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Health Education 
 
 BY 
 
 MAMIE C, TEX 
 FOR 
 
 EIGHTH YEAR 
 
 To Harmonize with the Illinois State 
 Course of Study, Seventh General 
 Revision 
 
 TREATS ALL THE WORK ON 
 EIGHTH YEAR HEALTH EDUCATION 
 
 PRICE 75 CENTS 
 
 Seventh Year Health Educat’n, same price 
 Seventh Year Com. Civics at same price 
 Eighth Year Com. Civics at same price 
 Seventh Year Agriculture at same price 
 Eighth Year Agriculture at same price 
 Seventh Year History at same _ price 
 Eighth Year History at same price 
 Seventh Year Georgraphy at same price 
 Eighth Year Geography at same price 
 Seventh Year Grammar at same price 
 Eighth Year Grammar at same price 
 Seventh Year Question Book, same price 
 Eighth Year Question Book, same price 
 Seventh Year Arithmetic at same price 
 Eighth Year Arithmetic at same price 
 
 Send all Orders to 
 MAMIE C. TEX, Taylorville, Il. 
 
FOREWORD. 
 
 An experience of several years in teaching this subject has 
 proved that no one text book now in use is adapted to the demands 
 of our Course of Study, and in order to meet these requirements, 
 I present this booklet. 
 
 It has been prepared expressly for my own classes, but it 
 has also been the aim to adapt it to the use of any class in the 
 Eighth Year following the Illinois.State*Course of Study. No 
 pains have been spared to make it as accurate and complete as— 
 possible. | 
 
 It is not to be presumed that this booklet contains all that 
 might be said on each topic, but such material is given as the 
 average Eighth Year pupil:can understand and assimilate. 
 
 In conclusion, this volume is submitted to you, my dear 
 pupils and co-workers with the hope that it will perform its. 
 mission as designed. 
 
 MAMIE C. TEX, 
 Taylorville, Il. 
 December 1, 1925. 
 
ee 3) 
 
 FIRST QUARTER. 
 
 Note—The Course of Study says the work outlined under 
 your “Science and Agriculture” is the basis for class studies dur- 
 ing this quarter. Place much emphasis on the house flies and 
 mosquitos, the places where they breed and their life hisories. 
 
 Teacher must see tc it that pupils review the work in their 
 “Science and Agriculture.’ That work was not included in this 
 Health Education becouse. it was unnecessary expense to print it 
 twice, therefore have the pupils refer to thew Science and. Agri- 
 culture and after this is done, take up the Framework. of our 
 Body, etc. 
 
 Every day, scientists are coming more and more to the con- 
 clusion that every factor of our environment plays a more or less 
 important part in our physical well. being. Nothing is so insigni- 
 ficant that it does not play its part in promoting or retarding the 
 health and well being of the human race. Because of this new 
 linking of the two. sciences—botany and physiology (including 
 hygiene) an attempt has been made this year to so corrolate the 
 two, subjects that their relationship may be made. very clear to 
 
 every student. 
 
 When we speak of botany we must include with it zoology, or 
 the study of our animal life, as botany is the study of our plant 
 life. When the term physiology is used, likewise we include the 
 study of hygiene or sanitary living. : : 
 
 But to see any relation between these four more or less dis- 
 tinct branches of science, we must choose one, and around that 
 as a nucleus, group the other three, showing their relations to the 
 main topic as well as to each other. 
 
 Since man and his well being is our chief interest, let us 
 choose physiology—or the physical. structure of man—and 
 around it group botany, zoology, and hygiene. 
 
 We have had more or less physiology in earlier grades, so 
 that the terminology and underlying facts are more or less known 
 
4 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 to us. But to be sure that the bodily structure, its parts and their 
 functions are quite clear to us, we will have a short review of 
 them. 
 
 Let us take the bony framework of our body. 
 
 Framework of Our Body. 
 
 The bones are a framework of rods and plates which make 
 the body firmer and stiffen it for movement. All the bones prop- 
 erly fitted form what is called the skeleton. No doubt you have 
 seen the skeleton of some animals and perhaps that of a human 
 being. You have observed that the bones outlast the other parts 
 of the body substances. Long after the animal, or fleshy sub- 
 stance has decayed the bones are well preserved. 
 
 The bones give the body its shape and strength and besides 
 furnish places for the attachment of the muscles. As the muscles 
 are tied to the bones, we are enabled to move our limbs, thus caus- 
 ing such acts as walking, running, throwing, turning, bending 
 and all other movements. The bones also determine the size of 
 the body. A small boned person is always little in stature. 
 
 Besides the uses that have been given, the bones protect cer- 
 tain organs of the body. The bones of the skull protect the brain, 
 while the bones of the spinal column protect the spinal cord. The 
 delicate organs of the ear and eye as well as the nose are protected 
 by a bony covering. The internal organs ate also very well pro- 
 tected. 
 
 No one can study the human skeleton and fail to appreciate 
 what nature has done in perfecting man’s body. Beginning with 
 the head, we see how admirably every part is adapted for the 
 work it is expected to do. The trunk, the upper and lower ex- 
 tremities, and the head complete the parts of the body. 
 
 In considering the general plan of the body, we note one 
 significant fact and that is, that man is the only animal that can 
 walk upright. Note for contrast the ape—by many considered 
 our next kin. His head is so balanced he can not hold it upright 
 for any length of time. The unusual length of his forearms 
 shows that nature intended them to be used in walking. With — 
 
FIRST QUARTER 5 
 
 man it is quite different. His arms are in such proportion to the 
 rest of his body as to be of use to him for purposes other than 
 that of locomotion. 
 
 There are twenty-two bones in the skull—eight in the cran- 
 ium and fourteen in the face. The cranium bones are: 
 
 1 frontal 
 
 2 temporal 
 
 2 parietal 
 
 1 occipital 
 
 1 ethmoid 
 
 1 sphenoid 
 
 The bones of the face are: 
 
 1 vomer 
 
 2 palate 
 
 2 nasal 
 
 2 lachrymal 
 
 2 malar 
 
 2 superior maxillary 
 
 1 inferior maxillary 
 
 2 turbinated : 
 
 The bones of the trunk number fifty-four in all. They in- 
 clude the ribs, breast bone, the pelvis, and the back bone. The 
 tongue bone is also one of the bones of the trunk. There are 
 twenty-four ribs, twelve on each side. The seven upper are 
 called the trwe ribs and the five lower are called the false ribs. 
 The breast bone occupies the front of the chest. The pelvis fur- 
 nishes a support upon which the organs of the abdomen rest. The 
 back bone is composed of twenty-four vertebrae. The upper 
 ‘seven are called the cervical vertbrae, and are located in the neck. 
 The next twelve are called the dorsal vertebrae and the next five 
 are called the lumbar vertebrae. All of these bones, together form 
 a bony box that protects the most vital organs of man, the lungs, 
 heart, stomach, liver, kidneys, and intestines. The back bone is 
 not perfectly straight but makes a _ series of curves. 
 These curves are forward in the neck and abdomen. These 
 curves help to protect the brain from sudden jars. Between the 
 
6 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 little bones in the back bones are thick pads of gristle which 
 serve as springs or cushions. The vertebrae. are held together 
 firmly by ligaments so that the back has a great deal of strength. 
 There is an opening through the spinal column for the passage of 
 the spinal cord. The “atlas” is at the top of the spinal column 
 and supports the head. It is not shaped like the other vertebrae 
 and has no cushions above or below. The “axis” forms a pivot on 
 which the head turns. These bones make possible the forward 
 and backward movements of the head as well as those from side 
 to side. In other words they enable one to move the head in many 
 ways. 7 
 
 At the lower end of the spinal column are two very irregular 
 bones; these two irregular bones in childhood are composed of 
 nine pieces, five of which unite to form one bone and four the 
 other. 
 
 The bones of the upper limbs consist of the collar bone, the 
 shoulder blade, the upper arm bone, the lower arm bones, the 
 bones of the wrist, and the bones of the fingers. 
 
 The collar bone is a long, slender bone, at one end fastened 
 to the breast bone, and at the other end it is attached to the 
 shoulder blade. This bone keeps the shoulder from falling to the 
 chest. | 
 
 The shoulder blade is a thin, flat triangular bone. It lies out- 
 side of the ribs, in the back of the chest. 
 
 The upper arm bone is called the humerus, and the lower 
 arm bones are the luna and radius. The ulna is on the inside of 
 the arm and the radius on the outside. These bones cross when 
 the hand is turned. P 
 
 There are eight little bones in the wrist and they are called 
 the carpal bones. 
 
 In the palm of the hand are five bones, and are called the 
 meta carpal bones. There are fourteen bones in the finges called 
 the phalanges. 
 
 The bones of the lower extremities are the femur, patella, the 
 leg, and the foot. ' 
 
 The femur or thigh bone is the longest bone in the body. It- 
 extends from the hip joint to the knee. 
 
FIRST QUARTER a 
 
 The patella or knee pan, is a chestnut shaped bones 
 
 The two lower leg bones are called the tibia and fibula. They 
 extend from the knee to the ankle. The tibia is the larger bone 
 and is in front of the fibula. 
 
 There is a heel bone and six bones in the ankle known as the 
 tarsal bones. : 
 
 In the instep are five bones called the metatarsal bones. In 
 the toes are fourteen bones called the phalanges. 
 
 Function of Curves in the Spinal Column, Arches of Foot and 
 Joints in Protecting Body from Jar. 
 
 The chief function of the curves in the spinal column 1s to 
 prevent jar to the head. If the spinal column were straight and 
 rigid, every time we jumped from a height of our head would re- 
 ceive such a jolt it would almost render us unconscious. The 
 curves in the spine may be likened to Ford “shock absorbers.” 
 
 The curves in the arches of the foot are to give elasticity to 
 our steps. We have but to note the difference in the way a young 
 person walks and in the way an old man plods along. The young 
 person steps quickly and gracefully while the old person plants 
 the foot firmly and slowly upon the ground. If this arch is lack- 
 ing in the young, we speak of it as “flat foot.” In the late draft 
 95% of the negroes and 49% of white men examined were found 
 to be suffering with this trouble. So great was the number that 
 steps were taken at once to remedy the defect. Camp Dix, in 
 New Jersey, became the center of this work, and five wards in the 
 orthopedic department were given over to patients suffering with ° 
 flat foot. This is the importance that army surgeons attach to the 
 arch in the human foot. An extremely high arch at one time was 
 considered a mark of royal birth. However that may be we never 
 see a person with a high arch who does not walk quickly, grace- 
 _ fully and without tireing readily. 
 
 The joints of the body protect it from jars in many ways. If 
 you hold a long pole in one hand and some one has hold of the 
 other hand, if you strike a sudden sharp blow on your end, the 
 person at the other gets the full force of the blow, but if instead 
 
8 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 of a pole held a chain of several links, no amount of blows at 
 your end would affect the person at the other. Just so it is with 
 our joints. A blow on one of our fingers will scarcely be felt 
 beyond the hand, but were the hand and arm one single bone, the 
 force of the blow would be felt to the shoulder. This holds true 
 all over the body while our joints add much to the efficiency of the 
 body, they also play an equally important part in protecting it 
 from injury. 
 
 At one time a child born with deformed bones, was consid- 
 ered a hopeless burden on its parents, and little attention was paid 
 to straightening out the deformity. That is now all changed, and 
 the orthopedic department of our large hospitals are crowded 
 with seekers after straight sound bodies. Massage is one of the 
 means taken to loosen up stiff joints, humped backs, and lame feet. 
 The bones are often treated under electric heaters. Then various 
 corrective exercises are practiced by the patient. _Scarcly more 
 than a mere suggestion of the work done can be given here. Dr. 
 Adolph Lorens, of Vienna, Austria, came to America in 1904 and 
 first demonstrated the benefits which could be gained front treat- 
 ments. At present Captain Rolland Meisenbach, of Buffalo, N. 
 Y., is the leader in the work among our new recruits. In passing 
 it may be well to say that the person who depends on arch support 
 to correct broken arches is about as wise as the man who depends 
 on a crutch to set a broken leg. 
 
 Some of the causes of abnormal curves are: unnatural po- 
 sitions either sitting, standing or walking, tight clothing and too 
 licavy work while young. Ill fitting shoes, French heels or stand- 
 ing too long on the feet are the main causes of broken arches. 
 
 Bones—Shape—Structure. 
 
 The bones in different parts of the body have a variety 
 of shapes. The skull is made up of shell-shaped bones. In the 
 fingers and toes are small slender ones and those in the wrists and 
 ankles are round. The bones of the arms and legs are of course 
 long and somewhat cylindrical in form. Perhaps the back bone 
 itself is the most peculiar of all the bones. It is made up of a col- 
 lection of circular rings of bone. Each little bone is very irregular 
 
FIRST QUARTER 9 
 
 in shape and fits into its next door neighbor very intricately. A 
 hollow cavity is left through the center for the passage of the 
 spinal cord and for its protection. 
 
 Bones vary much in shape and size, but their structure is 
 much the same. They are covered with a tough membrane called 
 the periosteum. They are hollow or spongy on the inside and 
 hard and solid on the outside. The long bones furnish the great- 
 est strength in proportion to their weight. Solid bones would be 
 rather too heavy for the body, and all the bones are constructed so 
 as to be light as well as strong. It is said that the hollow spaces 
 in. the bones of birds are filled with air in order to make them 
 lighter for flying. The bones of short, square and flattened shape 
 are spongy: This is true of such as those of the skull, wrists, and 
 hips. The spongy places are filled with soft tissue called red 
 marrow. It is very interesting here to mention the fact that the 
 red and white corpuscles originate in the red marrow. 
 
 In conclusion, if one would be better informed he should 
 make an examination of the bones of the skeleton, studying cross 
 sections as well as sections made lengthwise. 
 
 When bones are to be used for fertilizer, the fat and gelatin 
 are removed by boiling; they can then be readily acted on by the 
 weather and will hastily decay. The oil and fat which they con- 
 tain is used in the manufacture of soap and lubricants. Of course 
 it must be understood that before the bones are used for fertilizer 
 they are ground to dust. The valuable part, which is the fertilizer, 
 is composed of phosphate of lime. 
 
 Composition of Bones. 
 
 It has been determined that the bones are composed of animal 
 and mineral matter. The animal matter toughens them and rend- 
 ers them less brittle. The mineral matter consists largely of lime. 
 This is gradually built into the bones from early childhood. In 
 the bones of a child there is much more animal matter in propor- 
 tion to the mineral than in the adult. Consequently its bones are 
 not so easily broken. It is possible to remove the line from bone 
 substance by soaking it in a weak acid. A bone so treated can 
 then be very easily bent, although it will retain its general shape. 
 
10 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 On the other hand, it is quite easy to remove the animal matter. 
 Simply burn a bone and the animal substance will be consumed, 
 leaving it much lighter and more brittle. Lime and chalk will not 
 burn and so there is left the components that makes the bones 
 stiff and firm. 
 
 Growth and Repair of Bones. 
 
 It should be stated that bone is a living tissue and receive its 
 food from the blood. If some of the cells be left undisturbed, the 
 bone will be reproduced. The end of a young bone may,be re- 
 moved and afterwards it will be reproduced. If the periosteum. 
 be uninjured, it will cause the formation of a new bone, because : 
 the periosteum helps to nourish the bones. 
 
 When a bone is broken, the cells are injured and blood ves- 
 sels and nerves torn. Naturally such an accident is attended with 
 much pain and suffering. The cells at once set about reproducing 
 themselves and fill in the space with new connective tissue. The 
 next step is the depositing of lime in the new tissue and this fol- 
 lows in a very few weeks. The union is then complete, but some 
 time must pass before the bone is strong again. A fractured bone 
 will generally heal within three to six weeks, but some timés re- 
 quires more time. It is said that in the temperate zones, bones 
 reach their perfection‘in men between the ages of twenty and 
 twenty-five, and very few changes take place from this age to 
 fifty,-and after the age of fifty they grow thinner, lighter and 
 more brittle. 
 
 Purposes of Marrow. 
 
 There are two purposes of the marrow of bones—just as 
 there are two kinds of marrow. In the long tube-like bones, such 
 as the femur, we find the hollow part filled with yellow marrow, 
 composed of blood vessels and fat. This is for the purpose of © 
 _ nourishing the bone. 
 
 The red marrow is found in the cavaties in the spongy parts 
 of the bones such as the ends of the femur. Recent investigations 
 have proved that this marrow produces the red corpuscles found © 
 in the blood. 
 
FIRST QUARTER 11 
 
 Periosteum. 
 
 The periosteum is the close clinging fibrous tissue covering 
 the bone. It is composed of connective tissue and blood vessels. 
 This is seldom found at the ends of the bones, but is replaced 
 there by the cartilage. In the periosteum, are the blood vessels 
 which pass into the bone to supply it with nourishment. It grows 
 closely to the bone but may be removed by scraping. 
 
 Joints. 
 
 A joint is formed where two bones unite. The surfaces 
 which make the contact are covered with a layer of smooth, 
 polished cartilage. This prevents jars and reduces friction. The 
 joints that allows movements are covered with a synovial mem- 
 brane. This membrane secrets a fluid like the white of an egg 
 which moistens and lubricates the joints. If this fluid were ab- 
 sent, the joint would soon become so dry that it would creak. 
 The bones are held in place by strong bands of tissue, called liga- 
 ments. They are able to stand a great strain without injury, but, 
 besides these, the muscles that surround the joints help to make 
 the bones stay in place. The shoulder joint is of such great im- 
 portance that it is covered completely with muscles and ligaments 
 which render it very strong. 
 
 Uses of Joints. 
 
 If one has ever seen a person with a stiff knee or elbow joint, 
 he can readily understand the value of joints that nature provided 
 for us. If it were not for our joints every time we wanted any- 
 thing from the floor the whole body would have to rest on the 
 floor before we could reach vt. If it were not for our joints al- 
 most all human action would be impossible. If we but watch a 
 group of acrobats a few minutes we can better appreciate the 
 joints of the human body, for by training, they come to the point 
 where the whole body is as supple as though no bones existed but 
 rather that the body was a succession of joints. The writer a 
 short time ago saw an Arabian acrobat who turned somersaults 
 five times in succession, his feet striking the floor but once, and 
 that at the third run. 
 
12 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 Types of Joints. 
 
 There are movable and immovable joits. Some admit of a 
 great deal of movement and others none. Between these two ex- 
 tremes are joints capable of various degrees of motion. A variety 
 of names have been applied to the different kinds of joints. Some 
 authors class them as flexible and inflexible, making the former 
 include the joints of the limbs and the latter those of the head 
 and trunk. 
 
 The joints of the skull are immovable. Some of the bones 
 are joined together by cartilage during childhood, but later this 
 hardens into bone. The thick bones of the top of the skull are 
 dovetailed together and cannot be separated. They admit of very 
 little, if any, movement. Between the vertebrae of the back bone 
 are pads of cartilage which admit of slight movement and reduce 
 jars that might prove injurious to the spine. The ribs are joined 
 to the breast bone with cartilage, but this takes up lime and be- 
 
 comes bone in later life. All these joints may be classed as in- | 
 
 flexible. 
 
 The hinge jowmt permits movement in but two directions. 
 The joint at the elbow belongs to this class. If one were to look 
 for other joints of this kind, he would find them at the knees. 
 Can you think of other hinge joints? 
 
 Some joints of unusual strength are necessary. The ball- 
 
 and-socket joint fulfills this purpose. In this kind the rounded 
 end of one bone fits into the depression or socket of another. The 
 bone with the rounded end can move freely in any direction, but 
 the shape of the socket limits the extent of the movement some- 
 what. The shoulder joint is an example of a shallow socket, while 
 that of the hip has a very deep one. These joints are strengthened 
 by many ligaments and muscles. | 
 
 There remains to be mentioned the. pivot joimt. The best 
 example of such a joint is to be found where the head and atlas 
 turn upon the pivot of the axis. This permits of the rotary mo- 
 tions of the head with which every one is familiar. 
 
FIRST QUARTER 13 
 
 Ligaments. 
 
 The ligaments are bands of tough inelastic tissue. Their use 
 is to hold the ends of the bones in joint and protect their move- 
 ments. The ligaments are capable of withstanding great strain, 
 but in spite of this they sometimes become broken or torn so that 
 they will no longer hold the bones in their place and the bone 1s 
 then said to be out of joint.or dislocated. Some of the ligaments 
 are as thin as tissue paper, while others are very thick. 
 
 Diseases and Deformities of Bones; Due to Infections, 
 Malnutrition. 
 
 The bones are subject to diseases quite as much as any other 
 tissue of the body. Jnuflamation and even abcesses often result 
 from bruises. The bones become very tender and the diseased 
 portion very painful. Consumption of the bone is not an uncom- 
 mon disease. It is very difficult of treatment and is greatly to be 
 dreaded. Pieces of bone sometimes die, and the periosteum will 
 then form new bone. Generally bone wastes away more slowly 
 than it is reformed. Bones are often broken, but may or may not 
 become diseased at the point of fracture. The cells reproduce 
 themselves and soon fill the space at the broken point. Then lime 
 is soon deposited there to harden the place. Sometimes the bones 
 soften; this results from an unhealthful condition of the bone 
 tissue. Rickets and felons are also diseased condition of bones. 
 
 Some bone diseases are due to infection, such as tuberculosis 
 and felon, while others are due to malnutrition. We have seen 
 how the bones are fed by the blood vessels in the periosteum. 
 Hence, if the blood is not pure and rich, we cannot expect the 
 bones to be other than deformed or diseased. For this reason it 
 is more often that we find bone disease in tenement districts. A 
 lack of mineral matters such as lime is one source of small weak 
 bones. For this reason, children should have plenty of milk, eggs, 
 and butter. Anything that impoverishes the blood interferes with 
 bone growth. 
 
 The preceeding pages will give us a definite idea of our 
 skeleton, its parts, arrangements and uses. But the skeleton alone 
 would be of little use to us. It must be covered with flesh, blood, 
 and muscles. 
 
14 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 Muscles acting with the aid of the bones produce motion. 
 Muscles are therefore of great importance in our study of the 
 human body and its relation to its environment. If we could not 
 move, we would rank with but plant life. 
 
 All motion in the body is produced by muscles. Not only 
 is this true in preparing and earning our food, but in chewing, 
 swallowing and digesting it. The muscles are the means of pull- 
 ing the bones in any desired direction, and when we consider 
 the infinite number of movements the human body is capable of, 
 we are not surprised to find that there are over five hundred 
 muscles to perform this motion. : 
 
 The contraction of the muscles makes it necessary that they 
 be well supplied with fuel food. Most of this 1s taken in the form 
 of sugar and 1s burned in the muscles, producing heat. When the 
 surplus food is used up, a demand is made for more. The brain 
 interprets, this request as hunger and we say that exercise has 
 made us hungry. The fuel is brought to the muscles through the 
 blood. When there is a demand for more, the nervous impulses 
 quicken and the action of the heart and the circulation becomes 
 more vigorous. Much heat is then distributed to all parts of the 
 body. Every one is familiar with the fact that exercise increases 
 the heat of the body. A man at work on a cold day will keep 
 much warmer than an idle person, because exercise of the muscles 
 produces heat. The burning of the fuel food in the muscle cells 
 not only produce heat, but also gives rise to waste materials. 
 These waste materials may be removed by the blood, and will if 
 left cause poisoning. When they are not removed, soreness re- 
 sults. Hot water applied to the muscles will help them to get this 
 poisonous matter away and thus reduce the soreness. Too much 
 exercise may prove injurious, but the proper amount is beneficial. 
 
 Classes of Muscles. 
 
 Aside from the skeleton, the greater part of the body is 
 muscle. It is said to comprise about one-half of the body weight. 
 If you have observed the flesh of a slaughtered animal, you have 
 discovered the dark red portion which we call lean meat. This 
 is muscle. : 
 
FIRST QUARTER 15 
 
 Muscles are divided: into two classes, the voluntary and in- 
 voluntary. _ Voluntary muscles are under the control of the will, 
 while the involuntary muscles are not so cotnrolled. To some ex- 
 tent we may control the.involuntary muscles as in the act of 
 breathing. The voluntary muscles are tied to the bones and thus 
 make possible our many movements. On the other hand, the in- 
 voluntary muscles are found in the walls of the hollow organs, 
 such as the abdominal cavity. 
 
 Examples of the voluntary muscles are the muscles which 
 control the arm and leg, the muscles that turn the head, and the 
 muscles of the lower jaw. 
 
 Examples of the involuntary muscles are the muscles that 
 control the heart, stomach, and other internal organs: 
 
 Shapes of the Muscles. 
 
 The muscles are of various shapes, as suited to the work they 
 are to perform. The gullet is a fleshy tube of involuntary muscle. 
 Some muscles, as the heart, are hollow. Circular muscles are 
 found in the mouth and eyes. The diaphragm is a broad, flat 
 muscle, being the broadest in the body. Other muscles are long 
 and taper at both ends, as the muscle we use to cross the legs. 
 Muscles change their shape, from normal when contracted or ex- 
 panded. 
 
 Structure of the Muscles. 
 
 The muscles are composed of little bundles, each bundle 
 made up of muscular fibres. 1f one should boil a piece of beef, 
 these little bundles appear as dark red strings. 
 
 The structure of involuntary muscle, though different from 
 the voluntary muscle is quite simple. Little spindle shaped cells 
 are held together by a glue-like substance. A diluted acid will dis- 
 solve the glue and leave the cells separate from each other. 
 
 Attachment of the Muscles. 
 
 Perhaps you have wondered how the voluntary muscles are 
 tied to the bones. Jt 1s by means of tendons. A tendon appears 
 
16 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 to be a white cord of fibrous tissue and has great strength. If 
 you look real closely at a tendon, you probably cannot tell where 
 it leaves off to become muscle at one end and periosteum or bone 
 at the other. A tendon runs in a groove lined with synovial mem-~ 
 brane and thus works very smoothly without friction. The ten- 
 dons are quite long, especially where the parts are slender; the 
 fingers are supplied by tendons from the muscles in the upper 
 part of the forearm. 
 
 Action of Muscles on Bones as Levers. 
 
 When we grasp a heavy weight in the hand and lift it, it is 
 the biceps, a muscle of the upper arm, that does the work. This 
 muscle is attached at the top by two tendons to the shoulder blade. 
 The lower arm is used as a lever with the elbow as a fixed point. 
 The slight contraction of the biceps has caused the weight to be 
 moved a much greater distance than it contracted itself. This 
 was accomplished by the co-operation of muscles and bones, and 
 this is the service the bones usually render the muscles. They 
 change a slow short movement into a long swift one. Though the 
 biceps perhaps contracted no more than an inch, the bone moved 
 a foot or more. Thus when the muscles act on the bones as levers, 
 the bones greatly increase both the rate and range of motion. 
 
 Antagonistic Action. 
 
 Most muscles are arranged in pairs. The muscles that ex- 
 tend along the limb either straighten it or bend it. The former are 
 called “extensors” and the latter “flexors.” When muscles cause 
 such motion in opposite directions, they are known as “antagon- 
 ists”; in the upper arm are the biceps and triceps. 
 
 Acquiring and Maintaining of Healthful Posture. 
 
 _ A flat chest and round shoulders does not so much indicate 
 weak lungs as it does weak back muscles which support the body. 
 These muscles have become weak from constant relaxation while 
 at work. This deformity may result from rowing a boat, bending 
 
FIRST QUARTER 17 
 
 over a desk, table or kitchen sink, or from anything which causes 
 us to stoop over a good deal. It is as common among farmers as 
 office workers, and is even less excusable. It gives one an awk- 
 ward appearance and invites lung diseases. This may be over- 
 come by special exercises which tend to strengthen the muscles of 
 the back. Shoulder braces are of little use except as a reminder 
 “to sit up.” One must first learn self control and then acquiring 
 of a healthful posture is easy. /m sitting one should sit back in 
 _ the seat, with back straight. In standing, the chest should be out, 
 
 hips back and head erect. Many exercises help to acquire these 
 postures, but constant care is the only thing that will help us 
 maintain them. After a time they become habitual, then an incor- 
 rect position proves exceedingly uncomfortable. 
 
 Motion and Heat Result of Changes in Muscle; Muscles Re- 
 quire Oxygen and Food for These Changes. 
 
 Motion and heat are both forms of energy. They are but a 
 changed form of energy generated by the oxidation of food stored 
 in the muscle cells. This oxidation is as yet imperfectly under- 
 stood, but we do know that it releases energy in the form of heat 
 or motion. The greater the motion, the greater the heat, because 
 of the greater amount of oxidation taking place. But these 
 changes cause a poisonous waste to be formed which we now 
 recognize as the causes of fatigue. These poisons result in a 
 temporary paralysis of the nerves of the muscles but if the 
 worker rests for a time the blood soon carries the poisons out of 
 the system. 
 
 Since the amount of heat and energy we can expect from 
 our muscles depends on the oxidation of food stored up in their 
 cells we can see how very necessary pure fresh air and good 
 healthful food are to muscular activity. A person deprived of 
 pure air and wholesome food would soon be so weak he would be 
 unable to perform work of any kind. The oxygen is carried from 
 the lungs by the blood to the cells of the muscles where the 
 change takes place. 
 
18 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 Necessity for Circulation. 
 
 In order for motion and heat to be released from the muscles, 
 it is necessary that the blood circulate. For two reasons this is 
 true. Oxygen must be carried to the muscle cell-and this work 
 is done by the blood circulating through the body. The second~ 
 need of the circulation is to remove the toxins of fatigue which — 
 result from oxidation. 
 
 Necessity of Physical Exercise. 
 
 The general health of the body depends much upon the 
 exercise one takes. During exercise, the cells take extra food 
 and increase their size and strength. Respiration, digestion, and 
 circulation receive added vigor through exercise of the muscles of 
 the body. Indigestion is often due to the lack of physical exer- 
 cise. As to the kind of exercise one should engage in, it may be 
 said that the one he likes best is the correct one. Games are 
 more delightful than formal exercises and are likely to be much 
 more enjoyed. For this reason a vigorous outdoor game is the 
 very best kind of exercise. Walking and riding are also very 
 good. Swimming is to be commended, because it involves the use 
 of many muscles. Running races is good exercise. The import- 
 ance of exercise should be clearly impresed upon every one. Fresh 
 air and exercise together have furnished a cure in many cases 
 apparently almost hopeless. Do not lose sight of the fact that 
 games are perhaps the very best forms of exercises and that work 
 ranks next. The gymnasium is, of course, good, but is not good 
 for all cases. Special cases should be assigned to the gymnasium. 
 Children should be encouraged in play ground games. It is in- 
 deed a poor teacher who cannot provide simple outdoor games for 
 her children. Several good books on the subject may be had in 
 the city libraries and almost any good book company publishes 
 one or more of them. 
 
 The Blood. 
 
 Just as the bones are dependent upon the muscles for their 
 usefulness, so are the muscles dependent upon another part of the 
 
FIRST QUARTER 19 
 
 body—-this is the blood. 'We'have touched upon this topic in a 
 preceeding paragraph. We will now study the circulation in more 
 detail. We will see what'the composition of the blood is, how it 
 - performs its works, and how it is renewed and freshened. Upon 
 a good healthy circulation depends the entire well being of the 
 body. 
 
 When we speak of the circulation of the blood, we mean the 
 functions performed by the heart, veins, arteries, and capilaries. 
 
 Blood—Composition. 
 
 The blood is the means whereby the circulation is carried on. 
 It is found in almost all parts of the body—the hair, nails, and 
 cuticle excepted. The quantity found in various bodies differs. 
 Some of our most eminent authorities place it at about one-thir- 
 teenth of the body weight. 
 
 It is composed of a thin, colorless liquid known as the plasma. 
 This is filled with red disks or cells. These cells vary in size and 
 shape, but in human blood are generally rounded at the edges and 
 concave on both sides. Some authorities declare that from the 
 size and shape of these disks they can tell with accuracy whether 
 a given specimen is human or animal blood. Others, however, 
 disagree and maintain that the cell shapes vary even in the same 
 body. It is difficult to realize how very small these disks are 
 until we consider it would require three thousand five hundred 
 placed side by side to measure an inch, and sixteen thousand piled, 
 one upon another, to measure the same length. Besides these cells 
 the blood also contains many other substances. Albumen—the 
 substance found nearly pure in the white of an egg—is always 
 found in the blood of a healthy person as are also various mineral 
 substances—such as lime, magnesia, iron, potash, phosphorus, etc. 
 It has been stated by one.author, that enough iron has been found 
 in the ashes of a cremated body to form a mourning ring. The 
 real composition of the blood depends largely upon the habits and 
 physical condition of the person under consideration. 
 
 Necessity For Blood in the Body. 
 The uses of the blood are two fold: First, to build up the 
 bones and muscles, and second, for oxidation. The first is ac- 
 complished by the plasma, which is rich in mineral matter for the 
 
20 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 bones and in albumen for the muscles. The second, “oxidation,” 
 we know less about. The red disks of the blood are the- air 
 carriers. They contain the oxygen, so essential to all animal life. 
 Wherever any manifestation of heat or energy is made, there 
 oxygen is used. It not only tears down but actually consumes 
 part of muscle and other tissue, much as fuel is burned in a stove. 
 Just what changes take place in this process is not quite clear, 
 and only this can we assert with assurance—oxygen disappears, 
 carbondioxide appears, energy is released, and force is exhibited 
 as motion, heat, and energy. 
 
 Where the Blood Must Circulate. 
 
 The blood must circulate in all parts of the body except in 
 modifications of the cuticle. But there are two regions where the 
 blood can not be checked in tts circulation, for even a very short 
 space of time without causing serious trouble, and that is through 
 the lungs and along the digestive tract. The reason is obvious. 
 The oxygen of the air is carried by the blood to all parts of the 
 body, and the body cannot long do without this supply. Then, too, 
 the blood enmeshes the digestive tract in a network of vessels, and 
 so takes up, absorbs, and assimilates the digested food as it is 
 ready for the need of the body. 
 
 This absorption is accomplished in a sort of osmosis fashion 
 and is carried on the entire length of the digestive tract from the 
 stomach on down, most being accomplished from the stomach and 
 small intestines. 
 
 Gains and Losses of the Blood. 
 
 The blood in a capillary is separated from the living body 
 cells by a wall so very thin that it offers no obstruction to the 
 passage of oxygen from the red blood cells. When the blood 
 gives up oxygen to the cells, it receives in turn carbonic acid gas, 
 and various impurities. It takes but an instant to make the 
 change. The arteries are simply tubes which carry the blood to 
 the capillaries, where all the work of nourishing the cells is per- 
 formed. For the sake of brevity, one may say in general that the 
 
. FIRST QUARTER 21 
 
 blood in its circulation through the body gives up oxygen and 
 gathers up waste, but if one should trace a drop of blood from the 
 time it left some certain point in the body until it returned to that 
 spot, the changes would be many and varied. The capillaries 
 around the stomach and intestines gather up the digested food, 
 which, with the blood, is carried by the portal vein to the liver. 
 When it passes through the liver, it is purified of some of the irri- 
 tating substances it gathered from the food tube. When it leaves 
 the liver, it is taken to the vena cava. Here the blood is found to 
 be rich in food substances but poor in oxygen. This mixes with 
 the impure blood brought back by the veins, is carried to the heart 
 and then sent to the lungs. It is in the lungs that the exchange of 
 impurities is made for oxygen. This oxygen is picked up by the 
 red corpuscles and causes the blood to look red and is known as 
 arterial blood. This rich, bright blood is then poured in the left 
 side of the heart, and from there it is sent out over the body to 
 build up and repair the waste and worn parts. 
 
 Functions of Corpuscles. 
 
 There are two kinds of corpuscles in the blood—the white 
 and the red corpuscles. The white are supposed to be the scavan- 
 gers of the system, destroying poisons and injurious foreign sub- 
 stances, which find entrance into the blood. The red corpuscles 
 are the oxygen carriers of the blood, and have to do with oxida- 
 tion of food. While we speak very glibly of this process, we really 
 understand it very little. But we do know that if a person is 
 healthy and strong, his blood will have a greater number of red 
 corpuscles than the blood of a sickly person. 
 
 Clotting of Blood; Use. 
 
 When blood is exposed to air it thickens, coagulates, or as we 
 say, clots. This is most important since if this did not take place, 
 even a very small wound would cause us to bleed to death. When 
 blood clots, the corpuscles lose their bright red color, a clear liquid 
 called serum separates, and a white insoluable proteid, fibrous in 
 nature, is formed. 
 
99 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 Organs of Circulation. Blood Tubes; Names, Structure, and 
 Locaton of Each, 
 
 The blood tubes of the bodies are the arteries, veins, and capil- 
 laries. The arteries are the tubes which carry the blood from the 
 heart. With the exception of the pulmonary artery, all the arteries 
 carry red blood. The ancients so named the arteries (aer—air, 
 and teero, I contain) because after death they were always found 
 to be empty, and were therefore supposed to be air carriers. It 
 was left for Harvey in 1619 to discover the circulation of the 
 blood, and therefore, the proper relation of arteries, veins, and 
 capillaries. : 
 
 The veins are the tube-like canals which carry the blood to 
 the heart. They carry the dark venous blood. To this there is 
 the one exception of the pulmonary veins. 
 
 The capillaries form a fine net work of tubes, which unite the 
 ends of arteries and veins: They so unite with both these that it 
 is often difficult to tell where an artery ends and a vein begins. So 
 closely are they placed that we can not injure ourselves in the 
 slightest way without injuring great numbers of them. It is in the 
 capillaries that the blood deposits its oxygen and gives up its car- 
 bonic acid. 
 
 Structure and Location of the Arteries. 
 
 The arteries are composed of an elastic tissue. This yields 
 at every heart throb, until the blood is again forced into them and 
 on its way.. This elastic tissue is of a very tough nature, so that it 
 can withstand the heavy pressure of the blood when the heart 
 sends it into them. After death, the blood leaves the arteries and ~ 
 accumulates in the venous system. ‘The arteries are lined with a 
 very smooth membrane so as not to interfere with the circulation. 
 The arteries are usually located as far from the surface as pos- 
 sibleout of harm’s way. -In this way they are protected by 
 muscles and bones. Most of them hug the bones and for the 
 greater part they take the shortest routes and therefore lie mainly 
 in straight or nearly straight lines. 
 
FIRST QUARTER a 23 
 
 Structure and Location of Venis. 
 
 Since the veins do not receive the direct heart pressure, their 
 walls are thinner and not so elastic as the arteries. The veins at 
 first are minute but gradually unite to form larger vessels until 
 they finally form the two large veins, the vena cava ascending and 
 the vena cava descending—one of these empties into the upper 
 part of the auricle and the other into the lower. We can plainly 
 see some of the veins just beneath the skin on the back of the 
 hand. 
 
 Structure and Location of the Capillaries. 
 
 The capillaries are a system of very minute blood vessels 
 which connect the end of the arteries to the veins. 
 
 Valves in the Veins. 
 
 For the same reason that we find valves in the heart we also 
 find them in the veins. The valves in the veins are similar in 
 structure to the semi-lunar valves of the heart, and are found 
 more numerously in the lower extremities, for here the force of 
 gravity would interfere and act in opposition to the current of the 
 blood, were there no special provision to prevent this. There are 
 no valves in the veins of the brain or lungs. 
 
 General Circulation of the Blood. 
 
 The time required for all the blood in the body to pass 
 through the heart can be found only by estimation. It does not 
 require near the amount of time that one would think it would. 
 It would not be the same in all persons. The habits and physical 
 condition of the person under examination would affect the time 
 to a great extent. At every pulsation it has been found that on an 
 average the heart discharges about four ounces through each ven- 
 tricle. By a similar reckoning we find that it takes. about forty 
 seconds for the blood to make the complete circuit of the body. 
 We know the heart beats seventy times a minute and about four 
 ounces leave it at each beat. At this rate about two hundred eighty 
 
24 . FIRST QUARTER 
 
 ounces or seventeen pounds would pass through it in a minute, 
 but the average person has but twelve pounds and this amount 
 would make the circuit in about forty seconds. 
 
 The general circulation is sometimes called the systematic 
 circulation while the circulation through the lungs is known as 
 the pulmonary circulation. 
 
 Pulmonary Circulation of the Blood. 
 
 When the blood enters the veins from the capillaries, it has 
 become foul with the waste of the body and must be sent to the 
 lungs to give off its impurities and to receive oxygen. To reach 
 the lungs, it is first poured into the right auricle, then passing 
 through the tricuspid valve it empties into the right ventricle. 
 From here it is driven past the semi-lunar valves through the pul- 
 monary artery to the lungs. This artery divides and subdivides 
 into small branches, until these form a network of capillaries in 
 the lungs. In the lungs, the blood is separated from the air only 
 by the thin walls of the capillaries. It is through these thin walls 
 that the oxygen of the air readily pentrates to the red blood cells. 
 The carbonic gas and moisture pass out into the air. From the 
 instant of exchange, the blood which formerly was dark now be- 
 comes a bright red color, and is called arterial blood. From the 
 capillaries in the lungs, the blood collects into the four pulmonary 
 veins, and is then carried to the left auricle, forced past the bi- 
 cuspid valve to the left ventricle, and from here it passes through 
 the semilunar valves into the great aorta, which is the main trunk 
 of the arterial system. When the blood leaves the left side of the 
 heart, it is forced through the arteries and back by the veins and 
 is carried to the right side of the heart where it is purified. 
 
 Portal Circulation of the Blood. 
 
 The circulation of the blood through the liver is sometimes 
 called the portal circulation. The digested food and the blood 
 from the digestive organs is carried to the liver by means of the 
 portal vein. After the blood stays a short time in the liver, it 
 passes into the current of the blood to the heart and then agents 
 the system. 
 
FIRST QUARTER 25 
 
 Structure of the Heart. 
 
 The heart is the untiring little engine which propels the blood. 
 
 The heart is a hollow pear shaped muscle, about the size of 
 the fist. It hangs just a little to the left of the center of the 
 chest, with its point downward. It is enclosed in a loose sac of 
 serous membrane known as the “pericardium.” It may be likened 
 very much to that old fashioned headdress—the cotton night cap 
 —for in just such a manner is the heart enclosed in the pericar- 
 dium. The walls of the heart are made of strong muscles, while 
 within the heart are four chambers or cavaties. 
 
 Cavities of the Heart. 
 
 The two upper cavaties are called auricles and the two lower 
 cavities are the ventricles. In an adult each cavity contains about 
 a wine glass full. The upper ones derive their name—auricles— 
 from the appendages on the side which have a resemblance to dog 
 ears. The auricles and ventricles on each side communicate with 
 one another, but there is no direct communication between the 
 right and left halves of the heart. They are entirely distinct and 
 perform different functions in that the left side propels the red 
 blood and the right, the dark. Inasmuch as the cavaties fulfill 
 different purposes—their structure is correspondingly unlike. The 
 upper chambers are merely receptacles for the blood—the left, as 
 it returns bright and pure from the lungs and the right, as it comes 
 dark and foul from the circuit through the body. In these cham- 
 bers, it is held, and given over to the ventricles as needed. The 
 work of the auricle being so light, their walls are thin. But with 
 the ventricles the case is different. These cavaties force the blood 
 to all parts of the body—the left to the farthest parts, and the 
 right back to the lungs. The left auricle must drive the blood 
 much farther than the right, consequently it is much more 
 stronger even than the right. 
 
 Valves of the Heart. 
 
 In every pump, there must be valves to keep the liquid from 
 flowing backward. The heart is provided with these valves, two 
 between the auricles and ventricles and two at the opening of the 
 
26 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 arteries to keep the blood from being forced back into the ventri- 
 cles when the walls are relaxed, and the chambers are opened 
 after each beat. Where the veins empty into the auricles, no 
 valves are found because none are needed. The auricles do not 
 contract with much force, and, the natural tendency of the blood 
 being to flow downward, there is little need for valves to prevent 
 its return into the veins above. But with the ventricles, the need 
 of valves is imperative. The ventricles must.contract with suffi- 
 cient force to send the blood to the farthest part of the body. The 
 ventricles in contracting would force blood backward into. the 
 veins and auricles and on into the arteries. Then, when 
 the heart relaxed, the blood would crowd back from 
 both ways into the ventricles. This danger is overcame by 
 the ingenious arrangement of valves, one being between each 
 auricle and ventricle and one at the opening of the ventricle into 
 the artery. With the exception of the valve which separates the 
 left auricle from the left ventricle, all the valves have three flaps. 
 The valves are so constructed as to permit the blood to pass in 
 but one direction. Between the right auricle and ventricle, is the 
 valve known as the tricuspid valve. Between the left auricle and 
 ventricle is the bicuspid valve. This has but two flaps. In the 
 passages from the ventricles into the arteries are valves known as 
 the semilunar valves. Each is three little folds of membrane 
 opening out in the direction in which the blood flows. 
 
 The valves are made of double folds of the delicate mem- 
 brane lining the heart. This membrane is known as the serous 
 membrane and is found in all parts of the body not exposed to 
 external air. These folds are strengthened by fibers which lie- 
 between the folds. 
 
 Nerves to Regulate Heart Beat, Amount of Blood to. Working 
 and Resting Organs, Distribution As Affected 
 By Heat and Cold. 
 
 Two sets of nerves regulate the action of the heart. One 
 set from the brain and the other from the spinal cord. = When 
 one has been exercising physically, the spinal set start the heart to 
 beating more forcibly and faster. 
 
FIRST QUARTER 27 
 
 The action ofthe heart is much like that of suddenly squeez- 
 ing a water soaked sponge. The veins pour the blood into the 
 auricles. From there it passes into the ventricles. These then 
 forcibly contract and the blood is sent on its way to all parts of 
 the body. After the ventricles have emptied their contents into 
 the arteries, the heart has an instant to rest. Thus, the heart 
 works away at the rate of 100,000 beats per day. In all we might 
 say that the heart works about one-third as much as the muscles. 
 Of course, any one would think that after doing all this work it 
 would naturally wear out, but it is a machine which constantly 
 repairs itself. It is said by some authorities that in a natural life 
 time it propels about a half million tons of blood. 
 
 Regulation of Blood Flow. 
 
 The regulation of the blood flow is controlled by the beating 
 of the heart, while this in turn is more or less controlled by the 
 brain. The heart action is not altogether dependent upon the 
 brain, for the heart of a cat may be removed and yet will continue 
 to beat, sometimes for hours. Nevertheless, the brain has the 
 power of hastening or checking the heart’s action. From the 
 brain to the heart runs two nerves, which might be compared to 
 telegraph wires. Over these, messages are constantly going which 
 control our circulation.. Yet this is done without our being aware 
 of any change or without conscious violation on our part. Only 
 one case has been recorded of a person who has been able to inter- 
 fere with the beating of his heart. This notable exception was 
 Colonel Townsend, of Dublin, who, after succeeding in stopping 
 ' his pulsation several times, at last lost his life while doing so. At 
 the wrist, we may feel the expansion of this, the radial artery, by 
 the wave of blood forced onward by the heart. At the temple, 
 the same pulsation of the temporal artery may be felt. In health, 
 there should be from seventy-two pulsations per minute for a 
 grown man, to eighty for a woman, ninety for a child of seven, 
 and one hundred twenty times for an infant. This pulsation de- 
 pends upon various conditions. Excitement or inflammation may 
 increase them, loss of vigor will decrease them, while nearly every 
 disease modifies them so that the physician may find in them an 
 
28 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 indication as to the nature of a disorder. But the regulation of 
 the blood does not depend altogether upon the heart action. The 
 size of the blood vessels may be so changed by the brain that mere 
 or less blood will flow through. All the small arteries have small 
 muscle fibres running around them. When these fibers contract, 
 they narrow the opening, and lessen the amount of blood allowed 
 to pass. All of these fibers are connected with the hrain or spinal 
 cord, and thus the amount of blood which flows to any organ may 
 be controlled. If for any reason any part of the body needs more 
 blood than another, it is not always necessary for the heart to in- 
 crease its action. The nerves controlling the muscles around the 
 blood vessels in that particular organ may relax and thus allow a 
 greater flow of blood to that part. When any part of the body 
 is actively at work, it needs greater blood supply, for the blood 
 carries nourishment. The more strenuous the labor we perform 
 the greater the blood supply needed. After a full meal, the stom- 
 ach and intestines need a large amount of blood for their work. 
 
 Vaso Motor Nerves. 
 
 By means of the nerves from the brain, known as the vaso 
 motor nerves, the small arteries in the intestines are made to 
 relax, and allow the blood to flow through them more rapidly. 
 Then the walls of the stomach and intestines become filled with 
 blood and digestion goes on rapidly. Blushing results from a 
 similar action of the blood vessels in the face, while a pale or 
 pallid skin means contracted vessels. 
 
 When heat is applied the blood is drawn to the surface, the 
 veins become congested and a rosy tint is noticeable on the skin. 
 Or if nature wishes to cool us off, the blood is forced to the sur- 
 face as in running and active sports, or in fever. Cold has the 
 exact opposite effect. When one is cold the skin is pallid, the lips 
 colorless, and the blood is held on the interior of the body. 
 
 Effects of Chilling Body Surface. 
 
 If the surface of the-body is chilled, the temperature of the 
 body as a whole may not be changed, but the blood will be driven 
 
FIRST QUARTER 29 
 
 inward, perspiration ceases, the lips become blue, the skin some- 
 what numb, and the face pale. Sudden chilling of the body sur- 
 face often results in cold, while extreme prolonged chilling will 
 result in death. 
 
 Trace Circuit of the Blood. 
 
 When the capillaries empty the blood into the veins it is foul, 
 and must be carried to the lungs to be purified. But ic is first 
 taken to the heart where it enters the right auricle, then flows into 
 the right ventricle. Then the pulmonary arterv carries it to the 
 lungs. Here it is purified, and is then collected into the four pul- 
 monary veins which carry it to the left auricle of the heart, fram 
 where it flows into the left ventricle. From here it enters she 
 great aorta, then the arteries, then the capillaries, and finally back 
 to the veins where the circuit begins all over again. 
 
 Lymph, Source, Use, Circulation. 
 
 The lymph is a thin, colorless liquid, and almost transparent 
 This lymph circulates through the lymphatics like blood circulates 
 through the veins. It ‘arises from the fluid part of the blood 
 which exudes from the capillaries, bathes the cells and tissues of 
 the body, and, after feeding them receives their excretions, then 
 passes on to enter the circulation. Some authorities describe the 
 lymph as blood lacking in red corpuscles. 
 
 Circulation of Lymph. 
 
 The lymphatics are a set of tubes provided to take care of 
 the lymph. The smallest lymphatics are much smaller than the 
 smallest capillary, and their walls are so thin that it is difficult to 
 see them even with a very high power microscope.’ They may be 
 either on the surface or deep-seated. They are very numerous 
 in almost every part of the body. They finally run into one an- 
 other like little streams into a river. These finally all unite and 
 empty into the thoracic duct, which is a tube about the size of a 
 goose quill, in front of the spinal column. It extends upward and 
 empties into a large vein on the side of the neck. For a man 
 weighing about 150 pounds about six pounds of lymph is dis- 
 charged. 
 
30 - FIRST QUARTER 
 
 Lymphatic Glands or Nodes. 
 
 At irregular intervals, the lymphatics open into spongy bag- 
 like bodies, known as the lymphatic glands. These glands filter 
 out all injurious matters to the system, while the cells of the 
 glands destroy poisons. They vary in size from a wheat grain to 
 a small nut. They may be felt in the neck, arm pits, and groins 
 where they are often enlarged by disease. 
 
 Respiration. 
 
 We now see how various parts of the body are dependent 
 upon one another. The skeleton serves the muscles, while the blood 
 feeds the muscles. We now come to our next step or organs 
 those of respiration. 
 
 Respiration may be defined as the function whereby the im- 
 pure blood is converted into pure blood. At first sight we might 
 think respiration was a very simple process, but when we take 
 into consideration the object and the organs concerned, we soon 
 find it is a complicated process. The main, object is to bring the 
 living cells and the blood in direct contact with oxygen, so that in 
 the one case they may be purified and in the other that oxidation 
 may take place. 
 
 Organs of Respiration. 
 
 The organs of respiration are nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, 
 and bronchi. Add the lungs and the red corpuscles and we have 
 the respiratory system. 
 
 The Nose. 
 
 The nose is the first and outer part of the air tube. It is a 
 double tube and is lined with mucous membrane. The nose is 
 joined to the skull by small bones. The nostrils are separated 
 from each other by bony partitions. Each nostril has its walls 
 bent into curved folds, three in number, which run lengthwise in 
 such a way that each tube is almost divided into partitions. These 
 
FIRST QUARTER 31 
 
 folds have a two-fold object—first, to warm the air before it en- 
 ters the lungs, and second, to filter the dust and other impurities 
 from the air before it gets to the lungs. The sense of smell is 
 located in the nose. The nerve of smell is called the olfactory 
 nerve. The fine fibers of this nerve are distributed over the up- 
 per part of the mucous lining of the nose. The use of the sense 
 of smell is to guide us when we select food, and also to warn us 
 against bad air. 
 
 . The Pharynx. 
 
 The pharynx is a muscular bag behind the mouth and nose, 
 and leads tothe gullet. -From the nose the air is taken to the 
 back part of the mouth, called the pharynx, then through an air 
 tube in the neck, and is then carried to the lungs. The pharynx 
 is lined with mucous membrane and supplied with a muscular 
 coat. The pharynx is really another name for the throat, and 
 both food and air pass through this organ. ‘The air should always 
 enter through the nose, so it may be properly warmed and 
 cleansed. Just in front of the pharynx on each side is a fleshy 
 body, usually about the size of an almond, and much this shape. 
 These are the tonsils. Sometimes‘these bodies become diseased 
 and it is necessary to have them removed. However, this should 
 not be done unless it is quite necessary, for these bodies complete 
 the work undertaken by the nose—that of warming the air before 
 it enters the lungs. 
 
 The Larynx, 
 
 The larynx is a small, triangular cartilaginous box situated at 
 the upper and front part of the neck. It is through this box that 
 the air_passes. The larynx is really the organ of the voice because 
 across its upper part are stretched two thin elastic bands, known 
 as the vocal cords. These can be tightened or relaxed at will, so 
 that. the air passing over them produces a-sound called the voice. 
 Any one can easily locate the larynx by placing the fingers on 
 either side-of the throat and then swallowing. The hard bunch 
 which moves.up and down is called the larynx or “Adam’s Apple,” 
 as it is commonly called. 
 
39 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 The Trachea. 
 
 The trachea or windpipe, is a tube which extends downward 
 from the larynx. It is about four and a half inches long, and is 
 composed of a number of rings of cartilage; they keep the trachea 
 from going together. The trachea is lined with a mucous mem- 
 brane. At the lower end the trachea divides into two main 
 branches, called the right and left bronchi, one of which goes into 
 each lung. Each of these bronchi divide into smaller tubes called 
 the bronchial tubes, which pass through the lungs like the branches 
 of a tree, and finally end in short pouches called air sacs. — 
 
 The Lungs. . 4 
 
 The lungs are the essential organs of respiration and by 
 them the blood is purified and again made fit to use by man. 
 They occupy the cavity in the upper part of the body below the 
 neck. In spite of all their size they are very light in weight, those 
 of the average person weighing about two and a half pounds. 
 Because they are so light, the lungs of animals are often called 
 “lights,” and will easily float in water. In children the lungs are 
 of a pinkish color, while in older people they are a drab color and 
 many times dotted over with black spots. A muscle called the . 
 diaphragm separates the lungs from the lower organs of the body. 
 The right lung is larger than the left lung and has three lobes, 
 while the left lung has only two. Each lung is covered with a 
 smooth, delicate membrane called the pleura. When this pleura 
 becomes inflamed, it gives rise to great pain called pleurisy. The 
 chest is also lined with this pleura and when we breathe the lungs 
 expand and cause the inflamed pleura covering the lungs to press 
 on the inflamed pleura lining the chest. The lungs will stretch 
 like rubber bags when they are filled with air, and collapse when 
 the air is removed. If we want good strong lungs, we should 
 give them exercise for it is essential to them as any other organ 
 of the body. We should form a habit of frequently drawing 
 long, deep breaths, filling the lungs as full as possible, and then 
 blowing out the air slowly and forcibly. “Persons who live a quiet 
 indoor life especially should frequently exercise their lungs 1n this" 
 way. 
 
FIRST QUARTER 33 
 
 Functions of the Organs of Respiration. 
 
 The functions of the nose are to warm and filter the air 
 before it is allowed to pass on into the lungs. 
 
 The pharynx further warms the air, while the larynx is the 
 organ of speech. The trachea or windpipe conveys the air from 
 the larynx to the bronchi. 
 
 While the bronchi are composed of hoops of cartilage much 
 like the trachea, their use is quite different. The bronchi not only 
 carry the air, but they divide the air currents into innumerable 
 - parts, and bring it in close contact with the blood in the surround- 
 ing blood vessels. 
 
 The lungs, which are composed of the.bronchi, air sacs and 
 blood vessels, are the means whereby the blood gives up its car- 
 bon-dioxide and receives in turn oxygen. 
 
 Lung Capacity. 
 
 When we breathe in all the air we possibly can, our lungs 
 contain about three hundred and thirty cubic) inches of. air. 
 When we exhale all the air possible from our lungs, we breathe 
 out about two hundred and thirty cubic inches, or about a gallon 
 of air. This leaves about two hundred cubic inches of air which 
 can not be breathed out. With each inspiration about twenty cubic 
 ‘inches of air is taken into the lungs; you can easily see that with 
 each inspiration about one-tenth of the air in the lungs is changed. 
 
 Respiratory Movements of the Diaphragm and Chest Walls. 
 
 Our ribs are not only covered with muscles, but are connected 
 by strong muscles. They are so connected by these bands with 
 the sternum in front and the spine behind that, when we inhale a 
 deep breath, they are raised up toward the shoulders, the sternum 
 is pressed outward, and the sides move outward. This is caused 
 partly by the muscles which attach them to both sternum and 
 spine, and partly by the muscles which attach them—one to an- 
 other. The lower edge of each rib is in this way fastened to the 
 upper edge of the one just below it. The chest cavity is also en- 
 
34 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 larged, by the movements of the diaphragm. This, by contrac- 
 tion, enlarges the chest downward. This diaphragm is a strong 
 flat muscle, with a raised center, from the sides of which strong 
 muscles pass to the walls of the chest. This diaphragm separates 
 the chest from the abdomen. As the center is higher than the 
 sides, any contraction of the muscles will pull the center down- 
 ward, and in this way the chest capacity is enlarged. hee is just 
 what happens at every inspiration. 
 
 In ordinary, quiet breathing the diaphragm is largely used, 
 about one breath to every four heart beats. Scientists have 
 pointed out that the breathing of women differs from that of men, 
 in that it is limited almost entirely to chest breathing, and is due 
 to their different manner of. dressing. 
 
 Chest and Abdominal Breathing. 
 
 In studying this phase of the subject, Dr. Mays, of Phila- ° 
 delphia, made some very interesting experiments among the 
 native Indian girls in the Lincoln Institution. These girls had not 
 yet adopted the dress of the white woman. In all he examined 
 eighty-two girls, among which were thirty-three full blooded 
 Indians, five one-fourth, thirty-five half Indians, and two, three- 
 fourths white. Seventy-five showed a decided abdominal type of © 
 breathing; three a costal type, and three in which both were about 
 even. Those who showed the costal type came from the more 
 civilized tribes and were partly white, while in no instance did a 
 full-blooded girl possess this type of breathing. 
 
 All of ths leads to show that the abdominal type of breathing 
 is the original way of respiration, and that to the so-called civilized 
 dress is due the chest breathing. 
 
 In chest breathing, the air is driven out af but a very small 
 portion of the lungs. The tiny air sacs located at the bronchi 
 ends are not exhausted and inflated at each breath as they should 
 be, and so furnish a ready breeding place for all pulmonary dis- 
 eases. 
 
 Changes in the Blood in the Tissues. 
 We are taught that carbon dioxide is not formed in the lungs, 
 but is merely given off there. We must look further back in the 
 
FIRST QUARTER 35 
 
 act of respiration to determine its source. Many varied experi- 
 ments have been made to show that most of the carbon dioxide is 
 formed in the tissues of all parts of the body during the process 
 of nutrition. Therefore, when the blood comes back from the 
 tissues to the heart, it is carrying carbon dioxide instead of 
 oxygen. Further experiments teach us that carbon dioxide is 
 formed by the decomposition of the tissues, and then the oxygen 
 is used, by them to rebuild themselves. The food which we have 
 eaten supplies the carbon which passes off as carbon dioxide. It 
 has been stated by reliable authorities that in a day about one and 
 a half pounds of carbon dioxide is given off by the body. Some 
 scientists hold that the muscle has the power of taking up oxygen 
 from the haemaglobin and using it along with raw material (food) 
 as furnished by the blood. This forms a contractile substance 
 -and when it decomposes it sets free its potential energy. When 
 the muscle is inactive, this process is gentle, but when the muscle 
 is in action it becomes violent. Others hold that the change in 
 the tissues partakes of a fermentive nature—that is, under the 
 proper ferments, the substance breaks up into simpler products 
 thus setting forth heat and force. This change is then followed 
 by a second oxidation by the oxygen in the arterial blood, and in 
 this case as in all putrefactive procssses, carbon dioxide and water 
 are set free. However, theories on this point are many and con- 
 flicting, and—simple as this process seems and is—it lies hidden 
 from us within the cell. 
 
 Effect of Respiration Upon the Blood in the Lungs, 
 
 The blood, in its passage through the lungs, undergoes 
 changes which parallel the changes of the air when it has passed 
 through the lungs. The most noticeable change in the blood is 
 the change in color. It enters the lungs a dark purplish, almost 
 black, when it leaves the lungs it is a beautiful bright red. Chem- 
 ical analysis shows that this change is due to loss of carbon di- 
 oxide, and a gain of oxygen. This change is not very clearly 
 
 understood, but: it is known to take place in the red blood cor- 
 _puscles. The coloring matter of these corpuscles is haemaglobin. 
 It has been discovered that when this unites with oxygen its color 
 
36 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 is bright red, and dark purple when the amount of oxygen is re- 
 duced. However, this does not explain much, and just where 
 and how the transaction takes place, we do not know. 
 
 Effect of Respiration Upon the Air in the Lungs. 
 
 The air gives up its oxygen to the blood in the delicate cells 
 of the lungs. If the air is examined when it enters the lungs and 
 again after it has passed through the lungs, the amount will not be 
 changed to any great extent but its composition will be greatly 
 changed. It loses about one-fourth of its oxygen, gains about 
 one-fourth carbon dioxide, gains more watery vapor, and besides 
 contains a small amount of decaying animal matter. The watery 
 vapor can be easily seen by breathing upon a window pane some 
 cold day. We have all noticed that the air in a closed room soon 
 becomes offensive when many persons remain in it for any length 
 of time. This is caused by the decayed animal matter which has 
 been breathed out with each breath. This is not omy disagreeable 
 to smell, but poisonous to breathe. 
 
 Digestives Organs. 
 
 The organs of respiration furnish fresh air to the body. But 
 the body requires more than air to keep it functioning. Food is 
 also necessary. The organs which take care of the food we eat 
 and convert it into a condition capable of being assimilated by the 
 body are known as the digestive organs. 
 
 Digestion is that process which food undergoes in order to 
 be made of service to the body. 
 
 Process of Digestion. 
 
 The process of digestion is really two-fold. Jn the first place, 
 the nutritious portions are separated from the non-nutritious, and 
 then secondly, these are-made soluable, a condition in which they 
 are fitted to be taken up by the blood and made of use to the body. 
 This two-fold process is known as digestion and the organs which 
 carry it on are known as the digestive system. The tube in which 
 these changes take place is known as the alimentary canal. 
 
FIRST QUARTER 37 
 
 It-is clear to all that bread and meat are both of great value 
 in sustaining life, yet neither can be taken up by the blood and 
 used for bodily nutrition. Each must be so ‘changed that they 
 may pass through the membraneous lining which separates the 
 glood vessels and other vascular bodies from the alimentary canal 
 cavity. In discussing the subject of digestion, a sharp distinction 
 should be drawn between that and assimilation, which will be dis- 
 cussed later, but which is all too frequently confused with that 
 process which food undergoes in the alimentary canal, and which 
 is properly speaking digestion or the mechanical and chemical 
 _ preparation of the food till it is ready for absorption and assimi- 
 lation. 
 
 Organs of Digestion. 
 
 The organs of digestion are the mouth, stomach, intestines, 
 and their related glands, which make up the alimentary canal. 
 
 The Mouth. 
 
 The mouth is the first organ entering into the process of 
 digestion. Here the food is reduced to a fine condition and mixed 
 with saliva. The grinding is done by the teeth, which, in the 
 adult, are thirty-two in number. This grinding process has two 
 elements of value—the food is reduced to a condition in which it 
 is more easily swallowed, and makes it more easily mixed with 
 the various digestive juices which are to act upon it. If we think 
 how much more easily powdered sugar is dissolved than loaf 
 sugar, we see how much more readily the food is sent to the stom- 
 ach in a fine state will be digested. Prompt digestion of food is 
 very necessary for if held in the digestive tract too long it may 
 ferment and serious disturbances of the digestive tract ensue. 
 For this reason, if for no other, it is highly important that our 
 teeth are in good condition. 
 
 The Stomach. 
 
 The stomach is the second organ of digestion. When the 
 food leaves the mouth it passes down .a narrow tube, the esopha- 
 gus, into the stomach. The esophagus consists of a tube with 
 
38 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 muscular walls, lined by mucus membrane. The opening be- 
 tween the esophagus and stomach is known as the Cardiac aper- 
 ture, while that from the stomach into the intestines is known as 
 the pylorus or gate keeper. 
 
 The muscular coat of the stomach is made up of two layers—» 
 an outer longitudinal and an inner circular layer. The mucus 
 membrane with which the stomach is lined is loosely attached to 
 the muscular coat by a fibrous connective tissue. This is known | 
 as the submucus coat and contains the nerves, blood vessels and 
 lymphatics that supply the mucus membrane. This mucus mem- 
 brane is made up of innumerable small glands, packed side by 
 side, and opening into the inner surface of the stomach. 
 
 After the food leaves the mouth, it is forced into the stomach 
 through the esophagus; then from the stomach it enters the in- 
 testines through the pylorus. 
 
 The Intestines. 
 
 The third principal organ of digestion are the intestines. The 
 intestines form one long tube and are divided into the large and 
 small intestines. 
 
 The large intestine is much shorter than the small, but is so 
 called because of its greater diameter. That part of the small 
 intestine—about ten inches in length—which is immediately con- 
 nected with the stomach is known as the duodenum. The rest 
 of the small intestine 'is known as the jejunum and the ileum. 
 The transition from the small to the large intestine is sudden, and 
 to prevent food from being forced back into the small intestine 
 by the action in the large intestine, there is a sort of lipped valve 
 known as the ileo-caecal valve. | 
 
 The large intestine is really divided into five parts, known 
 as the calcum, the part which joins the large and small intestines, 
 the ascending colon, that part which turns upward toward the 
 stomach, the transverse colon, which carries it across to the left 
 side of the body, then the descending colon, which carries it down 
 to the rectum, which is part of the colon or large intestine which 
 opens externally. The structure of the intestines is in the main 
 much like that of the stomach—containing mucus and muscular 
 coats, and like the stomach, is enveloped in peritoneum, 
 
FIRST QUARTER 39 
 
 Alimentary Canal, Parts, Structure, and Movements. 
 
 The alimentary canal consists of the mouth, gullet, stomach, 
 large and small intestines, ending in the rectum. 
 
 When a piece of bread is put into the mouth, it is caught by 
 the teeth and tongue and chewed. It is then mixed with the 
 saliva, and forced down the gullet, a strong tube, which by con- 
 tractions and expansions carry the food into the stomach. This 
 power of the food tube extends throughout its length. It is car- 
 ried out by a series of circular rings of muscles bound together 
 by other threads of muscles running lengthwise and all forming 
 the muscular coat of the tube. By their contraction they squeeze 
 the food along its way. 
 
 The stomach is a pear shaped enlargement of the canal, 
 where certain juices are poured upon the food. The stomach is 
 fitted with an especially delicate lining. It is comopsed of tiny 
 living cells laid side by side like the bricks in a wall. These cells 
 pick up and use all substances they need for ferments, acids, or 
 alkalies. This same structure called the mucus membrane con- 
 tinues throughout the food tract with slight variation. From the 
 stomach, the food passes to the small intestines, then into the large 
 and finally the waste is expelled. 
 
 Glands; Location; Secretions. 
 
 While the first part of digestion—the mere mechanical part— 
 is carried on by the muscular movements of the various organs, 
 the chemical part is brought about by the action of minute organs 
 or glands located at various points along the digestive tract. 
 
 The first set of glands which pour their contents upon the 
 food are the salivary glands, which act upon the food in the 
 mouth. ‘These glands are divided into the parotid, submaxillary, 
 and sublingual glands according to their location. The parotid 
 glands are just in front of each ear, and the ducts leading from 
 them pass along the cheek until it is opposite the second upper 
 grinding tooth. The submaxillary and sublingual glands lie be- 
 tween the lower jaw and the floor of the mouth. The sublingual 
 lie nearer the front than the submaxillary. Their ducts which 
 open into the mouth lie just below the tip of the tongue. The 
 
40) FIRST QUARTER 
 
 secretion of these glands is called saliva. ‘This fluid is clear, con- 
 taining about 99 parts water and 1 part solid matter. It it is 
 estimated that the amount secreted by an adult is about one quart 
 every twenty-four hours. Up until recently, the importance of 
 the action of the saliva on the food eaten was overestimated and 
 scientists now are prone to regard its action more mechanical 
 than chemical since it reduces the food to a condition in which it 
 is more easily swallowed. Its main chemical reaction is caused 
 by a peculiar substance known as ptyalin, which acts upon the 
 starches in the food changing them to sugar. However, much 
 of the starch we eat is not changed into sugar until acted upon 
 by the pan¢reatic juice in the intestines. 
 
 7 
 
 The gastric juice is the next juice that is poured upon the - 
 food. This takes place in the stomach. The mucus membrane 
 lining of the stomach consists of a multitude of small glands, 
 packed closely side by side. When food is taken into the stom- 
 ach, the small arteries of the stomach begin to dilate, more blood 
 is sent to them and it is from this increased blood supply that 
 the minute glands of the stomach take the material they require 
 for their excretion. The secretion thus formed is the gastric 
 juice. Pure gastric juice is a clean acid fluid, largely water with 
 an acidity due to hydrochloric acid to the extent of 4%. In ad- 
 dition, a small quantity of pepsin is held in solution. Proteims are 
 the special foods acted upon by the gastric juice; the resulting 
 juice formed is much the same and is known as peptone. This 
 differs from all other proteins in that it is extremely soluble, and 
 does not become coagulated by boiling as does the white of eggs 
 and other forms of proteins. As far as we know, gastric juice 
 has no chemical action on fats; its action on them being purely 
 mechanical in that it breaks up the fibers enclosing them, thus 
 rendering them more easily acted upon by other juices. Gastric 
 juice has no direct action on the carbohydrates, other than that 
 while the food is held in the stomach and surrounded by the 
 gastric secretions, the saliva with which the food was mixed in 
 the mouth has a chance to act upon the starches present and to 
 change them into sugars. When the food has been passed on 
 into the intestines, it meets several fluids, which are poured out 
 
 ? 
 
FIRST QUARTER 41 
 
 upon it. The bile which is secreted by the liver, and the pancreatic 
 juice secreted by the pancreas are the two chief digestive juices 
 of this region. 
 
 The pancreas is a flat narrow organ about six inches long, 
 lying behind the stomach. It tapers to the left and ends above 
 the left kidney. It has been compared in shape to a dog’s tongue, 
 and at its broadest end, like the root of the tongue, it bends down- 
 ward. Here the duct leading from it begins and joins the bile 
 duct just before it empties into the duodenum. In intestinal 
 structure, it is much like the salivary glands. The amount of 
 digestion performed in the small intestines is greater than in any 
 other part of the canal and much of this work is done by the 
 pancreas, one of the most powerful and active of all the glands. 
 The amount of pancreatic juice secreted varies with the kind of 
 food eaten. It is about 87.5% water and 12.5% solid matter. 
 
 While undoubtedly the main object of the pancreas is to 
 secrete digestive juices, it has other important uses as yet not 
 very well understood. If the pancreas is removed from an ani- 
 _ mal, a great amount of sugar appears in the urine and the animal 
 soon dies. This in human beings is known as diabetes. 
 
 The bile is secreted by the liver and 1s one of the very import- 
 ant digestive juices. The liver is the largest gland in the body. 
 It weights 314 pounds and is a reddish brown color. With 
 the exception of the under surface, where the various vessels of 
 the liver make their exit, the surface of this organ is very smooth 
 and even. It is located in the right side and extends a little below 
 the ribs. The bile duct as it leaves the liver gives off a side branch 
 to the gall bladder. This is a little dark green sac, where the bile 
 is stored until it is needed for digestion. 
 
 The liver has three duties to perform—its secretion of bile 
 being but one of them. It may serve as a storehouse for digested 
 food where it ts held till needed. It ts also an excretory organ. 
 As the blood passes through the liver, poisons in it are eliminated 
 either by way of the bile duct and alimentary canal or by way of 
 the kidneys and blood vessels. 
 
 The amount of bile secreted is irregular and like the gastric 
 juice seems to depend upon the kind and quantity of food eaten. 
 It is a golden yellow liquid, alkaline and bitter. It varies in com- 
 
42 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 position from 82 to 96.5% water and 18 to 3.5% solids. Its color 
 is due to the presence of a pigment, bilirubin. It also holds in 
 solution certain salts of sodium known as bilé salts. Its value 
 seems to be twofold—to emulsify the fats, and to keep the bowels 
 sweet and free from putrification. Its action on the fats merely 
 serves to break up the fat globules into smaller bits, hence making 
 an emulsion of them, in which form they are more readily ab- 
 sorbed or acted upon by the pancreatic juice. 
 
 In addition to the juices already mentioned, there are certain 
 intestinal juices secreted by small glands in the walls of the im- 
 testines. These appear to be very important factors in digestion, 
 but as yet scientists have not agreed upon their.action, some main- 
 taining their action merely supplements the action of the’ other 
 digestive juices, while others hold thew action entirely independent 
 and separate. 
 
 Processes of Digeston; In the Mouth, Stomach and 
 Intestines. 
 
 As the processes of digestion have been so fully treated in 
 the former topics, it seems necessary to give but a brief account 
 of them here. | 
 
 When food is taken into the mouth, it is chewed and mixed 
 with saliva, whose only action is to a limited extent upon the 
 starches which are changed to sugar. The next step in digestion 
 takes place in the stomach where the gastric juice is poured out 
 upon the softened mass. Here the proteins are rendered soluable, | 
 and the whole reduced to a milky-like mass called the chyme. The 
 next step takes place in the intestines where the pancreatic juice— 
 with threefold action—handles starches, porteins and fats and 
 where the remaining fats are further emulsied by the action of | 
 the bile. By the time the mass has reached the large intestine, it 
 is much drier and more compact, possessing a disagreeable odor 
 and containing refuse, germs and such food substances as have for 
 some reason or other not been acted upon by any of the digestive 
 juices. | 
 
FIRST QUARTER 43 
 
 Absorption. 
 
 Absorption is really the sequel of the digestive process. A 
 little of the water with some soluble salts and sugar were absorbed 
 directly in the mouth by the blood vessels. Poisonous substance 
 may be absorbed the same way, as Prussic acid, for instance. A 
 few drops placed upon the tongue will cause almost instant death, 
 while none of it may have reached the stomach. But the absorp- 
 tion in the mouth is very little compared to that which takes place 
 in the small intestine. In the stomach, a slight absorption may 
 take place of a portion of the proteids digested there. Some of 
 the starch changed into sugar by the action of the salivary glands 
 may also be absorbed here. But like the digestion, most of the 
 absorption takes place in the small intestines. The process by 
 which the liquefied food passes from the alimentary canal in to 
 the blood is known as absorption. This is accomplished in two 
 ways—first by the blood vesels and second by the lacteals. 
 
 The inner membrane of the digestive tract is lined with a 
 minute network of blood vesels, which absorb or take up certain 
 of the food elements. The absorbing surface of the intestines if 
 measured as a plane would measure about one-half a square yard. 
 The mucus membrane is formed in folds which have multitudes | 
 of tiny projections called villa, which greatly increase its absorb- 
 ing capacity. During digestion, they dip into the liquefied food 
 and by means of their blood vessels, absorb its contents just as 
 the rootlets of a plant absorb moisture. 
 
 Lacteals are the second means of absorption. Lacteals are 
 a set of vessels found only in the small intestines. They have 
 their origin in the villi, side by side with the blood vessels. While 
 these two sets of absorbers run in different directions, their desti- 
 nation is for both, the right side of the heart. The lacteals receive 
 their name from their milky white contents and all unite to form 
 one tube—the thoracic duct. The lacteals are but one of a class 
 of absorbents known as lymphatics. The fluid which circulates 
 through the lymphatics not concerned in digestion is clear like 
 water and is known as lymph. This is the watery part of the 
 blood not needed by the tissues, and is being returned to the blood 
 by the lymphatics or absorbents. 
 
44 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 Assimilation. 
 
 Assimilation means the use of nutrients after digestion to the 
 maintenance of the vital functions and to the upbuilding and re- 
 pair of flesh and bone. These processes take place in the tissues, 
 where the nutritive substances are carried by the blood. It is the 
 capillaries that this exchange takes place, and here each tissue 
 selects from lifeless material that which it needs and changes them 
 into. substances like themselves. This conversion of lifeless ma- 
 terial into living tissue—as yet imperfectly understood—is known 
 as assimilation. During sleep, seems to be the most favorable 
 time for this to take place, for then the circulation is regular and 
 slower, and the other functions have ceased. 
 
FIRST QUARTER 45 
 
 ' WORK FOR THE 
 SECOND, THIRD AND FOURTH QUARTERS. 
 
 With our study of the digestive organs, we have completed 
 the review of the various parts of the body. In our second 
 quarter we will study bacteria and disease germs, the third quarter 
 being given over to general sanitation, while-the fourth quarter 
 will be a resume of the year’s work special attention being given 
 to foods and the five special senses—hearing, sight, smell, touch, 
 and taste. 
 
 Let us now see how the world around us affects us and our 
 bodies. 
 
 Note to the teacher—Each teacher must use her own judg- 
 ment as to the amount of tune she gives the above review. If 
 the general facts of bodily structure are known, together with 
 the parts and their functions little tume need be given this. Then 
 the rest of the quarter should be given special attention. It is sug- 
 gested that 1t be handled from the project standpoint—each child 
 making a booklet in which he copies material or pastes pictures 
 upon the chosen subject. One may choose the subject, “Our 
 Common Housefly,” another may take the “Mosquito and its Re- 
 lation to Health.’ Another may choose the “Cockroach.” Others 
 may take the subject of “House Pests and How they Spread 
 Contagion.” Have all the subjects relating to agents which 
 spread disease. This prepares the way for the more detailed 
 study of bacteria in the next quarter. 
 
 It seems well to here discuss in detail two of the chief car- 
 riers of disease—the fly and mosquito. Each may carry disease 
 germs but in a different way. The fly transfers them by the hairs 
 of his legs, while the mosquito harbors within her own body—the 
 female alone is a blood sucker—hence is the one that carries 
 malaria germs—the germs of the disease we know as malaria. 
 
46 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 Tuberculosis and typhoid fever are perhaps the ones most | 
 liable to be communicated by the fly. This is because the germs 
 of these two diseases are cast out from the body of the sick person 
 —the tuberculosis germs in the spitum and the typhoid in the 
 excrement from the bowels. If we ever have noticed the dis- 
 gusting habit of flies crawling over such filth then alighting on a 
 person’s face, hands, or even on uncovered food, we readily see 
 how the little pest may be the source of grave danger. No one 
 would stay long in a house full of rattle snakes, yet they will sit 
 unconcerned in a room full of flies, while one is frequently as 
 dangerous as the other. 
 
 It has been only in recent years that there was seen to be a 
 relation to such insects as flies and mosquitos and human health. 
 People became ill, and various causes were assigned. . The tuber- 
 cular patient caught cold, the malaria victim slept in the damp 
 night air, the typhoid case ate two many fresh vegetables, while 
 the sufferer from a cold got his feet wet or had sat in a draft. 
 
 The practice of curing diseases by one method or another is 
 as old as the history of the world. In 400 B. C. Hippocrates, the 
 “Father of Medicine,” put forth the idea that disease was caused 
 by a wrong adjustment of the humors of the body. Later, in the 
 eighteenth and ninteenth centuries, various physicial and chemical 
 theories of disease arose. But not till 1863 during the Civil War 
 was it demonstrated that the disease was caused by planting in a 
 healthy body a particular kind of micro-organism. More than — 
 one hundred years before, this theory had been proposed, but no 
 proof had been made. In 1683, Leewenholes, a Dutch lens 
 maker, made a lens so powerful that he could see living things in 
 scrapings from the mouth. Lenses were improved until 1786 a 
 classification of bacteria was made according to their form. But 
 it was 74 years later before the discovery was made that there was 
 any connection between these living forms and diseases. 
 
 In 1860, Pasteur and Tyndall discovered it was these germs 
 found in the air that caused decay. In 1863, came the discovery 
 that anthrax in cattle was caused by these living particles, which 
 they called bacteria. In 1882, Robert Koch first used gelatin as 
 as the means of cultivating and studying bacteria. These culture 
 media made it possible during the last of the nineteenth century 
 
FIRST QUARTER 47 
 
 to separate and study bacteria. This study resulted in finding 
 that specific organisms cause specific diseases. We now have 
 certain proof that such diseases as whooping cough, typhoid fever, 
 scarlet fever, and other kindred diseases are caused by the trans- 
 fer from the body of a sick person or from some breeding ground 
 to the body of another person certain disease germs. 
 
 _ To prevent the spread of diseases caused by micro-organisms, 
 three things must be learned. How these germs get out of the 
 sick body; how long they live and under what conditions, and how 
 they are carried to another body and how they enter tt. 
 
 Among the most common of communicable diseases are 
 _tonsilitis, diphtheria, colds of all kinds, typhoid, tuberculosis, 
 diarrhoea, hydrophobia, boils, sores, abcesses, blood poisoning, 
 pneumonia, whooping cough, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, small 
 pox, malaria and probably rheumatism. 
 
 A clear distinction should be made between bacteria and pro- 
 tozoa. The former are vegetable micro-organisms while the lat- 
 ter are animal micro-organisms. Bacteria are not all of a danger- 
 ous sort by any means. Indeed they accomplish much good for 
 us. They are especially useful in converting dead organic matter 
 into soluable food for plants. Many cause fermentation and give 
 us sour milk, kraut, vinegar, the taste to various cheeses, to butter, 
 and to many other foods we enjoy. However some bacteria are 
 harmful, and cause diseases. From your study of Agriculture 
 what can you tell of bacteria and the clover crop uniting their 
 efforts to build up worn out soil? 
 
 Protozoa are usually too tiny to be seen by the naked eye— 
 usually consisting of but one cell. Many live in water, others are 
 parasitic and cause special diseases as the malaria protozoa. They 
 are usually divided into: 
 
 1. Rhizopoda. 
 2. Mastigophora. 
 3. Sporozoa. 
 4 
 
 Infusoria. 
 
48 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 Life History of Malaria Parasite and Other Protozoan -* 
 Disease. 
 
 In 1880, Laveran, a French army surgeon, stationed in 
 Algeria, found in the blood of patients suffering with malaria, 
 an organism now known as Plasmodium Malariae. This organ- 
 ism burrowed into the red corpuscles of the blood and there went 
 to work. At periods of twenty-four hours it ripened a crop of 
 spores, then burst out of the corpuscles and scattering through 
 the blood and tissues of the body, caused the well known par- 
 oxysms attending malaria chill. If quinine is administered just 
 before the spores ripen, it either kills them or prevents their spor- 
 ulation. 
 
 This discovery was a new departure in science, in that it 
 prover that the organisms which caused malaria were animal 
 rather than vegetable. All the disease germs hitherto discovered 
 had been of the vegetable kind. This was an enormous step in 
 advance in that it paved the way for the discovery that a whole 
 class of animal parasites cause numerous infectious diseases. 
 
 Among the most common of these diseases are: Texas fever « 
 in cattle, dourine in horses, the tsetse fly disease, the dreaded 
 sleeping sickness, and perhaps small pox. The fact now seemed 
 clear that it must be conveyed to a human body through the body 
 of some other animal. Since insects are the only animals that ~ 
 bite human beings with enough regularity and frequency to cause 
 infection, search was made among this group of animals. 
 
 In 1895, Dr. Renald Ross, of the Indian Medical Service, 
 discovered and positively identified the plasmodium undergoing 
 a cycle in its development in the body of a mosquito. Experi- 
 ments were made on animals, but no infection followed the mo- 
 squito’s bite, hence it was clear that the experiment must be tried 
 on human beings. Volunteers were called for and in ten days 
 eight-tenths of the victims bitten developed the disease. Not all 
 mosquitos were found to be malaria carriers, only the Anopheles, 
 and of these only the female. This is true because the female is 
 the only one that bites and sucks blood. The way that malaria is 
 transmitted is for a mosquito to bite a person suffering with ma-— 
 laria. This innoculates the mosquito which in turn innoculates 
 the person it bites. 
 
FIRST QUARTER 49 
 
 To get rid of malaria, then the first step is to get rid of mo- 
 squitos. This is not the impossible task it seems. Mosquitos 
 have definite breeding places, and if these are destroyed the pest 
 is destroyed. One good way to clear a pond of mosquitos is to 
 stock it with small fish which feed upon the larvae or “the 
 wiggle tails” as they are popularly called, and hence prevent their 
 developing into mosquitos. Another way is to pour coal oil over 
 small pools and puddles. This prevents the hatching of the mo- 
 squitos. Drain pipes, gutters, rain barrels, tin can dumps, and all 
 such places should be inspected regularly to see that there is no 
 stagnant water that may harbor the pests. 
 
 When the United States attempted to complete the Panama 
 Canal, the first thing they did was to rid the zone of mosquitos 
 for malaria had been the great foe of the French in their effort to 
 put through the great undertaking. In waging this war on the in- 
 sects, the health commissioners found out many interesting facts. 
 One was that mosquitos never flew against the wind, and if the 
 wind was blowing from the bank of the river on which they were 
 camped, they could sleep without netting or other protection. 
 Another discovery was that only the female was a blood sucker. 
 And not all females were malaria bearing. If a mosquito alights 
 on the back of your hand watch it for amoment. If the back 
 of the insect is parallel with your hand it is of the genus Culex 
 and is not a malaria bearing insect, but if the body is at an angle 
 with the surface of your hand, the head lower than the body, then 
 it is of the genius Anopheles and may give you malaria, if it has 
 bitten some one else who had malaria. 
 
 In late years when there is little waste, undrained land, ma- 
 laria is much less common than during the early days of the 
 state. 
 
 Another enemy of man and one charged with a long list of 
 crimes against human health is the common.house fly. Unlike 
 the mosquito the house fly cannot bite, hence can not convey 
 disease in the way the mosquito does. Flies walk upon filth then 
 crawl over food. Especially are flies dangerous around dairy 
 barns, for germs deposited in warm milk breed and increase at an 
 alarming rate. These when examined under the miscrope have 
 
50 FIRST QUARTER 
 
 been found to carry millions of germs on their bodies. As their 
 legs and feet and body are covered with tiny hairs, the germs and 
 filth readily adher to them, and are as readily left on whatever 
 they alight upon. 
 
 Physicians charge the fly with carrying typhoid fever, 
 diarrhoea, dysentery, tuberculosis, diphtheria, small pox, and an- 
 thrax. Some doctors add poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis) but 
 others dispute this, saying too little is as yet known about the dis- 
 ease to make any statement definite. 
 
 Perhaps knowing something about how flies develop and 
 where they breed may make it easier for us to know how to com- 
 bat them. 
 
 There are four stages in the life cycle of a fly. First there is 
 the egg period, then the egg hatches into the larva, commonly 
 called a maggot.This develops into an inactive stage called pupa, 
 which in turn develops into the fly as we commonly know it. 
 This cycle depends in length on various conditions, the chief 
 factor being a warm, moist temperature. The average period is 
 10 to 12 days—while the lowest is about 8, and in cold weather, 
 the longest period may stretch into weeks. 
 
 The eggs of a fly are long and cylindrical shamed! They are 
 from four to five hundredths of an inch long, and slightly smaller 
 at one end that at the other. They are usually laid in masses 
 of about 120, and under favorable condition will hatch in about 
 24 hours into maggots. \ 
 
 The maggots are transparent objects when first hatched but 
 later become opaque and cream colored. They live in this state 
 from four to five days, the time depending largely upon the food 
 supply. When ready to pass itno the pupa stage, the contract 
 within their skin, and become dormant. This stage lasts four to 
 five days sometimes less, but under unfavorable circumstances 
 as during the cold of winter may continue several months. When 
 the fly emerges from the pupa stage, it first dries its wings, 
 stretches its legs, and is ready to begin the life cycle all over again. 
 
 The average female fly lays two sometimes four sets of eggs. 
 Then when we figure that there are from seven to fourteen gener- 
 
FIRST QUARTER 51 
 
 ations each season, we can readily see how fast they multiply. 
 One fly may have several millions of descendants by the close of 
 the year. 
 
 The question then comes. How to get rid of them? The 
 way is simple—keep everything clean and there will be no flies. 
 Keep the farm clean, keep houses, yards and barns clean, and the 
 fly will disappear like snow in August. There are three chief 
 breeding places for flies—manure piles, open water closets, and 
 garbage pails. The first two are primarily the sin of the country, 
 while the latter may be. 
 
 New York has so largely settled her fly problem that few 
 homes bother with screens. There are practically no barns, garb- 
 age is collected in closed wagons every day. All water closets are 
 inclosed—the result is a nearly a flyless city. 
 
 Manure is the favorite breeding place of flies. Around barns 
 it is especially dangerous for often the milking is done there. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to secure some simple effec- 
 tive way whereby manure piles will cease to be the breeding places 
 of flies. Various compounds have been tried but as manure is 
 one of the most valuable fertilizers, some method must be used 
 that will not impair its usefulness. Another thing must be con- 
 sidered. Because of chickens and other fowls which have access 
 to the refuse, no poisonous chemical is safe to use. Powdered 
 helebore is now considered the most satisfactory agent. The 
 helebore is made into a solution of one-half pound of powder to 
 ten gallons of water. This is stirred and allowed to stand for 
 twenty-four hours. For every 1% cubic feet of maiure 1% 
 gallon of the solution should be sprinkled over the manure. 
 
 Borax was found very effective in destroying the maggots, 
 but proved harmful to plant life, if the manure was used later as 
 a fertilizer. | 
 
 A mixture containing one-half pound of calcium cyanide and 
 one-half pound of acid phosphate added to each bushel of manure 
 proved very destructive to the maggots, and also was valuable in 
 that it added nitrogen and phosphorus to the land over which the 
 manure was spread. Many other solutions have been tried out 
 by the government but have proven either ineffective, poisonous, 
 or two expensive for constant use. 
 
52 FIRST QUARTER i 
 
 But we must not expect the farmer to do all the fly fighting. 
 Every city house wife should be responsible for her own home, 
 back yard, and especially her garbage pail. There are many pails 
 on the market that are fly proof. Others have fiy traps in the lid 
 that catch and keep all flies from the pail. A dirty housekeeper 
 will always have a garbage pail swarming with flies. Not long 
 ago a dainty little housewife boasted she could carry her daily 
 garbage to the opera in her hand bag and no one would be any 
 wiser. An examination of her garbage pail bore out her state- 
 ment. It was a galvanized can, with tight fitting lid, painted in- 
 side and out with several coats of white paint. Each day the pail 
 was lined with a clean newspaper, and the garbage placed on this. 
 Nothing but dry garbage went into the pail. The rest was sent 
 down the kitchen drain, then followed by hot water and some 
 strong washing powder. This little housekeeper had no fly prob- 
 lem—since she left nothing out’ to attract them, the flies went 
 where food and shelter was more abundant. 
 
 Fly traps are easily made. In many cities the boy scouts 
 have taken it upon themselves to make and, supply traps to ali 
 who will use them. In a school where manual training is taught, 
 the making of these traps may prove a most interesting bit of 
 work. Many states as well as the United States issue bulletins 
 describing how such traps are made and may be had free if writ- 
 ten for by a student. 
 
 Besides the fly and mosquito there are many other bugs, in- 
 sects and small animals that are hostile to the well being of man. 
 These have been treated more fully under science and agriculture 
 than they can be here. Among them are the various kinds of 
 ants, roaches, gnats, fleas, lice, bed bugs, rats and mice. Like 
 flies, these pests are most effectively combated by complete clean- 
 liness. 
 
 When we come to another division of animal life hostile to 
 man, the situation is different. In this class we find the various 
 worms, bugs, beetles, aphids, flies, and other insects which prey 
 upon food intended for human consumption. Every garden, or- 
 chard and timber tract will yield its quota of insects seeking to 
 
FIRST QUARTER 53 
 
 devour the plants we find there. These pests have been treated 
 fully in the first quarter of the science and argriculture and the 
 student is referred to the work as given there. 
 
 In the same quarter we found that not all insects were in- 
 jurious. Some animals as the bee and silk worm have great com- 
 mercial value. Japan’s position among the great powers is due 
 largely to her vast hords of silk worms that produce the finest 
 cocoons in the world. 
 
 Among the beneficial insects also we must include the lady 
 bug, or lady bird beetles, dragon flies, ets. These prey upon dan- 
 gerous insects and help man in his fight to eradicate them. 
 
 Each child should famalarize himself with these beneficial 
 insects so that he may spare them whenever and wherever he can. 
 
 Man’s Dependence Upon Small Things. 
 
 While man stands at the head of the animal kingdom he bv 
 no means is independent of the lower members of his kingdom or 
 even the vegetable kingdom. He is dependent upon both for his 
 food and shelter, and anything which threatens either, interferes 
 with his well being. -Likewise is he dependent upon these king- 
 doms for his health and happiness. We have seen how bacteria 
 and protozoa are almost everywhere. Some are beneficial ,some 
 —as far as is known—are neutral in their activity to man—others 
 are frankly dangerous enemies. 
 
 Our next quarter will be taken up with the more scientific 
 study of bacteria, where they breed, how they cause disease 
 how they are scattered, and various diseases which they cause. 
 The third quarter is given over to sanitation and the combatting 
 of disease. | 
 
54 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 SECOND QUARTER. 
 
 DISEASE GERMS. 
 Bacteria, Size, Form, Rapidity of Multiplication. 
 
 Bacteria—At the present time there is much study and dis- 
 cussion about bacteria. While there is much that we can not 
 understand, for sanitary reasons it is worth while investigating 
 the subject. | 
 
 The word bacteria comes from a Greek word meaning “little 
 sticks”. It is difficult for us to think of bacteria as little sticks 
 when they are so tiny, but that gives us the original meaning of 
 the word. Bacteria, in reality, are very small one-celled plants 
 and can be seen only through a microscope. Notice they are 
 plants rather than animals. We can not escape bacteria for they 
 are all around us—in the air, the soil and the water and are also 
 found in living animals and plants. Fortunately many of them 
 are harmless and go their own way and leave us alone. There are 
 some, however, that we do fear and they are called disease germs. 
 We cannot get away from them but only hope to prove stronger 
 than they. Scientists know of over 1500 different kinds of bac- 
 teria but only about seventy grow in our bodies and cause disease. 
 
 Size—It is almost impossible for us to imagine the size of 
 bacteria. They are the smallest living things. Some are so 
 small that they can not be seen even with a microscope. It is 
 said that thousands of them could find standing room on the point 
 of a needle. Some are not more than 1/500,000 of an inch in 
 diameter, if we can imagine such a measurement. A drop of 
 water would make a swimming pool for an endless number. 
 
 Shape—Bacteria differ greatly in shape. .Some are round 
 like a ball, some slender rods, and others of spiral shape. They 
 appear to be colorless sacs made of a clear substance, with no ap- 
 pearance of root, stem, or leaf as you usually see in plants. 
 
 Rapidity of Multiplication—Bacteria multiply very rapidly 
 and sometimes a single bacteria in the morning will have millions 
 of decendents by evening if they are not hindered. 
 
SECOND QUARTER 55 
 
 There is a center to each germ. Under favorable living con- 
 ditions the germ lengthens out and breaks into halves, and each 
 half becomes another germ. As these grow they continue to 
 divide into two, sometimes as frequently as once in twenty min- 
 utes.. Two or three generations may be formed in an hour. 
 They do not develop as rapidly as this at all times as conditions 
 are not always favorable for their growth, but you can see the 
 possibility of the development. 
 
 Spore Formation. Their Importance. 
 
 Certain bacteria, in reproduction, come to be known as 
 spores. They are not as active in production as other bacteria, 
 and some, known as sleeping spores, do not develop for a long 
 time. 
 
 Bacteria are reproduced by a cell becoming longer until it 
 finally divides into two new cells which go on dividing. Some- 
 times there is an irregular cell division and spores are formed. 
 They differ from the regular bacteria in various ways. Most 
 bacteria must have favorable conditions such as food, heat, and 
 moisture to live but spores live under most unfavorable condi- 
 tions. Spores often times stay in the body of their parents but are 
 not really a part of the parent. When they are given off ‘they 
 soon become cloudy and a covering appears. In a short time the 
 spore is enclosed within.a heavy wall. This remains as it is for 
 an indefinite time when conditions become favorable and it then 
 produces a cell like the one which formed it. 
 
 Bacteria which produce spores are much harder to kill than 
 others. When bread molds, the tiny black specks that appear on 
 the top of the bread are spores. They are light and easily blown 
 about and when they fall on a place favorable for their growth, 
 they increase. 
 
 Disease Germs, With But Few Exceptions, Do Not Produce 
 Resistant Spores. 
 
 Disease germs, for the most part, do not produce spores. If 
 they did, our chances for living would be much less hopeful than 
 
56 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 at the present time. Spores offer such great resistance and live 
 such a long time before developing, that if they caused. disease, 
 we would have much to fear from them. 
 
 There is a disease, called Anthrox that is caused by these 
 bacterial spores. It is found among both men and animals, but 
 more frequently among animals, and sometimes causes death to 
 many in a very short time. If the body of an animal that had the 
 disease is allowed to decay, many of these spores are formed that 
 can lie for a long time and then when they are taken into the 
 body of another animal, begin‘at once to grow. 
 
 This shows us the danger if spores were common among dis- 
 ease germs. 
 
 Useful Bacteria, Such as Those That Produce Vinegar, Kraut, 
 Sour Milk. 
 
 Bacteria is both useful and harmful. We are apt to spend - 
 most of our time and thought on the harmful kind and forget, 
 that as in most things, there is some good to be found. Bacteria 
 if not bothered, destroys all dead things. If it were not for this, . 
 there would be an endless accumulation of undestroyed waste 
 matter about us. From the largest tree that falls to the smallest 
 animal that dies, the bacteria cause decay and thus disposes of 
 the tree or animal and enriches the earth. There are some plants 
 that require food which is supplied only by bacteria in the soil. 
 
 Bacteria is also useful in food. It is true that it causes 
 much food to spoil and become unfit for use but on the other 
 hand, it adds to the taste of some food. Souring is a bacterial 
 process. We cannot easily make butter from sweet cream. The 
 bacteria sours it and then it can be churned. It is found that 
 certain kinds of bacteria in the fat add to the flavor of the butter. 
 Cheese depends for its taste and odor upon bacteria and mould. 
 Some kinds of the stronger cheeses are placed in moist cellars to 
 allow this bacteria to grow. Limburger is allowed to go through 
 this process for four or five weeks and comes out with the not- 
 to-be-forgotten odor. A 
 
 Fruit juices will ferment, through the influence of bacteria 
 and then turn to vinegar. The “Mother of Vinegar” is just a 
 
SECOND QUARTER 
 
 ~J 
 
 on 
 
 mass of bacteria. A similar fermentation process causes 
 shredded cabbage to become sauer kraut. 
 
 We can see the value of bacteria in foods as the butter, 
 cheese, vinegar, etc., could not be produced without them and 
 these foods, especially butter and cheese are wholesome, nourish- 
 ing foods. 
 
 It is interesting to note that freshly churned butter contains 
 a large number of bacteria. The next day it contains only about 
 half as many and each day the number decreases. 
 
 Harmful Bacteria Such as the Disease Types and the Kinds that 
 Destroy Foods. 
 
 It is interesting to study the uses of bacteria in producing 
 butter, vinegar, cheese, etc., but probably if that were the only 
 use, we would not know much about bacteria for it is the evil 
 that it does that causes men to study into the subject that we may 
 be able to combat its destructive work. 
 
 The two general classes of harmful bacteria are those that 
 cause disease and those that destroy food. 
 
 As was said before there is a very small-proportion of bac- 
 teria that cause disease and we are rejoiced at that, but those that 
 .do cause disease are much to be dreaded. 
 
 There are two kinds of bacteria, those which derive food 
 from decaying animal or vegetable matter and those which inhabit 
 another organism. . The latter are called parasites. Nearly all 
 bacteria which produce disease are parasites. We usually call 
 them disease germs. Germs cause disease by entering the body 
 and producing a poison or toxin and these poisons, given off by 
 the germs, cause the disease. So we may say that germs cause 
 disease indirectly. We used to have the idea that diseases were 
 inherited but since germs were discovered we know that what is 
 inherited is the weakness of the body to kill the germs that enter 
 our bodies. 
 
 Bacteria that Destroy Food. 
 If it were not for this bacteria, food would keep indefinitely 
 without change. We can’t get away from these little plants and 
 when food is left unprotected, bacteria begin work at once. We 
 
58 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 have discussed the way food can be preserved but it is not possible 
 to preserve all kinds. We can do much towards keeping food, | 
 _ however, by being sure our hands are clean when handling 
 it and by having it in clean surroundings. 
 
 Bacteria and the Teeth. ; 
 
 Regular habits should be formed in the care of our ‘bodies 
 but probably there is no regular habit that is of greater advantage, 
 from the health standpoint, than the habit of brushing our teeth 
 regularly. For two very good reasons, we should brush our teeth 
 the first thing in the morning and the last thing at night—for 
 comfort and for health. Once we have formed the habit of 
 keeping our teeth clean, if we neglect them, we can fairly feel,a 
 coat of film on them. ' 
 
 A very good breeding place for bacteria is teeth that have 
 not been brushed and are decaying. When we eat, particles of 
 food get between the teeth. These particles stay until they are 
 removed. Bread and crackers and other starchy foods are bad 
 about lodging in the teeth. Bacteria begins to work on these par- 
 ticles at once. The’ particles turn sour and an acid forms which 
 causes the teeth to decay. The process is similar to the souring 
 of milk. This acid acts on the teeth at once. It is difficult for 
 the acid to act on the hard part of the teeth and it takes time but 
 if there is a cracked or broken place in the teeth, it is much easier 
 for the acid to do its harmful work. 
 
 Material from decayed teeth or from pus cavaties around the 
 roots, may cause serious trouble. 
 
 If the teeth are properly cared for, the good health of the 
 body will be greatly increased and on the other hand if the body 
 is kept in good condition, the teeth benefit from it. 
 
 Knowing that bacteria will thrive in the moist warm food 
 left between the teeth, we can easily see that the good care of the 
 teeth is most essential. 
 
 Agents That Kill Bacteria. Open Flame, Hot Water, Sunlight, 
 Long Drying, Chemical Disinfectants. 
 
 While bacteria is all around us and we are not able to get 
 rid of them, there are agents such as open flame, hot water, sun- 
 
SECOND QUARTER 59 
 
 ~ light, long drying, and chemical disinfectants that do destroy 
 them. We will discuss each of these agents briefly: 
 
 Open Flame.—Bacteria are particular in that they adapt 
 themselves to conditions around them. Each kind seems to have 
 its favorable temperature in which it grows best. None are 
 capable of withstanding extreme heat. For this reason the open 
 flame or fire is useful in extremely contageous diseases. Every- 
 ‘thing used by the patient that.can, should be burned, and in the 
 case of such diseases as tuberculosis, paper napkins can be used 
 and burned so there is no chance for the spread of the disease 
 
 Peerins; | 
 
 Hot Water—When a person is sick with a contageous dis- 
 ease, his dishes should be washed in boiling water. All bedding 
 should be washed thoroughly and some disinfectant used in the 
 water. The bedding should then be allowed to hang in the sun- 
 light for some time to make sure it is perfectly free from germs. 
 Hot water and soap are now used to a great extent where chemi- 
 cals formerly were used. 
 
 _ Another important use of hot water is with dishes that have 
 been used for foods that were spoiling. These dishes should be 
 thoroughly scalded with hot water before using again. 
 
 Sunlight.—Direct sunlight is the most powerful known agent 
 in killing bacteria. It kills the bacteria which cause many of the 
 diseases of man. In the sun light are those ultra-violet rays 
 which kill bacteria as soon as they fall on it. Wecan realize how 
 powerful these rays are if we hang a colored dress on the clothes 
 line directly in the sun. If the dyes are not especially good, it is 
 but a matter of a short time until most of the color has left the 
 dress. 3 
 
 People, in ordinary health, need this sunshine. If you have 
 been housed up for a while because of rainy weather and the sun 
 comes out and you take a long walk, you come in feeling much 
 better. People whose work keeps them in the house most of the 
 time would be in much better health if they could get out into the 
 sunlight for a few minutes each day. If our houses are built so 
 we can admit plenty of fresh air and sunlight, we have gone a 
 long way towards good health. 
 
60 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 Long Drying.—Water is so essential to the growth of bac- 
 teria that if it is taken away, vital processes cease. In part of the 
 country where it is very hot and dry in the middle of the day, 
 meat is hung up in strips and allowed to dry. Germs are present 
 in the meat at first, but the germs are unable to work when there 
 is lack of moisture and so much heat, and in a short time the meat 
 is preserved from them. This drying reduces the bulk of the 
 meat because the water is taken out but it also preserves it so . 
 it will keep, which is a great necessity especially if ice can not be 
 had. . 
 
 Milk, fruit, meat, and vegetables can be preserved in this — 
 way, but the work must be done in hot germ free air. 
 
 Chemical Disinfectants—Chemical disinfectants are used 
 widely but are the ones that require the most caution. Sometimes 
 chemicals are used to preserve foods as milk and canned goods, 
 but as a rule if the chemical is strong enough to preserve the food 
 and kill the bacteria, it is not a good addition to food. Many 
 times we use soap, water, fresh air and sunlight in a sick room 
 where formerly we felt we must use chemicals. In some cases 
 such as smallpox and infantile paralysis, chemical fumigation 1s 
 necessary. 
 
 Antiseptics Simply Prevent Bacteria From Developing and the 
 Same is True of Such Preservatives as Salt, Sugar, 
 and Vinegar. 
 
 An antiseptic is anything which destroys the germs of disease 
 or restricts their growth. These are used where there is the 
 danger of too much bacteria being developed. All cuts, even small 
 ones, should be treated with an antiseptic to prevent infection. 
 
 In another way salt, sugar and vinegar preserve food from 
 being destroyed by bacteria. 
 
 Salt has a great attraction for water. We can easily under- 
 stand this when we attempt to get salt from the salt shaker in 
 damp weather. Bacteria contains little salt and a great amount ~ 
 of water. When the bacteria are placed in salt, the salt tends to 
 draw the water through the walls of the bacterial cell. There isa 
 slow passage of salt into the cell and as a result the bacteria 
 
 ’ 
 
SECOND QUARTER 61 
 
 simply dries up and is extinguished. Strong sugar solutions are 
 even more powerful in drawing water from bacteria. Honey re- 
 sists these microbes almost indefinitely. Years ago it was found 
 that sugar, added to fruits, helped to preserve them and today we 
 add it to our preserves and if properly cared for they keep in- 
 definitely. 
 
 Vinegar destroys the germs in food and so we find salt, 
 sugar, and vinegar three good preservatives. 
 
 In order to preserve food, the bacteria must be destroyed 
 and the food protected from other bacteria. 
 
 Resistance of Spores As Compared With the Actively Growing 
 Forms of Bacteria. 
 
 Bacteria cannot make their own food, but get nourishment 
 from foods that are ready made such as milk, meat, fruit, vege- 
 tables, etc. As is stated above, bacteria must have the right food, 
 heat and moisture to live and produce other bacteria. When con- 
 ditions are favorable they multiply rapidly but when food is scarce 
 these cells do not divide to form new ones but many of them de- 
 velop spores in themselves and when the bacteria die, the spores 
 are set free. There is enough of the vital substance of the germ 
 in the spore so that life is just maintained. A dense membrane 
 is formed around it and the fact that there is very little moisture 
 contained in it, increases its resistance. Spores can resist drying, 
 chemicals, intense heat and all disinfectants. Under circum- 
 stances when bacteria would die, spores live on. It would be 
 most disastrous to us if spores were disease germs for with their 
 great resistance, disease would be spread in every direction. 
 
 Eighth Grade Pupils Should Understand these Organisms. 
 
 The eighth grade pupil should have a simple, yet definite, 
 idea of the real nature of these organisms. 
 
 Eighth grade pupils are not old enough to take up a technical 
 study of bacteria and profit by the work but they are old enough 
 to have a simple yet definite idea of the real nature of these or- 
 ganisms. They should know what bacteria are, what they do 
 
 é 
 
62 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 and the difference between the harmful and the useful types of 
 bacteria. The eighth grade pupil should know that while there 
 are many bacteria that are harmless, there are a few that we call 
 disease germs that we must guard against. 
 
 Study of Bacteria Through the Microscope. 
 
 If a compound microscope can be borrowed, it will add to the 
 interest and value of this work for the pupils to see bacteria as 
 they appear in some decaying substance such as broth or stagnant 
 water. 
 
 In much of our work in the study of science, we find that 
 apparatus is absolutely necessary. We may read about things 
 that can be done in laboratories but that means so little to us many 
 times. If we can actually see experiments worked out, we under- 
 stand so much more about them. A compound microscope is 
 not an instrument that can be had in every school but if one could 
 be borrowed it would add much to the interest and value of the 
 work in the study of bacteria. We can show the pupils a small 
 bowl of stagnant water and tell them that there are thousands of 
 bacteria in it. It would take a rather vivid imagination to picture 
 these bacteria to their minds but if they could actually see the 
 bacteria through the microscope, it would make a deep impression 
 upon their minds. 
 
 We could show the pupils a piece of moldy bread and explain 
 the different stages of bacteria development but if they could 
 actually see the bacteria, the whole process would be real to them. 
 We are all familiar with the simple microscope or magnifying 
 glass as we call it. A compound microscope works on the same 
 principle but has more than one lens and is much more complex 
 and powerful. A mirror is used to reflect the light and very tiny 
 specks can be seen through it. 
 
 Experimental work could be made both interesting and valu- 
 able if a compound microscope could be used in the study of 
 bacteria. 
 
 Experiments Are Worth While. 
 
 . 
 
 Simple experiments are suggested. A few will be given that - 
 
 could easily be used with the pupils. 
 
SECOND QUARTER 63 
 
 Experiment to show the growth of bacteria: In this experi- 
 ment be sure that all the dishes have been boiled. Boil a potato 
 and with a sterilized knife and fork, lift it from the kettle, cut in 
 halves and place on two saucers. Place over one half a tumbler 
 but before covering the other half of the potato with a tumbler, 
 place a drop of drinking water on it. Allow the two to stand 
 and watch for the bacteria development on the potato with the 
 drop of water. 
 
 An experiment to test the cleanliness of milk. Heat a pint 
 of milk in a double boiler. Dissolve a junket tablet in a table- 
 spoon of warm water and add to the milk when the milk is heated 
 to body temperature. Thoroughly mix the milk and junket tablet 
 and then let it stand until thick. Pour off all whey and when the 
 curd is compact, cut it with a knife. If the milk used does not 
 contain many bacteria, the curd will be smooth and rather solid, 
 but if it is spongy then many bacteria are present. Take a table- 
 spoonful of the curd and place it in water. If the milk is fairly 
 clean it will sink but if it floats, the milk is not fit to be used. 
 
 An interesting experiment to show that it is not easy to 
 detect filth in milk, is to put a quart of milk in a glass jar. Put 
 into this a tumbler of thin mud and stir it. The mud does not 
 change the appearance of the milk. 
 
 Put several thicknesses of paper in a saucer. Wet them and 
 put on them a slice of bread. Scatter over the bread some dust, 
 cover with a saucer and set away. Keep the bread moist and see 
 the condition of it in a week’s time. 
 
 Germs Other Than Bacteria, Such as Those That Cause Malaria. 
 
 Bacteria are one-celled plants and protozoa are one-celled 
 animals—all are visible only through the microscope. We have 
 just been studying bacteria and go to the study of protozoa be- 
 cause they are the germs that cause malaria. One rather inter- 
 esting thing in connection with the two is that, for the most part, 
 drugs are used effectively in diseases caused by protozoa while 
 in the case of bacteria, our own body tissues have more force in 
 destroying them than drugs do. 
 
64 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 In malaria, the germs live in the red corpuscles of the blood 
 and are from what we call the malaria mosquito. 
 
 This malaria mosquito is different from our ordinary mo- 
 squito. It never travels far but clings to the weeds and grasses 
 near where it hatches. ‘The mosquito has a long snout which it 
 inserts into the skin of people and sucks out the blood. As the 
 red corpuscles of the blood are too large for the mosquito, it 1n- 
 jects its saliva into the blood to break up these corpuscles. As it 
 does this it injects the malaria germs into the person. This germ 
 goes right to the red corpuscles and begins to grow. These germs 
 grow very rapidly. They destroy red corpuscles and begin work 
 on the internal organs, and in a short time the patient begins to 
 chill. Malaria is a disease which takes one’s strength. It rarely 
 causes death but just keeps people sick. Many times people are 
 just sick enough so they can work but not do as much as usual. 
 However, malaria shortens people’s lives because’ the germs give 
 off poisons which wear out the organs of the body, sooner than 
 they otherwise would. 
 
 These microbes in malaria are in the blood of the person and 
 so can be spread only by the mosquito so that the essential thing © 
 is to do away with the mosquito. To do away with the mosquito 
 is to do away with all breeding places. We must not allow pools 
 of stagnant water to remain. A tiny puddle of water is sufficient 
 for the female mosquito to lay her eggs and mosquitos develop 
 rapidly. The mosquito lives in the water but it must come to the 
 surface for air. If kerosene is put on the pool of stagnant water, 
 is shuts off the breathing places, and the mosquito dies. 
 
 People who live in districts where malaria is common should 
 be sure their houses are carefully screened and that the breeding 
 places of the mosquito are destroyed. Then the danger from the 
 disease is not very great. 
 
 Parasites. 
 
 Parasites, as tapeworms, trichina worms, and _ intestinal 
 worms that may gain entrance to the intestines through poorly 
 cooked meats or from surface water cause disease. 
 
SECOND QUARTER 65 
 
 The protozoa which cause malaria also cause worms. All 
 meats contain disease germs. Pork especially may contain worms 
 called trichinal and the intestinal parasites. Both beef and pork 
 may contain tape worm. If meat containing these germs is not 
 cooked, these animals get into the body but thorough cooking 
 makes the meat safe. ; 
 
 Tape worms fasten to the walls of the intestines and live 
 there, growing on the food meant for the person until they become 
 long worms, shaped like tape. The young trichinal make their 
 way through the walls of the intestines and enter the blood. The 
 blood carries them to the muscle cells where they work their way 
 in and destroy the cells. 
 
 Animals to be killed for meat are usually inspected but there 
 are always dangers and the safest way is to be sure the meat we 
 serve our families is thoroughly cooked and it is wise not, to serve 
 it too frequently. , 
 
 While these germs do not grow very much in fruits and 
 vegetables, they may get on them so the safe way is to wash all of 
 the fruits and vegetables thoroughly. 
 
 How Germs Cause Disease—Growth of Germs in the Body. 
 
 Now that it has been definitely decided that germs cause dis- 
 ease, we are interested in learning how germs cause disease. 
 While germs are everywhere around us, we know that we are 
 safe so long as they stay on the outside. Only when they’ are 
 taken into the body, are they dangerous to us. From the stand- 
 point of good health, we should know something of their growth 
 in the body. There are various ways in which they may enter 
 but usually through the mouth or nose; through cuts or breaks in 
 the skin, through drinking water or milk that is not pure, through 
 food that contains germs or by mosquitos or flies which carry 
 these disease germs to the body. 
 
 Germs do not provide their own food but have a way of get- 
 ting food from their surroundings, so that when they enter the 
 body, they at once find suitable food and grow and multiply. 
 
 Some of the germs, however, are not able to withstand the acid 
 
66 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 of the stomach or other germ poisons in various parts of our 
 bodies. They die and can cause no more harm, but others do 
 withstand these poisons and make their way through the body. 
 Many pass into the alimentary canal, which is sometimes called — 
 a microbe incubator, and here they are produced in great numbers. 
 It is easy to understand why they are so numerous here. This 
 alimentary canal is about thirty feet long. The food, warmth and 
 moisture in it make it an ideal place for the growth of microbes 
 and hence the great number. We know that they are there and 
 that while they probably do no great harm, they do no good and 
 yet we are helpless when the question comes up as to how to get 
 rid of them. This is one of the many problems left for science 
 to solve. 
 
 Formation of Poisons. (Toxins). Effect of These Poisons. 
 
 Disease germs enter the body and live on their surroundings, 
 and in return for this, they give off a poison, toxin, as it is called. 
 We know little or nothing about the chemical structure of these 
 toxins but we do know that they are formed inside the cell of the 
 bacteria, are given off freely by the cell, and that they cause des- 
 truction wherever they go. They may destroy the tissues sur- 
 rounding them or they may get into the blood and be carried 
 though the whole body, destroying the tissues of any part of the 
 body. In some cases the nerves absorb them.and tetanus or lock- 
 jaw results. In some diseases such as diphtheria, the toxin seems 
 to poison different parts of the body. There will be the regula- 
 tion sore throat of the disease, but there may be also complica- 
 tions of liver, changes in the circulatory organs, drop in blood | 
 pressure, and other troubles which show that the toxin is working 
 in many parts of the body.: 
 
 Another danger is that these disease germs multiply greatly, 
 before the body sets up its defense and gets ready to fight them. 
 Then when these bacteria are killed, poison from them is carried 
 _ through the body. 
 
 The only way to avoid this poison, is to keep as free of the 
 disease germs that give them forth as possible and build up a 
 good healthy vigorous body that will be able to combat them if 
 they enter the body. 
 
SECOND QUARTER 67 
 
 On can readily see the effect of these poisons on the body. 
 They irritate or destroy the body tissues and unless they are 
 overcome in some way, finally destroy the body. 
 
 How the Body Resists Bacteria and Their Poisons. 
 
 To a certain extent the healthy body may resist these bacteria 
 and their poisons. The process is an interesting one. 
 
 These bacteria are not a part of the human body and come 
 in as sort of intruders. Their object is to reach the tissues of the 
 body to begin their destructive work. Our bodies seem to realize 
 their presence though we know nothing about it. It seems as 
 though the entire body gets ready to fight the disease germs. Let 
 us suppose that a tuberculosis germ enters through the mouth be- 
 cause of close contact with one who has the disease. The germs 
 first go to the stomach. In our stomachs is an acid that kills 
 
 many bacteria but some of them escape this and go on to the small 
 
 intestines. The intestinal walls are strong and the germs gener- 
 ally cannot force them but sometimes the walls are not strong 
 enough to resist the disease germs; they give way and the germ 
 poisons get into the tissues. In the tissues, the blood exerts its 
 power in killing the microbe. The white corpuscles of the blood 
 are perhaps the greatest factor in killing bacteria of any of the 
 body resistants. Sometimes the germs are too much for these 
 white corpuscles and they in turn are killed by the germ. Other 
 parts of the body aid in fighting these germs but if none are suc- 
 cessful then the disease is free to begin its work, but you can 
 readily see that if all these organs are in good working order, the 
 poor germ doesn’t have a very good chance. 
 
 When the germ has withstood all these bodily organs, and 
 actually entered the tissues of some part of the body it begins its 
 »work and the germs multiply rapidly. It probably feels then that 
 the way is clear for its destructive work but before it gets a very 
 good start, substances seems to come forth created just to meet 
 the need. These germicidal substances, as they are called, assist 
 the white corpsucles. They fight during the disease and after- 
 wards remain in the body a long time, and when they are there, 
 we can not have that same disease again. In case of the measles, 
 
68 . SECOND QUARTER 
 
 scarlet fever and small pox, we seldom have them again because 
 of this substance which seems to say “‘you’ve been in this body 
 once, that’s enough”’. 
 
 Antitoxins and Related Substances in the Blood; Tell ie 
 Truth in Simple Language. 
 
 Our bodies do such wonderful things that we marvel at them. 
 One of the most astonishing is the forming of anti-toxins. As 
 the microbes enter our bodies and give forth their poison, the or- 
 gan attacked reacts by forming a counter poison. One strange 
 thing about this counter poison is that it has no effect against any 
 other microbe except the one that called it into being. This anti- 
 toxin formed by typhoid bacteria will be absolutely tiseless in 
 fighting against lockjaw germs. 
 
 We now have standardised antitoxin for diseases. It. is 
 given to people to prevent disease or lessen the seriousness of the 
 disease. 
 
 Antitoxin means “against poison”. In disease the person 
 may not be able to produce enough, so if some antitoxin is added 
 to his blood, he may be better able to combat the disease. 
 
 In explaining the relation of disease germs to the body and 
 showing how the body reacts from these germs, we must take 
 into consideration the age of our pupils. We must be sure that 
 we give absolute facts but the truth should be stated in simple 
 language and made as practical as possible if the pupils are to 
 benefit from it. 
 
 White Corpuscles and their Use; Pus. 
 
 White corpuscles are called the police force of the blood. 
 They do not unite in groups as most cells but float one by one in 
 the blood. This gives them free sway and they go around seem- 
 ing to watch for chances to attack the disease germs. 
 
 Disease germs would have a free and easy time if it were not 
 for these white corpuscles in the blood. One thing they do is to 
 eat these disease germs. Sometimes the white corpuscles can not 
 
SECOND QUARTER . 69 
 
 digest them and the germs in turn kill the corpuscles. If this 
 goes on the patient can not live but if the corpuscles can digest 
 the germs, his chances for recovery are good. 
 
 Pus is largely white corpuscles that have collected and have 
 destroyed bacteria in the tissues. 
 
 The white corpuscles of the body have been likened to a 
 police force. Each corpuscle goes around watching for disease 
 germs. When he finds one he arrests it. He does this by eating 
 the germ. If he is not able to do this, he calls other corpuscles 
 to help him. If you get a splinter in your finger, these white cor- 
 puscles rush to the scene and die in making the attack. We say 
 the splinter festered and came out but what really happened was 
 these white corpuscles made an attack when the splinter entered 
 and they were killed in the attack and their bodies: formed the pus. 
 
 Healthy Resistant Body Best Safeguard. 
 
 A healthy resistant body is the best safegurad against disease. 
 The best of us get diseases but we can escape disease: more easily 
 if we are well and strong, and if we are so unfortunate as to 
 catch a disease, we are better able to combat it if we have a strong 
 constitution to begin with. We can inherit a weak or a strong 
 body but fortunately we can acquire a strong body if we have the 
 determination to do it. We should learn the rules of right living 
 and adhere to them and should not violate the laws of health. 
 Exposure, exhaustion, lack of good food, bad air in sleeping 
 rooms, and lack of sufficient exercise will weaken our bodies 
 and then the disease germs get in their work. 
 
 No matter how strong we are, if too many disease germs 
 get into our bodies, we cannot combat them so we should avoid 
 contact with people who have contageous diseases. 
 
 Sometimes we feel the situation is hopeless with these tiny 
 germs all around us, but the best thing to do is to avoid people 
 who are sick, keep up your general health and not worry about 
 germs. 
 
 There are about a million and a half deaths in this country 
 each year. Probably half of these are needless. In addition to 
 this there are about three million persons who are constantly 
 sick, 
 
70 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 Sickness causes much loss of time as well as discomfort. 
 We should strive to have good strong bodies so we can resist 
 disease. 
 
 a 
 
 Catching Diseases; Germs Must Escape from the Patient. 
 
 Our ideas about catching diseases have changed considerably 
 in recent years. Science does much toward explaining conditions 
 and yet we understand so little about this body of ours. We think 
 we know how to care for it, yet there is so much to learn. 
 
 Certain germs cause certain diseases and these germs must 
 come from the parent germ; they cannot start from nothing. 
 
 In the person who has a disease are many disease germs, but 
 so long as these stay in the person, other people are safe but when 
 the germs are given out, the danger comes. If a person were 
 careful he could avoid giving off these germs to a certain extent 
 though he does not have full control of this. 
 
 There are Various ways in which germs may escape the 
 patient, such as coughing, sneezing, spitting, sores on the skin, 
 and from the wastes of the patient. These will be discussed 
 briefly : 
 
 Coughing—lIn some of our health pamphlets we see a picture 
 of a man coughing and the germs, which unfortunately, we can 
 not see in real life, are pictured flying in all directions. You see 
 a teacher stand before her school and cough. All of the children 
 in her part of the room are exposed to her cold by her careless- 
 ness. If little children could be taught that they should cover 
 their mouths when they cough, after they are grown, they would 
 do it unconsciously and in that one way at least, germs would not 
 be carried. Se 
 
 Sneezing—Probably sneezing and coughing should.come un- 
 der the same heading for the results are so similar. The secre- 
 tions of the mouth, nose and throat, scattered by coughing, sneez- 
 ing and spitting are very dangerous. 7 
 
 Spitting—Of the coughing, sneezing and spitting, spitting is 
 by far the filthiest habit. While it is unlawful in most communi- 
 ties, nevertheless, it is done a great deal. Especially is this dan- 
 
SECOND QUARTER 71 
 
 gerous in tuberculosis. There is danger in spitting on the side- 
 walk, in the grass, or in a cuspidor containing no disinfectant. It 
 is a bad habit, even among the well and should be discouraged. 
 
 Sores on the Skin—So many people are careless when they 
 have small sores or breaking out on the skin. It seems such a 
 little thing to the person, but from that sore may come germs that 
 go to another person and cause serious infection. 
 
 From wastes of the patient—In some diseases the germs are 
 in the intestines as well as in the blood and tissues. This is the 
 case in such a disease as typhoid, and in this disease, the microbes 
 are in the bowel movements of the patient. A person gets typhoid 
 by getting into his mouth germs which have come from some one 
 who has had typhoid. These may come by the means of flies or 
 polluted water from wells where these microbes have been washed 
 
 In. 
 
 Good health habits, both by the one who has the disease and 
 those exposed to it, have much to do with keeping the disease from 
 spreading. 
 
 Germs Must Be Carried in Some Way. 
 
 We have just learned that disease germs must escape from 
 the patient in order to spread and now we come to the question of 
 the carrying of germs from one person to another. As a rule 
 germs do not go distances themselves but are carried to a person 
 in various ways such as, in our water or food, by flies, through 
 the use of the common drinking cup, by contact with persons who 
 have a disease, and by dirty hands and nails. A brief discussion 
 of these different ways will follow: 
 
 In water—Impure water contains disease germs. Knowing 
 this, we should see to it that the water we drink is reasonably 
 pure and free from these germs. Our drinking water for the 
 most part, comes from streams or wells. If the stream has been 
 used as a general dumping ground, the water is impure and 
 should go through some kind of a purifying process. If the 
 water comes from a well, we should see to it that the well is not 
 near a cess pool or a barn yard or any place where impurities 
 might seep in. The entrance to the well should be carefully 
 covered. 
 
72 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 In Food—F¥ood that is not fresh will probably contain dis- 
 ease germs. Care should be taken that our fruit and vegetables 
 are not beginning to decay, that our meats have been inspected, 
 that our milk is pure and sweet and that our other food has come 
 from a sanitary grocery store where it has been carefully handled 
 and kept clean. | 
 
 Flies—Flies are called the “universal enemy of man’. A 
 few years ago flies were taken for granted. We thought we had to 
 have them; that they were a part of the coming of summer. Now 
 we campaign against them for as we study flies and realize the 
 great danger in having them around, we feel we must do all we 
 can to eradicate them. Flies spread disease by carrying germs. 
 They hover over any filthy place where germs are countless and 
 then fly into our houses, walk over our food and into our milk and 
 leave germs. Flies have been examined and found to have mil- 
 lions of germs on them. Their feet and legs are covered with 
 tiny hairs to which the germs adhere. Unfortunately we cannot 
 see these germs. If we could, we would fear a fly laden with 
 germs as we might a poisonous snake. 
 
 Flies carry germs of nearly all diseases and everything 
 should be done to destroy them. 
 
 If people could be made to realize the danger in one small 
 fly, they would kill it at once and thus help to lessen the number. 
 
 Drinking cups—It seems only a few years ago that we had 
 the common drinking cup. We could go into a rural school 
 where there were thirty children present. If it were in the win- 
 ter probably half of them would have colds. All would drink 
 from that one tin dipper in the pail of water on one of the 
 benches. Now we have the paper drinking cups and the drinking 
 fountains. Anyone who has disease germs, and most of us have 
 more or less, drinking from a cup may very easily leave germs in 
 the cup that the next person may take in. Even healthy people 
 give off disease germs and they may enter the body of one less 
 healthy and cause any amount of trouble. 
 
 The common drinking cup is a great spreader of disease and 
 should be abolished entirely. 
 
 By Contact—Not all diseases are contageous but many of 
 them are more or less so and if we come in contact with people 
 
SECOND QUARTER 73 
 
 who are sick, we may take the disease. In the case of our most 
 contageous diseases, the patient is quarantined and people are 
 kept away from him. That eliminates much danger but in less 
 contagious diseases, the danger is really greater. We are more 
 careless in these less contagious diseases and the patient is more 
 careless so that we come in contact with him, get his germs, and 
 are in great danger of getting his disease. 
 
 There is danger in contact with the patient or by coming in 
 contact with the things he has used. 
 
 Dirty hands and nails—It is necessary that we keep our 
 hands and nails clean. We should have enough pride to keep 
 them clean for the sake of appearance but a more important 
 reason is to avoid the spread of disease germs. Some one has 
 gone so far as to make the statement that dirty hands probably 
 cause more disease than any other agent. That may seem a little 
 strong but there is doubtless considerable truth to it. Our first 
 thought is that we should teach children to keep their hands clean. 
 So we should; but children are not the only ones who have dirty 
 hands. 
 
 Just watch farmers and see how many of them wash their 
 hands thoroughly before milking.They should, and some do. The 
 housewife should always wash her hands when she goes into the 
 kitchen to prepare a meal. You will probably find the average 
 housewife more particular about this than the average farmer: 
 but how essential for both to have clean hands! 
 
 Children should be taught to always wash their hands before 
 eating. They probably will insist that their hands look clean and 
 perhaps they do but the last thing a child should do before eating 
 is to give his hands a thorough washing. Children should also be 
 taught to wash their hands when they have been places where 
 there are crowds of people, as on the street car, or in crowded 
 stores. The children touch things that others touch and have a 
 very good chance of collecting dangerous germs. 
 
 You meet many people on the street with nails that indicate 
 absolutely no attention. After a study of germs you surely can 
 realize the great number of germs that could lie in that small 
 space under the nails. 
 
74 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 Germs Must Gain Entrance to the Body Tissues of the Second 
 Individual; Prevention. 
 
 Disease germs in themselves are dangerous and many times 
 they break down our vital resistance and pave the way for more 
 serious diseases. There is no danger, however, unless disease 
 germs are carried from those who are sick to those who are well. 
 Germs must gain entrance to the body tissues of the second in- 
 dividual. This may be done in several ways: Through the 
 mouth and nose, the digestive tract and through open cuts and the 
 like. 
 
 Through the mouth and nose—We take in many disease 
 germs through the mouth and nose. The air we breathe is never 
 pure and the food we eat and the water we drink are never abso- 
 lutely free from impurities. We may go up to a desk, pick up a 
 pencil and unconsciously put it to our mouth. We do not know 
 who has handled that pencil before us and what kind of germs. 
 are on it. If some one who has a cold coughs near us, we can so 
 easily breathe germs from his cold. It is easy in many ways 
 to take in disease germs through the mouth and nose. 
 
 Through the digestive tract—Impure milk and impure water 
 contain disease germs. Different diseases. can be carried to the’ 
 digestive tract through these agents. Suppose a family has ty- 
 phoid fever and the empty milk bottles from their home have not 
 been thoroughly sterilized. Milk from these bottles can easily 
 carry typhoid to anyone who drinks it. 
 
 Food that is beginning to decay contains bacteria and can be 
 easily carried to the digestive tract. Any food we eat that is not 
 pure is dangerous and should be avoided. 
 
 Through open cuts or sores—As soon as there is a break in 
 the skin, there is danger of infection. Germs are all around us. 
 They live in our skin, on our clothing and in water. If there is 
 an open cut or sore, unless it is cared for at once, these germs 
 can get into it and infection may set in and trouble may follow. 
 
 Prevention is so much easier and better than cure. If people 
 could only be taught good health habits and learn to avoid other 
 
SECOND QUARTER 75 
 
 people who have diseases, be careful of the food and water used, 
 become enemies of flies and keep their hands and nails clean, they 
 would go a long ways towards preventing disease. 
 
 Precaution in the Sick Room. 
 
 » Great’ pr ecaution should be taken i in the sick room to prevent 
 the spread of disease. 
 
 The dishes used should be kept for the person who has the 
 disease and not be used by others. These dishes should be washed 
 in boiling water. 
 
 If the disease is one of the more serious of the contageous 
 diseases, the clothing the patient uses during illness should be 
 burned or at least carefully fumigated. The bedding should be 
 washed thoroughly and some disinfectant used in the water. The 
 bedding should be allowed to hang in the sunlight for some time 
 to make sure it is perfectly free from germs. 
 
 The wastes of the body should be carefully destroyed. This 
 is especially necessary in typhoid fever but is a safe precaution in 
 any disease. 
 
 The patient should be carefully isolated during illness. To 
 what extent he should be kept entirely away from people depends 
 on the nature of his disease but it is usually better for both 
 patient and others if there is little going to and from the sick 
 room. 
 
 The nurse should be careful of her clothing as she could so 
 easily carry disease from her patient to those outside the room. 
 However, nurses’ uniforms are of such material and style that 
 they do not easily carry disease germs. 
 
 How Germs Are Scattered—Human Carriers—A Perfectly 
 ' Healthy Individual May Harbor and Scatter Dis- 
 ease Germs—This Fact Extremely Important. 
 
 Disease germs may be carried in water and in food but 
 human carriers of disease are more to be feared than any other. 
 They are more difficult to avoid. We can be reasonably sure 
 that the water we drink is not contaminated though water abso- 
 
76 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 lutely free of germs might be difficult to find. We can see to it 
 that the food we eat is clean and fresh and well prepared but if 
 we mingle with people at all we can hardly avoid human carriers 
 of disease. We may walk along the street and meet a person with 
 a cold who takes occasion to cough or sneeze just as he reaches ~ 
 us. While out of doors is the safest place, we may get these 
 disease germs he has given forth even then and in spite of our- 
 selves. If we go into a store, we meet people who are not well 
 and are giving out disease germs into the air and on the food we 
 buy. If we go into a meeting where the room is crowded, there 
 may be one person, though doubtless there are more, who give off 
 disease germs that may contaminate the whole room. The most 
 dangerous thing we could do would be to go into a room where 
 some one is ill with a contageous disease. Anything we touch 
 might be covered with these germs. You can readily see that 
 these human carriers of disease are all around us, scattering dis- 
 ease in every direction, and try as hard as we may, we can hardly 
 hope to escape all of them, 
 
 As we study about the many ways diseases may be scattered, 
 we almost feel that we are not safe anywhere. As a rule we do 
 feel safe with a healthy person, while we are safer with him than 
 with one who is sick, even the healthy one may harbor and scatter 
 disease germs. 
 
 Suppose a healthy man has been drinking water contaminated 
 with typhoid germs. He takes these germs into his body, but be- 
 cause he has a healthy resistant body, he can battle with them and 
 does not get typhoid. The acid in his stomach kills some and 
 others are killed by the white corpuscles in the blood, but some 
 live and are given off and these may enter the body of some one 
 who cannot resist them and cause him to have typhoid. So we 
 see even the healthiest people may give disease germs to other 
 people. : 
 
 We need to realize the danger of disease that are all around 
 us. When we know that even a healthy person may scatter 
 disease germs, we should build up good, strong, healthy bodies to 
 resist all diseases. 
 
SECOND QUARTER 77 
 
 Importance of Direct Contact in Epidemics. 
 
 When there are epidemics, the safest way to protect the pub- 
 lic is by quarantine. Houses are placarded in two ways. If the 
 disease is of a serious nature, such as scarlet fever or diphtheria, 
 the placard means that people are not to go back and forth from 
 the house. If the disease is of a less serious nature, such as 
 whooping cough or mumps, the placard is simply a warning to 
 people and they may use their own judgment about going in. 
 
 While disease germs may be carried by a third person, direct 
 contact with the person who has the disease is most to be feared. 
 The person who is sick may give off germs or germs may be on 
 any object in the room that the patient has touched. When we 
 know that a person has a contageous disease, we are wise if we 
 keep entirely away and have no direct contact with him. 
 
 Relate This Fact to the Crowds in Picture Shows, Churches, 
 and Schools Where Catching Diseases are Prevalent. 
 
 Sometimes when there is an epidemic of some contageous 
 disease, it is of such a serious nature that schools and churches 
 and other public places are closed. This is done, however, only 
 in extreme cases. Asa rule people are left free to attend picture 
 shows, churches and schools and these are the very places where 
 disase is spread. 
 
 Supose a person is coming down with diphtheria and goes to 
 a picture show. Asa rule the room is crowded and the air bad. 
 Think of the people sitting around this one who is taking the dis- 
 ease. Germs are given forth into the poorly ventilated room and 
 the chances are that a number will come down with diphtheria. 
 
 Suppose a child goes to school in the morning and by noon 
 the teacher discovers that he is coming down with measles. In 
 his school work he has probably moved around in the different 
 parts of the room, and has played with children at recess. There 
 is hardly a child in school who has not been exposed to the 
 measles. The condition is the same at any public place. In case 
 of an epidemic, the less we go to these places, the less likely we 
 are to get the disease. 
 
78 SECCND QUARTER 
 
 Emphasize Habits of Cleanliness, Thoughtfulness, Self-Control, 
 Helpfulness to Others, and Honesty. 
 
 Habits of Cleanliness—There is more truth than fiction in 
 the old saying that cleanliness is next to godliness. In this study 
 of germs, there is probably no greater factor in the destruction 
 of or freedom from germs than cleanliness. There are so many 
 little ways in which we can be careful about our food. It should 
 be kept covered and in a sanitary place and handled only with 
 clean hands. 
 
 Cleanliness of our bodies is a wonderful germ preventative 
 and clean hands are so important at all times. At best our hands 
 touch things that are covered with microbes and when they are 
 not clean, conditions are much worse. They should be washed 
 frequently and kept away from the face. 
 
 Thoughtfulness—The healthy individual should be thought- 
 ful in preventing disease. He should be careful of his bodily 
 habits, aid in protecting others from disease and keep away from 
 places infested with disease germs. 
 
 It is even more necessary for sick persons to be thoughtful. 
 When they go among others, they spread disease. People with 
 diseases such as tuberculosis should be thoughtful and avoid 
 coughing or spitting in public places. 
 
 Self Control—Self control is a valuable asset in times of ill- 
 ness, and especially so in epidemics. It is valuable to those who 
 are ill, for, fear on the part of a patient, often lessens his chances 
 of recovery; it is valuable to those who are not ill for, if people 
 are sensible about things and use self control in times of danger, 
 it lessens the danger. 
 
 Helpfulness to others—The paragraph on thoughtfulness 
 would fit in nicely here in that thoughtfulness is being helpful to 
 others. So many people around us seem to have so little idea 
 about taking care of themselves. They expose themselves to bad 
 weather, poor food, and sick people. If we could only make them 
 realize the great dangers, we would be helping them much. 
 
 Honesty—Honesty may be a rather peculiar topic to speak of 
 in connection with disease germs, but it has a direct bearing on the 
 subject. There are people around us who have diseases—know 
 
SECOND QUARTER 79 
 
 they have them—but are not honest enough to admit it. In the 
 opposite extreme we have the people who are ill, or at least think 
 they are, who make their illness the main topic of conversation. 
 As we sometimes say, they enjoy bad health. We do not com- 
 mend these people for their honesty, if we may call it such but we 
 do commend those who have diseases that are carried by germs 
 who let us know about it so we may not be exposed to them. 
 
 Compoition Subjects. 
 
 Each of these composition subjects will be discussed briefly 
 and the students may enlarge on them. 
 
 Clean Hands and Health.—This is an important subject. In 
 these days of running water and good soaps, washing our hands 
 should be a pleasure. Whether it is to the average school child, 
 _ may be determined by an examination of his hands. We don’t 
 expect a child to keep his hands clean all the time when he is 
 playing or working at school, but we do expect him to start with 
 them clean in the morning and have them clean at meal time. 
 Any grade teacher can tell to what extent this is done. The sooner 
 we can make a child feel pride in clean hands and nice looking 
 nails, the sooner we have accomplished something worth while in 
 fighting disease germs. Especially with small children, is it diffi- 
 cult to explain much about disease germs, but we should begin as 
 soon as we can and make children realize what clean hands mean. 
 
 It is said that millions of germs are in the dirt under the finger 
 nails. Think of the danger when those fingers are put into the 
 mouth. In this connection comes a very bad habit some people 
 have of biting the finger nails. This is a bad habit first of all 
 because of the appearance of it and then it ruins the finger nails 
 and last of all because when we do it, we are just eating germs. 
 
 Clean hands and health are closely allied and one depends much 
 upon the other. The teacher herself should set a good example 
 and have clean hands and well kept nails. 
 
 Protection of Food from House Flies——There are some 
 things we take for granted. In times past the fly was one of those 
 plagues that was taken for granted. A few years ago germs were 
 not known, but since we have learned about them, we find that 
 
80 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 the house fly is a great carrier of germs, and knowing this, we | 
 
 have set about to destroy the fly. As one of our health bulletin 
 says: “Remember, no filth, no flies.’ This is true in that flies 
 
 like filthy places, and carry their germs from those places to our 
 
 homes. 
 
 Cooking and Disease Germs.—For the most part we cook our 
 foods but many fruits and some vegetables are eaten raw. These 
 raw foods are good for us but are more dangerous than cooked 
 foods for they contain more bacteria. However, if they are care- 
 fully washed, they are comparatively safe. 
 
 Cooking foods kills the bacteria and makes them safer for 
 us to eat. Meats especially should be cooked as they often con- 
 tain parasites that are harmful to us. 
 
 Human Carriers of Disease-—This subject has bee discussed 
 in the first part of this topic “How Germs are Scattered.” 
 
 Typical Diseases. 
 
 As suggested in the course of study, the following diseases 
 will be discussed: Tuberculosis, Typhoid, Diphtheria, Smallpox, 
 Colds, and Infections of Open Sores and Cuts. 
 
 The important points to be covered in the treatment of these 
 diseases are: 
 
 The nature of the disease 
 
 The effect upon the body 
 
 The way in which the germs enter the body 
 
 Their location in the body 
 
 How they leave the patient 
 
 How they are carried 
 
 Precautions to be observed about the sick room. 
 
 In some cases the prevention and curative treatments for the 
 disease. 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
 Tuberculosis sometimes called the Great White Plague, is a 
 much dreaded disease and until recent years a rather hopeless one 
 
 a 
 
IN REGARD TO THESE PHYSIOLOGIES 
 
 I am truly very, very sorry to have kept you waiting so long; for these 
 books but the Course of Study was not ready until August 1, and after that 
 date, I had sixteen different books to write. Much of the material was 
 very hard to find and it took me several weeks to condense and arrange it. 
 
 Then when it went to the printers, I was delayed again. 
 
 I am sure it will never happen in the future with any order you. may 
 
 send me and I hope the books will be of much value to you. 
 
 MAMIE C. TEX, 
 Taylorville, Ill. 
 
SECOND QUARTER 81 
 
 as more deaths resulted from it than from any other disease. We 
 used to think that if a mother had this disease, there was no 
 chance for her recovery and more than that, in all probability 
 some of her children would inherit it from her. It is just in 
 recent years that this idea has changed... We now know tubercu- 
 losis to be a germ disease and not one that can be inherited. We 
 probably got this wrong idea from the fact that when a mother 
 has this disease, there is the chance that her child might get it 
 because he inherits the tendency to give in physically to tuberculo- 
 sis germs. 
 
 This discovery of the germ cause of tuberculosis has, done 
 much towards making it less dreaded but it is still a disease, the 
 name of which, ‘causes one to shudder. There is much more 
 chance of recovery, however, than ever before. 
 
 Except under very special conditions, the tuberculosis germ 
 grows only in the animal body, which greatly lessens the danger 
 of the spread of the disease. However the germ will live for 
 _ months or even years outside the body and then be ready to grow 
 when it enters the animal body. It lives best in damp dirty places 
 or in decaying material. 
 
 One can often tell by a persons looks, the nature of his dis- 
 ease and this is especially true of tuberculosis. The person has a 
 thin shriveled appearance and usually a hacking cough. There is 
 a loss of appetite, the patient begins to get thin and weak and 
 there is a slight fever and often times spitting of blood. 
 
 While these germs may grow in any part of the body, the 
 more favored place seems to be the lungs. Tuberculosis of the 
 lungs is called consumption. The germs seem to have a way of 
 growing in the tssues of the body and spread destruction as they 
 go. | 
 Sometimes the disease comes from the milk of diseased cat- 
 tle, though that is one thing that is being watched carefully these 
 days. More frequently the disease comes from the sputum of a 
 consumptive. When the patient coughs or sneezes, many germs 
 come forth and these germs, if they are allowed to become dry, 
 will live for some time. If a patient is careful there is almost no 
 danger to those around him. Every precaution should be taken 
 
82 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 that the germs that are given forth shall not dry and with this 
 care there will be little chance for a spread of the disease. Paper 
 napkins are best to use and they should be burned at once. 
 
 If one fears this disease, his best chance is to build up his 
 general health so he has strength to combat the disease. Good 
 food, fresh air and cleanliness are essential to good health. It is 
 a rare thing for one to get the disease out of doors. If one has 
 the disease, rest, good food and lots of fresh air are the essentials 
 and are the important factors.rather than medicine. 
 
 There are sanitariums where one may go to get the proper 
 care or one may live at home if every precaution is taken not to 
 spread the disease. Sunlight kills the germs more than anything 
 else and the patient should endeavor to live out of doors. 
 
 Surroundings have a great influence on tuberculosis patients 
 or on those who have a tendency to give in to these germs. Our 
 large buildings should be well ventilated and our houses should 
 be light, open and cheerful. Damp cellars should be avoided. 
 In the home, care should be taken to avoid stirring up the dust in 
 cleaning. The vacuum cleaner is valuable in that it takes up the 
 dirt rather than stirs it up to settle in some other part of the room. 
 
 Tuberculosis is a disease in which one can cure himself. If 
 he lives out of doors where he can get an abundance of fresh air 
 and sunlight and has the proper food, he may cure himself with- 
 out the use of medicine. While tuberculosis is a contageous dis- 
 ease patients are not quarantined but they should have the inter-_ 
 ests of others sufficiently at heart, that they would be careful not 
 to spread the disease. The greatest of care should be taken that 
 nothing that the patient uses is used by others and that all dis- 
 charges from the nose and mouth are destroyed. ” 
 
 Typhoid Fever. 
 
 Typhoid fever is another dreaded disease and doubtiess 
 comes next to tuberculosis in seriousness. It has been found that 
 probably one out of every ten cases is fatal and those who do get 
 over it are left with some weakness as a result of it. 
 
 The bacteria that cause typhoid are taken in our food or 
 water. These bacteria increase greatly in the small intestines 
 
SECOND QUARTER ° 83 
 
 and form a poison that goes through the whole body. Unless 
 something is done to reduce the number of bacteria which grow 
 so rapidly, the body is injured and death results. 
 
 The body sets up resistance to these germs as soon as they 
 begin work and sometimes proves stronger than the germs, but 
 this can not always be done. In recent years a specially prepared 
 vaccine is injected into the veins. Almost immediately the white 
 corpuscles multiply, even become six to eight times as numerous 
 as before and the long run of fever that used to be a part of 
 typhoid is avoided. 
 
 Typhoid germs are carried by the wastes of the body. Any 
 carelessness in the disposal of these wastes will doubtless mean 
 sickness to others. There is danger if wastes from the intestines 
 and kidneys are thrown out that they may seep into the ground 
 and contaminate the drinking water or from the soil may get on 
 the garden vegetables or that if they are left on the ground 
 flies will find them and carry those disease germs to our food 
 and give us the disease. 
 
 There is little danger of contagion in typhoid if precautions 
 are taken in the sick room and wastes of the patient carefully 
 destroyed. 
 
 Diphtheria. 
 
 Diphtheria is a contageous: disease and a very serious one. 
 sometimes grown people have it but it is much more frequent 
 among children. 
 
 The disease attacks mucous surfaces and covers them with 
 a membrane which is tough and leathery. While the disease 
 affects the throat especially, yet it weakens the whole body. Often 
 times the child goes to bed complaining of a little cold or hoarse- 
 ness and before morning the disease will have fully developed. 
 There seems to be times of quiet and then spasms when the child 
 seems hardly able to get his breath. Often the growth of mem- 
 brane in the windpipe seems to almost stop the breathing. 
 
 Diphtheria many times is fatal and even if the child is able to 
 resist, there are often results such as paralysis of some part of 
 the body, or the throat or other parts of the body are left in a 
 weakened condition. 
 
 + 
 
84 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 The disease is carried by the spreading of the germs the per- 
 son gives off. Forunately these germs do not go great distances 
 so the danger is in handling anything that has in any way come 
 in contact with the patient. 
 
 If there is any chance that a child has diphtheria, a physician 
 should be summoned at once. All we can do is to try to keep up 
 the strength of the patient until help comes. 
 
 When the diphtheria germs enter our bodies, they give off 
 toxins or poisons. Fortunately we have with us strength to 
 battle with these disease germs and science is helping us in this 
 work. The first thing is to quarantine the patient so others may 
 not take the disease and then the antitoxin should be employed 
 at the very beginning of the disease. 
 
 Diphtheria is reduced some what by sanitary living. This 
 with quarantine and antitoxin, gives us a much better chance for 
 battling with the disease. 
 
 Small Pox. 
 
 Another of our contageous diseases caused by germs, is 
 small pox. The disease used to be looked upon with horror for 
 it is very contageous. It often left the person disfigured for life. 
 There have been rather serious epidemics recently but no com- 
 parison with the epidemic in times past. 
 
 The discovery of vaccination has done much to get this dis- 
 ease under control. The danger now comes from the disinclina- 
 tion of people to be vaccinated. Fortunately in many schools to- 
 day it is required so that the children are safe'from the disease. 
 
 The germs of small pox are hard to destroy; they live a long 
 time. Infected clothing may carry the small pox germ but it is 
 usually transferred from one person to another through the air. 
 
 A strict quarantine is necessary in small pox and every thing 
 about the patient should be disinfected. 
 
 Colds. 
 
 Probably more of us suffer from colds than from any other 
 one disease. The word “cold” is hardly the proper name for the 
 
SECOND QUARTER 85 
 
 disease as cold air does not produce it, but we all know it by 
 that name and will probably go on using the term. 
 
 It seems almost useless to explain the nature of the disease, 
 for when we begin to sneeze and cough and have pains all over « 
 our bodies, we usually know our trouble. 
 
 Colds are serious because they are contageous, they maks us 
 less able to do our work and they fequently are the beginning of 
 other diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia and diphtheria. 
 
 In some diseases a germicidal substance is formed by our 
 bodies to resist the disease. In the case of measles, scarlet fever 
 etc., some of the bacteria remains in the body so we will not take 
 the disease again, but this germicidal substance formed in colds 
 remains such a short time that ina few hours after a cold leaves 
 us, we may take another one. 
 
 Sometimes medicine is taken for a cold with good results 
 but there are other ways of avoiding them or curing them when 
 they come. Vigorous exercise taken out of doors will often stop 
 a cold if it is just beginning and deep breathing is always helpful. 
 
 Those who protect themselves too much by heavy clothing 
 catch cold more easily than those who do not dress so heavily and 
 who get used to exposure. If we have colds we should avoid 
 drafts, eat light food, and often times a few days spent in bed 
 would be a wonderful help. 
 
 We frequently hear some one say he is not ill—just has a 
 cold but colds are serious and should be taken care of. 
 
 Infection of Open Sores and Cuts. 
 
 Open sores and cuts would hardly come under any disease 
 but they are important in the study of disease germs. Even in a 
 slight scratch there is a danger of infection. In deep cuts or 
 sores there is greater danger of infection for there is the possi- 
 bility that some foreign substance may be in the cut. In this 
 case blood poisoning may result. If the wound is infected it 
 soon gets red, swells and begins to hurt, and if blood poisoning 
 sets in, the person may be seriously ill. 
 
86 SECOND QUARTER 
 
 The reason for infection is that germs get into the wound. 
 Germs may come from anything that touches it so there is need 
 for care that absolutely nothing touches the wound. The white 
 corpuscles can fight off some of these germs but if there are too 
 many, infection results. 
 
 Sometimes a cut bleeds and if there is not too much loss of 
 ‘ blood, this is a good thing, for the blood washes impurities from 
 the sore. 
 
 A cut or sore should be carefully bandaged after it has been 
 washed, and care taken to keep it perfectly clean that there may 
 be no danger of infection. 
 
THIRD QUARTER 87 
 
 THIRD QUARTER. 
 
 SANITATION. 
 Sanitation vs. Hygiene. 
 
 Sanitation has to do with the public health and hygiene with 
 individual health. While these two terms have different mean- 
 ings, they are closely allied. Individual héalth influences public 
 health and public health on the other hand influences individual 
 health. 
 
 We live in wonderfully constructed houses which we call 
 our bodies. The study of hygiene should show us that we need 
 to take care of these bodies and keep them in good repair just as 
 we do our houses of brick and stone and mortar. We can do 
 this if we keep disease away from our madics: so that they may 
 be kept strong. 
 
 We ought to strive to have good health as our usefulness in 
 the world depends upon the mental and physical energy we have. 
 
 Sanitation is the study of conditions that have to do with the 
 health of the community. Sanitation treats of the maintenance 
 of health as well as the prevention of disease. If there are no 
 laws governing health, the chances of our own individual health 
 are not very good. Thus we see that sanitation and hygiene 
 depend upon each other, and that each is an important factor in 
 bringing about the good health of a community. 
 
 Why Public Health Measures are Necessary. 
 
 Public health measures are necessary for the protection of 
 the people. If we lived in an ideal land where every one was 
 careful, unselfish, and thoughtful for others, public health meas- 
 ures would not be necessary, but often people with diseases do 
 not protect others from it so it is necessary that we have a board 
 of health for this purpose. 
 
88 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 The United States has taken this matter in hand and has 
 extended its authority three miles out into the sea in every di- 
 rection. Before this was done, ships could come from other 
 countries and bring all kinds of contagious diseases, among which 
 were the dreaded smallpox and yellow fever. We knew that 
 epidemics of these diseases were in the countries but it would 
 ruin our trade if we let that fact keep ships from those countries 
 from entering our ports. As a solution to the problem, health 
 officers were appointed to inspect these ships. We can not go 
 into detail as to how this is done but all are familiar with Ellis 
 Island, in New York Harbor, where people with diseases are 
 kept and either cured or sent back to their own countries. 
 
 A disease of Oriental countries which is much to be feared 
 is the bubonic plague. Rats spread this disease. A rat is not 
 particular about his food. He will eat almost anything and on 
 the ships eats up the bad food that contains germs. The public 
 health department is doing everything to exterminate rats such as 
 hunting them out from ware houses and piers, and stringing steel 
 plates on cables so that the rats can not run along the cables to 
 shore when the ships enter our ports. 
 
 Science has done much to overcome plagues or epidemics 
 which years ago killed many. Diseases are not destroyed but 
 only checked. Carelessness catises them to flourish. Here is 
 where our board of health is necessary—to prevent this careless- 
 ness. Vaccination has done much to stop smallpox and hygienic 
 measures have greatly reduced the death rate of scarlet fever, 
 typhoid fever and measles. 
 
 The United States Census Bureau reports that by the intro- 
 duction of pure water supplies, the annual death rate from ty- 
 phoid fever in cities, has been greatly reduced. Public health 
 measures are steadily increasing the average length of life. 
 
 How the Increase in Population Has Complicated the Health 
 Problem. 
 
 From the time when our forefathers landed in this country, 
 the people have ‘had health problems to solve. As time goes on 
 science does much to solve these problems but the great increase 
 in population makes them more and more complicated. 
 
 BY 
 
THIRD QUARTER 89 
 
 When people live some distance from each other they have 
 rights and privileges which they do not have when they live close 
 together. 
 
 Man should have pure air, good nourishing food, a good 
 home, a clean body and attractive surroundings. In the country 
 this is not a difficult problem but in the city the increase in popu- 
 lation makes it a serious problem. 
 
 Our cities, however are every where organizing to provide 
 the essentials of sanitation. There are street cleaners who keep > 
 the streets as clean as possible. Parks are provided where the 
 people can get fresh air. Food inspectors are appointed to see 
 that only pure food is sold under sanitary conditions. 
 
 To keep food and air and water free of disease germs can 
 not help being a problem where people live so close together but 
 with a good health department to watch the needs of the people, 
 disease is kept down. 
 
 Why it is Necessary for All of the People to Observe Public 
 Health Measures. 
 
 Public health measures are not of very great value unless all 
 of the people observe them. We may do our part but if our 
 neighbor does not do his we are in danger. 
 
 Let us suppose, to illustrate this point, that ten families in 
 our small town have measles. All of them are quarantined. A 
 boy in one family is not very sick with them so he goes to the 
 movies in the evening. He will do more harm in one evening 
 than the other nine families respecting the board of health rulings 
 will do in their whole period of quarantine. . 
 
 Suppose again that a member of the family living next door 
 to you has typhoid fever. We know that typhoid germs are 
 carried by the wastes of the body. If this family is careless and 
 throws the wastes in the back yard near the well where you get 
 your drinking water, the water may become polluted and the dis- 
 ease carried to your whole family. 
 
 Illustrations could be drawn from any of the contageous 
 diseases. The danger comes not from the nine families who obey 
 
90 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 the regulations of the board of health but from the one careless, 
 
 selfish family who considers only its own wishes. | 
 These illustrations show that public health measures are 
 
 necessary and that it is essential that all the people observe them. 
 
 Carelessness of a Few May Endanger All of the People. 
 
 We are to discuss the reason why carelessness and neglect on 
 the part of a few may endanger all of the people through the 
 water supply, food supply, by careless disposal of sewage, by 
 breaking quarantine regulations, by refusing to obey muzzling 
 ordinances, through disposal of animal refuse which breeds house 
 flies and the like. | 
 
 Many people are careless, some selfish, and other not well 
 informed. Unfortunately we must live in communities where 
 there are all of these classes of people. 
 
 We will discuss briefly the ways in which carelessness and 
 neglect on the part of a few endanger all the people. 
 
 Through water supply—W ater is so important to the health 
 of people that there should be a good supply of pure water. Sup- 
 pose a town gets its supply of water from a near by lake. A 
 careless man wishing to dispose of some rubbish could throw a 
 load of it into this lake and as a result the water would be unfit 
 for use. 
 
 Through food supply—A merchant may be careless about 
 the care of his groceries. When he displays cookies, candy, un- 
 wrapped bread or anything that cannot be washed before it is 
 used, he is selling disease germs with the goods. When the 
 butcher sells meats that have not been inspected and that are not 
 strictly fresh, he is endangering lives by so doing. 
 
 By careless disposal of sewage.—A housewife may have the 
 habit of throwing her garbage in a vacant lot behind her house. 
 The flies will find this a regular banquet table and from this de- 
 caying matter, carry germs in every direction. 
 
 By breaking quarantine regulations.—The board of health 
 quarantines to isolate the patient and keep him from spreading 
 disease to others. If he breaks quarantine, he is breaking the laws 
 and injurying others. ' 
 
THIRD QUARTER a1 
 
 By refusing to obey muzzling ordinances.—In cities and 
 larger towns dogs must be kept muzzled as a protection to people 
 passing on the street. Naturally each one feels that his own dog 
 is harmless but it is always the unmuzzled dog that bites. 
 
 Through disposal of animal refuse which breeds house flies. 
 —Animal refuse is one of the best places for breeding flies. If 
 the animal refuse is not cared for but is allowed to accumulate in 
 the barn yard, from it will come numerous house flies and these 
 flies carrying dangerous germs may enter your house and carry 
 these disease germs to your food. 
 
 When we can teach people to be careful of these seemingly 
 little things and show them that the few who are careless en- 
 danger all of the people, we may hope for improved conditions in 
 the health of our people. 
 
 These Points Suggest Excellent Subjects for Compositions. 
 
 The points in the topics just discussed would make excellent 
 subjects for compositions. If the pupils study into these health 
 problems they will become so interested that they will be careful 
 themselves and try to help other to be careful. 
 
 Value of Personal Qualities, 
 
 The course of study urges that we bring out strongly the 
 value of personal qualities such as reliability, self control, honesty, 
 thoughtfulness for the welfare of others, and helpfulness. to 
 others in times of epidemics. 
 
 If people were willing to do the right thing in times of an 
 epidemic, the danger of spreading the disease would be much 
 less. 
 
 To illustrate the value of these personal qualities in epidemics, 
 let us suppose two families A and B, have the diphtheria and have 
 been quarantined by the board of health. The first family A, . 
 has respect for its quarantine. It realizes the danger of spread- 
 ing the disease and does not try to deceive the public about it. It 
 is careful that nothing goes from the house that would in any way 
 cause others to have the disease. It sees to it that when things 
 
92 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 are brought to the house, the person who leaves them is not ex- 
 posed in any way. It does not leave the house until the patient 
 is well of the disease and all evidences of the disease are state 
 and everything properly fumigated. 
 
 In the next house is a family B, who pretend that the disease 
 doesn’t amount to anything. It, though quarantined, sneaks out 
 whenever possible and scatters germs broadcast. This B family 
 goes among people before it should and is careless about fumi- 
 gating. 
 
 This family B is one of the great hinderances to the welfare 
 of any community and should be made to feel by the people of 
 the community that it is a menace and an undesirable part of its 
 
 life. 
 
 Cases for Discussion. 
 
 The course of study suggests that the pupils observe and list 
 cases for discussion in class where the public health is, or has 
 been, endangered by one or a few who fail to observe regulations 
 relative to quarantine and the like. 
 
 Work of this kind would doubtless prove interesting to the 
 pupils. It would be something out of the ordinary and might 
 prove to be a very helpful proceeding. In every community there 
 are cases that would make helpful material for investigation and 
 study. There are families where typhoid fever occurs regularly. 
 There is usually a reason for this which upon investigation, the 
 pupils might surmise. This would prove interesting and in- 
 structive to the pupils and might, if worked out with officials aid, 
 prove helpful to the family itself. 
 
 There may be cases where contagious diseases such as 
 measles or whooping cough are found in families and those fami- 
 lies are either not quarantined or are ignoring the quarantine sign. 
 The more our pupils investigate these cases, the more interested 
 they will become and the more careful they will be when they are 
 quarantined for disease. 
 
 Education is one of the greatest factors in this whole question. 
 Professor Pasteur, to whom we gave much credit in the study of 
 bacteria, says that it is within the power of man to rid himself of 
 
THIRD QUARTER 93 
 
 every bacterial disease. If this is true we can do a great deal by 
 teaching our pupils to observe conditions and do all they can to 
 better these conditions and learn to take care of their own 
 bodies. 
 
 Everyone Should Be Compelled to Obey Health Regulations. 
 
 There are various reasons why the public, represented by the 
 board of health, has a right to compel every one to obey health 
 regulations. 
 
 Laws have to be made to make people do right and a police 
 force must be organized to make them obey the laws. Unfor- 
 tunately people will not do right for rights sake but must be forced 
 to doit. The public, which is represented by the board of health, 
 has a right to compel every one to obey health regulations the 
 same as they obey other laws. 
 
 The board of health has done much to protect people from 
 disease. It makes regulations for the purifying of our water 
 supply and the careful handling of our food. It makes regula- 
 tions for the disposal of sewage, perhaps the greater factor in les- 
 - sening the spread of disease germs. When people are sick with 
 contageous diseases the board of health can quarantine them, in- 
 sisting that they stay at home until the disease is over and the 
 house is fumigated and made safe for others. 
 
 The board of health does a valuable work and people should 
 be compelled to obey its health regulations. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY. 
 Review. 
 
 A special review of the work done in the earlier grades, 
 relative to clean water, will not be given as the discussion of 
 water supply that follows covers practically all of the work of 
 the earlier grades. 
 
 Local Conditions. 
 
 It is very valuable, with the pupils of this grade, to make a 
 careful study of the locality of the water supply. The pupils 
 
94 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 should know where their drinking water comes from and the 
 sanitary conditions of the surroundings of the water supply. 
 
 Maps showing the slope of the land, and the possible sources 
 of pollution are helpful. The pupils could draw the maps repre- 
 senting the location and surroundings of the water supply to show 
 whether there is any liklihood of water pollution. 
 
 If there are water works or water purifying stations near, 
 these may be studied to advantage. 
 
 All of the above work depends wholly upon the locality epg 
 must be worked out by each individual school. 
 
 The Purification of Water. 
 
 Water is one of the essentials of life and is even more neces- 
 sary than food. Water is used in great quantities and for many 
 purposes. It is used for drinking purposes, for cooking, for 
 cleaning of all kinds, for fire protection and in manufacturing 
 plants. For drinking purposes and for cooking, it is necessary 
 that the water be pure or at least free from disease germs. There 
 are three ways of purifying water, by filters, by chemicals and by 
 boiling. These three ways will be discussed separately. 
 
 By filters—Cities usually have to get their water from rivers 
 or lakes. Often times sewage has been emptied into these sources 
 and the water is polluted-and not safe to drink but must be puri- 
 fied in some way. One of the best ways is to run the water into 
 a large reservoir where it is allowed to stand until most of the 
 dirt settles to the bottom, and then it is put through a filter. Sand 
 is usually used as a filter for sand seems to take out the dirt and 
 the germs better than anything else. Often there are several of 
 these filteration beds. The first will be of coarse gravel and each 
 bed will be finer so when the water comes through the fine sand 
 it is clear and reasonably pure. Filteration removes the solid 
 particles to which bacteria cling. Then the soil bacteria helps in 
 this filtering process by seizing these disease germs and in some 
 way changing them into harmless substances. 
 
 By Chemicals——Sometimes alum is put into water before it 
 enters the sand filters. Alum assists or rather quickens the pro- 
 cess of purifying. Chloride of lime is used to destroy bacteria 
 
THIRD QUARTER 95 
 
 directly. It purifies the water but if too much is used it gives to 
 it a taste that is not pleasant. Chemicals are sometimes used to 
 soften water used for washing but purifying water by chemicals 
 is not as satisfactory as by filteration. 
 
 By botiling.—Boiling is a method of purifying water that any 
 -one can use. The water should be boiled about twenty minutes, 
 then put into clean bottles and covered. In rural districts this 1s 
 about the only way of purifying water. Boiling gives a rather 
 flat taste to the water but makes it pure and safe to drink, and is 
 a very useful method in times of epidemics caused by impure 
 water. 
 
 Ea 
 
 Danger of surface Drainage Into Dug Wells and Pollution of 
 ‘Streams From Sewage. 
 
 For the most part our water supply comes from wells or 
 streams of water. Some cities are so fortunately located that 
 they can get their water supply from mountain streams but cities 
 so situated are few compared to those which must depend upon 
 wells and streams for their water. 
 
 The danger of surface drainage into dug wells can be readily 
 seen. Deep wells get their supply from veins of water running 
 far below the surface of the earth. While these may not always 
 be pure, as a rule they go through a filtering process provided by 
 nature and if the entrance to the well is protected so dirt and 
 refuse can not get into it, the water from the deep well is reason- 
 ably pure. Dug wells are not very deep and must depend for 
 their supply either upon water from the surface or water that has 
 seeped into the earth not far from the surface. We can plainly 
 see the likelihood of impurities being washed into the well from 
 the surroundings. Even if the entrance to the well is walled in, 
 as it should be, the water that seeps into the ground does not go 
 through enought of a filtering process and impurities are easily 
 taken into the well. 
 
 Where the supply of water is taken from a river, the water is 
 bound to be impure. Protect the river as authorities may, there 
 is always some one who will be careless about throwing refuse and 
 sewage into the stream. To be safe for drinking purposes, water 
 must be purified if it comes from a body of water. 
 
96 } THIRD QUARTER 
 
 Heavy Rains Affect Wells Fed Upon Surface Drainage; How 
 Water May Reach a Well Although the Level of the Soil 
 Slopes Away From the Curb. 
 
 The falling of heavy rains has a great effect upon wells that 
 are fed to some degree by surface drainage. . This is almost too 
 self evident to need discussion. A heavy rain washes away what- 
 ever is loose on the ground and often carries it some distance. 
 If a well is fed by surface drainage, when a heavy rain comes, 
 pollution of all kinds is washed into it and the water is made unfit 
 for use. : 
 
 Wells are not fed entirely by surface water in shallow wells — 
 so even if the mouth of the well seems to be higher than the soil 
 around it, the impurities go into the ground and are washed into 
 the veins which feed the well and make the water impure. 
 
 Water must go down some distance into the ground before a 
 natural filtering process takes place. Often water, seeping into 
 dug wells from the surface does not pass through sufficient earth 
 and sand to purify it. 
 
 Contamination of Water by Common Drinking Cups, UnClean- 
 liness and Human Carriers. 
 
 Absolutely pure water is not found very frequently but we do 
 make it free from disease germs and safe for people to use. 
 Water may come from a faucet in a high degree of purity and be 
 polluted after it is drawn from the faucet.. This may be done by 
 the common drinking cups, by uncleanliness, and by human 
 carriers. , 
 
 The common drinking cup has been supplanted in most 
 places by drinking fountains and the individual drinking cup. 
 Not so many years ago, we had one pail of water and one drink- 
 ing cup for an entire room of children, in school. We have heard 
 so much about the dangers of the common drinking cup, that we 
 do not consider using it any more. When all used the same cup, 
 one diseased child could expose a whole room full of children 
 when he drank from the cup. 
 
THIRD QUARTER 97 
 
 Pure water may be made dangerous by uncleanliness. If the 
 water is put into dishes that are not clean or left in unsanitary 
 surroundings, it soon becomes polluted. 
 
 Human carriers of disease can contaminate good drinking 
 water by using cups and leaving them for others to use. So 
 many people, who are not well and whose bodies give off disease 
 germs constantly, are not careful when around other people and 
 so cause sickness among others. 
 
 ‘Ice Supply; Survey of the Ice Pond; Artificial Ice and Its 
 Character Relative to Purity. 
 
 Ice made from impure water is just as dangerous as the 
 water itself. Freezing does not kill disease germs. Freezing 
 simply makes the germs inactive and when they get back to a 
 favorable location and temperature, they come to life. 
 
 If ice is to used in the drinking water, we should be sure it 
 is made from pure water or dangerous results may follow. 
 
 If ice is taken from a pond near by, have the pupils make a 
 survey of the immediate locality for sources of pollution. “This 
 is practical work for the pupils depending wholly upon local con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Artificial ice is ice frozen by an artificial process rather than 
 ice taken from'a pond. Inasmuch as the freezing process does 
 not kill bacteria, artificial ice is as pure as the water from which 
 it is frozen. 
 
 Compositions. 
 
 Composition subjects ere suggested. These will each be dis- 
 cussed briefly and the pupils should be able to write longer com- 
 positions from them. 
 
 Need of cleanliness about our water supply—There is need 
 of cleanliness about our water supply whether it comes from a 
 well or from some stream. The top of the well should be 
 cemented and carefully covered that no impure water can get into 
 it and that no refuse can fall in to pollute the water. Water 
 
98 THIRD QUARTER ° 
 
 coming from a stream should be filtered and care should be used 
 that every thing about the filtering and carrying the supply to the 
 house should be kept in perfect condition. So much water is 
 used by every one that it is necessary that it be kept clean. | 
 
 The location of the well—When planning for a well, care 
 should be taken in choosing a location. We must be sure that 
 water from cess pools or barn yards can not find its way into the 
 well. If we want good pure well water, we must be careful of 
 the location of its source. 
 
 Disposal of sewage and our water supply.—Disposal of sew- 
 age is a problem in itself because so much harm can come from 
 sewage if it is not properly disposed of. Care must be taken in 
 the disposal of sewage that is is not thrown into a stream that 
 furnishes water for people and that it will not drain off into some 
 well that is used for drinking water. Sewage and water must be 
 kept far apart. , 
 
 Our water supply and typhoid fever.—The germs of typhoid 
 fever are some times carried in our drinking water. As the germs 
 come from the wastes of the body, these wastes should never be 
 thrown where they can be washed into water used for drinking. 
 Carelessness in disposal of these wastes have resulted in hundreds 
 of cases of typhoid fever. 
 
 MILK SUPPLY. 
 
 A review of the contamination of milk through different 
 sources will not be given as these points are included in the dis- 
 cussion which follows. 
 
 The Danger of Human Carriers who Sometimes Handle Milk. 
 
 Milk may be taken from healthy cows and be pure and sweet 
 but be contaminated, before it reaches us, by those who handle it. 
 Picture two milkers: One farmer comes in from his work in the 
 field. It has been a hot afternoon. He is in a hurry to do the 
 milking before supper as the family is going to the movies in the 
 evening. His clothes are covered with dust from the grain he 
 has been hauling. He has put his team in the barn and his hands 
 have on them the dirt that has come from the field and from the 
 
THIRD QUARTER 99 
 
 oy 
 
 care of the horses. He lights his pipe, snatches a pail that has 
 been standing on a bench near the house since morning, does not 
 take any time to clean the cows and begins his milking. The 
 other milker drives the cows into a stable, with a cement floor, 
 that has been thoroughly cleaned, he takes a damp cloth and wipes 
 off the cows so that no dirt from them gets into the milk. He 
 puts on a clean suit of overalls takes a pail that has just been 
 sterilized, and washing his hands, goes to his milking. These 
 pictures may seem like the two extremes but they are not impos- 
 sible or improbable. 
 
 The man who milks the cows can be careful about getting 
 
 dirt in the milk. The dairyman who bottles the milk should be 
 careful of his work and the man who delivers it should do his part 
 in seeing that every thing possible is done to keep the milk in 
 good condition. 
 ' A man with a contagious disease may easily spread disease 
 germs by handling milk. Bottles carelessly washed may carry 
 disease germs. Human carriers may make milk unfit and may be 
 just as much of a menace as unhealthy cows. 
 
 Sanitary Inspection of Dairies; Inspection of Cattle for Tuber- 
 culosis; Danger from Tuberculosis from Cattle. 
 
 In the country, people have their own cows and the people 
 are directly responsible for the condition of their milk. It is their 
 duty to see to it that the cows are healthy, that the milk pails are 
 sterilized, the men who do the milking are clean and free from 
 disease, and that the milk is properly cared for. 
 
 In small towns when people get milk from some neighbor 
 who keeps a cow for his own use or from a near by farmer, the 
 people should see to it personally that the milk they buy is good 
 pure milk brought from sanitary places. 
 
 In the cities the problem is greater. The milk supply comes 
 from farmers in every direction. It is brought to the city where 
 it is cared for in dairies and from there sent out to the homes. 
 It would be impossible for each family to see to it that the milk 
 . was pure. Health officers are appointed by the city to do this 
 for us. They are to visit the dairies where our milk is bottled 
 ready for use, to make sure that the milk is properly handled and 
 
100 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 e 
 
 kept in clean places. These health officers must go even further 
 and see to it that this milk comes from healthy cows. Tests are 
 made regularly to see that the milk is up to standard in purity 
 and richness. 
 
 Tuberculosis among cattle is not the same as among people 
 but is a similar disease. Milk from cows with tuberculosis should 
 never be used. Often times a cow with this disease is killed at 
 once for will spread rapidly among a drove of cattle. 
 
 We now have what we call the tuberculin test for cattle and 
 by means of this test, it is easy to determine whether a cow has 
 tuberculosis. Some of the poison of the tuberculosis germ is 
 injected into the cow. If the cow develops a fever in a short 
 time, it shows that she has tuberculosis. All cows should be 
 tested regularly for the disease. 
 
 If cows have tuberculosis they give infected milk which 1s 
 dangerous to all who drink it. 
 
 Cows, like people, need proper care and good surroundings 
 to be healthy. Stables should be kept clean and there should be 
 good food and plenty of fresh air provided. 
 
 Tuberculosis germs in the milk are especially dangerous for 
 children. From them they contract a disease very similar to 
 that of the cows. However, a milker with tuberculosis may do 
 more harm in spreading the disease than the cows with the dis- 
 ease. 
 
 Laws are made requiring that cows be tested regularly for 
 tuberculosis so if proper care is exercised, the danger from 
 cattle should not be very great. 
 
 The Keeping Qualities of Clean as Compared with Dirty Milk. 
 
 The keeping qualities of clean milk are much greater than 
 that of dirty milk. The composition of milk is such that dirt may 
 be contained in it but not be visible to the naked eye. A differ- 
 ence is noticed, however, in the keeping qualities. 
 
 Milk ordinarily sours quickly. Dirty milk is full of bacteria 
 and because of that sours much more quickly than sweet milk. 
 
 Clean milk, 1f properly cared for will keep sweet a long time. 
 It is said that we can produce milk so clean that it may be sent 
 across the ocean and back and still be sweet. 
 
THIRD QUARTER 101 
 
 Clean milk is preferable to dirty milk both because it keeps 
 longer and because it is much more healthful. 
 
 Ice and the Keeping of Milk. 
 
 It is so important that milk be kept cold that in the cities 
 where there are people who can not afford to buy ice, it is pro- 
 vided for them by different city institutions. Children must have 
 milk and milk to be sweet and pure must be kept cold. Providing 
 ice for the poor with small children, saves much in keeping dis- 
 ease from them. 
 
 Milk requires greater care than almost any other food. As 
 soon as it is left at the door, it should be put into the refrigerator 
 as close to the ice as possible, and it should always be kept cov- 
 ered. Food with strong odors such as onions and cabbage should 
 be kept far from milk for it is easily tainted by these foods. 
 
 In warm weather milk sours quickly. This sour milk is 
 dangerous for babies who take no food except milk. 
 
 Microbes are always present in milk. When milk is warm, 
 these microbes multiply until they are countless numbers. As 
 these microbes increase, they change the sugar in milk to an acid 
 which gives the milk a sour taste. 7 
 
 These microbes that sour the milk are not harmful.and sour 
 milk is not a bad food for older people, but when there are dis- 
 ease germs in the milk and the milk is allowed to get warm, the 
 germs multiply rapidly and the disease germs are harmful to 
 people. 
 
 Milk should be kept cold for when it is cold the bacteria in it 
 can not grow and the milk can be kept pure and sweet much 
 longer. 
 
 A Trip of Inspection. 
 
 A trip of inspection to some high class dairy is suggested as 
 being valuable to the pupils studying milk supply. It might be 
 valuable too, to have the pupils observe practices that are un- 
 sanitary relative to milking and the care of milk and discuss them 
 in class, 
 
102 - THIRD QUARTER 
 Compositions. (@ 
 
 Composition subjects are suggested. Each will be discussed 
 briefly : 
 
 Danger from unclean milk.—Milk is one of the greatest dis- 
 tributors of disease germs of all the foods. Milk is the most 
 difficult of all foods to care for. There are so many chances for 
 dirt to get into the milk. Dirt may come from the cow or from 
 the milker when the cow is being milked; it may come from 
 bottles that have not been washed clean; it may come from care- 
 lessness in delivering milk, and it may come from neglect in caring 
 for it after it reaches the home. 
 
 Diseases such as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diphtheria, or 
 scarlet fever are so easily carried in the milk that great care 
 should be taken to see to it that at all times milk is kept clean. 
 
 Cleanliness and the Milk Business —Cleanliness and the milk 
 business should go hand in hand. Cleanliness is so essential to 
 the milk business that the board of health should be sure that milk 
 is cared for under the most sanitary conditions and delivered to 
 the homes as pure sweet milk. The housewife should then do her 
 share towards keeping it clean until it is used by the family. 
 
 Under these conditions milk is a perfect food and should be 
 used freely by all. | 
 
 Healthy Cattle and our milk supply.—Miulk is our most per- 
 fect food and even with the high prices, our cheapest food. A 
 housewife should allow a pint of milk a day for each member 
 of the family and growing boys and girls should have a quart. 
 On the other hand milk requires greater care in handling than 
 any other food. Considering the quantity we use, in comparison 
 with any other food and the careful handling it requires to have 
 the milk kept in good condition, we can see how necessary it is 
 that our milk supply comes from healthy cows: 
 
 Cows require good food and surroundings the same as people 
 do. Cows that live on the prairies where all is open and fresh 
 air is abundant, are usually free from disease. Cows that are 
 kept in stables and on pastures should be given the proper food 
 and stables should be kept clean and should be light and airy. 
 Then the cows will be healthy and give good pure milk. 
 
THIRD QUARTER 103 
 
 We should see to it that our milk supply comes from such 
 cows if we-are interested in the welfare of our family. 
 
 FOOD SUPPLY. 
 
 A review will not be necessary as the work done in the earlier 
 grades is covered for the most part in this discussion. 
 
 Need of Care in Handling Food Whether at Home or in Stores; 
 Value of Trustworthiness and Honesty in Handling Food. 
 
 Food is anything that we take into our bodies as nourish- 
 ment. In order that this food may be kept in good condition for 
 our bodies, there is need of care in handling it whether at home 
 or in the store. Only persons with clean hands and clean cloth- 
 ing should be allowed to handle food and when food is put away 
 it should be kept in clean places protected from dirt and filth. 
 
 In stores the food should be kept covered and wrapped and 
 carefully handled and in the homes care should be exercised in 
 the same way. 
 
 Our bodies are protected from disease germs in that they can 
 destroy a reasonable number of germs but in one bite of bad food 
 there may be a great number of germs, even more than the body 
 can destroy, so it is necessary that we take great care that the 
 food we eat is good wholesome food. 
 
 We know that fresh fruits and vegetables have few bacteria 
 and we know that when good food is in cold storage, bacteria 
 does not grow and multiply. If we can have trustworthy-honest 
 men handling our food supplies, who will not put unfit food on the 
 market, our chances for pure food are good. 
 
 Lists of Foods That Are Most Likely to Become Contaminated 
 With Disease Germs; Foods Eaten Uncooked are 
 Generally the Most Dangerous. 
 
 All foods contain bacteria to a greater or less degree. Some- 
 times these bacteria are not harmful as the bacteria which sours 
 milk and cream and prepares it for the making of cheese and 
 butter. Fortunately if we have strong healthy bodies we can 
 
104 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 fight and overcome some of the harmful disease germs. Some 
 foods, especially when they are not in perfect condition, contain 
 many disease germs, and these we should aim to avoid. 
 
 Milk should come first as one of the foods most likely to 
 become contaminated with disease germs. The reasons for the 
 frequent contamination of milk have been discussed fully in the 
 section on “Milk Supply.” 
 
 Meat would probably come next to milk in this list and lastly 
 the fresh vegetables and fruits. 
 
 Other foods are sometimes contaminated with disease germs 
 but these mentioned are the most likely ones. 
 
 Our bodies are like gas engines or steam engines. In the 
 same way that these engines need fuel to make them do their 
 work, we need food to make our bodies proficient. An inferior 
 quality of fuel will keep the engine from doing good work and in 
 the same way poor food will keep our bodies from being fit. 
 Good food in the proper quantities is necessary to build up strong 
 healthy bodies. 
 
 Man is the only animal that cooks his food. He does it be- 
 cause he has found that foods, eaten uncooked, are often dan- 
 gerous. 
 
 We cook foods for various reasons. Cooking makes food 
 more easily digested; it makes food more appetizing, and it de- 
 troys bacteria and parasites. 
 
 Some fruits and vegetables are eaten raw. At the present 
 time there is a tendency to eat more of our vegetables, such as 
 cabbage .and carrots, without cooking. Cooking does destroy 
 some element of the food that the body requires. In eating raw 
 food, great care should be taken that the food is fresh and in good 
 condition and that it has been thoroughly washed. Raw foods ~ 
 carry microbes to the alimentary canal but the number will be 
 greatly lessened if the raw food is clean when we eat it. 
 
 Meats should always be cooked. Cooking is done in the case 
 of meats not to make the food more digestible but to kill possible 
 parasites in the meat. These parasites are found more frequently 
 in pork than in any other meat. 
 
THIRD QUARTER 105 
 
 Most states have laws requiring the inspection of animals 
 used for food but there is enough carelessness in the handling of 
 meat that the only safe way is to cook it. 
 
 While our bodies seem to require some of the raw foods, care 
 must be taken in the use of them as uncooked foods are generally 
 somewhat dangerous. 
 
 Poisoning from Protein Foods; Sanitary Methods of Delivering 
 And Carrying Foods. 
 
 Proteins build up the tissues of our bodies. They are neces- 
 sary in the diet but not in quantities. Proteins come from meat, 
 eggs, milk and to some extent from cereals. Protein foods are 
 among the more expensive. . 
 
 These protein foods are not harmful in small quantities but 
 if we eat meat too frequently, we get too much protein and this is 
 thought to be one cause of kidney trouble. Parasites such as 
 tapeworms and trichina are sometimes taken into the body by 
 eating meats so care should be taken that all meats should be so 
 very carefully inspected and thoroughly cooked. 
 
 If we are to be sure our food is pure, we must consider more 
 than the grocery store from which it came. We should know 
 something of the method of gathering it, how it was packed, and 
 all the various processes it goes through before reaching our 
 homes. Carelessness in any one of the processes may spoil the 
 food. 
 
 Any food touched with human hands is dangerous. Haven't 
 you seen a delivery man from a bakery stop to change his tire and 
 then pick up an armful of unwrapped bread and carry it into a 
 grocery store? Haven’t you gone into a grocery store and had 
 the clerk reach into a jar with his hands and count out your 
 pickles before putting them into the container? The handling of 
 any kinds of foodstuff should be done in a most sanitary way if 
 we are going to escape these many disease germs that are all 
 around us. 
 
 Care should be taken in the packing of meat, the wrapping 
 of bread, the canning of fruits and vegetables and the milling of 
 flour. 
 
106 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 All foods should be delivered to ts in the best possible con- 
 dition. 
 
 Contamination of Foods From Polluted Soil Such as Celery and 
 Radishes; Sanitary Grocery Stores. 
 
 In some places in the West they have what are called sewage 
 farms. On these farms the sewage is run out over the ground, 
 and is used as fertilizer. This makes a rich soil and seems safe 
 for the growing of grains of different kinds and fruit but it is not 
 safe for vegetables that are eaten raw such as celery, radishes etc. 
 
 A few years ago sanitary grocery stores were not at all 
 frequent. Before people understood about bacteria there did 
 not seem to be great need of carefulness. We liked to go into 
 clean stores because the appearance of the place appealed to us 
 but we didn’t realize the great dangers in the stores that were not 
 so clean. 
 
 Even in these days when we want the best possible food for 
 our families, some stores are careless in their care of food. 
 There are certain things we demand of our grocery stores now: 
 
 Goods that can not be washed before using should not be dis- 
 played in the open in the stores or on the side walks. 
 
 All bread should be wrapped. Bacteria on unwrapped bread 
 is not especially dangerous but unclean bread is not attractive. 
 
 Flies should be kept away from all food for more filth is 
 carried by flies than in almost any other way. 
 
 Overripe fruit and vegetables should not be sold. When 
 fruit or vegetables begin to spoil, bacteria begin to grow and | 
 multiply so the articles are unfit for use. 
 
 Perishable goods should be kept in cold storage but ee 
 that are beginning to spoil should not be placed in cold storage as 
 things can not be benefitted by it. Perishable foods should be 
 kept under glass or should be screened in and goods such as sugar 
 and flour should be covered. 
 
 All meats should be inspected. Animals Chaat i be ex- 
 amined, and then killed under sanitary conditions and kept in 
 cold storage until used. 
 
THIRD QUARTER 107 
 
 There are other things we could mention that are expected 
 of a sanitary grocery store but enough have been mentioned to 
 perhaps open our eyes to the need for good clean food if we want 
 to keep strong and well. 
 
 Preserving of Foods by Sugar, Salt and Vinegar; Danger of 
 Chemical Preservatives. 
 
 Food is often preserved when it is in season so that it can be 
 used later. The safest and best preservers of food are sugar, 
 salt and vinegar. Bacteria will not grow:and increase in any of 
 these. 
 
 If we make our preserves rich with sugar, even though the 
 containers are not sealed, the fruit will keep a long time. Sugar 
 is also used in preserving milk. In condensed milk, water is 
 taken out and sugar added and this process will keep it indefi- 
 nitely. 
 
 Salt is used especially in preserving fish and meat. We have 
 the different kinds of salt fish, and salt pork but since the days 
 of cold storage salt is not used as much in preserving meats. 
 
 Vinegar stops the growth of germs. If we prepare buttered 
 beets they will keep only two or three days at the most, but if we 
 _pickle them, they will keep a long time. The same is true of 
 other fruits and vegetables. 
 
 These preservatives, sugar, salt, and vinegar change the food 
 but little and are the only safe ones to use. 
 
 Chemicals are often used to preserve foods. The require- 
 ments are that the chemicals used do preserve the food and that 
 they do not harm it. Some chemicals preserve food but in them- 
 selves ate harmful. An illustration of this is the use of formalde- 
 hyde to preserve milk. It keeps the milk sweet but the milk thus 
 doctored is not healthful. 
 
 Alum, boracic acid and sulphites are used to preserve foods. 
 Our pure food laws insist that when any such chemicals are used, 
 the labels shall state the fact. It is not against the laws to use 
 these chemicals and while a small amount is not particularly 
 harmful, there is always the danger that too much will be used. 
 It is always safer to read labels and if any chemical is used, avoid 
 that particular brand of goods. We may get more of the chemi- 
 cal than our systems can take care of and be poisoned by it. 
 
108 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 INSECTS AND SANITATION. 
 Insects as Disease Carriers. How House Flies Carry Germs. 
 
 Since the discovery of bacteria, it has been definitely de- 
 termined that insects carry disease germs. 
 
 The mosquito is probably the insect most dreaded as it carries — 
 
 yellow fever and malaria. This particular kind of mosquito is 
 commonly called the malaria mosquito. When it bites a person it 
 injects the germs into him and so spreads the disease. 
 
 The housefly is known to be a great disease germ carrier. It 
 spreads typhoid fever, diphtheria, smallpox and many other 
 diseases. Some of these diseases are carried by flies from the 
 wastes of the body and some from the filth in the streets. 
 
 The germ of the bubonic plague are spread by fleas. These 
 fleas live on the bodies of rats and when the rats, that are subject 
 to the plague, die the fleas leave their bodies and oftentimes bite 
 some person and infects him with the plague. People in clean, 
 well kept houses are not so likely to take this disease as those who 
 are careless about the matters of cleanliness. 
 
 Other insects carry disease and the more we study this sub- 
 ject, the more we feel that all insects, such as roaches, bed bugs, 
 flies etc., should never be allowed in our homes. ‘ 
 
 House flies are attracted to places where filth has accumu- 
 lated and they carry germs from this filth to food that is left un- 
 covered or to the dishes that are to be used for food. Flies may 
 carry these germs to people who have sores or cuts and infest 
 them. They may go to the barn yard where the milking is being 
 done and carry germs directly to the milk. 
 
 It almost seems as though flies were made to carry germs. 
 Every part of their bodies is so constructed that it can be simply 
 covered with germs. The fly is small and the germs so minute 
 that we can not see them. If we could see them, doubtless we 
 would fear the fly more than some of us seem to do. When we 
 see a fly buzzing around the room touching food and dishes here 
 and there, if we just stop to consider where that fly may have 
 been and the kind of germs he may be carrying, we will see to it 
 that he is not allowed to stay near us. 
 
 - 
 
THIRD QUARTER 109 
 
 It is so much easier to prevent disease than to cure it after it 
 comes and when we consider how easily the fly can carry many 
 ‘kinds of disease germs from the filth and rubbish it has been 
 crawling over, we will do all we can to destroy the fly. 
 
 Mosquitoes and Malaria. 
 
 Mosquitoes are directly responsible for malaria as the disease 
 can be carried in no other way. The mosquito bites a person 
 who has malaria and the germs from the blood of that person 
 with malaria enter the mosquito. These malaria germs live and 
 multiply in the mosquito and when it bites a second person, it 
 leaves these malaria germs in the blood of the person. 
 
 The red corpuscles of a person with malaria are infected with 
 a tiny one-celled animal. One of these will live in a red cor- 
 puscle for about three days. During this time it has been divid- 
 ing and forming new one-celled animals. These crowd the cor- 
 puscle so that the wall of the corpuscle breaks and these little 
 animals are set free in the blood. At this point the patient has a 
 chill which is one of the early symptoms of malaria. These germs 
 in the blood enter another red corpuscle and go through the same 
 process of breaking the walls of the corpuscle and another chill 
 follows. 
 
 Malaria is a dreaded disease. It may not seem to be of such 
 a serious nature but it weakens a person and takes away his vital- 
 ity so he is easily a victim to other diseases. The best prevention 
 for malaria is to destroy the mosquito and then the disease will 
 not be spread. 
 
 Life Histories of these Insects. 
 
 Mosquitoes lay their eggs on the surface of the water. In 
 less than a day these eggs hatch and from each egg is a small 
 insect we commonly call a wriggler. These wrigglers or larva 
 grow for about a week and change into the pupa. In about three 
 days more, the pupa becomes a full grown mosquito. 
 
 As a larva, the mosquito lives upon small living things he 
 finds in the water, but when he becomes a full grown mosquito 
 
110 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 he gets a greater part of his food from the blood of people or 
 other animals. 
 
 Flies breed mostly in horse manure and also in body Wastes 
 and any animal or vegetable matter that is beginning to decay. 
 
 The fly, like the mosquito, has four stages of development. 
 First is the egg which hatches in about a day, then as the larva 
 for five or six days, then the pupa from five to seven days and 
 finally the adult fly. 
 
 The female fly lays about one hundred and twenty eggs at a 
 time and keeps this up from spring to late fall, sometimes as often 
 as four times a season. There may be as many as eight or twelve 
 generations in one season so you can see how rapidly they multi- 
 ply and the need for the destruction of breeding places. 
 
 Destruction of Breeding Places the Most Effective Way to 
 Control These Pests. 
 
 We hear the slogan “swat the fly’ and we are urged to avoid 
 places where mosquitoes are found, but the best course to take is 
 to destroy their breeding places. We may kill one fly, and it isa 
 good thing to do, but think of the great number that are breeding 
 in the filth behind the ‘barn and how much more we are accomp- 
 lishing if we destroy the breeding places. 
 
 House flies breed so rapidly that we can not hope to do much 
 towards eradicating them unless we start at the beginning, destroy 
 their eggs before they develop and destroy their breeding places. 
 This eradication and destruction is done by careful disposal of all 
 garbage and filth that would attract flies. Everything that is 
 thrown out that flies swarm around should either be screened 
 from the flies or destroyed in some way. 
 
 Mosquitos breed in any place where there is stagnant water. 
 It may be in a swampy place in the woods or in a small amount 
 of water left in an old broken cup. Water should be drained 
 away but if this is not possible, mosquitoes may be killed by pour- 
 ing oil on the water. The oil kills the eggs and if the mosquitoes * 
 attempt to go through the oil, they are killed. 
 
 It seems rather a simple matter to destroy the breeding places 
 of mosquitoes so if we are bothered with them, we may know it is 
 due mostly to carelessness on our part. | 
 
THIRD QUARTER 111 
 
 Control of Malaria and Yellow Fever. 
 
 Malaria and yellow fever have been controlled by the des- 
 truction of the mosquito. Striking example of this fact are found 
 in the freedom of Havana and Panama from these diseases. 
 
 When the Uuited States took possession of Havana at the 
 time of the Cuban War, Havana had a fine harbor but it was filled 
 with refuse. Throughout the city were open sewers where in- 
 sects and animals could feed. Disease was everywhere and the 
 death rate was appalling. The government began investigating 
 the sanitary conditions of the city. The harbor was cleaned up 
 and a better method for the disposal of sewage used. A new 
 water supply was found and the sick were cared for so that dis- 
 ease germs were not carried. This general cleaning up destroyed 
 the breeding places of the mosquitoes and Havana was made a 
 healthy city. 
 
 When the United States began work on the Panama Canal, 
 conditions similar to those found at Havana were prevalent. One 
 of the first things the United States did was to secure the right 
 to enforce health rules. Colonel Gorgas had gone to Havana 
 after the Cuban War and made Havana a healthy city so he was 
 now called to Panama. He looked after the drainage, paved the 
 streets, secured pure drinking water and killed the flies and mo- 
 squitoes. After the place was made safe, men from all walks of 
 life went there and work began under healthy conditions. 
 
 These two places, Havana and Panama, show what can be 
 done in controlling disease by destruction of the mosquito. 
 
 Cleaning Up Campaign or Permanent Habits of Neatness. 
 
 Cleaning up campaigns are of value in communities, but it is 
 better to develop permanent habits of neatness and of cleanliness 
 about our premises. | 
 
 When the sanitary conditions in a town are bad, a cleaning 
 up campaign is a fine thing but people should take a pride in their 
 town and try to keep it neat and clean at all times so that spas- 
 modic campaigns are not needed. 
 
 The town authorities and the individuals should see to it that 
 there is a regular and frequent disposal of garbage and that filth 
 
112 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 of any kind is not allowed to accumulate. There is no use to 
 start a campaign against flies and mosquitoes and leave their 
 breeding places untouched. If each one is clean and neat about his 
 premises and ordinances are passed to enforce regular and sys- 
 tematic cleaning, there will be no need for a cleaning up campaigu. 
 
 Composition Work. 
 
 These compositions have been discussed in the above topics 
 under Insects and Sanitation. The teacher can have the pupils 
 use the points made and enlarge upon them. 
 
 BOARD OF HEALTH. 
 Need for a Board of Health. Duties. 
 
 When people of all classes live together in communities there 
 is need for some organization to look after the health of the com- 
 munity. There are people who are careless and people who are 
 ignorant and unless some one takes the responsibility for their 
 welfare, disease will spread among them. 
 
 In cities are police departments organized to protect the 
 people from those who disobey the laws and there are fire depart- 
 ments to protect the homes of the people from destruction, by fire. 
 and health departments to protect the people from disease. When. 
 there is sickness, people call a physician to care for them and 
 make them well. But we have the health department to protect 
 them from disease and keep them well. 
 
 Disease can be spread by carelessness along the streets, in 
 the schools and churches, in the moving picture shows and in 
 other general meeting places. Disease can be spread by careless 
 handling of milk and food and careless disposal of sewage. 
 
 Individuals can see about these things in their own homes 
 but since not all can and will do it, it is necessary that we have a 
 board of health to protect us from disease. 
 
 It will be easier to understand the duties of the board of 
 health if we know something about the organization. We will 
 discuss the organization briefly before explaining the duties. 
 
 In most cities the mayor appoints from three to nine men who 
 
THIRD QUARTER 113 
 
 are to supervise the work of the department of health. Some- 
 times there are engineers and lawyers on the board but most of 
 the members are physicians. These men organize the work and 
 plan what shall be done. They do not give all of their time to the 
 work and receive no pay for their services. 
 
 There is usually a health officer who is responsible for carry- 
 ing out the plans of the board. He gives his entire time to the 
 work and is paid for it. He is usually a physician and has others 
 working under him. 
 
 The city health officer works only in the cities but as many 
 people live outside in small towns and in the rural districts, it is 
 necessary that there shall be some one who will look after their 
 welfare, so a state health department is organized similar to the 
 city department and their work is carried on all over the state. 
 
 Our national government has organized what is called the 
 United States Public Health Service. Their duties are to protect 
 the health of all the people and do the things which can be done 
 only by the national government. 
 
 The work of the board of health is so important and covers 
 so much ground that their duties are numerous. 
 
 We have learned in our study of bacteria that some diseases 
 are spread by disease germs going from sick people to the bodies 
 of well people and the health department must protect is from 
 people having disease germs. People with contageous diseases 
 usually call a physician who at once reports the case to the board 
 of health. They see to it that precautions are taken to prevent 
 the spread of disease and that the one who is sick has the proper 
 care. Many people, ill with contageous diseases, are taken at 
 once to a hospital where they may get the proper care and not ex- 
 pose any one. If they are kept at home a quarantine sign is 
 - placed on the-house and no one is supposed to leave the house and 
 no outsider should go into the house. 
 
 Evevry effort is made to keep contagious diseases out of the 
 schools, for often times when a disease starts in the school most 
 of the children take it. Ifa child in a family of several children 
 comes down with diphtheria, the house is quarantined at once, 
 and the children all kept there or those who do not have the dis- 
 ease taken to some other house but in that case these other child- 
 
114 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 ren must be kept in until it is determined whether they are going 
 to take the disease. If the child who has diphtheria was sick at 
 school before he knew he had the disease, the children at school 
 should be carefully watched and their throats examined every 
 day. 
 
 In some cases the Schick test is used. A very little of the 
 diptheria toxin is injected into the arm. If the person is immune 
 from diphtheria, the toxin has almost no effect but if the person is 
 not immune, the poison makes the skin a little red and inflamed. 
 Those who are found susceptible to diphtheria should be made 
 immune by the toxin—antitoxin treatment then there is no danger 
 of contracting the disease. In some cities the health department 
 has what may be called infant welfare stations to reduce infant 
 mortality. Here mothers, who cannot afford a physician, may 
 take their babies and be told just how to care for them, and how 
 and what to feed them. If necessary the stations provide food 
 for the children. 
 
 The health department is of valuable assistance to physicians. 
 The department usually has laboratories where the physician can 
 send samples of blood from the patient or some of the microbes 
 from the body and have them examined to determine the disease 
 the patient has. These laboratories also examine thé water sup- 
 ply and the milk from the different dairies to determine whether 
 they are pure. 
 
 The health department watches the food that is sold in the 
 stores and inspects bakeries, meat markets and such places. 
 
 The state health department does work similar to that done 
 in the cities except that its regulations apply to all the state. It 
 works with the city departments to proect people’s health. 
 
 The United States Public Health Service works with these 
 other departments in protecting the health of the people in the - 
 states but a very important other work that it does is to prevent 
 diseases from foreign countries from being brought to this coun- 
 try. All of these departments are studying to see what they can do 
 to prevent disease and each assists the other in this work. 
 
THIRD QUARTER 115 
 
 An important duty of these health departments is to collect 
 statistics. Among these are the records of all births and deaths 
 and many details in connection with the deaths to show facts 
 relative to disease. 
 
 Their duties seem almost endless but this discussion will give 
 you an idea of the work they are to do and the great value to our 
 welfare of a board of health. 
 
 Co-operation with Board of Health. 
 
 Good citizens are always ready to help the government in 
 enforcing its laws and regulations. People should do everything 
 they can to co-operate with the board of health in its effort to 
 protect people from disease. The board can quarantine a patient 
 and do everything possible to prevent the patient from. spreading 
 the disease but if members of the family are careless and out- 
 siders go into a house where there is a quarantine sign, the work 
 of the board of health will come to naught. There is need of a 
 hearty co-operation between the people and the board of health. 
 
 Isolation of Small Pox Patients. 
 
 Before the discovery of vaccination, smallpox was a disease 
 much dreaded. It was very contageous. The patient was often 
 loathsome when he was sick and often disfigured afterwards. 
 Smallpox was so prevalent that people expected to have it. It 
 sometimes caused blindness and there were many deaths from it. 
 We still see some people who are pock-marked but not nearly so 
 many as years ago. 
 
 Vaccination has greatly reduced the number of cases of 
 smallpox but when it does occur, the disease is of such a serious 
 nature that the patient should be isolated so the disease is not 
 carried to others. 
 
 Quarantine and its Value. 
 
 Quarantine means the isolation of any person having or even 
 suspected of having a contagious disease so that the disease may 
 not be spread. People may be quarantined when they are exposed 
 to the disease and kept under quarantine during disease and until 
 there is no chance of carrying the disease to others. 
 
116 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 People may be isolated by being sent to a hospital, by having 
 the whole house quarantined, or by being kept in one room. 
 
 The idea of quarantine is to keep the patient away from other 
 people. 
 
 Good Citizenship and Strict Observance of Quarantine; Vac- 
 cination and Its Value. 
 
 A good citizen will obey all laws whether he wants to or not. 
 If a man with his family is quarantined for scarlet fever or some 
 other serious disease, as a law abiding citizen, he should keep a 
 strict observance of quarantine and not allow any one to leave the 
 
 house or outsiders to come in until it is safe to do so. 
 | Vaccination was discovered in 1796 by Dr. Jenner. The 
 word vacca means a cow. Cows have a disease called cowpox 
 which is similar to smallpox and the matter formed in this disease 
 of the cow, when put under the skin of people keep people from 
 getting smallpox even though they are exposed to it. 
 
 When we know what a horrible disease smallpox is and when 
 we read what vaccination has done to lessen the number of cases 
 of smallpox, there is no question as to its value. 
 
 Vaccination for smallpox has been used more than vaccina- 
 tion for other diseases so we understand more about its use for 
 smallpox but physicians are now vaccinating for other diseases 
 such as typhoid, diphtheria, and scarlet fever and vaccination will 
 doubtless prove much more valuable as time goes on. 
 
 Why the Board of Health Has a Right to Enforce Vaccination. 
 Tell About the Danger of Infection from Outside in 
 Vaccination. 
 
 The board of health has a right to enforce vaccination just 
 as much as our government has a right to enforce any law. The 
 board of health is working for the good of the people and if vac- 
 cination has so greatly reduced smallpox, the board should have 
 the right to enforce vaccination. In a great many of the schools 
 vaccination is required. A few children after vaccination may 
 have some trouble with infection if they are careless but probably 
 
THIRD QUARTER 117 
 
 the trouble from all the vaccination in a dozen schools would not 
 equal that of one case of smallpox. 
 
 There is always danger from infection in any. wound. If 
 disease germs come in contact with the vaccination scratch, in- 
 fection results but if the wound is kept clean and properly cared 
 for, there is very little danger. 
 
 Vaccination is Safe if the Wound is Properly Cared for. 
 
 Vaccination has been so universally and so successfully car- 
 ried out that we need have no fear of it if proper vaccine is used 
 and the arm properly cared for. The wound however should 
 have the proper care or it may become infected like any other 
 wound. Some physicians have the wound covered with sterile 
 gauze which must be changed frequently. Other physicians ask 
 that nothing be put over the wound but that the clothing which 
 covers it be clean at all times. In either case the important thing 
 is to keep the wound clean and try not to bruise the arm. A good 
 scab should be formed over the sore and this scab comes off of its 
 own free will when the wound heals. 
 
 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE, 
 
 Importance of Proper Desposal of Sewage. 
 
 If we are interested in the health of the people, one of the 
 “most important things to consider is the proper disposal of sew- 
 age. Rubbish, garbage, and all body wastes are breeding places 
 of disease germs and should have attention. 
 
 This question is usually given more attention in the cities 
 than in the rural districts. This is because so many people live 
 together in cities and as a result garbage and waste accumula- 
 tions are greater, making it important that much care be used to 
 protect the people. The sewage problem for the housewife in the 
 city is simple for sewers are provided by the cities. There is 
 usually an underground sewer in every street and every house is 
 connected with it. All wastes from the bath room and kitchen 
 sink goes into this. The garbage is kept in a covered pail and ‘this 
 is cared for by the city, so the problem is rather a simple one for 
 the city housewife. 
 
118 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 The problems of the small town or rural housewife will now 
 be considered. By way of illustration, let us suppose Mrs. Jones - 
 lives in a country town where people are not crowded but where 
 she has neighbors on each side of her. She throws her garbage 
 out behind the barn. It is out of the way there and can not be 
 seen from the house. This garbage will form a breeding place 
 for flies and will supply enough for her and all her neighbors. 
 She thinks dish water is harmless so throws it out over the yard. 
 If the water sinks into the ground, there is not much danger — 
 though there will likely be odors from it, but if some of it happens 
 to form a small pool Mrs. Jones will soon supply her neighbors 
 with mosquitoes as well as flies. The Jones may have an outdoor 
 toilet which can cause an endless amount of harm. | 
 
 A modern bathroom is now built so it is attractive and most 
 sanitary but sometimes it is not possible to have a bath room in a 
 small town with no city water. 
 
 If an out door toilet is necessary it should be given the great- 
 est care. Body wastes often contain many harmful bacteria and 
 careless disposal of these wastes may cause the spread of disease. 
 Out door toilets should be carefully screened. Lime should be 
 mixed with earth and used to cover the waste material. Care 
 should be taken that no well is near enough to be contaminated. 
 
 Many times city people, returning from a country vacation 
 come down with typhoid fever simply because of carelessness in 
 the disposal of sewage in the country. 
 
 Often country homes have their own individual plants for 
 water supply and for sewage disposal. If properly constructed, 
 these are ideal but if people can not afford these, then they should 
 take the greatest possible care in the method of sewage disposal. 
 
 Dangerous Germs Present in Sewage. Means of Disposal. 
 Pollution of Streams by Sewage. 
 
 Sewage is full of germs and most of them are dangerous. If 
 sewage is properly cared for, there is no great danger but when 
 people carelessly throw it out, there is danger. Open sewers are 
 not found so much now but they are always dangerous. They 
 carry sewage that is bacteria laden. Flies and mosquitoes have 
 
THIRD QUARTER TLS 
 
 access to this and feed upon it and scatter the germs. Dogs and 
 rats also have access to it. Sewage in most any form carries 
 disease germs and should never be carelessly disposed of. 
 
 Sewage should always be disposed of promptly. Wastes 
 from the bath room and kitchen sink should be run into the sewer 
 where the city cares for it, and garbage should be collected regu- 
 larly and taken away in covered wagons. 
 
 There are different ways of disposal of sewage and some of 
 these will be discussed : 
 
 In the country or in small towns, individuals must be respon- 
 sible for the disposal of sewage. It is a good plan to burn as 
 much of it as possible but all can not be burned. Many have 
 their own cess pools but these need careful attention. The main 
 thing is to see to it that it is not built near a well that is used for 
 drinking water. If no well is nearer than seventy-five feet, it 
 is comparatively safe, for in‘that distance the water from the 
 cess pool would be filtered sufficiently so no danger would come 
 from it. 
 
 In some places in the West they have what are called sewage 
 farms. The sewage is taken to these farms and scattered over 
 the soil. In this are many bacteria but not all.of them are harm- 
 ful. There are some that cause the oxygen of the air to unite 
 with the animal and vegetable tissues. When the sewage is scat- 
 tered over the soil these bacteria begin their work, and the soil is 
 made fertile and can be used for growing fruit and grain, but is 
 unfit for growing some kinds of vegetables. 
 
 Cities have various ways of disposing of their sewage. An 
 ideal way is to burn all rubbish and refuse. Some cities have 
 plants for this purpose. 
 
 Some cities aerate the sewage and then run it into a stream. 
 Solids are removed, and the liquids sprayed into the air and then 
 thrown over a layer of coke and after seeping through this, run 
 into a stream. 
 
 Other cities have large septic tanks where the water is al- 
 lowed to seep through. These tanks are built of brick or con- 
 crete ‘and are water tight. The tanks are divided into compart- 
 ments through which the sewage moves slowly. The organic 
 
120 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 wastes are broken up and a kind of bacteria which can live only 
 away from the air, helps to take the wastes away. Mud forms 
 at the bottom of the tank and this must be cleaned away but only 
 when quantities of it have collected. After this process, it is 
 harmless and can be run into a stream without polluting the 
 stream. 
 
 Sometimes the oil and grease are taken out to be used in the 
 making of soap and the remainder is used for fertilizer. 
 
 For the sake of health, all sewage should be disposed of in 
 some efficient and sanitary way. 
 
 Means of disposal of sewage have been fully discussed in the 
 preceeding topic. Carelessness in any of these, means when the 
 sewage is disposed of near a stream, will pollute that stream. 
 
 Danger of Obtaining Water from Small Streams in Thickly 
 Populated Regions. 
 
 The problem of water supply is an important one. Water is 
 so esential for drinking purposes as well as for many other uses. 
 If public health is to be considered, we must be sure that our 
 water supply does not come from some contaminated stream. 
 There is always danger in obtaining water from small streams in 
 thickly populated regions. Suppose a town gets its water from 
 a stream that is crowded on both sides with small towns. A 
 reasonable amount of sewage may be thrown into a stream and 
 the stream be able to purify it but if there are people living all 
 along the stream, so much sewage would be thrown in that the 
 water would be unfit for use. 
 
 Though there might be regulations forbidding people to 
 throw anything in the river, we can not depend on all people. If 
 there are many living along the stream there is bound to be some 
 who would not obey the regulation. If such an ideal condition 
 could exist, where no rubbish or refuse of any kind was thrown 
 in, enough would be thrown on the ground and into cess pools 
 to seep into the stream so the only safe way would be to see to it 
 that the water is filtered or purified in some way before it is used. 
 
 _ 
 
THIRD QUARTER 121 
 
 “Swimming Holes’’ and Polluted Streams. Danger of Disease 
 Transmission from Swimming Pools. 
 
 Polluted streams are not safe for swimming holes. If the 
 water in the stream is filled with impurities persons going swim- 
 ming in these places would come in contact with some of the im- 
 purities, and disease germs from the polluted stream. could easily 
 enter their bodies. 
 
 Swimming pools should have strict regulations with regard to 
 the water in the pool. The water should either be changed fre- 
 quently or so filled that the water is changing constantly. Sup- 
 pose a boy who is coming down with some contagious disease 
 would go into the pool. He would give off disease germs and if 
 the water were not changed, other boys would come in contact 
 with the germs. If the water is changing constantly the danger 
 is greatly lessened: 
 
 Flies and Sewage Desposal; Contamination of Milk, and other 
 Foods from Exposed Sewage. 
 
 The greatest care should be taken in disposing of sewage so 
 that it is not left where flies can reach it. 
 
 Some housewives think if garbage is thrown out of sight, 
 some distance from the house, it will do no harm, but no matter 
 where it is thrown, it will soon decay and be a breeding place for 
 flies. They, in turn, will carry germs and filth back to the house. 
 . Sewage that is thrown out begins at once to decay and give 
 off harmful germs. If the sewage is near the house, the germs 
 may be carried through the air to the food and milk and contam- 
 inate them or if the sewage is thrown some distance away the 
 germs may be carried to the food by means of flies. Our food 
 should be kept as free from disease germs as possible and exposed 
 sewage should be kept far away. | 
 
 FIRST AID. 
 
 Importance of Knowing What To Do in Accidents and Emer- 
 gencies. Self Control in Emergancies. 
 
 We expect physicians to know what to do in illness but when 
 accidents and emergencies occur, we should know what to do. 
 
122 THIRD QUARTER 
 
 The first step is to summon a physician and then care for the in- 
 jured one as best we can until the physician arrives. Common 
 sense and a first aid kit would be valuable to have at such a time. 
 We must not do anything that would harm the person but we 
 should relieve him as best we can until help comes. 
 
 It is usually the unexpected that happens, and when emer- 
 gencies come, we do not always know the best course to take. 
 There may be an accident in which some one is hurt and we do 
 not know the nature of his injury. If we get excited and lose 
 self-control we are of no use to the injured one and may even 
 do hinr harm by our excitement. The first thing to do when an 
 accident occurs is to gain control of ourselves and then set about 
 to do all we can for the one who has been injured until some one 
 comes who can, with better knowledge and skill, take the case in 
 hand. If we have self control when the accident occurs and 
 later when the physician arrives, we may be of more value in the 
 case then we would be if we knew much about first aid but had 
 no self control. 
 
 First Aid Work Should be Strongly Emphasized. 
 
 I¢veryone should know something about first aid work. Since 
 the World War people have taken much more interest in “First 
 Aid” than ever before and courses have been given in it so that 
 people generally know something about the subject. A teacher 
 who has a room full of children under her care, will find her 
 knowledge of first aid valuable and whether she studies into the 
 subject to any extent, she should at least know some of the more 
 simple rules. . 
 
 Suppose it is winter and the school children are coasting 
 down a hill in front of the school house. Two sleds run into 
 each other and a small boy comes in with a cut on his arm. The 
 first thing to do is to cleanse the wound. Your hands should be 
 clean but even then you should never touch the wound. If the 
 wound is not deep, it may be washed with pure soap and water 
 that has been boiled though cooled so it will not burn the skin. 
 After the wound is washed, you might pour some tincture of 
 
THIRD QUARTER 123 
 
 Iodine into it and cover with a dressing of sterilized gauze. Over 
 this place a bandage held in place by adhesive tape. The greatest 
 care should be exercised so that the part of the sterilized dressing 
 has touched nothing else before it is put over the wound. If you 
 have no sterilized gauze on hand, a clean cloth may be sterilized 
 by ironing it with a hot iron, or boiling cloth in water and then 
 wringing it out. Care should be taken in dressing any cut or 
 open sore that nothing which has germs on it, touch the wound 
 or there is danger of infection. 
 
124 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 FOURTH QUARTER. 
 
 The course of study says, “The outline for this quarter 1s 
 gwen under Science and Agriculture. Therefore, the teacher 
 must see to it that pupils review the topics in Science and’ 
 Agriculture that has a bearing upon Health Education. Do this 
 before you take up the work on Foods, etc. 
 
 Human Carriers of Disease. 
 
 During our first quarter, we had a brief review of our bodily 
 structure, and the relation of human health to our environment. 
 During the second quarter, we studied enemies to our health and 
 well being. In the third quarter, we discussed fully the questions 
 of milk and water supply, also food sources and care in handling. 
 In our fourth quarter, we will take up more fully the question of 
 our food, and the study of our five senses—touch, sight, smell, 
 hearing and taste. 
 
 Some cynic has said that food is man’s best friend or his 
 worst enemy. This is true. The human body can not retain its 
 efficiency for any great length of time without food, yet the con- 
 tention of many physicians is equally true—that we dig our 
 graves with our teeth. 
 
 The word food may be applied to any iba either 
 liquid or solid which nourishes the body. Wowever, the word 
 in its strictest application cannot apply to everything eaten, for 
 many things taken into the stomach are not only of no benefit to 
 bodily nourishment, but are genuinely harmful. Ordinarily 
 when we mention food, we think of anything which is suitable to 
 eat. That which is not used in body nourishment is waste, and 
 as such is cast out. 
 
 The general term used to describe the use of food by the 
 body is nutrition. 
 
 Nutrition in its broadest sense is a very comprehensive term 
 and includes all the changes that take place in our bodies from the 
 
a 
 
 FOURTH QUARTER 125 
 
 time we take a bite of anything until that substance 1s cast out of 
 our bodies as waste matter. Therefore, we can readily see that 
 all the processes of digestion, absorption, circulation, assimilation, 
 respiration (as concerned with oxidation) and excretion are in- 
 cluded in this one term. 
 
 These six processes may be divided into the upbuilding and 
 destructive processes. The first four belongs to the upbuilding 
 or creative class. While the last two are destructive or tearing 
 down processes. 
 
 Two Functions of Food. 
 
 The body has been compared to an engine, but unlike an 
 engine, it requires food or fuel for a twofold purpose—the first 
 to furnish heat or energy and the second to repair waste all over 
 the body. The first need we have all felt on a cold day. When 
 hungry we grow cold much quicker, as well as tired much sooner. 
 In the second place, the body, unlike other engines, repairs its own 
 worn out parts, and herein lies the second necessity for food. To 
 this latter class may be added the foods needed by young children 
 which not only repair the body’s waste, but also cause growth and 
 development. 
 
 Classes of Foods. 
 
 There are four distinct classes of foods: 
 Proteids or nitrogenous or albuminous. 
 Carbohydrates or starches and sugars. 
 The fats and oils. 
 
 Inorganic or minerals. 
 
 cores wa 
 
 Proteids or Nitrogenous or Albuminous. 
 
 The proteids, nitrogenous or albuminous foods supply nitro- 
 gen which builds up and repairs the tissues of the body. Protein 
 is found in several forms each differing in composition. Just 
 how the different forms supply nitrogen suited to different bodily 
 needs is still a matter of discussion among scientists. For this 
 reason it is safest and best to supply protein to the body in various 
 forms and seems to explain the general craving in man for a 
 mixed diet. 
 
126 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 Articles of food from both the animal and vegetable king- 
 doms contain protein. We find it in fish, milk, eggs, meats; 
 cereals, legumes, and nuts. Protein foods besides building up 
 the tissues also supplies energy for the body. But in order that 
 our protein diet may largely be energy producing, fats, sugars, 
 and starches must be limited. 
 
 Carbohydrates or Starches and Sugars. 
 
 The carbohydrates are so called because in this class of food 
 we find the two chemical elements, carbon and hydrogen. The 
 type of this group is sugar and starch, and although we could not 
 live on carbohydrates alone, we really need a larger amount of this 
 kind of food than of proteids. 
 
 The use of the carbohydrates is chiefly to give us force Se 
 heat. It is quite sure that if anyone consumes the albuminous 
 foods, together with the carbohydrates, they are very liable to 
 grow fat. 
 
 In the carbohydrate class of foods, we find the starches and 
 sugars. Most of our vegetables are very rich in sugar; such as 
 sugar cane, the beet, and the ripe fruits, such as the grape, apricot 
 and plum. Sugar, like starch, is a heat producer, but it is very 
 unlike it in taste. 
 
 There are four different kinds of sugar, but in spite of the 
 difference in their taste, all are equally valuable to the body as 
 food. Beet and cane sugar are the ones most commonly found 
 on the market, but a cheaper form, known as glucose or grape 
 sugar, is often used for adulterating purposes. It is found in 
 fruits and is less sweet than cane or beet sugar. Milk sugar is 
 another form and is found in milk alone. Starch and sugar 
 while very unlike in appearance and taste, have much in common. 
 The starch that is found in green fruits is changed to sugar by 
 ripening, and just this same process takes place in the stomach 
 when starch is digested. Potatoes and cereals furnish the athe 
 part of our starch. 
 
 The Fats and Oils. 
 
 The fats and oils constitute the third class of foods. They 
 are found in both the animal and vegetable kingdoms, 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 127 
 
 Butter, lard, and tallow are made from animal fats, while 
 cotton seed oil and olive oil are products of the vegetable king- 
 dom. Some of the oils, like lard, become solid when removed 
 from the heat, but others, like olive oil, are in a liquid state. The 
 fats are chiefly useful in maintaining the heat of the body, for it 
 is well known that the inhabitants of northern and cold climates 
 are accustomed to consume enormous quantities of fatty material. 
 As has been said, the Eskimo in his snow house enjoys a tallow 
 candle with all the relish that his Hindu brother would enjoy a 
 lucious ripe banana. Besides furnishing heat for the body, the 
 fats also furnish two and one-half times as much energy as either 
 protein or carbohydrate food. 
 
 Inorganic or Mineral Foods; Water, Salts, Etc. 
 
 In addition to the other classes of food, there is another very 
 necessary class. This is known as the inorganic or mineral foods. 
 In this class we may include water, salt, lime, magnesia and other 
 forms of minerals used in building up the body. All of our foods 
 are composed largely of water, and if it were made perfectly free 
 from the water it would be surprising to see how greatly the bulk 
 would be diminished. Water justly ranks as a food because it 
 enters into the composition of every tissue, even the bones and 
 teeth. . The bodily temperature is regulated by it, and in all mus- 
 cular and nervous work it plays a most important part. It has 
 been estimated that two-thirds of the entire body—enough if 
 rightly arranged—to drown a person and since it is constantly 
 passing from the body as excrement of the skin and kidneys, and 
 from our lungs when we breathe, one can readily see how neces- 
 sary it is that the supply be constant and pure. When our foods 
 appear on the table, they are about one-half water, and yet they 
 cannot supply all the body needs. For this reason, we must drink 
 between meals. But as water is one of the best known sources 
 of disease, the greatest care should be exercised in seeing that the 
 water supply is free from all contamination. Vegetables are one 
 of our greatest sources of water supply. Turnips are very little 
 else than water, as are cabbage, lettuce, and radishes. 
 
 Salts and most mineral foods are taken as condiments largely 
 and are absolutely indispensable to the nourishment of the body. 
 
128 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 They perform two very valuable functions—body building and 
 aiding in the chemical reactions. Among the many kinds used by 
 the system, the most important are calcium (lime) salts, which 
 are valuable for bone formation. Milk, eggs, cereals, and vege- 
 tables contain these in abundance. ‘This class of salts are espec- 
 ially valuable to growing children, and great care should be used 
 to see that children’s diet is rich in this class of foods. 
 
 The abnormal appetitie which some children show in eating 
 chalk, plaster or wood is due to a lack of calcium. This lack also 
 results in small bones and poor teeth. 
 
 Sodium chloride or common salt is found in every tissue of 
 the body except the enamel of the teeth, hence is an important 
 factor in our food supply. So strong is the demand of the body 
 for salt that animals of the forests will travel for miles to places 
 where they may obtain salt—known as “salt lick,’ and in some 
 parts of Africa where salt is scarce, men will barter their children 
 for even a little of this substance. 
 
 Salts of iron are another very important salt found in our 
 body. These are found in nearly all foods, and beef, oatmeal, 
 eggs and some of the green vegetables are especially rich in them. 
 Iron is very important in the blood, for it makes oxygen carrying 
 possible in the hemoglobin. 
 
 In addition to these mentioned there are other salts of minor 
 importance found in the body. Among these might be mentioned 
 salts of potash. These minor salts aid in many ways, such as 
 giving hardness to the teeth and bones and in various chemical 
 reactions in the body, some of which are not clearly understood 
 by scientists. 
 
 Sources of Proteid and Simple Tests for It. 
 
 In reviewing the four classes of foods, we find that proteids 
 are obtained largely from animal foods. They are found in 
 their most concentrated form in lean meat and eggs. Gluten 
 in flour and casein in milk also furnish important varieties of 
 this same food. There are many simple tests which may be 
 made to show this class of food. Take the white of an egg; 
 pour boiling water over it, and note with what rapidity it “sets” 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 129 
 
 or coagulates. Or, take a bit of the same white, or tiny piece 
 of lean meat and drop it on a hot stove. Note the characteristic 
 offensive odor with which it burns. 
 
 Sources of Carbohydrates and a Simple Test for It. 
 
 The carbohydrates constitute the starch and sugar class, 
 and as has been said, are obtained largely from vegetables. The 
 sugar in milk—known as milk sugar—is one very important 
 exception to this rule. 
 
 One of the simplest tests made for starch is made with 
 iodine solution. The article to be tested is simply touched with 
 the solution. If starch is present, a blue or purplish color will 
 appear. 
 
 Sources of Fats and Oils and Simple Tests for Them. 
 
 Fats and oils are obtained both from the vegetable and ani- 
 mal kingdoms. Lard, butter, and tallow are animal products, 
 while cotton seed and olive oil, as well as the oils obtained from 
 various nuts, are of the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 There are many simple tests for fats and oils. Take a 
 piece of butter or suet, drop it on a hot stove and the rapidity 
 with which it ignites shows its only nature. Or, take nut meats, 
 mash them on paper and note the grease marks that remain. 
 
 Sources of the Inorganic or Mineral Foods and Tests for It, 
 
 _ The inorganic or mineral foods are taken as condiments 
 largely, but are also found in almost every article of our daily 
 diet. , 
 
 If water is boiled until none of it remains in the pan, a 
 white sediment will be noticed showing that lime and various 
 other minerals had been held in partial solution in the water. 
 
 The tests for minerals in the foods are rather more compli- 
 cated in the main than the tests for other food elements, the 
 results of such tests depending upon certain chemical reactions 
 and therefor not easily performed by the average pupil. 
 
 How the Different Foods Serve the Body. 
 
 The chief uses of the proteids or nitrogenous or albuminous 
 foods are to build up the body and repair waste of the tissues. 
 
130 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 The carbohydrates or sugars and starches are to give us 
 force and heat. 
 
 The fats and oils are really the fuel of the body, for they 
 furnish us with the means of maintaining our bodily temperature. 
 For this reason, this class of food is much more necessary to 
 the dwellers in cold regions than to the inhabitants of the warm 
 climates. 
 
 Mineral foods have various uses in the body. Some of 
 them give hardness to the teeth and bones, others aid in the pro- 
 cesses of digestion, while the various uses of water by the human 
 system vary from helping eliminate waste products to oxidation 
 of the blood. 
 
 Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Meat. 
 
 Meats include the flesh of all animals used as food by human 
 beings, but only. the more commonly used will be considered 
 here. These are beef, pork, mutton, fowl, and fish. Meats are 
 most important and a generally used source of protein. They are 
 rich in albumen and also contain fat and mineral matters. An 
 ordinary serving of meat once a day is all that is necessary. 
 Indeed, too rich a diet of meat throws too great a strain upon 
 the digestive arrangement, and may lead to serious bodily dis- 
 order, such as hardening of the arteries, kidney trouble, and seri- 
 ous intestinal diseases. Therefore, a part of our supply of pro- 
 tein should be obtained from eggs and milk. Gelatin and albumen 
 are the principal proteins found in meat. The former is extracted 
 from the connective tissue by the long slow application of heat 
 with moisture, while the latter is hardened by intense heat. The 
 protein from meat is more readily digested and absorbed by the 
 body than is the protein from the vegetable kingdom. Perhaps 
 this is due to the fact that it is more similar to the body-protein 
 structure. The cuts of meats from the same beef or hog vary 
 in composition. Those muscles which are exercised slightly will 
 have more fat than lean, and thus the composition will vary. 
 Analysis of lean beef has shown it to contain 70% of water, 
 21.3% of protein, 79% of fat, 1.1% of ash and it has a food 
 value of 730 calories per pound. Dried beef varies somewhat— 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 131 
 
 having less water, 54.3%; more protein, 30%; less fat, 6.5%; 
 a slight trace of carbohydrates, 4/10% ; a greater amount of ash, 
 9.1% ; and greater food value in calories, 840 per pound. 
 
 From the above it will be seen that all meat contains a 
 relatively large per cent of water, and while it makes it easier 
 to swallow than if it were dry, the water contained in meat has 
 not greater food value than water found anywhere else, hence 
 the greater amount of water found in any cut of meat, the less 
 its food value. For this reason, fish and oysters are less nutri- 
 tious than other meats. As a general rule, the more fat on a 
 cut of meat, the less water it will contain. A lean cut of meat 
 will or may contain 75% of water, while a fat cut from the same 
 animal may contain 50% or even less. 
 
 All meat contains more or less fat. Very lean meat, like 
 dried beef, may contain as little as 3%, while very fat pork con- 
 tains about 90%. Fat is a very valuable constituent in meat, for 
 it is the most concentrated form in which the fuel constituents 
 of food are found. It has a fuel value of 2% times that of pro- 
 tein or the carbohydrates. Lean meat has about 20% of protein 
 for its weight about five times as much as milk. The flesh of 
 wild fowl has generally more protein than beef, but fish has less. 
 Meats contain but a small quantity of carbohydrates—only a 
 fraction of 1%, and that mainly in the form of glycogen or 
 muscle sugar. Meats contain some mineral matters (ash) the 
 most wmportant of which are phosphates of lime, potash, and 
 magnesia. 
 
 _ Proportion of Each Class.of Food Found in Milk and Eggs. 
 
 Milk and eggs are extremely important foods, especially in 
 the diet of children or sick people. Milk contains no starch, but 
 is rich in milk sugar, while eggs contain almost not carbohy- 
 drates. Both eggs and milk may be taken without cooking, but 
 for most people eggs are rendered more palatable by cooking, 
 while because of the possible bacteria it may contain, milk is 
 
 , also rendered safer by boiling. Eggs and milk, like meats and 
 all foods rich in protein, should be cooked slowly and at a low 
 temperature in order that they may be soft and easily digested. 
 
 * By test, milk has been found to have 87% of water, 3.5% pro- 
 
132 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 tein, 4.4% fat, 5% carbohydrates, .7% ash, with a food value of 
 325 calories per pound. Cheese has 34.2% water, 25.9% pro- 
 tein, 33.7% fat, 24% carbohydrates, 3.8% ash, and 1.950 cal- 
 ories food value per pound. Butter has 11% water, 1% protein, 
 85% fat, 3% ash, with the highest value in calories per pound of 
 any food, 3,605. Eggs have 73.7% water, 14.8 % protein, 10.5 
 fat, 1% ash, and 720 calories per pound food value. 
 
 Milk, the “perfect food,” contains all the food elements— 
 water, fat, sugar, mineral, and albumen. It will support life 
 longer than any other known food. Milk may be the chief diet 
 of a child until its first teeth come, but as it does not furnish 
 enough force-producing material, this must be supplied by 
 Starchy foods, such as bread or crackers. Often milk is a source 
 of danger in that it holds and transmits certain disease germs. 
 For this reason, great care should be used in selecting our dairy. 
 After the milk is brought to our homes, absolute cleanliness must 
 be observed in caring for it. It is much safer to scald all milk 
 before it 1s used. Milk that has been boiled is not so easily 
 digested as that which has been merely scalded. The fat of milk 
 is really the most important constituent of milk since it is the 
 source of butter and is found in large quantities in cheese. The 
 fat of milk known as butter fat consists of several different kinds 
 of fat, the principle ones being stearin, palmitin and olein. These 
 are the same that make up the bulk of meat fats—suet, tallow, 
 lard, etc. Lactose or milk sugar is the chief carbohydrate found 
 in milk. This sugar varies in amount from 466% of the total 
 milk. The manufacture of milk sugar from whey 1s an import- 
 ant industry, as it 1s much used by chemists in the making of 
 powders, tablets, etc. The ash in milk is mainly phosphates, and 
 chlorides of soda, potash, and lime. - 
 
 Protein and fat are the chief nutrients in eggs. Water and 
 ash are also found. The white contains about twice as much 
 water as the yolk, and less protein. Their water content as a 
 whole is much the same as that of lean meat. The chief ash is 
 common salt. Sulphur is found in the egg albumen. This is the 
 substance when decomposed that gives spoilt eggs their offensive 
 odor. 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 133 
 
 Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Vegetables. 
 
 Vegetables, except peas, beans and other legumes, are usu- 
 ally poor in fat and protein, but are valuable as nutrients, largely 
 because of their carbohydrates. Starch, cellulose and small 
 amounts of sugar form the main carbohydrates elements. They 
 are also rich in mineral elements, containing relatively large pro- 
 portions of these. As vegetables are for the most part one-half 
 water, their food value is small compared to their bulk. Tha 
 legumes—beans, peas, lentils, and cowpeas, contain a much 
 greater amount of protein than other vegetables, and most of 
 them are also rich in carbohydrates. They are also rich in iron, 
 calcium, salts, potassium and phosphorus. Next to the cereals 
 the legumes are the most valuable and most widely used of all 
 vegetable foods. They are found in all climates. The chief 
 legumes used in the U. S. are peas, beans, and peanuts. Lentils 
 are raised only to a limited extent in the southwest, although they 
 are much more widely known in Europe and Asia. 
 
 Should we judge of a food by chemical analysis alone, we 
 should be forced to give legumes the highest place among foods, 
 since they contain more protein than even the best cuts of meat, 
 but the ease and completeness with which a food is digested must 
 be taken into consideration also. When these are considered. 
 legumes do not rank so high, for their digestion is less com- 
 plete, and in the case of persons not engaged in active work, is 
 often attended by distress due to fermentation in the intestines. 
 
 Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Cereals. 
 
 Cereals vary as to the proportion of nutrients, but carbo- 
 hydrates predominate in them all. The carbohydrates are mainly 
 in the form of starch. These starch grains are stored up in cells 
 whose walls are tough cellulose. 
 
 Much of our cereals are products of wheat, corn, oats, and 
 rye. Wheat is mainly ground into flour and comes to the table 
 as bread or pastries. There are several varieties of flour, depend- 
 ing upon how much of the wheat grain is used. The whole 
 grain is used in making Graham flour. The food value of Gra- 
 ham flour is greater than that of white flour, because of the 
 presence of the growing germ which is high in fat, compared to 
 
134 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 the rest of the wheat grain. Jt also contains a larger amount of 
 valuable minerals. Pastry flour is made from winter wheat, 
 which contains less gluten than spring wheat, which is used for 
 bread making flour. Different specimens of the same grain may 
 vary greatly in composition. This variation is caused by the 
 variety, soil, climate, an‘| season in which they grow. While the 
 different cereals resemble each other closely, and are all rich 
 im carbohydrates, they have certain differences which separate 
 them. Corn is rich in fats compared to the others, while oats 
 are rich in both protein and fats. Rice has little fat and little 
 crude fiber, while both rye and wheat have a high proportion of 
 protein and some small amount of fat. Oats furnishes the best 
 balanced proportion of all grains, while wheat ranks next, and 
 corn third. 
 
 For many children cereal foods are especially valuable. 
 This is not alone because of their food value, but for the milk 
 and sugar with which they are served. Cereals are also, because 
 of their easy digestion, valuable for old people’s diet. In cookery 
 for invalids they are almost invaluable, but taken as a class, 
 cereals (breakfast foods) are not as economical a diet for hearty 
 working people as are grains served in the form of breads and 
 pastries. 
 
 Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Fruits. 
 
 While most of our fruits contain starch and sugar, accord- 
 ing to their bulk, they perhaps form less of real value to our 
 diet than most other of our foods. They are, however, useful 
 to stimulate the appetite, and give a relish to our more substantial 
 foods. They serve to give a piquancy to our heavy diet, and by 
 their acid tend to overcome some of the evil effects of over eating 
 of foods rich in fats and proteins. They are rich in minerals, 
 and after drying are much richer in grape than other sugars. 
 This is especially true of dates, raisins, figs, and prunes, which 
 contain from 50% to 75% more sugar after drying. Not only 
 are the acids-and salts of benefit to the diet, but the bulk of 
 water and cellulose or woody fiber which they contain are of 
 great benefit to stimulate the work of digestion. Some of the 
 dried fruits as well as fruit juices are valuable because of their 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 135 
 
 laxative properties. Ripe fruits contain much more sugar than 
 green, for in the process of ripening the starches and other car- 
 bohydrates are changed into sugar. 
 
 Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Beverages. 
 
 One of the peculiarities of the human appetite is that while 
 most of the water we drink is taken in the form of beverages, 
 we have no natural instinct or appetite for them. No child was 
 ever born with a natural liking for beer or whisky and very few 
 children like tea or coffee at first. 
 
 It seems that nature has attempted to show us that such 
 drinks are by no means necessary or even beneficial to the human 
 system. The most commonly used of these amusement food 
 are tea, coffee, and cocoa. They have an agreeable taste, mildly 
 stimulate the nervous system and while moderately used by 
 grown up persons, seldom do much harm. 
 
 Tea is made from the green leaves of a shrub grown in 
 China, Japan, and Southern India. Coffee is made from the 
 seeds of a shrub or low tree. Much of our coffee comes from 
 South America. Cocoa is made from the bean-like seeds of a 
 small tree growing in the tropics. Unless made with milk, cocoa 
 contains very little real food value. The effect of these three 
 drinks depends upon a spicy tasting substance known as caffein. 
 Unless taken to excess the mild stimulating effect produced 
 upon the nervous system and heart may be beneficial, but if 
 taken in large quantities without other food, may lead to serious 
 disorders of the digestive system. The most harmful substance 
 found in these beverages is tannin, but this will not be found 
 unless the tea or coffee has been boiled and then left standing 
 on the grounds. However, these drinks form a very small part 
 of a nourishing diet and for children or young people are far 
 better if left alone. | 
 
 Among the amusement drinks which we cannot class as 
 harmless are wine, ale, beer, whisky, brandy, and rum. Wine 
 is produced by yeast bacteria working in a vat of grape juice. 
 It attacks the fruit sugar contained in the juice, splits it up into 
 alcohol and carbon dioxide, so that it becomes bubbly and frothy 
 with gas. Beer, ale, and cider are made from crushed barley or 
 
136 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 wheat and apples, which have been set to work by the yeast 
 germ. 
 
 Whisky, brandy, and rum are made from distilling the mix- 
 ture of water and alcohol made from grain or fruit juice. 
 
 Alcohol, if properly classed, would be put among the drugs 
 and not among the foods. The greatest amount of alcohol which 
 one could safely consume would supply less than one-tenth of 
 the total fuel food necessary. Its effects on the body is a dead- 
 ening one—much as morphine, ether, or chloral. The bodily con- 
 dition may remain the same, but it deadens the nerves to any 
 sense of discomfort from which one may be suffering. 
 
 At the present there are on the market many coffee and tea 
 substitutes, but as these are for the most part made from cereals, 
 they might have been properly discussed under that heading. 
 The manufacturers claim that they make a harmless, satisfying 
 drink, and are equal in flavor to coffee and tea, but this, the real 
 coffee lover strenuously denies. The real food value of most 
 drinks is very small, except cocoa, which owes its real food value 
 to the milk with which ii is made. Fruit drinks owe their food 
 value largely to the syrups used in thew making. 
 
 Principles of Selection of Food. 
 
 Three things have much importance in helping us instinc- 
 tively to choose foods best suited to our individual needs. These 
 are climate, occupation and water. 
 
 Animal food is much better suited to a cold than a hot 
 climate. The internal fires burn up more fuel, for we breathe 
 more rapidly and take in more oxygen in cold than in warm 
 weather. | 2 
 
 The sugar and starch obtained from fruits and vegetables 
 are easily digested. The Eskimo lives largely on blubber oil. 
 The Norwegians, Swedes and other persons of the far North use 
 large quantities of oily fish, while in hot climates, as in India 
 and Southern China, the main diet is rice. The Arab’s diet 
 consists mainly of dates, parched grains, and camel’s milk. To 
 these the Turk adds melons and cucumberes. As the Italians 
 are farther north, we naturally expect to find a heavier diet, and 
 this is true, for this is the country of marcaroni, cheese, and chest- 
 nuts. 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 137 
 
 Strange as it may seem, the water of a country helps to 
 determine the nature of its food requirements. In Ireland, the 
 water, strongly loaded with lime, furnishes what the potato 
 lacks. In England and Scotland, where the waters are soft, oats 
 and wheat, which are rich in phosphates, are the principal diet. 
 
 The craving of the natural instinct to obtain the elements— 
 proteids, carbohydrates, fats and oils, and mineral foods—leads 
 us to select such foods as will combine them in right proportion. 
 In the spring, our appetites demand fresh fruits and vegetables 
 so that the potash salts which have been lacking in our heavy 
 winter diet, may be supplied. Our occupation also has much to 
 do in determining the needs of the body for food. People 
 engaged in sedentary occupation need food which may be served 
 in an attractive form. They also must have the greatest nourish- 
 ment in the most compact form. They should have animal food 
 and starchy and warmth-giving foods. But people who work in 
 the open prefer food which will stay by them. They prefer salt 
 meat because it makes them drink more, and this supplies water 
 necessary for excessive perspiration. 
 
 The choosing of foods and the planning of meals lies largely - 
 in the hands of the housekeeper. For this reason, it is highly 
 wmportant that she have some very definite knowledge of food 
 values. Fortunately, the body readily adapts itself to the various 
 kinds of food offered, selecting such as it needs for its work, but 
 should a diet be consistently day by day either over rich or under 
 value in any important: food compound, the result will soon tell. 
 For the average housekeeper it is almost if not quite impossible 
 for her to have a perfectly balanced diet, but by careful planning 
 a happy menu may be reached. A man weighing 150 pounds 
 engaged in active work should have 3% ounces of protein a day. 
 A woman needs about 4/5 of that amount, while growing child- 
 ren need more in comparison to their size. The more active 
 a life one lives the more food he will require. In this case, it is 
 often well to increase the use of food rich in fats, starches, and 
 
 sugar rather than those high in protein. Tests have proven that 
 any meal which furnishes enough energy to the body will furnish 
 enough protein. 
 
138 FOURTH QUARTER . 
 
 Necessity for Indigestible Matter in Food. 
 
 Some foods are valuable to the proper working of the 
 various organs of the body which viewed from the point of their 
 assimilation into the body, cannot be classed as foods at all. 
 These foods are those which give bulk to the more concentrated 
 diet or those which are laxative in nature. 
 
 Of this class, bran is one of the most important and is highly 
 recommended by physicians as a means of relief from constipa- 
 tion. Among the latter class, although these also have real food 
 value, may be mentioned oranges, lemons, grape fruit, apples, 
 prunes, figs, green vegetables, honey, molasses, olive oil, butter- 
 milk, cream, butter, and oatmeal. To the first class may also be 
 added all whole grain breads and fruits, if eaten without peeling. 
 
 Experiments have been conducted along this line very ex- 
 tensively and while they tend to prove that a too concentrated 
 diet is by no means desirable, they have also proved that the 
 presence of bran and such “roughage” tend to lessen the amount 
 of nutrients digested. They showed that for persons troubled 
 with constipation, bran served to increase the churning motion 
 of the intestines, and tended to cause the food to pass on before 
 it was wholly digested. For this reason, such foods should be 
 used by invalids only at their physician’s orders, but for the 
 ordinary healthy person, inclination and taste may safely decide 
 for one. 
 
 Hygiene of Digestion, Principles Governing Selection of Food, 
 
 Conditions Affecting Choice, as Activity, Temperature, 
 
 Age. | 
 
 Individual tastes and physiological dissimilarities will always 
 play an important part in the choice of food eaten,’and dieticians 
 must take these into consideration when planning menus. These 
 peculiarities are not only individual, but national, so true, indeed 
 is this that we have come to associate certain articles of diet 
 with certain nations. The Englishman and his tea, the Russian 
 and his caviare, the Italian and his spaghetti, the Frenchman and 
 his salads and soups are too well known to need comment. 
 
 But as national tastes differ as do individual tastes, the 
 human system needs certain elements for its upkeep. These vary 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 139 
 
 according to the age, activity, temperature, and climatic condi- 
 tions. But should conditions be normal, the average adult will 
 require about fourteen ounces of meat, sixteen ounces of bread, 
 and three or four ounces of butter fat. In addition to this the 
 body needs about fifty ounces of water during the day. In order 
 to build up the body and repair its waste, and furnish the neces- 
 sary amount of heat, a certain amount of each food element is 
 indispensible. For example, about four and one-half ounces of 
 albumin, four ounces of fat, and five ounces of sugar or starch 
 must be eaten daily. To oxidize this amount of food will require 
 a certain amount of oxygen. It has been estimated that in the 
 course of a day a person breathes in about twenty-four ounces 
 of oxygen which is sufficient to oxidize the quantities of the food 
 elements that have been mentioned. Something should now be 
 said of the kinds of foods the body needs. There is a real need 
 for variety aside from mere preference. For example, we must 
 have water, salt and lime compounds, starchy foods, fats, and 
 a definite amount of nitrogenous foods. Should any of these 
 be lacking, the body will soon feel the need of it. Sometimes 
 ‘this is shown by a peculiar craving for some things. Under- 
 nourishment is quite frequently found in the congested districts 
 of our large cities, where Saint Vitus Dance, Rickets and kin- 
 dred diseases run rife. But even in the homes of the wealthy 
 are often found improperly nourished children. The majority 
 of people do not eat a balanced diet. Ordinarily, the most simple 
 meals come nearer containing all the necessary food elements 
 than do the more elaborate ones. A meal consisting of bread, 
 meat or cheese, eggs, butter and milk, will furnish all the neces- 
 sary food elements. 
 
 When a housekeeper faces the pee of feeding old 
 people, active, working middle aged people and children, all at 
 the same time, her problem is no simple one. 
 
 A growing girl or boy requires more food than an adult. 
 The reason is evident for the child’s worn tissues must be 
 repaired and also extra food 1s needed to provide for the growth 
 of the tissues. At no imme of life 1s food oxidation so great as 
 in childhood. Children are constantly in motion during their 
 waking period. 
 
140 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 Experiments have shown that a child two and one-half 
 years old, weighing twenty-five pounds, uses when at rest half 
 as much oxygen as an adult weighing one hundred fifty pounds 
 and nearly three times as much for each unit of weight. After 
 seventy or seventy-five has been passed, there is a marked 
 decrease in vitality and bodily activity. The food eaten is 
 accordingly diminished. Oxidation has been found to be about 
 20% less with a man of seventy than in one of twenty-five. 
 
 Climate has no uncertain effect on the amount and kind 
 of food required. Should you travel in different countries, you 
 would find the people in one of them eating very different food 
 and in very different quantities than the people in the others. 
 We all know that people in extremely could countries must eat 
 heat producing foods. The Eskimo, for example, must take 
 great quantities of fat. In countries much to the south of us, 
 where the climate is warm, the heat producing foods, such as 
 meats and fats, are not in much demand. Fruits and vegetables 
 are found much more desirable.. 
 
 Adulterated Foods. 
 
 The subject of adulterated foods is such a big one that whole 
 volumes might be written about it, and the subject still not be 
 adequately treated. For nearly half a century, the fight for pure 
 unadulterated foods has been going on and the name most prom- 
 inently connected with this fight is that of Harvey W. Wiley, 
 who for years was chief of the Bureau of Chemistry until his 
 resignation March 15, 1912. 
 
 Adulteration of foods have taken many forms—all tending 
 to cheapen the cost of the product. In some cases the result is 
 harmless—the consumer simply pays for inferior material, while 
 in others, the danger to life and health is great. As an example 
 of the first, ground shells and fruit stones are often used to mix 
 with spices, while preservatives and bleaches come under the 
 second heading. 
 
 Mixing, preserving and coloring are the three chief methods 
 of adulteration. 
 
 Some of the most commonly used adulterants known as 
 chemical preservatives are the following: 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 141 
 
 Boric acid, formerly much used in meats, milk, and butter. 
 
 Benzoic acid, used in preserving catsup, mince meat, and 
 certain fruit juices. 
 
 Saccharin, a product of coal tar, used in place of sugar, 
 for sweetening purposes. One part of saccharin has 400 or 500 
 times as much sweetening power as the same amount of sugar. 
 
 Some of the most commonly used adulterants used for 
 coloring purposes are copper, which was used to produce a 
 bright green color in such foods as canned peas, string beans, 
 etc. Caramel, made from burnt sugar, was used to color flavor- 
 ing extracts, such as vanilla, and to give the appearance of age 
 ~ to liquors. 
 
 Tumeric was used tc give a bright yellow color to mustard 
 preparations. 
 
 Among the “mixing adulterants” are cotton seed oil, which 
 was formerly much used as an adulterant of olive oil. 
 
 Glucose was much used as a substitute for sugar in jellies, 
 jams, etc. Starch was used in jellies to thicken them, also in 
 spices and condiments to increase the bulk. 
 
 Coffee has been adulterated in many ways, mainly by the 
 addition of chickory, peas, beans, etc. If ground, the adultera- 
 tion is more difficult to detect. 
 
 Flour, vinegar, butter, milk, and ice cream have all come 
 in for their share of adulteration. Water is the main adulterant 
 of milk, while gelatin that of ice cream. 
 
 Candies have suffered much from adulterants. Starch, 
 paraffin, and large amounts of coloring matter are often added. 
 
 Source of Food Supplies and Necessity for Cleanliness. 
 
 Food sanitation has now come to be a question of the 
 greatest importance. Because of their source or condition, foods 
 may be the direct cause of many diseases. With our increasing 
 population and change in commercial conditions the government 
 has found it necessary to take active steps in the guarding of 
 public health. For this there are many reasons, among them 
 being the following: 
 
 1. Changes in composition of food due to long storage. 
 
 2. Exposure to dust and flies, not only during transporta- 
 tion, but in the city markets. 
 
142 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 - 
 
 3. Collection of food materials from sources over which 
 there is no sanitary supervision. 
 
 4. Transportation over long distances, with acompanying 
 danger of fermentation and contamination. 
 
 5.. Presence in canned and preserved foods of certain sub- 
 stances known as adulterants. 
 
 Many people condemn the use of uncooked foods as dan- 
 gerous. To a certain extent this is true. A. certain epidemic 
 of typhoid fever occurred in Middletown, Conn., in 1894, which 
 was traced directly to the eating of raw oysters “fattened” near 
 the mouth of sewers. 
 
 Fruits and vegetables are a possible source of diseases. Many 
 are raised in manure which is alive with germs. In the city 
 markets, flies swarm over the produce on sale. For these reasons, 
 the housewntfe 1s urged to thoroughly clean all vegetables and: 
 fruits and cook them, if at all possible, before théy are served. 
 Such fruits as oranges, bananas, lemons, etc., are rendered safe 
 by a careful washing before the fruit is cut. 
 
 With our modern means of transportation, our foods come 
 to us from all parts of the earth. From the shores of Alaska we 
 get our canned salmon, and from the deserts of Arabia our 
 dates and figs.. With this diversity in locality, one can easily see 
 the danger incurred unless great care is taken in the home prep- 
 aration of our foods. Many of them come to us in air tight 
 cartons, factory sealed, and with these little danger is run. How- 
 ever, there are certain precautions that the average housekeeper 
 must take. The greatest care must be exercised in keeping food 
 at a uniform temperature, and away from contamination of all 
 sorts. A modern refrigerator, if properly cared for, is one of 
 the best safeguards to health, but if neglected may become a 
 fruitful source of infection. 
 
 It should not be forgotten that food, even when placed in 
 a refrigerator, does not cease to undergo change. For this 
 reason, ventilation of refrigerators should be perfect and they 
 should be perfectly clean, especial attention being given to the 
 care of drain pipes. 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 143 
 
 Preparation of Food. Advantages of Proper Cooking. 
 
 It is a famous saying that “civilized man cannot live with- 
 out cooks.” Perhaps there is more truth in it than at first 
 appears. Cooking is the first step in the process of digestion: 
 It renders the food soft and crisp so that it can be more easily 
 chewed. With proper seasoning, it is more agreeable to the taste 
 and calls out a more generous flow of the digestive juices. The 
 heat necessary to cook food also kills any disease germs that 
 may be found in it. We are speaking, of course, of good cook- 
 ing. Improper cooking often makes good food harmful to us. 
 Broiling, roasting, and boiling are three good ways. of cooking. 
 As methods of cooking, they rank in the order named. 
 
 In cooking meats, it is best-to keep the natural juices in 
 them as much as possible. This can best be done by broiling. 
 The heat almost instantly seals up the meat so that the juices 
 cannot escape. In roasting, the meat should be placed in a very 
 hot oven or vessel so that the juices may be retained. The 
 process of boiling depends somewhat upon whether soup is to 
 be made. Jf the purpose is merely to prepare the meat for food, 
 at should be placed in hot water, but if one wishes to make soup 
 he should cut the meat fine and place it in cold water and then 
 gradually bring it to boiling. 
 
 Frying cannot be so highly recommended as a method of 
 cooking. The fat used in cooking generally forms a very hard 
 coating over the meat so that the digestive juices penetrate it 
 with difficulty. Fried food is, therefore, more difficult to digest 
 than tf broiled, boiled, or roasted. Some of the undesirable 
 results, however, can be avoided by having the melted fat and 
 the pan which contains it very hot before putting into it the 
 meat, potatoes, eggs, or buckwheat cake. This renders it more 
 like broiling. Quick frying is much better than slow frying. 
 Frying is not without its good points. It is a time saving process 
 and also develops very desirable flavors. 
 
 To sum up the reasons for cooking then, we may say that 
 there are three. First, cooking makes food -easier to chew and 
 digest. It bursts the grains of starch, coagulates the jell-hke. 
 pulp of meats, the white of an egg, and the gluten of flour. It 
 prepares food for.the work of the teeth. You can appreciate 
 
144 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 the change by comparing the taste of a raw potato with that of 
 a roasted or broiled one. This was doubtless the reason why 
 cooking came to. be done. You need only draw on your experi- 
 ence for proof of this reason for cooking. Lastly, cooking 
 sterilizes food. Tribes of Indians who cooked their food were 
 found to have less stomach trouble and lived longer than others. 
 Certain parasites and germs are known to live on meats and 
 fruits. As has been said, the heat of cooking kills them and 
 renders the food sterile. 
 
 Proper Serving of Food. 
 
 Important as the proper cooking of food is, one must not 
 overlook the almost equal importance of serving. 7 
 
 The dinner hour is the one time of the day when the family 
 is gathered together and in the setting of the table and the serv- 
 ing of the meal, three things’ should be kept in mind. There 
 should first be simplicity, a simplicity which will give a feeling 
 of rest. The second point to be noted 1s good arrangement of 
 the table. A simple, orderly arrangement of cups, knives, forks, 
 and spoons does much to give an air of harmony to the room. 
 The third point to be noted is convenience. The table must be 
 set so that each person will have the necessary utensils within easy 
 reach. 
 
 Reasons for Regularity and Moderation in Eating. 
 
 A keen appetite is one of the main causes of too rapid and 
 over eating. /f one eats too rapidly, he is much more likely to 
 over eat than if his food is taken slowly and thoroughly masti- 
 cated. All rapid eaters are large eaters, though most of them 
 are of the opinion that they eat but little, simply because they 
 spend but little time at the table. The only way to cure this too 
 prevalent habit is by forcing oneself to eat slowly. Sometimes 
 physicians find patients’ systems so overloaded with food that 
 a strict fast for twenty-four hours must be resorted to until the 
 patient has had time to use up or eliminate the excessive amount 
 of food stored up. Laxatives are often resorted to to aid nature 
 in regaining her normal level. 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 145 
 
 In most cases three meals a day are sufficient. This is for 
 the normal healthy patient. Special cases of illness are governed 
 by their special needs. 
 
 The proper time for the largest meal of the day is in the 
 early part of the day. One of the most absurd customs America 
 copied from European countries is that of having but a cup of 
 coffee and a roll for breakfast and a heavy meal at night. By 
 midnight, if the dinner is eaten at 6:00 P. M., the stomach has 
 -cofnpletely disposed of its contents and by 8:00 A. M. after its 
 eight hours of rest, is ready for a substantial meal. Experiments 
 have proved that digestion is more perfect in the morning than 
 later in the day. But the manner of life for most of us must 
 determine our habits of eating, and whatever they may be they 
 should at least be regular, for the digestive organs under normal 
 conditions soon become accustomed to caring for food at certain 
 hours, and if it is not then supplied headache and weakness are 
 apt to result. Jt is scarcely necessary that one should eat between 
 meals, nor should one eat excessively of candy and sweets. The 
 pleasant taste of candy and nuts often leads us to overeat of 
 them and brings on attacks of indigestion. Perhaps the best 
 drink to accompany our meals is water, although milk and cocoa 
 may be used. The latter, however, are foods as well as drinks. 
 
 As to the quantity of food to be taken, one should always 
 eat a little less than he really wants, and most certainly less than 
 he can. It is not how much, but how well we eat that should be 
 remembered. It 1s, unwise to eat until one feels full and dull. 
 This would be intemperate and would lead to ill health. 
 
 Pleasant Surroundings at Meals. 
 
 The mental condition of a person has much to do with. 
 appetite and digestion. Every physician knows the harmful 
 effects of shame, anger, worry or overwork, and the good effects 
 of joy and happiness upon one’s digestion. Indeed, the many 
 advantages of good companionship at the table has been known 
 from the earliest times and has been written upon by many 
 authors. To such an extent was this notion carried that im 
 Roman times all feasts were enlivened by paid singers and 
 dancers. Today the modern cabaret in our hotels and cafe dining 
 rooms are a survival of this ancient custom. 
 
146 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 The nervous system controls digestion, just as it controls 
 all other bodily functions. The secretion of digestive juices and 
 the action of the various organs of digestion are affected by 
 whatever affects the nervous system. Worry has been known to 
 keep the food in the stomach for twelve hours in just the same 
 condition as it entered. 
 
 Our meals should always be eaten leisurely and under 
 pleasant conditions. The conversation should always be of a 
 cheerful sort. Stories of personal difficulties and grievances ‘are 
 poor topics of conversation at meal times. Parents sometimes 
 find it necessary to correct a child at the table, but this should 
 be done in as quiet a way as possible, for many an attack of 
 indigestion in children can be directly traceable to a “scene” at 
 some meal. 
 
 Thorough Mastication. 
 
 Insufficient mastication is perhaps one of the most serious 
 as well as the most prevalent offenses against human digestion. 
 Man is practically the only creature which bolts its food without 
 careful chewing. Food, if insufficiently chewed, must remain 
 in the stomach a much longer time than if thoroughly ground up. 
 Here the food is attacked by bacterial growths under the favor- 
 able presence of moisture and warmth. Decomposition begins, 
 and the work of the digestive juices are hindered. Then, too, 
 if one does not chew his food thoroughly he is apt to: eat a great 
 deal more than if he had chewed it fine. This means that the 
 digestive tract is overtaxed with an undue amount of material, 
 which it must dispose of. 
 
 Mr. Horace Fletcher has made some very interesting experi- 
 _ments along this line, and the fact that he is now well past sixty, 
 yet is hearty and vigorous as a man of twenty seems to prove his 
 contention that most of our ailments come from poorly digested 
 food—the result of poor chewing and rapid eating. Thorough 
 mastication lessens the time necessary for rest and sleep, since 
 the system is not overworked with products of decomposition. 
 People who masticate thoroughly are soon found to eat less pro- 
 tein than formerly, when they ate rapidly. 
 
 The food should be chewed until every particle has been 
 ground to a fme soft pulp. You will be surprised to note fine 
 
> 
 
 FOURTH QUARTER 147 
 
 flavors you had not noticed before. If you have but five minutes 
 in which to eat, do not hurry. A little carefully chewed is much 
 better than a great quantity hastily swallowed. 
 
 Care of the Teeth and Mouth. 
 
 Most people feel that they understand the care of their 
 mouth and teeth, but few really realize the importance of this 
 care. Jf one wants good strong teeth, he should give them plenty 
 of exercise. One of the best means to secure this exercise is to 
 thoroughly chew all food taken into the mouth. Some dentists 
 deeply deplore the fact that so much of our food requires so 
 little chewing. This is especially true of cereal breakfast foods. 
 Chewing meats and bread crusts is good exercise for the teeth. 
 One reason for this is that pressure is put on the roots and the 
 gums become more healthful. The teeth should be given a 
 thorough cleaning after each meal, as the bits of food that lodge 
 between them give rise to acids that corrode the enamel. A 
 moderately stiff tooth brush should be used along with some 
 good dentrifice. Some people prefer liquid tooth washes. These 
 are usually beneficial in that they possess antiseptic qualities, but 
 at this their virtue usually ceases. They are rarely harmful. 
 Other people prefer tooth pastes of which the number is uncount- 
 able. Here each person must exercise his own judgment, some 
 being good, some being bad, and some indifferent. Too many 
 depend upon a catchy name, an attractive container or a sweet 
 scent to catch the popular favor. While few of them live up to 
 the extravagant claims made by their producers, few of them 
 are really injurious. Many dentists recommend a tooth powder 
 as the best cleaning dentrifice. If well chosen-this is true, for 
 there is more scouring material in the dry powder than in paste, 
 but many powders contain gritty material or dangerous acids, 
 which in time will ruin the enamel. 
 
 One should never use any but a wooden tooth pick. A pin 
 or other metallic substance should never be used, as the danger 
 of scratching or breaking the enamel is great. One should never 
 crack nuts with the teeth—they were never intended to take the 
 place. of steel nut crackers. One should also use great care in 
 biting very hard candies or other substances of this sort. 
 
148 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 Much stomach trouble is caused by carelessness in the care 
 of the teeth and mouth. Germs from decayed teeth pass into the 
 alimentary canal and interfere with digestion. This condition is 
 especially serious with babies. A saturated solution of borax 
 makes an excellent mouth wash. This solution may be applied 
 to the mouth and gums with a soft cloth. In persistent cases of 
 sore mouth either of children or adults, one should consult a 
 physician. Rigg’s disease or pyhorrea 1s a disease attacking the 
 gums, causing them to recede. In advanced stages the gums 
 bleed easily, and the disease may progress to such an-extent that 
 finally the teeth loosen and fall out. 
 
 It is never wise to defer a trip to the dentist, as this may — 
 mean the loss of the tooth as well as increased pain. A tooth 
 should be filled while the cavity is yet small, because it is less 
 painful and the expense not so great. Expensive crown and 
 bridge work is generally the result of neglect to consult a dentist. 
 
 Beverages—Water; Necessity for in the Body. 
 
 Water is one of the main essentials of human life. In the 
 inorganic foods, it takes precedence since it comprises 6624% of 
 the body. It is absolutely necessary to the performance of every 
 bodily function. Man may go days without food, but after 
 twenty-four hours without water, the longing becomes so intense, 
 if continued, often results in loss of reason for the victim. 
 
 Water is used largely in the digestion of foods. While some 
 water may be taken with our meals, it is better to drink copiously 
 an hour or so before each meal, then let the salivary glands secret 
 the moisture necessary to moisten the food. 
 
 Water is also used in the process of absorption of digested 
 foods. It makes up 90% of the fluids of the body,, thus making 
 possible the easy distribution of food materials. Within each 
 living cell water is necessary to all the life processes. The 
 glands make use of it largely in their secretions. For example, 
 9914% of the saliva is water and 98% of the pancreatic juice 
 is water. | 
 
 Man had added many things to pure water to increase its 
 palatability as a beverage, but nothing is more effective in slaking 
 thirst than pure cold water alone. 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 149 
 
 Water from shallow wells should always be looked upon 
 with suspicion as they are very likely contaminated by surface 
 water. Water flowing through sand and gravel is apt to be pure 
 and softer than that which filters through rock. Driven wells 
 
 made by driving iron pipes in the ground, are considered the best 
 kind. 
 
 Sources of Drinking Water and Ice Supplies and Necessary 
 Precautions. 
 
 Water in general use is obtained from springs or wells. This 
 is especially true of rural districts. Cities depend largely upon 
 their water from lakes or rivers, and use various devices to 
 either protect it from contamination through drainage from fac- 
 tories or house sewerage or to purify it, if such protection is 
 possible. Such cities as St. Louis, located on large rivers, have 
 an adequate supply, but face the problem of purifying it. In St. 
 Louis, one of the best equipped filtering plants in the world is 
 located, where the filtering is carried on in an inconceivably large 
 scale. 
 
 Most waters contain more or less mineral salts held in solu- 
 tion, for the most part carbonates. When these waters cause 
 a curdling of soap suds, the water is said to be hard. Springs 
 issuing from sand are usually soft. Wells which draw their 
 supply of water from rock strata are usually hard, since they 
 take the salts from the rock through which they have filtered. 
 Rain water is soft when it first falls, but may later become hard 
 from standing in cisterns. The boiling of water 1s recommended 
 when there is a chance of its being contaminated. This not only 
 kills all bacterial germs, but removes a considerable amount of 
 carbohydrates. Boiled water unless aerated, has an insipid taste. 
 This may be done by putting the boiled water in a jar, leaving 
 it but about half full, then thoroughly shaking the jar. This 
 restores the original flavor. 
 
 The average person needs about two quarts of water every 
 twenty-four hours. About one-half of this amount is taken as 
 food. Weather conditions cause our needs of water to vary 
 greatly. On hot, dry days we drink much more than we do on 
 cool, cloudy ones. As a rule, most people drink too little water 
 and as a result suffer from constipation and kidney trouble. 
 
150 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 As was stated in a former topic, our ice supply depends 
 either upon natural or artificial ice. Natural ice stands greater 
 chance of being impure than artificial, yet unless the latter is 
 made from filtered water, we cannot be sure of its purity. 
 
 Every possible precaution should be taken to see that not 
 only the source but the delivery of both water and ice are pure. 
 If not pure, extra precautions must be taken in the home. In 
 regard to water, many devices have been made for its purifica- 
 tion, such as filters and chemical reagents, but the safest, surest 
 and easiest is simply boiling, then aerating. 
 
 If there is any question as to the purity of the ice supply — 
 it should be used only for refrigeration and never put in any food 
 or drink. All ice should be washed under running water before 
 being put in the chest or refrigerator. 
 
 Tea and Coffee—Sources—Properties—Effects. 
 
 Tea is made from the leaves of a small shrub found growing 
 in China, Japan, and Ceylon. It grows from three to six feet 
 high and sends out four sets of shoots each year. The two 
 small leaves at the top of each shoot make the finest tea as they 
 contain the most juice and the least fiber. These make the 
 Flowery and the Orange Pekoe. The larger leaves farther down 
 the stem are used for the Pekoe, Congo, and Souchang teas, 
 inferior in flavor. Young Hyson and Gunpowder are made from 
 the same grade of leaves. There are two ways of preparing the 
 tea for market, and results in either black or green tea. Black 
 tea is made by withering the leaves in the sun, then rolling them 
 into balls and allowing them to ferment. When fermentation is 
 complete, they are dried in the sun or in a furnace. Green tea 
 is made as black tea with the exception that it is not allowed to 
 ferment before being dried. 
 
 The tannin in black tea is rendered less harmful, less soluble 
 by the digestive juices. For this reason, it is more healthful 
 than green tea, but it contains more theine, the stimulant, than 
 green tea. 
 
 Green Black 
 Tea. Tea. 
 Pannier. SAAS Ba ee esere nee 10.64% 4.89% 
 
 Theine \iutcusa ued ieee aah eae ae eee 3.20% 3.30% 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 151 
 
 The characteristic flavor of tea is due to various oils. Some 
 of these oils are contained in the tea, others, as fragrant olive oil, 
 is added. The best teas on the market are blended teas from 
 different countries. Teas from different countries have different 
 flavors. While tea and coffee contain some protein and carbo- 
 hydrates, they cannot be properly classed as foods but as stimu- 
 lants. This means that they increase mental and physical alert- 
 ness, and for this reason should not be used by children whose 
 delicate nervous system does not need these stimulants. 
 
 The stimulants in tea is theine, in coffee, caffein. Tannin is 
 the most harmful substance contained in tea. The amount in 
 a cup of tea depends upon the length of time the water is al- 
 lowed to stand on the leaves. Tannin interferes with the secre- 
 tion of digestive juices and especially with the digestion of 
 protein. 
 
 The coffee tree is a cultivated evergreen found in the tropics. 
 In its natural state, it grows to thirty feet in height, but when 
 under cultivation it is kept pruned from six to ten feet in height. 
 The fruit of the tree resembles a cherry. In this fruit are two 
 seeds embedded. These are the coffee grains. The fruit is 
 dried, the seeds removed, cleaned, and graded. 
 
 Coffee has an entirely different composition from tea. It is 
 high in fat and soluble carbohydrates. It also contains caffein, an 
 alkaloid identical with theine. 
 
 The following table will show the difference between green 
 and roasted coffee. 
 
 Raw. Roasted. 
 
 ROerRr RON ars Tones fyi See ey ek ees ars 11.23 1.15 
 Be I fee e ar heey Pn ry eG hen, ne, 3.92 475 
 Rr ee oe Ane Toh regis sek pe, be. bie 12527 14.48 
 EER. See GORE Mit eee - 66 8.55 
 (os isehnat  S0 SER age ine al ee ae Aa Ic a tZ.07 13.98 
 OE oe Pt Bon 0 RAN aa ee en 1.21 LAs 
 
 The greater amount of sugar and other soluble carbohydrates 
 in the roasted article is due to the effect of the heat upon the non- 
 nitrogenous compounds. 
 
 Since only a small part of the nutrients are soluable and 
 available coffee cannot be considered a food. It is a beverage 
 
152 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 with mildly stimulating properties. Coffee acts with different ef- 
 fects upon different individuals. Some people should never use it. 
 while others seem immune to its action. Since coffee is more 
 generally used in this country than tea, it is more subject to 
 adulteration. There are three kinds of coffee in general use— 
 Mocho, Java, and Rio or Brazil. The former is considered the 
 best, while the last is usually styled by dealers as “low” or “low — 
 middlings.” Mocha commands the highest market price. The 
 seeds are small and dark yellow before roasting. The Brazil has 
 the largest berry. The active ingredients of coffee is caffein. 
 This substance stimulates the cells of the body to do extra work. 
 It has a tendency to create an appetite. As a stimulant, its action 
 is vigorous, both on the nerves and the digestive system. Child- 
 ren should never be given coffee as they do not need it, and their 
 nervous systems are too readily acted upon by it. For most 
 grown people, its moderate use is not to be condemned, and in 
 some cases following cold and exposure, its use is very beneficial. 
 It should never be drunk at night as it has a tendency to produce 
 wakefulness. 
 
 Nourishing Drinks; Milk, Chocolate, Cocoa, and Cereal Drinks. 
 
 Some drinks have the proprieties of foods and are therefore 
 known as nourishing drinks. Among them are milk, cocoa, cho- 
 colate, and all sorts of cereal drinks. : 
 
 Milk is both food and drink. For young animals it is a per- 
 féct food up to a certain age, but in that it does not contain iron, 
 the growing child after the period of infancy requires more bone 
 building material. It contains not only protein and energy yielding _ 
 substances, but also almost all the minerals needed by the body. 
 
 However, its composition is such that life may be sustained 
 for long periods on milk alone and in some diseases milk forms 
 almost a sole diet. Fat is one of the most valuable constituents 
 _ of milk and varies from 2% to as high as 6% or even more. The 
 main difference in milk is in the fat content as the ash, albumin, 
 etc., do not vary much in different milks. The variation in fat 
 depends upon the feed, time of the year, breed and individuality 
 of the animal: 
 
 Milk is one of the most completely digested of all foods used 
 by the body. About 95% of the protein and 97% of the carbo- 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 153 
 
 hydrates are taken up in digestion. Some people cannot digest 
 milk easily. This is because it coagulates and forms a mass 
 resistive to the digestive juices. This may be prevented by eating 
 crackers or bread with it. ) 
 
 Pure milk is one of the most wholesome of all foods, but it 
 is also one of the greatest sources of danger from disease unless 
 produced under sanitary surroundings. Some of the most fre- 
 quent sources of unsanitary milk are: unhealthy animals, poor 
 food, dirty barns, impure water, and lack of care in the handling 
 and delivering of the milk. 
 
 Chocolate is the finely ground powder from the bean of the 
 cocoa tree, a native of the American tropics. The beans are 
 about the size of almonds and are taken from their pod and al- 
 lowed to ferment usually, in ovens, for about two days. This fer- 
 mentation determines largely the flavor of the finished product. 
 The beans are next dried in the sun, where they change from 
 white to their characteristic chocolate color. They are next 
 roasted and the husks removed. They are next ground and sold 
 as cracked cocoa or cocoa nibs. If cocoa is desired instead of 
 chocolate, some of the fat is presed out and sold as cocoa butter. 
 If sweet chocolate is desired, sugar and flavoring are added. 
 
 Tannin is found in the raw bean, but is changed during the 
 drying and causes the reddish color. 
 
 Certain cereal drinks are regarded as more or less nutritious. 
 Some of these preparations contain a little real coffee, but for the 
 most part are made of wheat, barley, or of grain mixed with pea 
 hulls, ground corn cobs or wheat middlings. To these New Or- 
 leans molasses or other sweetening is added. Their main claim to 
 superiority is that they are non-stimulating, but a few lovers of 
 coffee will accept them as comparing in flavor to a good grade of 
 coffee. As far as nutritive value is concerned, parching probably 
 renders some of the carbohydrates soluble, but it is so little that 
 as foods they are not worth considering in the dietary. 
 
 Non-Alcoholic Refreshing Drinks, Lemonade, Orangeade, Un 
 fermented Fruit Juices, Fruit Syrups. 
 
 Especially during the hot months of summer, certain non- 
 alcoholic drinks are very refreshing. These are made from the 
 
154 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 juices of various fruits, the most common of which are lemons, 
 oranges, pineapples, grapes, strawberries, and various other 
 kinds of berries. These are of little food value, since the amount 
 of juices contained is small, but they are cooling, do not create 
 an appetite, and the action of the acid contained in them 1s highly — 
 beneficial to the digestive system. 
 
 Fresh fruits are composed largely of water. Bananas are 
 three-fourths water; strawberries nine-tenths and such fruits 
 as watermelons are even more. It is not because of their nutri- 
 ents that they are valuable in human diet, but because of the 
 chemical reaction they cause to take place. A diet of cereals, 
 meat, and eggs cause an acid reaction in the system, but the ac- 
 tion of a fruit diet is alkaline, hence the need of the latter. The 
 bulkiness of fruit and vegetables is beneficial in counteracting a 
 tendency to constipation. ) . 
 
 The sugar found in ripe fruit is known as fruit sugar and is 
 two and one-half times as sweet as ordinary sugar. Their organic 
 acids, as malic acid in apples, citric acid in lemons and oranges, 
 and tartaric acid in grapes, have characteristic medicinal prop- 
 erties. The essential or volatile oils are the compounds which 
 give each fruit its characteristic flavor. 
 
 Lemonade is made from the juice of lemons, sugar and 
 water in varying degrees. Orangeade is made in the same way. 
 The grape fruit in recent years has come to be very widely used, 
 and while seldom used alone as a basis for a drink, is especially 
 palatable if combined with other fruit juices. 
 
 Strawberries are a valuable addition to non-alcoholic summer 
 drinks. Their value is a high dietetic value rather than a real 
 food value. 
 
 Grapes contain more dry matter than either apples or oranges. 
 Their juice when thinned with ice water is especially good for sick 
 folk or invalids. : 
 
 While fruit juice drinks are especially commended for hot 
 weather use, the greatest care should be used if they are pur- 
 chased rather than made in the home. There is no article of 
 food more readily adulterated than this class of drinks. Some 
 times the substitutes are harmless enough, but often pernicious 
 coloring matters and chemicals are used in their manufacture. 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 155 
 
 In many bottled drinks now on the market, there is not one par- 
 ticle of real fruit juice used. This is especially true of pineapple 
 juice, which, if pure, is very expensive, but which can be manu- 
 factured by a chemist at a fraction of the cost of the genuine. 
 Pineapple flavoring is the ethyle butrate. This may be made from 
 butyric acid from stale butter and alcohol. 
 
 Banana flavor can be made from stale butter, caustic soda 
 and chloroform. ‘Thus we see how necessary it is that we know 
 the source of our flavoring extracts. 
 
 Those fruit syrups made at home, and which are often left 
 from the canning season, are the best, safest and cheapest to use, 
 and the thrifty house wife who can look over the shelves of a well 
 stocked fruit closet and see cans or jars of strawberry syrup, 
 pineapple juice, peach or plum syrup, and grape juice can feel 
 well satisfied with her summer’s work and may rest assured that 
 she has not only a safe, clean source of healthy drinks, but that 
 in case of sickness she has a reserve upon which to draw that 
 money could scarcely buy. 
 
 The Nervous System. 
 
 Even the well built, well nourished body could not exist with- 
 out something more. This something is the nervous system that 
 raises man above a mere vegetable or even in many respects, 
 above the animal. 
 
 We can think of the body as a beautiful house. But if from 
 this beautiful home we would take all the electric wiring it would 
 prove to be a dark cheerless place. There would be no electric 
 lights, no telephone, no radio, no electric sweeper, toaster, per- 
 culator or any of the many modern conveniences found in well 
 equipped homes. In many even the heat is dependent upon 
 electricity either from electric heaters or motors that drive all 
 into the furnaces. 
 
 The body would be in much the same condition if we de- 
 prived it of its nervous system. We could not move, smell, see, 
 think, hear, feel, taste, in fact, have no greater life than does a 
 cabbage in the garden. It would perhaps not be too far to go to 
 say that we could not have life itself. Since the nervous system 
 then plays such an impertant part in our well being, let us then 
 see what it is and how it performs its duties, 
 
156 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 Under the nervous system scientists place the brain, all the 
 nerves of the body, and the spinal cord. The nervous system is 
 made up of white and gray matter. By many authors, the brain 
 has been compared to the superintendent of a large factory, in 
 that it controls and directs all the activities of the body. Some- 
 times it acts under our will or direction; in other cases it acts in- 
 dependently of our knowledge or wish. It seems to be a sort of 
 telephone exchange where all messages are received and sent to 
 other parts of the body. When we speak of the brain, we gen- 
 erally think of it as the organ with which we do our thinking; of 
 course this is true but its use is far greater than this. 
 
 The brain is divided into three distinct parts, yet all are asso- 
 ciated together. The cerebrum is the part of the brain that fills 
 the upper and front part of the skull. The cerebrum is the seat 
 of the thinking mind; the cerebellum is the part of the brain that 
 is in the back part of the skull. 
 
 Great scientific men have agreed that the real functions of 
 the cerebellum are not known; the third part of the brain is the 
 medulla oblongata; this is simply the upper extension of the 
 spinal cord. . 
 
 The average weight of the brain of a man is about three 
 pounds. It is about four or six ounces lighter in a woman. It is 
 divided lengthwise into two halves each shaped similar to a coffee 
 bean. It seems strange to know that the right side of the brain 
 controls the left side of the body and vice versa. The brain is 
 covered with three membranes; the middle one secretes a fluid. - 
 These membranes protect the brain. The brain is made up of 
 two kinds of matter, the white and gray matter. The gray mat- 
 ter is the most impertant and serves as the outer covering of the 
 brain. The white matter seems to be mere bundles of wires car- 
 rying messages from one group of gray matter to the other. 
 
 Nerve Cells. 
 
 Many of the nerves end in little round bodies; these bodies 
 are the nerve cells. These cells are composed of gray mattr, 
 and are from 1/1200 to 1/2000 of an inch in diameter. Think of 
 the difficulty the scientists must have had to study these cells. 
 The number of such cells in the body is much past computation, 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 157 
 
 but in the brain alone it is estimated that there are more than 
 8,000,000,000. There is no part of the body that is not connected 
 with some such cell by a nerve fiber. In the brain mostly these 
 cells lie on the surface, for unlike other parts of the body, the 
 soft gray matter is here protected by a hard, bony covering and is 
 less exposed to injury than are the cells which are found in the 
 muscular parts. ° 
 
 Nerves. Nerve Fibers. 
 
 The nerves are like little threads, comopsed of white matter 
 on the outside and gray matter within. They are found in all parts 
 of the body. The nerves are made up of a bundle of little threads 
 called nerve fibers. The nerve threads are of various sizes, from 
 1/4000 of an inch in diameter to the great sciatic nerve of the leg 
 which is as large as the end of the little finger. It seems that all! 
 the nerve fibers have a connection with the spinal cord, and then 
 with the brain; they are cylindrical in shape and on the outside 
 are covered with a covering of fat. This is a sort of protection 
 for the nerves and at the same time helps them to retain their 
 shape. The nerves act with great quickness and transmitting 
 messages is the main work of the nerves. The nerve fibers seem 
 to be the mere conductors of nerve force. They are means of 
 communication between the nerve centers and the outside of the 
 body. These nerve centers are composed of cells made up of 
 gray matter, and it is in this part that nerve force originates. 
 
 Cerebro-Spinal Nervous System. 
 
 As has been stated before, all acts of our body are of two 
 kinds—voluntary or involuntary. When we move the arm and 
 pick up a book, the act is voluntary or conscious on our part, but 
 the muscles that control our heart, lungs, and many other organs 
 of the body are under the control of nerves which act quite inde- 
 pendently of our will. The former set of organs—those which 
 we consciously control—are known as organs of animal life and 
 are regulated by the cerebro-spinal nervous system, while the 
 latter organs—those not under our control—are known as the 
 organs of organic life; these are controlled by the sympathetic 
 
158 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 system. As the name of the cerebro-spinal nervous system indi- 
 cates, it is composed of the cerebrum, or brain, and the spinal 
 cord. ‘This is the only part of our nervous system over which we 
 have any control. But it comprises by far the greater part of the 
 nervous apparatus. It includes not only the brain but the spinal 
 cord, and all the nerves which take their origin in these parts. 
 
 Cerebrum. 
 
 The cerebrum fills all the upper part of the skull. In weight 
 it comprises about 7/8 of the entire brain. It is a mass of white 
 fibers, surrounded by masses of gray cells. In appearance it is 
 somewhat like the meat of an English walnut with their curiously 
 ridged surfaces. This formation gives a large surface for the 
 placing of much gray matter. In an infant the cerebrum is 
 smooth with no ridges, while in a person with great mental powers 
 the ridges are deep and intricate. The two hemispheres of the 
 cerebrum have a connection on the under side by fibers of white 
 matter. The cerebrum by many experiments has been proven to 
 be the center of thought and intelligence. That part of our being 
 we know as our mind has been its center. It centers our will 
 power and controls our voluntary acts. 
 
 Spinal Cord. 
 
 The spinal cord is about eighteen inches long and about one- 
 half inch in diameter. At the center of the cord is a tiny canal, 
 which is directly connected with the cavities of the brain. It is 
 covered with three coats similar to the coverings of the brain. 
 This cord is soft and white and occupies the upper two-thirds of 
 the back bone. It reaches about to the lowest rib and at its lowest ~ 
 end it branches into a number of nerves similar to the hairs in a 
 horse’s tail. The spinal cord is a great helper to the brain for it 
 performs some work without the aid of the brain. We have no 
 control over it at all. It orders the cells to be fed, and also orders 
 the arteries to carry the blood to the cells. It is well protected 
 by the vertebral column. The spinal cord gives off thirty-one 
 pairs of nerves known as the spinal nerves. These pass through 
 openings between the rings of the back bone. It is composed of 
 two kinds of matter, the white and gray; the latter being in the 
 center. 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 159 
 
 Arrangement of Nerve Matter in the Brain and Cord. 
 
 As we already know, the nervous system is composed of two 
 kinds of matter—white and gray. In the brain, the gray matter 
 forms the covering, while the white, or nerve fibers, are on the 
 inside. When it comes to the spinal cord the reverse is true, and 
 here we find the white matter as the outer sheath. We have also 
 seen how the nerve fibers start and end in gray matter or nerve 
 cells. Sometimes where a nerve runs through a mass of gray 
 matter, little knots are formed, known as ganglia. In fact, wher- 
 ever gray matter is separated from other gray matter and united 
 by white nerve fibers, these separate bits may be called ganglion. 
 Even the different parts of the brain may be classed under this 
 namie. 
 
 The Cranial Nerves. 
 
 There are twelve pairs of the Cranial nerves. They spring 
 from the medulla and the lower part of the brain. 
 
 _ The first pair is called the olfactory nerve and is the nerve of 
 smell, sent to the nose so that we can appreciate odors. The sec- 
 ond pair is called the optic nerve. It controls our sight. The 
 third pair has nerve fibers distributed to the muscles of the eye- 
 ball, and with the fourth and sixth pairs, regulate all the move- 
 ments of the eye. The fifth pair is the tri-facial, and divides into 
 three parts; the first goes to the upper face, eyes and nose; the 
 second, to the upper jaw, temples, cheeks, upper lip, teeth, and 
 palate; the third, to the lower jaw, side of the head, lower part 
 of the face, and skin of the external ear. The seventh pair of 
 nerves are distributed over the face and give it its expression. 
 The eighth pair is the nerve of hearing. The ninth pair is found 
 in the mucous membrane at the back of the nose and pharynx. 
 The tenth pair, by its motor fibers, controls the larynx, lungs, 
 liver, kidneys, intestines, and heart. The eleventh pair controls 
 the movement connected with swallowing, also the vocal section 
 of the larynx. The twelfth pair is distributed to the muscles of 
 the tongue, and control its swallowing, also the speech. 
 
 Spinal Nerves. , 
 The spinal nerves issue from the spinal cord through open- 
 ings between the rings of the backbone. Each spinal nerve 
 
t 
 
 160 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 springs from two roots—an interior and a posterior—the former 
 is the motory and the latter the sensory. Both of these roots 
 unite to form one nerve; they remain as such until they reach dis- 
 tant parts of the body, then they separate again. The spinal 
 nerve fibers which started from the motory root end in the mus- 
 cles, and the spinal nerves which started from the sensory root 
 end in the skin. Those that end in the muscles tell the muscles 
 when and how to act. Those which end in the skin bring to our 
 consciousness feelings of heat, cold, pain, comfort, touch, etc. 
 
 Reflex Action. Its Importance. How Habits Are Formed 
 
 The greater part of the spinal cord is composed of white 
 matter, but the inner portion is gray matter. This wise arrange- 
 ment by nature saves the brain much work. This gray matter 
 attends to many of the simpler acts of the body without asking aid _ 
 of the brain. In this way we, while asleep, perform many acts 
 without knowledge on our part at all. If the body grows tired 
 in one position, the impulse is carried to the gray matter of the 
 spinal cord, the nerves cause the muscles to contract and our 
 position is changed without the brain being troubled in the least. 
 In this way we save ourselves many times from accident when we 
 jerk the hand or dodge to prevent ourselves injury. This is 
 known as “reflex action,” and is performed much quicker than an 
 act could be performed if the message had first to be communi- 
 cated to the brain. Not only this, but, if it were not for reflex 
 action, we would be compelled to think every time we breathed, 
 and, indeed, every time our heart beat. Thus we see that our 
 whole time would be devoted merely to the functions of life. As 
 it is, an act which at first requires all our attention in time be- 
 comes purely mechanical. Upon this truth all the possibilities of 
 education, culture, and habit are based. When we once do a 
 thing or think a thing, it leaves upon our brain a definite impres- 
 sion which has a tendency to cause us to repeat the same thing 
 again. Thus it is by concentrating our minds upon some act and - 
 performing it again and again, it at last becomes as we say, almost 
 “second nature.” This shows how our physical and mental life 
 are intertwined and how important it is that we form habits of 
 industry and sobriety, for even if we wish to change our manner 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 161 
 
 of living and drinking, and really make serious efforts in this di- 
 rection, we can never be sure that traces of our old evil ways are 
 not yet stamped upon our brains, and will some day confront us 
 when we are least ready to own them. 
 
 The Sympathetic Nervous System. 
 
 The sympathetic nervous system consists of a series of 
 ganglia, extending from the head through the neck, thorax, and 
 abdomen to the pelvis. There are four main pairs in the head and 
 twenty-three in a row down the front of the backbone. These 
 send out fibers to the blood vessels and the inner organs of the 
 body. These ganglia vary much in size—some being as large as 
 a pea while others are microscopic. They are made up of gray 
 matter and are connected with each other and with the spinal cord 
 by the nerve fibers. ‘The two principal ganglia of the abdominal 
 cavity are the largest in the system, and the branches from these 
 unite to form the solar plexus, which lies just back of the stomach. 
 This ganglion sends nerves to the different abdominal plexuses 
 and also to the blood vessels that lie in course of the intestines and 
 the other abdominal organs. The sympathetic system furnishes 
 the main part of the nerves controlling digestion and secretion. 
 The sympathetic system of nerves is much slower in action than 
 the cerebro-spinal system. A person may have his sympathetic 
 system of nerves diseased, but the trouble may not declare itself 
 for hours, while with the cerebro-spinal system the warning is in- 
 stantaneous. Not much knowledge can be gained from the study 
 of this system of nerves because of their sheltered position, also 
 . because it is difficult to separate them from the cerebro-spinal 
 nerves. | 
 
 Its Use to the Body. 
 
 The process of digestion is mainly regulated by the sym- 
 pathetic system. When we eat, the food irritates the nervous 
 ganglia of the abdomen, and, through their influence, the whole 
 work of digestion and absorption is carried on. The sympathetic 
 _ nerves may transmit both motor and sensory impulses. 
 
 The ganglia are constantly receiving impulses from the 
 sensory nerves, letting them know of the needs of the cells, the 
 
162 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 organs of secretions, and the movements of the arteries and di- 
 gestive organs. In answer to these, the ganglia sends out com- 
 mands to the gland cells to produce their secretions, and to the 
 muscles of the arteries and intestines to expand or contract. 
 When one organ is affected by disease, all the other organs like- 
 wise seem to be deranged. ‘This is due to the action of the sym- 
 pathetic system of nerves, so called because they seem to make 
 the various organs act in sympathy with one another. One fact 
 is of interest in connection with the study of this system, and that 
 is, the brain has no direct control over the ganglia. 
 
 ‘ Hygiene of the Nervous System—Rest 
 
 Rest is as essential to the brain as it is to the body. Rest 
 may take on several forms. The one we usually resort to is 
 change of occupation. If during the day, we have been concen- 
 trating our attention on some one thing for quite a time, we find 
 our interest lags, our mind refuses to act clearly, and we say we 
 are brain tired. One of the most valuable habits which we can 
 form while still young is that of mental concentration. But in 
 order that our minds may concentrate upon any thing it must have 
 frequent intervals of rest and recreation. Each must choose his 
 own time and manner of mind rest and recreation. What would 
 rest one would be work for another. But one rule will be found 
 true in all cases. If we wish to rest our brains and give them 
 recreation, we must do something we want to do, and not because 
 we must. i 
 
 Sleep. 
 
 The most complete kind of rest for both body and mind is 
 sleep. When we are in a dreamless sleep, our minds are entirely 
 at rest. If we dream, some parts of the brain are at work. The 
 amount of sleep needed various with the person. Very young 
 children need ten or twelve hours a day, while eight to ten is suf- 
 ficient for adults. Some people have been known who got along 
 with as little as four hours per day, but such persons were usu- 
 ally known to supplement this meager allowance with frequent © 
 “cat-naps”. It is said that Napoleon never remained in bed more 
 than four hours, but it was a well known fact that he slept for 
 
ae 
 
 FOURTH QUARTER 163 
 
 hours at a time while riding horseback with his armies on the 
 march. Much less sleep is needed by old than by young people, 
 for an old person’s activity during his waking hours is corres- 
 pondingly less than that of a young person. Sleep has been de- 
 fined as a rest from conscious effort. It should be regular, and 
 not broken into, so that the body and brain may form regular 
 habits in regard to their rest. 
 
 The Five Senses. 
 
 From this complex system of brain, nerves, and spinal cord, 
 we naturally expect most exact results. As we have already seen, 
 they operate for the most part through what we know as the five 
 senses. The brain being inclosed as it is in its tight box of bone, 
 must have some special way in which it may come in contact with 
 the oustide world. This is through the organs of hearing, seeing, 
 smelling, tasting, and touch. There are many impulses which 
 may send the sensation of touch to thé brain, because the nerves 
 carrying such messages are scattered all through the skin. For 
 this reason it is often called the “‘common sense.” 
 
 Light usually starts impulses from the eye to its nerve, and 
 thus to the brain, while sound excites the nerve of the ear. These 
 nerves, then, we speak of as the nerves of sight and of hearing. 
 Some substances excite the nerves of the tongue and we say a 
 thing tastes so and so, while others, acting upon the nose, cause us 
 to recognize smells. 
 
 Sense of Touch. 
 
 Studying the sense of touch, in a way, is a mere review, of 
 the actions of the sensory nerves. The special sense of touch is 
 aroused without the need of any special organ. When the epithe- 
 lium of the skin is brought in contact with anything, a feeling of 
 temperature, a sense of weight, or a feeling of touch, or pain is 
 carried to the central nerve cell. 
 
 All these experiences are usually included under the general 
 term, touch. By means of this sense we gain our ideas of size, 
 shape, moisture, and surface finish. A sensation may not be un- 
 pleasant in itself, but if too frequently repeated or repeated with 
 
164 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 too much violence the result may be pain. This is not an evil in 
 itself but really one of the bodily protections. If it were not for 
 
 pain, we might injure ourselves seriously without recognizing the . 
 
 fact. Pain, as one physician describes it, is supplication for more 
 blood. Where the tissues are highly developed, there we will 
 find the greatest numbe1 of nerves, and the greatest suffering 
 when diseased, for the nerves are the sentinels warning us of in- 
 jury to these parts. This sense is most fully developed in the 
 forehead, the face, the tip of the tongue, the fingers, palms of the 
 hands, and the toes and soles of the feet. The sense of touch is 
 the first of the special senses to be developed. | 
 
 Sense of Taste. 
 
 The sense of taste is located on the tongue, and upper and 
 back part of the mouth. By this sense we are protected in our 
 selection of food. This was truer in our early ancestors than it 
 is now, for, by eating many highly seasoned foods and by the use 
 of much condiment, we have almost abused our sense of taste un- 
 til it has lost much of its delicacy. All solids and gases must be 
 dissolved before they can be tasted. Four tastes are generally 
 recognized—bitter, sweet, sour, and salty. The sense of taste by 
 many is considered to be wholly on the tongue. This is but partly 
 true. The under side has no sense of taste, while the back and 
 roof of the mouth has a strong sense of taste. The tongue is the 
 principle organ of taste. The tongue contains numerous glands, 
 as well as numerous bunches of papillae which are concerned with 
 the sense of taste. A great many times when we imagine we taste 
 a thing, it is really our sense of smell, which carries the sensation 
 to the brain. For this reason, many things are insipid and taste- 
 less when we have a cold in the nose. The back of the tongue is 
 more sensitive to salt and bitter substances, while the edges are 
 most sensitive to sweet and sour substances. 
 
 Sense of Smell. 
 
 The nose is the chief organ of the sense of smell. It is by 
 far the most delicate of all senses. In order that odors may be 
 perceived, air must pass through the nostrils, therefore a person 
 generally sniffs when he desires to perceive the odor more keenly. 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 165 
 The sense of smell is more highly developed in. animals than in 
 
 man. The sense of smell enables us to detect many poisonous 
 gases which, in time, would prove harmful. ‘It also guides us in 
 the selection of our food, and warns us against bad air, and un- 
 healthful places. In order for us to smell objects, it is not neces- 
 sary for the object to touch the nose, for the air containing the 
 odor of the object is drawn into the nose. 
 
 Use of These Special Sensations. 
 
 The senses of touch, taste and smell are guards for us which 
 wise nature has developed for the special protection of our bodies. 
 One has but to touch a hot stove slightly, when the touch sense 
 warns us of danger. Were it not for this, we might fatally in- 
 jure the body without knowing it at all. The sense of taste 
 among civilized people is more aid to enjoyment than real pro- 
 tection for, without it, all food would taste alike to us. Among 
 the lower forms of civilization and among animals, it is a protec- 
 tion against harmful substances, for almost all poisons have a 
 peculiar, unpleasant taste. Our sense of smell aids us in detect- 
 ing obnoxious gases and such harmful air poisoners. It really 
 is a sentinel for the lungs in that it makes it unpleasant or impos- 
 sible to breathe air harmful to the lungs in any way. 
 
 Hearing. Parts of the Ear. 
 
 The outer part of the organ of hearing, commonly known as 
 the ear, really has very little to do with hearing. It merely col- 
 lects the sound waves and conveys them to the ear proper. This 
 ‘inner ear is within the head, buried in the bones. The bone in 
 which the inner ear is buried is often called the stony bone, and 
 is the hardest bone in the body. The ear is one of the most com- 
 plicated organs of the body. From the outer ear a small pas- 
 sageway leads. This is slightly bent up, then curves downward, 
 and is kept soft and moist by the secretion of ear wax. This 
 passage is shut off from the middle ear by a heavy membrane 
 called the tympanic membrane or ear drum. Behind this is a 
 cavity or middle ear. In this are found the three ear bones. 
 This cavity is filled with air supplied through the Eustachian tube. 
 Beyond the middle ear is the inner ear, and here is found the true 
 organ of hearing. In this part there are many nerves. 
 
166 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 Sound waves striking the ear drum agitate the earbones 
 which, in turn, carry the sound waves to the nerves of the inner 
 ear. When these carry it to the brain, we say we hear. 
 
 Structure and Use of Each Part. 
 
 The outer ear as we have seen, is composed of rings of car- 
 tilage covered with skin and serves largely as a sound wave col- 
 lector. The passageway concentrates these waves upon the ear 
 drum which in turn pass them on to the bones of the ear. These, 
 by vibrating, stimulate the nerve of the inner ear and over this the 
 sound is conveyed to the brain. 
 
 How We Hear. 
 
 Whenever one object strikes another, sound waves are pro- 
 duced which resemble waves on water when a stone has been 
 dropped into it. 
 
 These sound waves increase in diameter until they strike the 
 ear drum. When the ear drum or tympanum vibrates, the im- 
 pulse is passed on to the ear bones which, in turn, convey it to 
 the fluids of the inner ear. Here the nerve catches the impulse 
 and carries it to the brain and we hear the sound. 
 
 The bones in the ear, although very small, are covered with 
 a periosteum, have cartileges, ligaments, and muscles. On ac- 
 count of their shape are called hammer, anvil, and stirrup bones. 
 
 Relation of Hearing to Speech. 
 
 Strange as it may seem, the sense of hearing and speech are 
 closely felated. Children born deaf cannot talk, not because the 
 organs of speech are not developed, but because they cannot learn 
 by hearing how sounds are made and modulated. 
 
 With in the last few years deaf mutes have been taught to 
 talk so they can be understood, but their voices are usually hard, 
 high pitched, and unmodulated, much like a cheap graphophone. 
 
 Hearing Affected By Growths in the Throat. 
 
 When we learn the importance of the Eustachian tube in 
 keeping the air pressure equal on both sies of the ear drum, we 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 167 
 
 realize how necessary to keen hearing it is that this tube be kept 
 healthy and unobstructed. When a physician examines a person 
 for deafness, one of the first places tested is this passageway. 
 
 Frequently colds which have led to a catarrhal condition are 
 the most usual causes of trouble to this tube. Not only may a 
 catarrhal condition be the result of neglected colds, but the in- 
 flammation may spread back into the pharynx. Here then are a 
 set of tonsil-like glands which may become inflamed until they 
 block the passageway into the nose, entirely up, and one is forced 
 to breathe through the mouth. These swollen bodies are now 
 known as adenoids, and are a fruitful source of deafness, earache, 
 and kindred diseases among children. 
 
 It has been proved that all mouth breathers are Beets in 
 hearing. 
 
 Seeing. The Eye; Coats. 
 
 The eye is the organ of sight; it is nearly sperical, and about 
 an inch in diameter. The eye is carefully inclosed within the bony 
 box of the skull. It is protected by an overhanging brow, two 
 muscular curtains that can close over the eye, and the eyelashes 
 at the edge of the lids which prevent particles of dust and other 
 substances from entering the eye. The eye is covered by three 
 coats. The first is the sclerotic coat, which is a white, thick tough 
 membrane, which gives shape to the eyeball. The sclerotic coat 
 covers about five-sixths of the eye, and the front one-sixth is 
 called the cornea. The second coat is the choroid. It lies under 
 the cornea. It is the part of the eye which contains the coloring 
 matter which gives the dark color to the interior of the eye. This 
 iris is in front of the cornea. It is the visible colored part of the 
 eye in the center of the cornea is a round hole called the pupil. 
 _ There are muscles around the pupil which can make it larger or 
 smaller. 
 
 Suppose we go from a well lighted room into a darker room 
 we cannot see until the muscles allow the pupil to become larger 
 so that more light can enter. The third coat is called the retina 
 semi; it lies in the back of the eye and in this are spread the optic 
 nerves. This retina is very smooth, thin, and of a grayish white 
 membrane. It is not sensitive to anything but light. 
 
168 FOURTH QUARTER 
 
 A blow on the head which might cause pain in the outer coats 
 of the eye might not hurt the retina at all. 
 
 Humors of the Eye. 
 
 There are two humors in the eye—the aqueous and the vit- _ 
 
 reous. The aqueous is between the cornea and the crystalline 
 lens. The vitreous humor fills the space back of the lens. If it 
 were not for these two humors, the eyeball would lose it shape. 
 
 The iris is another part of the eye and has an important work 
 to perform. It gives the eye its color and varies from blue to 
 dark brown. It is controlled by muscles. In the center of this 
 iris is a small, round, black hole. This hole is the pupil. The 
 muscles of the iris control the pupil so that the right amount of 
 light can enter. 
 
 How We See. 
 
 In our study of the ears we learned how sound waves were 
 carried by the air to the ear. In much the same way, waves of 
 light are carried through the air, or by the ether to the eye. A 
 sound is produced by air waves, so light is produced by ether 
 waves. Any light sets in motion waves of ether, which pass 
 through the pupil of the eye to the retina where they are trans- 
 mitted by the optic nerve to the brain, and then we see the light. 
 
 Care of the Eye. 
 
 There is scarcely any part of the body we abuse more regu- 
 larly than we do the eyes. Many pupils are born with actual de- 
 fects of vision, which must be remedied or they will in time prove 
 serious. 
 
 Reading in a poor light or on the train are two of the most . 
 
 common ways we abuse the eyes. We should never read or study 
 with the light directly before the face, but it should always come 
 from the back or from over the left shoulder. There are many 
 diseases—especially fevers and measles, which leave the eyes in 
 a weakened condition and it is very necessary that, after such 
 sickness, the eyes be given a period of absolute rest. We should 
 
 never read while lying down for this is very harmful to the eyes. 
 
FOURTH QUARTER 169 
 
 Whenever our eyes burn and begin to ache, it is a sure sign they 
 are tired and need rest. , 
 
 Care should be taken that when particles get into our eyes 
 they should be removed before the eyes become inflamed. Never 
 rub the eyes with the fingers, first, it is not polite; second, 
 we might introduce a foreign matter. Every person should have 
 his own towel. Many persons have contracted serious diseases 
 by using a towel that some one else who had a contagious disease 
 of the eyes had used. 
 
 Methods of Resting the Eyes During Class. 
 
 We may rest our eyes in several ways during class work. 
 Suppose we have been studying very hard and have had our eyes 
 closely fastened on our books. We may rest our eyes by looking 
 out of the window at some object in the distance. Sometimes 
 a mere change of light direction will rest the eyes, therefore, it is 
 a good plan to have pupils exchange seats during class recitation. 
 Merely closing the eyes for a few minutes will rest the eves. 
 Bathing the eyes in hot water is also good for them. 
 
 Common Defects of the Vision. 
 
 Color blindness is a common defect of sight. When a person 
 is troubled with this, he is unable to distinguish between certain 
 colors. Usually the trouble is between red and green. This is 
 an important matter among railroad men and sailors, where it is 
 necessary for them to know the red and green signais. In all 
 parts of the world special attention is being paid to this subject, 
 and the eyes of all railway men and sailors must be systematically 
 tested. 
 
 Another common defect of vision is that known as farsizht. 
 This is caused by the lens of the eye becoming tov flattened. In 
 this case the persons so afflicted cannot see objects close to them 
 _as well as they can those at a distance. This defect can be easily 
 remedied by wearing proper glasses. Another commnion defect is 
 near-sightedness. Ifa person 1s troubled with this, it is necessary 
 to hold the object or reading matter close to the eyes. This is apt 
 to cause the person to lean over so that he will be near to that 
 
170 a FOURTH QUARTER: 
 
 which he wishes to see, and, after a time, might cae 
 shoulders. Near-sighted people must wear acitalte glasses. 
 
 Another defect is astigmatism; it is not so common as 1 
 sightedness or farsightedness. It is caused by the lens in ‘the ey 
 being curved more in one part than in another. This also ma 
 remedied by properly ground glasses. * 
 
 Cataracts are thickening of the lens, and may be ia 
 having an operation performed. The physician will remov 
 lens, but spectacles must be worn afterwards to take ay plz 
 the lens. ; 
 
 Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco Upon Sense Perceptio 
 
 We have learned that alcohol is dangerous to all parts 
 body, but in our past work we have learned that where 
 nerves are most numerous, the effect of alcohol is most ke ly 
 felt. The organs of sense, besides being supplied with ‘ne 
 each has its own special nerve. When we had our study on. 
 organs of speech, we learned that they were seriously affecte 
 both tobacco and alcohol. Tobacco causes a constant hacki 
 cough, while alcohol weakens the muscles cone the” 
 cords. 5 
 
 On the eye, we find alcohol works great harm. by weak 
 the optic nerve, while the effect of tobacco is-still greater. 
 dim the vision. 
 
 Thus it is with all the special organs. These organs deper 
 upon the nerves for their accuracy and delicacy of perception, . 
 if these nerves are soaked in alcohol and their tissues become 
 flamed ae hardened, we cannot expect the same serve 
 
 use a tobacco. 
 
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