveland’s administration. The causes of the panic were poor crops, too much specu- lation, and extravagance. It will be remembered that the Sherman Silver Purchase Act compelled the government to buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver each month; this was to be paid for in treasury notes, and these treasury notes were to be redeemed in gold and silver. The metal in the silver dollar was worth only about sixty-seven cents. Foreign nations who ~ held these treasury notes thought our government meant to pay them with these “sixty-seven cent” dollars. They be- came so alarmed that they were ready to sell their holdings for whatever they could get for them. Many of our citizens pur- chased, and began to call upon the treasury for gold. So much of it went out of the treasury that only $97,000,000 were left, and it had been agreed that -$100,000,000 should always be kept on hand in order to redeem all treasury notes whenever they would be presented. It was a period of “tight money,” and led to the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in order to stop the drain on the gold supply. 431, President Cleveland’s Second Term. In 1892, Grover Cleveland was elected by the Democrats for a second term, with Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois for Vice- President. Benjamin Harrison was the Republican nominee for President. , The tariff question was the main issue in the campaign. It was at this time that the People’s Party or the Populists Party had its beginning. Out of a total of 444 electoral votes, their candidate, James B. Weaver of Iowa received 22, but none east of Kansas. 432. The World’s Columbian Exposition, 1892. — In October, 1892, magnificent buildings were dedicated for the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago. The next spring, May first, the Fair was formally opened to the public by President Cleveland. The Fair was held to commemorate the 400th anni- versary of the discovery of America by Columbus. It was held in Jackson Park, fronting upon Lake Michigan. Buildings were > FOURTH QUARTER 137 erected by the various nations of the earth while every state was represented by a state in which were displayed products typical of that state. Congress appropriated $10,000,000 for use in various ways in making the fair a success. After the fair was over, the buildings were all torn down except one, which was made into a museum and is known now as the Field Museum of Natural History. 433. Panics and Strikes. It was during the second administration of Cleveland that the panic of 1893 came. There first came a lull in business; tariff duties supplied little revenues, and a marked depression came in all lines of industry. Money was scarce and could not be borrowed. Foreigners lost confidence and sold their holdings -in this country much below par. Gold was being withdrawn from the country to pay our foreign debts. Banks began to fail, fac- tories closed down, hundreds were thrown out of employment, and much misery and want prevailed. This was especially true in the West, where much of the business had been carried on on borrowed capital. The President realizing that drastic action must be taken, called a special session of Congress to consider the money question and general financial situation. The first act of the Congress was the repealing of the Sherman Act in November, 1893. This did not settle the money question, however, and in the campaign of 1896 it became the main issue. In 1894, there came a most alarming labor situation. Trouble between employer and employee had been brewing for years. With the great increase in wealth and the combining of great money interests into trust, there had come a corresponding union of the labor element. That so many of our laborers were now foreigners, had something to do with their growing discontent. In 1877, there had been a costly clash of interests among the owners and employees of the Pennsylvania Railroad. This re- sulted in the destruction of a great deal of property, among it being the great station at Pittsburgh. A few years later, at the Carnegie Ironworks at Homestead, Pennsylvania, there was a heavy loss of life when employees struck, for what they deemed their rights. In 1886, in the Haymarket riot in Chicago several policemen were killed by bombs hurled by strikers. In the mining sections of the West, there was almost constant strife. But none of these had been as serious as that which came about in Chicago in 1894. The cause of this great strike was the reduction of wages by the Pullman Palace Car Company. The strike began at Pullman, Illinois, near Chicago, Illinois, in the car works 138 FOURTH QUARTER and later spread to the railroad employees. These employees refused to move the trains that carried Pullman cars be- tween Chicago, San Francisco and other points until their wages should be raised. The United States mail was stopped, and much railroad property was destroyed. It was not until President Cleveland sent troops to preserve order and protect the mail that the strike ended. 434, The Behring Sea Dispute Settled. Another source of worry during the Cleveland administra- _ tion was that of the Behring Sea Dispute. We declared that » when we purchased Alaska that we gained the right to close ~ Behring Sea to seal hunters of other nations. This right the foreign seal fisherman denied to the United States. Finally a . © commission composed of seven men from the United States, France, Italy, England, Norway and Sweden were chosen to decide the matter. They decided we could not close the sea, but said the seals must be protected and not allowed to be killed except at certain times and under certain conditions. As it was our purpose in closing the sea to protect the seals from indis- criminate slaughter, we really won our contention. 435. The Monroe Doctrine Applied. A long’ and bitter dispute had been going on between ~ Great Britain and Venezuela, in regard to the boundary line , between Venezuela and British Guiana. Great Britain refused / to submit the question to arbitration and was about to begin war with Venezuela, when the United States interfered by _ right of the Monroe Doctrine and declared that Great Britain ' had no right to enlarge her possessions by force. At last an agreement was made between Great Britain and Venezuela, in 1899, by which the trouble was peaceably settled, and Great Britain came into possession of most of the territory which she claimed belonged to her. | SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.- 436. Presidential Campaign and Election 1896. The Treasury had ceased to buy silver and the demand for free coinage of silver was renewed. The Republicans in their national platform in 1896, declared against it, whereupon thirty-four delegates from the silver states (Idaho, Montana, South Dakota, Colorado, Utah, and. Nevada) left the conven- — tion. ge Democratic party declared for free coinage,* but many Democrats (“gold Democrats”) thereupon formed a new party, called the National Democratic, and nominated _ a asta Sen cca, FOURTH QUARTER 139 candidates on a gold-standard platform. Both the great parties were thus split on the issue of free coinage of silver. * They demanded “the free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1”; that is, that out of one pound of gold should be coined as many dollars as out of sixteen pounds of silver—McMasters Brief History, p. 417. The Republicans nominated William McKinley for Presi- dent. The Democrats nominated William J. Bryan. The Gold Democrats nominated John M. Palmer. The Populists nominated the same candidate as the Democrats. At the election in the fall of 1896, McKinley received the majority of the electoral votes. 437. Gold Standard and National Prosperity. With the election of McKinley, the United States seemed to enter upon an era of peace and prosperity. The troublesome times of Cleveland’s second administration were left behind, and a rapid development began in our commercial life. One of the most remarkable gains was made in our exports to foreign countries. In 1908, these exports reached $1,854,000,000 in value and have increased much since that time. Great Britain depends upon us for the greater part of her food, while oil, leather, cotton and tobacco are also exported in great quantities. We also have come to control the iron, steel, and copper trade. In 1908, our manufactured goods exported, reached a total value of . '$750,000,000. But not only commercially was the United States expanding. Some of the most notable places of our time were dedicated during this period. Among these were: Grant’s Tomb on Riverside Drive, New York, Museum of Natural History, Public Library, Library of Columbia University, Museum of Art, the Customhouse, College of the City of New York, and the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Arch, all in New York City. In Washington, D. C., the world famous Congressional Library was opened. It has space for 6,000,000 volumes, and is considered equalled by no building of its kind in the world. 438. Sympathy for an Oppressed People. For years there had been trouble and discontent in Cuba. During the slave period in the South, the slave states had desired to get hold of the Island of Cuba, which is in size about the size of Pennsylvania and close to the coast of Key West, Florida. In 1845, we offered Spain $100,000,000 for the island, a sum she indignantly refused. Later, some move was made to seize the island for the South. This led to a meeting of our ministers of 140 FOURTH QUARTER Great Britain, Spain, and France at Ostend, Belgium in 1854 to discuss the Cuban question. They declared that as long as Cuba was under Spanish rule, we would be caused trouble, and that we ought to gain control of it by seizure if no other way presented itself. In 1868, a rebellion broke out in Cuba which dragged along for ten years. In 1895, a new uprising occurred, and the © Revolutionists—the party demanding separation from Spain— declared for freedom or death. This revolt led to the Spanish colony in the Phillipines declaring their independence. When McKinley became President the war was causing great loss to citizens of the United States who had financial interests in Cuba. Between the Revolutionists on the one hand, and the Spanish commanders on the other, the inhabitants of the island were in a pitable plight. If they refused to join the former, they were hanged; if the latter, they were herded into vile filthy towns to die of staravation or yellow fever. In the outbreak of 1895, the revolutionists destroyed planta- tions, factories, and laid waste thousands of sugar plantations owned by American capital. Then the Spanish General, Weyler, began destroying not only property but lives as well. The cruelty of the Spanish commanders stirred the American people deeply, and the pulpit and press took up the cry of Liberty for the Cubans. The newspapers—that is the more radical ones—de- manded that we step in at once and demand Cuban independence. Many Americans joined societies formed to help the island .in its struggle and adventurous American citizens went to the island, and enlisted in the Cuban Army. 439. ‘‘Remember the Maine.’’ Soon after his inauguration, McKinley protested to Spain about conditions in the island, and demanded that order be restored and protection be given American interest. While an ex- — change of letters was being made, in February 15, 1898, the battle- ship Maine, belonging to. the United States and at that time in. the harbor of Havana, was blown up. There were two officers and two hundred fifty- -eight of the crew were killed. Now, the United States was aroused from coast to coast, and people began wearing buttons in their lapels reading “Remember the Maine.” Those favoring war renewed their efforts. Spain denied she had anything to do with the disaster, and referred to it as a “regretable incident.” She insisted the explosion came’ from within the vessel, while others laid it to a submarine mine. The charge against Spain was never proven, but every indication seems to point that it was caused by some external force. FOURTH QUARTER 141 440. War Declared; Dewey in Manilla Bay. The United States demanded of Spain that her cruelty must stop; little attention was paid to it until President Mc- Kinley declared that Spain should do something to relieve the starving peasants. Spain removed General Weyler, who had been appointed Spanish commander, and sent out General Blanco. Blanco made a great many “good promises” to the revolting Cubans, but they had been deceived so many times by Spanish promises, that they openly stated that nothing would satisfy them save absolute independence. Gomez was the leader of the revolting Cubans. When the President-called for 200,000 volunteers, a million men asked to enlist. Congress had already appropriated $50,000,000 for the President to use in outfitting the troops, then asked for a loan of $200,000,000 from the people to pay the men in the army and navy. This was more than seven times over- subscribed. Owing to the location of Cuba, the navy naturally would play a big part in the war, so the President ordered Captain William T. Sampson with a fleet of warships to proceed to Cuba, and block the ports of that island, especially that of Havana. Commodore W. S. Schley was placed in command of a “flying squadron,” fast, armed vessels which would be ready to serve wherever needed. April 25, 1918, Congress then formally declared war on Spain. Spain owned the Philippines. Manila was the capital. The United States undertook to strike Spain two blows at once. While she was busy with her trouble in Cuba, Com- mander George Dewey, who was stationed at Hong Kong, China, started at once for Manila, where he intended to de- stroy the Spanish fleet which guarded that port. He reached Manila on Sunday morning May 1, 1898, made an attack, and after a fierce battle destroyed the mpanish # fleet without losing a man or ship. Dewey had but six ships of war, and was forced to attack an enemy that had twice aS many vessels, and also held a forti- fied port. But Dewey knew he could count on his gunners, and that he was not disappointed in them is borne out by a statement made by a French officer who was an eye witness of the fight. In speaking of the American’s marksmanship he said the “American fire was something awful for its accuracy and rapidity.” | | 441. American Troops in Cuba. About the time of the Battle of Manilla, Captain Sampson sailed for Santiago, in southern Cuba. Owing to the nature of 142 FOURTH QUARTER the location of Santiago, Sampson did not dare enter the harbor. The entrance to the harbor was long, narrow and well protected by land batteries as well as submarine mines. About this time General Shafter landed an army near Santiago to aid Sampson in his attack. July 1-2, 1898, Shafter’s force which had been aug- mented by the arrival of Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, made an attack on El Caney and San Juan which overlooked the city of — Santiago. It resulted in a complete rout of the Spanlags who — rushed headlong into the city of Santiago. 442. A Famous Naval Engagement. Meanwhile a Spanish fleet under Cervera (thir va ra) sailed from the Cape Verde Islands. Acting Read Admiral Sampson, with ships which had been blockading Havana, and Commodore Schley, with a “flying squadron,’ went in search of Cervera, who, after a long hunt, was found in the harbor of Santiago, on the south coast of Cuba, and at once blockaded. As the fleet of Cervera could not be attacked by water, it was decided to capture Santiago, and so force him to run out. General Shafter with an army was sent to Cuba, and landed a few miles from the city (June 22,23), and at once pushed forward. On July 1, the Spanish positions on two hills, El Caney (el ca na’) and San Juan (sahn hoo ahn’) were carried by storm. The capture of Santiago was now so certain that, on July 3, Cervera’s fleet dashed from the harbor and attempted to break through the blockading fleet. A run- ning sea fight followed, and in a few hours six of the Spanish vessels were shattered wrecks on the coast of Cuba. Not one of our ships was seriously damaged. Two weeks later General Toral (to rahl’) surrendered the city of Santiago, the eastern end of Cuba, and a large army.—McMaster’s Brief History, pp. 422, 423. 443. Porto Rico Occupied by United States Troops. With the fall of Santiago, the war in Cuba was ended. General Miles then proceeded to Porto Rico. Here his troops met with little resistance and this island would soon have been under his control as Cuba had been under General Shafter’s had not the news reached the island August 12th that steps had been taken by Spain to make peace. When the President ordered all Be ne to end, the Governor of Porto Rico sur- . rendered the island to General Miles. The treaty of peace was signed at Paris, December 10, 1898. Spain gave up all claim to Cuba and ceded Porto Rico and Guam to the United States. The United States paid Spain FOURTH QUARTER 143 $20,000,000, and she ceded the Philippines to us. The $20,000,000 were for public improvements which Spain had erected on the islands. The war cost in money about $130,000,000. Cost in life about 420, who were killed in battle, and about 3 000 who died of disease. On May 20, 1902, the United States troops were with- drawn from Cuba, and the Republic of Cuba was formally inaugurated. The United States flag was taken down from the government building at Havana, and the flag of Cuba took its place. An election was held for the purpose of elect- ing a President, Vice President, and Members of Congress. EXPANSION. 444, Hawaii Annexed. Early in 1893, a revolution broke out in the Hawaiian Islands. American sailors on the ‘ “Boston” gave the leaders of the revolt aid, and the native queen was deposed, the govern- ment was made a Republic, and an American was made Presi- dent of the island. Hawaii asked to be annexed to the United States, but Cleveland declined, saying that the men from the “Boston” might have contributed to the success of the revolution, and, if that was the case, the Americans had not acted with fairness, therefore he was not in favor of an- nexation. Later, (1898) Hawaii was annexed by joint resolution. These islands are valuable to the United States as a coaling station. They were organized as a territory, and sent their first delegate to Congress in 1900. In the Hawaiian group there are twelve islands with a total area of about 7000 square miles. Of the total population in 1900 of 153,000, 61,000 were Japanese, 25,000 were Chinese. There were about 28,000 white inhabitants to about 30,000 native Hawaiians. Only a small part of the population speak English. 445. Problems of Governing the New Possessions. With the acquisition of new territory, came the question of its government. When Hawaii was annexed, many of the Senators held that the people of these islands were not fit for self-government. But Congress resolved to annex them and Hawaii became a part of the United States. They were then organized as a terrotiry, which was to be governed by a legis- lature, elected by the voters of the island, and by a Governor, who was to be appointed by the President and approved by the Senate of the United States. 144 FOURTH QUARTER When the treaty of peace was signed in Paris by Spain and the United States, we acquired Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam, while Cuba was to be free. Now, we were face to face with the problem of setting up some sort of government in each of these places. But before we had had time to begin any serious plans, trouble broke out in the Philippines. Before we had. stormed Manila, a native leader named Aguinaldo, had led uprisings against the Spanish and when the American troops had attacked Manila, Aguinaldo and his followers had aided ‘them. In January, 1899, these native leaders heard that the United States had acquired the islands and intended to annex it as American territory. Naturally they were bitterly disappointed and early in February trouble broke out between the native troops and the forces of the United States. For nearly three years this struggle lasted—never coming to open warfare but each side engaged in a sort of guerrilla war, which took a heavy toll of both life and property. Finally, the uprising was crushed by the capture of the leaders. Now a definite policy of government was put into effect. Railroads were built, schools opened, and hundreds of teachers from the states sent out to teach in the native schools. Better methods of farming were introduced, many miles of roads built, and numerous new industries were introduced. In 1907, the United States granted the Philipino a ‘shareai in his government.. A large number of the natives (men) were given the privilege of voting for delegates to general assemblies, which decided questions of local interest. The Governor of the islands as well as the upper house of the legislature however were to be appointed by the President of the United States and approved by the United States Senate. A similar policy was put in force in Porto Rico. Native men who possessed certain qualifications were given a share in the government but the upper officials were to be chosen by the United States Government. RS Now politics entered into the question of the government of our new possessions. The Democrats demanded Home Rule for Porto Rico and independence for the Philippines. When in 1913 they came into control, they began to lay plans to this end. In 1916, Congress agreed that at some future time, independence should be granted the Philippines, but the date was left un- decided. At this same session, they also gave the natives the power to elect the Upper House of the Philippine Legislature. In the beginning they had been given the privilege of electing the lower house. In 1917, a similar change was made in Porto Rico. Manhood suffrage was also granted. FOURTH QUARTER 145 446. The Boxer Rebellion. With the acquisition of the Philippines, the United States seemed to step into world politics. Hardly had a semblance of order been restored in the island till trouble broke out in China. In 1900 a faction known as “Boxers” rose and tried to drive out the foreigners from China. They resented the interference of the Occident into the affairs of the Orient. The German Am- bassador was killed as well as a large number of foreigners at Peking. At once, Russia, England, France, Germany, Japan, the United States and other powers began to send soldiers to protect lives and property in China. Order was soon restored and China paid a huge indemnity for the damages done. Many of the European countries wanted to sieze China and divide it up among the various nations, but the United States would not agree to this. She held out merely for the “open door” that was equal and fair trade in China for all nations. When the indemnity had been paid us we found it more than covered the losses to our people, so we returned it to China with the understanding that it be used to educate Chinese students in American schools. This was a particularly wise move in that it gave a chance to the Chinese students to come to the United States study our government and to become better ac- quainted with us. It also increased the respect of the Chinese government toward us, and gave it a kindly interest in us. 447, The Hague Court of Arbitration. In 1900, the Senate ratified The Hague Peace Conference Treaty. According to this agreement, the nations of Europe, Japan, and the United States agreed to submit all questions that arise to a court of arbitration which was to be in constant session in the city of The Hague, the capital of Holland. It was hoped that by this means, war might be done away with between nations signing the treaty. The World War which came sixteen years later showed how foolish this hope was to be. 448. McKinley Re-elected in 1900. When time came to select candidates for the election in 1900, no one was thought of by the Republican but McKinley. He had made an excellent President and had brought to a suc- cessful close all the big undertakings of his term of office. Bryan was still the idol of the Democrats and was re-nominated by them as their candidates. There were no biterly fought ques- tions in this campaign as in the previous one. ‘Territorial ex- pansion was discussed as was the tariff and the money question. McKinley was elected by 292 votes to 155 for Bryan. Mc- 146 FOURTH QUARTER Kinley began his second term under very favorable conditions. His Vice President was a vigorous type of young man, Theodore Roosevelt, whom we first heard of in our study of the Spanish War, where he led his Rough Riders in their successful attack on San Juan Hill. 449, Death of President McKinley. Roosevelt President. A great World’s Fair called the Pan-American Exposition was held at Buffalo, New York, in 1901. President McKinley visited the Exposition, and a great reception was given in his honor in the Hall of Music. While in the act of shaking hands with the people, he was shot by an anarchist who ap- proached him as if to shake hands. He was shot September 6, 1901, and died September 14, 1901. Vice President Roose- velt became President and served the remainder of the term. At the end of that time he was re-elected (1901) with Charles Fairbanks as Vice President. The anarchist’s name was Leon Czolgosz (chol’. gosh). He was executed at Auburn, New York, October 19, 1901. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. 450. The Panama Canal. Almost from the time of the discovery of the Pacfic by Balboa, proposals had been made for the digging of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. But the difficutlies offered by the steep mountains and the rivers subject to great floods postponed the carrying out of this project, although the dis- tance from Panama, on the Pacific, to Colon on the Carribean, is only forty-six miles in a straight line. At length, 1881, Ferdinand de Lesseps, a French engineer under whose direc- tion the Suez Canal had been dug, undertook the cutting of a sea-level canal across the Isthmus. The plan was abandoned, however, after a gread deal of money had been spent. A sec- ond French company then undertook the construction of a canal with locks. The people of the United States have al- ways been greatly interested in the project of making a canal between the Atlantic and Pacific, and since the acquisition of Hawaii and the Philippines this interest has, if anything, in- creased, Before 1904, however. obstacles of one sort or another prevented the realization of this desire. In this year, however, events so shaped themselves that it became possible for the United States to enter upon the construction of this important waterway.—Channing’s History, copyright 1904, by the Macmillan Company, New York, p. 583. | FOURTH QUARTER 147 One of the chief questions in dispute was the route the canal should take. In June, 1902, Congress ordered that the claims of the French in Panama should be bought, and that land should be purchased from Colombia if she would sell at a reason- able price. If she wouldn’t, then the canal should be routed through Nicaragua. When the United States approached Colombia in regard to the matter, she refused the sum that was offered. Roosevelt was indignant at this and felt Colombia was simply putting up the price because she thought the United States would pay it. In turn, the people of Panama were in- dignant for they realized that if the United States built the canal, it meant that millions of dollars would be spent there and that the future of the country was secured. As a result in 1903 the people of Panama revolted against Colombia and set up an independent government. Roosevelt at once recognized the new government and soon a treaty was made between the new republic and the United States and the United States was given the right to construct and operate a canal across the isthmus. In 1906, the plan was perfected to construct locks rather than to dig the canal to sea level. But there was much work to be done before actual digging would start. The isthmus was a very unhealthful place. Thous- ands had dted there while the French were trying to build the canal, Fevers and tropical diseases ran riot and the United States decided this heavy toll of life must not be exacted from the American forces. Consequently our government selected a man to clean up the country. The man picked was Dr. Gorgas, a Surgeon General in the United States army. He had been the main worker in stamping out yellow fever in Cuba after the Spanish-American War, and now faced a far more formible task in the Panama zone. In 1908 Colonel G. W. Goethals was placed at the head of the forces to do the actual digging of the canal. For five years, discouragement after discouragement beset the workers. Hill- sides slid into the canal, filling it up as fast as it was excavated. The locks were built and the foundations would crumble, but nothing: daunted as the Americans kept on till in 1913 when the waters of the two oceans were united by the completed canal. Colombia refused to be pacified and in 1921 a treaty was made between her and the United States whereby we agreed to pay her $25,000,000 and grant her certain privileges in using the canal. 451. The Germany-Venezuela Affair. For years, the political affairs of some—in fact most of the South American countries had been unsettled. Frequent revolts 148 FOURTH QUARTER and uprisings in Venezuela especially had made life and property so unsafe that many European citizens—residents of, or inter- ested in business in Venezuela, brought claims for their losses against the Venezuelan government. President Castro had been unable and unwilling to meet these demands. Nor was he able to meet the interest on money borrowed from Europe to con- struct railways in Venezuela. Finally, when citizens of Eng- land, Germany, and Italy appealed to their governments the governments sought to secure redress from the South American republic. When these efforts failed, they decided to blockade the Venezuelan ports, and in 1902 English, German, and Italian ~ warships undertook a Pacific blockade of La Guaira and Puerto Cabello. | When it finally developed into a warlike move President Castro protested. Then President Roosevelt took a hand in matters and threatened to send a fleet of warships against the blockaders unless the matters was peaceably adjusted. The- European nations and Venezuela then agreed to submit the quarrel to a mixed commission for arbitration. The finding of the commission was that the sums originally demanded were greatly in excess of the real damages suffered. The creditors were paid but much less than they originally demanded, 452. The Anthracite Coal Strike. The summer of 1902, also witnessed the most far-reaching strike in the history of the country, when the miners of an- thracite coal refused longer to work on the conditions offered them by the owners of the mines or by those who operated them. At one time it seemed as if great hardship would be caused throughout the North by the lack of the fuel which is used for heating houses. President Roosevelt, however, in- terfered and appointed five commissioners to hear the con- tending parties and to propose, if possible, a basis of settle- ment between them, on the understanding that in the mean- time the striking miners should return to work. In this way suffering was lessened, and Congress, by voting money for the salaries and expenses of the Commission, ratified the action of the President—Channing’s Bee's copyright 1904, by the Macmillan Company, New York, p. 582. 453. Conservation of Natural Resources. The year 1898 was one of almost unexampled agricultural prosperity. The West raised enormous crops of bread stuffs and, owing to the foreign demand, sold them at prices which filled the farmers’ pockets and added largely to the wealth of the country. In connection with agriculture, attention should FOURTH QUARTER 149 be called to the preservation of the forests. It has been found that, if the streams are unprotected by timber, they become -terrents in the spring and disappear in hot weather. If this goes on for a long time, the valleys become sterile, and some- times uninhabitable. The forests are continually being de- stroyed by fires, lumbermen’s axes, and saw mills, and by the pulp mills for the manufacture of wood paper and various kinds of wooden ware. Since 1891, the federal government has set aside large reservations of timber, and a number of states have passed laws not only for the preservation of the forests but for the planting of trees as well. Many of the coal and petroleum mines throughout the country have been set aside to be used for the benefit of all the people. The government is trying to conserve these val- uable resources, and put an end to the old wasteful methods. In 1902, the government set aside all moneys received from the sale of public lands in seventeen states and terri- tories to establish an irrigation system. It is believed that in this way many millions of acres of arid lands can be made fertile —From Montgomery's “Leading Facts of American H1s- tory,’ Ginn & Company, Publishers, pp. 409-10-II-12. In all these movements, Roosevelt was the leader. With his coming into power, a new force entered national life. From his time to the present, our presidents have been leaders—espe- cially is this true of Roosevelt and Wilson. Roosevelt plead for the conservation of our natural resources for the benefit of gen- erations yet to come, and anyone who had plans to this end were vigorously backed up by the White House. Among these was John Wesley Powell, who knew the region of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, and urged that large dams be built, in which to store water, then this should be used to ir rigate the rich but arid land of this region. Gifford Pinchot was another who gained a hearing. Pinchot was Governor of Pennsylvania in 1923, and later became head of the Forestry Bureau. He was a student of forestry and argued against the great waste in our water supplies, forests, minerals and in the irrigation of our arid lands. In this he was backed by Senator Newlands of Nevada. Due partly to the efforts of these men and partly to those of other public spirited men, June 17, 1902 Congress passed the Reclamation Act—an act which would make productive vast stretches of western desert land. Money to finance the under- taking was secured from the sale of public lands. Dams were ‘built and the water stored, then released to the land as needed. This reclaimed land was then sold, and the money used to build more dams and reservoirs. In 1911, in Arizona was completed 150 FOURTH QUARTER one of the largest dams built. This was known as the Roosveelt. By 1920, about 1,600,000 acres, before an arid waste, had been reclaimed, and much of it put in cultivation. In 1906, there were two other moves made that resulted in revenue to the United States. One had to do with the renting of forest lands to ranchers, who pastured their cattle and sheep on these lands, government owned. Before, these were pastured without pay, now a nominal fee was charged. The other act concerned electric companies. Before this these companies had used the water power on government lands either without paying for it, or by paying a mere fraction of its real worth. In 1907, Roosevelt followed a precedent set by Cleveland and added 43,000,000 acres to the permanent forests, which were Federal owned. An elaborate system was now evolved to care for and pro- tect these timber lands. Forest rangers were appointed, who patroled the lands, watching for forest fires or thieves. Roads were built, and telephone and telegraph communication were established. The cutting of the timber was also regulated, so that no more should be removed than would ordinarily grow in that year. In 1908, Roosevelt called the convention of Governors, which was held in Washington. This convention consisted of the governors of the states, senators, representatives, Supreme Court, Cabinet and members of the Inland Waterways Commission. The effect of this meeting was great—not the least being upon the public in general. It awakened them to the fact that the vast resources of the United States were not inexhaustible, and that they were being wasted recklessly and foolishly. The area of national forests had now grown from forty- — three to one hundred ninety-four million acres, while the forest rangers now numbered 3,000. During the seven and one-half years before March, 1909, there had been saved for the public more timber land than in all the preceding years. In his con- servation project Roosevelt was upheld in every act by the United States Supreme Court, and in every case but one the decisions were unanimous. 454, William Howard Taft, Elected President, 1908. The year 1908 was election year, and to most it was a foregone conclusion that a Republican would be elected. No man stood higher in the esteem of the American people than Roosevelt, yet he absolutely refused to be considered a candidate for re- election. He was by no means tired of the work. “I have had an exceedingly good time; I have been exceedingly well treated by the American people,’ he wrote to William Allen White. Roosevelt would have liked to remain President. He enjoyed the FOURTH QUARTER 151 exercise of power, and the pomp of place, and never tried to deny it. In writing to a friend he said, “I have finished my career in public life. I have enjoyed it to the full; I have achieved a large proportion of what I set out to achieve.” Yet he resisted all at- tempts to get him to become a candidate for a third term. But he did exert his influence in choosing the Republican candidate. Elihu Root was perhaps his favorite, but he realized that Root could not be elected because of the opposition of the West to him. This narrowed his selection to William H. Taft and Charles E. Hughes. The convention met in Chicago and was presided over by Henry Cabot Lodge. Taft was chosen on a platform heartily approved by Roosevelt, and was elected at the November election by a large majority. March 4, 1909, he was inaugurated President. William J. Bryan had*been the Democrat candidate. The tariff question had been the chief issue of the campaign. 455. Postal Savings Bank—1910. In December, 1910, when the two Houses of Congress met, President Taft in his message to them commended the establishment of Postal Savings Banks. This had been agi- tated for some time, but had been opposed by the banking interests of the country. The bill as passed created a Board of Trustees composed of the Postmaster General, Secretary of the Treasury, and the Attorney General. At the time this was established one person’s deposits were limited to $100 per month and $500 in all. Accounts may be opened with one dollar. Two per cent interest is paid.* The first year Congress gave but $100,000 to try out the scheme. The plan had been successfully tried out in the Philippines. One of Taft’s recommendations in his December message had been the establishment of a Rural Parcels Post. For more than ten years the demand for a parcel post had been growing, but had been vigorously fought by the Express Com- panies. In August, 1912, the bill was passed, the rates to be decided by weight and distance. For this purpose the country was divided into eight zones. The maximum weight allowed is seventy pounds in the first, second and third zones, and fifty pounds in fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth zones. 456. Two Constitutional Amendments. In 1909, a resolution was adopted by Congress which pro- — posed an amendment to the Constitution giving Congress power to levy a tax on incomes from any source. All incomes over $1,000. Thirty-four states by 1910 had ratified this * This has been revised since 1910—see your postmaster. 152 FOURTH QUARTER of married people of over $2,000 are taxable, of unmarried, all amendment and early in the year it was approved by enough to make it a law, and was known as the Sixteenth Amend- ment. This law was especially necessary now since the tariff revision had cut off that source of income. If one’s income is over $20,000 a 1% increase is added, if over $50,000, a 2% in- crease, over $75,000, a 3%, if over $100,000, a 4%, 5% on all above $250,000, and 6% on all above $500, 000. It was criti- cized as being a rich man’s tax. To show what a large amount of revenue it returned, one needs but consult figures from Wisconsin, which showed that $3,500,000 in taxes were returned the first year. Failure to make returns will be fined $20 to $1,000. Fraudulent returns are punishable with $2,000 fine, imprisonment for one year, or both. In 1918, the Seventeenth Amendament having been rati- fied by enough states went into effect. It provided for the direct election of Senators. The first election held under this law was in Georgia, ‘July 15. This Act aimed to prevent cor- rupt practices in Congressional elections. 457. Campaign for the Presidency 1912. In spite of the various wise legislative moves during Taft's administration, discontent began to creep in against the Repub- lican Party. It began first with the Speaker of the House of Representatives whom, the Democrats claimed, ruled in an auto- cratic way, and gave the average member no chance fora hearing. The discontent grew till in the fall of 1910, the Ree lost the majority in the House. Disputes between Taft and Congress now arose. The Democrats, who were now in power, insisted on a revision of the tariff. With the aid of some of the Republican, reform measures were passed reducing the tariff on sugar, farm implements, woolen goods, and iron and steel goods. This was promptly vetoed by the President. Not only was there dissentions between the Democrats and Taft, but even some of his own party began to withdraw their support. This group called themselves Progressives. They decided that Taft should not have the nomi- nation for another term, so Senator LaFollette of Wisconsin, who ~ had headed the movement, became a candidate in 1912. In February, Roosevelt, who had returned from his African hunt- ing trip, also became a candidate by announcing in his forceful way, “My hat is in the ring.” When the Republican Convention met in Chicago, the pitiable - spectacle was witnessed of two friends bitterly at odds, fighting for the greatest gift in the power of the American people to FOURTH QUARTER 153 bestow. Had Taft or Roosevelt either one had the good of the Republican Party enough at heart to have stepped aside, either one would have secured the nomination and likely the election. But neither could or would, and the result was a house divided against itself. Roosevelt’s supporters bolted the convention and Taft was nominated. Roosevelt’s friends now held a convention at Chicago in August and nominated him for President on the Progressive Ticket. Their platform was a radical change from the Repub- lican and favored direct presidential primaries,woman’s suffrage, popular election of United States Senators, the initiative and referendum, and the short ballot. The stand they took on labor and capital was concilatory to both sides—they approved measures in favor of labor but denounced any attempt to break up the great trusts—advising rather that they be regulated and curbed. The split in the Republican Party caused great joy in Democratic circles, for it practically assured the victory for the Democratic nominee. Champ Clark led in votes for the nomina- tion, and when. the convention seemed almost hopelessly dead- locked, Bryan threw his support to Governor Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey, and secured his nomination. At the November election Wilson was elected by a large majority. IMPROVED CONDITIONS. 458. Labor Saving Machinery. Before 1860, the farmer produced most of the things used and sold a small part of his product to buy a few things he could not produce. Since 1860, with almost marvelous in- crease in the number and variety of tools or machines to aid him, each farmer today produces much more than he could in 1860. Each farmer today produces a few products, specializes farming and sells nearly everything he produces, and buys nearly everything he consumes. Farm tools were of the rudest. Plows were home made of wood as were the farm wagons; grain was cut by hand witha scythe, and threshed with a flail. The clothing for the entire family was homespun and home made. Candles furnished light, and fireplaces, heat. The necessities of life were costly; and even in the spacious homes of the wealthy, the comforts the poor man knows today, were lacking. In 1800, the greater part of the people in the United States made their living by agriculture. In 1900, the per cent was about one-third of all the people gainfully employed. In compiling statistics for agriculture products, one is startled into recognizing that we can no longer compute their 154 FOURTH QUARTER value in thousands or even millions, but that we must learn to think in billions. This enormous growth is due largely to two things, the energy and enterprise of the American farmer, and the use of improved farm machinery. The tallow dip that once lit the farmer’s two-room log house has given place to acetelyn or electric lights in houses hardly surpassed by the best homes of city dwellers. The rude farm wagon has given place to the automobile, while the heavy housework is done by gasoline power. Most farmers sell their milk to dairies and no dairy work is done by the farm wife. The open fire place as a means of cooking at first gave place to the kitchen range, and that has given place to gas or oil stoves. The farmer himself no longer uses the rude plow which served his ancestors, but does his work with motor plows, which with one plowing turned up five to ten times as much as the walking plow did years before. Harvesting which used to be a matter of weeks, now is done by one machine which cuts, threshes, and bags the grain all at one time. It is on the great farms of the West that one sees the _ greatest development in farm machinery. In some places, a steam plow is used for plowing. A pulverizing harrow, clod crusher, and leveler all working at one time prepare the land for sewing. Often a row of plows is drawn by a tractor. To this is attached a row of harrows, and to this rows of drills to seed the land, and rakes to cover it. A machine of this sort with sixteen plows in a row can do as much work in one day as sixteen plowmen and sixty-four horses. This is truly an age of machinery and no one article that we use shows the development of machinery more than does flour. During the early days of the frontier life, corn was put into a hole in a stump and pounded with a heavy po This crude manner of reducing the corn to meal a ee by the grist or flour mill. These were water turned, and in time gave place to mills located more centrally and easily reached by rail. Today we have the immense flour mills such as are found at Minneapolis and St. Paul where thousands of barrels of flour are turned out each day. 459. Manufacturing and Mining. During the period before 1770, manufacturing had been mostly carried on in the home, but between 1790-1800 trade and commerce were greatly increased. This was due to the fact that during this period the factory system was introduced into the United States. In 1767, Hargreaves invented the spin- ning jenny, Arkwright invented the spinning frame in 1769, Compton, the mule spinner in 1784, and Cartwright the power loom in 1785. England tried to prevent the United States pro- FOURTH QUARTER 155 fiting by these inventions by passing a law in 1774 which for- bade the exportation of machines used in cotton or linen manufactures. However, in 1790 Samuel Slater, an English- man set up at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, the first machinery for spinning used in this country. He had worked in the mills in England and constructed the machinery from mem- ory. But it was left for Eli Whitney’s famous cotton gin, in- vented in 1793 to give the greatest impetus to the cotton in- dustry in the United States. In 1790, 200,000 pounds of cotton were exported. In 1800, nearly 20,000,000 pound were sent out of the country. This rise was due solely to the Whitney in- vention. The demand for slaves now began to increase to raise the cotton. The period 1810-1820 saw the rise of duties on imported goods, especially on cotton and woolen goods and iron prod- ucts. This did much to encourage manufacturing in the United States, since it made competition with foreign goods possible. The period 1830-1840 saw the rapid multiplication of time and labor-saving machinery. Until 1826, no edged tools such as axeS were made in the United States. 1836 saw the first use of anthracite coal in smetling of iron. Manufacturing towns now began to increase in number and population owing to this discovery and the use of water- power. This was the work of Cyrus McCormick, and did more to revolutionize farm labor than any other invention as yet made. The first threshing machine was introduced to take the place of the old flail. In the five years between 1852-57 the amount of iron products manufactured doubled. This growth was due largely to the improved transportation facilities between factories and the iron and coal mines. Pittsburg had become the center of the iron industry and the iron mines of Michigan were being developed. Woolen manufacturers increased over fifty per cent between 1850-60. In 1831, there were 1,246,000 spindles in cotton mills. In 1860 there were five times as many. Probably the most important discovery of this time was the Bessemer process of converting iron into steel. One can readily see the importance of this in the development of our railroads. The manufacture of steel advanced westward until the Great Lakes became rimmed with foundaries, these locations being con- venient to the iron of the North and the coal of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois. The use of a tan eme led to manufacturing on a large scale. In 1870, the per capita consumption of iron was 105 pounds. In 1880, this had increased to 204 pounds. To meet 156 FOURTH QUARTER this increasing demand corporations began to be formed. Enor- mous factories were erected and cities grew up around them. Productiveness now became along special lines. The farm gave over the weaving and spinning of former days. Much of the dairy work was also given up, and some special work taken up, as stock farming, poultry raising, or grain. The factory built cities looked to the country for its food, as the country looked to the city for its clothes. This rapid inter- change has been made possible by the steam railroad, and is rapidly being made quick by the electric interurbans. In 1870, there were 252,000 manufacturing establishments in the United States employing 2,053,000 people with an annual product of $3,385,000,000. In 1880, they had increased to 253,000 factories, 2,700,000 employees, and $5,349,000 output, and in 1890, to 322,000 factories, 4,476,000 employees, and $9,056,000,000 pro- duct. Since 1900, the manufacturers of the South have doubled. In cotton manufacturing the advance has been especially note- worthy. From Virginia to Georgia is becoming rapidly a manu- facturing section. But all of this activity along manufacturing lines could not have taken place without the discovery and development of America’s vast resources of coal and iron, gas, and oil. Without these, America would have remained an agricultural country, de- pending upon other nations for her fuel, machinery, and all other metal products. The demands made for metals during the Civil War had much to do with the rapid development of our steel industry. But our resources at that time were so undeveloped that we had to look to England for much of our iron supplies. About 1870, the discovery was made of rich deposits of copper and iron in the Lake Superior region, and mills in Buffalo, Cleveland, Chicago and Pittsburg began to receive shipments of the ore. Soon other mines were opened in Tennessee, Alabama, and West Virginia and iron foundries were built in these districts. But it was in Pennsylvania that the production of iron goods had its greatest growth and by 1895, we imported. but very few steel rails from abroad. Instead our exports of steel had grown to thousands of tons. At the opening of the 20th century, our output of steel was greater than that of both Germany and Great Britain, while our export of steel was greater than that of Great Britain, which had formerly led in this field. But iron was not our only mineral. In 1859, oil was dis- covered in Pennsylvania and during the Civil War, the govern- ment used great quantities of it. By 1872, petroleum was fourth in rank of all our exports. Refineries were established and soon the oil was being refined into coal oil, gasoline, paraffin, etc. Later, FOURTH QUARTER 157 . discoveries of oil were made in Oklahoma, Texas, California, and in Arkansas, which has proved a remarkable source of oil. Coal is another of our valuable minerals. Pennsylvania lead in production of hard coal, while Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Minnesota, Colorado, and Michigan have valuable fields. Gold was found in California in 1849, and had much to do with the early settlement of the West. Nevada, Montana, Idaho, and Colorado also yielded silver, gold, and other metals beyond the greediest dreams of early prospectors. About 1870 when the iron mines of the Lake Superior region were opened, copper was discovered there in paying quantities. By 1875 this region produced more than 16,000 tons of copper. Later, Montana, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, and Alaska added their output to this, making us a leader in the copper industry. 460. The Federal Reserve System. December 23, 1913, the Owen Glass Bill was passed. This bill made a comprehensive reorganization of the banks of the United States. An organization committee was appointed with McAdoo as chairman. The country was divided into twelve districts, with each district to have a minimum capital of $4,000,000. Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Rich- mond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco were the cities selected for each district. The areas of the districts varied from 39,865 square miles for New York, to 693,658 for St. Louis. The capital varied from a little over four million for Atlanta, to twenty million for New York City. , Any bank organized under the laws of the state it is in, may become a member of the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve System was organized in order to stabalize the . financial situation of the country and to prevent money panics. The panics of 1893 and 1907 occurred because there was no organized system of federal banking. There were only individual banks, each independent of the others. A run on a bank, though perfectly solvent, might cause it to close its doors and take the bankrupt law in disgrace.. After the panic of 1907, a discussion was begun in earnest about the plan of having a general, or Federal Reserve System, on which a bank could draw for funds. ~The result was the Owen Bill, which became a law in 1913. It provided for a central organization of which local banks should be members and in which they kept their reserves. In time of need they can go to the central organization or Federal Reserve and get money. It does not guarantee the deposits of any bank, and does not aid banks that are mismanaged. It, if necessary, can issue reserve notes, each Federal Reserve Bank being desig- 158 “FOURTH QUARTER nated by a particular letter to identify the notes of this bank. Many amendments have been made to the original act passed in 1913. The system has proved a great success. 461. Electricity Applied. Our present age has well been called the age of elec- tricity, and Thomas A. Edison has had more to do with its development than any other person. He has patents on more than 1,000 electrical devices and is constantly adding to this number. To him we owe the incandescent light, an invention which has had more to do with the development of our civil and social life than we realize at first thought. Many and varied as the uses of electricity are at present, it is still per- haps in its infancy as far as our knowledge of its usefulness is concerned. Between 1890-1900, its use increased twenty- seven times. If we but stopped to count up the electrical devices used in every day life, we would be surprised. The list in the home would include vaccuum cleaners, cooking apparatus, lights, telephone, washing machines, electric auto- mobiles, and many others. In the present war, electricity played no small part, and the submarine owes much of its perfection to this wonderful power. Electricity is becoming more and more popular as a means of transportation power. It has long been used for city railroads, but now the inter- urban is growing in favor, and farm and city are becoming linked together in a way undreamed of fifty years ago. It is safe to say that much of our present industrial prosperity is directly due to the use of electricity and it$ continued develop- ment will depend largely upon the growth of knowledge along electrical lines. 462. Better Farming. Better farming was brought about in the United States by — the invention of better tools with which to work. One writer asserts that up to the time of the American Revolution there had been little improvement in farm machinery since the time of the Romans. But by the beginning of the 19th century, conditions were beginning to change. Wooden plows were being replaced by steel ones, while the threshing machine promised to take the place of the old hand flail. From this on the advance in living and working conditions in rural communities was rapid till now farmers have practically all the advantages of city dwellers. The autos and tractors have done much to lighten the farmers burden while the gasoline engine that runs farm machinery turns the washing machine or the churn or cream separator help both farmer and farmer wife. In this better farm movement the government has helped. FOURTH QUARTER 159 For some years, there had been a wide spread discussion of credit to farmers. In 1913 a commission of nearly 100 members studied the system abroad and in July 17, 1916, the President signed a bill which created a Federal Farm Loan Board of five members, which shall control a system of national land banks, which make long time loans, secured by farm land mortgages. Each man receives $10,000 per year and traveling ex- penses. By the law, the United States is divided into twelve Fed- eral Land Bank districts, each having a Federal Land bank. Springfield, Mass., Baltimore, Md., Columbia, S. C., Louisville, Ky., New Orleans, La., St. Louis, Mo., St. Paul, Minn, Omaha, Neb., Wichita, Kan., Houston, Tex., Berkeley, Cal., Spokane, Wash., were selected as places for the banks. The capital stock of each bank must be $750,000. The mortgages were to be from five to forty years. Interest must not exceed 6%. Loans range from $100 to $10,000, and each borrower must be a cultivator of the soil. 463. Irrigation. In 1847, when the Mormons under the leadership of Brigham Young started west to find a new home they went with the deter- mination to ‘make the desert blossom like a rose,” and in truth - they did this very thing. They settled on a spot overlooking the Salt Lake Valley in Utah, then brought down the water from the mountains to irrigate the fertile soil. They built mills, roads, canals, and bridges, and soon had a population of 15,000 people. This was the first attempt made in the United States to irrigate the rich lands of the West. Later when Roosevelt began his famous conservation policy, one of the chief works undertaken was the irrigation of western lands. In this he was aided by many shrewd westerners who saw unlimited possibilities in the arid lands of California, Arizona, and other western states. In this work, John Wesley Powell was a leader, and advocated the building of a dam to store the water from the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. June 17, 1902, Congress passed the Reclamation Act, which provided for a vast amount of western land irrigation. , Most of the irrigation projects in California, have been per- sonal enterprises except the Klamath and Orland in the northern part. Nevada had the Newlands project; Arizona, the Yuma and . Salt River; New Mexico, the Rio Grande and Carlsbad; Utah, the Strawberry Valley; Colorado, the Grand Valley and: Uncompahgre; Nebraska, the North Platte; Wyoming, the Riverton, Jackson Lake, and Shoshone; Idaho, the Boise, King Hill, and Minidoka; South Dokota, Belle Fourche; North 160 FOURTH QUARTER Dakota, the North Dakota Pumping, and Montana, the Milk River, Fort Peck, Lower Yellowstone, Huntley, Flathead, Blackfeet, and Sun River. 464. American Federation of Labor. Among the questions arising from our rapid industrial expansion were the labor problems. Difficulties had long existed between capital and labor and in recent years these _ have had disastrous results. Unions were formed for the purpose of bettering the condition of the laboring man. These Unions finally united under the general management of the American Federation of Labor. Its policy has been to try to adjust labor troubles without open breaks with the em- ployer. It has held itself free of politics and has worked along lines independent of party policies. In turn employers formed associations to resist the demands of the Unions. Usu- ally breaks between capital and labor are now referred to a board of arbitration. The American Federation of Labor began in 1881, but did not take that name for five years. It began with the federation of about 100 union men of different trades. Its local organizations were known as “locals,” and dealt directly with the employers. The Federation was called upon only in emergencies. In 1923, the Federation claimed 4,000,000 due paying mem- bers. It owns, its own headquarters in Washington and has a representative now as a member of the President’s Cabinet. For many years the late Samuel Gompers was at the head of the Federation and had much to do in securing the passage of desired labor legislation. 465. ‘Improved Rural Conditions. In addition to the improvement of labor saving machinery ; which has been fully discussed in previous topics, the improve- ment of roads, building of school houses, the use of the tele- phone, electric lights, the automobile, State fairs, farmer’s clubs, the increase of newspapers and magazines, and the radio have all had great influence in improving living conditions on the farms at the present time. THE WORLD WAR. 466. Peace Treaties, The Work of Mr. Bryan. ~ During 1914-15-16, treaties were ratified with France, Spain, | Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, China, _ and many of the Central and South American Republics whereby each argued to submit all disputes not covered by existing treaties ve FOURTH QUARTER TG age to an international commission. Each country bound itself to refrain from hostilities for the period of one year, or until the Commission had had time to reach a decision in the matter. These treaties have sometimes been called in derision “cooling off’ treaties,’ in that they require a nation to wait one year before beginning hostilities—a period of time in which the nation’s temper may “cool off.” These treaties have been the subject of much criticism by opponents of the Wilson rule in that the nation objecting can do nothing toward hindering or stopping the offense which has been the cause of complaint, for the period of twelve months. It, however, shows the trend of the times toward arbi- tration rather than means of force. As Secretary of State in the Wilson Cabinet much of the work of these treaties fell to Mr. W. J. Bryan, who because of them and his previous interest, has been called the “apostle of peace.” | The treaty between Bolivia and the United States was rati- fied by the Senate August 13, 1914, and proclaimed January 9, 1915. That with Brazil was proclaimed October 30, 1916. | The peace treaty with China was proclaimed October 23, 1915, and that with Chile, January 22, 1916. Costa Rica Peace Treaty with the United States was pro- claimed November 13, 1914. The Peace Treaty between the United States and Denmark was proclaimed January 20, 1915; that with Ecuador, January 24, 1916. The Peace Treaty with France was proclaimed January 23, 1915, and that with Great Britain November 11, 1914. - The treaty between Guatemala and the United States was ratified by the Senate August 13, 1914, and proclaimed October | 13, 1914; that with Hondurus was proclaimed July 28, 1916. The treaty with Italy was proclaimed March 2, 1915, and with Norway October 22, 1914. The treaty with Paraguay was proclaimed March 7, 1915; with Peru, March 6, 1915; with Portugal, October 27 1914; with Russia, March 25, 1915; with Spain, December 23, 1914; with Sweden, January 12, 1915; with Uruguay, February 26, 1915. Treaties with several countries were discussed but not com- pleted. That with the Argentine Republic was advised August 13, 1914. That with the Dominican Republic was signed at Washington February 17, 1914. That with Greece was advised by the Senate October 30, 1914; and that with the Netherlands August 13, 1914; with Nicaragua, August 13, 1914; that with Panama was signed September 20, 1913. The peace treaty with Persia was signed February 4, 1914, and ratification was advised by the Senate August 13, 1914. of 162 FOURTH QUARTER The treaty with Salvador was signed at Washington August 7, 1913, and ratification advised by the Senate August 13, 1914; that with Switzerland was signed February 13, 1914 at Washing- ton and ratification advised by the Senate August 13,:1944, The treaty between Venezuela and the United States was signed at Caracas March 21, 1914, and ratification advise by the Senate August 13, 1914. 467. The Troublesome Mexican Border. In 19138, when Wilson became President, he faced the question of whether he would or would not recognize Huerta as Provisional President of Mexico. During the year 1912, Mexico had been the scene of greatest disorders. Insurrec- tions had broken out in many places and the Madero govern- ment had been unable to cope with it. The Taft administra- tion policy had been one of non-interference. Citizens of the United States had been warned to stay out of Mexico, not to meddle in her political affairs, shipments of war material were declared unlawful, and it seemed we were to leave Mexico alone to settle her own affairs. Madero had excited neither the loyalty nor respect of his people, and Diaz continued to cause him trouble till February 23, he and his Vice President Jose Suarez, and Finance Minister Gustavo Madero, were arrested and shot, as the Diaz faction declared ‘ “while they | were trying to escape.” General Huerta at once assumed the title of Provisional — President, called a session of Congress, and demanded recone nition from the United States. A counter revolution of the farmers of the North was now begun, and Carranza was made commander-in-chief of the — Constitutionalist forces. The rebellion against Huerta was mainly carried on by the poor small land owners and peons. Great Britain and France recognized Huerta as legal President and the ‘Mexican situation” began to assume alarm- ing proportions in the United States. Some declared if we did not recognize Huerta, we were showing sympathy with the rebels; others declared that we should put Huerta out by force and establish a protectorate over Mexico. Others said we should aid Huerta to maintain order. | When Wilson entered office, he faced this question and declared we could not afford to interfere. But armed warships were sent to Vera Cruz, and to Guaymas on the West Coast, and an extra military force was stationed at Galveston, Texas. Wilson seemed inclined not to recognize Huerta unless he was a regularly elected President. Henry Lane Wilson, Ambassador to Mexico, resigned because he found himself fe Oe SOS FOURTH QUARTER 163 unable to agree with President Wilson on this question. Presi- © | dent Wilson now sent ex-Governor Lind of Minnesota to see’ if he could make some arrangements for the election of a new President in Mexico which the United States government would feel free to recognize. His efforts were useless. Huerta would give no assurance that he would not be a candidate for the Presidency in the election set for October 26. In Mexico Madero’s position was weakening, although he had been elect- ed President on the election, October 26. Wilson declared the election had been fraudulently held and refused to recognize him. In the North, Carranza had set up an independent gov- ernment. The closing weeks of 1913 saw fighting between the Constitutionalists under Carranza and the Federals under the command of Huerta. In February, 1914, Wilson lifted the embargo on arms; this was done to aid the Constitutionalists. April 9, a party of American bluejackets were arrested in Tampico. Apologies were offered and they were released by Huerta. Admiral Mayo insisted that a salute be fired to the American flag, since the Mexicans had insulted it by arresting the sailors. Huerta refused. April 14, almost the entire United States navy was ordered to Mexican waters. April 18, Wilson informed Huerta that unless the salute was fired before 6 p. m. the following day, force would be used. Huerta still refused. April 21, marines were ordered to seize the customs house at Vera Cruz. April 25, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile representatives at Washington offered to act as mediators between Huerta and Wilson. May 20, they met at Niagara Falls. Carranza prevented any permanent peace being made and Huerta re- signed July 15, and was succeeded by Carbajal. September 23, /Villa declared war on Carranza, his former chief. Things went from bad to worse. September 18, 1915, a conference was held in New York and Carranza was recognzed as Presi- dent. Trouble broke out again when Villa caused the murder of nineteen United States citizens at Santa Ysabel, when a train was stopped and the nineteen deliberately taken off and shot. March 9, 1916, Columbus, New Mexico, was raided by 1500 bandits, headed by Villa. The town was looted and many civilians killed and wounded. March 15, our troops crossed the border to get Villa dead or alive. One of the greatest blots on the Wilson administration was that Villa was . still alive after our troops returned home. December 1, 1916, a constitutional convention bonvened in Mexico which succeeded in drafting a revised Constitu- 164 ; FOURTH QUARTER tion. March 11, an election was held and Carranza was elected President. May 1, he was inaugurated. 468. War in Western Europe. In the summer of 1914, a prince and his wife were murdered in a little town, Serajevo, in Bosnia. The prince was Archduke Ferdinand, heir apparent to the Austria throne. While the true ~ facts in the case will probably never be known, the murder was probably the work of individual anarchists and had no government connection, But Austria preferred to believe otherwise, and made most stringent demands on Serbia, which she accused of fostering the plot. If Serbia was to remain a separate nation, there was nothing for her to do but refuse the demands, and this she did. The belief is general that Austria and Germany wished to absorb the smaller states of Central Europe—Serbia, Montenegro, Roumania, Bulgaria, Turkey and Greece, and make Germany. the dominant power of Europe. The demands on Serbia seemed to bear out this theory, and Russia, unwilling to see Germany acquire a control that would. threaten her existence, objected. Germany now backed Austria, as was expected. France, forced by her position, took sides with Russia and Serbia, while England stood neutral, her decision hanging in the balance. But when Germany with utter disregard of all treaties to the contrary, swept through Belgium, supposedly a neutral country, on her way to Paris; England acted promptly, putting forth all the power of her army against the oncoming German horde. Like France, England was forced into the war. Long a contender with Germany for European power and world trade, England saw her downfall should Germany be victorious. The navy of Great Britain in the early years of the war was the greatest possible aid to the Allies. It is a rule of war, that a _ nation at war with another nation may seize ships or goods be- longing to that nation. It also has a right to seize all war supplies —called contraband goods—destined for that nation, no matter — by what ship they are carried or to what port they are billed. England now took advantage of these rights to the fullest. She seized all German ships, blockaded German ports, and began a systematic search of all ships for war supplies intended for Germany. Thus the overwhelming superiority of England on the high seas gave triumph for the Allies. England and the other allies could trade freely with other nations, could send and receive - supplies freely, for Germany had no battleships to dispute her right. The United States now built up an enormous trade with : England and France in foodstuffs and war supplies. But this very trade was to result in our being drawn into the struggle — which was now assuming worldwide importance. ————— FOURTH QUARTER 165 469. Efforts at Diplomacy. When one stops to consider that at the outbreak of the European war there were over 4,000,000 foreign born Austrians and Germans in the United States and over 9,000,000 of Ger- mans born in the United States of native born German parents one sees why President Wilson delayed as he did. This fact alone would make the President of the United States hesitate before declaring war on both Austria and Germany. Therefore on August 4, 1914, he issued a formal proclama- tion of neutrality and on August 5, sent notes to the belligerents saying he would be glad to act as mediator at any time they - might desire. He urged the Americans to remain impartial in thought as in action—an attitude even Wilson soon saw was impossible. Our first difficulties arose over our shipping on. the seas, and our first note of protest of the infringement of our rights was — sent to England, not Germany. The advent of the submarine into naval warfare now introduced a new note of discord. Great Britain declared all food supplies contrabands of war. Germany in reply declared a blockade of English ports thus leaving the United States without the old security of the International War Code. We were forced to complain that Britain was interfering in our trade, and that Germany was blowing up our ships and killing our seamen. In November, 1915, a note of marked severity was given to Sir Edward Grey in regard to England’s treatment of our commerce, again in the summer of 1916, a second protest was made to Grey in regard to treatment of cer- tain American firms put on a “Black List” by the British Foreign Office. But to both, Grey replied in pacific terms, and a break was avoided. But the troubles with the German government over the sub- marine devastations were not so easily adjusted. The spring of 1915 was an anxious time on this account for the President. He had issued a note warning them that the government would hold the German government to a strict accountability should any overt act be committed. In quick succession came the tor- pedoeing of the Falaba, Cushing, Gulflight, Arabic, Hesperian, Sussex, Marina, and the Lusitania, May 8, 1915, in which over 1100 lives were lost, more than 100 being American citizens. The German reply to protests the President now made were wholly unsatisfactory. A second note was sent by the President and a somewhat consiliatory reply sent by Germany. But August 19, the White Star liner Arabic was torpedoed off the southern coast of Ireland and more American lives were lost. Count Benstorff, the German Ambassador, realized the serious- 166 | FOURTH QUARTER ness of the situation and went personally to the President. He disavowed the act and said Germany would pay indeminties, but in early September the Hesperian was sunk with further loss of American lives. Again Germany promised to give over the submarine campaign, but in March 24, 1916 the Sussex with many Americans was destroyed, Wilson now declared Germany must give up the destruction of American lives or sever diplo- matic relations. This she agreed to do, but later rep her promise, and war was declared. 470. Sinking of the Lusitania. In the winter of 1915, a German order went out to sink all British merchant vessels wherever found. Because of an old and time honored international law that merchant vessels of any enemy may not be sunk if it does not offer resistance, unless the safety of the passengers and crew is provided for. For this reason, American citizens did not hesitate to travel on British merchant vessels. But May 7, 1915, when a German submarine sank without warning, a great British liner, the Lusitania, the United States realized that her citizens were not safe from outrage on the high seas. In the disaster hundreds of innocent victims were drowned, both men and women, and even small children. Some of the victims were American citizens. This aroused the people of the United States as nothing before had done, and on every side, grew the demand that we sever all relations with Germany and declare war at once. 471. The Federal Hight Hour Act. In 1916, the locomotive engineers, firemen, conductors, and trainmen’s brotherhoods of some 230 railways announced their intention of striking for an eight hour day, with no reduction in pay, and time and a half for overtime. They refused to arbitrate and called a strike for the first Monday in September if their demands were not met by that time. The situation seemed up to the President for settlement and on Tuesday August 29, he went before Congress and proposed a bill to give the men their demands. Mr. Adamson of Georgia drew up such a bill which established the eight hour day, to be in force from January 1, 1817. The bill while bitterly assailed passed both house and senate and signed by the President on Sunday before the strike © was to take place on Monday. ; 472. Mr. Wilson Re-Elected in 1916. : In the midst of all the uncertainty in regard to Germany’s submarine warfare, came the campaign of 1916. Wilson was again the Democratic nominee, and was chosen as such by the © FOURTH QUARTER “167 convention which met in St. Louis. The Republicans chose Charles E. Hughes on the third ballot at their convention in Chicago. When the election came in November, Hifghes carried all the large industrial and commercial states of the North and east except Ohio. Wilson of course carried the Solid South. It at first seemed Hughes election was certain when the returns from the West showed Wilson gaining. But it was left for California to cast the deciding votes in favor of Mr. Wilson who was elected with a gain of 7,000,000 over his popular vote er 1912. Most of the Socialist vote was turned to Wilson because of the labor legislation he had succeeded in passing, and because they felt he had kept the United States neutral, and out of the European War, DECLARATION OF WAR. 473. The United States Declares War on Germany. April 6, 1917, the President signed the joint resolution of . Congress and issued a proclamation declaring a state of war wth Germany. : April 8, Austria-Hungary declared that it had severed diplomatic relations with the United States. When Wilson declared war on Germany, April 6, 1917, he did not at that time include Austria. Later in the year a formal declaration of war against Austria was made, though we refused to re- ceive her minister, Count Farnowski, several months before. Note.—Read President Wilson’s address to Congress, April 2, 1917, advising Congress to declare war. It has been said this address “will make him twmmortal” and that it 1s one of the great political documents in the history of the world.’ It has been translated into French and read in all the schools in France. 474. Selling Liberty Bonds. Our entry into the struggle meant not only to raise an army of several million men, but billions of money to feed, clothe, and transport these men. Part of this was raised by levying heavy income taxes and taxes on industrial profits, the rest was secured through Liberty Loans. Bonds and War Saving Stamps were sold to the people. These bore various rates of interest and were non taxable. Meetings were held in various localities, in churches, clubs, schools, and even on the streets where the bonds were sold. Each postman became a salesman of stamps and bonds. It has been estimated that at least 4,500,000 people bought bonds of the First Liberty Loan issue and that 21,000,000 bought them of the fourth issue. FOURTH QUARTER The first call was for $7,000,000,000, the largest sum any nation had ever undertaken to raise all at one time. It was oversubscribed ‘as were all the other calls. The total raised was over $30,000,000,000, some of which was loaned to the Allies. i 475, The Selective Draft. When the need arose to raise men for foreign service, the question came up as to how this should be done. Some advised against the draft as contrary to American traditions. Others argued that to defend one’s country was a duty. Therefore May 18, 1917, Congress passed the selective draft law which made all males between 21 and 31 liable for military duty. June 5, was decided upon as registration day. In August, 1918, Con- gress extended the age limit from 18 to 45, with September 12, as the new registration day. ‘Many volunteered both for the navy and army before they were drafted, When the Armistice was signed: in November, 1918, there were in Europe or on the way to~Europe more than 2,000,000 American soldiers. There were about the same number in camps . at home. Our losses in killed, wounded, missing, and prisoners were more than 225,000. 476. The ‘‘Miracle of Transportation.”’ a . wos To most people a war means raising men.. But with our entrance into the world war, there was a still greater problem— that was the problem of transportation of men and supplies. To transport men and sufficient supplies across thousands of miles of land and 3000 miles of water is no small undertaking, especially to a country which had depended on other countries for its water transportation. To get the men across was one problem, to get the quantities of food and materials for their care was quite another. United States shipping had been © neglected for vears. It had to be resumed, ships built and sea- men trained. Even ship yards had to be built. The government — statistics are responsible for the following figures which critics say can not be proved. However they are given, and may be compared by the student with figures given by opponents of the — Wilson regime. By November, 1918, there were 431 transport ships in the service of the army of over 3,000,000 deadweight — tons. In June, 1918, 12,261 troops and 2,798 marines were sent across. By December, the number had grown to 50,000 per month, and had reached 84,000 by March, 1919. The total embarkations on April, May, June, and July are what Europe FOURTH QUARTER papper \ called “‘America’s Transport Miracle.” The number in April reached 118,637; in May, 245,950: in June 278,756; in July 306,185. By the time of the Armistice, the totals reached 2 045, 169 troops and 30,665 marines. ; In June, 1917, we shipped our first supplies. These amounted to 16,000 tons. By October of the same year, the shipment amounted to 750,000 tons per month. 5,153,000 tons of supplies were sent to our soldiers in France, and of this, 95% was sent in American ships. In discussing this topic, it would not be fair to omit paying a just tribute to our navy. They guarded over 2,000,000 men on their way to France, they protected our shores from sub- marines, they escorted tonnage to France with a loss of only 0.009% and tonnage from France with a loss of 0.013%. Our destroyers proved their mettle time and time again. As one soldier put is, “The sight of an American destroyer in the danger zone was as welcome to a»United States transport, as the sight of a policeman when you know there’s a burglar in the house.”’ Our mine layers too made the North Sea safe with their submarine barrages. The mine barrage more than 230 miles in length perhaps did more to break the German naval power than any other one thing. - It was on September 7, 1916, that the U. S. Shipping Board was created. Edward N. Hurley was put at its head, although he was a man of no experience in ship-building work. MHis in- competence was but aggravated by Secretary of War Baker’s errors of judgment. Hence'in dwelling on the failure of our ship building program, the blame must be divided. Baker’s frequent change of orders in regard to changing troop ships to cargo carriers or vice versa were but the cause of confusion worse confounded. Yet it was not till after the Armistice that the United States really saw how complete a failure it had been. The shipping board took credit for the building of many ships it had siezed from Germany or had commandered from other nations. | Up to March 22, 1918, the Shipping Board had actually built and placed in foreign service but two vessels aggregating 17,600 tons dead weight. , Not only was our ship building program a failure but Hog Island became a synonym of profiteering. After the true facts became known, it was found that the ships Hurley had given out as coming from the Shipping Board had really been built in private yards, and later taken over by the Board. . But by August, 1918, our ship yards were fairly complete and ready for real operations. At that time there were 114 ; me /170 No FOURTH QUARTER J / ship yards fully equipped and 44 partially equipped in the United ' States—48 on the Pacific coast, 38 on the Atlantic, 16 on the Gréat Lakes, and 16 on the Gulf of Mexico. “Pn January, 1919, the American Merchant fleet was United “States owned steamers 3,000,000 tons; steamers under construc- / tion 6,000,00 tons; 3,000,000 tons owned by private individuals of a total of 12,000, 000 tons dead weight. Of the 2,079,880 men taken to France more than 1,000,000 — were taken in E nglish vessels. Of the cargoes of 5,153,000 tons, less than 5% were carried in allied ships, the rest in captured vessels, and only 79,000 tons were lost at sea. The navy gave out figures at the close of the war showing that 4614% of our men were carried in American ships; 4814 in British; the balance in - eee cee ee ea : y French and Italian. The United States furnished 8234% of the naval escort, Great Britain 1444% and France 3%%. 477. ‘‘Lafayette, We are Here.’’ General John Pershing was made Commander-in- Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces. By June, 1917, he was in Paris at work with the other allied generals. One of his first visits in Paris was to the tomb of Lafayette where he placed a wreath of flowers, in memory of the service Lafayette had rendered to United States in our War of Independence. In the words of Col. C. E. Stanton, who said, “Lafayette, we are here,” the United States had now gone to France to return that aid rendered us more than one hundred years ago. 478. Chateau-Thierry; St. Mihiel; Meuse-Argonne. Notre. These three engagements if treated fully would fill a whole volume, and can but be sketched here. However, the student should not be satished with this, but read a full account : in some large history of the World War. The Literary Digest History of the World War is recommended. Chateau-Thierry is located about midway between Paris’ and Rheims in the southern part of the department of Aisne. March 21, 1918 the last great German drive on Paris began. March 28, General Pershing put at the disposal of Marshall Foch four divisions of American troops at Montdidier in the southern part of the department of Somme. They showed their courage and at Cantigny (about one. mile northwest of Mont- didier) on May 28, they proved a match for veteran troops. June 6 saw fierce fighting at Belleau Wood, and in July, at Chateau-Thierry and along the Marne, they helped hold the Germans in their last desperate attempt to reach the French capital. ° By August, 1918 the American troops in France numbered 1,500,00. Just ‘south of Verdun on the river Meuse is a place re fea te tot ae oe ee re ™ - ~ wre ae the battle waged, but the force of the American army was FOURTH QUARTER known as St. Mihiel. This sector had long been a G¥ stronghold. The first offensive movements of our body of ti was against this position. September 12, the battle opened w a heavy bombardment from the American artillery. For fot hours this continued, then seven divisions of the American army went “over the top.” All that day and all the following night irresistable, and after twenty-four hours of heroic work the position was taken, with 20,000 prisoners. By this victory about two hundred miles of territory was retaken for France, and the Germans were driven back almost to the German boundary. It was ovr first great battle and was a complete victory. : “From September 26 to November 11, the American forces were constantly engaged in fighting in the Meuse-Argonne Campaign, with the chief struggle centering around Sedan, a sfong German position. Sedan is in the Northeastern part of e department of Ardennes, near the Belgian border. Fully one-third of the Americans engaged in this campaign were either killed or wounded. It was in this campaign that the Germans were -convinced of the uselessness of further resistance, and when September 19, 1918, Bulgaria surrendered to the Allies, the Austrian Army was defeated on the Italian front, then on October 5 the German chancellor asked our President tc take steps looking toward a truce, and ultimate peace. 479, The Armistice. : When Germany saw her troops being more and more com- _. pletely beaten in the war, she became more insistant that a peace _ be agreed*upon and on November 11th, an armistice was signed which brought to a close one of the greatest wars of the civilized world. When the collapse of Germany came, it was complete. The Kaiser gave up his throne and fled to Holland, where he still lives in seclusion. The crown prince also fled, and ta Republic in Germany was proclaimed. 480. The Treaty of Versailles. Work on the treaty continued all winter. December 4, President Wilson sailed for France, to join in a grand conference of the powers. Time and again the greed and jealousies of the nations seemed destined to disrupt the meeting and send the members home with nothing accomplished. The Americans had entered the war in defense of an ideal, the European nations for sheer self-preservation or territorial gains. The view-points of the two seemed irreconciliable. However, June 28, the treaty was finished and signed at Versailles, just outside of Paris. t FOURTH QUARTER mere were three chief divisions to the treaty. The first to do with certain territorial changes. Finland, Poland, echoslovakia, and Yugoslavia were recognized as independent rates. Alsace-Lorraine was restored to France; Belgium, Wenmark, and Italy were given new and enlarged boundaries at the expense of Germany and Austria; Austria and Hungary became separate states. German possessions in Shantung, China, were given to Japan, with the agreement that later they were to be returned to China. The second division had to do with the amount of in- demnity Germany and her allies had to pay the allies of France. The third division concerned the establishment of a League of Nations. ' In September, the treaty of peace with Germany came up for vote and was rejected by the Senate. ‘ ' ‘ . 3 THE WORLD AT PEACE—RECENT EVENTS. \ 481. United States Senate Rejects the Treaty. X Perhaps no single event ever aroused more discussion in * the United States than the signing of the Peace Treaty in Versailles. Supporters of President Wilson and his fourteen points hailed it as the dawn of a new era, a sort of a millenmium, - while his opponents viewed it as a tragedy for the United States — if the Senate accepted it. Just how much of this was due to - political influence is hard to say. Some of it was undoubtedly due to this—both those who opposed and those who approved. — Yet recognition must be taken of the fact that the war had cost us heavily in money and lives—the high ideal we had tried to save had been dragged in the mud of petty bickerings and greedy quarrels over who shall and who shall not profit in the land readjustments. We had ingrained in our belief the Monroe doctrine, to dabble in European politics seemed beneath our | standards. Therefore, it was not much to be wondered at that — the American people balked at accepting a thing which would saddle them with the job of financing and policing Europe. Time has shown that it was not so much Wilson and his ideals that were distrusted as it was the attitude of Europe. At least when the treaty came before the Senate in September it was — rejected. tes 482. Two Amendments to the Constitution, Two amendments were made to the Constitution during this period—the 18th and the 19th. The 18th referred to the liquor question and the 19th to women’s voting. =